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B.Sc. (Computer Science) Semester 5: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

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  • All the notes of all the subjects in Semester 5, as per the latest syllabus 2026.
  • The practical subjects too, worked out exercise by exercise: 3 practical books of 74 chapters, beside 7 theory books of 714.
  • Previous year question papers, with full solutions. Ethical Hacking, Wireless and Sensor Networks, IKS in Computational Systems, Mini Project - I Real-World Application Development, Computer Science Practical 5, Software Testing and Quality Assurance Practical and Wireless and Sensor Networks Practical have no solved papers, so they are not included.
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  1. Ethical Hacking

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Ethical Hacking

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    Ethical Hacking

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I The law and ethics of authorised testing, security vocabulary, the five-phase lifecycle, CVE and CVSS, reconnaissance and scanning, enumeration, system and password security, hashing and salting, and network sniffing

    1. How This Course Is Examined: the Journal, the 80 Per Cent Rule and the Two-Hour Practical Paper 1
    2. The Law: What Makes Hacking Lawful 5
    3. The Rest of the Law: Source Code, Identity, Protected Systems and Confidentiality 10
    4. Authorisation in Practice: the Letter, the Scope and the Rules of Engagement 16
    5. The Vocabulary: Asset, Threat, Vulnerability, Exploit and Risk 21
    6. The CIA Triad, and Which Property Each Attack Breaks 26
    7. Hacker Classes, Hacktivism and the Types of Hacking 31
    8. Types of Engagement: Black Box, White Box, Grey Box, Internal and External 36
    9. The Five Phases of an Engagement: a Lifecycle Model 41
    10. The Defender's Mirror: a Control for Every Phase 46
    11. The Life of a Vulnerability 51
    12. Responsible Disclosure Against Full Disclosure, and the Vendor's Side 56
    13. CVE and CWE: Naming the Flaw and Naming the Weakness 61
    14. CVSS: the Eight Base Metrics 65
    15. CVSS: Working a Score, and the Temporal and Environmental Metrics 69
    16. Bug Bounty Programmes 74
    17. A Worked Case Study: Heartbleed 78
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued The law and ethics of authorised testing, security vocabulary, the five-phase lifecycle, CVE and CVSS, reconnaissance and scanning, enumeration, system and password security, hashing and salting, and network sniffing

    1. A Worked Case Study: Log4Shell 83
    2. Footprinting: Passive Against Active Reconnaissance 88
    3. OSINT on People: Names, Roles and the Email Format 93
    4. OSINT on Technology and Infrastructure 97
    5. Search-Engine Reconnaissance and Document Metadata 102
    6. Reducing Your Own Footprint: the Defensive Audit 107
    7. How the Domain Name System Resolves a Name 112
    8. The Record Types, and What Each One Reveals 117
    9. Subdomain Enumeration and Infrastructure Mapping 122
    10. Zone Transfers and DNS Hardening 127
    11. WHOIS, the Registries and IP Allocation 132
    12. The Psychology: the Levers an Attacker Pulls 137
    13. Phishing, Spear Phishing, Whaling, Smishing and Vishing 142
    14. Pretexting, Baiting, Impersonation and Tailgating 147
    15. A Worked Case: Analysing a Real Attack 152
    16. Defences: Awareness, Verification and Multi-Factor 157
    17. Email Authentication: SPF, DKIM and DMARC 162
    18. TCP/IP for the Scanner: Layers, Addresses, Ports and Flags 167
    19. The Three-Way Handshake, and Why Scanning Works 172
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued The law and ethics of authorised testing, security vocabulary, the five-phase lifecycle, CVE and CVSS, reconnaissance and scanning, enumeration, system and password security, hashing and salting, and network sniffing

    1. Host Discovery: Finding What Is Alive 177
    2. The Scan Types: Connect, SYN, FIN, NULL and XMAS 182
    3. ACK Scanning and UDP Scanning 187
    4. Port States, Service and Version Detection, and OS Fingerprinting 192
    5. Firewall and Filter Detection 197
    6. How the Scan Is Seen: Intrusion Detection and the Defender's View 202
    7. Enumeration and Banner Grabbing 207
    8. SNMP Enumeration 212
    9. NetBIOS and SMB Enumeration 217
    10. LDAP, SMTP and NTP Enumeration 222
    11. Enumeration Countermeasures: What to Close 227
    12. System Hacking and Privilege Escalation 232
    13. Escalation Routes on Linux and Windows, at Concept Level 237
    14. Detecting Persistence: the Auto-Start Audit 243
    15. Covering Tracks, and Why a Defender Protects the Logs 249
    16. Rootkits: How They Hide and How They Are Found 254
    17. Spyware and Keyloggers from the Defensive Side 259
    18. Encoding, Encryption and Hashing: Three Different Things 263
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued The law and ethics of authorised testing, security vocabulary, the five-phase lifecycle, CVE and CVSS, reconnaissance and scanning, enumeration, system and password security, hashing and salting, and network sniffing

    1. Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption at Concept Level 267
    2. Hash Functions and the Properties They Must Have 271
    3. Why a Password Is Never Encrypted: Storage and Salting 276
    4. How Passwords Are Attacked, and the Arithmetic of a Keyspace 281
    5. Password Policy, Managers and Multi-Factor Authentication 285
    6. Cryptographic Weaknesses to Know 290
    7. Hubs, Switches, and Passive Sniffing 294
    8. MAC Flooding 299
    9. ARP Poisoning and the Man in the Middle 303
    10. DNS Spoofing 308
    11. Countermeasures: Switch Controls and Encryption in Transit 313

    Module II Denial of service and botnets, session and web-server security, the OWASP Top Ten, SQL injection, buffer overflows, wireless security, malware analysis, exploit frameworks, and penetration testing methodology and reporting

    1. Denial of Service: Attacking Availability 318
    2. Volumetric Attacks and Amplification 322
    3. Protocol Attacks: the SYN Flood in Depth 327
    4. Application-Layer Denial of Service 331
    5. Botnets: Architecture and Command and Control 336
    6. DDoS Mitigation: the Layered Defence 340
    7. Sessions and Tokens: Why They Exist 345
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Denial of service and botnets, session and web-server security, the OWASP Top Ten, SQL injection, buffer overflows, wireless security, malware analysis, exploit frameworks, and penetration testing methodology and reporting

    1. How a Session Is Stolen: Prediction, Sniffing and Script 349
    2. Session Fixation and Cookie Manipulation 354
    3. Cookie Security: Secure, HttpOnly and SameSite 359
    4. Cross-Site Request Forgery 363
    5. Session Defences in Full 367
    6. The Web Server Against the Web Application 371
    7. Common Web Server Misconfigurations 375
    8. Directory Traversal 379
    9. Patch Management 383
    10. Hardening and the Security Response Headers 387
    11. The OWASP Top 10: What It Is and How It Changed 391
    12. A01: Broken Access Control 396
    13. Security Misconfiguration and Cryptographic Failures 400
    14. Software Supply Chain Failures 404
    15. Injection: the Category and Its Members 408
    16. Cross-Site Scripting: Stored, Reflected and DOM-Based 412
    17. Cross-Site Scripting Defences: Output Encoding and Content Security Policy 416
    18. Insecure Design and Authentication Failures 421
    19. Integrity, Logging and Exceptional Conditions 425
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Denial of service and botnets, session and web-server security, the OWASP Top Ten, SQL injection, buffer overflows, wireless security, malware analysis, exploit frameworks, and penetration testing methodology and reporting

    1. Server-Side Request Forgery 429
    2. Input Validation: the Thread Through the Whole List 433
    3. SQL Injection: How Input Becomes Logic 438
    4. The Types: In-Band, Union-Based and Error-Based 442
    5. Blind SQL Injection: Boolean and Time-Based 446
    6. Prevention: the Parameterised Query 450
    7. Defence in Depth: Least Privilege, Validation and the Web Application Firewall 455
    8. Memory Layout: the Stack, the Heap and the Frame 460
    9. Stack-Based Buffer Overflow and Return-Address Overwriting 465
    10. Heap Overflows and Format-String Flaws, Briefly 469
    11. Defences: Bounds Checking, Canaries, DEP, ASLR and Safe Languages 473
    12. How Wi-Fi Works: Frames, SSIDs and Association 478
    13. WEP and Why It Broke 482
    14. WPA and WPA2: AES and the Four-Way Handshake 486
    15. WPA3 and the SAE Handshake 490
    16. Wireless Attacks: Deauthentication, Evil Twins and Rogue Access Points 494
    17. Wireless Best Practice and Enterprise Authentication 499
    18. The Malware Families 503
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Denial of service and botnets, session and web-server security, the OWASP Top Ten, SQL injection, buffer overflows, wireless security, malware analysis, exploit frameworks, and penetration testing methodology and reporting

    1. Viruses and Worms 507
    2. Trojans, Ransomware and Remote Access Tools 511
    3. Keyloggers and Spyware: the Architecture 516
    4. Detection: Signature, Heuristic and Behavioural 520
    5. Safe Analysis: the Sandbox 525
    6. Endpoint Protection 529
    7. What an Exploit Framework Is 533
    8. The Exploit Lifecycle and the Payload 537
    9. Post-Exploitation, Bounded by Scope 541
    10. The Ethical and Legal Limits of Penetration-Testing Tools 546
    11. Why Methodology Matters More Than Tricks 551
    12. PTES: the Seven Phases 555
    13. The OWASP Testing Guide 559
    14. Risk Assessment and Rating 563
    15. The Penetration-Test Report 567
    16. A Worked Specimen Report 571
    17. Retesting and Closing the Engagement 576
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    580 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 580 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 126 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I The law and ethics of authorised testing, security vocabulary, the five-phase lifecycle, CVE and CVSS, reconnaissance and scanning, enumeration, system and password security, hashing and salting, and network sniffing 65 chapters

