B.L.S. LL.B. 5 Years Semester 4: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

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1. Political Science III

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Political Science III

   B.L.S. LL.B. 5 YEARS · SEMESTER 4

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in Second Year

   Political Science III

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What International Relations Is: Meaning, Definitions and Nature 1
   2. IR as an Academic Discipline 9
   3. Why the Study of IR Matters, Not Least to a Law Student 16
   4. The Evolution of the Study of IR, I: Before There Was a Discipline 23
   5. The Evolution of the Study of IR, II: 1919 and the Idealist Project 31
   6. The Evolution of the Study of IR, III: Carr, Morgenthau and the Realist Turn 38
   7. The Evolution of the Study of IR, IV: The Behavioural Revolution, the Later Debates and IR in India 47
   8. The Westphalian Nation-State System 53
   9. The Peace of Westphalia, 1648 59
   10. What Westphalia Left Behind: Implications for the Modern Nation-State System 65
   11. The Foundational Elements of the Modern Nation-State 71
   12. Sovereignty: Internal and External 76
   13. The Principle of Sovereign Equality 84
   14. The Principle of Territorial Integrity 89
   15. The Principle of Non-Intervention, and Panchsheel 96
   16. National Power: Meaning and Definition 104
   17. The Elements of National Power 110

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. The Limitations of National Power 117
   2. Polarity in IR: What It Means 126
   3. Bipolarity, 1949 to 1991: The Cold War World 131
   4. Unipolarity, 1991 to 2001: The American Moment 137
   5. Multipolarity, 2001 to the Present 142
   6. Challenges to State Sovereignty, I: Globalisation 147
   7. Challenges to State Sovereignty, II: The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) 152
   8. World Government: Myth or Reality? 159
   9. World Government: Methods of Creation and the Difficulties 165

   Module II

   1. Actors in IR, and Why the Sovereign State Comes First 171
   2. Inter-State Relations: Treaty Signing as a Sovereign Attribute 177
   3. Declaration of War 185
   4. The Conclusion of Peace 191
   5. Diplomacy: The Official Medium of Inter-State Communication 198
   6. Public Diplomacy 207
   7. Track II Diplomacy 212
   8. Para-Diplomacy 217

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. The Shift in the State-Centric System: The Emergence of Non-State Actors 222
   2. The Classification of Non-State Actors 227
   3. Non-Sovereign Actors: Features and Role, With Case Studies 232
   4. The Multinational Company and Its Home and Host States 236
   5. MNCs, Environmental Pollution and Carbon Lobbying 242
   6. Case Study: Royal Dutch Shell 247
   7. Labour Law Violations and Sweatshops: The Case of Nike 253
   8. Case Study: The United Fruit Company and the Banana Republic 259
   9. International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs) 264
   10. Amnesty International 269
   11. Transparency International 274
   12. The International Red Cross 278
   13. Intergovernmental Organisations: Features and Role 283
   14. National Liberation Movements 288
   15. The Rise of Violent Non-State Actors as a Threat to World Peace 293
   16. Global Terrorist Organisations 298
   17. Drug Cartels, Human Traffickers and Warlords 303
   18. INGOs and the UN Economic and Social Council 309

   Contents continued

   Module III

   1. Dispute Redressal in IR: Peaceful Settlement of Disputes 314
   2. Chapter VI of the UN Charter 321
   3. Negotiation 327
   4. Mediation and Good Offices 333
   5. Conciliation and Enquiry 338
   6. Arbitration 343
   7. Judicial Settlement 349
   8. The ICJ: Composition, Functions and Jurisdiction 354
   9. The ICJ's Advisory Function 360
   10. The ICJ in Peaceful Settlement: Leading Cases 366
   11. India at the ICJ 371
   12. UN Peacekeeping Operations: Origins and Principles 377
   13. Case Study: UNMISS in South Sudan 382
   14. Case Study: MINURSO in Western Sahara 386
   15. Case Study: MINUSTAH in Haiti 390
   16. UN Peacekeeping: A Critical Appraisal 394
   17. Chapter VII of the UN Charter: Coercive Methods of Settlement 398
   18. The Security Council as Global Enforcement Agency 403
   19. The P-5 Veto as an Obstacle to the Security Council 407

