LL.M. Environment and Legal Order Semester 1: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

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1. Resource Management and The Law

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Resource Management and The Law

   LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

   For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in Group 6 Environment and Legal Order

   Resource Management and The Law

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What This Paper Is, and the Four Words MU Prints 1
   2. What a Natural Resource Is, and What Managing One Means in Law 5
   3. Water in the Constitution 9
   4. Is There a Right to Water? 13
   5. Who Owns Water 17
   6. Riparian Rights, and Section 7 of the Easements Act 21
   7. Riparian Rights in Irrigation, and the Problems a Riparian Faces 26
   8. Customary Water Rights, and the Village Tank 30
   9. The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act 1956: What It Is For 34
   10. Reference to a Tribunal, and How One Is Constituted 38
   11. The Award, and Why It Is a Decree of the Supreme Court 43
   12. The Bar in Section 11, and the Rest of the Act 47
   13. What Is Wrong With the Machinery, and What Was Proposed 52
   14. The River Boards Act 1956: The Half That Never Happened 56
   15. What a River Board Would Have Done 60
   16. Arbitration Under the River Boards Act, and Dissolution 64
   17. Article 262 and the Courts 68
   18. The Cauvery Dispute 73
   19. The 2018 Decree, and the Cauvery Water Management Authority 77

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. In re Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal: A State Cannot Legislate Away an Order 82
   2. The Other Disputes 86
   3. Interlinking of Rivers 90
   4. The Dam Safety Act 2021: The Institutions 94
   5. The State Tier, and the Obligations of a Dam Owner 99
   6. Reporting, Safety Review and the Offences 103
   7. Narmada Bachao Andolan: A Dam, a Displacement and a Divided Court 107
   8. Ground Water: What an Aquifer Is 112
   9. Absolute Dominion Over Percolating Water, and How It Broke 116
   10. The Central Ground Water Authority 122
   11. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 as the Umbrella 126
   12. The 2024 Penalty Regime Under the Environment Act 131
   13. The Maharashtra Groundwater Act 2009: The Authorities 136
   14. The District Tier, and Protecting a Drinking Water Source 141
   15. Watersheds, Aquifers and the Groundwater Use Plan 146
   16. Offences, Appeals and the Rules Under the Maharashtra Act 150
   17. Salinity: Coastal Ingress, Irrigation and Effluent 154
   18. Rainwater Harvesting 158

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. The National Water Policy 2012 163
   2. The Bills That Did Not Pass 167
   3. Wetlands, and the Ramsar Idea of Wise Use 171
   4. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017 175
   5. The Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act 2005 179
   6. Enforcing the Aquaculture Act, and the 2023 Amendment 184
   7. Fishing Regulation in Maharashtra 190
   8. The Water Act 1974: The Boards 195
   9. Consent, and the Prohibition in Section 24 200
   10. The Sanctions, and the 2024 Penalty Regime 205
   11. Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum: Three Principles in One Judgment 211

   Module II

   1. Land as a Resource 215
   2. Land in the Constitution 219
   3. Who Owns the Minerals Under a Field 224
   4. The MMDR Act 1957: The Declaration That Makes It Central 229
   5. The Concessions: Permit, Licence and Lease 234
   6. Royalty, Dead Rent, and What a State Actually Earns 239

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. The District Mineral Foundation and the Exploration Trust 245
   2. Auction: Sections 10B and 11, and What 2015 Changed 250
   3. Coal, Lignite, Atomic Minerals and Critical Minerals 255
   4. The Rule-Making Powers, and the Register of Concessions 260
   5. Minor Minerals, Section 15, and Deepak Kumar 265
   6. Reservation, Conservation and the Power to Prospect 269
   7. Void Concessions, Directions and the Revisional Power 274
   8. The Penalties, and Section 21(5) 278
   9. The Rest of the MMDR Act 283
   10. Sand: The Hardest Mineral to Police 288
   11. The Dehradun Limestone Quarries: Where the Judicial Remedy Began 292
   12. Goa: The Foundation Cases 297
   13. Common Cause: Compensation at a Hundred Per Cent 302
   14. Samatha: Mining in a Scheduled Area 307
   15. Mining on Forest Land: Niyamgiri and the Gram Sabha 312
   16. Lafarge, and How a Forest Clearance Is Reviewed 316
   17. Joshimath, and Building on Ground That Cannot Carry It 321
   18. Offshore Minerals, Coal Bearing Areas and Oilfields 325

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. The National Mineral Policy 2019, and What Sustainable Mining Means 330
   2. The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 335
   3. Eco-Friendly Land Planning: Conservation, Utilisation and Conversion 339
   4. Town Planning Law, and the Development Plan 343
   5. Conversion of Land Use 347
   6. Urbanisation and Concretisation: What a City Loses When It Is Paved 351
   7. Taking Land: The 2013 Act and the Social Impact Assessment 356
   8. Compensation, Rehabilitation and Resettlement 363
   9. The Authority, the Appeal, and the Land That Comes Back 369
   10. What Indian Forests Have Served 374
   11. Reserved Forests, and the Settlement of Rights 379
   12. Pasture, Forest Produce and the Record of Rights 384
   13. What May Not Be Done in a Reserved Forest 389
   14. Village Forests and Protected Forests 394
   15. Forests That Are Not the Government's, and the Duty on Timber 399
   16. Timber in Transit, and Drift and Stranded Timber 405
   17. Forest Officers, Arrest, and the Presumption of Government Property 410

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. The Penalties, and the Rest of the Indian Forest Act 415
   2. The Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam 1980 420
   3. Godavarman, and the Dictionary Meaning of Forest 425
   4. The 2023 Amendment, and What Section 1A Took Out 430
   5. Compensatory Afforestation and Net Present Value 435
   6. The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Authorities 441
   7. The National Forest Policy 1988 447
   8. Joint Forest Management, and the People Who Protect a Forest 453
   9. The Ancient Monuments Act 1958: What Is Protected 459
   10. The Owner, the Guardian and the Power to Acquire 465
   11. The Prohibited Area, the Regulated Area and the 2010 Amendment 471
   12. Archaeological Sites, Excavation and the Penalties 478
   13. The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act 1972 485
   14. Seizure, Confiscation and the Offences Under the Antiquities Act 492
   15. Natural Heritage, and the World Heritage Convention 499
   16. The Judicial Approach: Taj Trapezium, the Viceregal Lodge and the Aminabad Park 506
   17. Culture and Heritage: The Statutes, the Treaties and the Judgments Together 512

   Contents continued

   Module III

   1. Four Regimes, Not Two 518
   2. The Tragedy of the Commons, and What Hardin Actually Described 522
   3. Ostrom's Answer: Why a Commons Is Not Doomed 526
   4. Res Communis, Res Nullius and Res Publicae 531
   5. State Property: Eminent Domain, the Police Power and Escheat 535
   6. The Public Trust Doctrine: M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath 540
   7. The Doctrine Extended: The Beach, the Tank and the Park 545
   8. Village Commons: The Pond That Was Filled In 550
   9. Wildlife as Common Property, and Wildlife as State Property 555
   10. The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972: The Officers and the Boards 560
   11. The Prohibition of Hunting, and When It Is Permitted 566
   12. Specified Plants 571
   13. Declaring a Sanctuary, and Settling the Rights Inside It 576
   14. What May Not Be Done Inside a Sanctuary 581
   15. National Parks, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves 587
   16. Zoos and the Central Zoo Authority 593
   17. The National Tiger Conservation Authority, and the Critical Tiger Habitat 598
   18. Ownership Certificates, Trophies and the Ban on Trade 606

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. CITES, and the 2022 Amendment 613
   2. Offences, Penalties and Forfeiture 621
   3. Wildlife as a Renewable Resource, and Where That Idea Stops 630
   4. The Biological Diversity Act 2002: Who May Take a Biological Resource 635
   5. The National Biodiversity Authority 641
   6. State Boards, Management Committees and the People's Biodiversity Register 647
   7. The 2023 Recast of the Biological Diversity Act 654
   8. Tribal Habitats: Who a Forest Dweller Is 660
   9. The Forest Rights Act 2006: The Thirteen Rights 665
   10. The Gram Sabha, and How a Right Is Recognised 671
   11. PESA 1996, and the Fifth Schedule 677
   12. Critical Wildlife Habitats: Where the Two Acts Collide 682
   13. Conservation of Flora and Fauna as a Common Property Question 687
   14. Natural Heritage and Tribal Habitats Classified 692
   15. Historical Monuments as Common Property and as State Property 697
   16. Popular Movements: Chipko, Silent Valley, Narmada and Niyamgiri 702
   17. What the Movements Changed in the Law Itself 708

