B.Sc. (Computer Science) Semester 1: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

What do you get

• All the notes of all the subjects in Semester 1, as per the latest syllabus 2026.
• The practical subjects too, worked out exercise by exercise: 1 practical book of 23 chapters, beside 5 theory books of 466.
• Previous year question papers, with full solutions. Statistics with R Programming and Computer Science Practical 1 have no solved papers, so they are not included.
• Your own dashboard, where you can track everything you have read, subject by subject.
• Priority access in our MU B.Sc. (Computer Science) student group. The groups are open, so you can send a message any time.
• Valid for one year, 365 days from the day you pay.
• If the University revises the syllabus while your year is running, the notes are rewritten to match and you read the new version at no extra cost. You are never asked to buy the same semester twice.

1. LINUX Operating System

   Official Notes munotes.in

   LINUX Operating System

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   LINUX Operating System

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What an Operating System Is, and Where Linux Fits 1
   2. The History of Linux: Unix, MINIX, GNU and a Student's Kernel 4
   3. Linux Distributions, and Why There Are So Many 7
   4. The Architecture of a Unix or Linux System 10
   5. The Features of Unix and Linux 13
   6. Installing Ubuntu: Making the USB and Booting From It 17
   7. Installing Ubuntu: The Installer, Step by Step 20
   8. Installing Software: App Center, Synaptic and apt 23
   9. Packages, Repositories and the Software Worth Having 27
   10. Administering System and User Settings 30
   11. Keyboard Shortcuts, and the Story of Unity 33
   12. The Terminal: Where the Rest of This Book Happens 36
   13. Starting the Shell: Which Shell Are You Running 39
   14. The Shell Prompt, and How to Change It 42
   15. The Structure of a Command: Options and Arguments 44
   16. The File System: One Tree That Starts at / 47
   17. What Each Top-Level Directory Holds 50
   18. Paths: Absolute, Relative, Dot, Dot Dot and Tilde 53
   19. man Pages: Reading the Manual 55
   20. The Other Documentation: help, --help, info and apropos 58

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. pwd and cd: Moving Around the Tree 61
   2. ls: Listing What Is There 63
   3. ls -l: Reading the Long Listing 66
   4. mkdir and rmdir: Making and Removing Directories 69
   5. touch: Making a File, and Changing Its Times 71
   6. find: Searching the Tree 74
   7. du, df and stat: How Much Space, and What Exactly Is This File 78
   8. cat: Reading, Making and Joining Files 81
   9. more and less: Reading a File That Will Not Fit 83
   10. cp: Copying Files and Directories 85
   11. mv: Moving and Renaming 87
   12. rm: Removing, and Why There Is No Undo 89
   13. file: What Kind of File Is This 92
   14. wc: Counting Lines, Words and Characters 94
   15. od: Looking at the Bytes Inside a File 96
   16. cmp, diff and comm: Comparing Two Files 99
   17. gzip and gunzip: Compressing One File 102
   18. zip and unzip: The Archive Windows Can Open 105
   19. tar: Packing a Whole Directory Into One File 107

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. ln: Hard Links and Symbolic Links 110
   2. cal and date: The Calendar and the Clock 113
   3. echo and printf: Printing a Line 117
   4. who, whoami, uname and hostname: Who and Where Am I 119
   5. tty and stty: The Terminal Itself 122
   6. passwd: Changing Your Password 125
   7. script: Recording a Session, Which Is How the Journal Is Kept 128
   8. history, alias, which and clear: Working Faster 131
   9. Environment Variables: PATH, HOME and export 134
   10. File Permissions: Who Can Do What 138
   11. Reading the Ten Characters of ls -l 141
   12. Users and Groups 144
   13. chmod: Changing Permissions 147
   14. chown and chgrp: Changing the Owner and the Group 150
   15. umask: The Permissions a New File Is Born With 153
   16. The Special Bits: setuid, setgid and the Sticky Bit 156

   Module II

   1. Understanding Linux Security 160

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. root: What the Superuser Can Do 164
   2. sudo: Borrowing root for One Command 167
   3. Working With Passwords 170
   4. ssh: Logging In to Another Machine 174
   5. Keys Instead of Passwords, and Copying Files With scp 178
   6. who, whoami and w: Who Is On This Machine 182
   7. ping: Is That Machine There 185
   8. telnet and ftp: The Old Pair, and What Replaced Them 189
   9. ip, hostname, wget and curl 192
   10. Standard Input, Standard Output and Standard Error 196
   11. Redirection: >, >>, < and 2> 200
   12. Pipes: Joining Commands Together 203
   13. head and tail: The Beginning and the End 207
   14. cut and paste: Columns In and Out 210
   15. sort: Putting Lines in Order 213
   16. uniq: Collapsing and Counting Repeats 216
   17. tr: Translating and Deleting Characters 219
   18. tee: Saving the Middle of a Pipeline 222
   19. Regular Expressions: The Basic Set 225

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Extended Regular Expressions 230
   2. grep and the grep Family 234
   3. vi: The Three Modes 238
   4. vi: Moving, Editing, Searching and Saving 244
   5. sed: The Stream Editor 251
   6. awk: Records, Fields and Actions 256
   7. Your First Shell Script 262
   8. Variables, Quoting and Command Substitution 267
   9. read: Asking the User a Question 272
   10. exit and the Exit Status 276
   11. Arithmetic: expr, $(( )) and bc 280
   12. test and [ ]: Asking Questions About Files, Strings and Numbers 284
   13. if, elif and else 289
   14. Logical Operators: &&, || and ! 292
   15. case and Functions: the Other Control Structures 296
   16. The for Loop 301
   17. The while and until Loops 305
   18. Redirection Inside a Script, and Here Documents 309
   19. Creating Your Own Redirection: exec and File Descriptors 313

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Processes: What One Is, and ps 317
   2. Foreground, Background and Jobs 321
   3. kill and Signals 325
   4. nice and renice: Choosing a Priority 329
   5. top and the Other Process Tools 332
   6. at and batch: Running a Command Once, Later 336
   7. cron and the crontab: Running a Command Again and Again 342
   8. Installing the C and C++ Compilers 347
   9. A First C Program on Linux 351
   10. Installing Java, and a First Java Program 356
   11. Python on Linux, and a Virtual Environment 360

   Module J The journal and the practical examination

   1. Keeping the Certified Journal 364
   2. The Practical Examination: What Q.1 and Q.2 Look Like 368
   3. Twelve Practicals on Module 1, Worked 372
   4. Twelve Practicals on Module 2, Worked 379
   5. The Viva: What You Will Be Asked, and the Answer 386

   Page 1 onwards

   392 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 392 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2022, 2023, 2024

