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LL.M. Environment and Legal Order Semester 3: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

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  1. Biological Diversity and Legal Order

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Biological Diversity and Legal Order

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 3

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 6 Environment and Legal Order

    Biological Diversity and Legal Order

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What This Paper Is About 1
    2. The Three Levels of Diversity 4
    3. What the Statute Means by Biological Diversity 7
    4. Biological Resources, and What the Definition Leaves Out 10
    5. The Meaning of Biodiversity, as the University Asks It 13
    6. Biodiversity and Human Life 16
    7. The Values of Biodiversity 19
    8. Ecosystem Services, and Putting a Price on Them 22
    9. India as a Megadiverse Country 25
    10. Why Biodiversity Must Be Protected 28
    11. Flora and Fauna, and Why the Law Treats Them Differently 31
    12. The Five Drivers of Biodiversity Loss 35
    13. Extinction, Endangerment and the Red List 38
    14. In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation 41
    15. Biodiversity and International Law 44
    16. From Stockholm 1972 to Rio 1992 47
    17. The Convention on Biological Diversity and Its Three Objectives 50
    18. Article 3: Sovereignty, and Recognition at Country Level 53
    19. Articles 6 and 7: National Strategies, Identification and Monitoring 56
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Article 8, and the Clause That Changed Indian Law 59
    2. Articles 9 and 10: Ex-situ Conservation and Sustainable Use 63
    3. Articles 11 to 14: Incentives, Research, Education and Impact Assessment 66
    4. Article 15: Access to Genetic Resources 69
    5. Articles 16 to 19: Technology, Information and Biotechnology 72
    6. Articles 20 and 21: Money 76
    7. Articles 22 to 42: The Machinery and the Final Clauses 79
    8. The Rights and Responsibilities of a State Under the Convention 82
    9. The Salient Features of the Convention, in Exam Shape 85
    10. The Nagoya Protocol 2010 88
    11. Nagoya: Compliance, Traditional Knowledge and Machinery 92
    12. The Cartagena Protocol 2000, in Outline 96
    13. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources, in Outline 99
    14. CITES 1973, in Outline 102
    15. The Ramsar Convention and India’s Wetlands 105
    16. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework 2022 109
    17. Articles 48A and 51A(g) of the Constitution 112
    18. Article 21 and the Environment 115
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Article 253, and Why Parliament Could Enact the 2002 Act 119
    2. The Indian and International Instruments Together 122
    3. The Whole Legal Framework, in One Chapter 125

    Module II

    1. Why India Needed an Act of Its Own 128
    2. The Scheme of the Biological Diversity Act 2002 132
    3. Section 2: The Definitions That Decide Everything 136
    4. Section 3: Who May Not Take a Biological Resource 139
    5. Sections 4 and 6: Research Results and Intellectual Property 143
    6. Section 7, and the Proviso That Changed It in 2023 151
    7. Sections 8 to 17: The National Biodiversity Authority 155
    8. Section 18: The Functions and Powers of the Authority 159
    9. Section 19: How an Approval Is Applied For and Given 162
    10. Section 21: Fair and Equitable Benefit Sharing 166
    11. Sections 22 to 25: The State Biodiversity Board 170
    12. The Functions of the Boards, in Exam Shape 173
    13. Sections 26 to 35: The Funds, the Accounts and the Reports 176
    14. Sections 36, 36A and 36B: Strategies, Plans and Duties 179
    15. Section 37: Biodiversity Heritage Sites 182
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Sections 38 and 39: Threatened Species and Repositories 185
    2. Section 40: Normally Traded Commodities 188
    3. Sections 41 to 47: The Biodiversity Management Committee 191
    4. Sections 48 to 54: Directions, Disputes, Appeals and Execution 194
    5. Sections 55 to 57: The Penalty Regime the 2023 Amendment Created 198
    6. Sections 59 to 65: Savings, Exemptions and the Rule Making Powers 202
    7. The Implementing Structures, in Exam Shape 206
    8. The Biological Diversity Rules 2024 209
    9. The 2024 Rules: Committees, Registers and Procedure 213
    10. The Access and Benefit Sharing Regulations 2025 217
    11. Divya Pharmacy: Benefit Sharing from an Indian Company 222
    12. Access to Biological Resources Under Indian Law 226
    13. The Act Against the Convention It Implements 230
    14. The Legislation Governing Research in Biological Resources 233
    15. Biopiracy: What It Is and How the Act Answers It 237
    16. Turmeric, Neem and Basmati 241
    17. The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library 244
    18. Why the Law Regulates What Is Done to an Animal 247
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Sections 3 and 11: The Duty, and What Counts as Cruelty 251
    2. Section 14: When an Experiment on an Animal Is Lawful 255
    3. Sections 15 to 17: The Committee That Controls Experiments 258
    4. Sections 18 to 20: Inspection, Prohibition and Penalty 261
    5. The 1998 Rules and the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee 265
    6. The Three Rs: Replacement, Reduction and Refinement 269
    7. The Ethical Argument, and Where the Law Stops 272
    8. The Legal Mechanism of Control, in Exam Shape 276
    9. A. Nagaraja: The Rights of Animals 280
    10. The Constitution Bench of 2023, and What Survives of Nagaraja 284
    11. Sections 21 to 41: Performing Animals, Offences and the Rest of the Act 288
    12. The End of Cosmetics Testing on Animals in India 292
    13. What Genetic Engineering Is 295
    14. The Relation Between Genetic Engineering and Biodiversity 299
    15. The 1989 Rules: The Six Bodies of Indian Biosafety Law 303
    16. The 1989 Rules: The Approvals, and Who Gives Them 307
    17. The 1989 Rules: Inspection, Restriction and Prohibition 311
    18. The Cartagena Protocol: The Advance Informed Agreement 315
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Living Modified Organisms for Food, Feed or Processing 319
    2. Risk Assessment, Risk Management and the Precautionary Provision 323
    3. The Biosafety Clearing-House and the Rest of the Protocol 328
    4. Bt Cotton, Bt Brinjal and GM Mustard 333
    5. The Legal Provisions on the Genetic Mutation of Seeds and Micro-organisms 337
    6. Genetic Engineering in the Preservation of Endangered Species 342
    7. Monsanto v. Nuziveedu and Section 3(j) of the Patents Act 346
    8. Multinational Corporations and Biological Resources 350
    9. The Liabilities of a Multinational, and the Problems of Control 354
    10. Corporate Social Responsibility, and What Schedule VII Actually Says 359
    11. Flora and Fauna for Biomedical Purposes 363
    12. Wildlife Trade, Biopiracy and Research Practice, Nationally and Internationally 367
    13. How a Development Project Destroys Biodiversity 372
    14. Unplanned Development, and What Makes It Unplanned 375
    15. The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 379
    16. The Four Stages: Screening, Scoping, Public Consultation and Appraisal 383
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Forest Clearance Under the Van Adhiniyam 387
    2. Wildlife Clearance and the National Board for Wild Life 391
    3. Eco-sensitive Zones and the Coast 395
    4. Compensatory Afforestation and Net Present Value 399
    5. The Concept of Sustainable Development 404
    6. How the Concept Evolved 408
    7. How Sustainable Development Is Related to Biodiversity 412
    8. Vellore: The Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays 416
    9. Nayudu and the Burden of Proof 420
    10. Narmada Bachao Andolan, and the Limits of the Precautionary Principle 423
    11. Hanuman Laxman Aroskar and the Incomplete Assessment 426
    12. Lafarge, and the Guidelines for Every Future Clearance 429
    13. K.M. Chinnappa: Mining Inside a National Park 433
    14. M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath and the Public Trust Doctrine 437
    15. Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action and the Cost of Remediation 441
    16. Niyamgiri: The Gram Sabha as a Step in Clearance 446
    17. Samatha, PESA and Land in a Scheduled Area 450
    18. The Forest Rights Act 2006 and the Critical Wildlife Habitat 454
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The National Green Tribunal as the Forum 459
    2. The Silent Valley Episode 464