    1. 1 How This Course Is Examined: the Journal, the 80 Per Cent Rule and the Two-Hour Practical Paper pages 1 to 4
    2. 2 The Law: What Makes Hacking Lawful pages 5 to 9
    3. 3 The Rest of the Law: Source Code, Identity, Protected Systems and Confidentiality pages 10 to 15
    4. 4 Authorisation in Practice: the Letter, the Scope and the Rules of Engagement pages 16 to 20
    5. 5 The Vocabulary: Asset, Threat, Vulnerability, Exploit and Risk pages 21 to 25
    6. 6 The CIA Triad, and Which Property Each Attack Breaks pages 26 to 30
    7. 7 Hacker Classes, Hacktivism and the Types of Hacking pages 31 to 35
    8. 8 Types of Engagement: Black Box, White Box, Grey Box, Internal and External pages 36 to 40
    9. 9 The Five Phases of an Engagement: a Lifecycle Model pages 41 to 45
    10. 10 The Defender's Mirror: a Control for Every Phase pages 46 to 50
    11. 11 The Life of a Vulnerability pages 51 to 55
    12. 12 Responsible Disclosure Against Full Disclosure, and the Vendor's Side pages 56 to 60
    13. 13 CVE and CWE: Naming the Flaw and Naming the Weakness pages 61 to 64
    14. 14 CVSS: the Eight Base Metrics pages 65 to 68
    15. 15 CVSS: Working a Score, and the Temporal and Environmental Metrics pages 69 to 73
    16. 16 Bug Bounty Programmes pages 74 to 77
    17. 17 A Worked Case Study: Heartbleed pages 78 to 82
    18. 18 A Worked Case Study: Log4Shell pages 83 to 87
    19. 19 Footprinting: Passive Against Active Reconnaissance pages 88 to 92
    20. 20 OSINT on People: Names, Roles and the Email Format pages 93 to 96
    21. 21 OSINT on Technology and Infrastructure pages 97 to 101
    22. 22 Search-Engine Reconnaissance and Document Metadata pages 102 to 106
    23. 23 Reducing Your Own Footprint: the Defensive Audit pages 107 to 111
    24. 24 How the Domain Name System Resolves a Name pages 112 to 116
    25. 25 The Record Types, and What Each One Reveals pages 117 to 121
    26. 26 Subdomain Enumeration and Infrastructure Mapping pages 122 to 126
    27. 27 Zone Transfers and DNS Hardening pages 127 to 131
    28. 28 WHOIS, the Registries and IP Allocation pages 132 to 136
    29. 29 The Psychology: the Levers an Attacker Pulls pages 137 to 141
    30. 30 Phishing, Spear Phishing, Whaling, Smishing and Vishing pages 142 to 146
    31. 31 Pretexting, Baiting, Impersonation and Tailgating pages 147 to 151
    32. 32 A Worked Case: Analysing a Real Attack pages 152 to 156
    33. 33 Defences: Awareness, Verification and Multi-Factor pages 157 to 161
    34. 34 Email Authentication: SPF, DKIM and DMARC pages 162 to 166
    35. 35 TCP/IP for the Scanner: Layers, Addresses, Ports and Flags pages 167 to 171
    36. 36 The Three-Way Handshake, and Why Scanning Works pages 172 to 176
    37. 37 Host Discovery: Finding What Is Alive pages 177 to 181
    38. 38 The Scan Types: Connect, SYN, FIN, NULL and XMAS pages 182 to 186
    39. 39 ACK Scanning and UDP Scanning pages 187 to 191
    40. 40 Port States, Service and Version Detection, and OS Fingerprinting pages 192 to 196
    41. 41 Firewall and Filter Detection pages 197 to 201
    42. 42 How the Scan Is Seen: Intrusion Detection and the Defender's View pages 202 to 206
    43. 43 Enumeration and Banner Grabbing pages 207 to 211
    44. 44 SNMP Enumeration pages 212 to 216
    45. 45 NetBIOS and SMB Enumeration pages 217 to 221
    46. 46 LDAP, SMTP and NTP Enumeration pages 222 to 226
    47. 47 Enumeration Countermeasures: What to Close pages 227 to 231
    48. 48 System Hacking and Privilege Escalation pages 232 to 236
    49. 49 Escalation Routes on Linux and Windows, at Concept Level pages 237 to 242
    50. 50 Detecting Persistence: the Auto-Start Audit pages 243 to 248
    51. 51 Covering Tracks, and Why a Defender Protects the Logs pages 249 to 253
    52. 52 Rootkits: How They Hide and How They Are Found pages 254 to 258
    53. 53 Spyware and Keyloggers from the Defensive Side pages 259 to 262
    54. 54 Encoding, Encryption and Hashing: Three Different Things pages 263 to 266
    55. 55 Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption at Concept Level pages 267 to 270
    56. 56 Hash Functions and the Properties They Must Have pages 271 to 275
    57. 57 Why a Password Is Never Encrypted: Storage and Salting pages 276 to 280
    58. 58 How Passwords Are Attacked, and the Arithmetic of a Keyspace pages 281 to 284
    59. 59 Password Policy, Managers and Multi-Factor Authentication pages 285 to 289
    60. 60 Cryptographic Weaknesses to Know pages 290 to 293
    61. 61 Hubs, Switches, and Passive Sniffing pages 294 to 298
    62. 62 MAC Flooding pages 299 to 302
    63. 63 ARP Poisoning and the Man in the Middle pages 303 to 307
    64. 64 DNS Spoofing pages 308 to 312
    65. 65 Countermeasures: Switch Controls and Encryption in Transit pages 313 to 317

    Module II Denial of service and botnets, session and web-server security, the OWASP Top Ten, SQL injection, buffer overflows, wireless security, malware analysis, exploit frameworks, and penetration testing methodology and reporting 61 chapters

    1. 66 Denial of Service: Attacking Availability pages 318 to 321
    2. 67 Volumetric Attacks and Amplification pages 322 to 326
    3. 68 Protocol Attacks: the SYN Flood in Depth pages 327 to 330
    4. 69 Application-Layer Denial of Service pages 331 to 335
    5. 70 Botnets: Architecture and Command and Control pages 336 to 339
    6. 71 DDoS Mitigation: the Layered Defence pages 340 to 344
    7. 72 Sessions and Tokens: Why They Exist pages 345 to 348
    8. 73 How a Session Is Stolen: Prediction, Sniffing and Script pages 349 to 353
    9. 74 Session Fixation and Cookie Manipulation pages 354 to 358
    10. 75 Cookie Security: Secure, HttpOnly and SameSite pages 359 to 362
    11. 76 Cross-Site Request Forgery pages 363 to 366
    12. 77 Session Defences in Full pages 367 to 370
    13. 78 The Web Server Against the Web Application pages 371 to 374
    14. 79 Common Web Server Misconfigurations pages 375 to 378
    15. 80 Directory Traversal pages 379 to 382
    16. 81 Patch Management pages 383 to 386
    17. 82 Hardening and the Security Response Headers pages 387 to 390
    18. 83 The OWASP Top 10: What It Is and How It Changed pages 391 to 395
    19. 84 A01: Broken Access Control pages 396 to 399
    20. 85 Security Misconfiguration and Cryptographic Failures pages 400 to 403
    21. 86 Software Supply Chain Failures pages 404 to 407
    22. 87 Injection: the Category and Its Members pages 408 to 411
    23. 88 Cross-Site Scripting: Stored, Reflected and DOM-Based pages 412 to 415
    24. 89 Cross-Site Scripting Defences: Output Encoding and Content Security Policy pages 416 to 420
    25. 90 Insecure Design and Authentication Failures pages 421 to 424
    26. 91 Integrity, Logging and Exceptional Conditions pages 425 to 428
    27. 92 Server-Side Request Forgery pages 429 to 432
    28. 93 Input Validation: the Thread Through the Whole List pages 433 to 437
    29. 94 SQL Injection: How Input Becomes Logic pages 438 to 441
    30. 95 The Types: In-Band, Union-Based and Error-Based pages 442 to 445
    31. 96 Blind SQL Injection: Boolean and Time-Based pages 446 to 449
    32. 97 Prevention: the Parameterised Query pages 450 to 454
    33. 98 Defence in Depth: Least Privilege, Validation and the Web Application Firewall pages 455 to 459
    34. 99 Memory Layout: the Stack, the Heap and the Frame pages 460 to 464
    35. 100 Stack-Based Buffer Overflow and Return-Address Overwriting pages 465 to 468
    36. 101 Heap Overflows and Format-String Flaws, Briefly pages 469 to 472
    37. 102 Defences: Bounds Checking, Canaries, DEP, ASLR and Safe Languages pages 473 to 477
    38. 103 How Wi-Fi Works: Frames, SSIDs and Association pages 478 to 481
    39. 104 WEP and Why It Broke pages 482 to 485
    40. 105 WPA and WPA2: AES and the Four-Way Handshake pages 486 to 489
    41. 106 WPA3 and the SAE Handshake pages 490 to 493
    42. 107 Wireless Attacks: Deauthentication, Evil Twins and Rogue Access Points pages 494 to 498
    43. 108 Wireless Best Practice and Enterprise Authentication pages 499 to 502
    44. 109 The Malware Families pages 503 to 506
    45. 110 Viruses and Worms pages 507 to 510
    46. 111 Trojans, Ransomware and Remote Access Tools pages 511 to 515
    47. 112 Keyloggers and Spyware: the Architecture pages 516 to 519
    48. 113 Detection: Signature, Heuristic and Behavioural pages 520 to 524
    49. 114 Safe Analysis: the Sandbox pages 525 to 528
    50. 115 Endpoint Protection pages 529 to 532
    51. 116 What an Exploit Framework Is pages 533 to 536
    52. 117 The Exploit Lifecycle and the Payload pages 537 to 540
    53. 118 Post-Exploitation, Bounded by Scope pages 541 to 545
    54. 119 The Ethical and Legal Limits of Penetration-Testing Tools pages 546 to 550
    55. 120 Why Methodology Matters More Than Tricks pages 551 to 554
    56. 121 PTES: the Seven Phases pages 555 to 558
    57. 122 The OWASP Testing Guide pages 559 to 562
    58. 123 Risk Assessment and Rating pages 563 to 566
    59. 124 The Penetration-Test Report pages 567 to 570
    60. 125 A Worked Specimen Report pages 571 to 575
    61. 126 Retesting and Closing the Engagement pages 576 to 580

