B.Sc. (Computer Science) Semester 1 Notes 2026

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1. LINUX Operating System

   Official Notes munotes.in

   LINUX Operating System

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   LINUX Operating System

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What an Operating System Is, and Where Linux Fits 1
   2. The History of Linux: Unix, MINIX, GNU and a Student's Kernel 4
   3. Linux Distributions, and Why There Are So Many 7
   4. The Architecture of a Unix or Linux System 10
   5. The Features of Unix and Linux 13
   6. Installing Ubuntu: Making the USB and Booting From It 17
   7. Installing Ubuntu: The Installer, Step by Step 20
   8. Installing Software: App Center, Synaptic and apt 23
   9. Packages, Repositories and the Software Worth Having 27
   10. Administering System and User Settings 30
   11. Keyboard Shortcuts, and the Story of Unity 33
   12. The Terminal: Where the Rest of This Book Happens 36
   13. Starting the Shell: Which Shell Are You Running 39
   14. The Shell Prompt, and How to Change It 42
   15. The Structure of a Command: Options and Arguments 44
   16. The File System: One Tree That Starts at / 47
   17. What Each Top-Level Directory Holds 50
   18. Paths: Absolute, Relative, Dot, Dot Dot and Tilde 53
   19. man Pages: Reading the Manual 55
   20. The Other Documentation: help, --help, info and apropos 58

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. pwd and cd: Moving Around the Tree 61
   2. ls: Listing What Is There 63
   3. ls -l: Reading the Long Listing 65
   4. mkdir and rmdir: Making and Removing Directories 68
   5. touch: Making a File, and Changing Its Times 70
   6. find: Searching the Tree 73
   7. du, df and stat: How Much Space, and What Exactly Is This File 77
   8. cat: Reading, Making and Joining Files 80
   9. more and less: Reading a File That Will Not Fit 82
   10. cp: Copying Files and Directories 84
   11. mv: Moving and Renaming 86
   12. rm: Removing, and Why There Is No Undo 88
   13. file: What Kind of File Is This 91
   14. wc: Counting Lines, Words and Characters 93
   15. od: Looking at the Bytes Inside a File 95
   16. cmp, diff and comm: Comparing Two Files 98
   17. gzip and gunzip: Compressing One File 101
   18. zip and unzip: The Archive Windows Can Open 104
   19. tar: Packing a Whole Directory Into One File 106

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. ln: Hard Links and Symbolic Links 109
   2. cal and date: The Calendar and the Clock 112
   3. echo and printf: Printing a Line 116
   4. who, whoami, uname and hostname: Who and Where Am I 118
   5. tty and stty: The Terminal Itself 121
   6. passwd: Changing Your Password 124
   7. script: Recording a Session, Which Is How the Journal Is Kept 127
   8. history, alias, which and clear: Working Faster 130
   9. Environment Variables: PATH, HOME and export 133
   10. File Permissions: Who Can Do What 137
   11. Reading the Ten Characters of ls -l 140
   12. Users and Groups 143
   13. chmod: Changing Permissions 146
   14. chown and chgrp: Changing the Owner and the Group 149
   15. umask: The Permissions a New File Is Born With 152
   16. The Special Bits: setuid, setgid and the Sticky Bit 155

   Module II

   1. Understanding Linux Security 159

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. root: What the Superuser Can Do 163
   2. sudo: Borrowing root for One Command 166
   3. Working With Passwords 169
   4. ssh: Logging In to Another Machine 173
   5. Keys Instead of Passwords, and Copying Files With scp 177
   6. who, whoami and w: Who Is On This Machine 181
   7. ping: Is That Machine There 184
   8. telnet and ftp: The Old Pair, and What Replaced Them 188
   9. ip, hostname, wget and curl 191
   10. Standard Input, Standard Output and Standard Error 195
   11. Redirection: >, >>, < and 2> 199
   12. Pipes: Joining Commands Together 202
   13. head and tail: The Beginning and the End 205
   14. cut and paste: Columns In and Out 208
   15. sort: Putting Lines in Order 211
   16. uniq: Collapsing and Counting Repeats 214
   17. tr: Translating and Deleting Characters 217
   18. tee: Saving the Middle of a Pipeline 220
   19. Regular Expressions: The Basic Set 223

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Extended Regular Expressions 228
   2. grep and the grep Family 232
   3. vi: The Three Modes 236
   4. vi: Moving, Editing, Searching and Saving 242
   5. sed: The Stream Editor 249
   6. awk: Records, Fields and Actions 254
   7. Your First Shell Script 260
   8. Variables, Quoting and Command Substitution 265
   9. read: Asking the User a Question 270
   10. exit and the Exit Status 274
   11. Arithmetic: expr, $(( )) and bc 278
   12. test and [ ]: Asking Questions About Files, Strings and Numbers 282
   13. if, elif and else 287
   14. Logical Operators: &&, || and ! 290
   15. case and Functions: the Other Control Structures 294
   16. The for Loop 299
   17. The while and until Loops 303
   18. Redirection Inside a Script, and Here Documents 307
   19. Creating Your Own Redirection: exec and File Descriptors 311

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Processes: What One Is, and ps 315
   2. Foreground, Background and Jobs 319
   3. kill and Signals 323
   4. nice and renice: Choosing a Priority 327
   5. top and the Other Process Tools 330
   6. at and batch: Running a Command Once, Later 334
   7. cron and the crontab: Running a Command Again and Again 339
   8. Installing the C and C++ Compilers 344
   9. A First C Program on Linux 348
   10. Installing Java, and a First Java Program 353
   11. Python on Linux, and a Virtual Environment 357

   Module J The journal and the practical examination

   1. Keeping the Certified Journal 361
   2. The Practical Examination: What Q.1 and Q.2 Look Like 365
   3. Twelve Practicals on Module 1, Worked 369
   4. Twelve Practicals on Module 2, Worked 376
   5. The Viva: What You Will Be Asked, and the Answer 383

   Page 1 onwards

   389 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 389 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 110 chapters across 3 modules