   Contents continued

   Module IV

   1. Energy as a Resource 713
   2. Energy in the Constitution 717
   3. Conventional Energy: What It Is and What It Costs 721
   4. Coal: Nationalisation, the Cancellation and Commercial Mining 725
   5. Petroleum and Natural Gas 730
   6. The Atomic Energy Act 1962 736
   7. Control Over Mining, Production and Radiation 743
   8. Secrecy, Inventions and the Offences Under the Atomic Energy Act 751
   9. Atomic Minerals, and Section 11B of the MMDR Act 758
   10. The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010 764
   11. Section 17(b): The Supplier's Liability 772
   12. The Claims Commissioner and the Nuclear Damage Claims Commission 777
   13. The Offences, and the Bar on a Civil Court 784
   14. Kudankulam: G. Sundarrajan, and What a Court Will Not Review 790
   15. Non-Conventional Energy: The Six Sources 796
   16. Wind Energy 800
   17. Solar Energy, and the Land a Solar Park Needs 805
   18. The Electricity Act 2003: The Scheme 809

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Generation Without a Licence, and the Licence for Everything Else 814
   2. Transmission, and the Load Despatch Centres 821
   3. Distribution, the Duty to Supply and Open Access 827
   4. Tariff, and Section 61(h) 833
   5. The Central Electricity Authority and the Regulatory Commissions 838
   6. Renewable Purchase Obligation and Renewable Energy Certificates 846
   7. The Appellate Tribunal, Unauthorised Use, and the Rest of the Act 852
   8. The Energy Conservation Act 2001: The Bureau 860
   9. Standards, Labels, the Building Code and the Designated Consumer 867
   10. Penalty, Adjudication and Appeal Under the Energy Conservation Act 875
   11. Merits and Demerits of Conventional Energy 883
   12. Merits and Demerits of Non-Conventional Energy 888
   13. Generation, Transmission and Utilisation: Where the Energy Is Lost 893
   14. Alternatives That Mitigate the Damage 899
   15. The Transition: Net Zero, Green Hydrogen and a Just Transition 905

   Page 1 onwards

   910 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 910 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 174 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 48 chapters

   1. 1 What This Paper Is, and the Four Words MU Prints pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 What a Natural Resource Is, and What Managing One Means in Law pages 5 to 8
   3. 3 Water in the Constitution pages 9 to 12
   4. 4 Is There a Right to Water? pages 13 to 16
   5. 5 Who Owns Water pages 17 to 20
   6. 6 Riparian Rights, and Section 7 of the Easements Act pages 21 to 25
   7. 7 Riparian Rights in Irrigation, and the Problems a Riparian Faces pages 26 to 29
   8. 8 Customary Water Rights, and the Village Tank pages 30 to 33
   9. 9 The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act 1956: What It Is For pages 34 to 37
   10. 10 Reference to a Tribunal, and How One Is Constituted pages 38 to 42
   11. 11 The Award, and Why It Is a Decree of the Supreme Court pages 43 to 46
   12. 12 The Bar in Section 11, and the Rest of the Act pages 47 to 51
   13. 13 What Is Wrong With the Machinery, and What Was Proposed pages 52 to 55
   14. 14 The River Boards Act 1956: The Half That Never Happened pages 56 to 59
   15. 15 What a River Board Would Have Done pages 60 to 63
   16. 16 Arbitration Under the River Boards Act, and Dissolution pages 64 to 67
   17. 17 Article 262 and the Courts pages 68 to 72
   18. 18 The Cauvery Dispute pages 73 to 76
   19. 19 The 2018 Decree, and the Cauvery Water Management Authority pages 77 to 81
   20. 20 In re Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal: A State Cannot Legislate Away an Order pages 82 to 85
   21. 21 The Other Disputes pages 86 to 89
   22. 22 Interlinking of Rivers pages 90 to 93
   23. 23 The Dam Safety Act 2021: The Institutions pages 94 to 98
   24. 24 The State Tier, and the Obligations of a Dam Owner pages 99 to 102
   25. 25 Reporting, Safety Review and the Offences pages 103 to 106
   26. 26 Narmada Bachao Andolan: A Dam, a Displacement and a Divided Court pages 107 to 111
   27. 27 Ground Water: What an Aquifer Is pages 112 to 115
   28. 28 Absolute Dominion Over Percolating Water, and How It Broke pages 116 to 121
   29. 29 The Central Ground Water Authority pages 122 to 125
   30. 30 The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 as the Umbrella pages 126 to 130
   31. 31 The 2024 Penalty Regime Under the Environment Act pages 131 to 135
   32. 32 The Maharashtra Groundwater Act 2009: The Authorities pages 136 to 140
   33. 33 The District Tier, and Protecting a Drinking Water Source pages 141 to 145
   34. 34 Watersheds, Aquifers and the Groundwater Use Plan pages 146 to 149
   35. 35 Offences, Appeals and the Rules Under the Maharashtra Act pages 150 to 153
   36. 36 Salinity: Coastal Ingress, Irrigation and Effluent pages 154 to 157
   37. 37 Rainwater Harvesting pages 158 to 162
   38. 38 The National Water Policy 2012 pages 163 to 166
   39. 39 The Bills That Did Not Pass pages 167 to 170
   40. 40 Wetlands, and the Ramsar Idea of Wise Use pages 171 to 174
   41. 41 The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017 pages 175 to 178
   42. 42 The Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act 2005 pages 179 to 183
   43. 43 Enforcing the Aquaculture Act, and the 2023 Amendment pages 184 to 189
   44. 44 Fishing Regulation in Maharashtra pages 190 to 194
   45. 45 The Water Act 1974: The Boards pages 195 to 199
   46. 46 Consent, and the Prohibition in Section 24 pages 200 to 204
   47. 47 The Sanctions, and the 2024 Penalty Regime pages 205 to 210
   48. 48 Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum: Three Principles in One Judgment pages 211 to 214

   Module II 58 chapters

   1. 49 Land as a Resource pages 215 to 218
   2. 50 Land in the Constitution pages 219 to 223
   3. 51 Who Owns the Minerals Under a Field pages 224 to 228
   4. 52 The MMDR Act 1957: The Declaration That Makes It Central pages 229 to 233
   5. 53 The Concessions: Permit, Licence and Lease pages 234 to 238
   6. 54 Royalty, Dead Rent, and What a State Actually Earns pages 239 to 244
   7. 55 The District Mineral Foundation and the Exploration Trust pages 245 to 249
   8. 56 Auction: Sections 10B and 11, and What 2015 Changed pages 250 to 254
   9. 57 Coal, Lignite, Atomic Minerals and Critical Minerals pages 255 to 259
   10. 58 The Rule-Making Powers, and the Register of Concessions pages 260 to 264
   11. 59 Minor Minerals, Section 15, and Deepak Kumar pages 265 to 268
   12. 60 Reservation, Conservation and the Power to Prospect pages 269 to 273
   13. 61 Void Concessions, Directions and the Revisional Power pages 274 to 277
   14. 62 The Penalties, and Section 21(5) pages 278 to 282
   15. 63 The Rest of the MMDR Act pages 283 to 287
   16. 64 Sand: The Hardest Mineral to Police pages 288 to 291
   17. 65 The Dehradun Limestone Quarries: Where the Judicial Remedy Began pages 292 to 296
   18. 66 Goa: The Foundation Cases pages 297 to 301
   19. 67 Common Cause: Compensation at a Hundred Per Cent pages 302 to 306
   20. 68 Samatha: Mining in a Scheduled Area pages 307 to 311
   21. 69 Mining on Forest Land: Niyamgiri and the Gram Sabha pages 312 to 315
   22. 70 Lafarge, and How a Forest Clearance Is Reviewed pages 316 to 320
   23. 71 Joshimath, and Building on Ground That Cannot Carry It pages 321 to 324
   24. 72 Offshore Minerals, Coal Bearing Areas and Oilfields pages 325 to 329
   25. 73 The National Mineral Policy 2019, and What Sustainable Mining Means pages 330 to 334
   26. 74 The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 pages 335 to 338
   27. 75 Eco-Friendly Land Planning: Conservation, Utilisation and Conversion pages 339 to 342
   28. 76 Town Planning Law, and the Development Plan pages 343 to 346
   29. 77 Conversion of Land Use pages 347 to 350
   30. 78 Urbanisation and Concretisation: What a City Loses When It Is Paved pages 351 to 355
   31. 79 Taking Land: The 2013 Act and the Social Impact Assessment pages 356 to 362
   32. 80 Compensation, Rehabilitation and Resettlement pages 363 to 368
   33. 81 The Authority, the Appeal, and the Land That Comes Back pages 369 to 373
   34. 82 What Indian Forests Have Served pages 374 to 378
   35. 83 Reserved Forests, and the Settlement of Rights pages 379 to 383
   36. 84 Pasture, Forest Produce and the Record of Rights pages 384 to 388
   37. 85 What May Not Be Done in a Reserved Forest pages 389 to 393
   38. 86 Village Forests and Protected Forests pages 394 to 398
   39. 87 Forests That Are Not the Government's, and the Duty on Timber pages 399 to 404
   40. 88 Timber in Transit, and Drift and Stranded Timber pages 405 to 409
   41. 89 Forest Officers, Arrest, and the Presumption of Government Property pages 410 to 414
   42. 90 The Penalties, and the Rest of the Indian Forest Act pages 415 to 419
   43. 91 The Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam 1980 pages 420 to 424
   44. 92 Godavarman, and the Dictionary Meaning of Forest pages 425 to 429
   45. 93 The 2023 Amendment, and What Section 1A Took Out pages 430 to 434
   46. 94 Compensatory Afforestation and Net Present Value pages 435 to 440
   47. 95 The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Authorities pages 441 to 446
   48. 96 The National Forest Policy 1988 pages 447 to 452
   49. 97 Joint Forest Management, and the People Who Protect a Forest pages 453 to 458
   50. 98 The Ancient Monuments Act 1958: What Is Protected pages 459 to 464
   51. 99 The Owner, the Guardian and the Power to Acquire pages 465 to 470
   52. 100 The Prohibited Area, the Regulated Area and the 2010 Amendment pages 471 to 477
   53. 101 Archaeological Sites, Excavation and the Penalties pages 478 to 484
   54. 102 The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act 1972 pages 485 to 491
   55. 103 Seizure, Confiscation and the Offences Under the Antiquities Act pages 492 to 498
   56. 104 Natural Heritage, and the World Heritage Convention pages 499 to 505
   57. 105 The Judicial Approach: Taj Trapezium, the Viceregal Lodge and the Aminabad Park pages 506 to 511
   58. 106 Culture and Heritage: The Statutes, the Treaties and the Judgments Together pages 512 to 517