   Every chapter in the notes: 110 chapters across 3 modules

   Module I 55 chapters

   1. 1 What an Operating System Is, and Where Linux Fits pages 1 to 3
   2. 2 The History of Linux: Unix, MINIX, GNU and a Student's Kernel pages 4 to 6
   3. 3 Linux Distributions, and Why There Are So Many pages 7 to 9
   4. 4 The Architecture of a Unix or Linux System pages 10 to 12
   5. 5 The Features of Unix and Linux pages 13 to 16
   6. 6 Installing Ubuntu: Making the USB and Booting From It pages 17 to 19
   7. 7 Installing Ubuntu: The Installer, Step by Step pages 20 to 22
   8. 8 Installing Software: App Center, Synaptic and apt pages 23 to 26
   9. 9 Packages, Repositories and the Software Worth Having pages 27 to 29
   10. 10 Administering System and User Settings pages 30 to 32
   11. 11 Keyboard Shortcuts, and the Story of Unity pages 33 to 35
   12. 12 The Terminal: Where the Rest of This Book Happens pages 36 to 38
   13. 13 Starting the Shell: Which Shell Are You Running pages 39 to 41
   14. 14 The Shell Prompt, and How to Change It pages 42 to 43
   15. 15 The Structure of a Command: Options and Arguments pages 44 to 46
   16. 16 The File System: One Tree That Starts at / pages 47 to 49
   17. 17 What Each Top-Level Directory Holds pages 50 to 52
   18. 18 Paths: Absolute, Relative, Dot, Dot Dot and Tilde pages 53 to 54
   19. 19 man Pages: Reading the Manual pages 55 to 57
   20. 20 The Other Documentation: help, --help, info and apropos pages 58 to 60
   21. 21 pwd and cd: Moving Around the Tree pages 61 to 62
   22. 22 ls: Listing What Is There pages 63 to 65
   23. 23 ls -l: Reading the Long Listing pages 66 to 68
   24. 24 mkdir and rmdir: Making and Removing Directories pages 69 to 70
   25. 25 touch: Making a File, and Changing Its Times pages 71 to 73
   26. 26 find: Searching the Tree pages 74 to 77
   27. 27 du, df and stat: How Much Space, and What Exactly Is This File pages 78 to 80
   28. 28 cat: Reading, Making and Joining Files pages 81 to 82
   29. 29 more and less: Reading a File That Will Not Fit pages 83 to 84
   30. 30 cp: Copying Files and Directories pages 85 to 86
   31. 31 mv: Moving and Renaming pages 87 to 88
   32. 32 rm: Removing, and Why There Is No Undo pages 89 to 91
   33. 33 file: What Kind of File Is This pages 92 to 93
   34. 34 wc: Counting Lines, Words and Characters pages 94 to 95
   35. 35 od: Looking at the Bytes Inside a File pages 96 to 98
   36. 36 cmp, diff and comm: Comparing Two Files pages 99 to 101
   37. 37 gzip and gunzip: Compressing One File pages 102 to 104
   38. 38 zip and unzip: The Archive Windows Can Open pages 105 to 106
   39. 39 tar: Packing a Whole Directory Into One File pages 107 to 109
   40. 40 ln: Hard Links and Symbolic Links pages 110 to 112
   41. 41 cal and date: The Calendar and the Clock pages 113 to 116
   42. 42 echo and printf: Printing a Line pages 117 to 118
   43. 43 who, whoami, uname and hostname: Who and Where Am I pages 119 to 121
   44. 44 tty and stty: The Terminal Itself pages 122 to 124
   45. 45 passwd: Changing Your Password pages 125 to 127
   46. 46 script: Recording a Session, Which Is How the Journal Is Kept pages 128 to 130
   47. 47 history, alias, which and clear: Working Faster pages 131 to 133
   48. 48 Environment Variables: PATH, HOME and export pages 134 to 137
   49. 49 File Permissions: Who Can Do What pages 138 to 140
   50. 50 Reading the Ten Characters of ls -l pages 141 to 143
   51. 51 Users and Groups pages 144 to 146
   52. 52 chmod: Changing Permissions pages 147 to 149
   53. 53 chown and chgrp: Changing the Owner and the Group pages 150 to 152
   54. 54 umask: The Permissions a New File Is Born With pages 153 to 155
   55. 55 The Special Bits: setuid, setgid and the Sticky Bit pages 156 to 159

   Module II 50 chapters

   1. 56 Understanding Linux Security pages 160 to 163
   2. 57 root: What the Superuser Can Do pages 164 to 166
   3. 58 sudo: Borrowing root for One Command pages 167 to 169
   4. 59 Working With Passwords pages 170 to 173
   5. 60 ssh: Logging In to Another Machine pages 174 to 177
   6. 61 Keys Instead of Passwords, and Copying Files With scp pages 178 to 181
   7. 62 who, whoami and w: Who Is On This Machine pages 182 to 184
   8. 63 ping: Is That Machine There pages 185 to 188
   9. 64 telnet and ftp: The Old Pair, and What Replaced Them pages 189 to 191
   10. 65 ip, hostname, wget and curl pages 192 to 195
   11. 66 Standard Input, Standard Output and Standard Error pages 196 to 199
   12. 67 Redirection: >, >>, < and 2> pages 200 to 202
   13. 68 Pipes: Joining Commands Together pages 203 to 206
   14. 69 head and tail: The Beginning and the End pages 207 to 209
   15. 70 cut and paste: Columns In and Out pages 210 to 212
   16. 71 sort: Putting Lines in Order pages 213 to 215
   17. 72 uniq: Collapsing and Counting Repeats pages 216 to 218
   18. 73 tr: Translating and Deleting Characters pages 219 to 221
   19. 74 tee: Saving the Middle of a Pipeline pages 222 to 224
   20. 75 Regular Expressions: The Basic Set pages 225 to 229
   21. 76 Extended Regular Expressions pages 230 to 233
   22. 77 grep and the grep Family pages 234 to 237
   23. 78 vi: The Three Modes pages 238 to 243
   24. 79 vi: Moving, Editing, Searching and Saving pages 244 to 250
   25. 80 sed: The Stream Editor pages 251 to 255
   26. 81 awk: Records, Fields and Actions pages 256 to 261
   27. 82 Your First Shell Script pages 262 to 266
   28. 83 Variables, Quoting and Command Substitution pages 267 to 271
   29. 84 read: Asking the User a Question pages 272 to 275
   30. 85 exit and the Exit Status pages 276 to 279
   31. 86 Arithmetic: expr, $(( )) and bc pages 280 to 283
   32. 87 test and [ ]: Asking Questions About Files, Strings and Numbers pages 284 to 288
   33. 88 if, elif and else pages 289 to 291
   34. 89 Logical Operators: &&, || and ! pages 292 to 295
   35. 90 case and Functions: the Other Control Structures pages 296 to 300
   36. 91 The for Loop pages 301 to 304
   37. 92 The while and until Loops pages 305 to 308
   38. 93 Redirection Inside a Script, and Here Documents pages 309 to 312
   39. 94 Creating Your Own Redirection: exec and File Descriptors pages 313 to 316
   40. 95 Processes: What One Is, and ps pages 317 to 320
   41. 96 Foreground, Background and Jobs pages 321 to 324
   42. 97 kill and Signals pages 325 to 328
   43. 98 nice and renice: Choosing a Priority pages 329 to 331
   44. 99 top and the Other Process Tools pages 332 to 335
   45. 100 at and batch: Running a Command Once, Later pages 336 to 341
   46. 101 cron and the crontab: Running a Command Again and Again pages 342 to 346
   47. 102 Installing the C and C++ Compilers pages 347 to 350
   48. 103 A First C Program on Linux pages 351 to 355
   49. 104 Installing Java, and a First Java Program pages 356 to 359
   50. 105 Python on Linux, and a Virtual Environment pages 360 to 363

   Module J The journal and the practical examination 5 chapters

   1. 106 Keeping the Certified Journal pages 364 to 367
   2. 107 The Practical Examination: What Q.1 and Q.2 Look Like pages 368 to 371
   3. 108 Twelve Practicals on Module 1, Worked pages 372 to 378
   4. 109 Twelve Practicals on Module 2, Worked pages 379 to 385
   5. 110 The Viva: What You Will Be Asked, and the Answer pages 386 to 392
   Every paper that is solved: 3 papers

   • 2023-24
   • Nov 2023
   • Nov 2022

2. Statistics with R Programming

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Statistics with R Programming

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Statistics with R Programming

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I The R language and its environment: expressions, decisions, loops, data structures and strings

   1. What R Is, and Why Statistics Is Done in It 1
   2. A Short History of R, and What Open Source Means Here 4
   3. The Words R Uses: Object, Mode, Class and Attribute 7
   4. Installing R on Windows, macOS and Linux 10
   5. The R Environment: Console, Workspace and Working Directory 12
   6. Getting Help, and Installing Packages 15
   7. The R Graphical User Interface (R GUI) 18
   8. RStudio: Installing It and Reading Its Four Panes 21
   9. Customising RStudio 24
   10. R Commander: Statistics From a Menu 27
   11. Working With R Scripts 30
   12. Data Management in RStudio 33
   13. Reading Data In and Writing It Out 36
   14. Expressions: Arithmetic, Relational and Logical Operators 39
   15. Operator Precedence, and How R Reads an Expression 42
   16. Assignment, and the Rules for a Name 44
   17. Numbers, Logicals and the Values NA, NULL, NaN and Inf 47
   18. Decision Making: if, else and else if 50
   19. switch(), and the Vectorised ifelse() 52
   20. Loops: The for Loop 54

   Contents continued

   Module I continued The R language and its environment: expressions, decisions, loops, data structures and strings