    Module III

    1. What a Medicinal Plant Is, and Why the Law Finds It Hard 468
    2. The Difficulties in the Legal Regulation of Medicinal Plants 473
    3. Medicinal Plants, in Short-Note Shape 479
    4. The Need, Impact and Importance of Medicinal Plants and Micro-organisms 483
    5. Medicinal Plants as Biological Resources Under the 2002 Act 487
    6. The 2023 Proviso: Cultivated Plants, AYUSH and What Came Out of the Act 493
    7. Codified Traditional Knowledge and the First Schedule 497
    8. Specified Plants: The Only Plants the Wildlife Act Protects 501
    9. Sections 17A to 17H: Picking, Cultivating, Dealing and Stock 505
    10. Chapter IVA of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act: Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani Drugs 510
    11. Adulterated and Spurious Drugs, and the Licence to Manufacture 514
    12. Chapter IVA: Offences, Confiscation and the Rest 519
    13. The National Medicinal Plants Board and the Schemes 524
    14. Cosmetic Plants, and What the University Means 528
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Section 3 of the Patents Act: What Is Not an Invention 532
    2. Section 3(d) and Novartis 536
    3. Section 3(p): Traditional Knowledge Is Not an Invention 539
    4. Section 10(4): Disclosure of Source and Geographical Origin 543
    5. Sections 25 and 64: Opposition and Revocation 548
    6. The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001 552
    7. Registering a Variety, and the Four Kinds the Act Knows 557
    8. Section 39: Farmers’ Rights 563
    9. Section 41: The Rights of Communities 568
    10. Section 26 and the Gene Fund 572
    11. Section 30 and Sections 47 to 48: Research and the Compulsory Licence 577
    12. The International Treaty and Its Multilateral System 581
    13. Genetic Resources for Agriculture, and Their Protection 586
    14. Where Three Statutes Meet Over One Plant 591

    Module IV

    1. What a Protected Area Is 596
    2. The Scheme of the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 600
    3. Section 2: The Definitions the Act Turns On 605
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Sections 3 to 8: The Authorities 610
    2. Section 9: The Prohibition of Hunting 614
    3. Sections 11 and 12: When Hunting Is Permitted 618
    4. Section 18: Declaring a Sanctuary 622
    5. Sections 19 to 25A: The Settlement of Rights 626
    6. Section 26A: The Final Declaration, and the Power to Cut a Sanctuary Down 631
    7. Sections 27 to 34: What May and May Not Be Done Inside 635
    8. Section 29, and Essar Oil 640
    9. Section 35: The National Park 645
    10. Sanctuaries and National Parks Compared 650
    11. Sections 36A to 36D: Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves 654
    12. Section 38: The Central Government’s Own Power to Declare 659
    13. Sections 38A to 38K: The Central Zoo Authority and the Recognition of a Zoo 663
    14. The Recognition of Zoo Rules 2009 668
    15. National Parks and Zoos, and Sanctuaries and Zoos 674
    16. Sections 38L to 38XA: Tiger Reserves and the Tiger Authority 678
    17. Sections 38Y and 38Z: The Wild Life Crime Control Bureau 684
    18. Section 39: Wild Animals as Government Property 689
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Sections 40 to 42A: Declarations, Inventories, Certificates and Surrender 694
    2. Chapter V, Sections 43 to 49: The Licence to Deal 700
    3. Chapter VA, Sections 49A to 49C: The Total Prohibition, and Ivory 706
    4. Chapter VB, Sections 49D to 49R: International Trade in Scheduled Specimens 712
    5. Sections 49M to 49R: Breeders, Licences and Government Property 718
    6. CITES Worked: The Three Appendices and the Permit 723
    7. The Regulation of Trade in Wildlife Products 729
    8. Sections 50 to 58: Powers, Penalties and Presumptions 735
    9. Chapter VIA, Sections 58A to 58Y: Forfeiture 742
    10. Sections 59 to 60B: Officers, Good Faith and Rewards 749
    11. Sections 61 to 62B: The Schedules, Vermin and Invasive Alien Species 754
    12. Sections 63 to 66: Rules, the Rights of Scheduled Tribes, and the Repeal 759
    13. The Indian Forest Act 1927 and the Three Classes of Forest 764
    14. Sections 26 to 42: Prohibitions, Village Forests and Protected Forests 770
    15. Sections 52 to 69: Seizure, Confiscation and the Presumption 777
    16. The Van Adhiniyam 1980 and the Diversion of Forest Land 783
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Wetlands: Ramsar Sites and the Rules 790
    2. The Legal Provisions of the Laws That Protect National Parks and Sanctuaries 796
    3. The Species Cases: The Lion, the Bustard and the Tiger 803
    4. The Efficacy of the Act, and the Significance of Wildlife Conservation 808
    5. The Whole Paper in One Place 815
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    821 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 821 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2024, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 197 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 40 chapters

    1. 1 What This Paper Is About pages 1 to 3
    2. 2 The Three Levels of Diversity pages 4 to 6
    3. 3 What the Statute Means by Biological Diversity pages 7 to 9
    4. 4 Biological Resources, and What the Definition Leaves Out pages 10 to 12
    5. 5 The Meaning of Biodiversity, as the University Asks It pages 13 to 15
    6. 6 Biodiversity and Human Life pages 16 to 18
    7. 7 The Values of Biodiversity pages 19 to 21
    8. 8 Ecosystem Services, and Putting a Price on Them pages 22 to 24
    9. 9 India as a Megadiverse Country pages 25 to 27
    10. 10 Why Biodiversity Must Be Protected pages 28 to 30
    11. 11 Flora and Fauna, and Why the Law Treats Them Differently pages 31 to 34
    12. 12 The Five Drivers of Biodiversity Loss pages 35 to 37
    13. 13 Extinction, Endangerment and the Red List pages 38 to 40
    14. 14 In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation pages 41 to 43
    15. 15 Biodiversity and International Law pages 44 to 46
    16. 16 From Stockholm 1972 to Rio 1992 pages 47 to 49
    17. 17 The Convention on Biological Diversity and Its Three Objectives pages 50 to 52
    18. 18 Article 3: Sovereignty, and Recognition at Country Level pages 53 to 55
    19. 19 Articles 6 and 7: National Strategies, Identification and Monitoring pages 56 to 58
    20. 20 Article 8, and the Clause That Changed Indian Law pages 59 to 62
    21. 21 Articles 9 and 10: Ex-situ Conservation and Sustainable Use pages 63 to 65
    22. 22 Articles 11 to 14: Incentives, Research, Education and Impact Assessment pages 66 to 68
    23. 23 Article 15: Access to Genetic Resources pages 69 to 71
    24. 24 Articles 16 to 19: Technology, Information and Biotechnology pages 72 to 75
    25. 25 Articles 20 and 21: Money pages 76 to 78
    26. 26 Articles 22 to 42: The Machinery and the Final Clauses pages 79 to 81
    27. 27 The Rights and Responsibilities of a State Under the Convention pages 82 to 84
    28. 28 The Salient Features of the Convention, in Exam Shape pages 85 to 87
    29. 29 The Nagoya Protocol 2010 pages 88 to 91
    30. 30 Nagoya: Compliance, Traditional Knowledge and Machinery pages 92 to 95
    31. 31 The Cartagena Protocol 2000, in Outline pages 96 to 98
    32. 32 The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources, in Outline pages 99 to 101
    33. 33 CITES 1973, in Outline pages 102 to 104
    34. 34 The Ramsar Convention and India’s Wetlands pages 105 to 108
    35. 35 The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework 2022 pages 109 to 111
    36. 36 Articles 48A and 51A(g) of the Constitution pages 112 to 114
    37. 37 Article 21 and the Environment pages 115 to 118
    38. 38 Article 253, and Why Parliament Could Enact the 2002 Act pages 119 to 121
    39. 39 The Indian and International Instruments Together pages 122 to 124
    40. 40 The Whole Legal Framework, in One Chapter pages 125 to 127

