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LL.M. Environment and Legal Order Semester 1: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

For students of Mumbai University and all its affiliated colleges.

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  1. Resource Management and The Law

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Resource Management and The Law

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 6 Environment and Legal Order

    Resource Management and The Law

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What This Paper Is, and the Four Words MU Prints 1
    2. What a Natural Resource Is, and What Managing One Means in Law 5
    3. Water in the Constitution 9
    4. Is There a Right to Water? 13
    5. Who Owns Water 17
    6. Riparian Rights, and Section 7 of the Easements Act 21
    7. Riparian Rights in Irrigation, and the Problems a Riparian Faces 26
    8. Customary Water Rights, and the Village Tank 30
    9. The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act 1956: What It Is For 34
    10. Reference to a Tribunal, and How One Is Constituted 38
    11. The Award, and Why It Is a Decree of the Supreme Court 42
    12. The Bar in Section 11, and the Rest of the Act 46
    13. What Is Wrong With the Machinery, and What Was Proposed 51
    14. The River Boards Act 1956: The Half That Never Happened 55
    15. What a River Board Would Have Done 59
    16. Arbitration Under the River Boards Act, and Dissolution 63
    17. Article 262 and the Courts 67
    18. The Cauvery Dispute 72
    19. The 2018 Decree, and the Cauvery Water Management Authority 76
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. In re Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal: A State Cannot Legislate Away an Order 81
    2. The Other Disputes 85
    3. Interlinking of Rivers 89
    4. The Dam Safety Act 2021: The Institutions 93
    5. The State Tier, and the Obligations of a Dam Owner 97
    6. Reporting, Safety Review and the Offences 101
    7. Narmada Bachao Andolan: A Dam, a Displacement and a Divided Court 105
    8. Ground Water: What an Aquifer Is 110
    9. Absolute Dominion Over Percolating Water, and How It Broke 114
    10. The Central Ground Water Authority 120
    11. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 as the Umbrella 124
    12. The 2024 Penalty Regime Under the Environment Act 129
    13. The Maharashtra Groundwater Act 2009: The Authorities 134
    14. The District Tier, and Protecting a Drinking Water Source 137
    15. Watersheds, Aquifers and the Groundwater Use Plan 141
    16. Offences, Appeals and the Rules Under the Maharashtra Act 145
    17. Salinity: Coastal Ingress, Irrigation and Effluent 148
    18. Rainwater Harvesting 152
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The National Water Policy 2012 156
    2. The Bills That Did Not Pass 160
    3. Wetlands, and the Ramsar Idea of Wise Use 164
    4. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017 168
    5. The Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act 2005 172
    6. Enforcing the Aquaculture Act, and the 2023 Amendment 177
    7. Fishing Regulation in Maharashtra 183
    8. The Water Act 1974: The Boards 187
    9. Consent, and the Prohibition in Section 24 192
    10. The Sanctions, and the 2024 Penalty Regime 197
    11. Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum: Three Principles in One Judgment 203

    Module II

    1. Land as a Resource 207
    2. Land in the Constitution 211
    3. Who Owns the Minerals Under a Field 216
    4. The MMDR Act 1957: The Declaration That Makes It Central 221
    5. The Concessions: Permit, Licence and Lease 226
    6. Royalty, Dead Rent, and What a State Actually Earns 231
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The District Mineral Foundation and the Exploration Trust 237
    2. Auction: Sections 10B and 11, and What 2015 Changed 242
    3. Coal, Lignite, Atomic Minerals and Critical Minerals 247
    4. The Rule-Making Powers, and the Register of Concessions 252
    5. Minor Minerals, Section 15, and Deepak Kumar 257
    6. Reservation, Conservation and the Power to Prospect 261
    7. Void Concessions, Directions and the Revisional Power 265
    8. The Penalties, and Section 21(5) 269
    9. The Rest of the MMDR Act 274
    10. Sand: The Hardest Mineral to Police 278
    11. The Dehradun Limestone Quarries: Where the Judicial Remedy Began 282
    12. Goa: The Foundation Cases 287
    13. Common Cause: Compensation at a Hundred Per Cent 292
    14. Samatha: Mining in a Scheduled Area 297
    15. Mining on Forest Land: Niyamgiri and the Gram Sabha 302
    16. Lafarge, and How a Forest Clearance Is Reviewed 306
    17. Joshimath, and Building on Ground That Cannot Carry It 311
    18. Offshore Minerals, Coal Bearing Areas and Oilfields 315
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The National Mineral Policy 2019, and What Sustainable Mining Means 320
    2. The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 324
    3. Eco-Friendly Land Planning: Conservation, Utilisation and Conversion 328
    4. Town Planning Law, and the Development Plan 332
    5. Conversion of Land Use 336
    6. Urbanisation and Concretisation: What a City Loses When It Is Paved 340
    7. Taking Land: The 2013 Act and the Social Impact Assessment 345
    8. Compensation, Rehabilitation and Resettlement 351
    9. The Authority, the Appeal, and the Land That Comes Back 356
    10. What Indian Forests Have Served 361
    11. Reserved Forests, and the Settlement of Rights 366
    12. Pasture, Forest Produce and the Record of Rights 370
    13. What May Not Be Done in a Reserved Forest 374
    14. Village Forests and Protected Forests 378
    15. Forests That Are Not the Government's, and the Duty on Timber 383
    16. Timber in Transit, and Drift and Stranded Timber 388
    17. Forest Officers, Arrest, and the Presumption of Government Property 393
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Penalties, and the Rest of the Indian Forest Act 398
    2. The Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam 1980 403
    3. Godavarman, and the Dictionary Meaning of Forest 407
    4. The 2023 Amendment, and What Section 1A Took Out 411
    5. Compensatory Afforestation and Net Present Value 416
    6. The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Authorities 422
    7. The National Forest Policy 1988 428
    8. Joint Forest Management, and the People Who Protect a Forest 434
    9. The Ancient Monuments Act 1958: What Is Protected 440
    10. The Owner, the Guardian and the Power to Acquire 446
    11. The Prohibited Area, the Regulated Area and the 2010 Amendment 452
    12. Archaeological Sites, Excavation and the Penalties 458
    13. The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act 1972 465
    14. Seizure, Confiscation and the Offences Under the Antiquities Act 472
    15. Natural Heritage, and the World Heritage Convention 478
    16. The Judicial Approach: Taj Trapezium, the Viceregal Lodge and the Aminabad Park 485
    17. Culture and Heritage: The Statutes, the Treaties and the Judgments Together 491
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III

    1. Four Regimes, Not Two 497
    2. The Tragedy of the Commons, and What Hardin Actually Described 501
    3. Ostrom's Answer: Why a Commons Is Not Doomed 505
    4. Res Communis, Res Nullius and Res Publicae 510
    5. State Property: Eminent Domain, the Police Power and Escheat 514
    6. The Public Trust Doctrine: M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath 519
    7. The Doctrine Extended: The Beach, the Tank and the Park 524
    8. Village Commons: The Pond That Was Filled In 529
    9. Wildlife as Common Property, and Wildlife as State Property 534
    10. The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972: The Officers and the Boards 539
    11. The Prohibition of Hunting, and When It Is Permitted 544
    12. Specified Plants 549
    13. Declaring a Sanctuary, and Settling the Rights Inside It 554
    14. What May Not Be Done Inside a Sanctuary 559
    15. National Parks, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves 565
    16. Zoos and the Central Zoo Authority 571
    17. The National Tiger Conservation Authority, and the Critical Tiger Habitat 576
    18. Ownership Certificates, Trophies and the Ban on Trade 584
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. CITES, and the 2022 Amendment 591
    2. Offences, Penalties and Forfeiture 598
    3. Wildlife as a Renewable Resource, and Where That Idea Stops 607
    4. The Biological Diversity Act 2002: Who May Take a Biological Resource 612
    5. The National Biodiversity Authority 618
    6. State Boards, Management Committees and the People's Biodiversity Register 624
    7. The 2023 Recast of the Biological Diversity Act 631
    8. Tribal Habitats: Who a Forest Dweller Is 637
    9. The Forest Rights Act 2006: The Thirteen Rights 642
    10. The Gram Sabha, and How a Right Is Recognised 648
    11. PESA 1996, and the Fifth Schedule 653
    12. Critical Wildlife Habitats: Where the Two Acts Collide 658
    13. Conservation of Flora and Fauna as a Common Property Question 663
    14. Natural Heritage and Tribal Habitats Classified 668
    15. Historical Monuments as Common Property and as State Property 673
    16. Popular Movements: Chipko, Silent Valley, Narmada and Niyamgiri 678
    17. What the Movements Changed in the Law Itself 684
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV

