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B.L.S. LL.B. 5 Years Semester 8 Notes 2026

For students of Mumbai University and all its affiliated colleges.

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  1. Constitutional Law II

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Constitutional Law II

    B.L.S. LL.B. 5 YEARS · SEMESTER 8

    Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

    For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Second Year

    Constitutional Law II

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What a Federal Constitution Is 1
    2. A Union of States, and Why Not a Federation 6
    3. The Federal Features of This Constitution 9
    4. The Unitary Features, and Quasi-Federal 13
    5. Indian Federalism Compared With the United States 17
    6. Forms of Government 21
    7. Cooperative Federalism 25
    8. Competitive Federalism 29
    9. The Inter-State Council and the Zonal Councils 33
    10. The GST Council 37
    11. Admission and Establishment of New States 41
    12. Forming a New State, and Altering a Boundary 44
    13. Consequential Amendments, and Why They Are Not Amendments 49
    14. How India Was Actually Reorganised 53
    15. The Union Territories 57
    16. Delhi, and Article 239AA 62
    17. High Courts for Union Territories 68
    18. Why the Constitution Has a Part on Panchayats 71
    19. The Gram Sabha, and the Three Tiers 75
    20. Composition, and Reservation of Seats 79
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Duration, and Disqualification 84
    2. What a Panchayat Is Given To Do 89
    3. Panchayat Finance 93
    4. Panchayat Elections 98
    5. Where Part IX Does Not Reach 102
    6. The Municipalities 108
    7. Composition, Wards Committees and Reservation 113
    8. Duration, Disqualification, and What a Municipality Does 119
    9. Municipal Finance 124
    10. Municipal Elections, and the Planning Committees 128
    11. Existing Laws, and the Bar on Courts 134
    12. What the 73rd and 74th Amendments Achieved 139
    13. Scheduled Areas, and the Fifth Schedule 145
    14. The Sixth Schedule, and the Autonomous District Councils 151
    15. An Autonomous State Inside a State 156
    16. Temporary, Transitional and Special 160
    17. Article 370, and What It Actually Said 165
    18. The Abrogation of Article 370 169
    19. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Nagaland 174
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Assam, Manipur and Andhra Pradesh 179
    2. Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa and Karnataka 185
    3. The Transitional Provisions That Survive 191
    4. The Power That Expired 196
    5. The Seventh Schedule, and the Order of Precedence 200
    6. The Extent of a Law, and Extra-Territorial Operation 205
    7. The Tax Entries After the Goods and Services Tax 209
    8. Pith and Substance 214
    9. Colourable Legislation 218
    10. Territorial Nexus 222
    11. Repugnancy, and Article 254 226
    12. Residuary Power 232
    13. When Parliament May Legislate on the State List 237
    14. Two States Asking Parliament to Legislate 243
    15. Legislating to Implement a Treaty 247
    16. Previous Sanction, and Recommendation 252
    17. The Duty of a State, and the Union's Directions 256
    18. Entrusting Functions Both Ways 261
    19. Jurisdiction Outside India, and Full Faith and Credit 266
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Inter-State Water Disputes 270
    2. The Scheme of Part XII 274
    3. Who Levies, Who Collects, Who Keeps 279
    4. How Tax Is Shared 284
    5. Grants From the Union 289
    6. Professions Tax, and the Savings 295
    7. The Finance Commission 300
    8. Discretionary Grants, and Custody of Public Money 306
    9. The Immunities Between Governments 312
    10. Borrowing 318
    11. Property, Contracts and Liabilities 323
    12. Suing the State 329
    13. The Right to Property After 1978 335
    14. Reservation of Seats in the Legislatures 339
    15. The Women's Reservation, and the 106th Amendment 344
    16. When Reservation of Seats Ends 349
    17. Claims to Services, and the Anglo-Indian Community 353
    18. The National Commissions for Scheduled Castes, Tribes and Backward Classes 358
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Who Is a Scheduled Caste, a Scheduled Tribe, a Backward Class 363

    Module II

    1. Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures 370
    2. The Two Houses of Parliament 374
    3. The Council of States 379
    4. The House of the People 384
    5. Readjustment After a Census 388
    6. The Duration of the Houses 392
    7. Who May Be a Member of Parliament 397
    8. Sessions, Prorogation and Dissolution 402
    9. The President's Address, and Messages 407
    10. Ministers and the Attorney-General in the House 412
    11. The Chairman and Deputy Chairman 417
    12. The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker 423
    13. Salaries, and the Secretariat 429
    14. Oath, Voting and Quorum 434
    15. Vacation of Seats 440
    16. Disqualifications of a Member of Parliament 445
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Who Decides a Disqualification 451
    2. Sitting and Voting Before Taking the Oath 456
    3. The Privileges of Parliament and Its Members 460
    4. Bribery, Privilege, and the 2024 Decision 467
    5. Salaries and Allowances of Members 472
    6. The Anti-Defection Law 476
    7. The Tenth Schedule in Practice 482
    8. How an Ordinary Bill Is Passed 489
    9. A Money Bill 494
    10. Assent, and What the President May Do With a Bill 499
    11. The Budget, and the Charged Expenditure 502
    12. Supplementary Grants, and a Vote on Account 507
    13. The Four Kinds of Bill Compared 512
    14. Rules of Procedure, and Why Courts Stay Out 515
    15. The President of India 521
    16. The Election of the President 525
    17. Qualifications, Oath, Term and Re-election 529
    18. The Impeachment of the President 534
    19. A Vacancy, and the Vice-President 538
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. What Powers the President Actually Has 545
    2. The Council of Ministers, and the Aid and Advice 553
    3. The Ordinance Power 558
    4. The Attorney-General for India 564
    5. The Conduct of Government Business 569
    6. The Governor 573
    7. The Governor's Immunity 580
    8. Pardon, and the Executive Power of a State 585
    9. The Governor's Discretion 590
    10. The State Council of Ministers 597
    11. The Advocate-General for the State 601
    12. The Conduct of a State Government's Business 605
    13. A Hung Assembly, and Who Is Invited to Form a Government 609
    14. The State Legislatures 615
    15. The Legislative Assembly 619
    16. The Legislative Council 623
    17. Sessions, Address and Dissolution in a State 627
    18. Qualification for Membership of a State House 631
    19. The Speaker, the Chairman, and Their Deputies 634
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Ministers and the Advocate-General in a State House 638
    2. Salaries, and the Secretariat of a State Legislature 641
    3. Oath, Voting and Quorum in a State House 644
    4. Vacation of Seats, and Disqualification 648
    5. The Privileges of a State Legislature 653
    6. How a Bill Becomes Law in a State 658
    7. Assent, Withholding, and Reservation for the President 663
    8. Financial Procedure in a State 671
    9. Procedure, and the Courts, in a State Legislature 676
    10. The Governor's Ordinance Power 681