   1. Loops: while, repeat, break and next 57
   2. Why R Prefers Vectorisation to a Loop 60
   3. Dates in R 63
   4. Times, Time Zones and Date Arithmetic 66
   5. Vectors: The Thing R Is Actually Made Of 69
   6. Indexing a Vector: Five Ways to Pick Elements 72
   7. Recycling, Coercion and Vectorised Arithmetic 75
   8. Matrices: Creating, Naming and Indexing 78
   9. Matrix Arithmetic and Matrix Algebra 81
   10. Row and Column Work: apply, rowSums, cbind and rbind 84
   11. Arrays: Three Dimensions and More 88
   12. Lists: The Container That Holds Anything 91
   13. Data Frames: The Table Statistics Works On 94
   14. Subsetting a Data Frame, and Adding or Dropping a Column 98
   15. Factors: How R Stores a Category 102
   16. Sorting, Ordering, Merging and Reshaping a Data Frame 105
   17. Writing Your Own Function 109
   18. Arguments, Defaults, and What a Function Returns 112
   19. Scope: Where R Looks a Name Up 115

   Contents continued

   Module I continued The R language and its environment: expressions, decisions, loops, data structures and strings

   1. The apply Family: apply, lapply, sapply, tapply and mapply 118
   2. Character Strings in R 121
   3. Strings and R Objects 124
   4. Printing Characters: print, cat and format 127
   5. sprintf(), and Building a Line of Output 130
   6. Basic String Manipulations 133
   7. Changing Case, Trimming and Padding 136
   8. String Operations: Searching and Replacing 139
   9. Regular Expressions, From Scratch 142
   10. Practical Session 1: Setting Up and Your First Script 145
   11. Practical Session 2: Expressions, Decisions and Loops 148
   12. Practical Session 3: Vectors, Matrices, Lists and Data Frames 152
   13. Practical Session 4: Functions, Strings and Dates 156
   14. Module 1: Viva Questions and Their Answers 160

   Module II Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics

   1. What a Statistic Is: Population, Sample and Summary 164
   2. The mean() Function 167
   3. The Median 170

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics

   1. Standard Deviation and Variance 173
   2. Other Built-in Statistical Functions 176
   3. Quantiles, summary() and the Five-Number Summary 179
   4. Correlation, Covariance and scale() 182
   5. The Mode, and Why R Has No Function For It 186
   6. What Regression Analysis Is 189
   7. The Least Squares Line, Worked by Hand 192
   8. Linear Regression in R: lm(), Coefficients and Residuals 195
   9. Reading an lm() Summary 199
   10. Predicting From a Fitted Model 203
   11. Multiple Regression 207
   12. Checking a Regression: Residual Plots and What They Say 211
   13. The Normal Distribution 215
   14. dnorm(): The Normal Density 218
   15. pnorm(): The Normal Cumulative Probability 221
   16. qnorm(): The Normal Quantile 224
   17. rnorm(): Random Normal Samples, and set.seed() 227
   18. The Binomial Distribution 230
   19. dbinom(): The Exact Binomial Probability 233

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics

   1. pbinom(): The Cumulative Binomial Probability 236
   2. qbinom(): The Binomial Quantile 239
   3. rbinom(): Simulating Binomial Trials 242
   4. Choosing Which Distribution Function to Call 245
   5. Time Series Analysis: The ts Object 248
   6. Trend, Seasonality and Decomposition 252
   7. Moving Averages and a Simple Forecast 255
   8. Tabulation: Counting With table() 259
   9. Contingency Tables: What They Show 262
   10. Making R Contingency Tables 266
   11. Making Custom Contingency Tables 270
   12. Selecting Parts of a Table Object 274
   13. Converting an Object Into a Table 277
   14. Testing Table Objects, and the Chi-Squared Test 280
   15. Complex Tables: Margins, Proportions and ftable 283
   16. Representing Data Through Cross Tabulation 287
   17. How an R Plot Is Built: Devices, High-Level and Low-Level 291
   18. Plots of a Single Variable: Histogram and Density 295
   19. Plots of a Single Variable: Bar, Pie and Dot Chart 299

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics

   1. Plots of a Single Variable: Box Plot and Stem-and-Leaf 302
   2. Plots of Two Variables: The Scatter Plot and Its Line 305
   3. Plots of Multiple Variables 308
   4. Special Plots: QQ, Mosaic, Coplot and curve 311
   5. Labels, Legends, Colours and Layout 315
   6. Storing Graphics 319
   7. Practical Session 5: Summary Statistics on a Data Frame 322
   8. Practical Session 6: Regression, End to End 326
   9. Practical Session 7: The Distribution Functions 330
   10. Practical Session 8: Tables and Cross Tabulation 334
   11. Practical Session 9: Plots and Saving Them 338
   12. Module 2: Viva Questions and Their Answers 342

   Page 1 onwards

   346 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 346 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 106 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I The R language and its environment: expressions, decisions, loops, data structures and strings 53 chapters

   1. 1 What R Is, and Why Statistics Is Done in It pages 1 to 3
   2. 2 A Short History of R, and What Open Source Means Here pages 4 to 6
   3. 3 The Words R Uses: Object, Mode, Class and Attribute pages 7 to 9
   4. 4 Installing R on Windows, macOS and Linux pages 10 to 11
   5. 5 The R Environment: Console, Workspace and Working Directory pages 12 to 14
   6. 6 Getting Help, and Installing Packages pages 15 to 17
   7. 7 The R Graphical User Interface (R GUI) pages 18 to 20
   8. 8 RStudio: Installing It and Reading Its Four Panes pages 21 to 23
   9. 9 Customising RStudio pages 24 to 26
   10. 10 R Commander: Statistics From a Menu pages 27 to 29
   11. 11 Working With R Scripts pages 30 to 32
   12. 12 Data Management in RStudio pages 33 to 35
   13. 13 Reading Data In and Writing It Out pages 36 to 38
   14. 14 Expressions: Arithmetic, Relational and Logical Operators pages 39 to 41
   15. 15 Operator Precedence, and How R Reads an Expression pages 42 to 43
   16. 16 Assignment, and the Rules for a Name pages 44 to 46
   17. 17 Numbers, Logicals and the Values NA, NULL, NaN and Inf pages 47 to 49
   18. 18 Decision Making: if, else and else if pages 50 to 51
   19. 19 switch(), and the Vectorised ifelse() pages 52 to 53
   20. 20 Loops: The for Loop pages 54 to 56
   21. 21 Loops: while, repeat, break and next pages 57 to 59
   22. 22 Why R Prefers Vectorisation to a Loop pages 60 to 62
   23. 23 Dates in R pages 63 to 65
   24. 24 Times, Time Zones and Date Arithmetic pages 66 to 68
   25. 25 Vectors: The Thing R Is Actually Made Of pages 69 to 71
   26. 26 Indexing a Vector: Five Ways to Pick Elements pages 72 to 74
   27. 27 Recycling, Coercion and Vectorised Arithmetic pages 75 to 77
   28. 28 Matrices: Creating, Naming and Indexing pages 78 to 80
   29. 29 Matrix Arithmetic and Matrix Algebra pages 81 to 83
   30. 30 Row and Column Work: apply, rowSums, cbind and rbind pages 84 to 87
   31. 31 Arrays: Three Dimensions and More pages 88 to 90
   32. 32 Lists: The Container That Holds Anything pages 91 to 93
   33. 33 Data Frames: The Table Statistics Works On pages 94 to 97
   34. 34 Subsetting a Data Frame, and Adding or Dropping a Column pages 98 to 101
   35. 35 Factors: How R Stores a Category pages 102 to 104
   36. 36 Sorting, Ordering, Merging and Reshaping a Data Frame pages 105 to 108
   37. 37 Writing Your Own Function pages 109 to 111
   38. 38 Arguments, Defaults, and What a Function Returns pages 112 to 114
   39. 39 Scope: Where R Looks a Name Up pages 115 to 117
   40. 40 The apply Family: apply, lapply, sapply, tapply and mapply pages 118 to 120
   41. 41 Character Strings in R pages 121 to 123
   42. 42 Strings and R Objects pages 124 to 126
   43. 43 Printing Characters: print, cat and format pages 127 to 129
   44. 44 sprintf(), and Building a Line of Output pages 130 to 132
   45. 45 Basic String Manipulations pages 133 to 135
   46. 46 Changing Case, Trimming and Padding pages 136 to 138
   47. 47 String Operations: Searching and Replacing pages 139 to 141
   48. 48 Regular Expressions, From Scratch pages 142 to 144
   49. 49 Practical Session 1: Setting Up and Your First Script pages 145 to 147
   50. 50 Practical Session 2: Expressions, Decisions and Loops pages 148 to 151
   51. 51 Practical Session 3: Vectors, Matrices, Lists and Data Frames pages 152 to 155
   52. 52 Practical Session 4: Functions, Strings and Dates pages 156 to 159
   53. 53 Module 1: Viva Questions and Their Answers pages 160 to 163