   Module III 35 chapters

   1. 107 Four Regimes, Not Two pages 518 to 521
   2. 108 The Tragedy of the Commons, and What Hardin Actually Described pages 522 to 525
   3. 109 Ostrom's Answer: Why a Commons Is Not Doomed pages 526 to 530
   4. 110 Res Communis, Res Nullius and Res Publicae pages 531 to 534
   5. 111 State Property: Eminent Domain, the Police Power and Escheat pages 535 to 539
   6. 112 The Public Trust Doctrine: M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath pages 540 to 544
   7. 113 The Doctrine Extended: The Beach, the Tank and the Park pages 545 to 549
   8. 114 Village Commons: The Pond That Was Filled In pages 550 to 554
   9. 115 Wildlife as Common Property, and Wildlife as State Property pages 555 to 559
   10. 116 The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972: The Officers and the Boards pages 560 to 565
   11. 117 The Prohibition of Hunting, and When It Is Permitted pages 566 to 570
   12. 118 Specified Plants pages 571 to 575
   13. 119 Declaring a Sanctuary, and Settling the Rights Inside It pages 576 to 580
   14. 120 What May Not Be Done Inside a Sanctuary pages 581 to 586
   15. 121 National Parks, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves pages 587 to 592
   16. 122 Zoos and the Central Zoo Authority pages 593 to 597
   17. 123 The National Tiger Conservation Authority, and the Critical Tiger Habitat pages 598 to 605
   18. 124 Ownership Certificates, Trophies and the Ban on Trade pages 606 to 612
   19. 125 CITES, and the 2022 Amendment pages 613 to 620
   20. 126 Offences, Penalties and Forfeiture pages 621 to 629
   21. 127 Wildlife as a Renewable Resource, and Where That Idea Stops pages 630 to 634
   22. 128 The Biological Diversity Act 2002: Who May Take a Biological Resource pages 635 to 640
   23. 129 The National Biodiversity Authority pages 641 to 646
   24. 130 State Boards, Management Committees and the People's Biodiversity Register pages 647 to 653
   25. 131 The 2023 Recast of the Biological Diversity Act pages 654 to 659
   26. 132 Tribal Habitats: Who a Forest Dweller Is pages 660 to 664
   27. 133 The Forest Rights Act 2006: The Thirteen Rights pages 665 to 670
   28. 134 The Gram Sabha, and How a Right Is Recognised pages 671 to 676
   29. 135 PESA 1996, and the Fifth Schedule pages 677 to 681
   30. 136 Critical Wildlife Habitats: Where the Two Acts Collide pages 682 to 686
   31. 137 Conservation of Flora and Fauna as a Common Property Question pages 687 to 691
   32. 138 Natural Heritage and Tribal Habitats Classified pages 692 to 696
   33. 139 Historical Monuments as Common Property and as State Property pages 697 to 701
   34. 140 Popular Movements: Chipko, Silent Valley, Narmada and Niyamgiri pages 702 to 707
   35. 141 What the Movements Changed in the Law Itself pages 708 to 712

   Module IV 33 chapters

   1. 142 Energy as a Resource pages 713 to 716
   2. 143 Energy in the Constitution pages 717 to 720
   3. 144 Conventional Energy: What It Is and What It Costs pages 721 to 724
   4. 145 Coal: Nationalisation, the Cancellation and Commercial Mining pages 725 to 729
   5. 146 Petroleum and Natural Gas pages 730 to 735
   6. 147 The Atomic Energy Act 1962 pages 736 to 742
   7. 148 Control Over Mining, Production and Radiation pages 743 to 750
   8. 149 Secrecy, Inventions and the Offences Under the Atomic Energy Act pages 751 to 757
   9. 150 Atomic Minerals, and Section 11B of the MMDR Act pages 758 to 763
   10. 151 The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010 pages 764 to 771
   11. 152 Section 17(b): The Supplier's Liability pages 772 to 776
   12. 153 The Claims Commissioner and the Nuclear Damage Claims Commission pages 777 to 783
   13. 154 The Offences, and the Bar on a Civil Court pages 784 to 789
   14. 155 Kudankulam: G. Sundarrajan, and What a Court Will Not Review pages 790 to 795
   15. 156 Non-Conventional Energy: The Six Sources pages 796 to 799
   16. 157 Wind Energy pages 800 to 804
   17. 158 Solar Energy, and the Land a Solar Park Needs pages 805 to 808
   18. 159 The Electricity Act 2003: The Scheme pages 809 to 813
   19. 160 Generation Without a Licence, and the Licence for Everything Else pages 814 to 820
   20. 161 Transmission, and the Load Despatch Centres pages 821 to 826
   21. 162 Distribution, the Duty to Supply and Open Access pages 827 to 832
   22. 163 Tariff, and Section 61(h) pages 833 to 837
   23. 164 The Central Electricity Authority and the Regulatory Commissions pages 838 to 845
   24. 165 Renewable Purchase Obligation and Renewable Energy Certificates pages 846 to 851
   25. 166 The Appellate Tribunal, Unauthorised Use, and the Rest of the Act pages 852 to 859
   26. 167 The Energy Conservation Act 2001: The Bureau pages 860 to 866
   27. 168 Standards, Labels, the Building Code and the Designated Consumer pages 867 to 874
   28. 169 Penalty, Adjudication and Appeal Under the Energy Conservation Act pages 875 to 882
   29. 170 Merits and Demerits of Conventional Energy pages 883 to 887
   30. 171 Merits and Demerits of Non-Conventional Energy pages 888 to 892
   31. 172 Generation, Transmission and Utilisation: Where the Energy Is Lost pages 893 to 898
   32. 173 Alternatives That Mitigate the Damage pages 899 to 904
   33. 174 The Transition: Net Zero, Green Hydrogen and a Just Transition pages 905 to 910
   Every paper that is solved: 7 papers

   • 2025-26
   • 2024
   • 2022
   • 2019
   • 2018
   • 2016
   • 2015

2. Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

   LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

   For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in Foundation Course

   Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. How to Read the Constitution 1
   2. What Federalism Is 6
   3. Is India a Federation? 10
   4. The Union and Its Territory 16
   5. Making and Remaking States 20
   6. The Legislative Lists 25
   7. Pith and Substance 30
   8. Colourable Legislation and Incidental Encroachment 35
   9. Repugnancy and the Occupied Field 40
   10. Residuary Power 45
   11. When Parliament May Legislate on a State Subject 49
   12. The Reach of a Legislature 54
   13. Administrative Relations and Federal Comity 58
   14. Inter-State Water Disputes 63
   15. The Inter-State Council and the Commissions 68
   16. Fiscal Federalism 72
   17. The Goods and Services Tax and Its Council 78
   18. Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse 83
   19. The Governor 88
   20. Emergency and the Federal Balance 94

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. President's Rule 100
   2. Article 370 105
   3. Asymmetric Federalism: Articles 371 to 371-J 110
   4. Union and State Disputes in Court 115
   5. Cooperative and Competitive Federalism 119
   6. Why the Definition of "State" Decides Everything 124
   7. The Named Authorities 128
   8. "Other Authorities": The Early Cases 132
   9. The Instrumentality Test 136
   10. The Retreat, and What Survived It 141
   11. Is the Judiciary "State"? 146
   12. Private Bodies and Public Functions 150
   13. Liberalisation, Privatisation and the Case for Widening Article 12 154
   14. Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights 159
   15. Eclipse, Severability and Waiver 164