    Module III

    1. The Judiciary: What This Module Asks 687
    2. The Supreme Court of India 691
    3. How Judges Are Actually Appointed 696
    4. The National Judicial Appointments Commission 704
    5. Why the NJAC Was Struck Down 709
    6. Security of Tenure, Salary, and Post-Retirement Practice 714
    7. The Removal of a Judge 720
    8. A Court of Record, and Contempt 726
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. The Seat of the Court, and Its Original Jurisdiction 730
    2. Appellate Jurisdiction 734
    3. Special Leave to Appeal 739
    4. The Federal Court's Jurisdiction, and Review 743
    5. Enlargement of Jurisdiction, and Transfer of Cases 747
    6. Binding Precedent, and the Enforcement of Orders 752
    7. Complete Justice, and Article 142 756
    8. The Court's Own Officers, and Expenses 761
    9. Judicial Review 766
    10. Judicial Activism 772
    11. Public Interest Litigation 777
    12. Judicial Overreach, and the Criticism 784
    13. Independence of the Judiciary 789
    14. Judicial Accountability 794
    15. The High Courts 799
    16. The Appointment, Tenure and Transfer of a High Court Judge 803
    17. The Writ Jurisdiction of a High Court 810
    18. Transfer of Cases, Officers, and the Union Territory Courts 815
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV

    1. The Three Emergencies 820
    2. A National Emergency 824
    3. What a National Emergency Does 828
    4. Emergency, and Fundamental Rights 833
    5. The Union's Duty to Protect a State 839
    6. President's Rule 843
    7. The Judicial Review of a Proclamation 848
    8. A Financial Emergency 853
    9. The Amending Power 857
    10. The Basic Structure Doctrine 862
    11. After Kesavananda 869
    12. The Services Under the Union and a State 874
    13. The Protection of Article 311 879
    14. The All-India Services 884
    15. The Public Service Commissions 889
    16. What a Service Commission Does, and How It Is Protected 895
    17. The Election Commission of India 901
    18. The Independence of the Election Commission 908
    19. One Electoral Roll, One Vote 915
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Parliament's Power Over Elections 919
    2. Election Disputes, and the Bar on Courts 922
    3. The Model Code of Conduct 927
    4. The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India 931
    5. The Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse 936
    6. The Restrictions on the Freedom 940
    7. What Article 301 Actually Forbids 946
    8. The Co-operative Societies 954
    9. Running a Co-operative Society Under Part IXB 959
    10. Part IXB, the States, and the 2021 Decision 965
    11. The Constitutional Bodies Compared 971
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    975 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 975 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 197 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 77 chapters

    1. 1 What a Federal Constitution Is pages 1–5
    2. 2 A Union of States, and Why Not a Federation pages 6–8
    3. 3 The Federal Features of This Constitution pages 9–12
    4. 4 The Unitary Features, and Quasi-Federal pages 13–16
    5. 5 Indian Federalism Compared With the United States pages 17–20
    6. 6 Forms of Government pages 21–24
    7. 7 Cooperative Federalism pages 25–28
    8. 8 Competitive Federalism pages 29–32
    9. 9 The Inter-State Council and the Zonal Councils pages 33–36
    10. 10 The GST Council pages 37–40
    11. 11 Admission and Establishment of New States pages 41–43
    12. 12 Forming a New State, and Altering a Boundary pages 44–48
    13. 13 Consequential Amendments, and Why They Are Not Amendments pages 49–52
    14. 14 How India Was Actually Reorganised pages 53–56
    15. 15 The Union Territories pages 57–61
    16. 16 Delhi, and Article 239AA pages 62–67
    17. 17 High Courts for Union Territories pages 68–70
    18. 18 Why the Constitution Has a Part on Panchayats pages 71–74
    19. 19 The Gram Sabha, and the Three Tiers pages 75–78
    20. 20 Composition, and Reservation of Seats pages 79–83
    21. 21 Duration, and Disqualification pages 84–88
    22. 22 What a Panchayat Is Given To Do pages 89–92
    23. 23 Panchayat Finance pages 93–97
    24. 24 Panchayat Elections pages 98–101
    25. 25 Where Part IX Does Not Reach pages 102–107
    26. 26 The Municipalities pages 108–112
    27. 27 Composition, Wards Committees and Reservation pages 113–118
    28. 28 Duration, Disqualification, and What a Municipality Does pages 119–123
    29. 29 Municipal Finance pages 124–127
    30. 30 Municipal Elections, and the Planning Committees pages 128–133
    31. 31 Existing Laws, and the Bar on Courts pages 134–138
    32. 32 What the 73rd and 74th Amendments Achieved pages 139–144
    33. 33 Scheduled Areas, and the Fifth Schedule pages 145–150
    34. 34 The Sixth Schedule, and the Autonomous District Councils pages 151–155
    35. 35 An Autonomous State Inside a State pages 156–159
    36. 36 Temporary, Transitional and Special pages 160–164
    37. 37 Article 370, and What It Actually Said pages 165–168
    38. 38 The Abrogation of Article 370 pages 169–173
    39. 39 Maharashtra, Gujarat and Nagaland pages 174–178
    40. 40 Assam, Manipur and Andhra Pradesh pages 179–184
    41. 41 Sikkim, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa and Karnataka pages 185–190
    42. 42 The Transitional Provisions That Survive pages 191–195
    43. 43 The Power That Expired pages 196–199
    44. 44 The Seventh Schedule, and the Order of Precedence pages 200–204
    45. 45 The Extent of a Law, and Extra-Territorial Operation pages 205–208
    46. 46 The Tax Entries After the Goods and Services Tax pages 209–213
    47. 47 Pith and Substance pages 214–217
    48. 48 Colourable Legislation pages 218–221
    49. 49 Territorial Nexus pages 222–225
    50. 50 Repugnancy, and Article 254 pages 226–231
    51. 51 Residuary Power pages 232–236
    52. 52 When Parliament May Legislate on the State List pages 237–242
    53. 53 Two States Asking Parliament to Legislate pages 243–246
    54. 54 Legislating to Implement a Treaty pages 247–251
    55. 55 Previous Sanction, and Recommendation pages 252–255
    56. 56 The Duty of a State, and the Union's Directions pages 256–260
    57. 57 Entrusting Functions Both Ways pages 261–265
    58. 58 Jurisdiction Outside India, and Full Faith and Credit pages 266–269
    59. 59 Inter-State Water Disputes pages 270–273
    60. 60 The Scheme of Part XII pages 274–278
    61. 61 Who Levies, Who Collects, Who Keeps pages 279–283
    62. 62 How Tax Is Shared pages 284–288
    63. 63 Grants From the Union pages 289–294
    64. 64 Professions Tax, and the Savings pages 295–299
    65. 65 The Finance Commission pages 300–305
    66. 66 Discretionary Grants, and Custody of Public Money pages 306–311
    67. 67 The Immunities Between Governments pages 312–317
    68. 68 Borrowing pages 318–322
    69. 69 Property, Contracts and Liabilities pages 323–328
    70. 70 Suing the State pages 329–334
    71. 71 The Right to Property After 1978 pages 335–338
    72. 72 Reservation of Seats in the Legislatures pages 339–343
    73. 73 The Women's Reservation, and the 106th Amendment pages 344–348
    74. 74 When Reservation of Seats Ends pages 349–352
    75. 75 Claims to Services, and the Anglo-Indian Community pages 353–357
    76. 76 The National Commissions for Scheduled Castes, Tribes and Backward Classes pages 358–362
    77. 77 Who Is a Scheduled Caste, a Scheduled Tribe, a Backward Class pages 363–369