    1. Energy as a Resource 688
    2. Energy in the Constitution 692
    3. Conventional Energy: What It Is and What It Costs 696
    4. Coal: Nationalisation, the Cancellation and Commercial Mining 700
    5. Petroleum and Natural Gas 705
    6. The Atomic Energy Act 1962 711
    7. Control Over Mining, Production and Radiation 718
    8. Secrecy, Inventions and the Offences Under the Atomic Energy Act 726
    9. Atomic Minerals, and Section 11B of the MMDR Act 733
    10. The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010 739
    11. Section 17(b): The Supplier's Liability 747
    12. The Claims Commissioner and the Nuclear Damage Claims Commission 752
    13. The Offences, and the Bar on a Civil Court 759
    14. Kudankulam: G. Sundarrajan, and What a Court Will Not Review 765
    15. Non-Conventional Energy: The Six Sources 771
    16. Wind Energy 775
    17. Solar Energy, and the Land a Solar Park Needs 780
    18. The Electricity Act 2003: The Scheme 784
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Generation Without a Licence, and the Licence for Everything Else 789
    2. Transmission, and the Load Despatch Centres 796
    3. Distribution, the Duty to Supply and Open Access 802
    4. Tariff, and Section 61(h) 808
    5. The Central Electricity Authority and the Regulatory Commissions 813
    6. Renewable Purchase Obligation and Renewable Energy Certificates 821
    7. The Appellate Tribunal, Unauthorised Use, and the Rest of the Act 827
    8. The Energy Conservation Act 2001: The Bureau 835
    9. Standards, Labels, the Building Code and the Designated Consumer 842
    10. Penalty, Adjudication and Appeal Under the Energy Conservation Act 850
    11. Merits and Demerits of Conventional Energy 858
    12. Merits and Demerits of Non-Conventional Energy 863
    13. Generation, Transmission and Utilisation: Where the Energy Is Lost 868
    14. Alternatives That Mitigate the Damage 874
    15. The Transition: Net Zero, Green Hydrogen and a Just Transition 880
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    885 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 885 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 174 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 48 chapters

    1. 1 What This Paper Is, and the Four Words MU Prints pages 1–4
    2. 2 What a Natural Resource Is, and What Managing One Means in Law pages 5–8
    3. 3 Water in the Constitution pages 9–12
    4. 4 Is There a Right to Water? pages 13–16
    5. 5 Who Owns Water pages 17–20
    6. 6 Riparian Rights, and Section 7 of the Easements Act pages 21–25
    7. 7 Riparian Rights in Irrigation, and the Problems a Riparian Faces pages 26–29
    8. 8 Customary Water Rights, and the Village Tank pages 30–33
    9. 9 The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act 1956: What It Is For pages 34–37
    10. 10 Reference to a Tribunal, and How One Is Constituted pages 38–41
    11. 11 The Award, and Why It Is a Decree of the Supreme Court pages 42–45
    12. 12 The Bar in Section 11, and the Rest of the Act pages 46–50
    13. 13 What Is Wrong With the Machinery, and What Was Proposed pages 51–54
    14. 14 The River Boards Act 1956: The Half That Never Happened pages 55–58
    15. 15 What a River Board Would Have Done pages 59–62
    16. 16 Arbitration Under the River Boards Act, and Dissolution pages 63–66
    17. 17 Article 262 and the Courts pages 67–71
    18. 18 The Cauvery Dispute pages 72–75
    19. 19 The 2018 Decree, and the Cauvery Water Management Authority pages 76–80
    20. 20 In re Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal: A State Cannot Legislate Away an Order pages 81–84
    21. 21 The Other Disputes pages 85–88
    22. 22 Interlinking of Rivers pages 89–92
    23. 23 The Dam Safety Act 2021: The Institutions pages 93–96
    24. 24 The State Tier, and the Obligations of a Dam Owner pages 97–100
    25. 25 Reporting, Safety Review and the Offences pages 101–104
    26. 26 Narmada Bachao Andolan: A Dam, a Displacement and a Divided Court pages 105–109
    27. 27 Ground Water: What an Aquifer Is pages 110–113
    28. 28 Absolute Dominion Over Percolating Water, and How It Broke pages 114–119
    29. 29 The Central Ground Water Authority pages 120–123
    30. 30 The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 as the Umbrella pages 124–128
    31. 31 The 2024 Penalty Regime Under the Environment Act pages 129–133
    32. 32 The Maharashtra Groundwater Act 2009: The Authorities pages 134–136
    33. 33 The District Tier, and Protecting a Drinking Water Source pages 137–140
    34. 34 Watersheds, Aquifers and the Groundwater Use Plan pages 141–144
    35. 35 Offences, Appeals and the Rules Under the Maharashtra Act pages 145–147
    36. 36 Salinity: Coastal Ingress, Irrigation and Effluent pages 148–151
    37. 37 Rainwater Harvesting pages 152–155
    38. 38 The National Water Policy 2012 pages 156–159
    39. 39 The Bills That Did Not Pass pages 160–163
    40. 40 Wetlands, and the Ramsar Idea of Wise Use pages 164–167
    41. 41 The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017 pages 168–171
    42. 42 The Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act 2005 pages 172–176
    43. 43 Enforcing the Aquaculture Act, and the 2023 Amendment pages 177–182
    44. 44 Fishing Regulation in Maharashtra pages 183–186
    45. 45 The Water Act 1974: The Boards pages 187–191
    46. 46 Consent, and the Prohibition in Section 24 pages 192–196
    47. 47 The Sanctions, and the 2024 Penalty Regime pages 197–202
    48. 48 Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum: Three Principles in One Judgment pages 203–206

    Module II 58 chapters

    1. 49 Land as a Resource pages 207–210
    2. 50 Land in the Constitution pages 211–215
    3. 51 Who Owns the Minerals Under a Field pages 216–220
    4. 52 The MMDR Act 1957: The Declaration That Makes It Central pages 221–225
    5. 53 The Concessions: Permit, Licence and Lease pages 226–230
    6. 54 Royalty, Dead Rent, and What a State Actually Earns pages 231–236
    7. 55 The District Mineral Foundation and the Exploration Trust pages 237–241
    8. 56 Auction: Sections 10B and 11, and What 2015 Changed pages 242–246
    9. 57 Coal, Lignite, Atomic Minerals and Critical Minerals pages 247–251
    10. 58 The Rule-Making Powers, and the Register of Concessions pages 252–256
    11. 59 Minor Minerals, Section 15, and Deepak Kumar pages 257–260
    12. 60 Reservation, Conservation and the Power to Prospect pages 261–264
    13. 61 Void Concessions, Directions and the Revisional Power pages 265–268
    14. 62 The Penalties, and Section 21(5) pages 269–273
    15. 63 The Rest of the MMDR Act pages 274–277
    16. 64 Sand: The Hardest Mineral to Police pages 278–281
    17. 65 The Dehradun Limestone Quarries: Where the Judicial Remedy Began pages 282–286
    18. 66 Goa: The Foundation Cases pages 287–291
    19. 67 Common Cause: Compensation at a Hundred Per Cent pages 292–296
    20. 68 Samatha: Mining in a Scheduled Area pages 297–301
    21. 69 Mining on Forest Land: Niyamgiri and the Gram Sabha pages 302–305
    22. 70 Lafarge, and How a Forest Clearance Is Reviewed pages 306–310
    23. 71 Joshimath, and Building on Ground That Cannot Carry It pages 311–314
    24. 72 Offshore Minerals, Coal Bearing Areas and Oilfields pages 315–319
    25. 73 The National Mineral Policy 2019, and What Sustainable Mining Means pages 320–323
    26. 74 The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 pages 324–327
    27. 75 Eco-Friendly Land Planning: Conservation, Utilisation and Conversion pages 328–331
    28. 76 Town Planning Law, and the Development Plan pages 332–335
    29. 77 Conversion of Land Use pages 336–339
    30. 78 Urbanisation and Concretisation: What a City Loses When It Is Paved pages 340–344
    31. 79 Taking Land: The 2013 Act and the Social Impact Assessment pages 345–350
    32. 80 Compensation, Rehabilitation and Resettlement pages 351–355
    33. 81 The Authority, the Appeal, and the Land That Comes Back pages 356–360
    34. 82 What Indian Forests Have Served pages 361–365
    35. 83 Reserved Forests, and the Settlement of Rights pages 366–369
    36. 84 Pasture, Forest Produce and the Record of Rights pages 370–373
    37. 85 What May Not Be Done in a Reserved Forest pages 374–377
    38. 86 Village Forests and Protected Forests pages 378–382
    39. 87 Forests That Are Not the Government's, and the Duty on Timber pages 383–387
    40. 88 Timber in Transit, and Drift and Stranded Timber pages 388–392
    41. 89 Forest Officers, Arrest, and the Presumption of Government Property pages 393–397
    42. 90 The Penalties, and the Rest of the Indian Forest Act pages 398–402
    43. 91 The Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam 1980 pages 403–406
    44. 92 Godavarman, and the Dictionary Meaning of Forest pages 407–410
    45. 93 The 2023 Amendment, and What Section 1A Took Out pages 411–415
    46. 94 Compensatory Afforestation and Net Present Value pages 416–421
    47. 95 The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Authorities pages 422–427
    48. 96 The National Forest Policy 1988 pages 428–433
    49. 97 Joint Forest Management, and the People Who Protect a Forest pages 434–439
    50. 98 The Ancient Monuments Act 1958: What Is Protected pages 440–445
    51. 99 The Owner, the Guardian and the Power to Acquire pages 446–451
    52. 100 The Prohibited Area, the Regulated Area and the 2010 Amendment pages 452–457
    53. 101 Archaeological Sites, Excavation and the Penalties pages 458–464
    54. 102 The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act 1972 pages 465–471
    55. 103 Seizure, Confiscation and the Offences Under the Antiquities Act pages 472–477
    56. 104 Natural Heritage, and the World Heritage Convention pages 478–484
    57. 105 The Judicial Approach: Taj Trapezium, the Viceregal Lodge and the Aminabad Park pages 485–490
    58. 106 Culture and Heritage: The Statutes, the Treaties and the Judgments Together pages 491–496