   Module II

   1. The Equality Code 170
   2. Equality Before the Law and Equal Protection 174

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Reasonable Classification 178
   2. Arbitrariness 183
   3. Articles 15 and 16: The Prohibited Grounds 188
   4. Reservation in Education 192
   5. Reservation in Public Employment 196
   6. The Ceiling on Reservation 200
   7. The Creamy Layer 204
   8. Reservation in Promotion 209
   9. Economically Weaker Sections 213
   10. The Lists, and the Commissions That Watch Them 217
   11. Protective Discrimination 222
   12. Privatisation and Affirmative Action 226
   13. Saving of Laws: Articles 31A, 31B and 31C 231
   14. Untouchability and Titles 236
   15. The Empowerment of Women: The Constitutional Scheme 240
   16. Special Provision for Women 244
   17. Women at Work 248
   18. Sexual Harassment at the Workplace 253
   19. Women, Religion and Personal Law 258

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Women in Local Government 263
   2. The 106th Amendment, and Why It Has Not Started 267
   3. Freedom of Speech, and the Freedom of the Press Inside It 271
   4. The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction 275
   5. Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship 279
   6. The Press and the Legislature 283
   7. The Right to Information 287
   8. Speech Online 291
   9. Privacy, Surveillance and Data 296
   10. Hate Speech, Fake News and Broadcasting 300
   11. New Scientific Development and the Freedom of Speech 305

   Module III

   1. Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka 309
   2. Procedure Established by Law 315
   3. The Expansion of "Life" 320
   4. Livelihood and Shelter 325
   5. Health and the Environment 331
   6. Education Before Article 21A 337
   7. Article 21A and the Right to Education Act 343

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Privacy 349
   2. Dignity, Autonomy and the End of Life 354
   3. Article 20: The Protections of an Accused 360
   4. Preventive Detention 366
   5. The Right Against Exploitation 372
   6. Article 32 and the Writs 378
   7. Article 226 384
   8. Limits: Articles 33, 34 and 35 390
   9. Public Interest Litigation 396
   10. Compensatory Jurisprudence 402
   11. Continuing Mandamus and Judicial Guidelines 408
   12. Hartal and Bandh 414
   13. The Right to Property 420
   14. The Directive Principles 426
   15. The Fundamental Duties 432
   16. Who Is a Minority? 438
   17. Article 29: The Right to Conserve 444
   18. Article 30: To Establish and to Administer 450
   19. State Control and Regulation 456

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. The Eleven-Judge Answer 462
   2. After the Eleven-Judge Answer 467
   3. Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act 473
   4. Linguistic Minorities 479
   5. What Secularism Means Here 485
   6. Articles 25 and 26 491
   7. Essential Religious Practices 497
   8. Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction 503
   9. Secularism as a Basic Feature 509
   10. Religious Fanaticism 515
   11. A Uniform Civil Code 521

   Module IV

   1. Separation of Powers: The Doctrine 527
   2. The Indian Scheme 533
   3. Delegated Legislation 539
   4. Judicial Review 545
   5. Ultra Vires 551
   6. The Amending Power 557
   7. The Basic Structure 563

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. The Appointment of Judges 569
   2. The National Judicial Appointments Commission 575
   3. Transfer and Removal of Judges 581
   4. Judicial Independence 587
   5. Judicial Accountability 593
   6. Judicial Activism, Restraint and Overreach 599
   7. Legislative Privilege 605
   8. Advisory Jurisdiction 611
   9. Complete Justice: Article 142 617
   10. The Supreme Court 623
   11. The High Courts 629
   12. The Subordinate Judiciary 635
   13. Tribunals 640
   14. The Rule of Law 646
   15. Democracy and Free and Fair Elections 652
   16. The Election Commission 658
   17. Articles 325 to 329 664
   18. The Voter's Right to Know 670
   19. Electoral Reform and the Criminalisation of Politics 675

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. The Funding of Elections 681
   2. Defection and the Tenth Schedule 687
   3. Grass Root Democracy: The Panchayats 693
   4. Urban Local Government: The Municipalities 699
   5. The Nexus of Politics, Crime and Business 705
   6. The New Challenges 711

   Page 1 onwards

   715 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 715 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 136 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 35 chapters

   1. 1 How to Read the Constitution pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 What Federalism Is pages 6 to 9
   3. 3 Is India a Federation? pages 10 to 15
   4. 4 The Union and Its Territory pages 16 to 19
   5. 5 Making and Remaking States pages 20 to 24
   6. 6 The Legislative Lists pages 25 to 29
   7. 7 Pith and Substance pages 30 to 34
   8. 8 Colourable Legislation and Incidental Encroachment pages 35 to 39
   9. 9 Repugnancy and the Occupied Field pages 40 to 44
   10. 10 Residuary Power pages 45 to 48
   11. 11 When Parliament May Legislate on a State Subject pages 49 to 53
   12. 12 The Reach of a Legislature pages 54 to 57
   13. 13 Administrative Relations and Federal Comity pages 58 to 62
   14. 14 Inter-State Water Disputes pages 63 to 67
   15. 15 The Inter-State Council and the Commissions pages 68 to 71
   16. 16 Fiscal Federalism pages 72 to 77
   17. 17 The Goods and Services Tax and Its Council pages 78 to 82
   18. 18 Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse pages 83 to 87
   19. 19 The Governor pages 88 to 93
   20. 20 Emergency and the Federal Balance pages 94 to 99
   21. 21 President's Rule pages 100 to 104
   22. 22 Article 370 pages 105 to 109
   23. 23 Asymmetric Federalism: Articles 371 to 371-J pages 110 to 114
   24. 24 Union and State Disputes in Court pages 115 to 118
   25. 25 Cooperative and Competitive Federalism pages 119 to 123
   26. 26 Why the Definition of "State" Decides Everything pages 124 to 127
   27. 27 The Named Authorities pages 128 to 131
   28. 28 "Other Authorities": The Early Cases pages 132 to 135
   29. 29 The Instrumentality Test pages 136 to 140
   30. 30 The Retreat, and What Survived It pages 141 to 145
   31. 31 Is the Judiciary "State"? pages 146 to 149
   32. 32 Private Bodies and Public Functions pages 150 to 153
   33. 33 Liberalisation, Privatisation and the Case for Widening Article 12 pages 154 to 158
   34. 34 Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights pages 159 to 163
   35. 35 Eclipse, Severability and Waiver pages 164 to 169

   Module II 32 chapters

   1. 36 The Equality Code pages 170 to 173
   2. 37 Equality Before the Law and Equal Protection pages 174 to 177
   3. 38 Reasonable Classification pages 178 to 182
   4. 39 Arbitrariness pages 183 to 187
   5. 40 Articles 15 and 16: The Prohibited Grounds pages 188 to 191
   6. 41 Reservation in Education pages 192 to 195
   7. 42 Reservation in Public Employment pages 196 to 199
   8. 43 The Ceiling on Reservation pages 200 to 203
   9. 44 The Creamy Layer pages 204 to 208
   10. 45 Reservation in Promotion pages 209 to 212
   11. 46 Economically Weaker Sections pages 213 to 216
   12. 47 The Lists, and the Commissions That Watch Them pages 217 to 221
   13. 48 Protective Discrimination pages 222 to 225
   14. 49 Privatisation and Affirmative Action pages 226 to 230
   15. 50 Saving of Laws: Articles 31A, 31B and 31C pages 231 to 235
   16. 51 Untouchability and Titles pages 236 to 239
   17. 52 The Empowerment of Women: The Constitutional Scheme pages 240 to 243
   18. 53 Special Provision for Women pages 244 to 247
   19. 54 Women at Work pages 248 to 252
   20. 55 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace pages 253 to 257
   21. 56 Women, Religion and Personal Law pages 258 to 262
   22. 57 Women in Local Government pages 263 to 266
   23. 58 The 106th Amendment, and Why It Has Not Started pages 267 to 270
   24. 59 Freedom of Speech, and the Freedom of the Press Inside It pages 271 to 274
   25. 60 The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction pages 275 to 278
   26. 61 Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship pages 279 to 282
   27. 62 The Press and the Legislature pages 283 to 286
   28. 63 The Right to Information pages 287 to 290
   29. 64 Speech Online pages 291 to 295
   30. 65 Privacy, Surveillance and Data pages 296 to 299
   31. 66 Hate Speech, Fake News and Broadcasting pages 300 to 304
   32. 67 New Scientific Development and the Freedom of Speech pages 305 to 308