    Module II 64 chapters

    1. 78 Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures pages 370–373
    2. 79 The Two Houses of Parliament pages 374–378
    3. 80 The Council of States pages 379–383
    4. 81 The House of the People pages 384–387
    5. 82 Readjustment After a Census pages 388–391
    6. 83 The Duration of the Houses pages 392–396
    7. 84 Who May Be a Member of Parliament pages 397–401
    8. 85 Sessions, Prorogation and Dissolution pages 402–406
    9. 86 The President's Address, and Messages pages 407–411
    10. 87 Ministers and the Attorney-General in the House pages 412–416
    11. 88 The Chairman and Deputy Chairman pages 417–422
    12. 89 The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker pages 423–428
    13. 90 Salaries, and the Secretariat pages 429–433
    14. 91 Oath, Voting and Quorum pages 434–439
    15. 92 Vacation of Seats pages 440–444
    16. 93 Disqualifications of a Member of Parliament pages 445–450
    17. 94 Who Decides a Disqualification pages 451–455
    18. 95 Sitting and Voting Before Taking the Oath pages 456–459
    19. 96 The Privileges of Parliament and Its Members pages 460–466
    20. 97 Bribery, Privilege, and the 2024 Decision pages 467–471
    21. 98 Salaries and Allowances of Members pages 472–475
    22. 99 The Anti-Defection Law pages 476–481
    23. 100 The Tenth Schedule in Practice pages 482–488
    24. 101 How an Ordinary Bill Is Passed pages 489–493
    25. 102 A Money Bill pages 494–498
    26. 103 Assent, and What the President May Do With a Bill pages 499–501
    27. 104 The Budget, and the Charged Expenditure pages 502–506
    28. 105 Supplementary Grants, and a Vote on Account pages 507–511
    29. 106 The Four Kinds of Bill Compared pages 512–514
    30. 107 Rules of Procedure, and Why Courts Stay Out pages 515–520
    31. 108 The President of India pages 521–524
    32. 109 The Election of the President pages 525–528
    33. 110 Qualifications, Oath, Term and Re-election pages 529–533
    34. 111 The Impeachment of the President pages 534–537
    35. 112 A Vacancy, and the Vice-President pages 538–544
    36. 113 What Powers the President Actually Has pages 545–552
    37. 114 The Council of Ministers, and the Aid and Advice pages 553–557
    38. 115 The Ordinance Power pages 558–563
    39. 116 The Attorney-General for India pages 564–568
    40. 117 The Conduct of Government Business pages 569–572
    41. 118 The Governor pages 573–579
    42. 119 The Governor's Immunity pages 580–584
    43. 120 Pardon, and the Executive Power of a State pages 585–589
    44. 121 The Governor's Discretion pages 590–596
    45. 122 The State Council of Ministers pages 597–600
    46. 123 The Advocate-General for the State pages 601–604
    47. 124 The Conduct of a State Government's Business pages 605–608
    48. 125 A Hung Assembly, and Who Is Invited to Form a Government pages 609–614
    49. 126 The State Legislatures pages 615–618
    50. 127 The Legislative Assembly pages 619–622
    51. 128 The Legislative Council pages 623–626
    52. 129 Sessions, Address and Dissolution in a State pages 627–630
    53. 130 Qualification for Membership of a State House pages 631–633
    54. 131 The Speaker, the Chairman, and Their Deputies pages 634–637
    55. 132 Ministers and the Advocate-General in a State House pages 638–640
    56. 133 Salaries, and the Secretariat of a State Legislature pages 641–643
    57. 134 Oath, Voting and Quorum in a State House pages 644–647
    58. 135 Vacation of Seats, and Disqualification pages 648–652
    59. 136 The Privileges of a State Legislature pages 653–657
    60. 137 How a Bill Becomes Law in a State pages 658–662
    61. 138 Assent, Withholding, and Reservation for the President pages 663–670
    62. 139 Financial Procedure in a State pages 671–675
    63. 140 Procedure, and the Courts, in a State Legislature pages 676–680
    64. 141 The Governor's Ordinance Power pages 681–686

    Module III 26 chapters

    1. 142 The Judiciary: What This Module Asks pages 687–690
    2. 143 The Supreme Court of India pages 691–695
    3. 144 How Judges Are Actually Appointed pages 696–703
    4. 145 The National Judicial Appointments Commission pages 704–708
    5. 146 Why the NJAC Was Struck Down pages 709–713
    6. 147 Security of Tenure, Salary, and Post-Retirement Practice pages 714–719
    7. 148 The Removal of a Judge pages 720–725
    8. 149 A Court of Record, and Contempt pages 726–729
    9. 150 The Seat of the Court, and Its Original Jurisdiction pages 730–733
    10. 151 Appellate Jurisdiction pages 734–738
    11. 152 Special Leave to Appeal pages 739–742
    12. 153 The Federal Court's Jurisdiction, and Review pages 743–746
    13. 154 Enlargement of Jurisdiction, and Transfer of Cases pages 747–751
    14. 155 Binding Precedent, and the Enforcement of Orders pages 752–755
    15. 156 Complete Justice, and Article 142 pages 756–760
    16. 157 The Court's Own Officers, and Expenses pages 761–765
    17. 158 Judicial Review pages 766–771
    18. 159 Judicial Activism pages 772–776
    19. 160 Public Interest Litigation pages 777–783
    20. 161 Judicial Overreach, and the Criticism pages 784–788
    21. 162 Independence of the Judiciary pages 789–793
    22. 163 Judicial Accountability pages 794–798
    23. 164 The High Courts pages 799–802
    24. 165 The Appointment, Tenure and Transfer of a High Court Judge pages 803–809
    25. 166 The Writ Jurisdiction of a High Court pages 810–814
    26. 167 Transfer of Cases, Officers, and the Union Territory Courts pages 815–819

    Module IV 30 chapters

    1. 168 The Three Emergencies pages 820–823
    2. 169 A National Emergency pages 824–827
    3. 170 What a National Emergency Does pages 828–832
    4. 171 Emergency, and Fundamental Rights pages 833–838
    5. 172 The Union's Duty to Protect a State pages 839–842
    6. 173 President's Rule pages 843–847
    7. 174 The Judicial Review of a Proclamation pages 848–852
    8. 175 A Financial Emergency pages 853–856
    9. 176 The Amending Power pages 857–861
    10. 177 The Basic Structure Doctrine pages 862–868
    11. 178 After Kesavananda pages 869–873
    12. 179 The Services Under the Union and a State pages 874–878
    13. 180 The Protection of Article 311 pages 879–883
    14. 181 The All-India Services pages 884–888
    15. 182 The Public Service Commissions pages 889–894
    16. 183 What a Service Commission Does, and How It Is Protected pages 895–900
    17. 184 The Election Commission of India pages 901–907
    18. 185 The Independence of the Election Commission pages 908–914
    19. 186 One Electoral Roll, One Vote pages 915–918
    20. 187 Parliament's Power Over Elections pages 919–921
    21. 188 Election Disputes, and the Bar on Courts pages 922–926
    22. 189 The Model Code of Conduct pages 927–930
    23. 190 The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India pages 931–935
    24. 191 The Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse pages 936–939
    25. 192 The Restrictions on the Freedom pages 940–945
    26. 193 What Article 301 Actually Forbids pages 946–953
    27. 194 The Co-operative Societies pages 954–958
    28. 195 Running a Co-operative Society Under Part IXB pages 959–964
    29. 196 Part IXB, the States, and the 2021 Decision pages 965–970
    30. 197 The Constitutional Bodies Compared pages 971–975

  2. Jurisprudence and Legal Theory

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Jurisprudence and Legal Theory