   Module I 55 chapters

   1. 1 What an Operating System Is, and Where Linux Fits pages 1–3
   2. 2 The History of Linux: Unix, MINIX, GNU and a Student's Kernel pages 4–6
   3. 3 Linux Distributions, and Why There Are So Many pages 7–9
   4. 4 The Architecture of a Unix or Linux System pages 10–12
   5. 5 The Features of Unix and Linux pages 13–16
   6. 6 Installing Ubuntu: Making the USB and Booting From It pages 17–19
   7. 7 Installing Ubuntu: The Installer, Step by Step pages 20–22
   8. 8 Installing Software: App Center, Synaptic and apt pages 23–26
   9. 9 Packages, Repositories and the Software Worth Having pages 27–29
   10. 10 Administering System and User Settings pages 30–32
   11. 11 Keyboard Shortcuts, and the Story of Unity pages 33–35
   12. 12 The Terminal: Where the Rest of This Book Happens pages 36–38
   13. 13 Starting the Shell: Which Shell Are You Running pages 39–41
   14. 14 The Shell Prompt, and How to Change It pages 42–43
   15. 15 The Structure of a Command: Options and Arguments pages 44–46
   16. 16 The File System: One Tree That Starts at / pages 47–49
   17. 17 What Each Top-Level Directory Holds pages 50–52
   18. 18 Paths: Absolute, Relative, Dot, Dot Dot and Tilde pages 53–54
   19. 19 man Pages: Reading the Manual pages 55–57
   20. 20 The Other Documentation: help, --help, info and apropos pages 58–60
   21. 21 pwd and cd: Moving Around the Tree pages 61–62
   22. 22 ls: Listing What Is There pages 63–64
   23. 23 ls -l: Reading the Long Listing pages 65–67
   24. 24 mkdir and rmdir: Making and Removing Directories pages 68–69
   25. 25 touch: Making a File, and Changing Its Times pages 70–72
   26. 26 find: Searching the Tree pages 73–76
   27. 27 du, df and stat: How Much Space, and What Exactly Is This File pages 77–79
   28. 28 cat: Reading, Making and Joining Files pages 80–81
   29. 29 more and less: Reading a File That Will Not Fit pages 82–83
   30. 30 cp: Copying Files and Directories pages 84–85
   31. 31 mv: Moving and Renaming pages 86–87
   32. 32 rm: Removing, and Why There Is No Undo pages 88–90
   33. 33 file: What Kind of File Is This pages 91–92
   34. 34 wc: Counting Lines, Words and Characters pages 93–94
   35. 35 od: Looking at the Bytes Inside a File pages 95–97
   36. 36 cmp, diff and comm: Comparing Two Files pages 98–100
   37. 37 gzip and gunzip: Compressing One File pages 101–103
   38. 38 zip and unzip: The Archive Windows Can Open pages 104–105
   39. 39 tar: Packing a Whole Directory Into One File pages 106–108
   40. 40 ln: Hard Links and Symbolic Links pages 109–111
   41. 41 cal and date: The Calendar and the Clock pages 112–115
   42. 42 echo and printf: Printing a Line pages 116–117
   43. 43 who, whoami, uname and hostname: Who and Where Am I pages 118–120
   44. 44 tty and stty: The Terminal Itself pages 121–123
   45. 45 passwd: Changing Your Password pages 124–126
   46. 46 script: Recording a Session, Which Is How the Journal Is Kept pages 127–129
   47. 47 history, alias, which and clear: Working Faster pages 130–132
   48. 48 Environment Variables: PATH, HOME and export pages 133–136
   49. 49 File Permissions: Who Can Do What pages 137–139
   50. 50 Reading the Ten Characters of ls -l pages 140–142
   51. 51 Users and Groups pages 143–145
   52. 52 chmod: Changing Permissions pages 146–148
   53. 53 chown and chgrp: Changing the Owner and the Group pages 149–151
   54. 54 umask: The Permissions a New File Is Born With pages 152–154
   55. 55 The Special Bits: setuid, setgid and the Sticky Bit pages 155–158

   Module II 50 chapters

   1. 56 Understanding Linux Security pages 159–162
   2. 57 root: What the Superuser Can Do pages 163–165
   3. 58 sudo: Borrowing root for One Command pages 166–168
   4. 59 Working With Passwords pages 169–172
   5. 60 ssh: Logging In to Another Machine pages 173–176
   6. 61 Keys Instead of Passwords, and Copying Files With scp pages 177–180
   7. 62 who, whoami and w: Who Is On This Machine pages 181–183
   8. 63 ping: Is That Machine There pages 184–187
   9. 64 telnet and ftp: The Old Pair, and What Replaced Them pages 188–190
   10. 65 ip, hostname, wget and curl pages 191–194
   11. 66 Standard Input, Standard Output and Standard Error pages 195–198
   12. 67 Redirection: >, >>, < and 2> pages 199–201
   13. 68 Pipes: Joining Commands Together pages 202–204
   14. 69 head and tail: The Beginning and the End pages 205–207
   15. 70 cut and paste: Columns In and Out pages 208–210
   16. 71 sort: Putting Lines in Order pages 211–213
   17. 72 uniq: Collapsing and Counting Repeats pages 214–216
   18. 73 tr: Translating and Deleting Characters pages 217–219
   19. 74 tee: Saving the Middle of a Pipeline pages 220–222
   20. 75 Regular Expressions: The Basic Set pages 223–227
   21. 76 Extended Regular Expressions pages 228–231
   22. 77 grep and the grep Family pages 232–235
   23. 78 vi: The Three Modes pages 236–241
   24. 79 vi: Moving, Editing, Searching and Saving pages 242–248
   25. 80 sed: The Stream Editor pages 249–253
   26. 81 awk: Records, Fields and Actions pages 254–259
   27. 82 Your First Shell Script pages 260–264
   28. 83 Variables, Quoting and Command Substitution pages 265–269
   29. 84 read: Asking the User a Question pages 270–273
   30. 85 exit and the Exit Status pages 274–277
   31. 86 Arithmetic: expr, $(( )) and bc pages 278–281
   32. 87 test and [ ]: Asking Questions About Files, Strings and Numbers pages 282–286
   33. 88 if, elif and else pages 287–289
   34. 89 Logical Operators: &&, || and ! pages 290–293
   35. 90 case and Functions: the Other Control Structures pages 294–298
   36. 91 The for Loop pages 299–302
   37. 92 The while and until Loops pages 303–306
   38. 93 Redirection Inside a Script, and Here Documents pages 307–310
   39. 94 Creating Your Own Redirection: exec and File Descriptors pages 311–314
   40. 95 Processes: What One Is, and ps pages 315–318
   41. 96 Foreground, Background and Jobs pages 319–322
   42. 97 kill and Signals pages 323–326
   43. 98 nice and renice: Choosing a Priority pages 327–329
   44. 99 top and the Other Process Tools pages 330–333
   45. 100 at and batch: Running a Command Once, Later pages 334–338
   46. 101 cron and the crontab: Running a Command Again and Again pages 339–343
   47. 102 Installing the C and C++ Compilers pages 344–347
   48. 103 A First C Program on Linux pages 348–352
   49. 104 Installing Java, and a First Java Program pages 353–356
   50. 105 Python on Linux, and a Virtual Environment pages 357–360

   Module J The journal and the practical examination 5 chapters

   1. 106 Keeping the Certified Journal pages 361–364
   2. 107 The Practical Examination: What Q.1 and Q.2 Look Like pages 365–368
   3. 108 Twelve Practicals on Module 1, Worked pages 369–375
   4. 109 Twelve Practicals on Module 2, Worked pages 376–382
   5. 110 The Viva: What You Will Be Asked, and the Answer pages 383–389

2. Statistics with R Programming

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Statistics with R Programming

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Statistics with R Programming

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I The R language and its environment: expressions, decisions, loops, data structures and strings

   1. What R Is, and Why Statistics Is Done in It 1
   2. A Short History of R, and What Open Source Means Here 4
   3. The Words R Uses: Object, Mode, Class and Attribute 7
   4. Installing R on Windows, macOS and Linux 10
   5. The R Environment: Console, Workspace and Working Directory 12
   6. Getting Help, and Installing Packages 15
   7. The R Graphical User Interface (R GUI) 18
   8. RStudio: Installing It and Reading Its Four Panes 21
   9. Customising RStudio 24
   10. R Commander: Statistics From a Menu 27
   11. Working With R Scripts 30
   12. Data Management in RStudio 33
   13. Reading Data In and Writing It Out 36
   14. Expressions: Arithmetic, Relational and Logical Operators 39
   15. Operator Precedence, and How R Reads an Expression 42
   16. Assignment, and the Rules for a Name 44
   17. Numbers, Logicals and the Values NA, NULL, NaN and Inf 47
   18. Decision Making: if, else and else if 50
   19. switch(), and the Vectorised ifelse() 52
   20. Loops: The for Loop 54

   Contents continued

   Module I continued The R language and its environment: expressions, decisions, loops, data structures and strings

   1. Loops: while, repeat, break and next 57
   2. Why R Prefers Vectorisation to a Loop 60
   3. Dates in R 63
   4. Times, Time Zones and Date Arithmetic 66
   5. Vectors: The Thing R Is Actually Made Of 69
   6. Indexing a Vector: Five Ways to Pick Elements 72
   7. Recycling, Coercion and Vectorised Arithmetic 75
   8. Matrices: Creating, Naming and Indexing 78
   9. Matrix Arithmetic and Matrix Algebra 81
   10. Row and Column Work: apply, rowSums, cbind and rbind 84
   11. Arrays: Three Dimensions and More 88
   12. Lists: The Container That Holds Anything 91
   13. Data Frames: The Table Statistics Works On 94
   14. Subsetting a Data Frame, and Adding or Dropping a Column 98
   15. Factors: How R Stores a Category 102
   16. Sorting, Ordering, Merging and Reshaping a Data Frame 105
   17. Writing Your Own Function 109
   18. Arguments, Defaults, and What a Function Returns 112
   19. Scope: Where R Looks a Name Up 115