  2. Wireless and Sensor Networks

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Wireless and Sensor Networks

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    Wireless and Sensor Networks

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I Wireless sensor networks: the node and the network, operating systems and ad hoc networks, medium access control, routing, transport and middleware

    1. What a Wireless Sensor Network Is 1
    2. The Architectural Elements of a Sensor Network 8
    3. The Sensor Network Protocol Stack and Its Three Planes 15
    4. The Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks 20
    5. The Challenges of Wireless Sensor Networks 25
    6. Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks 34
    7. Inside a Sensor Node: The Five Units 39
    8. The Radio, the Sensors and the Power Supply of a Node 45
    9. How Long a Node Lasts: The Energy Budget Worked Out 52
    10. Sensor Taxonomy 58
    11. The Operating Environment and the Design Factors 64
    12. Radio Technology in WSNs: The Sensor Radio and Its Link Budget 70
    13. The Wireless Technologies a Sensor Network Can Use 76
    14. Network Architecture: Sources, Sinks, Hops and Mobility 82
    15. Single Hop or Multiple Hops: The Energy Argument Worked Out 87
    16. Optimization Goals: Quality of Service, Energy Efficiency and Lifetime 93
    17. Figures of Merit: Scalability, Robustness and Measuring a Network 98
    18. Deployment and Coverage: Random Against Grid 102
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Wireless sensor networks: the node and the network, operating systems and ad hoc networks, medium access control, routing, transport and middleware

    1. Design Principles: Distributed Organisation and In-network Processing 107
    2. Design Principles: Data Centricity, Location, Activity and Heterogeneity 112
    3. Service Interfaces of a WSN 117
    4. Gateway Concepts 121
    5. Sensor Networks in the Internet of Things: 6LoWPAN, RPL and CoAP 126
    6. Why a Sensor Node Needs an Operating System 133
    7. Event-driven or Multithreaded: The Two Execution Models 137
    8. TinyOS: Components, Tasks and the Scheduler 142
    9. Commands, Events and Split-phase Operation 147
    10. nesC: Modules, Configurations, Interfaces and Wiring 152
    11. Blink: A TinyOS Application Read Line by Line 157
    12. TOSSIM: Simulating Motes, Radio Gain and Packet Loss 161
    13. Contiki, RIOT and the Other Sensor Operating Systems 174
    14. Ad Hoc Networks: MANETs, and How a Sensor Network Differs 185
    15. The Characteristics and Challenges of Ad Hoc Networks in a WSN 193
    16. Time Synchronisation and Localisation 202
    17. Routing in Ad Hoc Networks: Proactive, Reactive and Hybrid 212
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Wireless sensor networks: the node and the network, operating systems and ad hoc networks, medium access control, routing, transport and middleware

    1. AODV: Route Discovery and Route Maintenance 220
    2. DSR, and What Its Routes Cost Against AODV 229
    3. Measuring a MANET Protocol: Throughput, Delivery Ratio and Delay 237
    4. Energy Efficiency in Ad Hoc Networks: Where the Energy Goes 243
    5. Energy-aware Routing 250
    6. Security in Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks: Goals, Constraints and Attacks 257
    7. Routing Attacks: Sinkhole, Sybil, Wormhole and HELLO Flood 265
    8. Keys and Link Security: Key Predistribution, SPINS and 802.15.4 273
    9. Privacy in Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks 281
    10. MAC Protocols for Sensor Networks: The Job and Where the Energy Goes 289
    11. Contention: ALOHA and CSMA 298
    12. Hidden and Exposed Terminals, and RTS and CTS 309
    13. CSMA/CA Worked Step by Step 317
    14. TDMA and Schedule-based MAC 325
    15. Duty Cycling: Preamble Sampling, B-MAC and X-MAC 332
    16. S-MAC: Periodic Listen and Sleep, and Keeping Neighbours in Step 341
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Wireless sensor networks: the node and the network, operating systems and ad hoc networks, medium access control, routing, transport and middleware

    1. S-MAC: Collision Avoidance, Overhearing Avoidance and Message Passing 348
    2. S-MAC: Latency, Adaptive Listening and the Energy Saved 355
    3. Routing Challenges and Design Issues in WSNs 363
    4. Routing Strategies in WSNs: A Map 370
    5. Flooding, Gossiping and the Broadcast Storm 377
    6. SPIN: Negotiating Before Sending 385
    7. Directed Diffusion and Rumour Routing 392
    8. LEACH: Clusters That Take Turns 401
    9. PEGASIS, TEEN and the Other Hierarchical Protocols 409
    10. Geographic Routing: Greedy Forwarding and GPSR 417
    11. Routing Tables and What Happens When the Topology Changes 425
    12. IEEE 802.15.4: The Standard, Its Devices and Its Topologies 433
    13. The 802.15.4 Physical Layer 440
    14. The 802.15.4 Superframe and Guaranteed Time Slots 454
    15. CSMA-CA, Data Transfer and Frames in 802.15.4 466
    16. Built on 802.15.4: Zigbee Routing, Security and the Later Amendments 479
    17. Traditional Transport Control Protocols: TCP and UDP 492
    18. Why a Sensor Network Cannot Simply Run TCP 502
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Wireless sensor networks: the node and the network, operating systems and ad hoc networks, medium access control, routing, transport and middleware

    1. Transport Protocol Design Issues in WSNs 511
    2. Transport Protocols Built for Sensor Networks: PSFQ, ESRT, CODA and RMST 521
    3. WSN Middleware: Why It Is Needed, and Its Architecture 531
    4. Middleware Approaches, and TinyDB 540

    Module II Wireless transmission: frequencies, signals, antennas, propagation, multiplexing, modulation and spread spectrum, then cellular systems and GSM, DECT, TETRA and UMTS, and satellite and broadcast systems

    1. Frequencies for Radio Transmission 550
    2. Signals: Amplitude, Frequency and Phase 559
    3. Antennas: Radiators, Dipoles and Radiation Patterns 567
    4. Directional Antennas, Sectorisation, Diversity and Spatial Reuse 576
    5. Signal Propagation: Ranges, Path Loss and How a Signal Travels 585
    6. Multipath, Fading and the Doppler Effect 594
    7. Multiplexing: Space, Frequency, Time and Code 602
    8. Modulation: ASK, FSK and PSK 611
    9. Advanced Modulation: MSK, GMSK, QPSK, QAM and OFDM 619
    10. Spread Spectrum and Direct Sequence 628
    11. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 636
    12. Cellular Systems: Cells, Clusters and Frequency Reuse 644
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Wireless transmission: frequencies, signals, antennas, propagation, multiplexing, modulation and spread spectrum, then cellular systems and GSM, DECT, TETRA and UMTS, and satellite and broadcast systems

    1. Channel Allocation, Cell Splitting, Sectorisation and Cell Breathing 653
    2. GSM and Its Mobile Services 662
    3. The GSM System Architecture 670
    4. The GSM Radio Interface: Carriers, the TDMA Frame and Bursts 678
    5. GSM Logical Channels and the Frame Hierarchy 686
    6. GSM Protocols 694
    7. Localization and Calling in GSM 701
    8. Handover in GSM 709
    9. GSM Security 716
    10. New Data Services: HSCSD, GPRS and EDGE 724
    11. DECT: System Architecture and Protocol Architecture 732
    12. TETRA 740
    13. UMTS and IMT-2000 748
    14. The UMTS System Architecture: UTRAN and the Core Network 755
    15. The UMTS Radio Interface: W-CDMA, Codes, Power Control and Soft Handover 762
    16. A Web Request Over a Cellular Network 770
    17. The History of Satellite Systems 778
    18. Applications of Satellite Systems 785
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Wireless transmission: frequencies, signals, antennas, propagation, multiplexing, modulation and spread spectrum, then cellular systems and GSM, DECT, TETRA and UMTS, and satellite and broadcast systems

    1. Satellite Basics: Orbits, Periods, Elevation and Footprints 793
    2. GEO: The Geostationary Orbit 803
    3. LEO and MEO 813
    4. Routing in Satellite Systems 822
    5. Localization and Handover in Satellite Systems 832
    6. Broadcast Systems: Cyclic Repetition, DAB and DVB 840
    7. Across the Two Modules: The Comparisons Question 3 Draws On 851
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    862 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 862 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 110 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I Wireless sensor networks: the node and the network, operating systems and ad hoc networks, medium access control, routing, transport and middleware 73 chapters