    B.L.S. LL.B. 5 YEARS · SEMESTER 8

    Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

    For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Second Year

    Jurisprudence and Legal Theory

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What Jurisprudence Means 1
    2. The Nature of Jurisprudence 5
    3. The Scope of Jurisprudence 8
    4. Why Jurisprudence Is Studied 11
    5. What Law Is 14
    6. The Definitions of Law 18
    7. Law as a Normative Order 23
    8. The Functions of Law 26
    9. The Purposes of Law 29
    10. The Classification of Law 32
    11. Public Law and Private Law 35
    12. Positive Law and Positive Morality 38
    13. What Justice Means 41
    14. The Kinds of Justice 44
    15. Justice According to Law, and Equity 48
    16. Legal Wrongs and Moral Wrongs 52
    17. Sanctions 56
    18. What a State Is 59
    19. Population and Territory 62
    20. Government as an Element of the State 65
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Sovereignty 68
    2. The Divine Theory of the Origin of the State 72
    3. The Social Contract Theory 76
    4. The Patriarchal Theory 80
    5. The Matriarchal Theory 83

    Module II

    1. What a Source of Law Is 86
    2. Formal and Material Sources of Law 89
    3. What a Custom Is 92
    4. Kinds of Custom 96
    5. General and Local Custom 100
    6. Trade Usage and Conventional Custom 104
    7. The Essentials of a Valid Custom: Antiquity, Continuity and Peaceable Enjoyment 108
    8. The Essentials of a Valid Custom: Reasonableness, Certainty, Consistency and Obligatory Force 112
    9. Custom in the Indian Courts 117
    10. What a Precedent Is 122
    11. Precedent as a Source of Law in India 126
    12. The Doctrine of Stare Decisis 131
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Kinds of Precedent 135
    2. The Declaratory Theory, and Whether Judges Make Law 139
    3. Prospective Overruling 143
    4. Ratio Decidendi 147
    5. How to Find the Ratio of a Case 151
    6. Obiter Dicta 155
    7. Per Incuriam and Sub Silentio 159
    8. What Destroys or Weakens the Binding Force of a Precedent 163
    9. Distinguishing and Overruling 167
    10. The Merits and Demerits of Precedent 171
    11. What Legislation Is 175
    12. Supreme Legislation 179
    13. Subordinate and Delegated Legislation 182
    14. The Merits and Demerits of Legislation 186
    15. Codification of Law 190
    16. Statutory Interpretation: Why It Is Needed 194
    17. The Literal, Golden and Mischief Rules 198
    18. The Subsidiary Rules of Interpretation 202
    19. Convention as a Source of Law 206
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Public Interest Litigation, Juristic Writing and Equity as Sources 210

    Module III

    1. What a School of Jurisprudence Is 214
    2. The Central Notion of Natural Law 218
    3. The Basic Tenets of Natural Law 222
    4. Natural Law in the Greek Period 226
    5. Natural Law in the Roman Period 230
    6. Natural Law in the Christian and Medieval Periods 233
    7. Natural Law in the Modern Period 237
    8. Natural Law in Indian Law 242
    9. What Legal Positivism Is 246
    10. Bentham and the Principle of Utility 250
    11. Austin's Command Theory of Law 254
    12. Austin's Sovereign, and the Criticism of the Command Theory 258
    13. Hart's Concept of Law 262
    14. Hart's Rule of Recognition and the Hart Debates 267
    15. Kelsen's Pure Theory of Law 272
    16. The Grundnorm 276
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Law and Morality 280
    2. The Ancient Indian Concept of Dharma 284
    3. Savigny and the Volksgeist 288
    4. Puchta on Custom and the State 292
    5. Maine: From Status to Contract 295
    6. The Basic Tenets of the Historical School 299
    7. The Rise of the Sociological School 303
    8. Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering 306
    9. Pound's Scheme of Interests 311
    10. Ihering, Duguit and Ehrlich 315
    11. The Basic Tenets of the Sociological School 320
    12. The American Realist School 324
    13. The Scandinavian Realist School 329
    14. The Basic Tenets of the Realist School 334
    15. Feminist Legal Theory 338
    16. The Schools of Feminist Legal Theory 342

    Module IV

    1. What a Legal Right Is 346
    2. The Theories of Rights: Will, Interest and Gray 349
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Elements of a Legal Right 353
    2. The Characteristics of a Legal Right 357
    3. Duties, and the Correlation of Rights and Duties 361
    4. The Kinds of Duty 365
    5. Hohfeld's Scheme of Jural Relations 369
    6. Jural Correlatives and Jural Opposites 373
    7. Liberty, Power, Immunity and Capacity in Practice 377
    8. Perfect and Imperfect, Positive and Negative Rights 381
    9. Rights in Rem and Rights in Personam 385
    10. Proprietary and Personal Rights, Inheritable and Uninheritable 389
    11. Rights in Re Propria and Rights in Re Aliena 393
    12. Primary and Secondary, Legal and Equitable, Vested and Contingent Rights 397
    13. What a Legal Person Is 402
    14. Natural and Artificial Persons 406
    15. The Legal Status of an Animal 410
    16. The Legal Status of a Minor 414
    17. The Legal Status of a Person of Unsound Mind and of a Drunken Person 418
    18. The Legal Status of an Unborn Person 423
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Legal Status of a Dead Person 427
    2. Corporation Sole and Corporation Aggregate 431
    3. The Characteristics and Advantages of Incorporation 435
    4. The Theories of Corporate Personality 439
    5. What Property Is 443
    6. The Philosophical Theories of Property 447
    7. Corporeal and Incorporeal Property 452
    8. Real and Personal, Movable and Immovable Property 455
    9. The Modes of Acquiring Property 459
    10. Title: Original and Derivative 463
    11. Encumbrances: Lease, Servitude, Security and Trust 467
    12. What Possession Is 472
    13. Corpus and Animus: The Two Elements of Possession 476
    14. Possession in Fact and Possession in Law 479
    15. Mediate and Immediate Possession 483
    16. Corporeal and Incorporeal Possession 486
    17. The Modes of Acquiring Possession 489
    18. Why Possession Is Protected 493
    19. Possessory Remedies and Adverse Possession 497
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. What Ownership Is 501
    2. The Characteristics of Ownership 505
    3. Austin on Ownership 508
    4. Possession and Ownership Distinguished 511
    5. The Kinds of Ownership 514
    6. The Modes of Acquiring Ownership 518
    7. What an Obligation Is 521
    8. Perfect and Imperfect Obligations 524
    9. Simple and Solidary Obligations 527
    10. The Sources of Obligations 531
    11. Question of Fact and Question of Law 535
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    538 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 538 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 139 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 25 chapters

    1. 1 What Jurisprudence Means pages 1–4
    2. 2 The Nature of Jurisprudence pages 5–7
    3. 3 The Scope of Jurisprudence pages 8–10
    4. 4 Why Jurisprudence Is Studied pages 11–13
    5. 5 What Law Is pages 14–17
    6. 6 The Definitions of Law pages 18–22
    7. 7 Law as a Normative Order pages 23–25
    8. 8 The Functions of Law pages 26–28
    9. 9 The Purposes of Law pages 29–31
    10. 10 The Classification of Law pages 32–34
    11. 11 Public Law and Private Law pages 35–37
    12. 12 Positive Law and Positive Morality pages 38–40
    13. 13 What Justice Means pages 41–43
    14. 14 The Kinds of Justice pages 44–47
    15. 15 Justice According to Law, and Equity pages 48–51
    16. 16 Legal Wrongs and Moral Wrongs pages 52–55
    17. 17 Sanctions pages 56–58
    18. 18 What a State Is pages 59–61
    19. 19 Population and Territory pages 62–64
    20. 20 Government as an Element of the State pages 65–67
    21. 21 Sovereignty pages 68–71
    22. 22 The Divine Theory of the Origin of the State pages 72–75
    23. 23 The Social Contract Theory pages 76–79
    24. 24 The Patriarchal Theory pages 80–82
    25. 25 The Matriarchal Theory pages 83–85