   Contents continued

   Module I continued The R language and its environment: expressions, decisions, loops, data structures and strings

   1. The apply Family: apply, lapply, sapply, tapply and mapply 118
   2. Character Strings in R 121
   3. Strings and R Objects 124
   4. Printing Characters: print, cat and format 127
   5. sprintf(), and Building a Line of Output 130
   6. Basic String Manipulations 133
   7. Changing Case, Trimming and Padding 136
   8. String Operations: Searching and Replacing 139
   9. Regular Expressions, From Scratch 142
   10. Practical Session 1: Setting Up and Your First Script 145
   11. Practical Session 2: Expressions, Decisions and Loops 148
   12. Practical Session 3: Vectors, Matrices, Lists and Data Frames 152
   13. Practical Session 4: Functions, Strings and Dates 156
   14. Module 1: Viva Questions and Their Answers 160

   Module II Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics

   1. What a Statistic Is: Population, Sample and Summary 164
   2. The mean() Function 167
   3. The Median 170

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics

   1. Standard Deviation and Variance 173
   2. Other Built-in Statistical Functions 176
   3. Quantiles, summary() and the Five-Number Summary 179
   4. Correlation, Covariance and scale() 182
   5. The Mode, and Why R Has No Function For It 186
   6. What Regression Analysis Is 189
   7. The Least Squares Line, Worked by Hand 192
   8. Linear Regression in R: lm(), Coefficients and Residuals 195
   9. Reading an lm() Summary 199
   10. Predicting From a Fitted Model 203
   11. Multiple Regression 207
   12. Checking a Regression: Residual Plots and What They Say 211
   13. The Normal Distribution 215
   14. dnorm(): The Normal Density 218
   15. pnorm(): The Normal Cumulative Probability 221
   16. qnorm(): The Normal Quantile 224
   17. rnorm(): Random Normal Samples, and set.seed() 227
   18. The Binomial Distribution 230
   19. dbinom(): The Exact Binomial Probability 233

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics

   1. pbinom(): The Cumulative Binomial Probability 236
   2. qbinom(): The Binomial Quantile 239
   3. rbinom(): Simulating Binomial Trials 242
   4. Choosing Which Distribution Function to Call 245
   5. Time Series Analysis: The ts Object 248
   6. Trend, Seasonality and Decomposition 252
   7. Moving Averages and a Simple Forecast 255
   8. Tabulation: Counting With table() 259
   9. Contingency Tables: What They Show 262
   10. Making R Contingency Tables 266
   11. Making Custom Contingency Tables 270
   12. Selecting Parts of a Table Object 274
   13. Converting an Object Into a Table 277
   14. Testing Table Objects, and the Chi-Squared Test 280
   15. Complex Tables: Margins, Proportions and ftable 283
   16. Representing Data Through Cross Tabulation 287
   17. How an R Plot Is Built: Devices, High-Level and Low-Level 291
   18. Plots of a Single Variable: Histogram and Density 295
   19. Plots of a Single Variable: Bar, Pie and Dot Chart 299

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics

   1. Plots of a Single Variable: Box Plot and Stem-and-Leaf 302
   2. Plots of Two Variables: The Scatter Plot and Its Line 305
   3. Plots of Multiple Variables 308
   4. Special Plots: QQ, Mosaic, Coplot and curve 311
   5. Labels, Legends, Colours and Layout 315
   6. Storing Graphics 319
   7. Practical Session 5: Summary Statistics on a Data Frame 322
   8. Practical Session 6: Regression, End to End 326
   9. Practical Session 7: The Distribution Functions 330
   10. Practical Session 8: Tables and Cross Tabulation 334
   11. Practical Session 9: Plots and Saving Them 338
   12. Module 2: Viva Questions and Their Answers 342

   Page 1 onwards

   346 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 346 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 106 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I The R language and its environment: expressions, decisions, loops, data structures and strings 53 chapters

   1. 1 What R Is, and Why Statistics Is Done in It pages 1–3
   2. 2 A Short History of R, and What Open Source Means Here pages 4–6
   3. 3 The Words R Uses: Object, Mode, Class and Attribute pages 7–9
   4. 4 Installing R on Windows, macOS and Linux pages 10–11
   5. 5 The R Environment: Console, Workspace and Working Directory pages 12–14
   6. 6 Getting Help, and Installing Packages pages 15–17
   7. 7 The R Graphical User Interface (R GUI) pages 18–20
   8. 8 RStudio: Installing It and Reading Its Four Panes pages 21–23
   9. 9 Customising RStudio pages 24–26
   10. 10 R Commander: Statistics From a Menu pages 27–29
   11. 11 Working With R Scripts pages 30–32
   12. 12 Data Management in RStudio pages 33–35
   13. 13 Reading Data In and Writing It Out pages 36–38
   14. 14 Expressions: Arithmetic, Relational and Logical Operators pages 39–41
   15. 15 Operator Precedence, and How R Reads an Expression pages 42–43
   16. 16 Assignment, and the Rules for a Name pages 44–46
   17. 17 Numbers, Logicals and the Values NA, NULL, NaN and Inf pages 47–49
   18. 18 Decision Making: if, else and else if pages 50–51
   19. 19 switch(), and the Vectorised ifelse() pages 52–53
   20. 20 Loops: The for Loop pages 54–56
   21. 21 Loops: while, repeat, break and next pages 57–59
   22. 22 Why R Prefers Vectorisation to a Loop pages 60–62
   23. 23 Dates in R pages 63–65
   24. 24 Times, Time Zones and Date Arithmetic pages 66–68
   25. 25 Vectors: The Thing R Is Actually Made Of pages 69–71
   26. 26 Indexing a Vector: Five Ways to Pick Elements pages 72–74
   27. 27 Recycling, Coercion and Vectorised Arithmetic pages 75–77
   28. 28 Matrices: Creating, Naming and Indexing pages 78–80
   29. 29 Matrix Arithmetic and Matrix Algebra pages 81–83
   30. 30 Row and Column Work: apply, rowSums, cbind and rbind pages 84–87
   31. 31 Arrays: Three Dimensions and More pages 88–90
   32. 32 Lists: The Container That Holds Anything pages 91–93
   33. 33 Data Frames: The Table Statistics Works On pages 94–97
   34. 34 Subsetting a Data Frame, and Adding or Dropping a Column pages 98–101
   35. 35 Factors: How R Stores a Category pages 102–104
   36. 36 Sorting, Ordering, Merging and Reshaping a Data Frame pages 105–108
   37. 37 Writing Your Own Function pages 109–111
   38. 38 Arguments, Defaults, and What a Function Returns pages 112–114
   39. 39 Scope: Where R Looks a Name Up pages 115–117
   40. 40 The apply Family: apply, lapply, sapply, tapply and mapply pages 118–120
   41. 41 Character Strings in R pages 121–123
   42. 42 Strings and R Objects pages 124–126
   43. 43 Printing Characters: print, cat and format pages 127–129
   44. 44 sprintf(), and Building a Line of Output pages 130–132
   45. 45 Basic String Manipulations pages 133–135
   46. 46 Changing Case, Trimming and Padding pages 136–138
   47. 47 String Operations: Searching and Replacing pages 139–141
   48. 48 Regular Expressions, From Scratch pages 142–144
   49. 49 Practical Session 1: Setting Up and Your First Script pages 145–147
   50. 50 Practical Session 2: Expressions, Decisions and Loops pages 148–151
   51. 51 Practical Session 3: Vectors, Matrices, Lists and Data Frames pages 152–155
   52. 52 Practical Session 4: Functions, Strings and Dates pages 156–159
   53. 53 Module 1: Viva Questions and Their Answers pages 160–163

