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LL.M. Environment and Legal Order Semester 2: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

For students of Mumbai University and all its affiliated colleges.

As per latest University of Mumbai syllabus

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  • Previous year question papers, with full solutions.
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  1. Environment and International Legal Order

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Environment and International Legal Order

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 2

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 6 Environment and Legal Order

    Environment and International Legal Order

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What This Paper Is About 1
    2. The International Legal Order 5
    3. Where International Law Comes From 8
    4. Custom, and How a Rule Becomes One 11
    5. Soft Law, and Why a Declaration Matters 14
    6. How a Treaty Is Made and Joined 17
    7. Reservations, and Joining a Treaty in Part 20
    8. Pacta Sunt Servanda, and No Excuse in Domestic Law 23
    9. Interpreting an Environmental Treaty 26
    10. Third States, Breach and Changed Circumstances 29
    11. The Historical Development of International Law 34
    12. The Historical Development of International Environmental Law 37
    13. The Four Periods, and What Each Produced 40
    14. The Principles and Scope of International Environmental Law 42
    15. Trail Smelter, and the Rule It Made 45
    16. Corfu Channel, and the Principle of Prevention 48
    17. Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources 51
    18. The Global Market and Sovereignty over Resources 54
    19. The Global Market on Resources and Environmental Issues 57
    20. What Federalism Does to an International Obligation 59
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Articles 51 and 253 of the Constitution 62
    2. The Seventh Schedule and the Environment 65
    3. Maganbhai, and the Treaty-Making Power 68
    4. The Unincorporated Treaty in an Indian Court 71
    5. The Role of National Courts 74
    6. The Indian Right to a Healthy Environment 77
    7. Inter-State Rivers, and the Council Nobody Uses 80
    8. Environmental Federalism Elsewhere 83
    9. What Sustainable Development Means 86
    10. Brundtland, and the Sentence Everyone Quotes 89
    11. Sustainable Development in the Courts 92
    12. Economic Development and the Environment 95
    13. Global Economic Development 98
    14. The Environmental Issues Global Growth Raises 100
    15. Growth That Keeps the Environment in Mind 103
    16. Trade and Development 106
    17. Globalization and the Environment 109
    18. Trade Rules and the Environmental Exception 111
    19. The Regulatory Mechanisms 114
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Developing Nations and the Problem of the Environment 117
    2. The Standards Set for Developing Nations 120
    3. The Approach of the Developed Nations 123
    4. Degradation and Human Development 126
    5. Common but Differentiated Responsibilities 129
    6. The Precautionary Principle 132
    7. The Polluter Pays Principle 135
    8. Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity 138
    9. Impact Assessment as General International Law 141
    10. What International Concern for the Environment Means 144
    11. Stockholm 1972 147
    12. The Stockholm Declaration, Principle by Principle 151
    13. The United Nations Environment Programme 154
    14. The World Charter for Nature 1982 157
    15. Rio 1992 160
    16. The Rio Declaration, Principle by Principle 163
    17. Agenda 21, Johannesburg and Rio+20 166
    18. The United Nations and Its Agencies 169
    19. The Institutions That Police Compliance 172
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Compliance and Enforcement 175
    2. Dispute Settlement in Environmental Treaties 178
    3. The Types of Environmental Dispute 181
    4. The Principles at Work in Dispute Settlement 184
    5. Bilateral Environmental Disputes 187
    6. Transboundary Watercourses 190
    7. Human Rights and Environmental Degradation 193
    8. A Clean Environment as a Human Right 197
    9. State Responsibility: The General Law 200
    10. Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness 203
    11. Reparation: Restitution, Compensation and Satisfaction 206
    12. Who May Invoke Responsibility, and Countermeasures 209
    13. The Environment in War 212
    14. The Effect of War on the Environment 215

    Module II

    1. What an International Obligation Towards Sustainable Development Is 218
    2. Conduct, Result and Due Diligence 221
    3. The Climate Problem, and the Framework Convention 224
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Machinery of the Framework Convention 228
    2. Reporting, Implementation and Disputes 231
    3. Climate Change as a Legal Problem 234
    4. The Kyoto Protocol 238
    5. The Flexibility Mechanisms 242
    6. The Paris Agreement 246
    7. Nationally Determined Contributions 250
    8. Sinks, Adaptation, and Loss and Damage 253
    9. The Conferences of the Parties 257
    10. The 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals 260
    11. International Financing and the Duty to Support 263
    12. The Global Environment Facility 266
    13. The Convention on Biological Diversity 269
    14. Conservation and Sustainable Use 273
    15. Impact Assessment, Access and Benefit Sharing 277
    16. Biotechnology, Finance and Disputes 281
    17. What Biodiversity Is 285
    18. Biodiversity at the International Level 288
    19. The Rules That Govern Biodiversity 291
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Degradation and the Loss of Species 294
    2. Biodiversity and the Wider Environmental Issues 297
    3. The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 299
    4. The World Heritage Convention 303
    5. The List, the Committee and the Fund 306
    6. CITES and the Trade in Endangered Species 310
    7. Desertification and Land Degradation 315
    8. The Two Climate Advisory Opinions 320

    Module III

    1. What the Marine Environment Is 325
    2. The Zones of the Sea 328
    3. Innocent Passage, and What a Coastal State May Forbid 331
    4. The Exclusive Economic Zone 335
    5. Living Resources in the Zone 339
    6. The Continental Shelf 343
    7. The High Seas, and the Duties of a Flag State 347
    8. Conserving the Living Resources of the High Seas 351
    9. Part XII: The General Obligation 354
    10. Global and Regional Cooperation, and Emergencies 358
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Monitoring and Environmental Assessment 362
    2. The Six Sources of Marine Pollution 365
    3. Enforcement: Flag, Coastal and Port State 369
    4. The Safeguards 374
    5. Ice-Covered Areas, Immunity and Liability 379
    6. MARPOL 383
    7. Oil Pollution and Civil Liability 388
    8. The London Convention on Dumping 393
    9. The 1996 Protocol, and the Reverse List 398
    10. Dumping Oil and Hazardous Waste at Sea 404
    11. The Area, and the Common Heritage of Mankind 407
    12. The International Seabed Authority 412
    13. The 1994 Agreement, and Why Part XI Was Rewritten 418
    14. The Seabed Disputes Chamber, and the 2011 Opinion 423
    15. Marine Resources: Conservation and Exploitation 428
    16. Straddling and Highly Migratory Stocks 432
    17. Flag State Duties, Boarding and Disputes 438
    18. Marine Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction 444
    19. The Tribunal, and How a Marine Dispute Is Decided 447
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. India and the Marine Environment 452

    Module IV

    1. What a Transboundary Pollution Hazard Is 456
    2. Transboundary Harm, and the Word 'Significant' 459
    3. Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution 464
    4. The Ozone Layer, and What Destroys It 470
    5. The Vienna Convention 1985 474
    6. The Montreal Protocol: The Control Measures 480
    7. Montreal, the Grace Period and the Fund 484
    8. Ozone Depletion as a Public Health Hazard 490
    9. Nuclear Fallout and Accidents 493
    10. The Early Notification Convention 1986 498
    11. The Assistance Convention 1986 503
    12. The Convention on Nuclear Safety 509
    13. Liability for Nuclear Damage 517
    14. Disaster Management at the International Level 522
    15. Transboundary Impact Assessment, and Espoo 526
    16. Information, Participation and Access to Justice 534
    17. What a Multinational Corporation Is 542
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Bhopal 546
    2. What Bhopal Settled, and What It Did Not 551
    3. Absolute Liability 555
    4. The Forum Problem 559
    5. Codes of Conduct 563
    6. Business and Human Rights 567
    7. Hazardous Materials 571
    8. Liability and Compensation for Environmental Damage 574
    9. What Hazardous Waste Is 578
    10. The Waste Trade, and the Incidents That Made the Law 582
    11. The Basel Convention: Scope and General Obligations 586
    12. Basel: Movements, Duties and Cooperation 591
    13. Basel: Illegal Traffic and the Institutions 596
    14. Basel: Disputes, Amendments and Final Clauses 602
    15. The Ban Amendment 606
    16. The Basel Liability Protocol 1999 610
    17. The Bamako Convention 617
    18. The Disposal of Hazardous Waste 623
    19. The Rotterdam Convention 628
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 636
    2. The Minamata Convention on Mercury 645
    3. Ship-Breaking, E-Waste and India 653
    4. MU's Unfinished Sentence, and What This Book Did About It 659
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    663 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 663 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 172 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 72 chapters