    Module II 32 chapters

    1. 26 What a Source of Law Is pages 86–88
    2. 27 Formal and Material Sources of Law pages 89–91
    3. 28 What a Custom Is pages 92–95
    4. 29 Kinds of Custom pages 96–99
    5. 30 General and Local Custom pages 100–103
    6. 31 Trade Usage and Conventional Custom pages 104–107
    7. 32 The Essentials of a Valid Custom: Antiquity, Continuity and Peaceable Enjoyment pages 108–111
    8. 33 The Essentials of a Valid Custom: Reasonableness, Certainty, Consistency and Obligatory Force pages 112–116
    9. 34 Custom in the Indian Courts pages 117–121
    10. 35 What a Precedent Is pages 122–125
    11. 36 Precedent as a Source of Law in India pages 126–130
    12. 37 The Doctrine of Stare Decisis pages 131–134
    13. 38 Kinds of Precedent pages 135–138
    14. 39 The Declaratory Theory, and Whether Judges Make Law pages 139–142
    15. 40 Prospective Overruling pages 143–146
    16. 41 Ratio Decidendi pages 147–150
    17. 42 How to Find the Ratio of a Case pages 151–154
    18. 43 Obiter Dicta pages 155–158
    19. 44 Per Incuriam and Sub Silentio pages 159–162
    20. 45 What Destroys or Weakens the Binding Force of a Precedent pages 163–166
    21. 46 Distinguishing and Overruling pages 167–170
    22. 47 The Merits and Demerits of Precedent pages 171–174
    23. 48 What Legislation Is pages 175–178
    24. 49 Supreme Legislation pages 179–181
    25. 50 Subordinate and Delegated Legislation pages 182–185
    26. 51 The Merits and Demerits of Legislation pages 186–189
    27. 52 Codification of Law pages 190–193
    28. 53 Statutory Interpretation: Why It Is Needed pages 194–197
    29. 54 The Literal, Golden and Mischief Rules pages 198–201
    30. 55 The Subsidiary Rules of Interpretation pages 202–205
    31. 56 Convention as a Source of Law pages 206–209
    32. 57 Public Interest Litigation, Juristic Writing and Equity as Sources pages 210–213

    Module III 32 chapters

    1. 58 What a School of Jurisprudence Is pages 214–217
    2. 59 The Central Notion of Natural Law pages 218–221
    3. 60 The Basic Tenets of Natural Law pages 222–225
    4. 61 Natural Law in the Greek Period pages 226–229
    5. 62 Natural Law in the Roman Period pages 230–232
    6. 63 Natural Law in the Christian and Medieval Periods pages 233–236
    7. 64 Natural Law in the Modern Period pages 237–241
    8. 65 Natural Law in Indian Law pages 242–245
    9. 66 What Legal Positivism Is pages 246–249
    10. 67 Bentham and the Principle of Utility pages 250–253
    11. 68 Austin's Command Theory of Law pages 254–257
    12. 69 Austin's Sovereign, and the Criticism of the Command Theory pages 258–261
    13. 70 Hart's Concept of Law pages 262–266
    14. 71 Hart's Rule of Recognition and the Hart Debates pages 267–271
    15. 72 Kelsen's Pure Theory of Law pages 272–275
    16. 73 The Grundnorm pages 276–279
    17. 74 Law and Morality pages 280–283
    18. 75 The Ancient Indian Concept of Dharma pages 284–287
    19. 76 Savigny and the Volksgeist pages 288–291
    20. 77 Puchta on Custom and the State pages 292–294
    21. 78 Maine: From Status to Contract pages 295–298
    22. 79 The Basic Tenets of the Historical School pages 299–302
    23. 80 The Rise of the Sociological School pages 303–305
    24. 81 Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering pages 306–310
    25. 82 Pound's Scheme of Interests pages 311–314
    26. 83 Ihering, Duguit and Ehrlich pages 315–319
    27. 84 The Basic Tenets of the Sociological School pages 320–323
    28. 85 The American Realist School pages 324–328
    29. 86 The Scandinavian Realist School pages 329–333
    30. 87 The Basic Tenets of the Realist School pages 334–337
    31. 88 Feminist Legal Theory pages 338–341
    32. 89 The Schools of Feminist Legal Theory pages 342–345

    Module IV 50 chapters

    1. 90 What a Legal Right Is pages 346–348
    2. 91 The Theories of Rights: Will, Interest and Gray pages 349–352
    3. 92 The Elements of a Legal Right pages 353–356
    4. 93 The Characteristics of a Legal Right pages 357–360
    5. 94 Duties, and the Correlation of Rights and Duties pages 361–364
    6. 95 The Kinds of Duty pages 365–368
    7. 96 Hohfeld's Scheme of Jural Relations pages 369–372
    8. 97 Jural Correlatives and Jural Opposites pages 373–376
    9. 98 Liberty, Power, Immunity and Capacity in Practice pages 377–380
    10. 99 Perfect and Imperfect, Positive and Negative Rights pages 381–384
    11. 100 Rights in Rem and Rights in Personam pages 385–388
    12. 101 Proprietary and Personal Rights, Inheritable and Uninheritable pages 389–392
    13. 102 Rights in Re Propria and Rights in Re Aliena pages 393–396
    14. 103 Primary and Secondary, Legal and Equitable, Vested and Contingent Rights pages 397–401
    15. 104 What a Legal Person Is pages 402–405
    16. 105 Natural and Artificial Persons pages 406–409
    17. 106 The Legal Status of an Animal pages 410–413
    18. 107 The Legal Status of a Minor pages 414–417
    19. 108 The Legal Status of a Person of Unsound Mind and of a Drunken Person pages 418–422
    20. 109 The Legal Status of an Unborn Person pages 423–426
    21. 110 The Legal Status of a Dead Person pages 427–430
    22. 111 Corporation Sole and Corporation Aggregate pages 431–434
    23. 112 The Characteristics and Advantages of Incorporation pages 435–438
    24. 113 The Theories of Corporate Personality pages 439–442
    25. 114 What Property Is pages 443–446
    26. 115 The Philosophical Theories of Property pages 447–451
    27. 116 Corporeal and Incorporeal Property pages 452–454
    28. 117 Real and Personal, Movable and Immovable Property pages 455–458
    29. 118 The Modes of Acquiring Property pages 459–462
    30. 119 Title: Original and Derivative pages 463–466
    31. 120 Encumbrances: Lease, Servitude, Security and Trust pages 467–471
    32. 121 What Possession Is pages 472–475
    33. 122 Corpus and Animus: The Two Elements of Possession pages 476–478
    34. 123 Possession in Fact and Possession in Law pages 479–482
    35. 124 Mediate and Immediate Possession pages 483–485
    36. 125 Corporeal and Incorporeal Possession pages 486–488
    37. 126 The Modes of Acquiring Possession pages 489–492
    38. 127 Why Possession Is Protected pages 493–496
    39. 128 Possessory Remedies and Adverse Possession pages 497–500
    40. 129 What Ownership Is pages 501–504
    41. 130 The Characteristics of Ownership pages 505–507
    42. 131 Austin on Ownership pages 508–510
    43. 132 Possession and Ownership Distinguished pages 511–513
    44. 133 The Kinds of Ownership pages 514–517
    45. 134 The Modes of Acquiring Ownership pages 518–520
    46. 135 What an Obligation Is pages 521–523
    47. 136 Perfect and Imperfect Obligations pages 524–526
    48. 137 Simple and Solidary Obligations pages 527–530
    49. 138 The Sources of Obligations pages 531–534
    50. 139 Question of Fact and Question of Law pages 535–538