    Module III 35 chapters

    1. 107 Four Regimes, Not Two pages 497–500
    2. 108 The Tragedy of the Commons, and What Hardin Actually Described pages 501–504
    3. 109 Ostrom's Answer: Why a Commons Is Not Doomed pages 505–509
    4. 110 Res Communis, Res Nullius and Res Publicae pages 510–513
    5. 111 State Property: Eminent Domain, the Police Power and Escheat pages 514–518
    6. 112 The Public Trust Doctrine: M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath pages 519–523
    7. 113 The Doctrine Extended: The Beach, the Tank and the Park pages 524–528
    8. 114 Village Commons: The Pond That Was Filled In pages 529–533
    9. 115 Wildlife as Common Property, and Wildlife as State Property pages 534–538
    10. 116 The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972: The Officers and the Boards pages 539–543
    11. 117 The Prohibition of Hunting, and When It Is Permitted pages 544–548
    12. 118 Specified Plants pages 549–553
    13. 119 Declaring a Sanctuary, and Settling the Rights Inside It pages 554–558
    14. 120 What May Not Be Done Inside a Sanctuary pages 559–564
    15. 121 National Parks, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves pages 565–570
    16. 122 Zoos and the Central Zoo Authority pages 571–575
    17. 123 The National Tiger Conservation Authority, and the Critical Tiger Habitat pages 576–583
    18. 124 Ownership Certificates, Trophies and the Ban on Trade pages 584–590
    19. 125 CITES, and the 2022 Amendment pages 591–597
    20. 126 Offences, Penalties and Forfeiture pages 598–606
    21. 127 Wildlife as a Renewable Resource, and Where That Idea Stops pages 607–611
    22. 128 The Biological Diversity Act 2002: Who May Take a Biological Resource pages 612–617
    23. 129 The National Biodiversity Authority pages 618–623
    24. 130 State Boards, Management Committees and the People's Biodiversity Register pages 624–630
    25. 131 The 2023 Recast of the Biological Diversity Act pages 631–636
    26. 132 Tribal Habitats: Who a Forest Dweller Is pages 637–641
    27. 133 The Forest Rights Act 2006: The Thirteen Rights pages 642–647
    28. 134 The Gram Sabha, and How a Right Is Recognised pages 648–652
    29. 135 PESA 1996, and the Fifth Schedule pages 653–657
    30. 136 Critical Wildlife Habitats: Where the Two Acts Collide pages 658–662
    31. 137 Conservation of Flora and Fauna as a Common Property Question pages 663–667
    32. 138 Natural Heritage and Tribal Habitats Classified pages 668–672
    33. 139 Historical Monuments as Common Property and as State Property pages 673–677
    34. 140 Popular Movements: Chipko, Silent Valley, Narmada and Niyamgiri pages 678–683
    35. 141 What the Movements Changed in the Law Itself pages 684–687

    Module IV 33 chapters

    1. 142 Energy as a Resource pages 688–691
    2. 143 Energy in the Constitution pages 692–695
    3. 144 Conventional Energy: What It Is and What It Costs pages 696–699
    4. 145 Coal: Nationalisation, the Cancellation and Commercial Mining pages 700–704
    5. 146 Petroleum and Natural Gas pages 705–710
    6. 147 The Atomic Energy Act 1962 pages 711–717
    7. 148 Control Over Mining, Production and Radiation pages 718–725
    8. 149 Secrecy, Inventions and the Offences Under the Atomic Energy Act pages 726–732
    9. 150 Atomic Minerals, and Section 11B of the MMDR Act pages 733–738
    10. 151 The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010 pages 739–746
    11. 152 Section 17(b): The Supplier's Liability pages 747–751
    12. 153 The Claims Commissioner and the Nuclear Damage Claims Commission pages 752–758
    13. 154 The Offences, and the Bar on a Civil Court pages 759–764
    14. 155 Kudankulam: G. Sundarrajan, and What a Court Will Not Review pages 765–770
    15. 156 Non-Conventional Energy: The Six Sources pages 771–774
    16. 157 Wind Energy pages 775–779
    17. 158 Solar Energy, and the Land a Solar Park Needs pages 780–783
    18. 159 The Electricity Act 2003: The Scheme pages 784–788
    19. 160 Generation Without a Licence, and the Licence for Everything Else pages 789–795
    20. 161 Transmission, and the Load Despatch Centres pages 796–801
    21. 162 Distribution, the Duty to Supply and Open Access pages 802–807
    22. 163 Tariff, and Section 61(h) pages 808–812
    23. 164 The Central Electricity Authority and the Regulatory Commissions pages 813–820
    24. 165 Renewable Purchase Obligation and Renewable Energy Certificates pages 821–826
    25. 166 The Appellate Tribunal, Unauthorised Use, and the Rest of the Act pages 827–834
    26. 167 The Energy Conservation Act 2001: The Bureau pages 835–841
    27. 168 Standards, Labels, the Building Code and the Designated Consumer pages 842–849
    28. 169 Penalty, Adjudication and Appeal Under the Energy Conservation Act pages 850–857
    29. 170 Merits and Demerits of Conventional Energy pages 858–862
    30. 171 Merits and Demerits of Non-Conventional Energy pages 863–867
    31. 172 Generation, Transmission and Utilisation: Where the Energy Is Lost pages 868–873
    32. 173 Alternatives That Mitigate the Damage pages 874–879
    33. 174 The Transition: Net Zero, Green Hydrogen and a Just Transition pages 880–885
    Every paper that is solved: 7 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  2. Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. How to Read the Constitution 1
    2. What Federalism Is 5
    3. Is India a Federation? 9
    4. The Union and Its Territory 15
    5. Making and Remaking States 19
    6. The Legislative Lists 24
    7. Pith and Substance 29
    8. Colourable Legislation and Incidental Encroachment 34
    9. Repugnancy and the Occupied Field 39
    10. Residuary Power 44
    11. When Parliament May Legislate on a State Subject 48
    12. The Reach of a Legislature 52
    13. Administrative Relations and Federal Comity 56
    14. Inter-State Water Disputes 61
    15. The Inter-State Council and the Commissions 66
    16. Fiscal Federalism 70
    17. The Goods and Services Tax and Its Council 76
    18. Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse 81
    19. The Governor 86
    20. Emergency and the Federal Balance 92
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. President's Rule 98
    2. Article 370 103
    3. Asymmetric Federalism: Articles 371 to 371-J 108
    4. Union and State Disputes in Court 113
    5. Cooperative and Competitive Federalism 117
    6. Why the Definition of "State" Decides Everything 122
    7. The Named Authorities 126
    8. "Other Authorities": The Early Cases 130
    9. The Instrumentality Test 134
    10. The Retreat, and What Survived It 139
    11. Is the Judiciary "State"? 144
    12. Private Bodies and Public Functions 148
    13. Liberalisation, Privatisation and the Case for Widening Article 12 152
    14. Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights 157
    15. Eclipse, Severability and Waiver 162