    1. 1 What This Paper Is About pages 1–4
    2. 2 The International Legal Order pages 5–7
    3. 3 Where International Law Comes From pages 8–10
    4. 4 Custom, and How a Rule Becomes One pages 11–13
    5. 5 Soft Law, and Why a Declaration Matters pages 14–16
    6. 6 How a Treaty Is Made and Joined pages 17–19
    7. 7 Reservations, and Joining a Treaty in Part pages 20–22
    8. 8 Pacta Sunt Servanda, and No Excuse in Domestic Law pages 23–25
    9. 9 Interpreting an Environmental Treaty pages 26–28
    10. 10 Third States, Breach and Changed Circumstances pages 29–33
    11. 11 The Historical Development of International Law pages 34–36
    12. 12 The Historical Development of International Environmental Law pages 37–39
    13. 13 The Four Periods, and What Each Produced pages 40–41
    14. 14 The Principles and Scope of International Environmental Law pages 42–44
    15. 15 Trail Smelter, and the Rule It Made pages 45–47
    16. 16 Corfu Channel, and the Principle of Prevention pages 48–50
    17. 17 Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources pages 51–53
    18. 18 The Global Market and Sovereignty over Resources pages 54–56
    19. 19 The Global Market on Resources and Environmental Issues pages 57–58
    20. 20 What Federalism Does to an International Obligation pages 59–61
    21. 21 Articles 51 and 253 of the Constitution pages 62–64
    22. 22 The Seventh Schedule and the Environment pages 65–67
    23. 23 Maganbhai, and the Treaty-Making Power pages 68–70
    24. 24 The Unincorporated Treaty in an Indian Court pages 71–73
    25. 25 The Role of National Courts pages 74–76
    26. 26 The Indian Right to a Healthy Environment pages 77–79
    27. 27 Inter-State Rivers, and the Council Nobody Uses pages 80–82
    28. 28 Environmental Federalism Elsewhere pages 83–85
    29. 29 What Sustainable Development Means pages 86–88
    30. 30 Brundtland, and the Sentence Everyone Quotes pages 89–91
    31. 31 Sustainable Development in the Courts pages 92–94
    32. 32 Economic Development and the Environment pages 95–97
    33. 33 Global Economic Development pages 98–99
    34. 34 The Environmental Issues Global Growth Raises pages 100–102
    35. 35 Growth That Keeps the Environment in Mind pages 103–105
    36. 36 Trade and Development pages 106–108
    37. 37 Globalization and the Environment pages 109–110
    38. 38 Trade Rules and the Environmental Exception pages 111–113
    39. 39 The Regulatory Mechanisms pages 114–116
    40. 40 Developing Nations and the Problem of the Environment pages 117–119
    41. 41 The Standards Set for Developing Nations pages 120–122
    42. 42 The Approach of the Developed Nations pages 123–125
    43. 43 Degradation and Human Development pages 126–128
    44. 44 Common but Differentiated Responsibilities pages 129–131
    45. 45 The Precautionary Principle pages 132–134
    46. 46 The Polluter Pays Principle pages 135–137
    47. 47 Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity pages 138–140
    48. 48 Impact Assessment as General International Law pages 141–143
    49. 49 What International Concern for the Environment Means pages 144–146
    50. 50 Stockholm 1972 pages 147–150
    51. 51 The Stockholm Declaration, Principle by Principle pages 151–153
    52. 52 The United Nations Environment Programme pages 154–156
    53. 53 The World Charter for Nature 1982 pages 157–159
    54. 54 Rio 1992 pages 160–162
    55. 55 The Rio Declaration, Principle by Principle pages 163–165
    56. 56 Agenda 21, Johannesburg and Rio+20 pages 166–168
    57. 57 The United Nations and Its Agencies pages 169–171
    58. 58 The Institutions That Police Compliance pages 172–174
    59. 59 Compliance and Enforcement pages 175–177
    60. 60 Dispute Settlement in Environmental Treaties pages 178–180
    61. 61 The Types of Environmental Dispute pages 181–183
    62. 62 The Principles at Work in Dispute Settlement pages 184–186
    63. 63 Bilateral Environmental Disputes pages 187–189
    64. 64 Transboundary Watercourses pages 190–192
    65. 65 Human Rights and Environmental Degradation pages 193–196
    66. 66 A Clean Environment as a Human Right pages 197–199
    67. 67 State Responsibility: The General Law pages 200–202
    68. 68 Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness pages 203–205
    69. 69 Reparation: Restitution, Compensation and Satisfaction pages 206–208
    70. 70 Who May Invoke Responsibility, and Countermeasures pages 209–211
    71. 71 The Environment in War pages 212–214
    72. 72 The Effect of War on the Environment pages 215–217

    Module II 30 chapters

    1. 73 What an International Obligation Towards Sustainable Development Is pages 218–220
    2. 74 Conduct, Result and Due Diligence pages 221–223
    3. 75 The Climate Problem, and the Framework Convention pages 224–227
    4. 76 The Machinery of the Framework Convention pages 228–230
    5. 77 Reporting, Implementation and Disputes pages 231–233
    6. 78 Climate Change as a Legal Problem pages 234–237
    7. 79 The Kyoto Protocol pages 238–241
    8. 80 The Flexibility Mechanisms pages 242–245
    9. 81 The Paris Agreement pages 246–249
    10. 82 Nationally Determined Contributions pages 250–252
    11. 83 Sinks, Adaptation, and Loss and Damage pages 253–256
    12. 84 The Conferences of the Parties pages 257–259
    13. 85 The 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals pages 260–262
    14. 86 International Financing and the Duty to Support pages 263–265
    15. 87 The Global Environment Facility pages 266–268
    16. 88 The Convention on Biological Diversity pages 269–272
    17. 89 Conservation and Sustainable Use pages 273–276
    18. 90 Impact Assessment, Access and Benefit Sharing pages 277–280
    19. 91 Biotechnology, Finance and Disputes pages 281–284
    20. 92 What Biodiversity Is pages 285–287
    21. 93 Biodiversity at the International Level pages 288–290
    22. 94 The Rules That Govern Biodiversity pages 291–293
    23. 95 Degradation and the Loss of Species pages 294–296
    24. 96 Biodiversity and the Wider Environmental Issues pages 297–298
    25. 97 The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands pages 299–302
    26. 98 The World Heritage Convention pages 303–305
    27. 99 The List, the Committee and the Fund pages 306–309
    28. 100 CITES and the Trade in Endangered Species pages 310–314
    29. 101 Desertification and Land Degradation pages 315–319
    30. 102 The Two Climate Advisory Opinions pages 320–324

    Module III 30 chapters

    1. 103 What the Marine Environment Is pages 325–327
    2. 104 The Zones of the Sea pages 328–330
    3. 105 Innocent Passage, and What a Coastal State May Forbid pages 331–334
    4. 106 The Exclusive Economic Zone pages 335–338
    5. 107 Living Resources in the Zone pages 339–342
    6. 108 The Continental Shelf pages 343–346
    7. 109 The High Seas, and the Duties of a Flag State pages 347–350
    8. 110 Conserving the Living Resources of the High Seas pages 351–353
    9. 111 Part XII: The General Obligation pages 354–357
    10. 112 Global and Regional Cooperation, and Emergencies pages 358–361
    11. 113 Monitoring and Environmental Assessment pages 362–364
    12. 114 The Six Sources of Marine Pollution pages 365–368
    13. 115 Enforcement: Flag, Coastal and Port State pages 369–373
    14. 116 The Safeguards pages 374–378
    15. 117 Ice-Covered Areas, Immunity and Liability pages 379–382
    16. 118 MARPOL pages 383–387
    17. 119 Oil Pollution and Civil Liability pages 388–392
    18. 120 The London Convention on Dumping pages 393–397
    19. 121 The 1996 Protocol, and the Reverse List pages 398–403
    20. 122 Dumping Oil and Hazardous Waste at Sea pages 404–406
    21. 123 The Area, and the Common Heritage of Mankind pages 407–411
    22. 124 The International Seabed Authority pages 412–417
    23. 125 The 1994 Agreement, and Why Part XI Was Rewritten pages 418–422
    24. 126 The Seabed Disputes Chamber, and the 2011 Opinion pages 423–427
    25. 127 Marine Resources: Conservation and Exploitation pages 428–431
    26. 128 Straddling and Highly Migratory Stocks pages 432–437
    27. 129 Flag State Duties, Boarding and Disputes pages 438–443
    28. 130 Marine Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction pages 444–446
    29. 131 The Tribunal, and How a Marine Dispute Is Decided pages 447–451
    30. 132 India and the Marine Environment pages 452–455