  3. Bankruptcy Laws

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Bankruptcy Laws

    B.L.S. LL.B. 5 YEARS · SEMESTER 8

    Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

    For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Second Year

    Bankruptcy Laws

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What Insolvency and Bankruptcy Mean 1
    2. Insolvency Law in India Before the Code 5
    3. The Corporate Half Before the Code 8
    4. Why Parliament Wrote the Code 11
    5. Where Parliament Got the Power 14
    6. How the Code Came Into Force, Piece by Piece 17
    7. Short Title, Extent and Commencement 20
    8. To Whom the Code Applies 22
    9. The Shape of the Code 26
    10. Definitions: The Words Part I Settles 29
    11. Definitions: Person, Property and Transaction 32
    12. The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Fund 36
    13. The Central Government's Powers Over the Board 39
    14. Notifying Financial Service Providers 42
    15. Rules, Regulations and Removing Difficulties 45
    16. The Code and Small Business 49
    17. Bar of Jurisdiction 52
    18. Public Servants and Good Faith 55
    19. Appeal, Revision and the Special Court 58
    20. The Code Overrides Other Laws 62
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Limitation 65
    2. Agreements With Foreign Countries 68
    3. Repeal, Savings and Transitional Provisions 71
    4. What the Code Changed in Eleven Other Acts 74

    Module II

    1. When Part II Applies, and the One Crore Threshold 77
    2. The Words Part II Settles: Creditors and Debt 80
    3. The Words Part II Settles: the Process Words 84
    4. Who May Start a Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process 88
    5. The Financial Creditor's Application 91
    6. The Operational Creditor's Demand Notice 95
    7. The Operational Creditor's Application 98
    8. The Corporate Applicant's Own Application 101
    9. The COVID Suspension 104
    10. Who May Not Apply 107
    11. Choosing Between a Pre-Pack and a CIRP Application 110
    12. The Time Limit, and the Outer Wall 112
    13. Withdrawal After Admission 115
    14. Moratorium Declared, and Announced 118
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Moratorium 121
    2. The Interim Resolution Professional 125
    3. The Interim Professional Takes Over 128
    4. Duties of the Interim Resolution Professional 132
    5. Running the Company as a Going Concern 136
    6. The Committee of Creditors 139
    7. The First Meeting, and the Resolution Professional 144
    8. Meetings of the Committee of Creditors 147
    9. Duties of the Resolution Professional 150
    10. The Authorised Representative 154
    11. Avoidance Applications Do Not Stop the Process 157
    12. Replacing the Resolution Professional 160
    13. Actions That Need the Committee's Approval 163
    14. Transfer of a Guarantor's Assets 166
    15. The Information Memorandum 170
    16. Who Cannot Be a Resolution Applicant 173
    17. Submitting a Resolution Plan 177
    18. Approval of the Resolution Plan 182
    19. Appeal Against Approval 187
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Immunity for Prior Offences 190
    2. Fast Track: What It Was, and Why It Is Gone 194
    3. What Parliament Has Passed and Not Yet Commenced 198
    4. When Liquidation Begins 203
    5. The Liquidator 208
    6. Powers and Duties of the Liquidator 212
    7. The Liquidation Estate 216
    8. The Claims Sections That Were Taken Away 220
    9. Preferential Transactions 224
    10. Undervalued Transactions 228
    11. Transactions Defrauding Creditors 232
    12. Extortionate Credit Transactions 236
    13. The Secured Creditor's Choice 240
    14. The Waterfall 244
    15. Dissolution 249
    16. Voluntary Liquidation 253
    17. The Pre-Pack: Who May Use It 258
    18. Before a Pre-Pack Starts 262
    19. The Pre-Pack Timetable and Moratorium 265
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Resolution Professional in a Pre-Pack 269
    2. The Debtor Stays in Charge 273
    3. The Pre-Pack Committee, and the Swiss Challenge 277
    4. Approval, Appeal and Termination of a Pre-Pack 282
    5. The Adjudicating Authority for Corporate Persons 287
    6. Appeals to the Appellate Tribunal 291
    7. Appeal to the Supreme Court 295
    8. Expeditious Disposal, and Frivolous Proceedings 298
    9. Fraudulent or Malicious Initiation 302
    10. Fraudulent and Wrongful Trading 306
    11. Offences: Concealment and Misconduct 311
    12. Offences: Books, Statements and Representations 316
    13. Offences: False Information, and the Pre-Pack Offences 320

    Module III

    1. Part III, and How Little of It Is Law 325
    2. The Words Part III Settles 329
    3. Who May Ask for a Fresh Start 334
    4. Applying for a Fresh Start Order 338
    5. Admission, and the Fresh Start Moratorium 343
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Objections, Duties and the End of a Fresh Start 347
    2. The Debtor's Application for Insolvency Resolution 353
    3. The Creditor's Application 357
    4. The Interim Moratorium 361
    5. Appointing the Resolution Professional Under Part III 365
    6. The Report, and the Decision 369
    7. The Part III Moratorium 374
    8. Notice, Claims and the List of Creditors 378
    9. The Repayment Plan 382
    10. The Meeting of Creditors Under Part III 387
    11. Approving the Repayment Plan 392
    12. The Order on the Repayment Plan 396
    13. Implementing the Plan, and What Ends It 400
    14. Applying for Bankruptcy 405
    15. The Effect of the Application, and the Trustee 410
    16. The Bankruptcy Order 414
    17. The Effect of the Bankruptcy Order 418
    18. The Statement of Financial Position 423
    19. Claims and Creditors in Bankruptcy 427
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Meetings of Creditors in Bankruptcy 431
    2. Administration and Distribution of the Estate 435
    3. Discharge and Its Effect 438
    4. The Disqualifications and Restrictions of a Bankrupt 443
    5. The Bankruptcy Trustee: Conduct, Fees and Office 449
    6. Functions, Rights and Powers of the Trustee 454
    7. Vesting, and the Estate of the Bankrupt 459
    8. Restrictions on Disposition, and After-Acquired Property 463
    9. Onerous Property and Disclaimer 467
    10. Avoidable Transactions Under Part III 472
    11. Obligations Under Contracts, and the Death of a Bankrupt 480
    12. Proof of Debt 483
    13. Mutual Credit and Set-off 487
    14. Dividends and Distribution 490
    15. The Priority of Payment of Debts 495
    16. The Debt Recovery Tribunal as Adjudicating Authority 500
    17. Appeal Under Part III 504
    18. Offences and Penalties Under Part III 508
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV

    1. The Board Established 513
    2. The Constitution of the Board 516
    3. Removal of a Member 519
    4. The Chairperson, and the Meetings 522
    5. Designating a Financial Sector Regulator 525
    6. Powers and Functions of the Board 527
    7. Committees, and the Condonation of Delay 532
    8. No Agency Without a Certificate 534
    9. The Principles That Govern Registration 536
    10. Registering an Insolvency Professional Agency 538
    11. Appeal Against the Board's Order 542
    12. The Governing Board of an Agency 544
    13. What an Agency Does 547
    14. Who May Act as an Insolvency Professional 549
    15. The Functions and Obligations of a Professional 552
    16. Insolvency Professional Entities 556
    17. No Information Utility Without a Certificate 559
    18. Core Services 562
    19. The Obligations of an Information Utility 564
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Submitting and Authenticating Financial Information 566
    2. Complaints and Investigation 569
    3. Show Cause, and the Disciplinary Committee 572
    4. The Finances of the Board 576
    5. Registered Valuers 579
    6. Registered Valuers Organisations 585
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    588 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 588 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 156 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 24 chapters

    1. 1 What Insolvency and Bankruptcy Mean pages 1–4
    2. 2 Insolvency Law in India Before the Code pages 5–7
    3. 3 The Corporate Half Before the Code pages 8–10
    4. 4 Why Parliament Wrote the Code pages 11–13
    5. 5 Where Parliament Got the Power pages 14–16
    6. 6 How the Code Came Into Force, Piece by Piece pages 17–19
    7. 7 Short Title, Extent and Commencement pages 20–21
    8. 8 To Whom the Code Applies pages 22–25
    9. 9 The Shape of the Code pages 26–28
    10. 10 Definitions: The Words Part I Settles pages 29–31
    11. 11 Definitions: Person, Property and Transaction pages 32–35
    12. 12 The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Fund pages 36–38
    13. 13 The Central Government's Powers Over the Board pages 39–41
    14. 14 Notifying Financial Service Providers pages 42–44
    15. 15 Rules, Regulations and Removing Difficulties pages 45–48
    16. 16 The Code and Small Business pages 49–51
    17. 17 Bar of Jurisdiction pages 52–54
    18. 18 Public Servants and Good Faith pages 55–57
    19. 19 Appeal, Revision and the Special Court pages 58–61
    20. 20 The Code Overrides Other Laws pages 62–64
    21. 21 Limitation pages 65–67
    22. 22 Agreements With Foreign Countries pages 68–70
    23. 23 Repeal, Savings and Transitional Provisions pages 71–73
    24. 24 What the Code Changed in Eleven Other Acts pages 74–76

    Module II 65 chapters

    1. 25 When Part II Applies, and the One Crore Threshold pages 77–79
    2. 26 The Words Part II Settles: Creditors and Debt pages 80–83
    3. 27 The Words Part II Settles: the Process Words pages 84–87
    4. 28 Who May Start a Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process pages 88–90
    5. 29 The Financial Creditor's Application pages 91–94
    6. 30 The Operational Creditor's Demand Notice pages 95–97
    7. 31 The Operational Creditor's Application pages 98–100
    8. 32 The Corporate Applicant's Own Application pages 101–103
    9. 33 The COVID Suspension pages 104–106
    10. 34 Who May Not Apply pages 107–109
    11. 35 Choosing Between a Pre-Pack and a CIRP Application pages 110–111
    12. 36 The Time Limit, and the Outer Wall pages 112–114
    13. 37 Withdrawal After Admission pages 115–117
    14. 38 Moratorium Declared, and Announced pages 118–120
    15. 39 The Moratorium pages 121–124
    16. 40 The Interim Resolution Professional pages 125–127
    17. 41 The Interim Professional Takes Over pages 128–131
    18. 42 Duties of the Interim Resolution Professional pages 132–135
    19. 43 Running the Company as a Going Concern pages 136–138
    20. 44 The Committee of Creditors pages 139–143
    21. 45 The First Meeting, and the Resolution Professional pages 144–146
    22. 46 Meetings of the Committee of Creditors pages 147–149
    23. 47 Duties of the Resolution Professional pages 150–153
    24. 48 The Authorised Representative pages 154–156
    25. 49 Avoidance Applications Do Not Stop the Process pages 157–159
    26. 50 Replacing the Resolution Professional pages 160–162
    27. 51 Actions That Need the Committee's Approval pages 163–165
    28. 52 Transfer of a Guarantor's Assets pages 166–169
    29. 53 The Information Memorandum pages 170–172
    30. 54 Who Cannot Be a Resolution Applicant pages 173–176
    31. 55 Submitting a Resolution Plan pages 177–181
    32. 56 Approval of the Resolution Plan pages 182–186
    33. 57 Appeal Against Approval pages 187–189
    34. 58 Immunity for Prior Offences pages 190–193
    35. 59 Fast Track: What It Was, and Why It Is Gone pages 194–197
    36. 60 What Parliament Has Passed and Not Yet Commenced pages 198–202
    37. 61 When Liquidation Begins pages 203–207
    38. 62 The Liquidator pages 208–211
    39. 63 Powers and Duties of the Liquidator pages 212–215
    40. 64 The Liquidation Estate pages 216–219
    41. 65 The Claims Sections That Were Taken Away pages 220–223
    42. 66 Preferential Transactions pages 224–227
    43. 67 Undervalued Transactions pages 228–231
    44. 68 Transactions Defrauding Creditors pages 232–235
    45. 69 Extortionate Credit Transactions pages 236–239
    46. 70 The Secured Creditor's Choice pages 240–243
    47. 71 The Waterfall pages 244–248
    48. 72 Dissolution pages 249–252
    49. 73 Voluntary Liquidation pages 253–257
    50. 74 The Pre-Pack: Who May Use It pages 258–261
    51. 75 Before a Pre-Pack Starts pages 262–264
    52. 76 The Pre-Pack Timetable and Moratorium pages 265–268
    53. 77 The Resolution Professional in a Pre-Pack pages 269–272
    54. 78 The Debtor Stays in Charge pages 273–276
    55. 79 The Pre-Pack Committee, and the Swiss Challenge pages 277–281
    56. 80 Approval, Appeal and Termination of a Pre-Pack pages 282–286
    57. 81 The Adjudicating Authority for Corporate Persons pages 287–290
    58. 82 Appeals to the Appellate Tribunal pages 291–294
    59. 83 Appeal to the Supreme Court pages 295–297
    60. 84 Expeditious Disposal, and Frivolous Proceedings pages 298–301
    61. 85 Fraudulent or Malicious Initiation pages 302–305
    62. 86 Fraudulent and Wrongful Trading pages 306–310
    63. 87 Offences: Concealment and Misconduct pages 311–315
    64. 88 Offences: Books, Statements and Representations pages 316–319
    65. 89 Offences: False Information, and the Pre-Pack Offences pages 320–324