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. The Uniting for Peace Resolution 412
   2. Reform of the Security Council 417

   Module IV International Organizations and Issues

   1. The United Nations Organisation: Its Formation 421
   2. The Objectives, Purposes and Principles of the UN 427
   3. The Principal Organs of the UN 432
   4. The General Assembly: Composition, Functions and Evaluation 436
   5. The Security Council: Composition, Functions and Evaluation 442
   6. The Economic and Social Council: Composition, Functions and Evaluation 447
   7. The Trusteeship Council: Composition, Functions and Evaluation 452
   8. The International Court of Justice as a Principal Organ: Evaluation 457
   9. The Secretariat and the Secretary-General: Composition, Functions and Evaluation 462
   10. The Specialised Agencies: Functions and Role 467
   11. The World Trade Organization 472
   12. The International Monetary Fund 477
   13. The World Bank 482
   14. The International Labour Organization 487

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued International Organizations and Issues

   1. The World Health Organization 492
   2. UNESCO 497
   3. UNICEF 502
   4. The Food and Agriculture Organization 506
   5. Regional Organisations and Groupings 510
   6. OPEC 514
   7. ASEAN 518
   8. The European Union 522
   9. The Arab League 529
   10. SAARC 533
   11. The G7 537
   12. BRICS 541
   13. The Quad 545
   14. NATO 549
   15. BIMSTEC 553
   16. Issues of Concern in IR 557
   17. The Global North-South Divide: Rich and Poor, Stability and Progress 561
   18. Wealth: The NIEO and the PIEO 566
   19. Vaccine Inequality 574

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued International Organizations and Issues

   1. Climate Justice and the Carbon Divide 579
   2. Carbon Credit 584
   3. Human Security 589
   4. Asylum Seekers, Migrants and Refugees: The Differences 594

   Page 1 onwards

   602 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 602 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2018, 2019, 2020, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 110 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 26 chapters

   1. 1 What International Relations Is: Meaning, Definitions and Nature pages 1 to 8
   2. 2 IR as an Academic Discipline pages 9 to 15
   3. 3 Why the Study of IR Matters, Not Least to a Law Student pages 16 to 22
   4. 4 The Evolution of the Study of IR, I: Before There Was a Discipline pages 23 to 30
   5. 5 The Evolution of the Study of IR, II: 1919 and the Idealist Project pages 31 to 37
   6. 6 The Evolution of the Study of IR, III: Carr, Morgenthau and the Realist Turn pages 38 to 46
   7. 7 The Evolution of the Study of IR, IV: The Behavioural Revolution, the Later Debates and IR in India pages 47 to 52
   8. 8 The Westphalian Nation-State System pages 53 to 58
   9. 9 The Peace of Westphalia, 1648 pages 59 to 64
   10. 10 What Westphalia Left Behind: Implications for the Modern Nation-State System pages 65 to 70
   11. 11 The Foundational Elements of the Modern Nation-State pages 71 to 75
   12. 12 Sovereignty: Internal and External pages 76 to 83
   13. 13 The Principle of Sovereign Equality pages 84 to 88
   14. 14 The Principle of Territorial Integrity pages 89 to 95
   15. 15 The Principle of Non-Intervention, and Panchsheel pages 96 to 103
   16. 16 National Power: Meaning and Definition pages 104 to 109
   17. 17 The Elements of National Power pages 110 to 116
   18. 18 The Limitations of National Power pages 117 to 125
   19. 19 Polarity in IR: What It Means pages 126 to 130
   20. 20 Bipolarity, 1949 to 1991: The Cold War World pages 131 to 136
   21. 21 Unipolarity, 1991 to 2001: The American Moment pages 137 to 141
   22. 22 Multipolarity, 2001 to the Present pages 142 to 146
   23. 23 Challenges to State Sovereignty, I: Globalisation pages 147 to 151
   24. 24 Challenges to State Sovereignty, II: The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) pages 152 to 158
   25. 25 World Government: Myth or Reality? pages 159 to 164
   26. 26 World Government: Methods of Creation and the Difficulties pages 165 to 170