    Module IV 40 chapters

    1. 133 What a Transboundary Pollution Hazard Is pages 456–458
    2. 134 Transboundary Harm, and the Word 'Significant' pages 459–463
    3. 135 Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution pages 464–469
    4. 136 The Ozone Layer, and What Destroys It pages 470–473
    5. 137 The Vienna Convention 1985 pages 474–479
    6. 138 The Montreal Protocol: The Control Measures pages 480–483
    7. 139 Montreal, the Grace Period and the Fund pages 484–489
    8. 140 Ozone Depletion as a Public Health Hazard pages 490–492
    9. 141 Nuclear Fallout and Accidents pages 493–497
    10. 142 The Early Notification Convention 1986 pages 498–502
    11. 143 The Assistance Convention 1986 pages 503–508
    12. 144 The Convention on Nuclear Safety pages 509–516
    13. 145 Liability for Nuclear Damage pages 517–521
    14. 146 Disaster Management at the International Level pages 522–525
    15. 147 Transboundary Impact Assessment, and Espoo pages 526–533
    16. 148 Information, Participation and Access to Justice pages 534–541
    17. 149 What a Multinational Corporation Is pages 542–545
    18. 150 Bhopal pages 546–550
    19. 151 What Bhopal Settled, and What It Did Not pages 551–554
    20. 152 Absolute Liability pages 555–558
    21. 153 The Forum Problem pages 559–562
    22. 154 Codes of Conduct pages 563–566
    23. 155 Business and Human Rights pages 567–570
    24. 156 Hazardous Materials pages 571–573
    25. 157 Liability and Compensation for Environmental Damage pages 574–577
    26. 158 What Hazardous Waste Is pages 578–581
    27. 159 The Waste Trade, and the Incidents That Made the Law pages 582–585
    28. 160 The Basel Convention: Scope and General Obligations pages 586–590
    29. 161 Basel: Movements, Duties and Cooperation pages 591–595
    30. 162 Basel: Illegal Traffic and the Institutions pages 596–601
    31. 163 Basel: Disputes, Amendments and Final Clauses pages 602–605
    32. 164 The Ban Amendment pages 606–609
    33. 165 The Basel Liability Protocol 1999 pages 610–616
    34. 166 The Bamako Convention pages 617–622
    35. 167 The Disposal of Hazardous Waste pages 623–627
    36. 168 The Rotterdam Convention pages 628–635
    37. 169 The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants pages 636–644
    38. 170 The Minamata Convention on Mercury pages 645–652
    39. 171 Ship-Breaking, E-Waste and India pages 653–658
    40. 172 MU's Unfinished Sentence, and What This Book Did About It pages 659–663
    Every paper that is solved: 4 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  2. Legal Education and Research Methodology

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Legal Education and Research Methodology

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 2

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Legal Education and Research Methodology

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What Legal Education Is 1
    2. Why a Country Needs Legal Education: The Lawyer and the Judge 5
    3. The Other Careers a Law Degree Builds 9
    4. Legal Education and the Citizen 13
    5. Legal Education in the Constitution and in the Advocates Act 17
    6. The Rest of the Bar Council and Enrolment Provisions 21
    7. Legal Education in Ancient and Medieval India 26
    8. Legal Education in India Before Independence 30
    9. The Fourteenth Law Commission Report 34
    10. The 184th Report and the Argument About Standards 37
    11. The National Law Universities and the Five Year Course 41
    12. Legal Education and the National Education Policy 2020 45
    13. Two Regulators, One Course 49
    14. What the LL.M. Is For 53
    15. The Rules of Legal Education 2008 56
    16. Who May Teach Law 60
    17. The Two Law Courses, and Who May Join Them 63
    18. What Must Be Taught: Standard of Courses and the Curriculum 67
    19. The Semester System, the Infrastructure and the End Semester Test 70
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Inspection, Approval and Revocation 74
    2. Accreditation, and the Machinery Behind the Rules 78
    3. Continuing Legal Education 81
    4. Foreign Degrees and Foreign Universities 85
    5. The Rest of the Rules of Legal Education 88
    6. How Law Is Taught, and Why the Method Matters 92
    7. The Lecture Method 95
    8. The Case Method 99
    9. The Problem Method 103
    10. Discussion, the Socratic Method, the Seminar and the Tutorial 106
    11. The Project and the Assignment 110
    12. Learning by Doing: The Clinical Method, Simulation and Role Play 113
    13. The Moot Court 117
    14. Out of the Classroom: Court Visits, Trial Observation and Internship 121
    15. Technology, E-Learning and the Online Classroom 125
    16. Teaching Legal Research and Legal Writing 128
    17. Choosing a Method, and Combining Methods 131
    18. What an Examination Is For 134
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. What Is Wrong With the Traditional Examination 137
    2. Continuous Internal Assessment and the Semester Pattern 140
    3. Question Types: Objective, Problem and Open Book 143
    4. Assessment Beyond the Written Paper 147
    5. Examining the Clinical Courses 151
    6. Marks, Grades and Credits 154
    7. Moderation, Revaluation and Transparency 157
    8. The All India Bar Examination 160
    9. Examination Reform in the Law Commission Reports and in NEP 2020 164
    10. Malpractice and Academic Integrity in Examinations 168
    11. What Examination Reform Actually Requires 171

    Module II

    1. What Clinical Legal Education Is 174
    2. Where the Clinic Came From 177
    3. What the Clinic Is For 181
    4. The Kinds of Clinic 184
    5. The Four Compulsory Clinical Papers 188
    6. The Legal Aid Clinic in a Law College 192
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    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Why Clinical Legal Education Has Not Worked in India 196
    2. What Legal Aid Is, and Why a State Provides It 200
    3. Article 39A and the Constitutional Duty 204
    4. Legal Aid Before the 1987 Act 209
    5. The Legal Services Authorities Act: The Machinery 213
    6. Who Is Entitled to Legal Aid 217
    7. Paying for Legal Aid, and the Rest of the Act 221
    8. How a Person Actually Gets Legal Aid 225
    9. The Legal Services Clinic 228
    10. The Lok Adalat 232
    11. The Permanent Lok Adalat 237
    12. The Judgments That Made Legal Aid a Right 242
    13. Legal Aid: What Still Does Not Work 248
    14. What Legal Literacy Is 252
    15. How Legal Literacy Is Delivered 256
    16. The Law Student and Legal Literacy 260
    17. What a Legal Survey Is 264
    18. How a Legal Survey Is Done 268
    19. Surveys That Changed the Law 272
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. What Law Reform Is, and Who Does It 276
    2. The Law Commission of India 280
    3. From Report to Statute 284
    4. Research as the Engine of Law Reform 288
    5. Law Reform by the Courts, and Its Limits 292

    Module III

    1. What Research Is 296
    2. What Legal Research Is 299
    3. The Objectives of Legal Research 302
    4. What Makes Research Good 305
    5. Pure and Applied Research 308
    6. Descriptive and Analytical Research 311
    7. Quantitative and Qualitative Research 314
    8. Conceptual and Empirical Research 317
    9. Doctrinal Research 320
    10. Doctrinal Research: Merits and Demerits 323
    11. Non Doctrinal Research 326
    12. Non Doctrinal Research: Merits and Demerits 329
    13. Induction and Deduction in Legal Reasoning 332
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Comparative Legal Research 336
    2. Historical Legal Research 340
    3. Analytical and Critical Legal Research 343
    4. Interdisciplinary Legal Research 346
    5. The Primary Sources of Legal Research 350
    6. The Secondary Sources of Legal Research 353
    7. Juristic Writings and Legal Periodicals 356
    8. Legal Databases and How to Search Them 360
    9. Computers, ICT and Legal Research 364
    10. The Digest, the Citator and Tracing a Case 368
    11. Observation and the Interview 371
    12. The Questionnaire and the Schedule 375
    13. The Case Study 379
    14. The Survey 382
    15. Sampling: What It Is and Why It Is Used 385
    16. Probability Sampling 388
    17. Non Probability Sampling 392
    18. Scaling and Measurement 396
    19. Processing and Analysing Data 399
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. What Empirical Work in Law Cannot Do 403
    2. Research and the Judicial Process 407
    3. What a Research Problem Is 411
    4. Where Research Problems Come From 414
    5. Choosing Between Problems 418
    6. Narrowing and Defining the Problem 421
    7. Research Questions, Aims and Objectives 424
    8. What a Hypothesis Is 428
    9. Where a Hypothesis Comes From, and What Makes It Usable 432
    10. The Types of Hypothesis 435
    11. Formulating a Hypothesis 439
    12. Testing a Hypothesis 442
    13. When the Hypothesis Is Disproved 446
    14. Does Doctrinal Research Need a Hypothesis 450