    Module II

    1. The Equality Code 167
    2. Equality Before the Law and Equal Protection 171
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Reasonable Classification 175
    2. Arbitrariness 179
    3. Articles 15 and 16: The Prohibited Grounds 184
    4. Reservation in Education 188
    5. Reservation in Public Employment 192
    6. The Ceiling on Reservation 196
    7. The Creamy Layer 200
    8. Reservation in Promotion 205
    9. Economically Weaker Sections 209
    10. The Lists, and the Commissions That Watch Them 213
    11. Protective Discrimination 218
    12. Privatisation and Affirmative Action 222
    13. Saving of Laws: Articles 31A, 31B and 31C 227
    14. Untouchability and Titles 232
    15. The Empowerment of Women: The Constitutional Scheme 236
    16. Special Provision for Women 240
    17. Women at Work 244
    18. Sexual Harassment at the Workplace 249
    19. Women, Religion and Personal Law 254
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Women in Local Government 259
    2. The 106th Amendment, and Why It Has Not Started 263
    3. Freedom of Speech, and the Freedom of the Press Inside It 267
    4. The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction 271
    5. Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship 275
    6. The Press and the Legislature 279
    7. The Right to Information 283
    8. Speech Online 287
    9. Privacy, Surveillance and Data 292
    10. Hate Speech, Fake News and Broadcasting 296
    11. New Scientific Development and the Freedom of Speech 301

    Module III

    1. Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka 305
    2. Procedure Established by Law 311
    3. The Expansion of "Life" 316
    4. Livelihood and Shelter 321
    5. Health and the Environment 327
    6. Education Before Article 21A 333
    7. Article 21A and the Right to Education Act 339
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Privacy 345
    2. Dignity, Autonomy and the End of Life 350
    3. Article 20: The Protections of an Accused 356
    4. Preventive Detention 362
    5. The Right Against Exploitation 368
    6. Article 32 and the Writs 374
    7. Article 226 380
    8. Limits: Articles 33, 34 and 35 386
    9. Public Interest Litigation 392
    10. Compensatory Jurisprudence 398
    11. Continuing Mandamus and Judicial Guidelines 404
    12. Hartal and Bandh 410
    13. The Right to Property 416
    14. The Directive Principles 422
    15. The Fundamental Duties 428
    16. Who Is a Minority? 434
    17. Article 29: The Right to Conserve 440
    18. Article 30: To Establish and to Administer 446
    19. State Control and Regulation 452
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. The Eleven-Judge Answer 458
    2. After the Eleven-Judge Answer 463
    3. Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act 469
    4. Linguistic Minorities 475
    5. What Secularism Means Here 481
    6. Articles 25 and 26 487
    7. Essential Religious Practices 493
    8. Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction 499
    9. Secularism as a Basic Feature 505
    10. Religious Fanaticism 511
    11. A Uniform Civil Code 517

    Module IV

    1. Separation of Powers: The Doctrine 523
    2. The Indian Scheme 529
    3. Delegated Legislation 535
    4. Judicial Review 541
    5. Ultra Vires 547
    6. The Amending Power 553
    7. The Basic Structure 559
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Appointment of Judges 565
    2. The National Judicial Appointments Commission 571
    3. Transfer and Removal of Judges 577
    4. Judicial Independence 583
    5. Judicial Accountability 589
    6. Judicial Activism, Restraint and Overreach 595
    7. Legislative Privilege 601
    8. Advisory Jurisdiction 607
    9. Complete Justice: Article 142 613
    10. The Supreme Court 619
    11. The High Courts 625
    12. The Subordinate Judiciary 631
    13. Tribunals 636
    14. The Rule of Law 642
    15. Democracy and Free and Fair Elections 648
    16. The Election Commission 654
    17. Articles 325 to 329 660
    18. The Voter's Right to Know 666
    19. Electoral Reform and the Criminalisation of Politics 671
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Funding of Elections 677
    2. Defection and the Tenth Schedule 683
    3. Grass Root Democracy: The Panchayats 689
    4. Urban Local Government: The Municipalities 695
    5. The Nexus of Politics, Crime and Business 701
    6. The New Challenges 707
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    711 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 711 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 136 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 35 chapters

    1. 1 How to Read the Constitution pages 1–4
    2. 2 What Federalism Is pages 5–8
    3. 3 Is India a Federation? pages 9–14
    4. 4 The Union and Its Territory pages 15–18
    5. 5 Making and Remaking States pages 19–23
    6. 6 The Legislative Lists pages 24–28
    7. 7 Pith and Substance pages 29–33
    8. 8 Colourable Legislation and Incidental Encroachment pages 34–38
    9. 9 Repugnancy and the Occupied Field pages 39–43
    10. 10 Residuary Power pages 44–47
    11. 11 When Parliament May Legislate on a State Subject pages 48–51
    12. 12 The Reach of a Legislature pages 52–55
    13. 13 Administrative Relations and Federal Comity pages 56–60
    14. 14 Inter-State Water Disputes pages 61–65
    15. 15 The Inter-State Council and the Commissions pages 66–69
    16. 16 Fiscal Federalism pages 70–75
    17. 17 The Goods and Services Tax and Its Council pages 76–80
    18. 18 Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse pages 81–85
    19. 19 The Governor pages 86–91
    20. 20 Emergency and the Federal Balance pages 92–97
    21. 21 President's Rule pages 98–102
    22. 22 Article 370 pages 103–107
    23. 23 Asymmetric Federalism: Articles 371 to 371-J pages 108–112
    24. 24 Union and State Disputes in Court pages 113–116
    25. 25 Cooperative and Competitive Federalism pages 117–121
    26. 26 Why the Definition of "State" Decides Everything pages 122–125
    27. 27 The Named Authorities pages 126–129
    28. 28 "Other Authorities": The Early Cases pages 130–133
    29. 29 The Instrumentality Test pages 134–138
    30. 30 The Retreat, and What Survived It pages 139–143
    31. 31 Is the Judiciary "State"? pages 144–147
    32. 32 Private Bodies and Public Functions pages 148–151
    33. 33 Liberalisation, Privatisation and the Case for Widening Article 12 pages 152–156
    34. 34 Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights pages 157–161
    35. 35 Eclipse, Severability and Waiver pages 162–166

    Module II 32 chapters

    1. 36 The Equality Code pages 167–170
    2. 37 Equality Before the Law and Equal Protection pages 171–174
    3. 38 Reasonable Classification pages 175–178
    4. 39 Arbitrariness pages 179–183
    5. 40 Articles 15 and 16: The Prohibited Grounds pages 184–187
    6. 41 Reservation in Education pages 188–191
    7. 42 Reservation in Public Employment pages 192–195
    8. 43 The Ceiling on Reservation pages 196–199
    9. 44 The Creamy Layer pages 200–204
    10. 45 Reservation in Promotion pages 205–208
    11. 46 Economically Weaker Sections pages 209–212
    12. 47 The Lists, and the Commissions That Watch Them pages 213–217
    13. 48 Protective Discrimination pages 218–221
    14. 49 Privatisation and Affirmative Action pages 222–226
    15. 50 Saving of Laws: Articles 31A, 31B and 31C pages 227–231
    16. 51 Untouchability and Titles pages 232–235
    17. 52 The Empowerment of Women: The Constitutional Scheme pages 236–239
    18. 53 Special Provision for Women pages 240–243
    19. 54 Women at Work pages 244–248
    20. 55 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace pages 249–253
    21. 56 Women, Religion and Personal Law pages 254–258
    22. 57 Women in Local Government pages 259–262
    23. 58 The 106th Amendment, and Why It Has Not Started pages 263–266
    24. 59 Freedom of Speech, and the Freedom of the Press Inside It pages 267–270
    25. 60 The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction pages 271–274
    26. 61 Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship pages 275–278
    27. 62 The Press and the Legislature pages 279–282
    28. 63 The Right to Information pages 283–286
    29. 64 Speech Online pages 287–291
    30. 65 Privacy, Surveillance and Data pages 292–295
    31. 66 Hate Speech, Fake News and Broadcasting pages 296–300
    32. 67 New Scientific Development and the Freedom of Speech pages 301–304