   Module III 37 chapters

   1. 68 Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka pages 309 to 314
   2. 69 Procedure Established by Law pages 315 to 319
   3. 70 The Expansion of "Life" pages 320 to 324
   4. 71 Livelihood and Shelter pages 325 to 330
   5. 72 Health and the Environment pages 331 to 336
   6. 73 Education Before Article 21A pages 337 to 342
   7. 74 Article 21A and the Right to Education Act pages 343 to 348
   8. 75 Privacy pages 349 to 353
   9. 76 Dignity, Autonomy and the End of Life pages 354 to 359
   10. 77 Article 20: The Protections of an Accused pages 360 to 365
   11. 78 Preventive Detention pages 366 to 371
   12. 79 The Right Against Exploitation pages 372 to 377
   13. 80 Article 32 and the Writs pages 378 to 383
   14. 81 Article 226 pages 384 to 389
   15. 82 Limits: Articles 33, 34 and 35 pages 390 to 395
   16. 83 Public Interest Litigation pages 396 to 401
   17. 84 Compensatory Jurisprudence pages 402 to 407
   18. 85 Continuing Mandamus and Judicial Guidelines pages 408 to 413
   19. 86 Hartal and Bandh pages 414 to 419
   20. 87 The Right to Property pages 420 to 425
   21. 88 The Directive Principles pages 426 to 431
   22. 89 The Fundamental Duties pages 432 to 437
   23. 90 Who Is a Minority? pages 438 to 443
   24. 91 Article 29: The Right to Conserve pages 444 to 449
   25. 92 Article 30: To Establish and to Administer pages 450 to 455
   26. 93 State Control and Regulation pages 456 to 461
   27. 94 The Eleven-Judge Answer pages 462 to 466
   28. 95 After the Eleven-Judge Answer pages 467 to 472
   29. 96 Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act pages 473 to 478
   30. 97 Linguistic Minorities pages 479 to 484
   31. 98 What Secularism Means Here pages 485 to 490
   32. 99 Articles 25 and 26 pages 491 to 496
   33. 100 Essential Religious Practices pages 497 to 502
   34. 101 Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction pages 503 to 508
   35. 102 Secularism as a Basic Feature pages 509 to 514
   36. 103 Religious Fanaticism pages 515 to 520
   37. 104 A Uniform Civil Code pages 521 to 526

   Module IV 32 chapters

   1. 105 Separation of Powers: The Doctrine pages 527 to 532
   2. 106 The Indian Scheme pages 533 to 538
   3. 107 Delegated Legislation pages 539 to 544
   4. 108 Judicial Review pages 545 to 550
   5. 109 Ultra Vires pages 551 to 556
   6. 110 The Amending Power pages 557 to 562
   7. 111 The Basic Structure pages 563 to 568
   8. 112 The Appointment of Judges pages 569 to 574
   9. 113 The National Judicial Appointments Commission pages 575 to 580
   10. 114 Transfer and Removal of Judges pages 581 to 586
   11. 115 Judicial Independence pages 587 to 592
   12. 116 Judicial Accountability pages 593 to 598
   13. 117 Judicial Activism, Restraint and Overreach pages 599 to 604
   14. 118 Legislative Privilege pages 605 to 610
   15. 119 Advisory Jurisdiction pages 611 to 616
   16. 120 Complete Justice: Article 142 pages 617 to 622
   17. 121 The Supreme Court pages 623 to 628
   18. 122 The High Courts pages 629 to 634
   19. 123 The Subordinate Judiciary pages 635 to 639
   20. 124 Tribunals pages 640 to 645
   21. 125 The Rule of Law pages 646 to 651
   22. 126 Democracy and Free and Fair Elections pages 652 to 657
   23. 127 The Election Commission pages 658 to 663
   24. 128 Articles 325 to 329 pages 664 to 669
   25. 129 The Voter's Right to Know pages 670 to 674
   26. 130 Electoral Reform and the Criminalisation of Politics pages 675 to 680
   27. 131 The Funding of Elections pages 681 to 686
   28. 132 Defection and the Tenth Schedule pages 687 to 692
   29. 133 Grass Root Democracy: The Panchayats pages 693 to 698
   30. 134 Urban Local Government: The Municipalities pages 699 to 704
   31. 135 The Nexus of Politics, Crime and Business pages 705 to 710
   32. 136 The New Challenges pages 711 to 715
   Every paper that is solved: 17 papers

   • 2025-26 - Group I
   • 2025-26 - Group II
   • 2025-26 - Group III
   • 2025-26 - Group IV
   • 2025-26 - Group V
   • 2025-26 - Group VI
   • 2024-25
   • 2024 - Group I
   • 2024 - Group II
   • 2024 - Group III
   • 2024 - Group V
   • 2023
   • 2022
   • 2019
   • 2018
   • 2016
   • 2015

3. Law and Social Transformation of India

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Law and Social Transformation of India

   LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

   For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in Foundation Course

   Law and Social Transformation of India

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. Law and Society: How Each Shapes the Other 1
   2. Law as an Instrument of Social Change 6
   3. What Law Cannot Do: The Limits of Legislating Change 12
   4. Law as the Product of Tradition and Culture 17
   5. Custom as a Source of Law 22
   6. Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering 26
   7. Pound's Scheme of Interests 30
   8. The Criticisms of Social Engineering 34
   9. Bentham, Marx and Ehrlich: The Other Answers 38
   10. The Preamble: The Charter of Transformation 43
   11. The Directive Principles and the Welfare State 47
   12. Social Security Legislation 53
   13. The Fundamental Duties 57
   14. The Judiciary as an Engine of Social Change 61
   15. Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation 66
   16. Social Justice 70
   17. Religion and the Law: The Two Questions 74
   18. Freedom of Religion: Articles 25 to 28 78
   19. The Essential Religious Practices Doctrine 83
   20. Secularism 88

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. The State and Religion: No State Religion 92
   2. Religion as a Divisive Factor 95
   3. No Discrimination on the Ground of Religion 99
   4. Who Is a Minority 103
   5. Articles 29 and 30: The Minority's Educational Rights 107
   6. The National Commission for Minorities 111
   7. Conversion and the Law 115
   8. Personal Law: What It Is, and Why India Has Several 119
   9. The Hindu Code Bills 124
   10. Muslim Personal Law and Maintenance: Shah Bano to Danial Latifi 128
   11. Triple Talaq 134
   12. Christian and Parsi Law, and the Special Marriage Act 139
   13. The Uniform Civil Code 143
   14. Religious Freedom against Social Reform 148
   15. Temple Entry 152
   16. Places of Worship, and the Character Frozen in 1947 157

   Module II

   1. Language and the Law: Why a Country Legislates about Language 162

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Language as a Divisive Factor 167
   2. The Official Language of the Union 171
   3. The Official Languages Act 1963 176
   4. Many Languages, One Union 181
   5. Constitutional Guarantees to Linguistic Minorities 185
   6. The Formation of Linguistic States 190
   7. The Commissions That Redrew the Map 194
   8. The Medium of Instruction 199
   9. Enforcing Language Rights 204
   10. Regionalism, and India as One Unit 208
   11. The Language of the Courts and of the Statute Book 212
   12. Community and the Law: Caste, Tribe and a Plural Society 217
   13. Caste as a Divisive Factor 222
   14. Non-discrimination on the Ground of Caste 226
   15. Untouchability, and the Act That Abolished It 230
   16. The Atrocities Act 1989 236
   17. Manual Scavenging and Bonded Labour 242
   18. Reservation: The Constitutional Scheme 247
   19. Protective Discrimination 251

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Backward Classes, the Creamy Layer and the Ceiling 255
   2. Reservation in Promotion, and the Ten Per Cent for the Economically Weaker 260
   3. Substantive Equality 265
   4. The Safeguards: Seats, Services and Commissions 269
   5. Tribal India: The Fifth and Sixth Schedules 274
   6. Land, Forest and the Gram Sabha's Consent 281
   7. The Naxalite Movement: Origin and Development 289
   8. The Causes: Land, Dispossession and the Failure of Law 294
   9. The Cure: What the State Has Tried 301
   10. Internal Security, Social Justice and Development 307
   11. The Human Rights Commissions 314

   Module III

   1. Women and the Law: Where the Constitution Started 320
   2. Article 15(3): Special Provision for Women 326
   3. Gender Injustice and Its Forms 331
   4. Dignity and the Right to Privacy 336
   5. Empowerment of Women 341
   6. Women in Public Employment and the Armed Forces 346

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Equal Pay and Maternity Benefit 352
   2. Sexual Harassment at the Workplace 357
   3. Crimes against Women 366
   4. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013 373
   5. Dowry 379
   6. Domestic Violence 386
   7. Sati 395
   8. Sex Selection and the Missing Daughters 401
   9. Reproductive Autonomy 408
   10. Trafficking and Prostitution 415
   11. Indecent Representation 423
   12. The National Commission for Women 429
   13. Women in the Legislatures 435
   14. Women's Property Rights 441
   15. Adultery and Marital Autonomy 448
   16. Who Counts as a Woman 454
   17. The Judiciary and Women's Rights: The Record 461
   18. Children and the Law: The Child as a Rights-Holder 467
   19. The Constitution and the Child 472

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. India and the Convention on the Rights of the Child 477
   2. Child Abuse 483
   3. The Sexual Exploitation of Children 489
   4. POCSO: Objects and Scheme 495
   5. How Far POCSO Has Worked 504
   6. Child Labour: Causes and Consequences 510
   7. The Law against Child Labour 515
   8. The Courts and the Enforcement against Child Labour 522
   9. The Right to Education 528
   10. Juvenile Justice 537
   11. The Child in Need of Care and Protection 547
   12. Adoption 557
   13. Inter-country Adoption 564
   14. The Child Rights Commissions 570
   15. Child Marriage 577