    1. 1 What a Wireless Sensor Network Is pages 1 to 7
    2. 2 The Architectural Elements of a Sensor Network pages 8 to 14
    3. 3 The Sensor Network Protocol Stack and Its Three Planes pages 15 to 19
    4. 4 The Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks pages 20 to 24
    5. 5 The Challenges of Wireless Sensor Networks pages 25 to 33
    6. 6 Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks pages 34 to 38
    7. 7 Inside a Sensor Node: The Five Units pages 39 to 44
    8. 8 The Radio, the Sensors and the Power Supply of a Node pages 45 to 51
    9. 9 How Long a Node Lasts: The Energy Budget Worked Out pages 52 to 57
    10. 10 Sensor Taxonomy pages 58 to 63
    11. 11 The Operating Environment and the Design Factors pages 64 to 69
    12. 12 Radio Technology in WSNs: The Sensor Radio and Its Link Budget pages 70 to 75
    13. 13 The Wireless Technologies a Sensor Network Can Use pages 76 to 81
    14. 14 Network Architecture: Sources, Sinks, Hops and Mobility pages 82 to 86
    15. 15 Single Hop or Multiple Hops: The Energy Argument Worked Out pages 87 to 92
    16. 16 Optimization Goals: Quality of Service, Energy Efficiency and Lifetime pages 93 to 97
    17. 17 Figures of Merit: Scalability, Robustness and Measuring a Network pages 98 to 101
    18. 18 Deployment and Coverage: Random Against Grid pages 102 to 106
    19. 19 Design Principles: Distributed Organisation and In-network Processing pages 107 to 111
    20. 20 Design Principles: Data Centricity, Location, Activity and Heterogeneity pages 112 to 116
    21. 21 Service Interfaces of a WSN pages 117 to 120
    22. 22 Gateway Concepts pages 121 to 125
    23. 23 Sensor Networks in the Internet of Things: 6LoWPAN, RPL and CoAP pages 126 to 132
    24. 24 Why a Sensor Node Needs an Operating System pages 133 to 136
    25. 25 Event-driven or Multithreaded: The Two Execution Models pages 137 to 141
    26. 26 TinyOS: Components, Tasks and the Scheduler pages 142 to 146
    27. 27 Commands, Events and Split-phase Operation pages 147 to 151
    28. 28 nesC: Modules, Configurations, Interfaces and Wiring pages 152 to 156
    29. 29 Blink: A TinyOS Application Read Line by Line pages 157 to 160
    30. 30 TOSSIM: Simulating Motes, Radio Gain and Packet Loss pages 161 to 173
    31. 31 Contiki, RIOT and the Other Sensor Operating Systems pages 174 to 184
    32. 32 Ad Hoc Networks: MANETs, and How a Sensor Network Differs pages 185 to 192
    33. 33 The Characteristics and Challenges of Ad Hoc Networks in a WSN pages 193 to 201
    34. 34 Time Synchronisation and Localisation pages 202 to 211
    35. 35 Routing in Ad Hoc Networks: Proactive, Reactive and Hybrid pages 212 to 219
    36. 36 AODV: Route Discovery and Route Maintenance pages 220 to 228
    37. 37 DSR, and What Its Routes Cost Against AODV pages 229 to 236
    38. 38 Measuring a MANET Protocol: Throughput, Delivery Ratio and Delay pages 237 to 242
    39. 39 Energy Efficiency in Ad Hoc Networks: Where the Energy Goes pages 243 to 249
    40. 40 Energy-aware Routing pages 250 to 256
    41. 41 Security in Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks: Goals, Constraints and Attacks pages 257 to 264
    42. 42 Routing Attacks: Sinkhole, Sybil, Wormhole and HELLO Flood pages 265 to 272
    43. 43 Keys and Link Security: Key Predistribution, SPINS and 802.15.4 pages 273 to 280
    44. 44 Privacy in Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks pages 281 to 288
    45. 45 MAC Protocols for Sensor Networks: The Job and Where the Energy Goes pages 289 to 297
    46. 46 Contention: ALOHA and CSMA pages 298 to 308
    47. 47 Hidden and Exposed Terminals, and RTS and CTS pages 309 to 316
    48. 48 CSMA/CA Worked Step by Step pages 317 to 324
    49. 49 TDMA and Schedule-based MAC pages 325 to 331
    50. 50 Duty Cycling: Preamble Sampling, B-MAC and X-MAC pages 332 to 340
    51. 51 S-MAC: Periodic Listen and Sleep, and Keeping Neighbours in Step pages 341 to 347
    52. 52 S-MAC: Collision Avoidance, Overhearing Avoidance and Message Passing pages 348 to 354
    53. 53 S-MAC: Latency, Adaptive Listening and the Energy Saved pages 355 to 362
    54. 54 Routing Challenges and Design Issues in WSNs pages 363 to 369
    55. 55 Routing Strategies in WSNs: A Map pages 370 to 376
    56. 56 Flooding, Gossiping and the Broadcast Storm pages 377 to 384
    57. 57 SPIN: Negotiating Before Sending pages 385 to 391
    58. 58 Directed Diffusion and Rumour Routing pages 392 to 400
    59. 59 LEACH: Clusters That Take Turns pages 401 to 408
    60. 60 PEGASIS, TEEN and the Other Hierarchical Protocols pages 409 to 416
    61. 61 Geographic Routing: Greedy Forwarding and GPSR pages 417 to 424
    62. 62 Routing Tables and What Happens When the Topology Changes pages 425 to 432
    63. 63 IEEE 802.15.4: The Standard, Its Devices and Its Topologies pages 433 to 439
    64. 64 The 802.15.4 Physical Layer pages 440 to 453
    65. 65 The 802.15.4 Superframe and Guaranteed Time Slots pages 454 to 465
    66. 66 CSMA-CA, Data Transfer and Frames in 802.15.4 pages 466 to 478
    67. 67 Built on 802.15.4: Zigbee Routing, Security and the Later Amendments pages 479 to 491
    68. 68 Traditional Transport Control Protocols: TCP and UDP pages 492 to 501
    69. 69 Why a Sensor Network Cannot Simply Run TCP pages 502 to 510
    70. 70 Transport Protocol Design Issues in WSNs pages 511 to 520
    71. 71 Transport Protocols Built for Sensor Networks: PSFQ, ESRT, CODA and RMST pages 521 to 530
    72. 72 WSN Middleware: Why It Is Needed, and Its Architecture pages 531 to 539
    73. 73 Middleware Approaches, and TinyDB pages 540 to 549

    Module II Wireless transmission: frequencies, signals, antennas, propagation, multiplexing, modulation and spread spectrum, then cellular systems and GSM, DECT, TETRA and UMTS, and satellite and broadcast systems 37 chapters

    1. 74 Frequencies for Radio Transmission pages 550 to 558
    2. 75 Signals: Amplitude, Frequency and Phase pages 559 to 566
    3. 76 Antennas: Radiators, Dipoles and Radiation Patterns pages 567 to 575
    4. 77 Directional Antennas, Sectorisation, Diversity and Spatial Reuse pages 576 to 584
    5. 78 Signal Propagation: Ranges, Path Loss and How a Signal Travels pages 585 to 593
    6. 79 Multipath, Fading and the Doppler Effect pages 594 to 601
    7. 80 Multiplexing: Space, Frequency, Time and Code pages 602 to 610
    8. 81 Modulation: ASK, FSK and PSK pages 611 to 618
    9. 82 Advanced Modulation: MSK, GMSK, QPSK, QAM and OFDM pages 619 to 627
    10. 83 Spread Spectrum and Direct Sequence pages 628 to 635
    11. 84 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum pages 636 to 643
    12. 85 Cellular Systems: Cells, Clusters and Frequency Reuse pages 644 to 652
    13. 86 Channel Allocation, Cell Splitting, Sectorisation and Cell Breathing pages 653 to 661
    14. 87 GSM and Its Mobile Services pages 662 to 669
    15. 88 The GSM System Architecture pages 670 to 677
    16. 89 The GSM Radio Interface: Carriers, the TDMA Frame and Bursts pages 678 to 685
    17. 90 GSM Logical Channels and the Frame Hierarchy pages 686 to 693
    18. 91 GSM Protocols pages 694 to 700
    19. 92 Localization and Calling in GSM pages 701 to 708
    20. 93 Handover in GSM pages 709 to 715
    21. 94 GSM Security pages 716 to 723
    22. 95 New Data Services: HSCSD, GPRS and EDGE pages 724 to 731
    23. 96 DECT: System Architecture and Protocol Architecture pages 732 to 739
    24. 97 TETRA pages 740 to 747
    25. 98 UMTS and IMT-2000 pages 748 to 754
    26. 99 The UMTS System Architecture: UTRAN and the Core Network pages 755 to 761
    27. 100 The UMTS Radio Interface: W-CDMA, Codes, Power Control and Soft Handover pages 762 to 769
    28. 101 A Web Request Over a Cellular Network pages 770 to 777
    29. 102 The History of Satellite Systems pages 778 to 784
    30. 103 Applications of Satellite Systems pages 785 to 792
    31. 104 Satellite Basics: Orbits, Periods, Elevation and Footprints pages 793 to 802
    32. 105 GEO: The Geostationary Orbit pages 803 to 812
    33. 106 LEO and MEO pages 813 to 821
    34. 107 Routing in Satellite Systems pages 822 to 831
    35. 108 Localization and Handover in Satellite Systems pages 832 to 839
    36. 109 Broadcast Systems: Cyclic Repetition, DAB and DVB pages 840 to 850
    37. 110 Across the Two Modules: The Comparisons Question 3 Draws On pages 851 to 862

  3. Software Testing and Quality Assurance

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Software Testing and Quality Assurance

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    Software Testing and Quality Assurance

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I Testing fundamentals and the test process, the SDLC and quality factors, quality, QA, QC, QM and SQA, verification and validation with reviews, inspection and walkthroughs, and the testing strategies from unit to system testing, debugging and test automation