    Module III 42 chapters

    1. 90 Part III, and How Little of It Is Law pages 325–328
    2. 91 The Words Part III Settles pages 329–333
    3. 92 Who May Ask for a Fresh Start pages 334–337
    4. 93 Applying for a Fresh Start Order pages 338–342
    5. 94 Admission, and the Fresh Start Moratorium pages 343–346
    6. 95 Objections, Duties and the End of a Fresh Start pages 347–352
    7. 96 The Debtor's Application for Insolvency Resolution pages 353–356
    8. 97 The Creditor's Application pages 357–360
    9. 98 The Interim Moratorium pages 361–364
    10. 99 Appointing the Resolution Professional Under Part III pages 365–368
    11. 100 The Report, and the Decision pages 369–373
    12. 101 The Part III Moratorium pages 374–377
    13. 102 Notice, Claims and the List of Creditors pages 378–381
    14. 103 The Repayment Plan pages 382–386
    15. 104 The Meeting of Creditors Under Part III pages 387–391
    16. 105 Approving the Repayment Plan pages 392–395
    17. 106 The Order on the Repayment Plan pages 396–399
    18. 107 Implementing the Plan, and What Ends It pages 400–404
    19. 108 Applying for Bankruptcy pages 405–409
    20. 109 The Effect of the Application, and the Trustee pages 410–413
    21. 110 The Bankruptcy Order pages 414–417
    22. 111 The Effect of the Bankruptcy Order pages 418–422
    23. 112 The Statement of Financial Position pages 423–426
    24. 113 Claims and Creditors in Bankruptcy pages 427–430
    25. 114 Meetings of Creditors in Bankruptcy pages 431–434
    26. 115 Administration and Distribution of the Estate pages 435–437
    27. 116 Discharge and Its Effect pages 438–442
    28. 117 The Disqualifications and Restrictions of a Bankrupt pages 443–448
    29. 118 The Bankruptcy Trustee: Conduct, Fees and Office pages 449–453
    30. 119 Functions, Rights and Powers of the Trustee pages 454–458
    31. 120 Vesting, and the Estate of the Bankrupt pages 459–462
    32. 121 Restrictions on Disposition, and After-Acquired Property pages 463–466
    33. 122 Onerous Property and Disclaimer pages 467–471
    34. 123 Avoidable Transactions Under Part III pages 472–479
    35. 124 Obligations Under Contracts, and the Death of a Bankrupt pages 480–482
    36. 125 Proof of Debt pages 483–486
    37. 126 Mutual Credit and Set-off pages 487–489
    38. 127 Dividends and Distribution pages 490–494
    39. 128 The Priority of Payment of Debts pages 495–499
    40. 129 The Debt Recovery Tribunal as Adjudicating Authority pages 500–503
    41. 130 Appeal Under Part III pages 504–507
    42. 131 Offences and Penalties Under Part III pages 508–512

    Module IV 25 chapters

    1. 132 The Board Established pages 513–515
    2. 133 The Constitution of the Board pages 516–518
    3. 134 Removal of a Member pages 519–521
    4. 135 The Chairperson, and the Meetings pages 522–524
    5. 136 Designating a Financial Sector Regulator pages 525–526
    6. 137 Powers and Functions of the Board pages 527–531
    7. 138 Committees, and the Condonation of Delay pages 532–533
    8. 139 No Agency Without a Certificate pages 534–535
    9. 140 The Principles That Govern Registration pages 536–537
    10. 141 Registering an Insolvency Professional Agency pages 538–541
    11. 142 Appeal Against the Board's Order pages 542–543
    12. 143 The Governing Board of an Agency pages 544–546
    13. 144 What an Agency Does pages 547–548
    14. 145 Who May Act as an Insolvency Professional pages 549–551
    15. 146 The Functions and Obligations of a Professional pages 552–555
    16. 147 Insolvency Professional Entities pages 556–558
    17. 148 No Information Utility Without a Certificate pages 559–561
    18. 149 Core Services pages 562–563
    19. 150 The Obligations of an Information Utility pages 564–565
    20. 151 Submitting and Authenticating Financial Information pages 566–568
    21. 152 Complaints and Investigation pages 569–571
    22. 153 Show Cause, and the Disciplinary Committee pages 572–575
    23. 154 The Finances of the Board pages 576–578
    24. 155 Registered Valuers pages 579–584
    25. 156 Registered Valuers Organisations pages 585–588

  4. Human Rights Law

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Human Rights Law

    B.L.S. LL.B. 5 YEARS · SEMESTER 8

    Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

    For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Second Year

    Human Rights Law

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I History and Philosophy of Human Rights

    1. What a Human Right Is: Concept and Definition 1
    2. The Characteristics of Human Rights 6
    3. Why Human Rights Are Needed 11
    4. The Limitations on Human Rights 16
    5. The Natural Rights Theory 21
    6. The Utilitarian Theory of Rights 27
    7. The Idealist Theory of Rights 33
    8. The Socialist Theory of Rights 39
    9. The Positivist Theory of Rights 45
    10. Human Rights in Ancient India 51
    11. Human Rights in Medieval India 56
    12. Human Rights in Modern India 61
    13. The First Generation: Civil and Political Rights 67
    14. The Second Generation: Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 72
    15. The Third Generation: Solidarity Rights 77
    16. Comparing the Three Generations 82
    17. The Universality of Human Rights 87
    18. Cultural Relativism and the Answer to It 92
    19. Human Rights in the Western Tradition 97
    20. Magna Carta and the English Tradition 102
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued History and Philosophy of Human Rights

    1. The American Declaration of Independence 107
    2. The United States Bill of Rights 112
    3. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen 117
    4. The Normative Foundation of International Human Rights 123
    5. The United Nations and the Birth of the Human Rights System 129
    6. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Drafting and Structure 135
    7. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The Rights It Declares 140
    8. The Legal Status of the Universal Declaration 146
    9. The International Bill of Human Rights 151
    10. The UN Human Rights Machinery: Charter Bodies 156
    11. The UN Human Rights Machinery: Treaty Bodies and the High Commissioner 162
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    166 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 166 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 31 chapters across 1 module

    Module I. History and Philosophy of Human Rights 31 chapters

    1. 1 What a Human Right Is: Concept and Definition pages 1–5
    2. 2 The Characteristics of Human Rights pages 6–10
    3. 3 Why Human Rights Are Needed pages 11–15
    4. 4 The Limitations on Human Rights pages 16–20
    5. 5 The Natural Rights Theory pages 21–26
    6. 6 The Utilitarian Theory of Rights pages 27–32
    7. 7 The Idealist Theory of Rights pages 33–38
    8. 8 The Socialist Theory of Rights pages 39–44
    9. 9 The Positivist Theory of Rights pages 45–50
    10. 10 Human Rights in Ancient India pages 51–55
    11. 11 Human Rights in Medieval India pages 56–60
    12. 12 Human Rights in Modern India pages 61–66
    13. 13 The First Generation: Civil and Political Rights pages 67–71
    14. 14 The Second Generation: Economic, Social and Cultural Rights pages 72–76
    15. 15 The Third Generation: Solidarity Rights pages 77–81
    16. 16 Comparing the Three Generations pages 82–86
    17. 17 The Universality of Human Rights pages 87–91
    18. 18 Cultural Relativism and the Answer to It pages 92–96
    19. 19 Human Rights in the Western Tradition pages 97–101
    20. 20 Magna Carta and the English Tradition pages 102–106
    21. 21 The American Declaration of Independence pages 107–111
    22. 22 The United States Bill of Rights pages 112–116
    23. 23 The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen pages 117–122
    24. 24 The Normative Foundation of International Human Rights pages 123–128
    25. 25 The United Nations and the Birth of the Human Rights System pages 129–134
    26. 26 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Drafting and Structure pages 135–139
    27. 27 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The Rights It Declares pages 140–145
    28. 28 The Legal Status of the Universal Declaration pages 146–150
    29. 29 The International Bill of Human Rights pages 151–155
    30. 30 The UN Human Rights Machinery: Charter Bodies pages 156–161
    31. 31 The UN Human Rights Machinery: Treaty Bodies and the High Commissioner pages 162–166

Not written yet, and included the day each one lands: Drafting Pleading and Conveyancing II; Contract II; Criminology and Penology.

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