   Module II 26 chapters

   1. 27 Actors in IR, and Why the Sovereign State Comes First pages 171 to 176
   2. 28 Inter-State Relations: Treaty Signing as a Sovereign Attribute pages 177 to 184
   3. 29 Declaration of War pages 185 to 190
   4. 30 The Conclusion of Peace pages 191 to 197
   5. 31 Diplomacy: The Official Medium of Inter-State Communication pages 198 to 206
   6. 32 Public Diplomacy pages 207 to 211
   7. 33 Track II Diplomacy pages 212 to 216
   8. 34 Para-Diplomacy pages 217 to 221
   9. 35 The Shift in the State-Centric System: The Emergence of Non-State Actors pages 222 to 226
   10. 36 The Classification of Non-State Actors pages 227 to 231
   11. 37 Non-Sovereign Actors: Features and Role, With Case Studies pages 232 to 235
   12. 38 The Multinational Company and Its Home and Host States pages 236 to 241
   13. 39 MNCs, Environmental Pollution and Carbon Lobbying pages 242 to 246
   14. 40 Case Study: Royal Dutch Shell pages 247 to 252
   15. 41 Labour Law Violations and Sweatshops: The Case of Nike pages 253 to 258
   16. 42 Case Study: The United Fruit Company and the Banana Republic pages 259 to 263
   17. 43 International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGOs) pages 264 to 268
   18. 44 Amnesty International pages 269 to 273
   19. 45 Transparency International pages 274 to 277
   20. 46 The International Red Cross pages 278 to 282
   21. 47 Intergovernmental Organisations: Features and Role pages 283 to 287
   22. 48 National Liberation Movements pages 288 to 292
   23. 49 The Rise of Violent Non-State Actors as a Threat to World Peace pages 293 to 297
   24. 50 Global Terrorist Organisations pages 298 to 302
   25. 51 Drug Cartels, Human Traffickers and Warlords pages 303 to 308
   26. 52 INGOs and the UN Economic and Social Council pages 309 to 313

   Module III 21 chapters

   1. 53 Dispute Redressal in IR: Peaceful Settlement of Disputes pages 314 to 320
   2. 54 Chapter VI of the UN Charter pages 321 to 326
   3. 55 Negotiation pages 327 to 332
   4. 56 Mediation and Good Offices pages 333 to 337
   5. 57 Conciliation and Enquiry pages 338 to 342
   6. 58 Arbitration pages 343 to 348
   7. 59 Judicial Settlement pages 349 to 353
   8. 60 The ICJ: Composition, Functions and Jurisdiction pages 354 to 359
   9. 61 The ICJ's Advisory Function pages 360 to 365
   10. 62 The ICJ in Peaceful Settlement: Leading Cases pages 366 to 370
   11. 63 India at the ICJ pages 371 to 376
   12. 64 UN Peacekeeping Operations: Origins and Principles pages 377 to 381
   13. 65 Case Study: UNMISS in South Sudan pages 382 to 385
   14. 66 Case Study: MINURSO in Western Sahara pages 386 to 389
   15. 67 Case Study: MINUSTAH in Haiti pages 390 to 393
   16. 68 UN Peacekeeping: A Critical Appraisal pages 394 to 397
   17. 69 Chapter VII of the UN Charter: Coercive Methods of Settlement pages 398 to 402
   18. 70 The Security Council as Global Enforcement Agency pages 403 to 406
   19. 71 The P-5 Veto as an Obstacle to the Security Council pages 407 to 411
   20. 72 The Uniting for Peace Resolution pages 412 to 416
   21. 73 Reform of the Security Council pages 417 to 420