    1. What Software Testing Is 1
    2. Errors, Faults and Failures 8
    3. Why Software Must Be Tested 15
    4. The Seven Principles of Testing 23
    5. The Basic Test Process 29
    6. The Software Testing Life Cycle, Phase by Phase 35
    7. What a Test Case Is, and What Makes a Good One 40
    8. Test Design Techniques: The Three Families 46
    9. Test Execution 51
    10. Test Reporting 57
    11. Writing a Test Plan 62
    12. The Test Documents, From Design to Completion 68
    13. What a Software Development Life Cycle Is 73
    14. The Waterfall Model, and What Royce Actually Said 77
    15. The V-Model: A Test Level for Every Phase 82
    16. Iterative, Incremental and Spiral Models 86
    17. Agile, Scrum and DevOps: Testing in Short Cycles 91
    18. The Role of Testing in Each Phase 97
    19. Software Quality Factors: McCall's Model 102
    20. From McCall to ISO/IEC 25010: The Quality Model Today 106
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Testing fundamentals and the test process, the SDLC and quality factors, quality, QA, QC, QM and SQA, verification and validation with reviews, inspection and walkthroughs, and the testing strategies from unit to system testing, debugging and test automation

    1. How Quality Factors Shape Testing 111
    2. What Quality Means 116
    3. Quality in Software Development 120
    4. Quality Control and Quality Assurance 129
    5. Quality Management and Software Quality Assurance 135
    6. Verification and Validation, and Why Both Matter 141
    7. The Kinds of V&V: Static and Dynamic Mechanisms 147
    8. Software Reviews: The Process, the Roles and the Types 153
    9. Inspection 159
    10. Walkthrough, and How It Differs From an Inspection 166
    11. A Strategic Approach to Software Testing 172
    12. Test Levels and Test Types 178
    13. Unit Testing: What It Is For 184
    14. Unit Testing Techniques: Drivers, Stubs and Test Doubles 189
    15. Writing Unit Tests With a Framework 194
    16. Unit Testing Best Practices 199
    17. Integration Testing: Why Units That Work Can Fail Together 205
    18. Top-Down, Bottom-Up and Sandwich Integration 210
    19. Regression Testing, Smoke Testing and Continuous Integration 216
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Testing fundamentals and the test process, the SDLC and quality factors, quality, QA, QC, QM and SQA, verification and validation with reviews, inspection and walkthroughs, and the testing strategies from unit to system testing, debugging and test automation

    1. The Challenges of Integration Testing 222
    2. Validation Testing 227
    3. Acceptance Testing: Alpha, Beta and User Acceptance 232
    4. System Testing: The Whole System, End to End 237
    5. Recovery, Security, Stress, Performance and Deployment Testing 242
    6. Load Testing: Users, Ramp-Up, Throughput and Error Rate 248
    7. Cross-Browser and Compatibility Testing 253
    8. Debugging: From a Failure Back to Its Fault 258
    9. Test Automation: What to Automate and What Not To 263
    10. Driving a Browser: WebDriver, Locators and Waits 268
    11. Data-Driven Testing 274
    12. The Page Object Model 279

    Module II Black-box, white-box and experience-based test design, software metrics and complexity, defect management, the quality movement, SQA and reliability, ISO 9000, formal technical reviews, quality costs and the seven basic quality tools

    1. Black-Box and White-Box Testing 284
    2. Specification-Based Testing 293
    3. Equivalence Partitioning 301
    4. Boundary Value Analysis 309
    5. Decision Table Testing 316
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Black-box, white-box and experience-based test design, software metrics and complexity, defect management, the quality movement, SQA and reliability, ISO 9000, formal technical reviews, quality costs and the seven basic quality tools

    1. State Transition Testing 324
    2. Structural Testing: Seeing Inside the Code 331
    3. Statement Testing and Statement Coverage 338
    4. Branch Testing and Branch Coverage 344
    5. Experience-Based Testing 351
    6. Error Guessing 356
    7. Exploratory Testing 361
    8. Checklist-Based Testing 367
    9. What a Software Metric Is, and Why Measure 373
    10. Developing Metrics: Goal, Question, Metric 379
    11. Size Metrics: Lines of Code and Function Points 385
    12. Quality, Process and Test Metrics 392
    13. Object-Oriented Metrics: The CK Suite 397
    14. Cyclomatic Complexity 403
    15. Halstead's Measures and Other Complexity Metrics 409
    16. Why Complexity Matters to Testing: Basis Path Testing 416
    17. What a Defect Is 422
    18. The Defect Life Cycle 427
    19. The Defect Management Process 432
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Black-box, white-box and experience-based test design, software metrics and complexity, defect management, the quality movement, SQA and reliability, ISO 9000, formal technical reviews, quality costs and the seven basic quality tools

    1. Writing a Defect Report: Severity and Priority 437
    2. Tracking Defects to Closure 442
    3. A Defect Tracker at Work: Bugzilla 447
    4. Defect Metrics 453
    5. Using Defect Data to Improve the Process 459
    6. Quality Concepts: Variation, Design and Conformance 464
    7. The Quality Movement: Shewhart, Deming and Juran 473
    8. The Quality Movement: Feigenbaum, Ishikawa, Crosby and TQM 481
    9. Background Issues in Software Quality Assurance 489
    10. The Challenges in Software Quality Assurance 495
    11. SQA Activities: What the SQA Group Does 501
    12. The Software Quality Assurance Plan 507
    13. Approaches to SQA: Formal Methods, Cleanroom and Process Models 513
    14. Statistical Software Quality Assurance and Six Sigma 521
    15. Software Reliability 527
    16. Statistical Process Control: Control Charts for Software 532
    17. Measuring Software Reliability 539
    18. Improving Software Reliability 544
    19. The ISO 9000 Family and the Seven Principles 549
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Black-box, white-box and experience-based test design, software metrics and complexity, defect management, the quality movement, SQA and reliability, ISO 9000, formal technical reviews, quality costs and the seven basic quality tools

    1. ISO 9001: The Requirements, Certification and Software 553
    2. Why Reviews Pay: The Cost of a Late Defect 558
    3. Formal Technical Reviews 563
    4. The Benefits of Formal Technical Reviews 569
    5. Quality Improvement Methodologies: PDCA and Kaizen 573
    6. Lean, CMMI and Choosing a Methodology 578
    7. The Cost of Quality 584
    8. Using Quality Costs for Decision Making 588
    9. The Seven Basic Quality Tools 593
    10. Pareto Diagrams 598
    11. Cause-Effect Diagrams 603
    12. Scatter Diagrams 609
    13. Run Charts 613
    14. What the Examination Asks, and How to Answer It 619
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    623 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 623 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2019, 2021, 2022, 2024
    Every chapter in the notes: 108 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I Testing fundamentals and the test process, the SDLC and quality factors, quality, QA, QC, QM and SQA, verification and validation with reviews, inspection and walkthroughs, and the testing strategies from unit to system testing, debugging and test automation 51 chapters

    1. 1 What Software Testing Is pages 1 to 7
    2. 2 Errors, Faults and Failures pages 8 to 14
    3. 3 Why Software Must Be Tested pages 15 to 22
    4. 4 The Seven Principles of Testing pages 23 to 28
    5. 5 The Basic Test Process pages 29 to 34
    6. 6 The Software Testing Life Cycle, Phase by Phase pages 35 to 39
    7. 7 What a Test Case Is, and What Makes a Good One pages 40 to 45
    8. 8 Test Design Techniques: The Three Families pages 46 to 50
    9. 9 Test Execution pages 51 to 56
    10. 10 Test Reporting pages 57 to 61
    11. 11 Writing a Test Plan pages 62 to 67
    12. 12 The Test Documents, From Design to Completion pages 68 to 72
    13. 13 What a Software Development Life Cycle Is pages 73 to 76
    14. 14 The Waterfall Model, and What Royce Actually Said pages 77 to 81
    15. 15 The V-Model: A Test Level for Every Phase pages 82 to 85
    16. 16 Iterative, Incremental and Spiral Models pages 86 to 90
    17. 17 Agile, Scrum and DevOps: Testing in Short Cycles pages 91 to 96
    18. 18 The Role of Testing in Each Phase pages 97 to 101
    19. 19 Software Quality Factors: McCall's Model pages 102 to 105
    20. 20 From McCall to ISO/IEC 25010: The Quality Model Today pages 106 to 110
    21. 21 How Quality Factors Shape Testing pages 111 to 115
    22. 22 What Quality Means pages 116 to 119
    23. 23 Quality in Software Development pages 120 to 128
    24. 24 Quality Control and Quality Assurance pages 129 to 134
    25. 25 Quality Management and Software Quality Assurance pages 135 to 140
    26. 26 Verification and Validation, and Why Both Matter pages 141 to 146
    27. 27 The Kinds of V&V: Static and Dynamic Mechanisms pages 147 to 152
    28. 28 Software Reviews: The Process, the Roles and the Types pages 153 to 158
    29. 29 Inspection pages 159 to 165
    30. 30 Walkthrough, and How It Differs From an Inspection pages 166 to 171
    31. 31 A Strategic Approach to Software Testing pages 172 to 177
    32. 32 Test Levels and Test Types pages 178 to 183
    33. 33 Unit Testing: What It Is For pages 184 to 188
    34. 34 Unit Testing Techniques: Drivers, Stubs and Test Doubles pages 189 to 193
    35. 35 Writing Unit Tests With a Framework pages 194 to 198
    36. 36 Unit Testing Best Practices pages 199 to 204
    37. 37 Integration Testing: Why Units That Work Can Fail Together pages 205 to 209
    38. 38 Top-Down, Bottom-Up and Sandwich Integration pages 210 to 215
    39. 39 Regression Testing, Smoke Testing and Continuous Integration pages 216 to 221
    40. 40 The Challenges of Integration Testing pages 222 to 226
    41. 41 Validation Testing pages 227 to 231
    42. 42 Acceptance Testing: Alpha, Beta and User Acceptance pages 232 to 236
    43. 43 System Testing: The Whole System, End to End pages 237 to 241
    44. 44 Recovery, Security, Stress, Performance and Deployment Testing pages 242 to 247
    45. 45 Load Testing: Users, Ramp-Up, Throughput and Error Rate pages 248 to 252
    46. 46 Cross-Browser and Compatibility Testing pages 253 to 257
    47. 47 Debugging: From a Failure Back to Its Fault pages 258 to 262
    48. 48 Test Automation: What to Automate and What Not To pages 263 to 267
    49. 49 Driving a Browser: WebDriver, Locators and Waits pages 268 to 273
    50. 50 Data-Driven Testing pages 274 to 278
    51. 51 The Page Object Model pages 279 to 283