   Module II Statistics in R: summaries, regression, distributions, time series, tables and graphics 53 chapters

   1. 54 What a Statistic Is: Population, Sample and Summary pages 164 to 166
   2. 55 The mean() Function pages 167 to 169
   3. 56 The Median pages 170 to 172
   4. 57 Standard Deviation and Variance pages 173 to 175
   5. 58 Other Built-in Statistical Functions pages 176 to 178
   6. 59 Quantiles, summary() and the Five-Number Summary pages 179 to 181
   7. 60 Correlation, Covariance and scale() pages 182 to 185
   8. 61 The Mode, and Why R Has No Function For It pages 186 to 188
   9. 62 What Regression Analysis Is pages 189 to 191
   10. 63 The Least Squares Line, Worked by Hand pages 192 to 194
   11. 64 Linear Regression in R: lm(), Coefficients and Residuals pages 195 to 198
   12. 65 Reading an lm() Summary pages 199 to 202
   13. 66 Predicting From a Fitted Model pages 203 to 206
   14. 67 Multiple Regression pages 207 to 210
   15. 68 Checking a Regression: Residual Plots and What They Say pages 211 to 214
   16. 69 The Normal Distribution pages 215 to 217
   17. 70 dnorm(): The Normal Density pages 218 to 220
   18. 71 pnorm(): The Normal Cumulative Probability pages 221 to 223
   19. 72 qnorm(): The Normal Quantile pages 224 to 226
   20. 73 rnorm(): Random Normal Samples, and set.seed() pages 227 to 229
   21. 74 The Binomial Distribution pages 230 to 232
   22. 75 dbinom(): The Exact Binomial Probability pages 233 to 235
   23. 76 pbinom(): The Cumulative Binomial Probability pages 236 to 238
   24. 77 qbinom(): The Binomial Quantile pages 239 to 241
   25. 78 rbinom(): Simulating Binomial Trials pages 242 to 244
   26. 79 Choosing Which Distribution Function to Call pages 245 to 247
   27. 80 Time Series Analysis: The ts Object pages 248 to 251
   28. 81 Trend, Seasonality and Decomposition pages 252 to 254
   29. 82 Moving Averages and a Simple Forecast pages 255 to 258
   30. 83 Tabulation: Counting With table() pages 259 to 261
   31. 84 Contingency Tables: What They Show pages 262 to 265
   32. 85 Making R Contingency Tables pages 266 to 269
   33. 86 Making Custom Contingency Tables pages 270 to 273
   34. 87 Selecting Parts of a Table Object pages 274 to 276
   35. 88 Converting an Object Into a Table pages 277 to 279
   36. 89 Testing Table Objects, and the Chi-Squared Test pages 280 to 282
   37. 90 Complex Tables: Margins, Proportions and ftable pages 283 to 286
   38. 91 Representing Data Through Cross Tabulation pages 287 to 290
   39. 92 How an R Plot Is Built: Devices, High-Level and Low-Level pages 291 to 294
   40. 93 Plots of a Single Variable: Histogram and Density pages 295 to 298
   41. 94 Plots of a Single Variable: Bar, Pie and Dot Chart pages 299 to 301
   42. 95 Plots of a Single Variable: Box Plot and Stem-and-Leaf pages 302 to 304
   43. 96 Plots of Two Variables: The Scatter Plot and Its Line pages 305 to 307
   44. 97 Plots of Multiple Variables pages 308 to 310
   45. 98 Special Plots: QQ, Mosaic, Coplot and curve pages 311 to 314
   46. 99 Labels, Legends, Colours and Layout pages 315 to 318
   47. 100 Storing Graphics pages 319 to 321
   48. 101 Practical Session 5: Summary Statistics on a Data Frame pages 322 to 325
   49. 102 Practical Session 6: Regression, End to End pages 326 to 329
   50. 103 Practical Session 7: The Distribution Functions pages 330 to 333
   51. 104 Practical Session 8: Tables and Cross Tabulation pages 334 to 337
   52. 105 Practical Session 9: Plots and Saving Them pages 338 to 341
   53. 106 Module 2: Viva Questions and Their Answers pages 342 to 346

3. Introduction to Programming with Python

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Introduction to Programming with Python

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Introduction to Programming with Python

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Overview and basic elements, control statements, arrays, functions and strings

   1. What Python Is, and the Features That Made It Popular 1
   2. Installing Python and Running Your First Program 7
   3. How a Python Program Is Executed: Source, Bytecode and the PVM 11
   4. The Flavours of Python 15
   5. The Python Interpreter: The Prompt and the Command Line 18
   6. Comments and Docstrings 22
   7. IDLE: Python's Own Editor and Shell 26
   8. The Data Types Python Gives You 30
   9. Dictionaries, Sets and Mappings: A First Look 35
   10. The Basic Elements of a Python Program 39
   11. Variables and How Python Stores a Value 44
   12. Reading Input: The input() Function 48
   13. Printing Output: The print() Function 52
   14. Command Line Arguments 56
   15. Operators, Part One: Arithmetic, Relational and Logical 59
   16. Operators, Part Two: Bitwise, Assignment, Membership and Identity 63
   17. Precedence and Associativity of Operators 68
   18. The if Statement 73
   19. The if...else Statement 77

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Overview and basic elements, control statements, arrays, functions and strings

   1. The if...elif...else Statement 80
   2. The while Loop 84
   3. The for Loop and range() 88
   4. Infinite Loops and Nested Loops 92
   5. The else Suite on a Loop 97
   6. break, continue and pass 100
   7. The assert Statement 104
   8. The return Statement 108
   9. Arrays: Creating Them with the array Module 112
   10. Indexing and Slicing an Array 116
   11. Basic Array Operations and Array Processing 120
   12. Mathematical Operations on an Array with NumPy 125
   13. Aliasing, Viewing and Copying an Array 129
   14. Slicing and Indexing a NumPy Array 134
   15. Advanced Indexing: Integer Arrays and Boolean Masks 138
   16. The Dimensions and Attributes of an Array 143
   17. Defining a Function and Calling It 148
   18. Returning Results, and Returning More Than One 152
   19. The Built-in Functions 156

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Overview and basic elements, control statements, arrays, functions and strings

   1. A Function and a Method: The Difference 160
   2. How Python Passes a Value: Object Reference 164
   3. Parameters and Arguments 168
   4. Recursive Functions 172
   5. Anonymous Functions: lambda 177
   6. Modules in Python 181
   7. Creating Strings 186
   8. The Functions and Methods of a String 190
   9. Working with Strings 194
   10. Formatting Strings 198
   11. Counting Characters and Words in a String 202
   12. Inserting a Substring into a String 206
   13. Module 1 Practicals: The Programs for Your Journal 210

   Module II Lists, tuples and dictionaries, files, regular expressions, and date and time

   1. Lists: What They Are and How to Make One 217
   2. List Functions and Methods 222
   3. List Operations 226
   4. List Slices 231
   5. Nested Lists, and the Matrix 235

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Lists, tuples and dictionaries, files, regular expressions, and date and time

   1. Tuples 240
   2. The Functions That Work on a Tuple 244
   3. Creating a Dictionary 248
   4. Operators in a Dictionary 253
   5. Dictionary Methods 257
   6. Looping Over a Dictionary 261
   7. Operations on Dictionaries 265
   8. Opening and Closing a File 269
   9. Working with Text Files 273
   10. The with Statement 277
   11. Working with Binary Files 281
   12. Pickle: Storing an Object in a File 285
   13. seek() and tell(): Where You Are in a File 290
   14. Random Access to a Binary File 295
   15. Zipping and Unzipping Files 300
   16. Working with Directories 305
   17. Regular Expressions: What They Are and Why 310
   18. Sequence Characters in a Regular Expression 315
   19. Special Characters in a Regular Expression 320