    Module II 87 chapters

    1. 41 Why India Needed an Act of Its Own pages 128 to 131
    2. 42 The Scheme of the Biological Diversity Act 2002 pages 132 to 135
    3. 43 Section 2: The Definitions That Decide Everything pages 136 to 138
    4. 44 Section 3: Who May Not Take a Biological Resource pages 139 to 142
    5. 45 Sections 4 and 6: Research Results and Intellectual Property pages 143 to 150
    6. 46 Section 7, and the Proviso That Changed It in 2023 pages 151 to 154
    7. 47 Sections 8 to 17: The National Biodiversity Authority pages 155 to 158
    8. 48 Section 18: The Functions and Powers of the Authority pages 159 to 161
    9. 49 Section 19: How an Approval Is Applied For and Given pages 162 to 165
    10. 50 Section 21: Fair and Equitable Benefit Sharing pages 166 to 169
    11. 51 Sections 22 to 25: The State Biodiversity Board pages 170 to 172
    12. 52 The Functions of the Boards, in Exam Shape pages 173 to 175
    13. 53 Sections 26 to 35: The Funds, the Accounts and the Reports pages 176 to 178
    14. 54 Sections 36, 36A and 36B: Strategies, Plans and Duties pages 179 to 181
    15. 55 Section 37: Biodiversity Heritage Sites pages 182 to 184
    16. 56 Sections 38 and 39: Threatened Species and Repositories pages 185 to 187
    17. 57 Section 40: Normally Traded Commodities pages 188 to 190
    18. 58 Sections 41 to 47: The Biodiversity Management Committee pages 191 to 193
    19. 59 Sections 48 to 54: Directions, Disputes, Appeals and Execution pages 194 to 197
    20. 60 Sections 55 to 57: The Penalty Regime the 2023 Amendment Created pages 198 to 201
    21. 61 Sections 59 to 65: Savings, Exemptions and the Rule Making Powers pages 202 to 205
    22. 62 The Implementing Structures, in Exam Shape pages 206 to 208
    23. 63 The Biological Diversity Rules 2024 pages 209 to 212
    24. 64 The 2024 Rules: Committees, Registers and Procedure pages 213 to 216
    25. 65 The Access and Benefit Sharing Regulations 2025 pages 217 to 221
    26. 66 Divya Pharmacy: Benefit Sharing from an Indian Company pages 222 to 225
    27. 67 Access to Biological Resources Under Indian Law pages 226 to 229
    28. 68 The Act Against the Convention It Implements pages 230 to 232
    29. 69 The Legislation Governing Research in Biological Resources pages 233 to 236
    30. 70 Biopiracy: What It Is and How the Act Answers It pages 237 to 240
    31. 71 Turmeric, Neem and Basmati pages 241 to 243
    32. 72 The Traditional Knowledge Digital Library pages 244 to 246
    33. 73 Why the Law Regulates What Is Done to an Animal pages 247 to 250
    34. 74 Sections 3 and 11: The Duty, and What Counts as Cruelty pages 251 to 254
    35. 75 Section 14: When an Experiment on an Animal Is Lawful pages 255 to 257
    36. 76 Sections 15 to 17: The Committee That Controls Experiments pages 258 to 260
    37. 77 Sections 18 to 20: Inspection, Prohibition and Penalty pages 261 to 264
    38. 78 The 1998 Rules and the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee pages 265 to 268
    39. 79 The Three Rs: Replacement, Reduction and Refinement pages 269 to 271
    40. 80 The Ethical Argument, and Where the Law Stops pages 272 to 275
    41. 81 The Legal Mechanism of Control, in Exam Shape pages 276 to 279
    42. 82 A. Nagaraja: The Rights of Animals pages 280 to 283
    43. 83 The Constitution Bench of 2023, and What Survives of Nagaraja pages 284 to 287
    44. 84 Sections 21 to 41: Performing Animals, Offences and the Rest of the Act pages 288 to 291
    45. 85 The End of Cosmetics Testing on Animals in India pages 292 to 294
    46. 86 What Genetic Engineering Is pages 295 to 298
    47. 87 The Relation Between Genetic Engineering and Biodiversity pages 299 to 302
    48. 88 The 1989 Rules: The Six Bodies of Indian Biosafety Law pages 303 to 306
    49. 89 The 1989 Rules: The Approvals, and Who Gives Them pages 307 to 310
    50. 90 The 1989 Rules: Inspection, Restriction and Prohibition pages 311 to 314
    51. 91 The Cartagena Protocol: The Advance Informed Agreement pages 315 to 318
    52. 92 Living Modified Organisms for Food, Feed or Processing pages 319 to 322
    53. 93 Risk Assessment, Risk Management and the Precautionary Provision pages 323 to 327
    54. 94 The Biosafety Clearing-House and the Rest of the Protocol pages 328 to 332
    55. 95 Bt Cotton, Bt Brinjal and GM Mustard pages 333 to 336
    56. 96 The Legal Provisions on the Genetic Mutation of Seeds and Micro-organisms pages 337 to 341
    57. 97 Genetic Engineering in the Preservation of Endangered Species pages 342 to 345
    58. 98 Monsanto v. Nuziveedu and Section 3(j) of the Patents Act pages 346 to 349
    59. 99 Multinational Corporations and Biological Resources pages 350 to 353
    60. 100 The Liabilities of a Multinational, and the Problems of Control pages 354 to 358
    61. 101 Corporate Social Responsibility, and What Schedule VII Actually Says pages 359 to 362
    62. 102 Flora and Fauna for Biomedical Purposes pages 363 to 366
    63. 103 Wildlife Trade, Biopiracy and Research Practice, Nationally and Internationally pages 367 to 371
    64. 104 How a Development Project Destroys Biodiversity pages 372 to 374
    65. 105 Unplanned Development, and What Makes It Unplanned pages 375 to 378
    66. 106 The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification 2006 pages 379 to 382
    67. 107 The Four Stages: Screening, Scoping, Public Consultation and Appraisal pages 383 to 386
    68. 108 Forest Clearance Under the Van Adhiniyam pages 387 to 390
    69. 109 Wildlife Clearance and the National Board for Wild Life pages 391 to 394
    70. 110 Eco-sensitive Zones and the Coast pages 395 to 398
    71. 111 Compensatory Afforestation and Net Present Value pages 399 to 403
    72. 112 The Concept of Sustainable Development pages 404 to 407
    73. 113 How the Concept Evolved pages 408 to 411
    74. 114 How Sustainable Development Is Related to Biodiversity pages 412 to 415
    75. 115 Vellore: The Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays pages 416 to 419
    76. 116 Nayudu and the Burden of Proof pages 420 to 422
    77. 117 Narmada Bachao Andolan, and the Limits of the Precautionary Principle pages 423 to 425
    78. 118 Hanuman Laxman Aroskar and the Incomplete Assessment pages 426 to 428
    79. 119 Lafarge, and the Guidelines for Every Future Clearance pages 429 to 432
    80. 120 K.M. Chinnappa: Mining Inside a National Park pages 433 to 436
    81. 121 M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath and the Public Trust Doctrine pages 437 to 440
    82. 122 Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action and the Cost of Remediation pages 441 to 445
    83. 123 Niyamgiri: The Gram Sabha as a Step in Clearance pages 446 to 449
    84. 124 Samatha, PESA and Land in a Scheduled Area pages 450 to 453
    85. 125 The Forest Rights Act 2006 and the Critical Wildlife Habitat pages 454 to 458
    86. 126 The National Green Tribunal as the Forum pages 459 to 463
    87. 127 The Silent Valley Episode pages 464 to 467