    Module III 37 chapters

    1. 68 Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka pages 305–310
    2. 69 Procedure Established by Law pages 311–315
    3. 70 The Expansion of "Life" pages 316–320
    4. 71 Livelihood and Shelter pages 321–326
    5. 72 Health and the Environment pages 327–332
    6. 73 Education Before Article 21A pages 333–338
    7. 74 Article 21A and the Right to Education Act pages 339–344
    8. 75 Privacy pages 345–349
    9. 76 Dignity, Autonomy and the End of Life pages 350–355
    10. 77 Article 20: The Protections of an Accused pages 356–361
    11. 78 Preventive Detention pages 362–367
    12. 79 The Right Against Exploitation pages 368–373
    13. 80 Article 32 and the Writs pages 374–379
    14. 81 Article 226 pages 380–385
    15. 82 Limits: Articles 33, 34 and 35 pages 386–391
    16. 83 Public Interest Litigation pages 392–397
    17. 84 Compensatory Jurisprudence pages 398–403
    18. 85 Continuing Mandamus and Judicial Guidelines pages 404–409
    19. 86 Hartal and Bandh pages 410–415
    20. 87 The Right to Property pages 416–421
    21. 88 The Directive Principles pages 422–427
    22. 89 The Fundamental Duties pages 428–433
    23. 90 Who Is a Minority? pages 434–439
    24. 91 Article 29: The Right to Conserve pages 440–445
    25. 92 Article 30: To Establish and to Administer pages 446–451
    26. 93 State Control and Regulation pages 452–457
    27. 94 The Eleven-Judge Answer pages 458–462
    28. 95 After the Eleven-Judge Answer pages 463–468
    29. 96 Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act pages 469–474
    30. 97 Linguistic Minorities pages 475–480
    31. 98 What Secularism Means Here pages 481–486
    32. 99 Articles 25 and 26 pages 487–492
    33. 100 Essential Religious Practices pages 493–498
    34. 101 Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction pages 499–504
    35. 102 Secularism as a Basic Feature pages 505–510
    36. 103 Religious Fanaticism pages 511–516
    37. 104 A Uniform Civil Code pages 517–522

    Module IV 32 chapters

    1. 105 Separation of Powers: The Doctrine pages 523–528
    2. 106 The Indian Scheme pages 529–534
    3. 107 Delegated Legislation pages 535–540
    4. 108 Judicial Review pages 541–546
    5. 109 Ultra Vires pages 547–552
    6. 110 The Amending Power pages 553–558
    7. 111 The Basic Structure pages 559–564
    8. 112 The Appointment of Judges pages 565–570
    9. 113 The National Judicial Appointments Commission pages 571–576
    10. 114 Transfer and Removal of Judges pages 577–582
    11. 115 Judicial Independence pages 583–588
    12. 116 Judicial Accountability pages 589–594
    13. 117 Judicial Activism, Restraint and Overreach pages 595–600
    14. 118 Legislative Privilege pages 601–606
    15. 119 Advisory Jurisdiction pages 607–612
    16. 120 Complete Justice: Article 142 pages 613–618
    17. 121 The Supreme Court pages 619–624
    18. 122 The High Courts pages 625–630
    19. 123 The Subordinate Judiciary pages 631–635
    20. 124 Tribunals pages 636–641
    21. 125 The Rule of Law pages 642–647
    22. 126 Democracy and Free and Fair Elections pages 648–653
    23. 127 The Election Commission pages 654–659
    24. 128 Articles 325 to 329 pages 660–665
    25. 129 The Voter's Right to Know pages 666–670
    26. 130 Electoral Reform and the Criminalisation of Politics pages 671–676
    27. 131 The Funding of Elections pages 677–682
    28. 132 Defection and the Tenth Schedule pages 683–688
    29. 133 Grass Root Democracy: The Panchayats pages 689–694
    30. 134 Urban Local Government: The Municipalities pages 695–700
    31. 135 The Nexus of Politics, Crime and Business pages 701–706
    32. 136 The New Challenges pages 707–711
    Every paper that is solved: 17 papers
    • 2025-26 - Group I
    • 2025-26 - Group II
    • 2025-26 - Group III
    • 2025-26 - Group IV
    • 2025-26 - Group V
    • 2025-26 - Group VI
    • 2024-25
    • 2024 - Group I
    • 2024 - Group II
    • 2024 - Group III
    • 2024 - Group V
    • 2023
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  3. Law and Social Transformation of India

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Law and Social Transformation of India

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Law and Social Transformation of India

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. Law and Society: How Each Shapes the Other 1
    2. Law as an Instrument of Social Change 6
    3. What Law Cannot Do: The Limits of Legislating Change 12
    4. Law as the Product of Tradition and Culture 17
    5. Custom as a Source of Law 22
    6. Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering 26
    7. Pound's Scheme of Interests 30
    8. The Criticisms of Social Engineering 34
    9. Bentham, Marx and Ehrlich: The Other Answers 38
    10. The Preamble: The Charter of Transformation 43
    11. The Directive Principles and the Welfare State 47
    12. Social Security Legislation 53
    13. The Fundamental Duties 57
    14. The Judiciary as an Engine of Social Change 61
    15. Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation 66
    16. Social Justice 70
    17. Religion and the Law: The Two Questions 74
    18. Freedom of Religion: Articles 25 to 28 78
    19. The Essential Religious Practices Doctrine 83
    20. Secularism 88
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The State and Religion: No State Religion 92
    2. Religion as a Divisive Factor 95
    3. No Discrimination on the Ground of Religion 99
    4. Who Is a Minority 103
    5. Articles 29 and 30: The Minority's Educational Rights 107
    6. The National Commission for Minorities 111
    7. Conversion and the Law 115
    8. Personal Law: What It Is, and Why India Has Several 119
    9. The Hindu Code Bills 124
    10. Muslim Personal Law and Maintenance: Shah Bano to Danial Latifi 128
    11. Triple Talaq 134
    12. Christian and Parsi Law, and the Special Marriage Act 139
    13. The Uniform Civil Code 143
    14. Religious Freedom against Social Reform 148
    15. Temple Entry 152
    16. Places of Worship, and the Character Frozen in 1947 157

    Module II

    1. Language and the Law: Why a Country Legislates about Language 161
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Language as a Divisive Factor 166
    2. The Official Language of the Union 170
    3. The Official Languages Act 1963 175
    4. Many Languages, One Union 180
    5. Constitutional Guarantees to Linguistic Minorities 184
    6. The Formation of Linguistic States 189
    7. The Commissions That Redrew the Map 193
    8. The Medium of Instruction 198
    9. Enforcing Language Rights 203
    10. Regionalism, and India as One Unit 207
    11. The Language of the Courts and of the Statute Book 211
    12. Community and the Law: Caste, Tribe and a Plural Society 216
    13. Caste as a Divisive Factor 221
    14. Non-discrimination on the Ground of Caste 225
    15. Untouchability, and the Act That Abolished It 229
    16. The Atrocities Act 1989 234
    17. Manual Scavenging and Bonded Labour 240
    18. Reservation: The Constitutional Scheme 245
    19. Protective Discrimination 249
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Backward Classes, the Creamy Layer and the Ceiling 253
    2. Reservation in Promotion, and the Ten Per Cent for the Economically Weaker 258
    3. Substantive Equality 263
    4. The Safeguards: Seats, Services and Commissions 267
    5. Tribal India: The Fifth and Sixth Schedules 272
    6. Land, Forest and the Gram Sabha's Consent 278
    7. The Naxalite Movement: Origin and Development 286
    8. The Causes: Land, Dispossession and the Failure of Law 291
    9. The Cure: What the State Has Tried 298
    10. Internal Security, Social Justice and Development 304
    11. The Human Rights Commissions 311

    Module III

    1. Women and the Law: Where the Constitution Started 317
    2. Article 15(3): Special Provision for Women 323
    3. Gender Injustice and Its Forms 328
    4. Dignity and the Right to Privacy 333
    5. Empowerment of Women 338
    6. Women in Public Employment and the Armed Forces 343
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Equal Pay and Maternity Benefit 349
    2. Sexual Harassment at the Workplace 354
    3. Crimes against Women 363
    4. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013 370
    5. Dowry 376
    6. Domestic Violence 383
    7. Sati 391
    8. Sex Selection and the Missing Daughters 397
    9. Reproductive Autonomy 404
    10. Trafficking and Prostitution 411
    11. Indecent Representation 419
    12. The National Commission for Women 425
    13. Women in the Legislatures 431
    14. Women's Property Rights 436
    15. Adultery and Marital Autonomy 443
    16. Who Counts as a Woman 449
    17. The Judiciary and Women's Rights: The Record 456
    18. Children and the Law: The Child as a Rights-Holder 462
    19. The Constitution and the Child 467
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. India and the Convention on the Rights of the Child 472
    2. Child Abuse 478
    3. The Sexual Exploitation of Children 484
    4. POCSO: Objects and Scheme 490
    5. How Far POCSO Has Worked 499
    6. Child Labour: Causes and Consequences 505
    7. The Law against Child Labour 510
    8. The Courts and the Enforcement against Child Labour 517
    9. The Right to Education 523
    10. Juvenile Justice 532
    11. The Child in Need of Care and Protection 542
    12. Adoption 552
    13. Inter-country Adoption 559
    14. The Child Rights Commissions 565
    15. Child Marriage 572