   Module IV 37 chapters

   1. 74 The United Nations Organisation: Its Formation pages 421 to 426
   2. 75 The Objectives, Purposes and Principles of the UN pages 427 to 431
   3. 76 The Principal Organs of the UN pages 432 to 435
   4. 77 The General Assembly: Composition, Functions and Evaluation pages 436 to 441
   5. 78 The Security Council: Composition, Functions and Evaluation pages 442 to 446
   6. 79 The Economic and Social Council: Composition, Functions and Evaluation pages 447 to 451
   7. 80 The Trusteeship Council: Composition, Functions and Evaluation pages 452 to 456
   8. 81 The International Court of Justice as a Principal Organ: Evaluation pages 457 to 461
   9. 82 The Secretariat and the Secretary-General: Composition, Functions and Evaluation pages 462 to 466
   10. 83 The Specialised Agencies: Functions and Role pages 467 to 471
   11. 84 The World Trade Organization pages 472 to 476
   12. 85 The International Monetary Fund pages 477 to 481
   13. 86 The World Bank pages 482 to 486
   14. 87 The International Labour Organization pages 487 to 491
   15. 88 The World Health Organization pages 492 to 496
   16. 89 UNESCO pages 497 to 501
   17. 90 UNICEF pages 502 to 505
   18. 91 The Food and Agriculture Organization pages 506 to 509
   19. 92 Regional Organisations and Groupings pages 510 to 513
   20. 93 OPEC pages 514 to 517
   21. 94 ASEAN pages 518 to 521
   22. 95 The European Union pages 522 to 528
   23. 96 The Arab League pages 529 to 532
   24. 97 SAARC pages 533 to 536
   25. 98 The G7 pages 537 to 540
   26. 99 BRICS pages 541 to 544
   27. 100 The Quad pages 545 to 548
   28. 101 NATO pages 549 to 552
   29. 102 BIMSTEC pages 553 to 556
   30. 103 Issues of Concern in IR pages 557 to 560
   31. 104 The Global North-South Divide: Rich and Poor, Stability and Progress pages 561 to 565
   32. 105 Wealth: The NIEO and the PIEO pages 566 to 573
   33. 106 Vaccine Inequality pages 574 to 578
   34. 107 Climate Justice and the Carbon Divide pages 579 to 583
   35. 108 Carbon Credit pages 584 to 588
   36. 109 Human Security pages 589 to 593
   37. 110 Asylum Seekers, Migrants and Refugees: The Differences pages 594 to 602
   Every paper that is solved: 14 papers

   • 2025-26
   • 2025-26 - ATKT 60/40
   • 2024-25
   • 2024-25 - ATKT 60/40
   • 2024-25 - ATKT Set 2 60/40
   • 2023-24
   • 2023-24 - ATKT 60/40
   • 2023-24 - ATKT Set 2 60/40
   • 2022-23
   • 2022-23 - ATKT
   • 2021-22
   • 2019-20
   • 2018-19
   • 2017-18

2. English II

   Official Notes munotes.in

   English II

   B.L.S. LL.B. 5 YEARS · SEMESTER 4

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in Second Year

   English II

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Law & Literature: Texts

   1. How to Read the Set Texts in English II 1
   2. Justice: Galsworthy, and a Play About the Machine of the Law 6
   3. Justice: Act I, the Cheque 11
   4. Justice: Act II, the Trial at the Assizes 16
   5. Justice: Act III, the Prison 22
   6. Justice: Act IV, Two Years Later 28
   7. The Law in Justice: Forgery, the Insanity Plea, the Sentence and the Licence 33
   8. Characters in Justice 39
   9. Themes and Reference to Context: Justice 44
   10. Saint Joan: Shaw, the History, and the Preface 53
   11. Saint Joan: Scenes I to III, the Rise of the Maid 60
   12. Saint Joan: Scenes IV and V, the Church, the Nobles and the King 67
   13. Saint Joan: the Trial, Scene VI 75
   14. Saint Joan: the Epilogue 84
   15. Characters in Saint Joan 91
   16. Themes and Reference to Context: Saint Joan 97
   17. A Passage to India: Forster and the Novel 106
   18. A Passage to India: Part I, Mosque 111
   19. A Passage to India: Part II, the Caves and the Arrest 117

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Law & Literature: Texts

   1. The Trial of Dr Aziz 123
   2. A Passage to India: After the Trial, and Part III, Temple 129
   3. Characters in A Passage to India 135
   4. Themes and Reference to Context: A Passage to India 140
   5. Counsellor-at-Law: Elmer Rice and the Play 148
   6. Counsellor-at-Law: Act I 153
   7. Counsellor-at-Law: Acts II and III 158
   8. The Ethics of Advocacy in Counsellor-at-Law 164
   9. Characters, Themes and Reference to Context: Counsellor-at-Law 170
   10. Nineteen Eighty-Four: Orwell and the Novel 179
   11. Nineteen Eighty-Four: Part One 183
   12. Nineteen Eighty-Four: Part Two 189
   13. Nineteen Eighty-Four: Part Three 195
   14. Law, Crime and Punishment in Oceania 201
   15. Characters in Nineteen Eighty-Four 209
   16. Themes and Reference to Context: Nineteen Eighty-Four 216