   Module II Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics 53 chapters

   1. 54 What a Statistic Is: Population, Sample and Summary pages 164–166
   2. 55 The mean() Function pages 167–169
   3. 56 The Median pages 170–172
   4. 57 Standard Deviation and Variance pages 173–175
   5. 58 Other Built-in Statistical Functions pages 176–178
   6. 59 Quantiles, summary() and the Five-Number Summary pages 179–181
   7. 60 Correlation, Covariance and scale() pages 182–185
   8. 61 The Mode, and Why R Has No Function For It pages 186–188
   9. 62 What Regression Analysis Is pages 189–191
   10. 63 The Least Squares Line, Worked by Hand pages 192–194
   11. 64 Linear Regression in R: lm(), Coefficients and Residuals pages 195–198
   12. 65 Reading an lm() Summary pages 199–202
   13. 66 Predicting From a Fitted Model pages 203–206
   14. 67 Multiple Regression pages 207–210
   15. 68 Checking a Regression: Residual Plots and What They Say pages 211–214
   16. 69 The Normal Distribution pages 215–217
   17. 70 dnorm(): The Normal Density pages 218–220
   18. 71 pnorm(): The Normal Cumulative Probability pages 221–223
   19. 72 qnorm(): The Normal Quantile pages 224–226
   20. 73 rnorm(): Random Normal Samples, and set.seed() pages 227–229
   21. 74 The Binomial Distribution pages 230–232
   22. 75 dbinom(): The Exact Binomial Probability pages 233–235
   23. 76 pbinom(): The Cumulative Binomial Probability pages 236–238
   24. 77 qbinom(): The Binomial Quantile pages 239–241
   25. 78 rbinom(): Simulating Binomial Trials pages 242–244
   26. 79 Choosing Which Distribution Function to Call pages 245–247
   27. 80 Time Series Analysis: The ts Object pages 248–251
   28. 81 Trend, Seasonality and Decomposition pages 252–254
   29. 82 Moving Averages and a Simple Forecast pages 255–258
   30. 83 Tabulation: Counting With table() pages 259–261
   31. 84 Contingency Tables: What They Show pages 262–265
   32. 85 Making R Contingency Tables pages 266–269
   33. 86 Making Custom Contingency Tables pages 270–273
   34. 87 Selecting Parts of a Table Object pages 274–276
   35. 88 Converting an Object Into a Table pages 277–279
   36. 89 Testing Table Objects, and the Chi-Squared Test pages 280–282
   37. 90 Complex Tables: Margins, Proportions and ftable pages 283–286
   38. 91 Representing Data Through Cross Tabulation pages 287–290
   39. 92 How an R Plot Is Built: Devices, High-Level and Low-Level pages 291–294
   40. 93 Plots of a Single Variable: Histogram and Density pages 295–298
   41. 94 Plots of a Single Variable: Bar, Pie and Dot Chart pages 299–301
   42. 95 Plots of a Single Variable: Box Plot and Stem-and-Leaf pages 302–304
   43. 96 Plots of Two Variables: The Scatter Plot and Its Line pages 305–307
   44. 97 Plots of Multiple Variables pages 308–310
   45. 98 Special Plots: QQ, Mosaic, Coplot and curve pages 311–314
   46. 99 Labels, Legends, Colours and Layout pages 315–318
   47. 100 Storing Graphics pages 319–321
   48. 101 Practical Session 5: Summary Statistics on a Data Frame pages 322–325
   49. 102 Practical Session 6: Regression, End to End pages 326–329
   50. 103 Practical Session 7: The Distribution Functions pages 330–333
   51. 104 Practical Session 8: Tables and Cross Tabulation pages 334–337
   52. 105 Practical Session 9: Plots and Saving Them pages 338–341
   53. 106 Module 2: Viva Questions and Their Answers pages 342–346

3. Introduction to Programming with Python

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Introduction to Programming with Python

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Introduction to Programming with Python

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Overview and basic elements, control statements, arrays, functions and strings

   1. What Python Is, and the Features That Made It Popular 1
   2. Installing Python and Running Your First Program 7
   3. How a Python Program Is Executed: Source, Bytecode and the PVM 11
   4. The Flavours of Python 15
   5. The Python Interpreter: The Prompt and the Command Line 18
   6. Comments and Docstrings 22
   7. IDLE: Python's Own Editor and Shell 26
   8. The Data Types Python Gives You 30
   9. Dictionaries, Sets and Mappings: A First Look 35
   10. The Basic Elements of a Python Program 39
   11. Variables and How Python Stores a Value 44
   12. Reading Input: The input() Function 48
   13. Printing Output: The print() Function 52
   14. Command Line Arguments 56
   15. Operators, Part One: Arithmetic, Relational and Logical 59
   16. Operators, Part Two: Bitwise, Assignment, Membership and Identity 63
   17. Precedence and Associativity of Operators 68
   18. The if Statement 73
   19. The if...else Statement 77

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Overview and basic elements, control statements, arrays, functions and strings

   1. The if...elif...else Statement 80
   2. The while Loop 84
   3. The for Loop and range() 88
   4. Infinite Loops and Nested Loops 92
   5. The else Suite on a Loop 97
   6. break, continue and pass 100
   7. The assert Statement 104
   8. The return Statement 108
   9. Arrays: Creating Them with the array Module 112
   10. Indexing and Slicing an Array 116
   11. Basic Array Operations and Array Processing 120
   12. Mathematical Operations on an Array with NumPy 125
   13. Aliasing, Viewing and Copying an Array 129
   14. Slicing and Indexing a NumPy Array 134
   15. Advanced Indexing: Integer Arrays and Boolean Masks 138
   16. The Dimensions and Attributes of an Array 143
   17. Defining a Function and Calling It 148
   18. Returning Results, and Returning More Than One 152
   19. The Built-in Functions 156

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Overview and basic elements, control statements, arrays, functions and strings

   1. A Function and a Method: The Difference 160
   2. How Python Passes a Value: Object Reference 164
   3. Parameters and Arguments 168
   4. Recursive Functions 172
   5. Anonymous Functions: lambda 177
   6. Modules in Python 181
   7. Creating Strings 186
   8. The Functions and Methods of a String 190
   9. Working with Strings 194
   10. Formatting Strings 198
   11. Counting Characters and Words in a String 202
   12. Inserting a Substring into a String 206
   13. Module 1 Practicals: The Programs for Your Journal 210

   Module II Lists, tuples and dictionaries, files, regular expressions, and date and time

   1. Lists: What They Are and How to Make One 217
   2. List Functions and Methods 222
   3. List Operations 226
   4. List Slices 231
   5. Nested Lists, and the Matrix 235

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Lists, tuples and dictionaries, files, regular expressions, and date and time

   1. Tuples 240
   2. The Functions That Work on a Tuple 244
   3. Creating a Dictionary 248
   4. Operators in a Dictionary 253
   5. Dictionary Methods 257
   6. Looping Over a Dictionary 261
   7. Operations on Dictionaries 265
   8. Opening and Closing a File 269
   9. Working with Text Files 273
   10. The with Statement 277
   11. Working with Binary Files 281
   12. Pickle: Storing an Object in a File 285
   13. seek() and tell(): Where You Are in a File 290
   14. Random Access to a Binary File 295
   15. Zipping and Unzipping Files 300
   16. Working with Directories 305
   17. Regular Expressions: What They Are and Why 310
   18. Sequence Characters in a Regular Expression 315
   19. Special Characters in a Regular Expression 320