    Module II Black-box, white-box and experience-based test design, software metrics and complexity, defect management, the quality movement, SQA and reliability, ISO 9000, formal technical reviews, quality costs and the seven basic quality tools 57 chapters

    1. 52 Black-Box and White-Box Testing pages 284 to 292
    2. 53 Specification-Based Testing pages 293 to 300
    3. 54 Equivalence Partitioning pages 301 to 308
    4. 55 Boundary Value Analysis pages 309 to 315
    5. 56 Decision Table Testing pages 316 to 323
    6. 57 State Transition Testing pages 324 to 330
    7. 58 Structural Testing: Seeing Inside the Code pages 331 to 337
    8. 59 Statement Testing and Statement Coverage pages 338 to 343
    9. 60 Branch Testing and Branch Coverage pages 344 to 350
    10. 61 Experience-Based Testing pages 351 to 355
    11. 62 Error Guessing pages 356 to 360
    12. 63 Exploratory Testing pages 361 to 366
    13. 64 Checklist-Based Testing pages 367 to 372
    14. 65 What a Software Metric Is, and Why Measure pages 373 to 378
    15. 66 Developing Metrics: Goal, Question, Metric pages 379 to 384
    16. 67 Size Metrics: Lines of Code and Function Points pages 385 to 391
    17. 68 Quality, Process and Test Metrics pages 392 to 396
    18. 69 Object-Oriented Metrics: The CK Suite pages 397 to 402
    19. 70 Cyclomatic Complexity pages 403 to 408
    20. 71 Halstead's Measures and Other Complexity Metrics pages 409 to 415
    21. 72 Why Complexity Matters to Testing: Basis Path Testing pages 416 to 421
    22. 73 What a Defect Is pages 422 to 426
    23. 74 The Defect Life Cycle pages 427 to 431
    24. 75 The Defect Management Process pages 432 to 436
    25. 76 Writing a Defect Report: Severity and Priority pages 437 to 441
    26. 77 Tracking Defects to Closure pages 442 to 446
    27. 78 A Defect Tracker at Work: Bugzilla pages 447 to 452
    28. 79 Defect Metrics pages 453 to 458
    29. 80 Using Defect Data to Improve the Process pages 459 to 463
    30. 81 Quality Concepts: Variation, Design and Conformance pages 464 to 472
    31. 82 The Quality Movement: Shewhart, Deming and Juran pages 473 to 480
    32. 83 The Quality Movement: Feigenbaum, Ishikawa, Crosby and TQM pages 481 to 488
    33. 84 Background Issues in Software Quality Assurance pages 489 to 494
    34. 85 The Challenges in Software Quality Assurance pages 495 to 500
    35. 86 SQA Activities: What the SQA Group Does pages 501 to 506
    36. 87 The Software Quality Assurance Plan pages 507 to 512
    37. 88 Approaches to SQA: Formal Methods, Cleanroom and Process Models pages 513 to 520
    38. 89 Statistical Software Quality Assurance and Six Sigma pages 521 to 526
    39. 90 Software Reliability pages 527 to 531
    40. 91 Statistical Process Control: Control Charts for Software pages 532 to 538
    41. 92 Measuring Software Reliability pages 539 to 543
    42. 93 Improving Software Reliability pages 544 to 548
    43. 94 The ISO 9000 Family and the Seven Principles pages 549 to 552
    44. 95 ISO 9001: The Requirements, Certification and Software pages 553 to 557
    45. 96 Why Reviews Pay: The Cost of a Late Defect pages 558 to 562
    46. 97 Formal Technical Reviews pages 563 to 568
    47. 98 The Benefits of Formal Technical Reviews pages 569 to 572
    48. 99 Quality Improvement Methodologies: PDCA and Kaizen pages 573 to 577
    49. 100 Lean, CMMI and Choosing a Methodology pages 578 to 583
    50. 101 The Cost of Quality pages 584 to 587
    51. 102 Using Quality Costs for Decision Making pages 588 to 592
    52. 103 The Seven Basic Quality Tools pages 593 to 597
    53. 104 Pareto Diagrams pages 598 to 602
    54. 105 Cause-Effect Diagrams pages 603 to 608
    55. 106 Scatter Diagrams pages 609 to 612
    56. 107 Run Charts pages 613 to 618
    57. 108 What the Examination Asks, and How to Answer It pages 619 to 623
    Every paper that is solved: 5 papers
    • 2023-24
    • Dec 2022
    • 2020-21
    • 2018-19
    • Oct 2019

  4. IKS in Computational Systems

    Official Notes munotes.in

    IKS in Computational Systems

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    IKS in Computational Systems

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I Sastra methodology and knowledge formalization, Pingala's Chandahsastra as binary encoding and combinatorial generation, and Panini's Astadhyayi as a generative formal grammar

    1. Why a Computer Science Student Reads a Śāstra 1
    2. How This Paper Is Examined, and What That Means for How You Read 4
    3. Śāstra: What Makes a Body of Knowledge Formal 7
    4. The Sūtra Method as Compressed Symbolic Encoding 10
    5. Pramāṇa: Where Knowledge Is Allowed To Come From 13
    6. Pratyakṣa: Perception, and Why It Is Defined So Narrowly 16
    7. Anumāna: Inference in Outline 19
    8. Āgama: Testimony, and the Trusted Source as a Design Decision 22
    9. Knowledge Validation and Structured Reasoning 26
    10. Knowledge Representation: The Modern Name For It 29
    11. Formal Specification: Saying Exactly What a System Must Do 32
    12. Computational Thinking, and the Four Habits It Names 35
    13. Piṅgala's Chandaḥśāstra, and the Text We Are Reading 38
    14. Syllables, Laghu and Guru: Sanskrit Metre Without Sanskrit 41
    15. Laghu and Guru as One Bit 44
    16. Prastāra: The Table of Every Pattern 47
    17. The Prastāra Rule Read as an Algorithm 51
    18. Prastāra in Code 55
    19. Binary Number Systems, and Exactly Where Piṅgala's Order Agrees 59
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Sastra methodology and knowledge formalization, Pingala's Chandahsastra as binary encoding and combinatorial generation, and Panini's Astadhyayi as a generative formal grammar

    1. Saṅkhyā: Counting the Rows Without Writing Them 63
    2. Binary Exponentiation: The Same Algorithm in a Modern Textbook 67
    3. Uddiṣṭa: From a Pattern to Its Row Number 70
    4. Naṣṭa: From a Row Number Back to the Pattern 73
    5. Index Retrieval, and Proving Two Rules Are Inverses 77
    6. Recursive Enumeration 80
    7. Tree Structures, and the Prastāra as a Binary Tree 83
    8. Meru-Prastāra: Halāyudha's Staircase 87
    9. Pascal Triangle and Combinatorics 91
    10. Meru-Prastāra as a Dynamic Programming Model 95
    11. Lagakriyā and Adhvayoga: The Rest of the Pratyayas 99
    12. Algorithmic Generation: What Piṅgala Actually Achieved 102
    13. Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī, and the Text We Are Reading 105
    14. The Six Kinds of Sūtra, in Vasu's Own Words 108
    15. The Fourteen Śivasūtras and the Pratyāhāra 112
    16. Anubandha: The Marker Letter as a Type Tag 116
    17. Rule-Based Generative Structure 119
    18. Meta-Rules: Paribhāṣā, and Rules About Rules 122
    19. Rule Precedence: The Four Principles 125
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Sastra methodology and knowledge formalization, Pingala's Chandahsastra as binary encoding and combinatorial generation, and Panini's Astadhyayi as a generative formal grammar

    1. Vipratiṣedha: When Two Rules Collide, the Later Wins 128
    2. Context-Sensitive Operations 131
    3. Asiddhatva and the Tripādī: Ordering by Blocking 134
    4. Conflict Resolution Mechanisms, Collected 137
    5. Formal Grammars: Alphabet, Rule, Derivation, Language 140
    6. Context-Free Grammar, and Whether Pāṇini Wrote One 143
    7. The Chomsky Hierarchy, and Where the Aṣṭādhyāyī Sits 147
    8. Rewrite Systems 150
    9. Automata Theory Foundations: The Finite Automaton 154
    10. Śāstra Rule Precedence as a Deterministic Finite Rewrite System 158
    11. Parsing Algorithms 164
    12. Foundations of NLP, and What Pāṇinian Grammar Contributed 168
    13. Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as a Rule-Based Grammar Engine 172
    14. Practice for Module I 176

    Module II Nyaya logic as structured inference, Ayurvedic classification as a rule-based expert system, and Arthasastra cryptography as a secure communication model

    1. Nyāya: The School, the Sūtra and the Sixteen Categories 181
    2. The Four Pramāṇas of Nyāya, and Why Charaka Has Three 184
    3. Anumāna: Vyāpti, and the Three Kinds of Inference 187
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Nyaya logic as structured inference, Ayurvedic classification as a rule-based expert system, and Arthasastra cryptography as a secure communication model