   Module II Law & Literature: Speeches & Essays

   1. United States v. Susan B. Anthony: the Trial 225

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Law & Literature: Speeches & Essays

   1. Susan B. Anthony: the Speech and the Sentence 235
   2. Brown v. Board of Education: the Background 246
   3. Brown v. Board of Education: the Opinion of the Court 255
   4. We Should All Be Feminists: Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie 265
   5. Child Marriage: M. K. Gandhi 275
   6. Emma Watson: the Gender Equality Speech at the United Nations 285
   7. Law and Equality: the Five Pieces Together 294

   Module III Literature for Analytical Study

   1. Critical Analysis of a Short Story 301
   2. The Greek Interpreter: the Story 307
   3. The Greek Interpreter: Holmes and Mycroft 317
   4. A Jury of Her Peers: the Story 325
   5. A Jury of Her Peers: the Women and the Law 335
   6. The Judgement: the Story 345
   7. The Judgement: Father, Son and Sentence 354
   8. The Benefit of the Doubt: the Story 361
   9. The Benefit of the Doubt: Justice and Evidence 371
   10. The Case for the Defence 379

   Contents continued

   Module IV Language Enhancement

   1. Paragraph Writing 389
   2. Note Writing 401
   3. Summary Writing 409
   4. Report Writing 416
   5. Article Writing 424
   6. Oral Communication: Barriers to Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication, and Tips 430
   7. Listening Skills 440
   8. Effective Public Speaking 448
   9. Interview Tips 458
   10. Homophones 466
   11. Stress in Pronunciation 474
   12. Transformation of Sentences: Simple, Compound and Complex 482

   Page 1 onwards

   489 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 489 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2018, 2019, 2020, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 65 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 35 chapters

   1. 1 How to Read the Set Texts in English II pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 Justice: Galsworthy, and a Play About the Machine of the Law pages 6 to 10
   3. 3 Justice: Act I, the Cheque pages 11 to 15
   4. 4 Justice: Act II, the Trial at the Assizes pages 16 to 21
   5. 5 Justice: Act III, the Prison pages 22 to 27
   6. 6 Justice: Act IV, Two Years Later pages 28 to 32
   7. 7 The Law in Justice: Forgery, the Insanity Plea, the Sentence and the Licence pages 33 to 38
   8. 8 Characters in Justice pages 39 to 43
   9. 9 Themes and Reference to Context: Justice pages 44 to 52
   10. 10 Saint Joan: Shaw, the History, and the Preface pages 53 to 59
   11. 11 Saint Joan: Scenes I to III, the Rise of the Maid pages 60 to 66
   12. 12 Saint Joan: Scenes IV and V, the Church, the Nobles and the King pages 67 to 74
   13. 13 Saint Joan: the Trial, Scene VI pages 75 to 83
   14. 14 Saint Joan: the Epilogue pages 84 to 90
   15. 15 Characters in Saint Joan pages 91 to 96
   16. 16 Themes and Reference to Context: Saint Joan pages 97 to 105
   17. 17 A Passage to India: Forster and the Novel pages 106 to 110
   18. 18 A Passage to India: Part I, Mosque pages 111 to 116
   19. 19 A Passage to India: Part II, the Caves and the Arrest pages 117 to 122
   20. 20 The Trial of Dr Aziz pages 123 to 128
   21. 21 A Passage to India: After the Trial, and Part III, Temple pages 129 to 134
   22. 22 Characters in A Passage to India pages 135 to 139
   23. 23 Themes and Reference to Context: A Passage to India pages 140 to 147
   24. 24 Counsellor-at-Law: Elmer Rice and the Play pages 148 to 152
   25. 25 Counsellor-at-Law: Act I pages 153 to 157
   26. 26 Counsellor-at-Law: Acts II and III pages 158 to 163
   27. 27 The Ethics of Advocacy in Counsellor-at-Law pages 164 to 169
   28. 28 Characters, Themes and Reference to Context: Counsellor-at-Law pages 170 to 178
   29. 29 Nineteen Eighty-Four: Orwell and the Novel pages 179 to 182
   30. 30 Nineteen Eighty-Four: Part One pages 183 to 188
   31. 31 Nineteen Eighty-Four: Part Two pages 189 to 194
   32. 32 Nineteen Eighty-Four: Part Three pages 195 to 200
   33. 33 Law, Crime and Punishment in Oceania pages 201 to 208
   34. 34 Characters in Nineteen Eighty-Four pages 209 to 215
   35. 35 Themes and Reference to Context: Nineteen Eighty-Four pages 216 to 224