    Module III 28 chapters

    1. 128 What a Medicinal Plant Is, and Why the Law Finds It Hard pages 468 to 472
    2. 129 The Difficulties in the Legal Regulation of Medicinal Plants pages 473 to 478
    3. 130 Medicinal Plants, in Short-Note Shape pages 479 to 482
    4. 131 The Need, Impact and Importance of Medicinal Plants and Micro-organisms pages 483 to 486
    5. 132 Medicinal Plants as Biological Resources Under the 2002 Act pages 487 to 492
    6. 133 The 2023 Proviso: Cultivated Plants, AYUSH and What Came Out of the Act pages 493 to 496
    7. 134 Codified Traditional Knowledge and the First Schedule pages 497 to 500
    8. 135 Specified Plants: The Only Plants the Wildlife Act Protects pages 501 to 504
    9. 136 Sections 17A to 17H: Picking, Cultivating, Dealing and Stock pages 505 to 509
    10. 137 Chapter IVA of the Drugs and Cosmetics Act: Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani Drugs pages 510 to 513
    11. 138 Adulterated and Spurious Drugs, and the Licence to Manufacture pages 514 to 518
    12. 139 Chapter IVA: Offences, Confiscation and the Rest pages 519 to 523
    13. 140 The National Medicinal Plants Board and the Schemes pages 524 to 527
    14. 141 Cosmetic Plants, and What the University Means pages 528 to 531
    15. 142 Section 3 of the Patents Act: What Is Not an Invention pages 532 to 535
    16. 143 Section 3(d) and Novartis pages 536 to 538
    17. 144 Section 3(p): Traditional Knowledge Is Not an Invention pages 539 to 542
    18. 145 Section 10(4): Disclosure of Source and Geographical Origin pages 543 to 547
    19. 146 Sections 25 and 64: Opposition and Revocation pages 548 to 551
    20. 147 The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001 pages 552 to 556
    21. 148 Registering a Variety, and the Four Kinds the Act Knows pages 557 to 562
    22. 149 Section 39: Farmers’ Rights pages 563 to 567
    23. 150 Section 41: The Rights of Communities pages 568 to 571
    24. 151 Section 26 and the Gene Fund pages 572 to 576
    25. 152 Section 30 and Sections 47 to 48: Research and the Compulsory Licence pages 577 to 580
    26. 153 The International Treaty and Its Multilateral System pages 581 to 585
    27. 154 Genetic Resources for Agriculture, and Their Protection pages 586 to 590
    28. 155 Where Three Statutes Meet Over One Plant pages 591 to 595

    Module IV 42 chapters

    1. 156 What a Protected Area Is pages 596 to 599
    2. 157 The Scheme of the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 pages 600 to 604
    3. 158 Section 2: The Definitions the Act Turns On pages 605 to 609
    4. 159 Sections 3 to 8: The Authorities pages 610 to 613
    5. 160 Section 9: The Prohibition of Hunting pages 614 to 617
    6. 161 Sections 11 and 12: When Hunting Is Permitted pages 618 to 621
    7. 162 Section 18: Declaring a Sanctuary pages 622 to 625
    8. 163 Sections 19 to 25A: The Settlement of Rights pages 626 to 630
    9. 164 Section 26A: The Final Declaration, and the Power to Cut a Sanctuary Down pages 631 to 634
    10. 165 Sections 27 to 34: What May and May Not Be Done Inside pages 635 to 639
    11. 166 Section 29, and Essar Oil pages 640 to 644
    12. 167 Section 35: The National Park pages 645 to 649
    13. 168 Sanctuaries and National Parks Compared pages 650 to 653
    14. 169 Sections 36A to 36D: Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves pages 654 to 658
    15. 170 Section 38: The Central Government’s Own Power to Declare pages 659 to 662
    16. 171 Sections 38A to 38K: The Central Zoo Authority and the Recognition of a Zoo pages 663 to 667
    17. 172 The Recognition of Zoo Rules 2009 pages 668 to 673
    18. 173 National Parks and Zoos, and Sanctuaries and Zoos pages 674 to 677
    19. 174 Sections 38L to 38XA: Tiger Reserves and the Tiger Authority pages 678 to 683
    20. 175 Sections 38Y and 38Z: The Wild Life Crime Control Bureau pages 684 to 688
    21. 176 Section 39: Wild Animals as Government Property pages 689 to 693
    22. 177 Sections 40 to 42A: Declarations, Inventories, Certificates and Surrender pages 694 to 699
    23. 178 Chapter V, Sections 43 to 49: The Licence to Deal pages 700 to 705
    24. 179 Chapter VA, Sections 49A to 49C: The Total Prohibition, and Ivory pages 706 to 711
    25. 180 Chapter VB, Sections 49D to 49R: International Trade in Scheduled Specimens pages 712 to 717
    26. 181 Sections 49M to 49R: Breeders, Licences and Government Property pages 718 to 722
    27. 182 CITES Worked: The Three Appendices and the Permit pages 723 to 728
    28. 183 The Regulation of Trade in Wildlife Products pages 729 to 734
    29. 184 Sections 50 to 58: Powers, Penalties and Presumptions pages 735 to 741
    30. 185 Chapter VIA, Sections 58A to 58Y: Forfeiture pages 742 to 748
    31. 186 Sections 59 to 60B: Officers, Good Faith and Rewards pages 749 to 753
    32. 187 Sections 61 to 62B: The Schedules, Vermin and Invasive Alien Species pages 754 to 758
    33. 188 Sections 63 to 66: Rules, the Rights of Scheduled Tribes, and the Repeal pages 759 to 763
    34. 189 The Indian Forest Act 1927 and the Three Classes of Forest pages 764 to 769
    35. 190 Sections 26 to 42: Prohibitions, Village Forests and Protected Forests pages 770 to 776
    36. 191 Sections 52 to 69: Seizure, Confiscation and the Presumption pages 777 to 782
    37. 192 The Van Adhiniyam 1980 and the Diversion of Forest Land pages 783 to 789
    38. 193 Wetlands: Ramsar Sites and the Rules pages 790 to 795
    39. 194 The Legal Provisions of the Laws That Protect National Parks and Sanctuaries pages 796 to 802
    40. 195 The Species Cases: The Lion, the Bustard and the Tiger pages 803 to 807
    41. 196 The Efficacy of the Act, and the Significance of Wildlife Conservation pages 808 to 814
    42. 197 The Whole Paper in One Place pages 815 to 821
    Every paper that is solved: 6 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  2. Environmental Legislations