   Module IV

   1. Modernisation and the Law 584
   2. Modernisation as a Value 589
   3. Modernising Social Institutions Through Law 595

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Agrarian Reform: Abolishing the Intermediary 600
   2. Ceilings, Tenancy and Redistribution 606
   3. The Ninth Schedule and the Property Amendments 611
   4. Industrialisation and the Law 618
   5. Industrialisation against Environmental Protection 624
   6. What the Courts Built out of Article 21 631
   7. Industrialisation and the Sustainable Development Goals 638
   8. Urbanisation and the Pavement Dweller 643
   9. Science, Technology and the Law Behind Them 651
   10. Democratic Decentralisation and Local Self-Government 657
   11. The Prison in India 664
   12. The Committees on Prison Reform 671
   13. The Prisoner's Rights 677
   14. Alternative Approaches to Law 685
   15. Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code 690
   16. The Types of Alternative Dispute Mechanism, and What Each Is Good For 696
   17. Arbitration 701
   18. Mediation and Conciliation 708
   19. Lok Adalat 716

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Legal Aid 724
   2. Nyaya Panchayats 734
   3. Gram Nyayalayas 740
   4. Plea Bargaining 752
   5. Reform of Court Processes and of the Justice Delivery System 761
   6. Legal Pluralism, and the Forums the State Did Not Create 770

   Page 1 onwards

   778 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 778 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 135 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 36 chapters

   1. 1 Law and Society: How Each Shapes the Other pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 Law as an Instrument of Social Change pages 6 to 11
   3. 3 What Law Cannot Do: The Limits of Legislating Change pages 12 to 16
   4. 4 Law as the Product of Tradition and Culture pages 17 to 21
   5. 5 Custom as a Source of Law pages 22 to 25
   6. 6 Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering pages 26 to 29
   7. 7 Pound's Scheme of Interests pages 30 to 33
   8. 8 The Criticisms of Social Engineering pages 34 to 37
   9. 9 Bentham, Marx and Ehrlich: The Other Answers pages 38 to 42
   10. 10 The Preamble: The Charter of Transformation pages 43 to 46
   11. 11 The Directive Principles and the Welfare State pages 47 to 52
   12. 12 Social Security Legislation pages 53 to 56
   13. 13 The Fundamental Duties pages 57 to 60
   14. 14 The Judiciary as an Engine of Social Change pages 61 to 65
   15. 15 Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation pages 66 to 69
   16. 16 Social Justice pages 70 to 73
   17. 17 Religion and the Law: The Two Questions pages 74 to 77
   18. 18 Freedom of Religion: Articles 25 to 28 pages 78 to 82
   19. 19 The Essential Religious Practices Doctrine pages 83 to 87
   20. 20 Secularism pages 88 to 91
   21. 21 The State and Religion: No State Religion pages 92 to 94
   22. 22 Religion as a Divisive Factor pages 95 to 98
   23. 23 No Discrimination on the Ground of Religion pages 99 to 102
   24. 24 Who Is a Minority pages 103 to 106
   25. 25 Articles 29 and 30: The Minority's Educational Rights pages 107 to 110
   26. 26 The National Commission for Minorities pages 111 to 114
   27. 27 Conversion and the Law pages 115 to 118
   28. 28 Personal Law: What It Is, and Why India Has Several pages 119 to 123
   29. 29 The Hindu Code Bills pages 124 to 127
   30. 30 Muslim Personal Law and Maintenance: Shah Bano to Danial Latifi pages 128 to 133
   31. 31 Triple Talaq pages 134 to 138
   32. 32 Christian and Parsi Law, and the Special Marriage Act pages 139 to 142
   33. 33 The Uniform Civil Code pages 143 to 147
   34. 34 Religious Freedom against Social Reform pages 148 to 151
   35. 35 Temple Entry pages 152 to 156
   36. 36 Places of Worship, and the Character Frozen in 1947 pages 157 to 161

   Module II 31 chapters

   1. 37 Language and the Law: Why a Country Legislates about Language pages 162 to 166
   2. 38 Language as a Divisive Factor pages 167 to 170
   3. 39 The Official Language of the Union pages 171 to 175
   4. 40 The Official Languages Act 1963 pages 176 to 180
   5. 41 Many Languages, One Union pages 181 to 184
   6. 42 Constitutional Guarantees to Linguistic Minorities pages 185 to 189
   7. 43 The Formation of Linguistic States pages 190 to 193
   8. 44 The Commissions That Redrew the Map pages 194 to 198
   9. 45 The Medium of Instruction pages 199 to 203
   10. 46 Enforcing Language Rights pages 204 to 207
   11. 47 Regionalism, and India as One Unit pages 208 to 211
   12. 48 The Language of the Courts and of the Statute Book pages 212 to 216
   13. 49 Community and the Law: Caste, Tribe and a Plural Society pages 217 to 221
   14. 50 Caste as a Divisive Factor pages 222 to 225
   15. 51 Non-discrimination on the Ground of Caste pages 226 to 229
   16. 52 Untouchability, and the Act That Abolished It pages 230 to 235
   17. 53 The Atrocities Act 1989 pages 236 to 241
   18. 54 Manual Scavenging and Bonded Labour pages 242 to 246
   19. 55 Reservation: The Constitutional Scheme pages 247 to 250
   20. 56 Protective Discrimination pages 251 to 254
   21. 57 Backward Classes, the Creamy Layer and the Ceiling pages 255 to 259
   22. 58 Reservation in Promotion, and the Ten Per Cent for the Economically Weaker pages 260 to 264
   23. 59 Substantive Equality pages 265 to 268
   24. 60 The Safeguards: Seats, Services and Commissions pages 269 to 273
   25. 61 Tribal India: The Fifth and Sixth Schedules pages 274 to 280
   26. 62 Land, Forest and the Gram Sabha's Consent pages 281 to 288
   27. 63 The Naxalite Movement: Origin and Development pages 289 to 293
   28. 64 The Causes: Land, Dispossession and the Failure of Law pages 294 to 300
   29. 65 The Cure: What the State Has Tried pages 301 to 306
   30. 66 Internal Security, Social Justice and Development pages 307 to 313
   31. 67 The Human Rights Commissions pages 314 to 319

   Module III 40 chapters

   1. 68 Women and the Law: Where the Constitution Started pages 320 to 325
   2. 69 Article 15(3): Special Provision for Women pages 326 to 330
   3. 70 Gender Injustice and Its Forms pages 331 to 335
   4. 71 Dignity and the Right to Privacy pages 336 to 340
   5. 72 Empowerment of Women pages 341 to 345
   6. 73 Women in Public Employment and the Armed Forces pages 346 to 351
   7. 74 Equal Pay and Maternity Benefit pages 352 to 356
   8. 75 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace pages 357 to 365
   9. 76 Crimes against Women pages 366 to 372
   10. 77 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013 pages 373 to 378
   11. 78 Dowry pages 379 to 385
   12. 79 Domestic Violence pages 386 to 394
   13. 80 Sati pages 395 to 400
   14. 81 Sex Selection and the Missing Daughters pages 401 to 407
   15. 82 Reproductive Autonomy pages 408 to 414
   16. 83 Trafficking and Prostitution pages 415 to 422
   17. 84 Indecent Representation pages 423 to 428
   18. 85 The National Commission for Women pages 429 to 434
   19. 86 Women in the Legislatures pages 435 to 440
   20. 87 Women's Property Rights pages 441 to 447
   21. 88 Adultery and Marital Autonomy pages 448 to 453
   22. 89 Who Counts as a Woman pages 454 to 460
   23. 90 The Judiciary and Women's Rights: The Record pages 461 to 466
   24. 91 Children and the Law: The Child as a Rights-Holder pages 467 to 471
   25. 92 The Constitution and the Child pages 472 to 476
   26. 93 India and the Convention on the Rights of the Child pages 477 to 482
   27. 94 Child Abuse pages 483 to 488
   28. 95 The Sexual Exploitation of Children pages 489 to 494
   29. 96 POCSO: Objects and Scheme pages 495 to 503
   30. 97 How Far POCSO Has Worked pages 504 to 509
   31. 98 Child Labour: Causes and Consequences pages 510 to 514
   32. 99 The Law against Child Labour pages 515 to 521
   33. 100 The Courts and the Enforcement against Child Labour pages 522 to 527
   34. 101 The Right to Education pages 528 to 536
   35. 102 Juvenile Justice pages 537 to 546
   36. 103 The Child in Need of Care and Protection pages 547 to 556
   37. 104 Adoption pages 557 to 563
   38. 105 Inter-country Adoption pages 564 to 569
   39. 106 The Child Rights Commissions pages 570 to 576
   40. 107 Child Marriage pages 577 to 583