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Lists, tuples and dictionaries, files, regular expressions, and date and time

   1. Using a Regular Expression on a File 325
   2. Retrieving Information from an HTML File 330
   3. Time in Python 335
   4. Dates 339
   5. The Date and Time Now, and Combining Them 343
   6. Formatting a Date and a Time 347
   7. Finding and Comparing Dates 352
   8. Sorting Dates 357
   9. Knowing the Time a Program Takes 362
   10. Working with the Calendar Module 367
   11. Module 2 Practicals: The Programs for Your Journal 373
   12. The Practical Examination, the Journal and the Viva 383

   Page 1 onwards

   389 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 389 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2022, 2023, 2024

   Every chapter in the notes: 87 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Overview and basic elements, control statements, arrays, functions and strings 51 chapters

   1. 1 What Python Is, and the Features That Made It Popular pages 1 to 6
   2. 2 Installing Python and Running Your First Program pages 7 to 10
   3. 3 How a Python Program Is Executed: Source, Bytecode and the PVM pages 11 to 14
   4. 4 The Flavours of Python pages 15 to 17
   5. 5 The Python Interpreter: The Prompt and the Command Line pages 18 to 21
   6. 6 Comments and Docstrings pages 22 to 25
   7. 7 IDLE: Python's Own Editor and Shell pages 26 to 29
   8. 8 The Data Types Python Gives You pages 30 to 34
   9. 9 Dictionaries, Sets and Mappings: A First Look pages 35 to 38
   10. 10 The Basic Elements of a Python Program pages 39 to 43
   11. 11 Variables and How Python Stores a Value pages 44 to 47
   12. 12 Reading Input: The input() Function pages 48 to 51
   13. 13 Printing Output: The print() Function pages 52 to 55
   14. 14 Command Line Arguments pages 56 to 58
   15. 15 Operators, Part One: Arithmetic, Relational and Logical pages 59 to 62
   16. 16 Operators, Part Two: Bitwise, Assignment, Membership and Identity pages 63 to 67
   17. 17 Precedence and Associativity of Operators pages 68 to 72
   18. 18 The if Statement pages 73 to 76
   19. 19 The if...else Statement pages 77 to 79
   20. 20 The if...elif...else Statement pages 80 to 83
   21. 21 The while Loop pages 84 to 87
   22. 22 The for Loop and range() pages 88 to 91
   23. 23 Infinite Loops and Nested Loops pages 92 to 96
   24. 24 The else Suite on a Loop pages 97 to 99
   25. 25 break, continue and pass pages 100 to 103
   26. 26 The assert Statement pages 104 to 107
   27. 27 The return Statement pages 108 to 111
   28. 28 Arrays: Creating Them with the array Module pages 112 to 115
   29. 29 Indexing and Slicing an Array pages 116 to 119
   30. 30 Basic Array Operations and Array Processing pages 120 to 124
   31. 31 Mathematical Operations on an Array with NumPy pages 125 to 128
   32. 32 Aliasing, Viewing and Copying an Array pages 129 to 133
   33. 33 Slicing and Indexing a NumPy Array pages 134 to 137
   34. 34 Advanced Indexing: Integer Arrays and Boolean Masks pages 138 to 142
   35. 35 The Dimensions and Attributes of an Array pages 143 to 147
   36. 36 Defining a Function and Calling It pages 148 to 151
   37. 37 Returning Results, and Returning More Than One pages 152 to 155
   38. 38 The Built-in Functions pages 156 to 159
   39. 39 A Function and a Method: The Difference pages 160 to 163
   40. 40 How Python Passes a Value: Object Reference pages 164 to 167
   41. 41 Parameters and Arguments pages 168 to 171
   42. 42 Recursive Functions pages 172 to 176
   43. 43 Anonymous Functions: lambda pages 177 to 180
   44. 44 Modules in Python pages 181 to 185
   45. 45 Creating Strings pages 186 to 189
   46. 46 The Functions and Methods of a String pages 190 to 193
   47. 47 Working with Strings pages 194 to 197
   48. 48 Formatting Strings pages 198 to 201
   49. 49 Counting Characters and Words in a String pages 202 to 205
   50. 50 Inserting a Substring into a String pages 206 to 209
   51. 51 Module 1 Practicals: The Programs for Your Journal pages 210 to 216

   Module II Lists, tuples and dictionaries, files, regular expressions, and date and time 36 chapters

   1. 52 Lists: What They Are and How to Make One pages 217 to 221
   2. 53 List Functions and Methods pages 222 to 225
   3. 54 List Operations pages 226 to 230
   4. 55 List Slices pages 231 to 234
   5. 56 Nested Lists, and the Matrix pages 235 to 239
   6. 57 Tuples pages 240 to 243
   7. 58 The Functions That Work on a Tuple pages 244 to 247
   8. 59 Creating a Dictionary pages 248 to 252
   9. 60 Operators in a Dictionary pages 253 to 256
   10. 61 Dictionary Methods pages 257 to 260
   11. 62 Looping Over a Dictionary pages 261 to 264
   12. 63 Operations on Dictionaries pages 265 to 268
   13. 64 Opening and Closing a File pages 269 to 272
   14. 65 Working with Text Files pages 273 to 276
   15. 66 The with Statement pages 277 to 280
   16. 67 Working with Binary Files pages 281 to 284
   17. 68 Pickle: Storing an Object in a File pages 285 to 289
   18. 69 seek() and tell(): Where You Are in a File pages 290 to 294
   19. 70 Random Access to a Binary File pages 295 to 299
   20. 71 Zipping and Unzipping Files pages 300 to 304
   21. 72 Working with Directories pages 305 to 309
   22. 73 Regular Expressions: What They Are and Why pages 310 to 314
   23. 74 Sequence Characters in a Regular Expression pages 315 to 319
   24. 75 Special Characters in a Regular Expression pages 320 to 324
   25. 76 Using a Regular Expression on a File pages 325 to 329
   26. 77 Retrieving Information from an HTML File pages 330 to 334
   27. 78 Time in Python pages 335 to 338
   28. 79 Dates pages 339 to 342
   29. 80 The Date and Time Now, and Combining Them pages 343 to 346
   30. 81 Formatting a Date and a Time pages 347 to 351
   31. 82 Finding and Comparing Dates pages 352 to 356
   32. 83 Sorting Dates pages 357 to 361
   33. 84 Knowing the Time a Program Takes pages 362 to 366
   34. 85 Working with the Calendar Module pages 367 to 372
   35. 86 Module 2 Practicals: The Programs for Your Journal pages 373 to 382
   36. 87 The Practical Examination, the Journal and the Viva pages 383 to 389
   Every paper that is solved: 3 papers

   • 2023-24
   • Nov 2023
   • Nov 2022

4. Digital System and Architecture

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Digital System and Architecture

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Digital System and Architecture

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Fundamentals of digital logic, combinational and sequential circuits, and the computer system

   1. How a Computer Represents Numbers: Bits, Bytes and Number Systems 1
   2. Converting Between Number Systems 9
   3. Binary Arithmetic 15
   4. Signed Numbers and Complements 21
   5. Codes: BCD, Excess-3, Gray Code, ASCII and Parity 28
   6. Boolean Algebra: What It Is and Where It Came From 34
   7. The Laws and Theorems of Boolean Algebra 41
   8. Logic Gates 50
   9. Universal Gates: Building Every Gate from NAND or NOR 56
   10. Canonical Forms: Minterms, Maxterms, SOP and POS 61
   11. Algebraic Simplification of Logic Circuits 66
   12. Karnaugh Maps: Two, Three and Four Variables 71
   13. Karnaugh Maps with Don't-Care Conditions, and POS Simplification 77
   14. Combinational Circuits, and How One Is Designed 82
   15. The Half Adder and the Full Adder 87
   16. The Parallel Binary Adder 91
   17. The Half Subtractor and the Full Subtractor 95
   18. Subtraction with an Adder: the 2's Complement Adder-Subtractor 99
   19. The Magnitude Comparator 103

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Fundamentals of digital logic, combinational and sequential circuits, and the computer system