   Module II 8 chapters

   1. 36 United States v. Susan B. Anthony: the Trial pages 225 to 234
   2. 37 Susan B. Anthony: the Speech and the Sentence pages 235 to 245
   3. 38 Brown v. Board of Education: the Background pages 246 to 254
   4. 39 Brown v. Board of Education: the Opinion of the Court pages 255 to 264
   5. 40 We Should All Be Feminists: Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie pages 265 to 274
   6. 41 Child Marriage: M. K. Gandhi pages 275 to 284
   7. 42 Emma Watson: the Gender Equality Speech at the United Nations pages 285 to 293
   8. 43 Law and Equality: the Five Pieces Together pages 294 to 300

   Module III 10 chapters

   1. 44 Critical Analysis of a Short Story pages 301 to 306
   2. 45 The Greek Interpreter: the Story pages 307 to 316
   3. 46 The Greek Interpreter: Holmes and Mycroft pages 317 to 324
   4. 47 A Jury of Her Peers: the Story pages 325 to 334
   5. 48 A Jury of Her Peers: the Women and the Law pages 335 to 344
   6. 49 The Judgement: the Story pages 345 to 353
   7. 50 The Judgement: Father, Son and Sentence pages 354 to 360
   8. 51 The Benefit of the Doubt: the Story pages 361 to 370
   9. 52 The Benefit of the Doubt: Justice and Evidence pages 371 to 378
   10. 53 The Case for the Defence pages 379 to 388

   Module IV 12 chapters

   1. 54 Paragraph Writing pages 389 to 400
   2. 55 Note Writing pages 401 to 408
   3. 56 Summary Writing pages 409 to 415
   4. 57 Report Writing pages 416 to 423
   5. 58 Article Writing pages 424 to 429
   6. 59 Oral Communication: Barriers to Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication, and Tips pages 430 to 439
   7. 60 Listening Skills pages 440 to 447
   8. 61 Effective Public Speaking pages 448 to 457
   9. 62 Interview Tips pages 458 to 465
   10. 63 Homophones pages 466 to 473
   11. 64 Stress in Pronunciation pages 474 to 481
   12. 65 Transformation of Sentences: Simple, Compound and Complex pages 482 to 489
   Every paper that is solved: 16 papers

   • 2025-26
   • 2025-26 - ATKT 60/40
   • 2025-26 - ATKT 75/25
   • 2025-26 - ATKT Set 2 60/40
   • 2024-25
   • 2024-25 - ATKT 60/40
   • 2024-25 - ATKT Set 2 60/40
   • 2023-24
   • 2023-24 - ATKT 60/40
   • 2023-24 - ATKT Set 2 60/40
   • 2022-23
   • 2022-23 - ATKT
   • 2021-22
   • 2019-20
   • 2018-19
   • 2017-18

3. Logic II

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Logic II

   B.L.S. LL.B. 5 YEARS · SEMESTER 4

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in Second Year

   Logic II

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Categorical Syllogism

   1. What a Categorical Syllogism Is 1
   2. The General Rules of the Syllogism 8
   3. The Corollaries: Two Particular Premises, and One 16
   4. The Fallacy of Four Terms and the Undistributed Middle 21
   5. Illicit Process and the Fallacies of Negative Premises 28
   6. Figure: The Four Figures of the Syllogism 36
   7. The Special Rules of the Four Figures 42
   8. Mood: The Sixty-Four Moods and the Valid Ones 49
   9. Testing the Validity of a Syllogism 56
   10. Testing Syllogisms by Venn Diagrams 63
   11. Arguments in Ordinary Language: Standard Form, Enthymemes and Chains 70
   12. Aristotle's Dictum de Omni et Nullo and the First Figure 78
   13. Reduction: What It Is and Why It Is Done 85
   14. Direct Reduction of the Second Figure 91
   15. Direct Reduction of the Third Figure 96
   16. Direct Reduction of the Fourth Figure 102
   17. Indirect Reduction: Baroco, Bocardo and Reductio per Impossibile 108
   18. Nyaya: The School and Its Means of Knowledge 115
   19. Anumana: Inference in Nyaya 120