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Environmental Legislations

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 3

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 6 Environment and Legal Order

    Environmental Legislations

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What This Paper Is, and How to Read It 1
    2. The General Law, Before There Was Any Environmental Law 5
    3. The Colonial Statutes and the First Indian Laws 9
    4. Stockholm 1972 and What It Made India Do 13
    5. Article 48A and Article 51A(g): the Forty-Second Amendment 16
    6. Article 21 and the Right to a Wholesome Environment 20
    7. Article 14 and Article 19(1)(g): the Industry Answers Back 25
    8. Which Legislature May Act: the Seventh Schedule 29
    9. Article 252 and Article 253: the Two Doors Parliament Used 33
    10. The Writ Jurisdiction: Article 32 and Article 226 37
    11. Public Interest Litigation and the Relaxation of Standing 41
    12. The Judiciary and the State's Own Obligation 45
    13. Judicial Activism in Interpreting the Act of 1986 49
    14. Judicial Trends, and the Case Against Them 53
    15. The Judiciary in Curbing Pollution, and in Implementing the Law 57
    16. Judges, Advocates, Non-Governmental Organisations and Public Interest Litigation 61
    17. Continuing Mandamus, Committees and the Amicus Curiae 65
    18. The Tort of Private Nuisance 69
    19. Public Nuisance in Tort, and the Suit Under Section 91 73
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Negligence, Trespass, and the Prescriptive Right to Pollute 77
    2. Strict Liability: Rylands v Fletcher and Its Exceptions 81
    3. Absolute Liability, and Why India Abandoned the English Rule 85
    4. The Polluter Pays Principle 89
    5. The Precautionary Principle and the Burden of Proof 93
    6. Sustainable Development as a Rule of Indian Law 97
    7. The Public Trust Doctrine 101
    8. Intergenerational Equity, and the Duty to People Who Do Not Exist Yet 106
    9. The Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure, and What Replaced Them 110
    10. The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023 and the Environment 114
    11. Public Nuisance as an Offence, and Its Limits 118
    12. Fouling Water, and Making the Atmosphere Noxious 122
    13. Negligent Conduct with Poison, Fire, Explosives and Machinery 126
    14. The Conditional Order: How a Magistrate Abates a Nuisance 130
    15. The Rest of the Procedure, and Whether It Works 135
    16. Urgent Cases of Nuisance or Apprehended Danger 139
    17. Local Bodies: the Constitutional Source of Their Powers 143
    18. What a Municipal Corporation Can Actually Do 147
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Panchayats, Rural Sanitation and the Village Common 151
    2. Town Planning and Development Control as Environmental Law 155
    3. The Water Act 1974 and the Air Act 1981 in Outline 159
    4. The National Green Tribunal: an Introduction 163
    5. The Significance of Environment Protection in India 167

    Module II

    1. Why the Act of 1986 Was Passed, and the Lacunae It Filled 171
    2. The Objects and Scope of the Act 175
    3. The Salient Features of the Act 179
    4. The Definitions: Environment, Pollutant, Pollution 183
    5. Handling, Hazardous Substance, Occupier and the Fund 187
    6. Section 3: the Power of the Central Government 191
    7. Authorities Constituted Under Section 3(3) 196
    8. Section 4: Appointment of Officers 200
    9. Section 5: the Power to Give Directions 203
    10. Section 5A: Appeal to the National Green Tribunal 207
    11. Section 6: Rules, and the Standards They Set 210
    12. Section 7: No Emission or Discharge in Excess of Standards 214
    13. Section 8: Handling Hazardous Substances 218
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Section 9: the Duty to Report an Accident 222
    2. Sections 10 and 11: Entry, Inspection and Samples 226
    3. Sections 12 to 14: Laboratories, Analysts and Reports 230
    4. The Decriminalisation of 2023, and the New Penalties 234
    5. Sections 15C and 15D: the Adjudicating Officer and the Appeal 238
    6. Sections 15E to 16B: the Environmental Protection Fund 242
    7. Sections 15A and 15B: Companies and Government Departments 246
    8. Section 15F: the Offence of Failing to Pay 250
    9. Section 19: Cognizance, and the Citizen's Complaint 254
    10. Sections 18, 20, 21 and 22: Good Faith, Returns, Public Servants and the Bar 258
    11. Section 23: the Power to Delegate 262
    12. The Concentration of Power, and Delegation at a Lower Level 266
    13. Section 24: the Effect of Other Laws 270
    14. Sections 25 and 26: the Rule-Making Power and Its Control 275
    15. The Environment (Protection) Rules 1986 280
    16. Rule 5, and the Notifications It Carries 284
    17. The Act of 1986 in Court 289
    18. The Efficacy of the Act, and Measures for Better Implementation 293
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III