   1. The Multiplexer 106
   2. Implementing Boolean Functions with a Multiplexer 110
   3. The Demultiplexer and the Decoder 114
   4. Implementing Boolean Functions with a Demultiplexer 117
   5. Sequential Circuits: Memory and the Clock 120
   6. The SR Latch and the SR Flip-Flop 124
   7. The JK Flip-Flop, the Race-Around Condition and the Master-Slave JK 128
   8. The D Flip-Flop 132
   9. Triggering, Characteristic Tables and Excitation Tables 135
   10. Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters 139
   11. Synchronous Counters, and How to Design One 142
   12. Shift Registers 146
   13. Computer Organization and Computer Architecture 149
   14. The Components of a Computer and What Each Does 152
   15. How a Computer Works at the Top Level: Fetch, Execute and Interrupts 156
   16. Interconnection Structures 159
   17. Bus Interconnection 162
   18. Multiple-Bus Hierarchies and the Elements of Bus Design 165

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Fundamentals of digital logic, combinational and sequential circuits, and the computer system

   1. The I/O Module 169
   2. Programmed I/O 172
   3. Interrupt-Driven I/O 175
   4. Direct Memory Access 178

   Module II Memory system organization, instructions and processor organization (8085 and 8086)

   1. Memory: How It Is Classified and What Describes It 181
   2. The Memory Hierarchy and Locality of Reference 185
   3. Semiconductor Main Memory: RAM and the ROM Family 189
   4. SRAM and DRAM 193
   5. Interleaved Memory 197
   6. Associative Memory 201
   7. Cache Memory: The Principle and the Elements of Cache Design 205
   8. Cache Mapping: Direct, Associative and Set-Associative 209
   9. Replacement Algorithms 213
   10. Write Policies 218
   11. Cache Performance 222
   12. Cache Coherence 226
   13. Virtual Memory: Paging, Page Tables and the TLB 230
   14. Segmentation 235

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Memory system organization, instructions and processor organization (8085 and 8086)

   1. Magnetic Disks 239
   2. Optical Memory 243
   3. Flash Memory and the Solid-State Drive 248
   4. RAID Levels 252
   5. Machine Instructions and Their Elements 257
   6. Instruction Formats: Three, Two, One and Zero Addresses 260
   7. Instruction Sets: Types of Operands 264
   8. Instruction Sets: Types of Operations 268
   9. Addressing Modes 272
   10. Meet the 8085 and the 8086 276
   11. Addressing Modes on the 8085, with Assembly Examples 279
   12. Addressing Modes on the 8086, with Assembly Examples 283
   13. Processor Organization: Structure and Function 288
   14. The Control Unit: Hardwired and Microprogrammed 291
   15. Register Organization 295
   16. The 8085's Registers and Flags 299
   17. The 8086's Registers 303
   18. Data Transfer Operations 307
   19. Arithmetic Operations 311

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Memory system organization, instructions and processor organization (8085 and 8086)

   1. Logical Operations 315
   2. 8085 Programs: Putting the Groups Together 319
   3. The Instruction Cycle 324
   4. Instruction Pipelining 327
   5. Pipeline Hazards and Branches 330
   6. RISC and CISC Architecture 334
   7. Instruction-Level Parallelism and Superscalar Processors 338
   8. Superscalar Design Issues 342

   Page 1 onwards

   345 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 345 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025

   Every chapter in the notes: 82 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Fundamentals of digital logic, combinational and sequential circuits, and the computer system 41 chapters

   1. 1 How a Computer Represents Numbers: Bits, Bytes and Number Systems pages 1 to 8
   2. 2 Converting Between Number Systems pages 9 to 14
   3. 3 Binary Arithmetic pages 15 to 20
   4. 4 Signed Numbers and Complements pages 21 to 27
   5. 5 Codes: BCD, Excess-3, Gray Code, ASCII and Parity pages 28 to 33
   6. 6 Boolean Algebra: What It Is and Where It Came From pages 34 to 40
   7. 7 The Laws and Theorems of Boolean Algebra pages 41 to 49
   8. 8 Logic Gates pages 50 to 55
   9. 9 Universal Gates: Building Every Gate from NAND or NOR pages 56 to 60
   10. 10 Canonical Forms: Minterms, Maxterms, SOP and POS pages 61 to 65
   11. 11 Algebraic Simplification of Logic Circuits pages 66 to 70
   12. 12 Karnaugh Maps: Two, Three and Four Variables pages 71 to 76
   13. 13 Karnaugh Maps with Don't-Care Conditions, and POS Simplification pages 77 to 81
   14. 14 Combinational Circuits, and How One Is Designed pages 82 to 86
   15. 15 The Half Adder and the Full Adder pages 87 to 90
   16. 16 The Parallel Binary Adder pages 91 to 94
   17. 17 The Half Subtractor and the Full Subtractor pages 95 to 98
   18. 18 Subtraction with an Adder: the 2's Complement Adder-Subtractor pages 99 to 102
   19. 19 The Magnitude Comparator pages 103 to 105
   20. 20 The Multiplexer pages 106 to 109
   21. 21 Implementing Boolean Functions with a Multiplexer pages 110 to 113
   22. 22 The Demultiplexer and the Decoder pages 114 to 116
   23. 23 Implementing Boolean Functions with a Demultiplexer pages 117 to 119
   24. 24 Sequential Circuits: Memory and the Clock pages 120 to 123
   25. 25 The SR Latch and the SR Flip-Flop pages 124 to 127
   26. 26 The JK Flip-Flop, the Race-Around Condition and the Master-Slave JK pages 128 to 131
   27. 27 The D Flip-Flop pages 132 to 134
   28. 28 Triggering, Characteristic Tables and Excitation Tables pages 135 to 138
   29. 29 Asynchronous (Ripple) Counters pages 139 to 141
   30. 30 Synchronous Counters, and How to Design One pages 142 to 145
   31. 31 Shift Registers pages 146 to 148
   32. 32 Computer Organization and Computer Architecture pages 149 to 151
   33. 33 The Components of a Computer and What Each Does pages 152 to 155
   34. 34 How a Computer Works at the Top Level: Fetch, Execute and Interrupts pages 156 to 158
   35. 35 Interconnection Structures pages 159 to 161
   36. 36 Bus Interconnection pages 162 to 164
   37. 37 Multiple-Bus Hierarchies and the Elements of Bus Design pages 165 to 168
   38. 38 The I/O Module pages 169 to 171
   39. 39 Programmed I/O pages 172 to 174
   40. 40 Interrupt-Driven I/O pages 175 to 177
   41. 41 Direct Memory Access pages 178 to 180

   Module II Memory system organization, instructions and processor organization (8085 and 8086) 41 chapters

   1. 42 Memory: How It Is Classified and What Describes It pages 181 to 184
   2. 43 The Memory Hierarchy and Locality of Reference pages 185 to 188
   3. 44 Semiconductor Main Memory: RAM and the ROM Family pages 189 to 192
   4. 45 SRAM and DRAM pages 193 to 196
   5. 46 Interleaved Memory pages 197 to 200
   6. 47 Associative Memory pages 201 to 204
   7. 48 Cache Memory: The Principle and the Elements of Cache Design pages 205 to 208
   8. 49 Cache Mapping: Direct, Associative and Set-Associative pages 209 to 212
   9. 50 Replacement Algorithms pages 213 to 217
   10. 51 Write Policies pages 218 to 221
   11. 52 Cache Performance pages 222 to 225
   12. 53 Cache Coherence pages 226 to 229
   13. 54 Virtual Memory: Paging, Page Tables and the TLB pages 230 to 234
   14. 55 Segmentation pages 235 to 238
   15. 56 Magnetic Disks pages 239 to 242
   16. 57 Optical Memory pages 243 to 247
   17. 58 Flash Memory and the Solid-State Drive pages 248 to 251
   18. 59 RAID Levels pages 252 to 256
   19. 60 Machine Instructions and Their Elements pages 257 to 259
   20. 61 Instruction Formats: Three, Two, One and Zero Addresses pages 260 to 263
   21. 62 Instruction Sets: Types of Operands pages 264 to 267
   22. 63 Instruction Sets: Types of Operations pages 268 to 271
   23. 64 Addressing Modes pages 272 to 275
   24. 65 Meet the 8085 and the 8086 pages 276 to 278
   25. 66 Addressing Modes on the 8085, with Assembly Examples pages 279 to 282
   26. 67 Addressing Modes on the 8086, with Assembly Examples pages 283 to 287
   27. 68 Processor Organization: Structure and Function pages 288 to 290
   28. 69 The Control Unit: Hardwired and Microprogrammed pages 291 to 294
   29. 70 Register Organization pages 295 to 298
   30. 71 The 8085's Registers and Flags pages 299 to 302
   31. 72 The 8086's Registers pages 303 to 306
   32. 73 Data Transfer Operations pages 307 to 310
   33. 74 Arithmetic Operations pages 311 to 314
   34. 75 Logical Operations pages 315 to 318
   35. 76 8085 Programs: Putting the Groups Together pages 319 to 323
   36. 77 The Instruction Cycle pages 324 to 326
   37. 78 Instruction Pipelining pages 327 to 329
   38. 79 Pipeline Hazards and Branches pages 330 to 333
   39. 80 RISC and CISC Architecture pages 334 to 337
   40. 81 Instruction-Level Parallelism and Superscalar Processors pages 338 to 341
   41. 82 Superscalar Design Issues pages 342 to 345
   Every paper that is solved: 6 papers