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Categorical Syllogism

   1. The Five-Membered Syllogism 126
   2. Vyapti: Universal Concomitance 131
   3. Hetvabhasa: What Makes a Reason Fallacious 137
   4. The Five Hetvabhasas and Their Kinds 143
   5. The Nyaya and the Aristotelian Syllogism Compared 149

   Module II Other Mediate Inferences

   1. The Hypothetical Syllogism: Pure and Mixed 155
   2. Rules and Fallacies of the Hypothetical Syllogism 163
   3. Hypothetical Arguments in Law 170
   4. The Disjunctive Syllogism 178
   5. Rules and Fallacies of the Disjunctive Syllogism, with Reference to Law 184
   6. The Rules of Inference 191
   7. The Rules of Replacement 199
   8. Formal Proof of Validity 207
   9. Formal Proofs of Legal Arguments, and Proving Invalidity 212
   10. The Dilemma and Its Types 219
   11. Refuting a Dilemma 226
   12. The Value of the Dilemma in Law 233

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Other Mediate Inferences

   1. Hypothesis: What It Is and Why Inquiry Needs It 241
   2. The Conditions of a Good Hypothesis 248
   3. Kinds of Hypothesis 256
   4. The Hypothetico-Deductive Method and Its Stages 263
   5. The Method at Work: John Snow and Cholera 270
   6. The Method of Inquiry in Law 277
   7. Hypothesis and Proof on Circumstantial Evidence 285

   Module III Language and Law

   1. The Uses of Language 292
   2. Emotive Words and Emotively Neutral Language 297
   3. Kinds of Agreement and Disagreement 302
   4. Swami Vivekananda's Chicago Speech 307
   5. What a Fallacy Is, and the Kinds of Fallacy 314
   6. Fallacies of Ambiguity 319
   7. Fallacies of Relevance 326
   8. Fallacies of Defective Induction 333
   9. Fallacies of Presumption 340
   10. Impediments to Good Reasoning 346

   Contents continued

   Module IV Application of Logical & Moral Reasoning

   1. The Conception of Cause 351
   2. The Common-Sense and the Scientific Notion of Cause 356
   3. Plurality of Causes 360
   4. Mill's Methods of Experimental Inquiry 365
   5. Free Will 371
   6. Legal Maxims in Relation to Causation 377
   7. In Jure Non Remota Causa Sed Proxima Spectatur 384
   8. Respondeat Superior 392
   9. Equality and Its Implications 399
   10. Ends and Means: Gandhi and Singer 405

   Page 1 onwards

   414 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 414 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2018, 2019, 2020, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 63 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 24 chapters

   1. 1 What a Categorical Syllogism Is pages 1 to 7
   2. 2 The General Rules of the Syllogism pages 8 to 15
   3. 3 The Corollaries: Two Particular Premises, and One pages 16 to 20
   4. 4 The Fallacy of Four Terms and the Undistributed Middle pages 21 to 27
   5. 5 Illicit Process and the Fallacies of Negative Premises pages 28 to 35
   6. 6 Figure: The Four Figures of the Syllogism pages 36 to 41
   7. 7 The Special Rules of the Four Figures pages 42 to 48
   8. 8 Mood: The Sixty-Four Moods and the Valid Ones pages 49 to 55
   9. 9 Testing the Validity of a Syllogism pages 56 to 62
   10. 10 Testing Syllogisms by Venn Diagrams pages 63 to 69
   11. 11 Arguments in Ordinary Language: Standard Form, Enthymemes and Chains pages 70 to 77
   12. 12 Aristotle's Dictum de Omni et Nullo and the First Figure pages 78 to 84
   13. 13 Reduction: What It Is and Why It Is Done pages 85 to 90
   14. 14 Direct Reduction of the Second Figure pages 91 to 95
   15. 15 Direct Reduction of the Third Figure pages 96 to 101
   16. 16 Direct Reduction of the Fourth Figure pages 102 to 107
   17. 17 Indirect Reduction: Baroco, Bocardo and Reductio per Impossibile pages 108 to 114
   18. 18 Nyaya: The School and Its Means of Knowledge pages 115 to 119
   19. 19 Anumana: Inference in Nyaya pages 120 to 125
   20. 20 The Five-Membered Syllogism pages 126 to 130
   21. 21 Vyapti: Universal Concomitance pages 131 to 136
   22. 22 Hetvabhasa: What Makes a Reason Fallacious pages 137 to 142
   23. 23 The Five Hetvabhasas and Their Kinds pages 143 to 148
   24. 24 The Nyaya and the Aristotelian Syllogism Compared pages 149 to 154