    Module IV

    1. Modernisation and the Law 579
    2. Modernisation as a Value 584
    3. Modernising Social Institutions Through Law 590
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Agrarian Reform: Abolishing the Intermediary 595
    2. Ceilings, Tenancy and Redistribution 601
    3. The Ninth Schedule and the Property Amendments 606
    4. Industrialisation and the Law 613
    5. Industrialisation against Environmental Protection 619
    6. What the Courts Built out of Article 21 626
    7. Industrialisation and the Sustainable Development Goals 633
    8. Urbanisation and the Pavement Dweller 638
    9. Science, Technology and the Law Behind Them 646
    10. Democratic Decentralisation and Local Self-Government 652
    11. The Prison in India 659
    12. The Committees on Prison Reform 665
    13. The Prisoner's Rights 671
    14. Alternative Approaches to Law 679
    15. Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code 684
    16. The Types of Alternative Dispute Mechanism, and What Each Is Good For 689
    17. Arbitration 694
    18. Mediation and Conciliation 701
    19. Lok Adalat 708
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Legal Aid 716
    2. Nyaya Panchayats 726
    3. Gram Nyayalayas 732
    4. Plea Bargaining 743
    5. Reform of Court Processes and of the Justice Delivery System 752
    6. Legal Pluralism, and the Forums the State Did Not Create 761
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    768 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 768 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 135 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 36 chapters

    1. 1 Law and Society: How Each Shapes the Other pages 1–5
    2. 2 Law as an Instrument of Social Change pages 6–11
    3. 3 What Law Cannot Do: The Limits of Legislating Change pages 12–16
    4. 4 Law as the Product of Tradition and Culture pages 17–21
    5. 5 Custom as a Source of Law pages 22–25
    6. 6 Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering pages 26–29
    7. 7 Pound's Scheme of Interests pages 30–33
    8. 8 The Criticisms of Social Engineering pages 34–37
    9. 9 Bentham, Marx and Ehrlich: The Other Answers pages 38–42
    10. 10 The Preamble: The Charter of Transformation pages 43–46
    11. 11 The Directive Principles and the Welfare State pages 47–52
    12. 12 Social Security Legislation pages 53–56
    13. 13 The Fundamental Duties pages 57–60
    14. 14 The Judiciary as an Engine of Social Change pages 61–65
    15. 15 Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation pages 66–69
    16. 16 Social Justice pages 70–73
    17. 17 Religion and the Law: The Two Questions pages 74–77
    18. 18 Freedom of Religion: Articles 25 to 28 pages 78–82
    19. 19 The Essential Religious Practices Doctrine pages 83–87
    20. 20 Secularism pages 88–91
    21. 21 The State and Religion: No State Religion pages 92–94
    22. 22 Religion as a Divisive Factor pages 95–98
    23. 23 No Discrimination on the Ground of Religion pages 99–102
    24. 24 Who Is a Minority pages 103–106
    25. 25 Articles 29 and 30: The Minority's Educational Rights pages 107–110
    26. 26 The National Commission for Minorities pages 111–114
    27. 27 Conversion and the Law pages 115–118
    28. 28 Personal Law: What It Is, and Why India Has Several pages 119–123
    29. 29 The Hindu Code Bills pages 124–127
    30. 30 Muslim Personal Law and Maintenance: Shah Bano to Danial Latifi pages 128–133
    31. 31 Triple Talaq pages 134–138
    32. 32 Christian and Parsi Law, and the Special Marriage Act pages 139–142
    33. 33 The Uniform Civil Code pages 143–147
    34. 34 Religious Freedom against Social Reform pages 148–151
    35. 35 Temple Entry pages 152–156
    36. 36 Places of Worship, and the Character Frozen in 1947 pages 157–160

    Module II 31 chapters

    1. 37 Language and the Law: Why a Country Legislates about Language pages 161–165
    2. 38 Language as a Divisive Factor pages 166–169
    3. 39 The Official Language of the Union pages 170–174
    4. 40 The Official Languages Act 1963 pages 175–179
    5. 41 Many Languages, One Union pages 180–183
    6. 42 Constitutional Guarantees to Linguistic Minorities pages 184–188
    7. 43 The Formation of Linguistic States pages 189–192
    8. 44 The Commissions That Redrew the Map pages 193–197
    9. 45 The Medium of Instruction pages 198–202
    10. 46 Enforcing Language Rights pages 203–206
    11. 47 Regionalism, and India as One Unit pages 207–210
    12. 48 The Language of the Courts and of the Statute Book pages 211–215
    13. 49 Community and the Law: Caste, Tribe and a Plural Society pages 216–220
    14. 50 Caste as a Divisive Factor pages 221–224
    15. 51 Non-discrimination on the Ground of Caste pages 225–228
    16. 52 Untouchability, and the Act That Abolished It pages 229–233
    17. 53 The Atrocities Act 1989 pages 234–239
    18. 54 Manual Scavenging and Bonded Labour pages 240–244
    19. 55 Reservation: The Constitutional Scheme pages 245–248
    20. 56 Protective Discrimination pages 249–252
    21. 57 Backward Classes, the Creamy Layer and the Ceiling pages 253–257
    22. 58 Reservation in Promotion, and the Ten Per Cent for the Economically Weaker pages 258–262
    23. 59 Substantive Equality pages 263–266
    24. 60 The Safeguards: Seats, Services and Commissions pages 267–271
    25. 61 Tribal India: The Fifth and Sixth Schedules pages 272–277
    26. 62 Land, Forest and the Gram Sabha's Consent pages 278–285
    27. 63 The Naxalite Movement: Origin and Development pages 286–290
    28. 64 The Causes: Land, Dispossession and the Failure of Law pages 291–297
    29. 65 The Cure: What the State Has Tried pages 298–303
    30. 66 Internal Security, Social Justice and Development pages 304–310
    31. 67 The Human Rights Commissions pages 311–316

    Module III 40 chapters

    1. 68 Women and the Law: Where the Constitution Started pages 317–322
    2. 69 Article 15(3): Special Provision for Women pages 323–327
    3. 70 Gender Injustice and Its Forms pages 328–332
    4. 71 Dignity and the Right to Privacy pages 333–337
    5. 72 Empowerment of Women pages 338–342
    6. 73 Women in Public Employment and the Armed Forces pages 343–348
    7. 74 Equal Pay and Maternity Benefit pages 349–353
    8. 75 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace pages 354–362
    9. 76 Crimes against Women pages 363–369
    10. 77 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013 pages 370–375
    11. 78 Dowry pages 376–382
    12. 79 Domestic Violence pages 383–390
    13. 80 Sati pages 391–396
    14. 81 Sex Selection and the Missing Daughters pages 397–403
    15. 82 Reproductive Autonomy pages 404–410
    16. 83 Trafficking and Prostitution pages 411–418
    17. 84 Indecent Representation pages 419–424
    18. 85 The National Commission for Women pages 425–430
    19. 86 Women in the Legislatures pages 431–435
    20. 87 Women's Property Rights pages 436–442
    21. 88 Adultery and Marital Autonomy pages 443–448
    22. 89 Who Counts as a Woman pages 449–455
    23. 90 The Judiciary and Women's Rights: The Record pages 456–461
    24. 91 Children and the Law: The Child as a Rights-Holder pages 462–466
    25. 92 The Constitution and the Child pages 467–471
    26. 93 India and the Convention on the Rights of the Child pages 472–477
    27. 94 Child Abuse pages 478–483
    28. 95 The Sexual Exploitation of Children pages 484–489
    29. 96 POCSO: Objects and Scheme pages 490–498
    30. 97 How Far POCSO Has Worked pages 499–504
    31. 98 Child Labour: Causes and Consequences pages 505–509
    32. 99 The Law against Child Labour pages 510–516
    33. 100 The Courts and the Enforcement against Child Labour pages 517–522
    34. 101 The Right to Education pages 523–531
    35. 102 Juvenile Justice pages 532–541
    36. 103 The Child in Need of Care and Protection pages 542–551
    37. 104 Adoption pages 552–558
    38. 105 Inter-country Adoption pages 559–564
    39. 106 The Child Rights Commissions pages 565–571
    40. 107 Child Marriage pages 572–578