   • Oct 2025
   • 2023-24
   • Nov 2024
   • Oct 2024
   • Nov 2023
   • Nov 2022

5. Fundamentals of Database Systems

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Fundamentals of Database Systems

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Fundamentals of Database Systems

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Introduction to DBMS, data models, the ER model and ER to table, DDL and DML statements

   1. What a Database Is, and What a DBMS Does 1
   2. Why Not Just Files: the Advantages of a DBMS 6
   3. The Three Levels of Abstraction 10
   4. Data Independence 14
   5. The Architecture of a DBMS 18
   6. What a Data Model Is 22
   7. Client/Server Architecture 26
   8. Object Based Logical Models 30
   9. Record Based Logical Models: Relational, Hierarchical and Network 34
   10. The Entity Relationship Model: Entities, Attributes and Entity Sets 38
   11. Relationships and Relationship Sets 42
   12. Key Constraints and the Cardinality of a Relationship 46
   13. Participation Constraints 50
   14. Weak Entity Sets 54
   15. Generalization, Specialization and Aggregation 58
   16. Conceptual Design: Entity or Attribute 62
   17. Conceptual Design: Entity or Relationship 66
   18. Conceptual Design: Binary or Ternary 70
   19. Constraints Beyond the ER Model 73

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Introduction to DBMS, data models, the ER model and ER to table, DDL and DML statements

   1. Turning an Entity Set Into a Table 77
   2. Turning a Relationship Set Into Tables 81
   3. Meeting MySQL: the Server, the Client and Your First Database 85
   4. Data Types 89
   5. Creating a Table 94
   6. Integrity Constraints: PRIMARY KEY, NOT NULL, DEFAULT and CHECK 98
   7. Altering a Table 102
   8. Renaming, Dropping and Truncating Tables 106
   9. Viewing the Structure of a Table 109
   10. INSERT: Putting Rows In 113
   11. UPDATE and DELETE: Changing and Removing Rows 117
   12. SELECT: All Columns and Named Columns 121
   13. DISTINCT: Unique Records 125
   14. The WHERE Clause 128
   15. IN and BETWEEN 132
   16. ORDER BY and LIMIT 136
   17. Aggregate Functions: COUNT, MIN, MAX, AVG and SUM 140
   18. GROUP BY 143

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Introduction to DBMS, data models, the ER model and ER to table, DDL and DML statements

   1. HAVING 147

   Module II The relational data model, functions, joins and subqueries, normal forms, database protection, views and DCL

   1. The Relational Data Model: Domains, Attributes, Tuples and Relations 151
   2. Relational Model Notation 155
   3. Characteristics of Relations 158
   4. Relational Constraints: the Primary Key 162
   5. Referential Integrity and the Foreign Key 166
   6. UNIQUE, NOT NULL and CHECK Constraints 171
   7. String Functions 176
   8. Math Functions 180
   9. Date and Time Functions 183
   10. The Inner Join 187
   11. The Outer Joins, and What MySQL Does About FULL OUTER 192
   12. Subqueries with IN and EXISTS 197
   13. Nested Subqueries, and What a Subquery May Not Do 201
   14. ANY and ALL 205
   15. Correlated Subqueries 209
   16. Functional Dependencies 213

   Contents continued

   Module II continued The relational data model, functions, joins and subqueries, normal forms, database protection, views and DCL

   1. First Normal Form 218
   2. Second Normal Form 222
   3. Third Normal Form 226
   4. Boyce Codd Normal Form 230
   5. Lossless Join Decomposition 235
   6. Security Issues and Threats to Databases 240
   7. Security Mechanisms 244
   8. The Role of the Database Administrator 248
   9. Discretionary Access Control 252
   10. Backing Up and Restoring a Database 256
   11. Views: Creating, Selecting and Dropping 260
   12. Altering, Renaming and Updating Through a View 264
   13. Creating and Dropping Users 269
   14. Granting and Revoking Privileges 273
   15. Transactions: COMMIT and ROLLBACK 277
   16. Indexes, and the Part They Play in a Fast Search 281

   Module P Computer Science Practical 1: the ten practicals set on this subject

   1. Practical: Setting Up MySQL and Keeping the Journal 287
   2. Practical 1: Conceptual Design With an ER Diagram 291

   Contents continued

   Module P continued Computer Science Practical 1: the ten practicals set on this subject

   1. Practical 2: Database Management Operations and CRUD 295
   2. Practical 3: Table Management, Backup and Restore 298
   3. Practical 4: Simple Queries and Aggregate Functions 301
   4. Practical 5: Date, String and Math Functions 303
   5. Practical 6: Inner and Outer Join Queries 306
   6. Practical 7: Subqueries With IN and EXISTS 309
   7. Practical 8: ER Model to Relational Model, and Normalization 312
   8. Practical 9: Views With and Without the Check Option 316
   9. Practical 10: DCL Statements, COMMIT and ROLLBACK 319

   Page 1 onwards

   322 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 322 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2024, 2025

   Every chapter in the notes: 81 chapters across 3 modules

   Module I Introduction to DBMS, data models, the ER model and ER to table, DDL and DML statements 38 chapters

   1. 1 What a Database Is, and What a DBMS Does pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 Why Not Just Files: the Advantages of a DBMS pages 6 to 9
   3. 3 The Three Levels of Abstraction pages 10 to 13
   4. 4 Data Independence pages 14 to 17
   5. 5 The Architecture of a DBMS pages 18 to 21
   6. 6 What a Data Model Is pages 22 to 25
   7. 7 Client/Server Architecture pages 26 to 29
   8. 8 Object Based Logical Models pages 30 to 33
   9. 9 Record Based Logical Models: Relational, Hierarchical and Network pages 34 to 37
   10. 10 The Entity Relationship Model: Entities, Attributes and Entity Sets pages 38 to 41
   11. 11 Relationships and Relationship Sets pages 42 to 45
   12. 12 Key Constraints and the Cardinality of a Relationship pages 46 to 49
   13. 13 Participation Constraints pages 50 to 53
   14. 14 Weak Entity Sets pages 54 to 57
   15. 15 Generalization, Specialization and Aggregation pages 58 to 61
   16. 16 Conceptual Design: Entity or Attribute pages 62 to 65
   17. 17 Conceptual Design: Entity or Relationship pages 66 to 69
   18. 18 Conceptual Design: Binary or Ternary pages 70 to 72
   19. 19 Constraints Beyond the ER Model pages 73 to 76
   20. 20 Turning an Entity Set Into a Table pages 77 to 80
   21. 21 Turning a Relationship Set Into Tables pages 81 to 84
   22. 22 Meeting MySQL: the Server, the Client and Your First Database pages 85 to 88
   23. 23 Data Types pages 89 to 93
   24. 24 Creating a Table pages 94 to 97
   25. 25 Integrity Constraints: PRIMARY KEY, NOT NULL, DEFAULT and CHECK pages 98 to 101
   26. 26 Altering a Table pages 102 to 105
   27. 27 Renaming, Dropping and Truncating Tables pages 106 to 108
   28. 28 Viewing the Structure of a Table pages 109 to 112
   29. 29 INSERT: Putting Rows In pages 113 to 116
   30. 30 UPDATE and DELETE: Changing and Removing Rows pages 117 to 120
   31. 31 SELECT: All Columns and Named Columns pages 121 to 124
   32. 32 DISTINCT: Unique Records pages 125 to 127
   33. 33 The WHERE Clause pages 128 to 131
   34. 34 IN and BETWEEN pages 132 to 135
   35. 35 ORDER BY and LIMIT pages 136 to 139
   36. 36 Aggregate Functions: COUNT, MIN, MAX, AVG and SUM pages 140 to 142
   37. 37 GROUP BY pages 143 to 146
   38. 38 HAVING pages 147 to 150