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Lists, tuples and dictionaries, files, regular expressions, and date and time

   1. Using a Regular Expression on a File 325
   2. Retrieving Information from an HTML File 330
   3. Time in Python 335
   4. Dates 339
   5. The Date and Time Now, and Combining Them 343
   6. Formatting a Date and a Time 347
   7. Finding and Comparing Dates 352
   8. Sorting Dates 357
   9. Knowing the Time a Program Takes 362
   10. Working with the Calendar Module 367
   11. Module 2 Practicals: The Programs for Your Journal 373
   12. The Practical Examination, the Journal and the Viva 383

   Page 1 onwards

   389 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 389 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 87 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Overview and basic elements, control statements, arrays, functions and strings 51 chapters

   1. 1 What Python Is, and the Features That Made It Popular pages 1–6
   2. 2 Installing Python and Running Your First Program pages 7–10
   3. 3 How a Python Program Is Executed: Source, Bytecode and the PVM pages 11–14
   4. 4 The Flavours of Python pages 15–17
   5. 5 The Python Interpreter: The Prompt and the Command Line pages 18–21
   6. 6 Comments and Docstrings pages 22–25
   7. 7 IDLE: Python's Own Editor and Shell pages 26–29
   8. 8 The Data Types Python Gives You pages 30–34
   9. 9 Dictionaries, Sets and Mappings: A First Look pages 35–38
   10. 10 The Basic Elements of a Python Program pages 39–43
   11. 11 Variables and How Python Stores a Value pages 44–47
   12. 12 Reading Input: The input() Function pages 48–51
   13. 13 Printing Output: The print() Function pages 52–55
   14. 14 Command Line Arguments pages 56–58
   15. 15 Operators, Part One: Arithmetic, Relational and Logical pages 59–62
   16. 16 Operators, Part Two: Bitwise, Assignment, Membership and Identity pages 63–67
   17. 17 Precedence and Associativity of Operators pages 68–72
   18. 18 The if Statement pages 73–76
   19. 19 The if...else Statement pages 77–79
   20. 20 The if...elif...else Statement pages 80–83
   21. 21 The while Loop pages 84–87
   22. 22 The for Loop and range() pages 88–91
   23. 23 Infinite Loops and Nested Loops pages 92–96
   24. 24 The else Suite on a Loop pages 97–99
   25. 25 break, continue and pass pages 100–103
   26. 26 The assert Statement pages 104–107
   27. 27 The return Statement pages 108–111
   28. 28 Arrays: Creating Them with the array Module pages 112–115
   29. 29 Indexing and Slicing an Array pages 116–119
   30. 30 Basic Array Operations and Array Processing pages 120–124
   31. 31 Mathematical Operations on an Array with NumPy pages 125–128
   32. 32 Aliasing, Viewing and Copying an Array pages 129–133
   33. 33 Slicing and Indexing a NumPy Array pages 134–137
   34. 34 Advanced Indexing: Integer Arrays and Boolean Masks pages 138–142
   35. 35 The Dimensions and Attributes of an Array pages 143–147
   36. 36 Defining a Function and Calling It pages 148–151
   37. 37 Returning Results, and Returning More Than One pages 152–155
   38. 38 The Built-in Functions pages 156–159
   39. 39 A Function and a Method: The Difference pages 160–163
   40. 40 How Python Passes a Value: Object Reference pages 164–167
   41. 41 Parameters and Arguments pages 168–171
   42. 42 Recursive Functions pages 172–176
   43. 43 Anonymous Functions: lambda pages 177–180
   44. 44 Modules in Python pages 181–185
   45. 45 Creating Strings pages 186–189
   46. 46 The Functions and Methods of a String pages 190–193
   47. 47 Working with Strings pages 194–197
   48. 48 Formatting Strings pages 198–201
   49. 49 Counting Characters and Words in a String pages 202–205
   50. 50 Inserting a Substring into a String pages 206–209
   51. 51 Module 1 Practicals: The Programs for Your Journal pages 210–216

   Module II Lists, tuples and dictionaries, files, regular expressions, and date and time 36 chapters

   1. 52 Lists: What They Are and How to Make One pages 217–221
   2. 53 List Functions and Methods pages 222–225
   3. 54 List Operations pages 226–230
   4. 55 List Slices pages 231–234
   5. 56 Nested Lists, and the Matrix pages 235–239
   6. 57 Tuples pages 240–243
   7. 58 The Functions That Work on a Tuple pages 244–247
   8. 59 Creating a Dictionary pages 248–252
   9. 60 Operators in a Dictionary pages 253–256
   10. 61 Dictionary Methods pages 257–260
   11. 62 Looping Over a Dictionary pages 261–264
   12. 63 Operations on Dictionaries pages 265–268
   13. 64 Opening and Closing a File pages 269–272
   14. 65 Working with Text Files pages 273–276
   15. 66 The with Statement pages 277–280
   16. 67 Working with Binary Files pages 281–284
   17. 68 Pickle: Storing an Object in a File pages 285–289
   18. 69 seek() and tell(): Where You Are in a File pages 290–294
   19. 70 Random Access to a Binary File pages 295–299
   20. 71 Zipping and Unzipping Files pages 300–304
   21. 72 Working with Directories pages 305–309
   22. 73 Regular Expressions: What They Are and Why pages 310–314
   23. 74 Sequence Characters in a Regular Expression pages 315–319
   24. 75 Special Characters in a Regular Expression pages 320–324
   25. 76 Using a Regular Expression on a File pages 325–329
   26. 77 Retrieving Information from an HTML File pages 330–334
   27. 78 Time in Python pages 335–338
   28. 79 Dates pages 339–342
   29. 80 The Date and Time Now, and Combining Them pages 343–346
   30. 81 Formatting a Date and a Time pages 347–351
   31. 82 Finding and Comparing Dates pages 352–356
   32. 83 Sorting Dates pages 357–361
   33. 84 Knowing the Time a Program Takes pages 362–366
   34. 85 Working with the Calendar Module pages 367–372
   35. 86 Module 2 Practicals: The Programs for Your Journal pages 373–382
   36. 87 The Practical Examination, the Journal and the Viva pages 383–389

4. Digital System and Architecture

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Digital System and Architecture

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Digital System and Architecture

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Fundamentals of digital logic, combinational and sequential circuits, and the computer system

   1. How a Computer Represents Numbers: Bits, Bytes and Number Systems 1
   2. Converting Between Number Systems 9
   3. Binary Arithmetic 15
   4. Signed Numbers and Complements 21
   5. Codes: BCD, Excess-3, Gray Code, ASCII and Parity 28
   6. Boolean Algebra: What It Is and Where It Came From 34
   7. The Laws and Theorems of Boolean Algebra 41
   8. Logic Gates 50
   9. Universal Gates: Building Every Gate from NAND or NOR 56
   10. Canonical Forms: Minterms, Maxterms, SOP and POS 61
   11. Algebraic Simplification of Logic Circuits 66
   12. Karnaugh Maps: Two, Three and Four Variables 71
   13. Karnaugh Maps with Don't-Care Conditions, and POS Simplification 76
   14. Combinational Circuits, and How One Is Designed 81
   15. The Half Adder and the Full Adder 86
   16. The Parallel Binary Adder 90
   17. The Half Subtractor and the Full Subtractor 93
   18. Subtraction with an Adder: the 2's Complement Adder-Subtractor 97
   19. The Magnitude Comparator 101

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Fundamentals of digital logic, combinational and sequential circuits, and the computer system