    Module IV

    1. What a Research Design Is 453
    2. What Makes a Research Design Good 456
    3. The Exploratory or Formulative Design 459
    4. Descriptive and Diagnostic Designs 462
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Experimental Design 465
    2. Historical and Case Study Designs 468
    3. The Parts of a Research Design, and MU's Own List 471
    4. The Introduction 475
    5. Aims and Objectives of the Study 478
    6. Scope of Study, and Its Limitations 481
    7. The Review of Literature 485
    8. Sources of Information 489
    9. The Research Methodology Section 492
    10. Chapterisation 496
    11. The Sampling Design and the Data Collection Design 499
    12. Time, Cost and the Practical Design 502
    13. The Synopsis or Research Proposal 505
    14. Citation: Footnotes, APA and Legal Citation 509
    15. Bibliography and Webliography 513
    16. Plagiarism and the UGC Regulations 516
    17. Artificial Intelligence Tools in Research 521
    18. Research Ethics Beyond Plagiarism 525
    19. Writing the Report 528
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Conclusion and Suggestions 532
    2. The Viva Voce on the Dissertation 536
    3. What Goes Wrong in a Research Design 540
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    543 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 543 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 150 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 48 chapters

    1. 1 What Legal Education Is pages 1–4
    2. 2 Why a Country Needs Legal Education: The Lawyer and the Judge pages 5–8
    3. 3 The Other Careers a Law Degree Builds pages 9–12
    4. 4 Legal Education and the Citizen pages 13–16
    5. 5 Legal Education in the Constitution and in the Advocates Act pages 17–20
    6. 6 The Rest of the Bar Council and Enrolment Provisions pages 21–25
    7. 7 Legal Education in Ancient and Medieval India pages 26–29
    8. 8 Legal Education in India Before Independence pages 30–33
    9. 9 The Fourteenth Law Commission Report pages 34–36
    10. 10 The 184th Report and the Argument About Standards pages 37–40
    11. 11 The National Law Universities and the Five Year Course pages 41–44
    12. 12 Legal Education and the National Education Policy 2020 pages 45–48
    13. 13 Two Regulators, One Course pages 49–52
    14. 14 What the LL.M. Is For pages 53–55
    15. 15 The Rules of Legal Education 2008 pages 56–59
    16. 16 Who May Teach Law pages 60–62
    17. 17 The Two Law Courses, and Who May Join Them pages 63–66
    18. 18 What Must Be Taught: Standard of Courses and the Curriculum pages 67–69
    19. 19 The Semester System, the Infrastructure and the End Semester Test pages 70–73
    20. 20 Inspection, Approval and Revocation pages 74–77
    21. 21 Accreditation, and the Machinery Behind the Rules pages 78–80
    22. 22 Continuing Legal Education pages 81–84
    23. 23 Foreign Degrees and Foreign Universities pages 85–87
    24. 24 The Rest of the Rules of Legal Education pages 88–91
    25. 25 How Law Is Taught, and Why the Method Matters pages 92–94
    26. 26 The Lecture Method pages 95–98
    27. 27 The Case Method pages 99–102
    28. 28 The Problem Method pages 103–105
    29. 29 Discussion, the Socratic Method, the Seminar and the Tutorial pages 106–109
    30. 30 The Project and the Assignment pages 110–112
    31. 31 Learning by Doing: The Clinical Method, Simulation and Role Play pages 113–116
    32. 32 The Moot Court pages 117–120
    33. 33 Out of the Classroom: Court Visits, Trial Observation and Internship pages 121–124
    34. 34 Technology, E-Learning and the Online Classroom pages 125–127
    35. 35 Teaching Legal Research and Legal Writing pages 128–130
    36. 36 Choosing a Method, and Combining Methods pages 131–133
    37. 37 What an Examination Is For pages 134–136
    38. 38 What Is Wrong With the Traditional Examination pages 137–139
    39. 39 Continuous Internal Assessment and the Semester Pattern pages 140–142
    40. 40 Question Types: Objective, Problem and Open Book pages 143–146
    41. 41 Assessment Beyond the Written Paper pages 147–150
    42. 42 Examining the Clinical Courses pages 151–153
    43. 43 Marks, Grades and Credits pages 154–156
    44. 44 Moderation, Revaluation and Transparency pages 157–159
    45. 45 The All India Bar Examination pages 160–163
    46. 46 Examination Reform in the Law Commission Reports and in NEP 2020 pages 164–167
    47. 47 Malpractice and Academic Integrity in Examinations pages 168–170
    48. 48 What Examination Reform Actually Requires pages 171–173

    Module II 30 chapters

    1. 49 What Clinical Legal Education Is pages 174–176
    2. 50 Where the Clinic Came From pages 177–180
    3. 51 What the Clinic Is For pages 181–183
    4. 52 The Kinds of Clinic pages 184–187
    5. 53 The Four Compulsory Clinical Papers pages 188–191
    6. 54 The Legal Aid Clinic in a Law College pages 192–195
    7. 55 Why Clinical Legal Education Has Not Worked in India pages 196–199
    8. 56 What Legal Aid Is, and Why a State Provides It pages 200–203
    9. 57 Article 39A and the Constitutional Duty pages 204–208
    10. 58 Legal Aid Before the 1987 Act pages 209–212
    11. 59 The Legal Services Authorities Act: The Machinery pages 213–216
    12. 60 Who Is Entitled to Legal Aid pages 217–220
    13. 61 Paying for Legal Aid, and the Rest of the Act pages 221–224
    14. 62 How a Person Actually Gets Legal Aid pages 225–227
    15. 63 The Legal Services Clinic pages 228–231
    16. 64 The Lok Adalat pages 232–236
    17. 65 The Permanent Lok Adalat pages 237–241
    18. 66 The Judgments That Made Legal Aid a Right pages 242–247
    19. 67 Legal Aid: What Still Does Not Work pages 248–251
    20. 68 What Legal Literacy Is pages 252–255
    21. 69 How Legal Literacy Is Delivered pages 256–259
    22. 70 The Law Student and Legal Literacy pages 260–263
    23. 71 What a Legal Survey Is pages 264–267
    24. 72 How a Legal Survey Is Done pages 268–271
    25. 73 Surveys That Changed the Law pages 272–275
    26. 74 What Law Reform Is, and Who Does It pages 276–279
    27. 75 The Law Commission of India pages 280–283
    28. 76 From Report to Statute pages 284–287
    29. 77 Research as the Engine of Law Reform pages 288–291
    30. 78 Law Reform by the Courts, and Its Limits pages 292–295

    Module III 46 chapters

    1. 79 What Research Is pages 296–298
    2. 80 What Legal Research Is pages 299–301
    3. 81 The Objectives of Legal Research pages 302–304
    4. 82 What Makes Research Good pages 305–307
    5. 83 Pure and Applied Research pages 308–310
    6. 84 Descriptive and Analytical Research pages 311–313
    7. 85 Quantitative and Qualitative Research pages 314–316
    8. 86 Conceptual and Empirical Research pages 317–319
    9. 87 Doctrinal Research pages 320–322
    10. 88 Doctrinal Research: Merits and Demerits pages 323–325
    11. 89 Non Doctrinal Research pages 326–328
    12. 90 Non Doctrinal Research: Merits and Demerits pages 329–331
    13. 91 Induction and Deduction in Legal Reasoning pages 332–335
    14. 92 Comparative Legal Research pages 336–339
    15. 93 Historical Legal Research pages 340–342
    16. 94 Analytical and Critical Legal Research pages 343–345
    17. 95 Interdisciplinary Legal Research pages 346–349
    18. 96 The Primary Sources of Legal Research pages 350–352
    19. 97 The Secondary Sources of Legal Research pages 353–355
    20. 98 Juristic Writings and Legal Periodicals pages 356–359
    21. 99 Legal Databases and How to Search Them pages 360–363
    22. 100 Computers, ICT and Legal Research pages 364–367
    23. 101 The Digest, the Citator and Tracing a Case pages 368–370
    24. 102 Observation and the Interview pages 371–374
    25. 103 The Questionnaire and the Schedule pages 375–378
    26. 104 The Case Study pages 379–381
    27. 105 The Survey pages 382–384
    28. 106 Sampling: What It Is and Why It Is Used pages 385–387
    29. 107 Probability Sampling pages 388–391
    30. 108 Non Probability Sampling pages 392–395
    31. 109 Scaling and Measurement pages 396–398
    32. 110 Processing and Analysing Data pages 399–402
    33. 111 What Empirical Work in Law Cannot Do pages 403–406
    34. 112 Research and the Judicial Process pages 407–410
    35. 113 What a Research Problem Is pages 411–413
    36. 114 Where Research Problems Come From pages 414–417
    37. 115 Choosing Between Problems pages 418–420
    38. 116 Narrowing and Defining the Problem pages 421–423
    39. 117 Research Questions, Aims and Objectives pages 424–427
    40. 118 What a Hypothesis Is pages 428–431
    41. 119 Where a Hypothesis Comes From, and What Makes It Usable pages 432–434
    42. 120 The Types of Hypothesis pages 435–438
    43. 121 Formulating a Hypothesis pages 439–441
    44. 122 Testing a Hypothesis pages 442–445
    45. 123 When the Hypothesis Is Disproved pages 446–449
    46. 124 Does Doctrinal Research Need a Hypothesis pages 450–452