    Module IV 28 chapters

    1. 108 Modernisation and the Law pages 579–583
    2. 109 Modernisation as a Value pages 584–589
    3. 110 Modernising Social Institutions Through Law pages 590–594
    4. 111 Agrarian Reform: Abolishing the Intermediary pages 595–600
    5. 112 Ceilings, Tenancy and Redistribution pages 601–605
    6. 113 The Ninth Schedule and the Property Amendments pages 606–612
    7. 114 Industrialisation and the Law pages 613–618
    8. 115 Industrialisation against Environmental Protection pages 619–625
    9. 116 What the Courts Built out of Article 21 pages 626–632
    10. 117 Industrialisation and the Sustainable Development Goals pages 633–637
    11. 118 Urbanisation and the Pavement Dweller pages 638–645
    12. 119 Science, Technology and the Law Behind Them pages 646–651
    13. 120 Democratic Decentralisation and Local Self-Government pages 652–658
    14. 121 The Prison in India pages 659–664
    15. 122 The Committees on Prison Reform pages 665–670
    16. 123 The Prisoner's Rights pages 671–678
    17. 124 Alternative Approaches to Law pages 679–683
    18. 125 Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code pages 684–688
    19. 126 The Types of Alternative Dispute Mechanism, and What Each Is Good For pages 689–693
    20. 127 Arbitration pages 694–700
    21. 128 Mediation and Conciliation pages 701–707
    22. 129 Lok Adalat pages 708–715
    23. 130 Legal Aid pages 716–725
    24. 131 Nyaya Panchayats pages 726–731
    25. 132 Gram Nyayalayas pages 732–742
    26. 133 Plea Bargaining pages 743–751
    27. 134 Reform of Court Processes and of the Justice Delivery System pages 752–760
    28. 135 Legal Pluralism, and the Forums the State Did Not Create pages 761–768
    Every paper that is solved: 17 papers
    • 2025-26 - Group I
    • 2025-26 - Group II
    • 2025-26 - Group III
    • 2025-26 - Group IV
    • 2025-26 - Group V
    • 2025-26 - Group VI
    • 2024-25
    • 2024 - Group I
    • 2024 - Group II
    • 2024 - Group III
    • 2024 - Group V
    • 2023
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  4. Environment and Development Law and Policy

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Environment and Development Law and Policy

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 6 Environment and Legal Order

    Environment and Development Law and Policy

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What This Paper Is About 1
    2. What Environment Means 5
    3. Environment in Law: The Statutory Definition 9
    4. Ecology, Ecosystem and Biosphere 13
    5. The Conventional Idea of Environment 17
    6. The Modern Concept of Environment 22
    7. The Modern Conflicting Dimensions 26
    8. Environment in the Vedas and the Upanishads 30
    9. Kautilya's Arthashastra and the First Forest Administration 34
    10. Ashoka, Manu and the Duty to the Non-Human World 38
    11. Buddhist and Jain Thought, and the Sacred Grove 42
    12. Traditions and Customs as Environmental Protection 46
    13. The Medieval Centuries 50
    14. What the Ancient Material Is Actually Worth 54
    15. The Colonial Century and the First Statutes 58
    16. Environmental Degradation in India Today 63
    17. Emerging Issues and Challenges 67
    18. Climate Change as an Emerging Issue 71
    19. Anthropocentric and Ecocentric: Whose Interest Does the Law Protect 75
    20. Environmental Ethics 79
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. What Environmental Jurisprudence Means 83
    2. What Development Means 87
    3. Growth, Development and the Human Development Idea 91
    4. Developing Economies and the Protection of Environment 95
    5. The Right to Development 99
    6. Environment Against Development 103
    7. Stockholm 1972: The Conference 107
    8. The Stockholm Declaration: The Proclamation 111
    9. The Stockholm Principles 1 to 13 115
    10. The Stockholm Principles 14 to 26 119
    11. What Stockholm Changed 123
    12. Between Stockholm and Rio 127
    13. The Brundtland Report and the Definition 131
    14. The Rio Earth Summit 1992 135
    15. The Rio Declaration: Principles 1 to 14 138
    16. The Rio Declaration: Principles 15 to 27 142
    17. Agenda 21 and What Rio Left Behind 147
    18. From Rio to Johannesburg, and the Millennium Goals 151
    19. Rio+20 and The Future We Want 155
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The Sustainable Development Goals 159
    2. Sustainable Development: The Salient Features 163
    3. Intergenerational Equity 167
    4. Intragenerational Equity and Common but Differentiated Responsibility 172
    5. The Precautionary Principle 177
    6. The Precautionary Principle in the Indian Courts 181
    7. The Polluter Pays Principle 186
    8. The Public Trust Doctrine 191
    9. The Public Trust Doctrine in India 195
    10. Sustainable Development in Indian Law 200
    11. Narmada and the Limits of the Doctrine 205
    12. Environmental Justice 209
    13. Environmental Improvement Through Economic Incentives 213
    14. Environmental Impact Assessment 217
    15. The EIA Notification 2006 in Outline 221

    Module II

    1. Policy and Law: What Each Is 225
    2. How a Policy Becomes Enforceable 229
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Environmental Policy Before Independence 233
    2. The Five Year Plans and the Environment 237
    3. What Stockholm Changed Inside the Government of India 241
    4. The Forest Policies of 1894 and 1952 244
    5. The National Forest Policy 1988 248
    6. Joint Forest Management 253
    7. The Draft National Forest Policy 2018 257
    8. The Government and the Forests 261
    9. The National Water Policy 1987 and 2002 265
    10. The National Water Policy 2012 268
    11. Water Policy and the Federal Problem 273
    12. The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement 1992 277
    13. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution 1992 281
    14. The National Environment Policy 2006 284
    15. The National Action Plan on Climate Change 289
    16. India's Climate Commitments After Paris 293
    17. The Role of Government in Protecting the Environment 297
    18. The Water Act 1974 302
    19. The Air Act 1981 307
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 312
    2. What Was Done Under Section 3 318
    3. The Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 321
    4. The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 327
    5. The Biological Diversity Act 2002 332
    6. The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 337
    7. The National Green Tribunal 341
    8. Absolute Liability: The Oleum Gas Leak Case 347
    9. Absolute Liability Applied: Bichhri and After 352
    10. The Pollution Control Boards 357
    11. Why Environmental Policy Under-Performs 362

    Module III

    1. Population, Environment and Development 367
    2. How Many People There Are 371
    3. Population Explosion: What the Phrase Means 375
    4. The Demographic Transition 378
    5. Malthus and His Critics 382
    6. Carrying Capacity and the Ecological Footprint 386
    7. Population and Land 390
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Population and Food 394
    2. Population and Water 398
    3. Population and Forest 402
    4. Population, Urbanisation and the City 406
    5. Population, Waste and Sanitation 411
    6. Population, Air and Energy 415
    7. Poverty, Population and the Environment 419
    8. Consumption Against Numbers 423
    9. Population and Socio-Economic Development 427
    10. Family Planning in India 431
    11. The Emergency and What It Cost 435
    12. The National Population Policy 2000 439
    13. The Two-Child Norm and Javed 443
    14. The Other Population Statutes 447
    15. Can Law Control Population 452
    16. What Actually Brings the Birth Rate Down 456

    Module IV

    1. The Constitution and the Environment in 1950 461
    2. The Forty-Second Amendment 1976 466
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Article 48A 470
    2. The Other Directive Principles 475
    3. Article 51A(g) 479
    4. Are the Principles and the Duties Enforceable 484
    5. Article 21 and the Right to a Wholesome Environment 489
    6. How the Right Was Built, Case by Case 494
    7. Ratlam and the Duty to Perform 500
    8. Article 14 and Arbitrary Environmental Decisions 504
    9. Article 19(1)(g) and the Trade That Must Stop 510
    10. Articles 32 and 226 515
    11. Public Interest Litigation 520
    12. PIL and the Environment 524
    13. Judicial Activism 529
    14. The Doctrines the Courts Built 534
    15. The Public Trust Doctrine and the Constitution 540
    16. Continuing Mandamus and the Court's Own Tools 545
    17. Compensation Under Article 32 551
    18. The Legislative Lists and Article 253 556
    19. Environmental Federalism 562
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Panchayats, Municipalities and the Two Schedules 567
    2. Flora and Fauna in the Constitution 573
    3. The Right Against the Adverse Effects of Climate Change 579
    4. What the Constitutional Route Cannot Do 584
    5. How to Answer This Paper 590
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    595 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 595 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 135 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 54 chapters