   1. The Multiplexer 104
   2. Implementing Boolean Functions with a Multiplexer 107
   3. The Demultiplexer and the Decoder 111
   4. Implementing Boolean Functions with a Demultiplexer 114
   5. Sequential Circuits: Memory and the Clock 117
   6. The SR Latch and the SR Flip-Flop 121
   7. The JK Flip-Flop, the Race-Around Condition and the Master-Slave JK 125
   8. The D Flip-Flop 129
   9. Triggering, Characteristic Tables and Excitation Tables 132
   10. Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters 136
   11. Synchronous Counters, and How to Design One 139
   12. Shift Registers 143
   13. Computer Organization and Computer Architecture 146
   14. The Components of a Computer and What Each Does 149
   15. How a Computer Works at the Top Level: Fetch, Execute and Interrupts 153
   16. Interconnection Structures 156
   17. Bus Interconnection 159
   18. Multiple-Bus Hierarchies and the Elements of Bus Design 162

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Fundamentals of digital logic, combinational and sequential circuits, and the computer system

   1. The I/O Module 166
   2. Programmed I/O 169
   3. Interrupt-Driven I/O 172
   4. Direct Memory Access 175

   Module II Memory system organization, instructions and processor organization (8085 and 8086)

   1. Memory: How It Is Classified and What Describes It 178
   2. The Memory Hierarchy and Locality of Reference 182
   3. Semiconductor Main Memory: RAM and the ROM Family 186
   4. SRAM and DRAM 190
   5. Interleaved Memory 194
   6. Associative Memory 197
   7. Cache Memory: The Principle and the Elements of Cache Design 201
   8. Cache Mapping: Direct, Associative and Set-Associative 205
   9. Replacement Algorithms 209
   10. Write Policies 214
   11. Cache Performance 218
   12. Cache Coherence 222
   13. Virtual Memory: Paging, Page Tables and the TLB 226
   14. Segmentation 231

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Memory system organization, instructions and processor organization (8085 and 8086)

   1. Magnetic Disks 235
   2. Optical Memory 239
   3. Flash Memory and the Solid-State Drive 244
   4. RAID Levels 248
   5. Machine Instructions and Their Elements 253
   6. Instruction Formats: Three, Two, One and Zero Addresses 256
   7. Instruction Sets: Types of Operands 260
   8. Instruction Sets: Types of Operations 263
   9. Addressing Modes 267
   10. Meet the 8085 and the 8086 271
   11. Addressing Modes on the 8085, with Assembly Examples 274
   12. Addressing Modes on the 8086, with Assembly Examples 277
   13. Processor Organization: Structure and Function 282
   14. The Control Unit: Hardwired and Microprogrammed 285
   15. Register Organization 289
   16. The 8085's Registers and Flags 293
   17. The 8086's Registers 297
   18. Data Transfer Operations 301
   19. Arithmetic Operations 305

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Memory system organization, instructions and processor organization (8085 and 8086)

   1. Logical Operations 309
   2. 8085 Programs: Putting the Groups Together 313
   3. The Instruction Cycle 318
   4. Instruction Pipelining 321
   5. Pipeline Hazards and Branches 324
   6. RISC and CISC Architecture 328
   7. Instruction-Level Parallelism and Superscalar Processors 332
   8. Superscalar Design Issues 336

   Page 1 onwards

   339 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 339 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 82 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Fundamentals of digital logic, combinational and sequential circuits, and the computer system 41 chapters

   1. 1 How a Computer Represents Numbers: Bits, Bytes and Number Systems pages 1–8
   2. 2 Converting Between Number Systems pages 9–14
   3. 3 Binary Arithmetic pages 15–20
   4. 4 Signed Numbers and Complements pages 21–27
   5. 5 Codes: BCD, Excess-3, Gray Code, ASCII and Parity pages 28–33
   6. 6 Boolean Algebra: What It Is and Where It Came From pages 34–40
   7. 7 The Laws and Theorems of Boolean Algebra pages 41–49
   8. 8 Logic Gates pages 50–55
   9. 9 Universal Gates: Building Every Gate from NAND or NOR pages 56–60
   10. 10 Canonical Forms: Minterms, Maxterms, SOP and POS pages 61–65
   11. 11 Algebraic Simplification of Logic Circuits pages 66–70
   12. 12 Karnaugh Maps: Two, Three and Four Variables pages 71–75
   13. 13 Karnaugh Maps with Don't-Care Conditions, and POS Simplification pages 76–80
   14. 14 Combinational Circuits, and How One Is Designed pages 81–85
   15. 15 The Half Adder and the Full Adder pages 86–89
   16. 16 The Parallel Binary Adder pages 90–92
   17. 17 The Half Subtractor and the Full Subtractor pages 93–96
   18. 18 Subtraction with an Adder: the 2's Complement Adder-Subtractor pages 97–100
   19. 19 The Magnitude Comparator pages 101–103
   20. 20 The Multiplexer pages 104–106
   21. 21 Implementing Boolean Functions with a Multiplexer pages 107–110
   22. 22 The Demultiplexer and the Decoder pages 111–113
   23. 23 Implementing Boolean Functions with a Demultiplexer pages 114–116
   24. 24 Sequential Circuits: Memory and the Clock pages 117–120
   25. 25 The SR Latch and the SR Flip-Flop pages 121–124
   26. 26 The JK Flip-Flop, the Race-Around Condition and the Master-Slave JK pages 125–128
   27. 27 The D Flip-Flop pages 129–131
   28. 28 Triggering, Characteristic Tables and Excitation Tables pages 132–135
   29. 29 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters pages 136–138
   30. 30 Synchronous Counters, and How to Design One pages 139–142
   31. 31 Shift Registers pages 143–145
   32. 32 Computer Organization and Computer Architecture pages 146–148
   33. 33 The Components of a Computer and What Each Does pages 149–152
   34. 34 How a Computer Works at the Top Level: Fetch, Execute and Interrupts pages 153–155
   35. 35 Interconnection Structures pages 156–158
   36. 36 Bus Interconnection pages 159–161
   37. 37 Multiple-Bus Hierarchies and the Elements of Bus Design pages 162–165
   38. 38 The I/O Module pages 166–168
   39. 39 Programmed I/O pages 169–171
   40. 40 Interrupt-Driven I/O pages 172–174
   41. 41 Direct Memory Access pages 175–177

   Module II Memory system organization, instructions and processor organization (8085 and 8086) 41 chapters

   1. 42 Memory: How It Is Classified and What Describes It pages 178–181
   2. 43 The Memory Hierarchy and Locality of Reference pages 182–185
   3. 44 Semiconductor Main Memory: RAM and the ROM Family pages 186–189
   4. 45 SRAM and DRAM pages 190–193
   5. 46 Interleaved Memory pages 194–196
   6. 47 Associative Memory pages 197–200
   7. 48 Cache Memory: The Principle and the Elements of Cache Design pages 201–204
   8. 49 Cache Mapping: Direct, Associative and Set-Associative pages 205–208
   9. 50 Replacement Algorithms pages 209–213
   10. 51 Write Policies pages 214–217
   11. 52 Cache Performance pages 218–221
   12. 53 Cache Coherence pages 222–225
   13. 54 Virtual Memory: Paging, Page Tables and the TLB pages 226–230
   14. 55 Segmentation pages 231–234
   15. 56 Magnetic Disks pages 235–238
   16. 57 Optical Memory pages 239–243
   17. 58 Flash Memory and the Solid-State Drive pages 244–247
   18. 59 RAID Levels pages 248–252
   19. 60 Machine Instructions and Their Elements pages 253–255
   20. 61 Instruction Formats: Three, Two, One and Zero Addresses pages 256–259
   21. 62 Instruction Sets: Types of Operands pages 260–262
   22. 63 Instruction Sets: Types of Operations pages 263–266
   23. 64 Addressing Modes pages 267–270
   24. 65 Meet the 8085 and the 8086 pages 271–273
   25. 66 Addressing Modes on the 8085, with Assembly Examples pages 274–276
   26. 67 Addressing Modes on the 8086, with Assembly Examples pages 277–281
   27. 68 Processor Organization: Structure and Function pages 282–284
   28. 69 The Control Unit: Hardwired and Microprogrammed pages 285–288
   29. 70 Register Organization pages 289–292
   30. 71 The 8085's Registers and Flags pages 293–296
   31. 72 The 8086's Registers pages 297–300
   32. 73 Data Transfer Operations pages 301–304
   33. 74 Arithmetic Operations pages 305–308
   34. 75 Logical Operations pages 309–312
   35. 76 8085 Programs: Putting the Groups Together pages 313–317
   36. 77 The Instruction Cycle pages 318–320
   37. 78 Instruction Pipelining pages 321–323
   38. 79 Pipeline Hazards and Branches pages 324–327
   39. 80 RISC and CISC Architecture pages 328–331
   40. 81 Instruction-Level Parallelism and Superscalar Processors pages 332–335
   41. 82 Superscalar Design Issues pages 336–339