    1. What Coastal Zone Management Is, and Why the Coast Needs Its Own Law 297
    2. The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification of 1991 301
    3. The 2011 Notification and the Shailesh Nayak Committee 305
    4. The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2019 309
    5. The High Tide Line, the Low Tide Line and the Hazard Line 314
    6. The Classification of the Coastal Regulation Zone 318
    7. CRZ-I A and CRZ-I B: the Ecologically Sensitive Areas and the Intertidal Zone 322
    8. CRZ-II, CRZ-III A and CRZ-III B, and the No Development Zone 327
    9. CRZ-IV A and CRZ-IV B: the Water Area 331
    10. Prohibited Activities Within the Coastal Regulation Zone 335
    11. Exemptions and Permissible Activities 339
    12. The Coastal Zone Management Plan 344
    13. CRZ Clearance, Its Delegation and Its Procedure 349
    14. Enforcement, and the Coastal Zone Management Authorities 353
    15. Areas Requiring Special Consideration 358
    16. The Special Provisions for Greater Mumbai 362
    17. The Islands: the Island Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2019 367
    18. The Regulation of Sea Resorts and Beach Resorts 371
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Eco-Tourism in the Coastal Zone 376
    2. Aquaculture, and the Shrimp Farm Litigation 380
    3. The Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act, 2005 387
    4. Registration, Antibiotics and the Prohibited Area 394
    5. Removal, Penalties and the Rest of the Act 400
    6. Blue Flag Beaches, and a Relaxation Made for a Certificate 407
    7. The Effectiveness of the 2019 Notification, and the Criticism of It 410
    8. What a Hazardous Substance Is, and Why Every Statute Defines It Differently 414
    9. The Legal Framework for Hazardous Substances: the Map 418
    10. Section 8 and What Procedural Safeguards Means 422
    11. The Hazardous Chemical Rules 1989: Scope and the Threshold Quantity 426
    12. The Occupier's Responsibility, and Notification of a Major Accident 431
    13. Approval of a Site, the Safety Report and the Safety Audit 435
    14. The On-Site and Off-Site Emergency Plans 440
    15. Telling the People Who May Be Affected 445
    16. Import of Hazardous Chemicals, and Improvement Notices 450
    17. The Chemical Accidents Rules 1996: the Crisis Groups 455
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. The District and Local Crisis Groups, and Information to the Public 461
    2. Hazardous Waste: What It Is and How the Rules Classify It 466
    3. Authorisation, and the Responsibilities Under the Waste Rules 472
    4. Packaging, Labelling, Transport and the Manifest 477
    5. Transboundary Movement, and the Basel Convention 482
    6. Illegal Traffic, Accident Reporting and Liability 487
    7. Used Oil: Chapter VII of the Waste Rules 492
    8. Scrap of Non-Ferrous Metals: Chapter VIII 498
    9. Hazardous Waste Disposal and Handling: the Framework Reviewed 504
    10. The Other Waste Streams: Plastic, Electronic, Battery, Bio-Medical and Solid Waste 509
    11. Extended Producer Responsibility as a Technique 514
    12. The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991: Relief Without Fault 519
    13. The Environmental Relief Fund, and the Relief Now Prescribed 526
    14. The Rest of the Liability Act, and What It Leaves Out 534
    15. Hazardous Processes: Chapter IVA of the Factories Act and the OSH Code 540
    16. Pesticides: the Insecticides Act 1968 548
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Bhopal: What Happened, and the Litigation That Followed 555
    2. The Bhopal Act 1985, and the Doctrine of Parens Patriae 562
    3. Is India's Hazardous Substances Law Comprehensive? 569

    Module IV

    1. What a Disaster Is in Law, and What Preparedness Means 574
    2. The Disaster Management Act 2005: the Scheme and the Salient Features 580
    3. The National Disaster Management Authority 586
    4. The National Executive Committee and the Crisis Machinery 591
    5. The National Plan, and the Guidelines for Minimum Standards of Relief 596
    6. The State Disaster Management Authority and the State Plan 601
    7. The District Disaster Management Authority and the District Plan 608
    8. Measures by the Government, the Ministries and Local Authorities 615
    9. The Urban Disaster Management Authority, New in 2025 622
    10. The National Institute, and the Response Forces 627
    11. The Funds: Response and Mitigation, National and State 631
    12. Offences, Penalties and the Prohibition Against Discrimination 637
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Rest of the Act: Requisition, Immunity and Rules 645
    2. Pre-Disaster and Post-Disaster Plans, and Their Efficacy 653
    3. The Need and Expediency of a Disaster Management Plan 659
    4. Environmental Disaster Management in India: the Issues 664
    5. Chemical and Industrial Disaster Preparedness 670
    6. The Sendai Framework, and the International Standard 676
    7. Early Warning, Mitigation and Capacity Building 682
    8. Response, Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction 688
    9. Strategies to Minimise Harm to the Environment in a Disaster 694
    10. What an Emerging Legal Control Is 700
    11. Environmental Impact Assessment: What It Is and Where It Came From 705
    12. The 1994 Notification, and the Move to 2006 710
    13. The Requirement of Prior Environmental Clearance 716
    14. Category A and Category B, and the Schedule 723
    15. The Expert Appraisal Committees 730
    16. Stage One: Screening 736
    17. Stage Two: Scoping, and the Terms of Reference 741
    18. Stage Three: Public Consultation and the Public Hearing 748
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Stage Four: Appraisal, and the Grant or Rejection of Clearance 757
    2. Validity, Post-Clearance Monitoring and Transferability 763
    3. Ex Post Facto Clearance: Where That Law Now Stands 772
    4. The Importance of Impact Assessment in Protecting the Environment 779
    5. The Criticism of the Assessment Regime, and the 2020 Draft 784
    6. The Environmental Statement in Form V 790
    7. Environmental Audit: the Process and Its Importance 796
    8. Eco-Mark: the Scheme of 1991 801
    9. The Ecomark Rules, 2024 806
    10. Ecomark: the Technical Committee, the Portal and the Verifiers 812
    11. Eco-Labelling Elsewhere, and What a Label Can and Cannot Do 818
    12. Public Participation in Environmental Decision Making 823
    13. The Procedure for Obtaining Public Participation 829
    14. Public Opinion, and Its Significance in Environment Protection 836
    15. Environmental Information: the Right, the Route and the Exemptions 842
    16. Emerging Issues and Challenges in Environmental Information 848
    17. The National Green Tribunal as an Emerging Control 853
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. How the Tribunal Works, and What It Can Order 860
    2. Enforcing a Tribunal Order, and the Rest of the Act 867
    3. Environmental Compensation, and the Economics of Enforcement 874
    4. Green Credit, Carbon Credit and the Market Instruments 880
    5. Eco-Sensitive Zones as a Control Technique 886
    6. Corporate Environmental Responsibility and Disclosure 892
    7. Decriminalisation as a Control Technique 898
    8. Climate Change Litigation, and the Newest Control of All 905
    9. Where the Law Is Going, and What a Student Should Watch 911
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    916 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 916 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 183 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 42 chapters