    Module IV 26 chapters

    1. 125 What a Research Design Is pages 453–455
    2. 126 What Makes a Research Design Good pages 456–458
    3. 127 The Exploratory or Formulative Design pages 459–461
    4. 128 Descriptive and Diagnostic Designs pages 462–464
    5. 129 The Experimental Design pages 465–467
    6. 130 Historical and Case Study Designs pages 468–470
    7. 131 The Parts of a Research Design, and MU's Own List pages 471–474
    8. 132 The Introduction pages 475–477
    9. 133 Aims and Objectives of the Study pages 478–480
    10. 134 Scope of Study, and Its Limitations pages 481–484
    11. 135 The Review of Literature pages 485–488
    12. 136 Sources of Information pages 489–491
    13. 137 The Research Methodology Section pages 492–495
    14. 138 Chapterisation pages 496–498
    15. 139 The Sampling Design and the Data Collection Design pages 499–501
    16. 140 Time, Cost and the Practical Design pages 502–504
    17. 141 The Synopsis or Research Proposal pages 505–508
    18. 142 Citation: Footnotes, APA and Legal Citation pages 509–512
    19. 143 Bibliography and Webliography pages 513–515
    20. 144 Plagiarism and the UGC Regulations pages 516–520
    21. 145 Artificial Intelligence Tools in Research pages 521–524
    22. 146 Research Ethics Beyond Plagiarism pages 525–527
    23. 147 Writing the Report pages 528–531
    24. 148 Conclusion and Suggestions pages 532–535
    25. 149 The Viva Voce on the Dissertation pages 536–539
    26. 150 What Goes Wrong in a Research Design pages 540–543
    Every paper that is solved: 8 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024-25
    • 2023-24
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  3. Prevention and Control of Pollution

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Prevention and Control of Pollution

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 2

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 6 Environment and Legal Order

    Prevention and Control of Pollution

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What Pollution Is 1
    2. The Statutory Definitions: Environment, Pollutant, Pollution 5
    3. Hazardous Substance, Handling and the Occupier 10
    4. Why India Has These Acts: Stockholm, 1972 15
    5. Article 21 and the Right to a Wholesome Environment 19
    6. Article 48A, Article 51A(g) and What a Non-Justiciable Direction Is Worth 23
    7. Which Legislature May Act: The Seventh Schedule 27
    8. Article 252 and Article 253: The Two Doors 31
    9. Sustainable Development as a Rule of Indian Law 36
    10. The Precautionary Principle 40
    11. The Polluter Pays Principle 44
    12. The Public Trust Doctrine and Intergenerational Equity 49
    13. Standing: How Public Interest Litigation Opened the Environmental Courts 54
    14. The Regulators: Ministry, Central Board, State Boards 58
    15. The Environment (Protection) Act as Umbrella Legislation 63
    16. How an Environmental Standard Is Made 68
    17. Samples, Laboratories and Proof Under the EPA 73
    18. Prior Environmental Clearance and Environmental Impact Assessment 78
    19. The National Green Tribunal in Outline 83
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The Tail of the EPA: Good Faith, Delegation and Rules 87
    2. What Water Pollution Is 92
    3. Groundwater Pollution, and the Law That Reaches an Aquifer 96
    4. How the Water Act Reached Maharashtra 102
    5. The Boards: Constitution and Membership 106
    6. Members: Terms, Disqualification and Vacation of Office 110
    7. Joint Boards: Two States, One River 115
    8. What the Boards Are For: Sections 16, 17 and 18 118
    9. Getting at the Facts: Information and Samples 123
    10. The Power of Entry and Inspection 129
    11. Section 24: The Central Prohibition 133
    12. Consent to Establish and Consent to Operate 138
    13. Refusal, Withdrawal and the 2025 Consent Guidelines 143
    14. The 2025 Water Consent Guidelines: Timelines, Validity and Monitoring 148
    15. Appeal, Revision and the Board Doing the Work 154
    16. Emergencies: Sections 31, 32 and 33 159
    17. Section 33A: Closure, and Cutting Off Water and Electricity 164
    18. Money and Accountability: Funds, Budget and Audit 169
    19. The Water Laboratories and the Analysts 173
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The Tail of the Water Act 177
    2. The Water Cess Act 1977, and Its Repeal 182
    3. Water Pollution in Maharashtra and in Mumbai 186
    4. What Air Pollution Is, and Why Noise Is Inside It 190
    5. The Air Act 1981 and Article 253 194
    6. Boards Under the Air Act 198
    7. Meetings, Committees, Delegation and Staff 203
    8. Functions of the Boards, and the Power to Direct 207
    9. Air Pollution Control Areas, and Emissions from Automobiles 212
    10. Consent Under the Air Act, and the New Section 21A 216
    11. The 2025 Air Consent Guidelines 222
    12. The Emission Standard, and the Section 22A Application 226
    13. Entry, Inspection and Samples Under the Air Act 230
    14. The State Air Laboratory and the Analysts 235
    15. Appeals, Section 31A Directions and the Section 31B Appeal 239
    16. Money and Accountability Under the Air Act 244
    17. The Tail of the Air Act 249
    18. The CAQM Act 2021: Why Parliament Made a Second Air Regulator 254
    19. What the Commission for Air Quality Management Does 258
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Offences, Environmental Compensation and Money Under the CAQM Act 262
    2. The Commission, the Air Act and the Tail of the CAQM Act 267
    3. Stubble Burning, Vehicles and the Seasonal Politics of Air Quality 272
    4. Air Quality in Mumbai, and What the Law Can Reach 277

    Module II

    1. Noise as Pollution in Law 281
    2. How Noise Is Measured, and Why the Decibel Scale Is Not Linear 285
    3. The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 289
    4. Ambient Standards by Zone and by Hour, and the Silence Zone 293
    5. Who Enforces the Noise Rules 297
    6. Loudspeakers, Public Address Systems and the Night Ban 301
    7. Silence Zones, Horns and Firecrackers 305
    8. Complaining About Noise, and the Power to Stop It 309
    9. Noise Pollution (V), In re: The Supreme Court's Directions 314
    10. Church of God (Full Gospel), and the Answer to "My Religion Requires It" 319
    11. The Bombay High Court and Mumbai's Silence Zones 324
    12. Noise as a Private and a Public Nuisance 329
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Noise Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita and Section 152 BNSS 334
    2. Noise at Work, and What the 2024 Penalties Did to Noise 339

    Module III

    1. What Waste Is in Law, and Why India Has No Waste Act 345
    2. The Rule-Making Power Behind Every Waste Rule 350
    3. Extended Producer Responsibility as a Legal Technique 355
    4. Environmental Compensation: A Levy Without a Court 360
    5. The Solid Waste Management Rules 2026 365
    6. Duties of the Waste Generator and the Bulk Generator 370
    7. Duties of Processors, Collectors and Material Recovery Facilities 375
    8. Waste to Energy, the Sanitary Landfill and the Legacy Dumpsite 380
    9. Reporting, Accidents and the Ministries the Rules Command 386
    10. The Rest of the Machinery: Ministries, Magistrates, Local Bodies and the Board 391
    11. Almitra H. Patel and the Long Supervision of Municipal Waste 396
    12. Plastic Waste: The 2016 Rules and What They Cover 401
    13. The Single-Use Ban, Marking and Extended Producer Responsibility for Plastic 407
    14. Bio-Medical Waste: Duties of the Occupier 414
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Bio-Medical Waste: Authorisation, Accidents, Appeal and Liability 420
    2. Hazardous and Other Wastes: The Scheme of the 2016 Rules 427
    3. Transboundary Movement, and the Basel Convention Behind It 434
    4. Used Oil: The Chapter the Textbooks Do Not Have 442
    5. Scrap of Non-Ferrous Metals: The Newest Chapter in Indian Waste Law 449
    6. The Import of Hazardous Waste into India, and the Research Foundation Litigation 457
    7. Electronic Waste: The 2022 Rules 463
    8. E-Waste: The Certificate Regime, Compensation and Enforcement 469
    9. Batteries: The Battery Waste Management Rules 2022 476
    10. Construction and Demolition Waste: The 2025 Rules 483
    11. Construction Waste: Enforcement, Appeal, and Mumbai 491
    12. End-of-Life Vehicles: A Waste Stream That Became a Category in 2025 499
    13. Contaminated Sites, and Who Pays to Clean One Up 506
    14. Sewage and Effluent as Waste: The Overlap with the Water Act 515
    15. When a Waste Rule Is Broken: The Enforcement Chain 521
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV

    1. What a Sanction Is, and the Four Kinds This Subject Uses 527
    2. The Decriminalisation of 2023 and 2024: Why Every Older Book Is Wrong Here 532
    3. The Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Act 2023 538
    4. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act 2024 543
    5. Penalty and Punishment Are Not the Same Thing 548
    6. The Water Act Penalties as They Now Stand 553
    7. The Water Act Adjudication Machinery 558
    8. Section 45E: The One Water Act Offence That Survives 564
    9. Companies, Departments and Who May Complain Under the Water Act 569
    10. The Air Act Penalties as They Now Stand 575
    11. The Air Act Adjudication Machinery, and Section 39D 581
    12. Government Departments and Cognizance Under the Air Act 587
    13. The EPA Penalties as They Now Stand 593
    14. The EPA Adjudicating Officer and What He Must Weigh 599
    15. The Environmental Protection Fund 606
    16. Section 15F: The Offence of Not Paying 612
    17. Administrative Sanctions: Closure, and Cutting Off Water and Electricity 618
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Public Nuisance Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023 624
    2. Section 152 BNSS: The Conditional Order for Removal of a Nuisance 631
    3. Ratlam Municipality, and the Answer to "We Have No Money" 638
    4. Nuisance, Negligence and the Civil Remedies 645
    5. Strict Liability: Rylands v Fletcher and Its Exceptions 651
    6. Absolute Liability: The Oleum Gas Leak, and Why India Made Its Own Rule 657
    7. Bhopal: The Settlement, the Review and the Curative Petition 664
    8. The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991: No-Fault Relief 670
    9. Claiming Under the Public Liability Insurance Act 677
    10. The Public Liability Act: Powers, Penalties and the 2023 Changes 684
    11. The National Green Tribunal: What It Is and Who Sits on It 692
    12. Section 14 and the Substantial Question Relating to Environment 698
    13. Section 15: Relief, Compensation and Restitution 704
    14. Appeals to the Tribunal, and Section 17 No-Fault Liability 711
    15. How the Tribunal Works, and the Section 20 Principles 718
    16. Appeal to the Supreme Court, and the Bar on the Civil Court 724
    17. Enforcing a Tribunal Order, and Section 26 730
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Tail of the NGT Act 737
    2. The Writ Jurisdiction, and Continuing Mandamus 744
    3. Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum: Reception of the Principles 750
    4. Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action: Recovering the Cost of Remediation 756
    5. Exemplary Damages, Restitution and Closure as a Sanction of Last Resort 762
    6. Market-Based Instruments for Abating Industrial Pollution 769
    7. Why Sanctions Under-Deliver, and What 2024 Is Betting On 776
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    783 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 783 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 145 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 61 chapters

    1. 1 What Pollution Is pages 1–4
    2. 2 The Statutory Definitions: Environment, Pollutant, Pollution pages 5–9
    3. 3 Hazardous Substance, Handling and the Occupier pages 10–14
    4. 4 Why India Has These Acts: Stockholm, 1972 pages 15–18
    5. 5 Article 21 and the Right to a Wholesome Environment pages 19–22
    6. 6 Article 48A, Article 51A(g) and What a Non-Justiciable Direction Is Worth pages 23–26
    7. 7 Which Legislature May Act: The Seventh Schedule pages 27–30
    8. 8 Article 252 and Article 253: The Two Doors pages 31–35
    9. 9 Sustainable Development as a Rule of Indian Law pages 36–39
    10. 10 The Precautionary Principle pages 40–43
    11. 11 The Polluter Pays Principle pages 44–48
    12. 12 The Public Trust Doctrine and Intergenerational Equity pages 49–53
    13. 13 Standing: How Public Interest Litigation Opened the Environmental Courts pages 54–57
    14. 14 The Regulators: Ministry, Central Board, State Boards pages 58–62
    15. 15 The Environment (Protection) Act as Umbrella Legislation pages 63–67
    16. 16 How an Environmental Standard Is Made pages 68–72
    17. 17 Samples, Laboratories and Proof Under the EPA pages 73–77
    18. 18 Prior Environmental Clearance and Environmental Impact Assessment pages 78–82
    19. 19 The National Green Tribunal in Outline pages 83–86
    20. 20 The Tail of the EPA: Good Faith, Delegation and Rules pages 87–91
    21. 21 What Water Pollution Is pages 92–95
    22. 22 Groundwater Pollution, and the Law That Reaches an Aquifer pages 96–101
    23. 23 How the Water Act Reached Maharashtra pages 102–105
    24. 24 The Boards: Constitution and Membership pages 106–109
    25. 25 Members: Terms, Disqualification and Vacation of Office pages 110–114
    26. 26 Joint Boards: Two States, One River pages 115–117
    27. 27 What the Boards Are For: Sections 16, 17 and 18 pages 118–122
    28. 28 Getting at the Facts: Information and Samples pages 123–128
    29. 29 The Power of Entry and Inspection pages 129–132
    30. 30 Section 24: The Central Prohibition pages 133–137
    31. 31 Consent to Establish and Consent to Operate pages 138–142
    32. 32 Refusal, Withdrawal and the 2025 Consent Guidelines pages 143–147
    33. 33 The 2025 Water Consent Guidelines: Timelines, Validity and Monitoring pages 148–153
    34. 34 Appeal, Revision and the Board Doing the Work pages 154–158
    35. 35 Emergencies: Sections 31, 32 and 33 pages 159–163
    36. 36 Section 33A: Closure, and Cutting Off Water and Electricity pages 164–168
    37. 37 Money and Accountability: Funds, Budget and Audit pages 169–172
    38. 38 The Water Laboratories and the Analysts pages 173–176
    39. 39 The Tail of the Water Act pages 177–181
    40. 40 The Water Cess Act 1977, and Its Repeal pages 182–185
    41. 41 Water Pollution in Maharashtra and in Mumbai pages 186–189
    42. 42 What Air Pollution Is, and Why Noise Is Inside It pages 190–193
    43. 43 The Air Act 1981 and Article 253 pages 194–197
    44. 44 Boards Under the Air Act pages 198–202
    45. 45 Meetings, Committees, Delegation and Staff pages 203–206
    46. 46 Functions of the Boards, and the Power to Direct pages 207–211
    47. 47 Air Pollution Control Areas, and Emissions from Automobiles pages 212–215
    48. 48 Consent Under the Air Act, and the New Section 21A pages 216–221
    49. 49 The 2025 Air Consent Guidelines pages 222–225
    50. 50 The Emission Standard, and the Section 22A Application pages 226–229
    51. 51 Entry, Inspection and Samples Under the Air Act pages 230–234
    52. 52 The State Air Laboratory and the Analysts pages 235–238
    53. 53 Appeals, Section 31A Directions and the Section 31B Appeal pages 239–243
    54. 54 Money and Accountability Under the Air Act pages 244–248
    55. 55 The Tail of the Air Act pages 249–253
    56. 56 The CAQM Act 2021: Why Parliament Made a Second Air Regulator pages 254–257
    57. 57 What the Commission for Air Quality Management Does pages 258–261
    58. 58 Offences, Environmental Compensation and Money Under the CAQM Act pages 262–266
    59. 59 The Commission, the Air Act and the Tail of the CAQM Act pages 267–271
    60. 60 Stubble Burning, Vehicles and the Seasonal Politics of Air Quality pages 272–276
    61. 61 Air Quality in Mumbai, and What the Law Can Reach pages 277–280

    Module II 14 chapters

    1. 62 Noise as Pollution in Law pages 281–284
    2. 63 How Noise Is Measured, and Why the Decibel Scale Is Not Linear pages 285–288
    3. 64 The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 pages 289–292
    4. 65 Ambient Standards by Zone and by Hour, and the Silence Zone pages 293–296
    5. 66 Who Enforces the Noise Rules pages 297–300
    6. 67 Loudspeakers, Public Address Systems and the Night Ban pages 301–304
    7. 68 Silence Zones, Horns and Firecrackers pages 305–308
    8. 69 Complaining About Noise, and the Power to Stop It pages 309–313
    9. 70 Noise Pollution (V), In re: The Supreme Court's Directions pages 314–318
    10. 71 Church of God (Full Gospel), and the Answer to "My Religion Requires It" pages 319–323
    11. 72 The Bombay High Court and Mumbai's Silence Zones pages 324–328
    12. 73 Noise as a Private and a Public Nuisance pages 329–333
    13. 74 Noise Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita and Section 152 BNSS pages 334–338
    14. 75 Noise at Work, and What the 2024 Penalties Did to Noise pages 339–344