    1. 1 What This Paper Is About pages 1–4
    2. 2 What Environment Means pages 5–8
    3. 3 Environment in Law: The Statutory Definition pages 9–12
    4. 4 Ecology, Ecosystem and Biosphere pages 13–16
    5. 5 The Conventional Idea of Environment pages 17–21
    6. 6 The Modern Concept of Environment pages 22–25
    7. 7 The Modern Conflicting Dimensions pages 26–29
    8. 8 Environment in the Vedas and the Upanishads pages 30–33
    9. 9 Kautilya's Arthashastra and the First Forest Administration pages 34–37
    10. 10 Ashoka, Manu and the Duty to the Non-Human World pages 38–41
    11. 11 Buddhist and Jain Thought, and the Sacred Grove pages 42–45
    12. 12 Traditions and Customs as Environmental Protection pages 46–49
    13. 13 The Medieval Centuries pages 50–53
    14. 14 What the Ancient Material Is Actually Worth pages 54–57
    15. 15 The Colonial Century and the First Statutes pages 58–62
    16. 16 Environmental Degradation in India Today pages 63–66
    17. 17 Emerging Issues and Challenges pages 67–70
    18. 18 Climate Change as an Emerging Issue pages 71–74
    19. 19 Anthropocentric and Ecocentric: Whose Interest Does the Law Protect pages 75–78
    20. 20 Environmental Ethics pages 79–82
    21. 21 What Environmental Jurisprudence Means pages 83–86
    22. 22 What Development Means pages 87–90
    23. 23 Growth, Development and the Human Development Idea pages 91–94
    24. 24 Developing Economies and the Protection of Environment pages 95–98
    25. 25 The Right to Development pages 99–102
    26. 26 Environment Against Development pages 103–106
    27. 27 Stockholm 1972: The Conference pages 107–110
    28. 28 The Stockholm Declaration: The Proclamation pages 111–114
    29. 29 The Stockholm Principles 1 to 13 pages 115–118
    30. 30 The Stockholm Principles 14 to 26 pages 119–122
    31. 31 What Stockholm Changed pages 123–126
    32. 32 Between Stockholm and Rio pages 127–130
    33. 33 The Brundtland Report and the Definition pages 131–134
    34. 34 The Rio Earth Summit 1992 pages 135–137
    35. 35 The Rio Declaration: Principles 1 to 14 pages 138–141
    36. 36 The Rio Declaration: Principles 15 to 27 pages 142–146
    37. 37 Agenda 21 and What Rio Left Behind pages 147–150
    38. 38 From Rio to Johannesburg, and the Millennium Goals pages 151–154
    39. 39 Rio+20 and The Future We Want pages 155–158
    40. 40 The Sustainable Development Goals pages 159–162
    41. 41 Sustainable Development: The Salient Features pages 163–166
    42. 42 Intergenerational Equity pages 167–171
    43. 43 Intragenerational Equity and Common but Differentiated Responsibility pages 172–176
    44. 44 The Precautionary Principle pages 177–180
    45. 45 The Precautionary Principle in the Indian Courts pages 181–185
    46. 46 The Polluter Pays Principle pages 186–190
    47. 47 The Public Trust Doctrine pages 191–194
    48. 48 The Public Trust Doctrine in India pages 195–199
    49. 49 Sustainable Development in Indian Law pages 200–204
    50. 50 Narmada and the Limits of the Doctrine pages 205–208
    51. 51 Environmental Justice pages 209–212
    52. 52 Environmental Improvement Through Economic Incentives pages 213–216
    53. 53 Environmental Impact Assessment pages 217–220
    54. 54 The EIA Notification 2006 in Outline pages 221–224

    Module II 32 chapters

    1. 55 Policy and Law: What Each Is pages 225–228
    2. 56 How a Policy Becomes Enforceable pages 229–232
    3. 57 Environmental Policy Before Independence pages 233–236
    4. 58 The Five Year Plans and the Environment pages 237–240
    5. 59 What Stockholm Changed Inside the Government of India pages 241–243
    6. 60 The Forest Policies of 1894 and 1952 pages 244–247
    7. 61 The National Forest Policy 1988 pages 248–252
    8. 62 Joint Forest Management pages 253–256
    9. 63 The Draft National Forest Policy 2018 pages 257–260
    10. 64 The Government and the Forests pages 261–264
    11. 65 The National Water Policy 1987 and 2002 pages 265–267
    12. 66 The National Water Policy 2012 pages 268–272
    13. 67 Water Policy and the Federal Problem pages 273–276
    14. 68 The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement 1992 pages 277–280
    15. 69 The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution 1992 pages 281–283
    16. 70 The National Environment Policy 2006 pages 284–288
    17. 71 The National Action Plan on Climate Change pages 289–292
    18. 72 India's Climate Commitments After Paris pages 293–296
    19. 73 The Role of Government in Protecting the Environment pages 297–301
    20. 74 The Water Act 1974 pages 302–306
    21. 75 The Air Act 1981 pages 307–311
    22. 76 The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 pages 312–317
    23. 77 What Was Done Under Section 3 pages 318–320
    24. 78 The Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 pages 321–326
    25. 79 The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 pages 327–331
    26. 80 The Biological Diversity Act 2002 pages 332–336
    27. 81 The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 pages 337–340
    28. 82 The National Green Tribunal pages 341–346
    29. 83 Absolute Liability: The Oleum Gas Leak Case pages 347–351
    30. 84 Absolute Liability Applied: Bichhri and After pages 352–356
    31. 85 The Pollution Control Boards pages 357–361
    32. 86 Why Environmental Policy Under-Performs pages 362–366

    Module III 23 chapters

    1. 87 Population, Environment and Development pages 367–370
    2. 88 How Many People There Are pages 371–374
    3. 89 Population Explosion: What the Phrase Means pages 375–377
    4. 90 The Demographic Transition pages 378–381
    5. 91 Malthus and His Critics pages 382–385
    6. 92 Carrying Capacity and the Ecological Footprint pages 386–389
    7. 93 Population and Land pages 390–393
    8. 94 Population and Food pages 394–397
    9. 95 Population and Water pages 398–401
    10. 96 Population and Forest pages 402–405
    11. 97 Population, Urbanisation and the City pages 406–410
    12. 98 Population, Waste and Sanitation pages 411–414
    13. 99 Population, Air and Energy pages 415–418
    14. 100 Poverty, Population and the Environment pages 419–422
    15. 101 Consumption Against Numbers pages 423–426
    16. 102 Population and Socio-Economic Development pages 427–430
    17. 103 Family Planning in India pages 431–434
    18. 104 The Emergency and What It Cost pages 435–438
    19. 105 The National Population Policy 2000 pages 439–442
    20. 106 The Two-Child Norm and Javed pages 443–446
    21. 107 The Other Population Statutes pages 447–451
    22. 108 Can Law Control Population pages 452–455
    23. 109 What Actually Brings the Birth Rate Down pages 456–460

    Module IV 26 chapters

    1. 110 The Constitution and the Environment in 1950 pages 461–465
    2. 111 The Forty-Second Amendment 1976 pages 466–469
    3. 112 Article 48A pages 470–474
    4. 113 The Other Directive Principles pages 475–478
    5. 114 Article 51A(g) pages 479–483
    6. 115 Are the Principles and the Duties Enforceable pages 484–488
    7. 116 Article 21 and the Right to a Wholesome Environment pages 489–493
    8. 117 How the Right Was Built, Case by Case pages 494–499
    9. 118 Ratlam and the Duty to Perform pages 500–503
    10. 119 Article 14 and Arbitrary Environmental Decisions pages 504–509
    11. 120 Article 19(1)(g) and the Trade That Must Stop pages 510–514
    12. 121 Articles 32 and 226 pages 515–519
    13. 122 Public Interest Litigation pages 520–523
    14. 123 PIL and the Environment pages 524–528
    15. 124 Judicial Activism pages 529–533
    16. 125 The Doctrines the Courts Built pages 534–539
    17. 126 The Public Trust Doctrine and the Constitution pages 540–544
    18. 127 Continuing Mandamus and the Court's Own Tools pages 545–550
    19. 128 Compensation Under Article 32 pages 551–555
    20. 129 The Legislative Lists and Article 253 pages 556–561
    21. 130 Environmental Federalism pages 562–566
    22. 131 Panchayats, Municipalities and the Two Schedules pages 567–572
    23. 132 Flora and Fauna in the Constitution pages 573–578
    24. 133 The Right Against the Adverse Effects of Climate Change pages 579–583
    25. 134 What the Constitutional Route Cannot Do pages 584–589
    26. 135 How to Answer This Paper pages 590–595
    Every paper that is solved: 7 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

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