    1. 1 What This Paper Is, and How to Read It pages 1 to 4
    2. 2 The General Law, Before There Was Any Environmental Law pages 5 to 8
    3. 3 The Colonial Statutes and the First Indian Laws pages 9 to 12
    4. 4 Stockholm 1972 and What It Made India Do pages 13 to 15
    5. 5 Article 48A and Article 51A(g): the Forty-Second Amendment pages 16 to 19
    6. 6 Article 21 and the Right to a Wholesome Environment pages 20 to 24
    7. 7 Article 14 and Article 19(1)(g): the Industry Answers Back pages 25 to 28
    8. 8 Which Legislature May Act: the Seventh Schedule pages 29 to 32
    9. 9 Article 252 and Article 253: the Two Doors Parliament Used pages 33 to 36
    10. 10 The Writ Jurisdiction: Article 32 and Article 226 pages 37 to 40
    11. 11 Public Interest Litigation and the Relaxation of Standing pages 41 to 44
    12. 12 The Judiciary and the State's Own Obligation pages 45 to 48
    13. 13 Judicial Activism in Interpreting the Act of 1986 pages 49 to 52
    14. 14 Judicial Trends, and the Case Against Them pages 53 to 56
    15. 15 The Judiciary in Curbing Pollution, and in Implementing the Law pages 57 to 60
    16. 16 Judges, Advocates, Non-Governmental Organisations and Public Interest Litigation pages 61 to 64
    17. 17 Continuing Mandamus, Committees and the Amicus Curiae pages 65 to 68
    18. 18 The Tort of Private Nuisance pages 69 to 72
    19. 19 Public Nuisance in Tort, and the Suit Under Section 91 pages 73 to 76
    20. 20 Negligence, Trespass, and the Prescriptive Right to Pollute pages 77 to 80
    21. 21 Strict Liability: Rylands v Fletcher and Its Exceptions pages 81 to 84
    22. 22 Absolute Liability, and Why India Abandoned the English Rule pages 85 to 88
    23. 23 The Polluter Pays Principle pages 89 to 92
    24. 24 The Precautionary Principle and the Burden of Proof pages 93 to 96
    25. 25 Sustainable Development as a Rule of Indian Law pages 97 to 100
    26. 26 The Public Trust Doctrine pages 101 to 105
    27. 27 Intergenerational Equity, and the Duty to People Who Do Not Exist Yet pages 106 to 109
    28. 28 The Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure, and What Replaced Them pages 110 to 113
    29. 29 The Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023 and the Environment pages 114 to 117
    30. 30 Public Nuisance as an Offence, and Its Limits pages 118 to 121
    31. 31 Fouling Water, and Making the Atmosphere Noxious pages 122 to 125
    32. 32 Negligent Conduct with Poison, Fire, Explosives and Machinery pages 126 to 129
    33. 33 The Conditional Order: How a Magistrate Abates a Nuisance pages 130 to 134
    34. 34 The Rest of the Procedure, and Whether It Works pages 135 to 138
    35. 35 Urgent Cases of Nuisance or Apprehended Danger pages 139 to 142
    36. 36 Local Bodies: the Constitutional Source of Their Powers pages 143 to 146
    37. 37 What a Municipal Corporation Can Actually Do pages 147 to 150
    38. 38 Panchayats, Rural Sanitation and the Village Common pages 151 to 154
    39. 39 Town Planning and Development Control as Environmental Law pages 155 to 158
    40. 40 The Water Act 1974 and the Air Act 1981 in Outline pages 159 to 162
    41. 41 The National Green Tribunal: an Introduction pages 163 to 166
    42. 42 The Significance of Environment Protection in India pages 167 to 170

    Module II 31 chapters

    1. 43 Why the Act of 1986 Was Passed, and the Lacunae It Filled pages 171 to 174
    2. 44 The Objects and Scope of the Act pages 175 to 178
    3. 45 The Salient Features of the Act pages 179 to 182
    4. 46 The Definitions: Environment, Pollutant, Pollution pages 183 to 186
    5. 47 Handling, Hazardous Substance, Occupier and the Fund pages 187 to 190
    6. 48 Section 3: the Power of the Central Government pages 191 to 195
    7. 49 Authorities Constituted Under Section 3(3) pages 196 to 199
    8. 50 Section 4: Appointment of Officers pages 200 to 202
    9. 51 Section 5: the Power to Give Directions pages 203 to 206
    10. 52 Section 5A: Appeal to the National Green Tribunal pages 207 to 209
    11. 53 Section 6: Rules, and the Standards They Set pages 210 to 213
    12. 54 Section 7: No Emission or Discharge in Excess of Standards pages 214 to 217
    13. 55 Section 8: Handling Hazardous Substances pages 218 to 221
    14. 56 Section 9: the Duty to Report an Accident pages 222 to 225
    15. 57 Sections 10 and 11: Entry, Inspection and Samples pages 226 to 229
    16. 58 Sections 12 to 14: Laboratories, Analysts and Reports pages 230 to 233
    17. 59 The Decriminalisation of 2023, and the New Penalties pages 234 to 237
    18. 60 Sections 15C and 15D: the Adjudicating Officer and the Appeal pages 238 to 241
    19. 61 Sections 15E to 16B: the Environmental Protection Fund pages 242 to 245
    20. 62 Sections 15A and 15B: Companies and Government Departments pages 246 to 249
    21. 63 Section 15F: the Offence of Failing to Pay pages 250 to 253
    22. 64 Section 19: Cognizance, and the Citizen's Complaint pages 254 to 257
    23. 65 Sections 18, 20, 21 and 22: Good Faith, Returns, Public Servants and the Bar pages 258 to 261
    24. 66 Section 23: the Power to Delegate pages 262 to 265
    25. 67 The Concentration of Power, and Delegation at a Lower Level pages 266 to 269
    26. 68 Section 24: the Effect of Other Laws pages 270 to 274
    27. 69 Sections 25 and 26: the Rule-Making Power and Its Control pages 275 to 279
    28. 70 The Environment (Protection) Rules 1986 pages 280 to 283
    29. 71 Rule 5, and the Notifications It Carries pages 284 to 288
    30. 72 The Act of 1986 in Court pages 289 to 292
    31. 73 The Efficacy of the Act, and Measures for Better Implementation pages 293 to 296