    Module III 29 chapters

    1. 76 What Waste Is in Law, and Why India Has No Waste Act pages 345–349
    2. 77 The Rule-Making Power Behind Every Waste Rule pages 350–354
    3. 78 Extended Producer Responsibility as a Legal Technique pages 355–359
    4. 79 Environmental Compensation: A Levy Without a Court pages 360–364
    5. 80 The Solid Waste Management Rules 2026 pages 365–369
    6. 81 Duties of the Waste Generator and the Bulk Generator pages 370–374
    7. 82 Duties of Processors, Collectors and Material Recovery Facilities pages 375–379
    8. 83 Waste to Energy, the Sanitary Landfill and the Legacy Dumpsite pages 380–385
    9. 84 Reporting, Accidents and the Ministries the Rules Command pages 386–390
    10. 85 The Rest of the Machinery: Ministries, Magistrates, Local Bodies and the Board pages 391–395
    11. 86 Almitra H. Patel and the Long Supervision of Municipal Waste pages 396–400
    12. 87 Plastic Waste: The 2016 Rules and What They Cover pages 401–406
    13. 88 The Single-Use Ban, Marking and Extended Producer Responsibility for Plastic pages 407–413
    14. 89 Bio-Medical Waste: Duties of the Occupier pages 414–419
    15. 90 Bio-Medical Waste: Authorisation, Accidents, Appeal and Liability pages 420–426
    16. 91 Hazardous and Other Wastes: The Scheme of the 2016 Rules pages 427–433
    17. 92 Transboundary Movement, and the Basel Convention Behind It pages 434–441
    18. 93 Used Oil: The Chapter the Textbooks Do Not Have pages 442–448
    19. 94 Scrap of Non-Ferrous Metals: The Newest Chapter in Indian Waste Law pages 449–456
    20. 95 The Import of Hazardous Waste into India, and the Research Foundation Litigation pages 457–462
    21. 96 Electronic Waste: The 2022 Rules pages 463–468
    22. 97 E-Waste: The Certificate Regime, Compensation and Enforcement pages 469–475
    23. 98 Batteries: The Battery Waste Management Rules 2022 pages 476–482
    24. 99 Construction and Demolition Waste: The 2025 Rules pages 483–490
    25. 100 Construction Waste: Enforcement, Appeal, and Mumbai pages 491–498
    26. 101 End-of-Life Vehicles: A Waste Stream That Became a Category in 2025 pages 499–505
    27. 102 Contaminated Sites, and Who Pays to Clean One Up pages 506–514
    28. 103 Sewage and Effluent as Waste: The Overlap with the Water Act pages 515–520
    29. 104 When a Waste Rule Is Broken: The Enforcement Chain pages 521–526

    Module IV 41 chapters

    1. 105 What a Sanction Is, and the Four Kinds This Subject Uses pages 527–531
    2. 106 The Decriminalisation of 2023 and 2024: Why Every Older Book Is Wrong Here pages 532–537
    3. 107 The Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Act 2023 pages 538–542
    4. 108 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act 2024 pages 543–547
    5. 109 Penalty and Punishment Are Not the Same Thing pages 548–552
    6. 110 The Water Act Penalties as They Now Stand pages 553–557
    7. 111 The Water Act Adjudication Machinery pages 558–563
    8. 112 Section 45E: The One Water Act Offence That Survives pages 564–568
    9. 113 Companies, Departments and Who May Complain Under the Water Act pages 569–574
    10. 114 The Air Act Penalties as They Now Stand pages 575–580
    11. 115 The Air Act Adjudication Machinery, and Section 39D pages 581–586
    12. 116 Government Departments and Cognizance Under the Air Act pages 587–592
    13. 117 The EPA Penalties as They Now Stand pages 593–598
    14. 118 The EPA Adjudicating Officer and What He Must Weigh pages 599–605
    15. 119 The Environmental Protection Fund pages 606–611
    16. 120 Section 15F: The Offence of Not Paying pages 612–617
    17. 121 Administrative Sanctions: Closure, and Cutting Off Water and Electricity pages 618–623
    18. 122 Public Nuisance Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023 pages 624–630
    19. 123 Section 152 BNSS: The Conditional Order for Removal of a Nuisance pages 631–637
    20. 124 Ratlam Municipality, and the Answer to "We Have No Money" pages 638–644
    21. 125 Nuisance, Negligence and the Civil Remedies pages 645–650
    22. 126 Strict Liability: Rylands v Fletcher and Its Exceptions pages 651–656
    23. 127 Absolute Liability: The Oleum Gas Leak, and Why India Made Its Own Rule pages 657–663
    24. 128 Bhopal: The Settlement, the Review and the Curative Petition pages 664–669
    25. 129 The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991: No-Fault Relief pages 670–676
    26. 130 Claiming Under the Public Liability Insurance Act pages 677–683
    27. 131 The Public Liability Act: Powers, Penalties and the 2023 Changes pages 684–691
    28. 132 The National Green Tribunal: What It Is and Who Sits on It pages 692–697
    29. 133 Section 14 and the Substantial Question Relating to Environment pages 698–703
    30. 134 Section 15: Relief, Compensation and Restitution pages 704–710
    31. 135 Appeals to the Tribunal, and Section 17 No-Fault Liability pages 711–717
    32. 136 How the Tribunal Works, and the Section 20 Principles pages 718–723
    33. 137 Appeal to the Supreme Court, and the Bar on the Civil Court pages 724–729
    34. 138 Enforcing a Tribunal Order, and Section 26 pages 730–736
    35. 139 The Tail of the NGT Act pages 737–743
    36. 140 The Writ Jurisdiction, and Continuing Mandamus pages 744–749
    37. 141 Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum: Reception of the Principles pages 750–755
    38. 142 Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action: Recovering the Cost of Remediation pages 756–761
    39. 143 Exemplary Damages, Restitution and Closure as a Sanction of Last Resort pages 762–768
    40. 144 Market-Based Instruments for Abating Industrial Pollution pages 769–775
    41. 145 Why Sanctions Under-Deliver, and What 2024 Is Betting On pages 776–783
    Every paper that is solved: 8 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2025-26 - Set 2
    • 2024
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  4. Judicial Process

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Judicial Process

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 2

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Judicial Process

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

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    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What the Judicial Process Is 1
    2. The Judicial Process as an Instrument of Social Ordering 6
    3. Cardozo and the Nature of the Judicial Process 11
    4. The Declaratory Theory and the Living Oracle 15
    5. Judicial Reasoning, not Calculation 19
    6. The Final Cause of Law Is the Welfare of Society 23
    7. The Gap in the Law 27
    8. Creation, not Discovery 31
    9. The Method of Philosophy: The Rule of Logic 36
    10. The Method of History 40
    11. The Method of Tradition and Custom 44
    12. The Method of Sociology 48
    13. Judicial Creativity and the Growth of Law 53
    14. The Tools and Techniques of Judicial Creativity 57
    15. The Limits of Judicial Creativity 62
    16. The Doctrine of Precedent 67
    17. Ratio Decidendi and Obiter Dicta 71
    18. When a Precedent Binds, and When It Does Not 75
    19. The Merits and the Demerits of Precedent 79
    20. Distinguishing and Overruling: Precedent as Creativity 83
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Article 141 and Stare Decisis in India 87
    2. When the Supreme Court Departs from Itself 91
    3. Legal Development through Codification 95