    1. The Five-Member Syllogism 191
    2. The Five Members Worked, Three Times 195
    3. Five Members Against Aristotle's Three 198
    4. Hetvābhāsa: The Five Fallacies of the Reason 201
    5. Chala, Jāti and Nigrahasthāna: How a Debate Is Lost 205
    6. Vāda, Jalpa and Vitaṇḍā: Three Kinds of Dispute 209
    7. Debate Methodology as a Validation Protocol 213
    8. Padārtha: The Categories of What Exists 217
    9. Padārtha Ontology as a Knowledge Representation Model 221
    10. Propositional Logic: The Minimum You Need 226
    11. Predicate Logic, and Why Anumāna Needs It 231
    12. The Five Members Written in Logical Notation 234
    13. Inference Engines: Forward and Backward Chaining 237
    14. Nyāya Logic as an Inference Engine 241
    15. Explainable AI, and Why a Five-Member Answer Is an Explanation 246
    16. Āyurveda as a Śāstra, and What This Chapter Does Not Claim 250
    17. The Tridoṣa Framework 254
    18. Doṣa as a Feature Vector 258
    19. Prakṛti: Constitution as a Class Label 262
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Nyaya logic as structured inference, Ayurvedic classification as a rule-based expert system, and Arthasastra cryptography as a secure communication model

    1. Parīkṣā: How an Examination Is Structured 265
    2. Symptom to Feature Mapping 269
    3. Multi-Attribute Classification 273
    4. Decision Principles in Diagnosis 276
    5. Decision Trees 280
    6. A Decision Tree Built From the Tridoṣa Attributes 285
    7. Rule-Based Systems 289
    8. Expert Systems, and MYCIN as the Comparison 293
    9. Feature Engineering 297
    10. Multi-Class Classification, and How It Is Scored 300
    11. Ayurvedic Classification as a Rule-Based Expert System 303
    12. The Arthaśāstra, and Its Intelligence Apparatus 310
    13. Secret Communication: What the Text Actually Says 313
    14. The Royal Writs as a Message Format 316
    15. Substitution Systems 319
    16. Transposition Systems 323
    17. Substitution and Transposition in Code 328
    18. Concealment and Coded Messaging 335
    19. Basic Steganography 338
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Nyaya logic as structured inference, Ayurvedic classification as a rule-based expert system, and Arthasastra cryptography as a secure communication model

    1. Information Protection Mechanisms 342
    2. Symmetric Encryption 345
    3. Cipher Algorithms, Classical to Modern 348
    4. Breaking a Classical Cipher 351
    5. Arthaśāstra-Inspired Cryptography as a Symmetric Cipher System 356
    6. Secure Protocol Abstraction 360
    7. Foundations of Cybersecurity 363
    8. The Internal Assessment: Building and Presenting the Implementation 366
    9. Practice for Module II 370
    10. The Whole Paper on One Page 374
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    378 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 378 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 103 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I Sastra methodology and knowledge formalization, Pingala's Chandahsastra as binary encoding and combinatorial generation, and Panini's Astadhyayi as a generative formal grammar 52 chapters

    1. 1 Why a Computer Science Student Reads a Śāstra pages 1 to 3
    2. 2 How This Paper Is Examined, and What That Means for How You Read pages 4 to 6
    3. 3 Śāstra: What Makes a Body of Knowledge Formal pages 7 to 9
    4. 4 The Sūtra Method as Compressed Symbolic Encoding pages 10 to 12
    5. 5 Pramāṇa: Where Knowledge Is Allowed To Come From pages 13 to 15
    6. 6 Pratyakṣa: Perception, and Why It Is Defined So Narrowly pages 16 to 18
    7. 7 Anumāna: Inference in Outline pages 19 to 21
    8. 8 Āgama: Testimony, and the Trusted Source as a Design Decision pages 22 to 25
    9. 9 Knowledge Validation and Structured Reasoning pages 26 to 28
    10. 10 Knowledge Representation: The Modern Name For It pages 29 to 31
    11. 11 Formal Specification: Saying Exactly What a System Must Do pages 32 to 34
    12. 12 Computational Thinking, and the Four Habits It Names pages 35 to 37
    13. 13 Piṅgala's Chandaḥśāstra, and the Text We Are Reading pages 38 to 40
    14. 14 Syllables, Laghu and Guru: Sanskrit Metre Without Sanskrit pages 41 to 43
    15. 15 Laghu and Guru as One Bit pages 44 to 46
    16. 16 Prastāra: The Table of Every Pattern pages 47 to 50
    17. 17 The Prastāra Rule Read as an Algorithm pages 51 to 54
    18. 18 Prastāra in Code pages 55 to 58
    19. 19 Binary Number Systems, and Exactly Where Piṅgala's Order Agrees pages 59 to 62
    20. 20 Saṅkhyā: Counting the Rows Without Writing Them pages 63 to 66
    21. 21 Binary Exponentiation: The Same Algorithm in a Modern Textbook pages 67 to 69
    22. 22 Uddiṣṭa: From a Pattern to Its Row Number pages 70 to 72
    23. 23 Naṣṭa: From a Row Number Back to the Pattern pages 73 to 76
    24. 24 Index Retrieval, and Proving Two Rules Are Inverses pages 77 to 79
    25. 25 Recursive Enumeration pages 80 to 82
    26. 26 Tree Structures, and the Prastāra as a Binary Tree pages 83 to 86
    27. 27 Meru-Prastāra: Halāyudha's Staircase pages 87 to 90
    28. 28 Pascal Triangle and Combinatorics pages 91 to 94
    29. 29 Meru-Prastāra as a Dynamic Programming Model pages 95 to 98
    30. 30 Lagakriyā and Adhvayoga: The Rest of the Pratyayas pages 99 to 101
    31. 31 Algorithmic Generation: What Piṅgala Actually Achieved pages 102 to 104
    32. 32 Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī, and the Text We Are Reading pages 105 to 107
    33. 33 The Six Kinds of Sūtra, in Vasu's Own Words pages 108 to 111
    34. 34 The Fourteen Śivasūtras and the Pratyāhāra pages 112 to 115
    35. 35 Anubandha: The Marker Letter as a Type Tag pages 116 to 118
    36. 36 Rule-Based Generative Structure pages 119 to 121
    37. 37 Meta-Rules: Paribhāṣā, and Rules About Rules pages 122 to 124
    38. 38 Rule Precedence: The Four Principles pages 125 to 127
    39. 39 Vipratiṣedha: When Two Rules Collide, the Later Wins pages 128 to 130
    40. 40 Context-Sensitive Operations pages 131 to 133
    41. 41 Asiddhatva and the Tripādī: Ordering by Blocking pages 134 to 136
    42. 42 Conflict Resolution Mechanisms, Collected pages 137 to 139
    43. 43 Formal Grammars: Alphabet, Rule, Derivation, Language pages 140 to 142
    44. 44 Context-Free Grammar, and Whether Pāṇini Wrote One pages 143 to 146
    45. 45 The Chomsky Hierarchy, and Where the Aṣṭādhyāyī Sits pages 147 to 149
    46. 46 Rewrite Systems pages 150 to 153
    47. 47 Automata Theory Foundations: The Finite Automaton pages 154 to 157
    48. 48 Śāstra Rule Precedence as a Deterministic Finite Rewrite System pages 158 to 163
    49. 49 Parsing Algorithms pages 164 to 167
    50. 50 Foundations of NLP, and What Pāṇinian Grammar Contributed pages 168 to 171
    51. 51 Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as a Rule-Based Grammar Engine pages 172 to 175
    52. 52 Practice for Module I pages 176 to 180

    Module II Nyaya logic as structured inference, Ayurvedic classification as a rule-based expert system, and Arthasastra cryptography as a secure communication model 51 chapters

    1. 53 Nyāya: The School, the Sūtra and the Sixteen Categories pages 181 to 183
    2. 54 The Four Pramāṇas of Nyāya, and Why Charaka Has Three pages 184 to 186
    3. 55 Anumāna: Vyāpti, and the Three Kinds of Inference pages 187 to 190
    4. 56 The Five-Member Syllogism pages 191 to 194
    5. 57 The Five Members Worked, Three Times pages 195 to 197
    6. 58 Five Members Against Aristotle's Three pages 198 to 200
    7. 59 Hetvābhāsa: The Five Fallacies of the Reason pages 201 to 204
    8. 60 Chala, Jāti and Nigrahasthāna: How a Debate Is Lost pages 205 to 208
    9. 61 Vāda, Jalpa and Vitaṇḍā: Three Kinds of Dispute pages 209 to 212
    10. 62 Debate Methodology as a Validation Protocol pages 213 to 216
    11. 63 Padārtha: The Categories of What Exists pages 217 to 220
    12. 64 Padārtha Ontology as a Knowledge Representation Model pages 221 to 225
    13. 65 Propositional Logic: The Minimum You Need pages 226 to 230
    14. 66 Predicate Logic, and Why Anumāna Needs It pages 231 to 233
    15. 67 The Five Members Written in Logical Notation pages 234 to 236
    16. 68 Inference Engines: Forward and Backward Chaining pages 237 to 240
    17. 69 Nyāya Logic as an Inference Engine pages 241 to 245
    18. 70 Explainable AI, and Why a Five-Member Answer Is an Explanation pages 246 to 249
    19. 71 Āyurveda as a Śāstra, and What This Chapter Does Not Claim pages 250 to 253
    20. 72 The Tridoṣa Framework pages 254 to 257
    21. 73 Doṣa as a Feature Vector pages 258 to 261
    22. 74 Prakṛti: Constitution as a Class Label pages 262 to 264
    23. 75 Parīkṣā: How an Examination Is Structured pages 265 to 268
    24. 76 Symptom to Feature Mapping pages 269 to 272
    25. 77 Multi-Attribute Classification pages 273 to 275
    26. 78 Decision Principles in Diagnosis pages 276 to 279
    27. 79 Decision Trees pages 280 to 284
    28. 80 A Decision Tree Built From the Tridoṣa Attributes pages 285 to 288
    29. 81 Rule-Based Systems pages 289 to 292
    30. 82 Expert Systems, and MYCIN as the Comparison pages 293 to 296
    31. 83 Feature Engineering pages 297 to 299
    32. 84 Multi-Class Classification, and How It Is Scored pages 300 to 302
    33. 85 Ayurvedic Classification as a Rule-Based Expert System pages 303 to 309
    34. 86 The Arthaśāstra, and Its Intelligence Apparatus pages 310 to 312
    35. 87 Secret Communication: What the Text Actually Says pages 313 to 315
    36. 88 The Royal Writs as a Message Format pages 316 to 318
    37. 89 Substitution Systems pages 319 to 322
    38. 90 Transposition Systems pages 323 to 327
    39. 91 Substitution and Transposition in Code pages 328 to 334
    40. 92 Concealment and Coded Messaging pages 335 to 337
    41. 93 Basic Steganography pages 338 to 341
    42. 94 Information Protection Mechanisms pages 342 to 344
    43. 95 Symmetric Encryption pages 345 to 347
    44. 96 Cipher Algorithms, Classical to Modern pages 348 to 350
    45. 97 Breaking a Classical Cipher pages 351 to 355
    46. 98 Arthaśāstra-Inspired Cryptography as a Symmetric Cipher System pages 356 to 359
    47. 99 Secure Protocol Abstraction pages 360 to 362
    48. 100 Foundations of Cybersecurity pages 363 to 365
    49. 101 The Internal Assessment: Building and Presenting the Implementation pages 366 to 369
    50. 102 Practice for Module II pages 370 to 373
    51. 103 The Whole Paper on One Page pages 374 to 378