    Module III 54 chapters

    1. 74 What Coastal Zone Management Is, and Why the Coast Needs Its Own Law pages 297 to 300
    2. 75 The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification of 1991 pages 301 to 304
    3. 76 The 2011 Notification and the Shailesh Nayak Committee pages 305 to 308
    4. 77 The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2019 pages 309 to 313
    5. 78 The High Tide Line, the Low Tide Line and the Hazard Line pages 314 to 317
    6. 79 The Classification of the Coastal Regulation Zone pages 318 to 321
    7. 80 CRZ-I A and CRZ-I B: the Ecologically Sensitive Areas and the Intertidal Zone pages 322 to 326
    8. 81 CRZ-II, CRZ-III A and CRZ-III B, and the No Development Zone pages 327 to 330
    9. 82 CRZ-IV A and CRZ-IV B: the Water Area pages 331 to 334
    10. 83 Prohibited Activities Within the Coastal Regulation Zone pages 335 to 338
    11. 84 Exemptions and Permissible Activities pages 339 to 343
    12. 85 The Coastal Zone Management Plan pages 344 to 348
    13. 86 CRZ Clearance, Its Delegation and Its Procedure pages 349 to 352
    14. 87 Enforcement, and the Coastal Zone Management Authorities pages 353 to 357
    15. 88 Areas Requiring Special Consideration pages 358 to 361
    16. 89 The Special Provisions for Greater Mumbai pages 362 to 366
    17. 90 The Islands: the Island Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2019 pages 367 to 370
    18. 91 The Regulation of Sea Resorts and Beach Resorts pages 371 to 375
    19. 92 Eco-Tourism in the Coastal Zone pages 376 to 379
    20. 93 Aquaculture, and the Shrimp Farm Litigation pages 380 to 386
    21. 94 The Coastal Aquaculture Authority Act, 2005 pages 387 to 393
    22. 95 Registration, Antibiotics and the Prohibited Area pages 394 to 399
    23. 96 Removal, Penalties and the Rest of the Act pages 400 to 406
    24. 97 Blue Flag Beaches, and a Relaxation Made for a Certificate pages 407 to 409
    25. 98 The Effectiveness of the 2019 Notification, and the Criticism of It pages 410 to 413
    26. 99 What a Hazardous Substance Is, and Why Every Statute Defines It Differently pages 414 to 417
    27. 100 The Legal Framework for Hazardous Substances: the Map pages 418 to 421
    28. 101 Section 8 and What Procedural Safeguards Means pages 422 to 425
    29. 102 The Hazardous Chemical Rules 1989: Scope and the Threshold Quantity pages 426 to 430
    30. 103 The Occupier's Responsibility, and Notification of a Major Accident pages 431 to 434
    31. 104 Approval of a Site, the Safety Report and the Safety Audit pages 435 to 439
    32. 105 The On-Site and Off-Site Emergency Plans pages 440 to 444
    33. 106 Telling the People Who May Be Affected pages 445 to 449
    34. 107 Import of Hazardous Chemicals, and Improvement Notices pages 450 to 454
    35. 108 The Chemical Accidents Rules 1996: the Crisis Groups pages 455 to 460
    36. 109 The District and Local Crisis Groups, and Information to the Public pages 461 to 465
    37. 110 Hazardous Waste: What It Is and How the Rules Classify It pages 466 to 471
    38. 111 Authorisation, and the Responsibilities Under the Waste Rules pages 472 to 476
    39. 112 Packaging, Labelling, Transport and the Manifest pages 477 to 481
    40. 113 Transboundary Movement, and the Basel Convention pages 482 to 486
    41. 114 Illegal Traffic, Accident Reporting and Liability pages 487 to 491
    42. 115 Used Oil: Chapter VII of the Waste Rules pages 492 to 497
    43. 116 Scrap of Non-Ferrous Metals: Chapter VIII pages 498 to 503
    44. 117 Hazardous Waste Disposal and Handling: the Framework Reviewed pages 504 to 508
    45. 118 The Other Waste Streams: Plastic, Electronic, Battery, Bio-Medical and Solid Waste pages 509 to 513
    46. 119 Extended Producer Responsibility as a Technique pages 514 to 518
    47. 120 The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991: Relief Without Fault pages 519 to 525
    48. 121 The Environmental Relief Fund, and the Relief Now Prescribed pages 526 to 533
    49. 122 The Rest of the Liability Act, and What It Leaves Out pages 534 to 539
    50. 123 Hazardous Processes: Chapter IVA of the Factories Act and the OSH Code pages 540 to 547
    51. 124 Pesticides: the Insecticides Act 1968 pages 548 to 554
    52. 125 Bhopal: What Happened, and the Litigation That Followed pages 555 to 561
    53. 126 The Bhopal Act 1985, and the Doctrine of Parens Patriae pages 562 to 568
    54. 127 Is India's Hazardous Substances Law Comprehensive? pages 569 to 573

    Module IV 56 chapters

    1. 128 What a Disaster Is in Law, and What Preparedness Means pages 574 to 579
    2. 129 The Disaster Management Act 2005: the Scheme and the Salient Features pages 580 to 585
    3. 130 The National Disaster Management Authority pages 586 to 590
    4. 131 The National Executive Committee and the Crisis Machinery pages 591 to 595
    5. 132 The National Plan, and the Guidelines for Minimum Standards of Relief pages 596 to 600
    6. 133 The State Disaster Management Authority and the State Plan pages 601 to 607
    7. 134 The District Disaster Management Authority and the District Plan pages 608 to 614
    8. 135 Measures by the Government, the Ministries and Local Authorities pages 615 to 621
    9. 136 The Urban Disaster Management Authority, New in 2025 pages 622 to 626
    10. 137 The National Institute, and the Response Forces pages 627 to 630
    11. 138 The Funds: Response and Mitigation, National and State pages 631 to 636
    12. 139 Offences, Penalties and the Prohibition Against Discrimination pages 637 to 644
    13. 140 The Rest of the Act: Requisition, Immunity and Rules pages 645 to 652
    14. 141 Pre-Disaster and Post-Disaster Plans, and Their Efficacy pages 653 to 658
    15. 142 The Need and Expediency of a Disaster Management Plan pages 659 to 663
    16. 143 Environmental Disaster Management in India: the Issues pages 664 to 669
    17. 144 Chemical and Industrial Disaster Preparedness pages 670 to 675
    18. 145 The Sendai Framework, and the International Standard pages 676 to 681
    19. 146 Early Warning, Mitigation and Capacity Building pages 682 to 687
    20. 147 Response, Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction pages 688 to 693
    21. 148 Strategies to Minimise Harm to the Environment in a Disaster pages 694 to 699
    22. 149 What an Emerging Legal Control Is pages 700 to 704
    23. 150 Environmental Impact Assessment: What It Is and Where It Came From pages 705 to 709
    24. 151 The 1994 Notification, and the Move to 2006 pages 710 to 715
    25. 152 The Requirement of Prior Environmental Clearance pages 716 to 722
    26. 153 Category A and Category B, and the Schedule pages 723 to 729
    27. 154 The Expert Appraisal Committees pages 730 to 735
    28. 155 Stage One: Screening pages 736 to 740
    29. 156 Stage Two: Scoping, and the Terms of Reference pages 741 to 747
    30. 157 Stage Three: Public Consultation and the Public Hearing pages 748 to 756
    31. 158 Stage Four: Appraisal, and the Grant or Rejection of Clearance pages 757 to 762
    32. 159 Validity, Post-Clearance Monitoring and Transferability pages 763 to 771
    33. 160 Ex Post Facto Clearance: Where That Law Now Stands pages 772 to 778
    34. 161 The Importance of Impact Assessment in Protecting the Environment pages 779 to 783
    35. 162 The Criticism of the Assessment Regime, and the 2020 Draft pages 784 to 789
    36. 163 The Environmental Statement in Form V pages 790 to 795
    37. 164 Environmental Audit: the Process and Its Importance pages 796 to 800
    38. 165 Eco-Mark: the Scheme of 1991 pages 801 to 805
    39. 166 The Ecomark Rules, 2024 pages 806 to 811
    40. 167 Ecomark: the Technical Committee, the Portal and the Verifiers pages 812 to 817
    41. 168 Eco-Labelling Elsewhere, and What a Label Can and Cannot Do pages 818 to 822
    42. 169 Public Participation in Environmental Decision Making pages 823 to 828
    43. 170 The Procedure for Obtaining Public Participation pages 829 to 835
    44. 171 Public Opinion, and Its Significance in Environment Protection pages 836 to 841
    45. 172 Environmental Information: the Right, the Route and the Exemptions pages 842 to 847
    46. 173 Emerging Issues and Challenges in Environmental Information pages 848 to 852
    47. 174 The National Green Tribunal as an Emerging Control pages 853 to 859
    48. 175 How the Tribunal Works, and What It Can Order pages 860 to 866
    49. 176 Enforcing a Tribunal Order, and the Rest of the Act pages 867 to 873
    50. 177 Environmental Compensation, and the Economics of Enforcement pages 874 to 879
    51. 178 Green Credit, Carbon Credit and the Market Instruments pages 880 to 885
    52. 179 Eco-Sensitive Zones as a Control Technique pages 886 to 891
    53. 180 Corporate Environmental Responsibility and Disclosure pages 892 to 897
    54. 181 Decriminalisation as a Control Technique pages 898 to 904
    55. 182 Climate Change Litigation, and the Newest Control of All pages 905 to 910
    56. 183 Where the Law Is Going, and What a Student Should Watch pages 911 to 916
    Every paper that is solved: 7 papers
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    • 2015

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