   Module IV 28 chapters

   1. 108 Modernisation and the Law pages 584 to 588
   2. 109 Modernisation as a Value pages 589 to 594
   3. 110 Modernising Social Institutions Through Law pages 595 to 599
   4. 111 Agrarian Reform: Abolishing the Intermediary pages 600 to 605
   5. 112 Ceilings, Tenancy and Redistribution pages 606 to 610
   6. 113 The Ninth Schedule and the Property Amendments pages 611 to 617
   7. 114 Industrialisation and the Law pages 618 to 623
   8. 115 Industrialisation against Environmental Protection pages 624 to 630
   9. 116 What the Courts Built out of Article 21 pages 631 to 637
   10. 117 Industrialisation and the Sustainable Development Goals pages 638 to 642
   11. 118 Urbanisation and the Pavement Dweller pages 643 to 650
   12. 119 Science, Technology and the Law Behind Them pages 651 to 656
   13. 120 Democratic Decentralisation and Local Self-Government pages 657 to 663
   14. 121 The Prison in India pages 664 to 670
   15. 122 The Committees on Prison Reform pages 671 to 676
   16. 123 The Prisoner's Rights pages 677 to 684
   17. 124 Alternative Approaches to Law pages 685 to 689
   18. 125 Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code pages 690 to 695
   19. 126 The Types of Alternative Dispute Mechanism, and What Each Is Good For pages 696 to 700
   20. 127 Arbitration pages 701 to 707
   21. 128 Mediation and Conciliation pages 708 to 715
   22. 129 Lok Adalat pages 716 to 723
   23. 130 Legal Aid pages 724 to 733
   24. 131 Nyaya Panchayats pages 734 to 739
   25. 132 Gram Nyayalayas pages 740 to 751
   26. 133 Plea Bargaining pages 752 to 760
   27. 134 Reform of Court Processes and of the Justice Delivery System pages 761 to 769
   28. 135 Legal Pluralism, and the Forums the State Did Not Create pages 770 to 778
   Every paper that is solved: 17 papers

   • 2025-26 - Group I
   • 2025-26 - Group II
   • 2025-26 - Group III
   • 2025-26 - Group IV
   • 2025-26 - Group V
   • 2025-26 - Group VI
   • 2024-25
   • 2024 - Group I
   • 2024 - Group II
   • 2024 - Group III
   • 2024 - Group V
   • 2023
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   • 2018
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   • 2015

4. Environment and Development Law and Policy

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Environment and Development Law and Policy

   LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

   For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in Group 6 Environment and Legal Order

   Environment and Development Law and Policy

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What This Paper Is About 1
   2. What Environment Means 5
   3. Environment in Law: The Statutory Definition 9
   4. Ecology, Ecosystem and Biosphere 13
   5. The Conventional Idea of Environment 17
   6. The Modern Concept of Environment 22
   7. The Modern Conflicting Dimensions 26
   8. Environment in the Vedas and the Upanishads 30
   9. Kautilya's Arthashastra and the First Forest Administration 34
   10. Ashoka, Manu and the Duty to the Non-Human World 38
   11. Buddhist and Jain Thought, and the Sacred Grove 42
   12. Traditions and Customs as Environmental Protection 46
   13. The Medieval Centuries 50
   14. What the Ancient Material Is Actually Worth 54
   15. The Colonial Century and the First Statutes 58
   16. Environmental Degradation in India Today 63
   17. Emerging Issues and Challenges 67
   18. Climate Change as an Emerging Issue 71
   19. Anthropocentric and Ecocentric: Whose Interest Does the Law Protect 76
   20. Environmental Ethics 80

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. What Environmental Jurisprudence Means 84
   2. What Development Means 88
   3. Growth, Development and the Human Development Idea 92
   4. Developing Economies and the Protection of Environment 96
   5. The Right to Development 100
   6. Environment Against Development 104
   7. Stockholm 1972: The Conference 108
   8. The Stockholm Declaration: The Proclamation 112
   9. The Stockholm Principles 1 to 13 116
   10. The Stockholm Principles 14 to 26 120
   11. What Stockholm Changed 124
   12. Between Stockholm and Rio 128
   13. The Brundtland Report and the Definition 132
   14. The Rio Earth Summit 1992 136
   15. The Rio Declaration: Principles 1 to 14 139
   16. The Rio Declaration: Principles 15 to 27 143
   17. Agenda 21 and What Rio Left Behind 148
   18. From Rio to Johannesburg, and the Millennium Goals 152
   19. Rio+20 and The Future We Want 156

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. The Sustainable Development Goals 160
   2. Sustainable Development: The Salient Features 164
   3. Intergenerational Equity 168
   4. Intragenerational Equity and Common but Differentiated Responsibility 173
   5. The Precautionary Principle 178
   6. The Precautionary Principle in the Indian Courts 182
   7. The Polluter Pays Principle 187
   8. The Public Trust Doctrine 192
   9. The Public Trust Doctrine in India 196
   10. Sustainable Development in Indian Law 201
   11. Narmada and the Limits of the Doctrine 206
   12. Environmental Justice 210
   13. Environmental Improvement Through Economic Incentives 214
   14. Environmental Impact Assessment 218
   15. The EIA Notification 2006 in Outline 222

   Module II

   1. Policy and Law: What Each Is 226
   2. How a Policy Becomes Enforceable 230

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Environmental Policy Before Independence 234
   2. The Five Year Plans and the Environment 238
   3. What Stockholm Changed Inside the Government of India 242
   4. The Forest Policies of 1894 and 1952 245
   5. The National Forest Policy 1988 249
   6. Joint Forest Management 254
   7. The Draft National Forest Policy 2018 258
   8. The Government and the Forests 262
   9. The National Water Policy 1987 and 2002 266
   10. The National Water Policy 2012 269
   11. Water Policy and the Federal Problem 274
   12. The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement 1992 278
   13. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution 1992 282
   14. The National Environment Policy 2006 285
   15. The National Action Plan on Climate Change 290
   16. India's Climate Commitments After Paris 294
   17. The Role of Government in Protecting the Environment 298
   18. The Water Act 1974 303
   19. The Air Act 1981 308

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 313
   2. What Was Done Under Section 3 319
   3. The Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 322
   4. The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 328
   5. The Biological Diversity Act 2002 333
   6. The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 338
   7. The National Green Tribunal 342
   8. Absolute Liability: The Oleum Gas Leak Case 348
   9. Absolute Liability Applied: Bichhri and After 353
   10. The Pollution Control Boards 358
   11. Why Environmental Policy Under-Performs 363

   Module III

   1. Population, Environment and Development 368
   2. How Many People There Are 372
   3. Population Explosion: What the Phrase Means 376
   4. The Demographic Transition 379
   5. Malthus and His Critics 383
   6. Carrying Capacity and the Ecological Footprint 387
   7. Population and Land 391

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Population and Food 395
   2. Population and Water 399
   3. Population and Forest 403
   4. Population, Urbanisation and the City 407
   5. Population, Waste and Sanitation 412
   6. Population, Air and Energy 416
   7. Poverty, Population and the Environment 420
   8. Consumption Against Numbers 424
   9. Population and Socio-Economic Development 428
   10. Family Planning in India 432
   11. The Emergency and What It Cost 436
   12. The National Population Policy 2000 440
   13. The Two-Child Norm and Javed 444
   14. The Other Population Statutes 448
   15. Can Law Control Population 453
   16. What Actually Brings the Birth Rate Down 457

   Module IV

   1. The Constitution and the Environment in 1950 462
   2. The Forty-Second Amendment 1976 467

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Article 48A 471
   2. The Other Directive Principles 476
   3. Article 51A(g) 480
   4. Are the Principles and the Duties Enforceable 485
   5. Article 21 and the Right to a Wholesome Environment 490
   6. How the Right Was Built, Case by Case 495
   7. Ratlam and the Duty to Perform 501
   8. Article 14 and Arbitrary Environmental Decisions 505
   9. Article 19(1)(g) and the Trade That Must Stop 511
   10. Articles 32 and 226 516
   11. Public Interest Litigation 521
   12. PIL and the Environment 525
   13. Judicial Activism 530
   14. The Doctrines the Courts Built 535
   15. The Public Trust Doctrine and the Constitution 541
   16. Continuing Mandamus and the Court's Own Tools 546
   17. Compensation Under Article 32 552
   18. The Legislative Lists and Article 253 557
   19. Environmental Federalism 563

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Panchayats, Municipalities and the Two Schedules 568
   2. Flora and Fauna in the Constitution 574
   3. The Right Against the Adverse Effects of Climate Change 580
   4. What the Constitutional Route Cannot Do 585
   5. How to Answer This Paper 591

   Page 1 onwards

   596 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 596 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 135 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 54 chapters