5. Fundamentals of Database Systems

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Fundamentals of Database Systems

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Fundamentals of Database Systems

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Introduction to DBMS, data models, the ER model and ER to table, DDL and DML statements

   1. What a Database Is, and What a DBMS Does 1
   2. Why Not Just Files: the Advantages of a DBMS 6
   3. The Three Levels of Abstraction 10
   4. Data Independence 14
   5. The Architecture of a DBMS 18
   6. What a Data Model Is 22
   7. Client/Server Architecture 26
   8. Object Based Logical Models 30
   9. Record Based Logical Models: Relational, Hierarchical and Network 34
   10. The Entity Relationship Model: Entities, Attributes and Entity Sets 38
   11. Relationships and Relationship Sets 42
   12. Key Constraints and the Cardinality of a Relationship 46
   13. Participation Constraints 50
   14. Weak Entity Sets 54
   15. Generalization, Specialization and Aggregation 58
   16. Conceptual Design: Entity or Attribute 62
   17. Conceptual Design: Entity or Relationship 66
   18. Conceptual Design: Binary or Ternary 70
   19. Constraints Beyond the ER Model 73

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Introduction to DBMS, data models, the ER model and ER to table, DDL and DML statements

   1. Turning an Entity Set Into a Table 77
   2. Turning a Relationship Set Into Tables 81
   3. Meeting MySQL: the Server, the Client and Your First Database 85
   4. Data Types 89
   5. Creating a Table 94
   6. Integrity Constraints: PRIMARY KEY, NOT NULL, DEFAULT and CHECK 98
   7. Altering a Table 102
   8. Renaming, Dropping and Truncating Tables 106
   9. Viewing the Structure of a Table 109
   10. INSERT: Putting Rows In 112
   11. UPDATE and DELETE: Changing and Removing Rows 116
   12. SELECT: All Columns and Named Columns 120
   13. DISTINCT: Unique Records 124
   14. The WHERE Clause 127
   15. IN and BETWEEN 131
   16. ORDER BY and LIMIT 135
   17. Aggregate Functions: COUNT, MIN, MAX, AVG and SUM 139
   18. GROUP BY 142

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Introduction to DBMS, data models, the ER model and ER to table, DDL and DML statements

   1. HAVING 146

   Module II The relational data model, functions, joins and subqueries, normal forms, database protection, views and DCL

   1. The Relational Data Model: Domains, Attributes, Tuples and Relations 150
   2. Relational Model Notation 154
   3. Characteristics of Relations 157
   4. Relational Constraints: the Primary Key 161
   5. Referential Integrity and the Foreign Key 165
   6. UNIQUE, NOT NULL and CHECK Constraints 170
   7. String Functions 174
   8. Math Functions 178
   9. Date and Time Functions 181
   10. The Inner Join 185
   11. The Outer Joins, and What MySQL Does About FULL OUTER 190
   12. Subqueries with IN and EXISTS 195
   13. Nested Subqueries, and What a Subquery May Not Do 199
   14. ANY and ALL 203
   15. Correlated Subqueries 207
   16. Functional Dependencies 211

   Contents continued

   Module II continued The relational data model, functions, joins and subqueries, normal forms, database protection, views and DCL

   1. First Normal Form 216
   2. Second Normal Form 220
   3. Third Normal Form 224
   4. Boyce Codd Normal Form 228
   5. Lossless Join Decomposition 233
   6. Security Issues and Threats to Databases 238
   7. Security Mechanisms 242
   8. The Role of the Database Administrator 246
   9. Discretionary Access Control 250
   10. Backing Up and Restoring a Database 254
   11. Views: Creating, Selecting and Dropping 258
   12. Altering, Renaming and Updating Through a View 262
   13. Creating and Dropping Users 267
   14. Granting and Revoking Privileges 271
   15. Transactions: COMMIT and ROLLBACK 275
   16. Indexes, and the Part They Play in a Fast Search 279

   Module P Computer Science Practical 1: the ten practicals set on this subject

   1. Practical: Setting Up MySQL and Keeping the Journal 284
   2. Practical 1: Conceptual Design With an ER Diagram 288

   Contents continued

   Module P continued Computer Science Practical 1: the ten practicals set on this subject

   1. Practical 2: Database Management Operations and CRUD 292
   2. Practical 3: Table Management, Backup and Restore 295
   3. Practical 4: Simple Queries and Aggregate Functions 298
   4. Practical 5: Date, String and Math Functions 300
   5. Practical 6: Inner and Outer Join Queries 303
   6. Practical 7: Subqueries With IN and EXISTS 306
   7. Practical 8: ER Model to Relational Model, and Normalization 309
   8. Practical 9: Views With and Without the Check Option 313
   9. Practical 10: DCL Statements, COMMIT and ROLLBACK 316

   Page 1 onwards

   319 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 319 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 81 chapters across 3 modules

   Module I Introduction to DBMS, data models, the ER model and ER to table, DDL and DML statements 38 chapters

   1. 1 What a Database Is, and What a DBMS Does pages 1–5
   2. 2 Why Not Just Files: the Advantages of a DBMS pages 6–9
   3. 3 The Three Levels of Abstraction pages 10–13
   4. 4 Data Independence pages 14–17
   5. 5 The Architecture of a DBMS pages 18–21
   6. 6 What a Data Model Is pages 22–25
   7. 7 Client/Server Architecture pages 26–29
   8. 8 Object Based Logical Models pages 30–33
   9. 9 Record Based Logical Models: Relational, Hierarchical and Network pages 34–37
   10. 10 The Entity Relationship Model: Entities, Attributes and Entity Sets pages 38–41
   11. 11 Relationships and Relationship Sets pages 42–45
   12. 12 Key Constraints and the Cardinality of a Relationship pages 46–49
   13. 13 Participation Constraints pages 50–53
   14. 14 Weak Entity Sets pages 54–57
   15. 15 Generalization, Specialization and Aggregation pages 58–61
   16. 16 Conceptual Design: Entity or Attribute pages 62–65
   17. 17 Conceptual Design: Entity or Relationship pages 66–69
   18. 18 Conceptual Design: Binary or Ternary pages 70–72
   19. 19 Constraints Beyond the ER Model pages 73–76
   20. 20 Turning an Entity Set Into a Table pages 77–80
   21. 21 Turning a Relationship Set Into Tables pages 81–84
   22. 22 Meeting MySQL: the Server, the Client and Your First Database pages 85–88
   23. 23 Data Types pages 89–93
   24. 24 Creating a Table pages 94–97
   25. 25 Integrity Constraints: PRIMARY KEY, NOT NULL, DEFAULT and CHECK pages 98–101
   26. 26 Altering a Table pages 102–105
   27. 27 Renaming, Dropping and Truncating Tables pages 106–108
   28. 28 Viewing the Structure of a Table pages 109–111
   29. 29 INSERT: Putting Rows In pages 112–115
   30. 30 UPDATE and DELETE: Changing and Removing Rows pages 116–119
   31. 31 SELECT: All Columns and Named Columns pages 120–123
   32. 32 DISTINCT: Unique Records pages 124–126
   33. 33 The WHERE Clause pages 127–130
   34. 34 IN and BETWEEN pages 131–134
   35. 35 ORDER BY and LIMIT pages 135–138
   36. 36 Aggregate Functions: COUNT, MIN, MAX, AVG and SUM pages 139–141
   37. 37 GROUP BY pages 142–145
   38. 38 HAVING pages 146–149