    Module II

    1. The Special Dimensions of the Judicial Process 99
    2. What Judicial Review Is 103
    3. The Constitutional Basis of Judicial Review in India 107
    4. The Grounds of Judicial Review 111
    5. Judicial Review as a Basic Feature of the Constitution 115
    6. The Philosophy of Judicial Review and Limited Government 120
    7. The Role of the Courts in Constitutional Adjudication 124
    8. Judicial Review as a Check on Power 128
    9. What Judicial Activism Is 132
    10. The Varieties of Judicial Activism 136
    11. The Scope and the Necessity of Judicial Activism 140
    12. The Limits of Judicial Activism and the Charge of Overreach 144
    13. Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint 149
    14. Judicial Accountability 153
    15. The Institutional Liability of the Courts: Scope and Limits 157
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Accountability of the Executive 161
    2. The Judicial Process in India 165
    3. The Independence of the Judiciary 169
    4. The Constitutional Guarantees of Independence 173
    5. The Appointment of Judges 177
    6. The First Judges Case 181
    7. The Second Judges Case 184
    8. The Third Judges Case 187
    9. The National Judicial Appointments Commission 191
    10. The Political Nature of the Judicial Process 195
    11. Structural Vulnerability and the Political Executive 199
    12. The Judicial Creativity of the Supreme Court of India 203
    13. The Judicial Process in Pursuit of Constitutional Goals and Values 207
    14. New Dimensions of Judicial Activism, and the Structural Challenges 211
    15. Constitutional Jurisprudence Built through Judicial Activism 215
    16. What Public Interest Litigation Is 219
    17. Locus Standi and Epistolary Jurisdiction 223
    18. PIL as a Judicial Arm Creating New Dimensions for Achieving Justice 227
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Misuse of PIL, and the Remedies 231
    2. The Constitution as a Living Document 235
    3. Creative Law-Making and the New Socio-Economic Rights 239
    4. Substance over Technicality: Articles 14 and 21 243
    5. Individual Freedom and Collective Welfare 247
    6. Judicial Activism for the Marginalised 251
    7. The Prison Cases and the Dignity of the Individual 255

    Module III

    1. What Justice Is 259
    2. Dharma: What the Word Means 263
    3. The Sources of Dharma 267
    4. Dharma as the Foundation of Legal Ordering 271
    5. Dharma as the Foundation of Justice in India 275
    6. The Aspects of Dharma 279
    7. Raja Dharma: The Duty of the Ruler 283
    8. Dharma in the Indian Legal System Today 287
    9. The Purpose of Dharma 291
    10. Dharma Is Not Religion 295
    11. Dharma, Natural Justice and the Rule of Law 299
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Justice in Greek Thought: Plato and Aristotle 303
    2. The Liberal Contractual Tradition 307
    3. Rawls and Justice as Fairness 311
    4. The Liberal Moral Tradition: Kant 315
    5. The Liberal Utilitarian Tradition: Bentham and Mill 319
    6. The Critics of Liberal Justice 324

    Module IV

    1. The Relation between Law and Justice 328
    2. Equivalence Theories of Justice 332
    3. Dependency Theories of Justice 336
    4. The Independence of Justice from Law 340
    5. The Interrelationship, Read through the Theories of Justice 344
    6. Law and Justice in the Indian Constitutional Order 348
    7. Supreme Court Cases Read through the Theories of Justice 352
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    356 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 356 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 87 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 23 chapters

    1. 1 What the Judicial Process Is pages 1–5
    2. 2 The Judicial Process as an Instrument of Social Ordering pages 6–10
    3. 3 Cardozo and the Nature of the Judicial Process pages 11–14
    4. 4 The Declaratory Theory and the Living Oracle pages 15–18
    5. 5 Judicial Reasoning, not Calculation pages 19–22
    6. 6 The Final Cause of Law Is the Welfare of Society pages 23–26
    7. 7 The Gap in the Law pages 27–30
    8. 8 Creation, not Discovery pages 31–35
    9. 9 The Method of Philosophy: The Rule of Logic pages 36–39
    10. 10 The Method of History pages 40–43
    11. 11 The Method of Tradition and Custom pages 44–47
    12. 12 The Method of Sociology pages 48–52
    13. 13 Judicial Creativity and the Growth of Law pages 53–56
    14. 14 The Tools and Techniques of Judicial Creativity pages 57–61
    15. 15 The Limits of Judicial Creativity pages 62–66
    16. 16 The Doctrine of Precedent pages 67–70
    17. 17 Ratio Decidendi and Obiter Dicta pages 71–74
    18. 18 When a Precedent Binds, and When It Does Not pages 75–78
    19. 19 The Merits and the Demerits of Precedent pages 79–82
    20. 20 Distinguishing and Overruling: Precedent as Creativity pages 83–86
    21. 21 Article 141 and Stare Decisis in India pages 87–90
    22. 22 When the Supreme Court Departs from Itself pages 91–94
    23. 23 Legal Development through Codification pages 95–98

    Module II 40 chapters

    1. 24 The Special Dimensions of the Judicial Process pages 99–102
    2. 25 What Judicial Review Is pages 103–106
    3. 26 The Constitutional Basis of Judicial Review in India pages 107–110
    4. 27 The Grounds of Judicial Review pages 111–114
    5. 28 Judicial Review as a Basic Feature of the Constitution pages 115–119
    6. 29 The Philosophy of Judicial Review and Limited Government pages 120–123
    7. 30 The Role of the Courts in Constitutional Adjudication pages 124–127
    8. 31 Judicial Review as a Check on Power pages 128–131
    9. 32 What Judicial Activism Is pages 132–135
    10. 33 The Varieties of Judicial Activism pages 136–139
    11. 34 The Scope and the Necessity of Judicial Activism pages 140–143
    12. 35 The Limits of Judicial Activism and the Charge of Overreach pages 144–148
    13. 36 Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint pages 149–152
    14. 37 Judicial Accountability pages 153–156
    15. 38 The Institutional Liability of the Courts: Scope and Limits pages 157–160
    16. 39 The Accountability of the Executive pages 161–164
    17. 40 The Judicial Process in India pages 165–168
    18. 41 The Independence of the Judiciary pages 169–172
    19. 42 The Constitutional Guarantees of Independence pages 173–176
    20. 43 The Appointment of Judges pages 177–180
    21. 44 The First Judges Case pages 181–183
    22. 45 The Second Judges Case pages 184–186
    23. 46 The Third Judges Case pages 187–190
    24. 47 The National Judicial Appointments Commission pages 191–194
    25. 48 The Political Nature of the Judicial Process pages 195–198
    26. 49 Structural Vulnerability and the Political Executive pages 199–202
    27. 50 The Judicial Creativity of the Supreme Court of India pages 203–206
    28. 51 The Judicial Process in Pursuit of Constitutional Goals and Values pages 207–210
    29. 52 New Dimensions of Judicial Activism, and the Structural Challenges pages 211–214
    30. 53 Constitutional Jurisprudence Built through Judicial Activism pages 215–218
    31. 54 What Public Interest Litigation Is pages 219–222
    32. 55 Locus Standi and Epistolary Jurisdiction pages 223–226
    33. 56 PIL as a Judicial Arm Creating New Dimensions for Achieving Justice pages 227–230
    34. 57 The Misuse of PIL, and the Remedies pages 231–234
    35. 58 The Constitution as a Living Document pages 235–238
    36. 59 Creative Law-Making and the New Socio-Economic Rights pages 239–242
    37. 60 Substance over Technicality: Articles 14 and 21 pages 243–246
    38. 61 Individual Freedom and Collective Welfare pages 247–250
    39. 62 Judicial Activism for the Marginalised pages 251–254
    40. 63 The Prison Cases and the Dignity of the Individual pages 255–258

    Module III 17 chapters

    1. 64 What Justice Is pages 259–262
    2. 65 Dharma: What the Word Means pages 263–266
    3. 66 The Sources of Dharma pages 267–270
    4. 67 Dharma as the Foundation of Legal Ordering pages 271–274
    5. 68 Dharma as the Foundation of Justice in India pages 275–278
    6. 69 The Aspects of Dharma pages 279–282
    7. 70 Raja Dharma: The Duty of the Ruler pages 283–286
    8. 71 Dharma in the Indian Legal System Today pages 287–290
    9. 72 The Purpose of Dharma pages 291–294
    10. 73 Dharma Is Not Religion pages 295–298
    11. 74 Dharma, Natural Justice and the Rule of Law pages 299–302
    12. 75 Justice in Greek Thought: Plato and Aristotle pages 303–306
    13. 76 The Liberal Contractual Tradition pages 307–310
    14. 77 Rawls and Justice as Fairness pages 311–314
    15. 78 The Liberal Moral Tradition: Kant pages 315–318
    16. 79 The Liberal Utilitarian Tradition: Bentham and Mill pages 319–323
    17. 80 The Critics of Liberal Justice pages 324–327

    Module IV 7 chapters

    1. 81 The Relation between Law and Justice pages 328–331
    2. 82 Equivalence Theories of Justice pages 332–335
    3. 83 Dependency Theories of Justice pages 336–339
    4. 84 The Independence of Justice from Law pages 340–343
    5. 85 The Interrelationship, Read through the Theories of Justice pages 344–347
    6. 86 Law and Justice in the Indian Constitutional Order pages 348–351
    7. 87 Supreme Court Cases Read through the Theories of Justice pages 352–356
    Every paper that is solved: 8 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024-25
    • 2023-24
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

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