   1. 1 What This Paper Is About pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 What Environment Means pages 5 to 8
   3. 3 Environment in Law: The Statutory Definition pages 9 to 12
   4. 4 Ecology, Ecosystem and Biosphere pages 13 to 16
   5. 5 The Conventional Idea of Environment pages 17 to 21
   6. 6 The Modern Concept of Environment pages 22 to 25
   7. 7 The Modern Conflicting Dimensions pages 26 to 29
   8. 8 Environment in the Vedas and the Upanishads pages 30 to 33
   9. 9 Kautilya's Arthashastra and the First Forest Administration pages 34 to 37
   10. 10 Ashoka, Manu and the Duty to the Non-Human World pages 38 to 41
   11. 11 Buddhist and Jain Thought, and the Sacred Grove pages 42 to 45
   12. 12 Traditions and Customs as Environmental Protection pages 46 to 49
   13. 13 The Medieval Centuries pages 50 to 53
   14. 14 What the Ancient Material Is Actually Worth pages 54 to 57
   15. 15 The Colonial Century and the First Statutes pages 58 to 62
   16. 16 Environmental Degradation in India Today pages 63 to 66
   17. 17 Emerging Issues and Challenges pages 67 to 70
   18. 18 Climate Change as an Emerging Issue pages 71 to 75
   19. 19 Anthropocentric and Ecocentric: Whose Interest Does the Law Protect pages 76 to 79
   20. 20 Environmental Ethics pages 80 to 83
   21. 21 What Environmental Jurisprudence Means pages 84 to 87
   22. 22 What Development Means pages 88 to 91
   23. 23 Growth, Development and the Human Development Idea pages 92 to 95
   24. 24 Developing Economies and the Protection of Environment pages 96 to 99
   25. 25 The Right to Development pages 100 to 103
   26. 26 Environment Against Development pages 104 to 107
   27. 27 Stockholm 1972: The Conference pages 108 to 111
   28. 28 The Stockholm Declaration: The Proclamation pages 112 to 115
   29. 29 The Stockholm Principles 1 to 13 pages 116 to 119
   30. 30 The Stockholm Principles 14 to 26 pages 120 to 123
   31. 31 What Stockholm Changed pages 124 to 127
   32. 32 Between Stockholm and Rio pages 128 to 131
   33. 33 The Brundtland Report and the Definition pages 132 to 135
   34. 34 The Rio Earth Summit 1992 pages 136 to 138
   35. 35 The Rio Declaration: Principles 1 to 14 pages 139 to 142
   36. 36 The Rio Declaration: Principles 15 to 27 pages 143 to 147
   37. 37 Agenda 21 and What Rio Left Behind pages 148 to 151
   38. 38 From Rio to Johannesburg, and the Millennium Goals pages 152 to 155
   39. 39 Rio+20 and The Future We Want pages 156 to 159
   40. 40 The Sustainable Development Goals pages 160 to 163
   41. 41 Sustainable Development: The Salient Features pages 164 to 167
   42. 42 Intergenerational Equity pages 168 to 172
   43. 43 Intragenerational Equity and Common but Differentiated Responsibility pages 173 to 177
   44. 44 The Precautionary Principle pages 178 to 181
   45. 45 The Precautionary Principle in the Indian Courts pages 182 to 186
   46. 46 The Polluter Pays Principle pages 187 to 191
   47. 47 The Public Trust Doctrine pages 192 to 195
   48. 48 The Public Trust Doctrine in India pages 196 to 200
   49. 49 Sustainable Development in Indian Law pages 201 to 205
   50. 50 Narmada and the Limits of the Doctrine pages 206 to 209
   51. 51 Environmental Justice pages 210 to 213
   52. 52 Environmental Improvement Through Economic Incentives pages 214 to 217
   53. 53 Environmental Impact Assessment pages 218 to 221
   54. 54 The EIA Notification 2006 in Outline pages 222 to 225

   Module II 32 chapters

   1. 55 Policy and Law: What Each Is pages 226 to 229
   2. 56 How a Policy Becomes Enforceable pages 230 to 233
   3. 57 Environmental Policy Before Independence pages 234 to 237
   4. 58 The Five Year Plans and the Environment pages 238 to 241
   5. 59 What Stockholm Changed Inside the Government of India pages 242 to 244
   6. 60 The Forest Policies of 1894 and 1952 pages 245 to 248
   7. 61 The National Forest Policy 1988 pages 249 to 253
   8. 62 Joint Forest Management pages 254 to 257
   9. 63 The Draft National Forest Policy 2018 pages 258 to 261
   10. 64 The Government and the Forests pages 262 to 265
   11. 65 The National Water Policy 1987 and 2002 pages 266 to 268
   12. 66 The National Water Policy 2012 pages 269 to 273
   13. 67 Water Policy and the Federal Problem pages 274 to 277
   14. 68 The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement 1992 pages 278 to 281
   15. 69 The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution 1992 pages 282 to 284
   16. 70 The National Environment Policy 2006 pages 285 to 289
   17. 71 The National Action Plan on Climate Change pages 290 to 293
   18. 72 India's Climate Commitments After Paris pages 294 to 297
   19. 73 The Role of Government in Protecting the Environment pages 298 to 302
   20. 74 The Water Act 1974 pages 303 to 307
   21. 75 The Air Act 1981 pages 308 to 312
   22. 76 The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 pages 313 to 318
   23. 77 What Was Done Under Section 3 pages 319 to 321
   24. 78 The Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 pages 322 to 327
   25. 79 The Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 pages 328 to 332
   26. 80 The Biological Diversity Act 2002 pages 333 to 337
   27. 81 The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 pages 338 to 341
   28. 82 The National Green Tribunal pages 342 to 347
   29. 83 Absolute Liability: The Oleum Gas Leak Case pages 348 to 352
   30. 84 Absolute Liability Applied: Bichhri and After pages 353 to 357
   31. 85 The Pollution Control Boards pages 358 to 362
   32. 86 Why Environmental Policy Under-Performs pages 363 to 367

   Module III 23 chapters

   1. 87 Population, Environment and Development pages 368 to 371
   2. 88 How Many People There Are pages 372 to 375
   3. 89 Population Explosion: What the Phrase Means pages 376 to 378
   4. 90 The Demographic Transition pages 379 to 382
   5. 91 Malthus and His Critics pages 383 to 386
   6. 92 Carrying Capacity and the Ecological Footprint pages 387 to 390
   7. 93 Population and Land pages 391 to 394
   8. 94 Population and Food pages 395 to 398
   9. 95 Population and Water pages 399 to 402
   10. 96 Population and Forest pages 403 to 406
   11. 97 Population, Urbanisation and the City pages 407 to 411
   12. 98 Population, Waste and Sanitation pages 412 to 415
   13. 99 Population, Air and Energy pages 416 to 419
   14. 100 Poverty, Population and the Environment pages 420 to 423
   15. 101 Consumption Against Numbers pages 424 to 427
   16. 102 Population and Socio-Economic Development pages 428 to 431
   17. 103 Family Planning in India pages 432 to 435
   18. 104 The Emergency and What It Cost pages 436 to 439
   19. 105 The National Population Policy 2000 pages 440 to 443
   20. 106 The Two-Child Norm and Javed pages 444 to 447
   21. 107 The Other Population Statutes pages 448 to 452
   22. 108 Can Law Control Population pages 453 to 456
   23. 109 What Actually Brings the Birth Rate Down pages 457 to 461

   Module IV 26 chapters

   1. 110 The Constitution and the Environment in 1950 pages 462 to 466
   2. 111 The Forty-Second Amendment 1976 pages 467 to 470
   3. 112 Article 48A pages 471 to 475
   4. 113 The Other Directive Principles pages 476 to 479
   5. 114 Article 51A(g) pages 480 to 484
   6. 115 Are the Principles and the Duties Enforceable pages 485 to 489
   7. 116 Article 21 and the Right to a Wholesome Environment pages 490 to 494
   8. 117 How the Right Was Built, Case by Case pages 495 to 500
   9. 118 Ratlam and the Duty to Perform pages 501 to 504
   10. 119 Article 14 and Arbitrary Environmental Decisions pages 505 to 510
   11. 120 Article 19(1)(g) and the Trade That Must Stop pages 511 to 515
   12. 121 Articles 32 and 226 pages 516 to 520
   13. 122 Public Interest Litigation pages 521 to 524
   14. 123 PIL and the Environment pages 525 to 529
   15. 124 Judicial Activism pages 530 to 534
   16. 125 The Doctrines the Courts Built pages 535 to 540
   17. 126 The Public Trust Doctrine and the Constitution pages 541 to 545
   18. 127 Continuing Mandamus and the Court's Own Tools pages 546 to 551
   19. 128 Compensation Under Article 32 pages 552 to 556
   20. 129 The Legislative Lists and Article 253 pages 557 to 562
   21. 130 Environmental Federalism pages 563 to 567
   22. 131 Panchayats, Municipalities and the Two Schedules pages 568 to 573
   23. 132 Flora and Fauna in the Constitution pages 574 to 579
   24. 133 The Right Against the Adverse Effects of Climate Change pages 580 to 584
   25. 134 What the Constitutional Route Cannot Do pages 585 to 590
   26. 135 How to Answer This Paper pages 591 to 596
   Every paper that is solved: 7 papers

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Questions