   Module II The relational data model, functions, joins and subqueries, normal forms, database protection, views and DCL 32 chapters

   1. 39 The Relational Data Model: Domains, Attributes, Tuples and Relations pages 150–153
   2. 40 Relational Model Notation pages 154–156
   3. 41 Characteristics of Relations pages 157–160
   4. 42 Relational Constraints: the Primary Key pages 161–164
   5. 43 Referential Integrity and the Foreign Key pages 165–169
   6. 44 UNIQUE, NOT NULL and CHECK Constraints pages 170–173
   7. 45 String Functions pages 174–177
   8. 46 Math Functions pages 178–180
   9. 47 Date and Time Functions pages 181–184
   10. 48 The Inner Join pages 185–189
   11. 49 The Outer Joins, and What MySQL Does About FULL OUTER pages 190–194
   12. 50 Subqueries with IN and EXISTS pages 195–198
   13. 51 Nested Subqueries, and What a Subquery May Not Do pages 199–202
   14. 52 ANY and ALL pages 203–206
   15. 53 Correlated Subqueries pages 207–210
   16. 54 Functional Dependencies pages 211–215
   17. 55 First Normal Form pages 216–219
   18. 56 Second Normal Form pages 220–223
   19. 57 Third Normal Form pages 224–227
   20. 58 Boyce Codd Normal Form pages 228–232
   21. 59 Lossless Join Decomposition pages 233–237
   22. 60 Security Issues and Threats to Databases pages 238–241
   23. 61 Security Mechanisms pages 242–245
   24. 62 The Role of the Database Administrator pages 246–249
   25. 63 Discretionary Access Control pages 250–253
   26. 64 Backing Up and Restoring a Database pages 254–257
   27. 65 Views: Creating, Selecting and Dropping pages 258–261
   28. 66 Altering, Renaming and Updating Through a View pages 262–266
   29. 67 Creating and Dropping Users pages 267–270
   30. 68 Granting and Revoking Privileges pages 271–274
   31. 69 Transactions: COMMIT and ROLLBACK pages 275–278
   32. 70 Indexes, and the Part They Play in a Fast Search pages 279–283

   Module P Computer Science Practical 1: the ten practicals set on this subject 11 chapters

   1. 71 Practical: Setting Up MySQL and Keeping the Journal pages 284–287
   2. 72 Practical 1: Conceptual Design With an ER Diagram pages 288–291
   3. 73 Practical 2: Database Management Operations and CRUD pages 292–294
   4. 74 Practical 3: Table Management, Backup and Restore pages 295–297
   5. 75 Practical 4: Simple Queries and Aggregate Functions pages 298–299
   6. 76 Practical 5: Date, String and Math Functions pages 300–302
   7. 77 Practical 6: Inner and Outer Join Queries pages 303–305
   8. 78 Practical 7: Subqueries With IN and EXISTS pages 306–308
   9. 79 Practical 8: ER Model to Relational Model, and Normalization pages 309–312
   10. 80 Practical 9: Views With and Without the Check Option pages 313–315
   11. 81 Practical 10: DCL Statements, COMMIT and ROLLBACK pages 316–319

6. Computer Science Practical 1

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Computer Science Practical 1

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Computer Science Practical 1

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   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

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   Contents

   Module I Digital Systems and Architecture: ten exercises in Logisim

   1. How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the Write-Up and the Viva 1
   2. Logisim from Zero: Installing It and Your First Circuit 6
   3. Practical 1: Verifying the Truth Tables of the Logic Gates 11
   4. Practical 2: Simplifying a Boolean Expression and Realising It 15
   5. Practical 3: The Half Adder and the Full Adder 19
   6. Practical 4: The Half Subtractor and the Full Subtractor 24
   7. Practical 5: The 4-Bit Magnitude Comparator 28
   8. Practical 6: D and JK Flip-Flops Built from Gates 32
   9. Practical 7: Verifying the Operation of a Counter 37
   10. Practical 8: The 4-Bit Shift Register 42
   11. Practical 9: Realising Expressions with Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 46
   12. Practical 10: A 3-Bit Binary Ripple Counter from JK Flip-Flops 51

   Module II Fundamentals of Database Systems: ten exercises in MySQL

   1. MySQL from Zero: Installing It, Connecting and Saving Your Work 55
   2. Practical 11: Conceptual Design with an ER Diagram 60
   3. Practical 12: Databases, Tables, Constraints and CRUD 65
   4. Practical 13: ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME, and Backup and Restore 71

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Fundamentals of Database Systems: ten exercises in MySQL

   1. Practical 14: Simple Queries and the Aggregate Functions 76
   2. Practical 15: Date, String and Mathematical Functions 81
   3. Practical 16: Inner and Outer Joins 86
   4. Practical 17: Subqueries with IN and EXISTS 92
   5. Practical 18: From ER Model to Tables, and Normalising to 3NF 97
   6. Practical 19: Views, With and Without CHECK OPTION 103
   7. Practical 20: GRANT, REVOKE, COMMIT and ROLLBACK 108

   Page 1 onwards

   113 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 113 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 23 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Digital Systems and Architecture: ten exercises in Logisim 12 chapters

   1. 1 How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the Write-Up and the Viva pages 1–5
   2. 2 Logisim from Zero: Installing It and Your First Circuit pages 6–10
   3. 3 Practical 1: Verifying the Truth Tables of the Logic Gates pages 11–14
   4. 4 Practical 2: Simplifying a Boolean Expression and Realising It pages 15–18
   5. 5 Practical 3: The Half Adder and the Full Adder pages 19–23
   6. 6 Practical 4: The Half Subtractor and the Full Subtractor pages 24–27
   7. 7 Practical 5: The 4-Bit Magnitude Comparator pages 28–31
   8. 8 Practical 6: D and JK Flip-Flops Built from Gates pages 32–36
   9. 9 Practical 7: Verifying the Operation of a Counter pages 37–41
   10. 10 Practical 8: The 4-Bit Shift Register pages 42–45
   11. 11 Practical 9: Realising Expressions with Multiplexers and Demultiplexers pages 46–50
   12. 12 Practical 10: A 3-Bit Binary Ripple Counter from JK Flip-Flops pages 51–54

   Module II Fundamentals of Database Systems: ten exercises in MySQL 11 chapters

   1. 13 MySQL from Zero: Installing It, Connecting and Saving Your Work pages 55–59
   2. 14 Practical 11: Conceptual Design with an ER Diagram pages 60–64
   3. 15 Practical 12: Databases, Tables, Constraints and CRUD pages 65–70
   4. 16 Practical 13: ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME, and Backup and Restore pages 71–75
   5. 17 Practical 14: Simple Queries and the Aggregate Functions pages 76–80
   6. 18 Practical 15: Date, String and Mathematical Functions pages 81–85
   7. 19 Practical 16: Inner and Outer Joins pages 86–91
   8. 20 Practical 17: Subqueries with IN and EXISTS pages 92–96
   9. 21 Practical 18: From ER Model to Tables, and Normalising to 3NF pages 97–102
   10. 22 Practical 19: Views, With and Without CHECK OPTION pages 103–107
   11. 23 Practical 20: GRANT, REVOKE, COMMIT and ROLLBACK pages 108–113

Questions