   Module II The relational data model, functions, joins and subqueries, normal forms, database protection, views and DCL 32 chapters

   1. 39 The Relational Data Model: Domains, Attributes, Tuples and Relations pages 151 to 154
   2. 40 Relational Model Notation pages 155 to 157
   3. 41 Characteristics of Relations pages 158 to 161
   4. 42 Relational Constraints: the Primary Key pages 162 to 165
   5. 43 Referential Integrity and the Foreign Key pages 166 to 170
   6. 44 UNIQUE, NOT NULL and CHECK Constraints pages 171 to 175
   7. 45 String Functions pages 176 to 179
   8. 46 Math Functions pages 180 to 182
   9. 47 Date and Time Functions pages 183 to 186
   10. 48 The Inner Join pages 187 to 191
   11. 49 The Outer Joins, and What MySQL Does About FULL OUTER pages 192 to 196
   12. 50 Subqueries with IN and EXISTS pages 197 to 200
   13. 51 Nested Subqueries, and What a Subquery May Not Do pages 201 to 204
   14. 52 ANY and ALL pages 205 to 208
   15. 53 Correlated Subqueries pages 209 to 212
   16. 54 Functional Dependencies pages 213 to 217
   17. 55 First Normal Form pages 218 to 221
   18. 56 Second Normal Form pages 222 to 225
   19. 57 Third Normal Form pages 226 to 229
   20. 58 Boyce Codd Normal Form pages 230 to 234
   21. 59 Lossless Join Decomposition pages 235 to 239
   22. 60 Security Issues and Threats to Databases pages 240 to 243
   23. 61 Security Mechanisms pages 244 to 247
   24. 62 The Role of the Database Administrator pages 248 to 251
   25. 63 Discretionary Access Control pages 252 to 255
   26. 64 Backing Up and Restoring a Database pages 256 to 259
   27. 65 Views: Creating, Selecting and Dropping pages 260 to 263
   28. 66 Altering, Renaming and Updating Through a View pages 264 to 268
   29. 67 Creating and Dropping Users pages 269 to 272
   30. 68 Granting and Revoking Privileges pages 273 to 276
   31. 69 Transactions: COMMIT and ROLLBACK pages 277 to 280
   32. 70 Indexes, and the Part They Play in a Fast Search pages 281 to 286

   Module P Computer Science Practical 1: the ten practicals set on this subject 11 chapters

   1. 71 Practical: Setting Up MySQL and Keeping the Journal pages 287 to 290
   2. 72 Practical 1: Conceptual Design With an ER Diagram pages 291 to 294
   3. 73 Practical 2: Database Management Operations and CRUD pages 295 to 297
   4. 74 Practical 3: Table Management, Backup and Restore pages 298 to 300
   5. 75 Practical 4: Simple Queries and Aggregate Functions pages 301 to 302
   6. 76 Practical 5: Date, String and Math Functions pages 303 to 305
   7. 77 Practical 6: Inner and Outer Join Queries pages 306 to 308
   8. 78 Practical 7: Subqueries With IN and EXISTS pages 309 to 311
   9. 79 Practical 8: ER Model to Relational Model, and Normalization pages 312 to 315
   10. 80 Practical 9: Views With and Without the Check Option pages 316 to 318
   11. 81 Practical 10: DCL Statements, COMMIT and ROLLBACK pages 319 to 322
   Every paper that is solved: 3 papers

   • Oct 2025
   • Nov 2024
   • Oct 2024

6. Computer Science Practical 1

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Computer Science Practical 1

   B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

   For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Computer Science Practical 1

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

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   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Digital Systems and Architecture: ten exercises in Logisim

   1. How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the Write-Up and the Viva 1
   2. Logisim from Zero: Installing It and Your First Circuit 6
   3. Practical 1: Verifying the Truth Tables of the Logic Gates 11
   4. Practical 2: Simplifying a Boolean Expression and Realising It 15
   5. Practical 3: The Half Adder and the Full Adder 19
   6. Practical 4: The Half Subtractor and the Full Subtractor 24
   7. Practical 5: The 4-Bit Magnitude Comparator 28
   8. Practical 6: D and JK Flip-Flops Built from Gates 32
   9. Practical 7: Verifying the Operation of a Counter 37
   10. Practical 8: The 4-Bit Shift Register 42
   11. Practical 9: Realising Expressions with Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 46
   12. Practical 10: A 3-Bit Binary Ripple Counter from JK Flip-Flops 51

   Module II Fundamentals of Database Systems: ten exercises in MySQL

   1. MySQL from Zero: Installing It, Connecting and Saving Your Work 55
   2. Practical 11: Conceptual Design with an ER Diagram 60
   3. Practical 12: Databases, Tables, Constraints and CRUD 65
   4. Practical 13: ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME, and Backup and Restore 71

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Fundamentals of Database Systems: ten exercises in MySQL

   1. Practical 14: Simple Queries and the Aggregate Functions 76
   2. Practical 15: Date, String and Mathematical Functions 81
   3. Practical 16: Inner and Outer Joins 86
   4. Practical 17: Subqueries with IN and EXISTS 92
   5. Practical 18: From ER Model to Tables, and Normalising to 3NF 97
   6. Practical 19: Views, With and Without CHECK OPTION 103
   7. Practical 20: GRANT, REVOKE, COMMIT and ROLLBACK 108

   Page 1 onwards

   113 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 113 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 23 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Digital Systems and Architecture: ten exercises in Logisim 12 chapters

   1. 1 How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the Write-Up and the Viva pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 Logisim from Zero: Installing It and Your First Circuit pages 6 to 10
   3. 3 Practical 1: Verifying the Truth Tables of the Logic Gates pages 11 to 14
   4. 4 Practical 2: Simplifying a Boolean Expression and Realising It pages 15 to 18
   5. 5 Practical 3: The Half Adder and the Full Adder pages 19 to 23
   6. 6 Practical 4: The Half Subtractor and the Full Subtractor pages 24 to 27
   7. 7 Practical 5: The 4-Bit Magnitude Comparator pages 28 to 31
   8. 8 Practical 6: D and JK Flip-Flops Built from Gates pages 32 to 36
   9. 9 Practical 7: Verifying the Operation of a Counter pages 37 to 41
   10. 10 Practical 8: The 4-Bit Shift Register pages 42 to 45
   11. 11 Practical 9: Realising Expressions with Multiplexers and Demultiplexers pages 46 to 50
   12. 12 Practical 10: A 3-Bit Binary Ripple Counter from JK Flip-Flops pages 51 to 54

   Module II Fundamentals of Database Systems: ten exercises in MySQL 11 chapters

   1. 13 MySQL from Zero: Installing It, Connecting and Saving Your Work pages 55 to 59
   2. 14 Practical 11: Conceptual Design with an ER Diagram pages 60 to 64
   3. 15 Practical 12: Databases, Tables, Constraints and CRUD pages 65 to 70
   4. 16 Practical 13: ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, RENAME, and Backup and Restore pages 71 to 75
   5. 17 Practical 14: Simple Queries and the Aggregate Functions pages 76 to 80
   6. 18 Practical 15: Date, String and Mathematical Functions pages 81 to 85
   7. 19 Practical 16: Inner and Outer Joins pages 86 to 91
   8. 20 Practical 17: Subqueries with IN and EXISTS pages 92 to 96
   9. 21 Practical 18: From ER Model to Tables, and Normalising to 3NF pages 97 to 102
   10. 22 Practical 19: Views, With and Without CHECK OPTION pages 103 to 107
   11. 23 Practical 20: GRANT, REVOKE, COMMIT and ROLLBACK pages 108 to 113

Questions