   Module II 19 chapters

   1. 25 The Hypothetical Syllogism: Pure and Mixed pages 155 to 162
   2. 26 Rules and Fallacies of the Hypothetical Syllogism pages 163 to 169
   3. 27 Hypothetical Arguments in Law pages 170 to 177
   4. 28 The Disjunctive Syllogism pages 178 to 183
   5. 29 Rules and Fallacies of the Disjunctive Syllogism, with Reference to Law pages 184 to 190
   6. 30 The Rules of Inference pages 191 to 198
   7. 31 The Rules of Replacement pages 199 to 206
   8. 32 Formal Proof of Validity pages 207 to 211
   9. 33 Formal Proofs of Legal Arguments, and Proving Invalidity pages 212 to 218
   10. 34 The Dilemma and Its Types pages 219 to 225
   11. 35 Refuting a Dilemma pages 226 to 232
   12. 36 The Value of the Dilemma in Law pages 233 to 240
   13. 37 Hypothesis: What It Is and Why Inquiry Needs It pages 241 to 247
   14. 38 The Conditions of a Good Hypothesis pages 248 to 255
   15. 39 Kinds of Hypothesis pages 256 to 262
   16. 40 The Hypothetico-Deductive Method and Its Stages pages 263 to 269
   17. 41 The Method at Work: John Snow and Cholera pages 270 to 276
   18. 42 The Method of Inquiry in Law pages 277 to 284
   19. 43 Hypothesis and Proof on Circumstantial Evidence pages 285 to 291

   Module III 10 chapters

   1. 44 The Uses of Language pages 292 to 296
   2. 45 Emotive Words and Emotively Neutral Language pages 297 to 301
   3. 46 Kinds of Agreement and Disagreement pages 302 to 306
   4. 47 Swami Vivekananda's Chicago Speech pages 307 to 313
   5. 48 What a Fallacy Is, and the Kinds of Fallacy pages 314 to 318
   6. 49 Fallacies of Ambiguity pages 319 to 325
   7. 50 Fallacies of Relevance pages 326 to 332
   8. 51 Fallacies of Defective Induction pages 333 to 339
   9. 52 Fallacies of Presumption pages 340 to 345
   10. 53 Impediments to Good Reasoning pages 346 to 350

   Module IV 10 chapters

   1. 54 The Conception of Cause pages 351 to 355
   2. 55 The Common-Sense and the Scientific Notion of Cause pages 356 to 359
   3. 56 Plurality of Causes pages 360 to 364
   4. 57 Mill's Methods of Experimental Inquiry pages 365 to 370
   5. 58 Free Will pages 371 to 376
   6. 59 Legal Maxims in Relation to Causation pages 377 to 383
   7. 60 In Jure Non Remota Causa Sed Proxima Spectatur pages 384 to 391
   8. 61 Respondeat Superior pages 392 to 398
   9. 62 Equality and Its Implications pages 399 to 404
   10. 63 Ends and Means: Gandhi and Singer pages 405 to 414
   Every paper that is solved: 13 papers

   • 2025-26
   • 2025-26 - ATKT 60/40
   • 2025-26 - ATKT 75/25
   • 2024-25
   • 2024-25 - ATKT 60/40
   • 2024-25 - ATKT 75/25
   • 2023-24
   • 2023-24 - ATKT 60/40
   • 2022-23
   • 2021-22
   • 2019-20
   • 2018-19
   • 2017-18

Questions