  5. Cyber and Information Security

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Cyber and Information Security

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    Cyber and Information Security

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I Introduction, classical encryption, public-key cryptography and RSA, key management, message authentication and hash functions

    1. What Security Means: Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability 1
    2. The Security Trend: Why Attacks Got Easier as Attackers Got Less Skilled 5
    3. The OSI Security Architecture: The Words This Subject Is Spoken In 10
    4. Security Attacks: Passive and Active 15
    5. Security Services: The Five Things Security Promises 20
    6. Security Mechanisms, and Which Service Each One Serves 25
    7. The Symmetric Cipher Model 30
    8. Cryptanalysis and the Attack Models 35
    9. The Caesar Cipher, and Breaking It in Twenty-five Tries 41
    10. Monoalphabetic Substitution, and Breaking It by Frequency 46
    11. The Playfair Cipher 51
    12. The Hill Cipher 57
    13. Polyalphabetic Ciphers: Vigenere and the Autokey 64
    14. The One-Time Pad, and What Perfect Secrecy Means 70
    15. Transposition Techniques: Rail Fence and Row Transposition 75
    16. Steganography: Hiding That There Is a Message at All 81
    17. Block Ciphers and Stream Ciphers: The Difference That Decides Everything 86
    18. The Feistel Cipher Structure, Confusion and Diffusion 91
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Introduction, classical encryption, public-key cryptography and RSA, key management, message authentication and hash functions

    1. The Data Encryption Standard: The Shape of It 97
    2. Inside a DES Round: Expansion, the S-boxes and the Permutation 102
    3. The DES Key Schedule 110
    4. DES Run End to End: Decryption, and the Avalanche Effect 116
    5. The Strength of DES: Fifty-six Bits, and the Machines That Broke It 125
    6. The Advanced Encryption Standard 131
    7. Multiple Encryption, Double DES and the Meet-in-the-Middle Attack 138
    8. Triple DES, and Where It Stands Now 145
    9. Electronic Codebook Mode, and Why It Leaks 154
    10. Cipher Block Chaining 160
    11. Cipher Feedback, Output Feedback and Counter Mode 166
    12. Stream Ciphers and RC4 173
    13. The Arithmetic of Public Keys: Modular Arithmetic and the gcd 179
    14. Fermat, Euler and the Totient Function 187
    15. Fast Modular Exponentiation, and Testing a Number for Primality 194
    16. Principles of Public-Key Cryptosystems 202
    17. The RSA Algorithm 208
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Introduction, classical encryption, public-key cryptography and RSA, key management, message authentication and hash functions

    1. Why RSA Works, and How It Is Attacked 215
    2. Textbook RSA Is Not RSA: Why Padding Exists 223
    3. Distributing a Public Key: Announcement, Directory, Authority, Certificate 230
    4. Key Management for Secret Keys: Session Keys and the Key Hierarchy 235
    5. Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange 241
    6. The Man in the Middle, and Why Diffie-Hellman Needs Authentication 250
    7. Authentication Requirements: The Attacks on a Message 256
    8. Authentication Functions: Encryption, MAC and Hash 260
    9. Message Authentication Codes 265
    10. Hash Functions: What One Must Do 271
    11. How a Hash Function Is Built, and Breaking a Small One 276
    12. Security of Hash Functions and MACs: The Birthday Attack 282
    13. The Secure Hash Algorithm: SHA-1, SHA-256 and SHA-512 289
    14. HMAC 298
    15. Practical: Writing a Substitution and a Transposition Cipher 306
    16. Practical: Generating and Verifying a Message Authentication Code 311
    17. Practical: A Diffie-Hellman Exchange in Code 316
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II Digital signatures and authentication, authentication applications, electronic mail security, IP security, web security, intrusion, malicious software and firewalls

    1. Digital Signatures: What One Is and What It Must Do 322
    2. The RSA Digital Signature 327
    3. The ElGamal and Schnorr Signature Schemes 333
    4. Direct and Arbitrated Digital Signatures 340
    5. Authentication Protocols: Mutual Authentication and the Replay Problem 345
    6. One-Way Authentication, and Authentication with a Public Key 352
    7. The Digital Signature Standard, and the DSA Algorithm 357
    8. What the Signature Standard Says Today, and Why DSA Left It 364
    9. Kerberos: The Problem It Solves 371
    10. The Kerberos Dialogue, Step by Step 381
    11. Kerberos Version 5, Realms and What Changed 392
    12. X.509: The Certificate and Its Fields 402
    13. Certificate Chains, Revocation and the CRL 413
    14. Public-Key Infrastructure 425
    15. Pretty Good Privacy: The Five Services 434
    16. How a PGP Message Is Built, and Radix-64 443
    17. PGP Key Management and the Web of Trust 452
    18. S/MIME 460
    19. IP Security: What It Is For 468
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Digital signatures and authentication, authentication applications, electronic mail security, IP security, web security, intrusion, malicious software and firewalls

    1. The IPsec Architecture: SA, SPD, Transport and Tunnel Mode 475
    2. The Authentication Header 483
    3. Encapsulating Security Payload 490
    4. Combining Security Associations 496
    5. IPsec Key Management: Oakley, ISAKMP and IKE 503
    6. Web Security Considerations 512
    7. SSL: The Architecture and the Record Protocol 518
    8. The SSL and TLS Handshake 525
    9. TLS, and What Each Version Fixed 533
    10. Secure Electronic Transaction, and the Dual Signature 544
    11. Intruders: Who They Are and What They Do 552
    12. Intrusion Techniques: Attacking the Password File 558
    13. Password Selection and Management 564
    14. Intrusion Detection: Statistical Anomaly and Rule-Based 571
    15. Audit Records, Distributed Intrusion Detection and Honeypots 577
    16. Malicious Software: The Taxonomy 584
    17. Viruses: The Four Phases, the Structure and the Types 589
    18. Worms, and the Ones That Made History 596
    19. Virus Countermeasures 603
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Digital signatures and authentication, authentication applications, electronic mail security, IP security, web security, intrusion, malicious software and firewalls

    1. Denial of Service and Distributed Denial of Service 609
    2. DDoS Countermeasures 615
    3. Firewall Design Principles 621
    4. Types of Firewalls 627
    5. Firewall Configurations, and a Rule Base Read Line by Line 634
    6. Practical: Signing and Verifying a Message in Code 640
    7. Practical: Configuring IPsec, and Reading the Policy Back 645
    8. Practical: Certificates and a Secure Session, End to End 651
    9. Practical: Setting Up an Intrusion Detection System 657
    10. Practical: Analysing a Malware Sample, Safely 662
    11. How the Paper Is Set, and How to Answer It 668
    12. The Comparisons That Cross Both Modules 673
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    678 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 678 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2019, 2022, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 102 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I Introduction, classical encryption, public-key cryptography and RSA, key management, message authentication and hash functions 52 chapters

    1. 1 What Security Means: Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability pages 1 to 4
    2. 2 The Security Trend: Why Attacks Got Easier as Attackers Got Less Skilled pages 5 to 9
    3. 3 The OSI Security Architecture: The Words This Subject Is Spoken In pages 10 to 14
    4. 4 Security Attacks: Passive and Active pages 15 to 19
    5. 5 Security Services: The Five Things Security Promises pages 20 to 24
    6. 6 Security Mechanisms, and Which Service Each One Serves pages 25 to 29
    7. 7 The Symmetric Cipher Model pages 30 to 34
    8. 8 Cryptanalysis and the Attack Models pages 35 to 40
    9. 9 The Caesar Cipher, and Breaking It in Twenty-five Tries pages 41 to 45
    10. 10 Monoalphabetic Substitution, and Breaking It by Frequency pages 46 to 50
    11. 11 The Playfair Cipher pages 51 to 56
    12. 12 The Hill Cipher pages 57 to 63
    13. 13 Polyalphabetic Ciphers: Vigenere and the Autokey pages 64 to 69
    14. 14 The One-Time Pad, and What Perfect Secrecy Means pages 70 to 74
    15. 15 Transposition Techniques: Rail Fence and Row Transposition pages 75 to 80
    16. 16 Steganography: Hiding That There Is a Message at All pages 81 to 85
    17. 17 Block Ciphers and Stream Ciphers: The Difference That Decides Everything pages 86 to 90
    18. 18 The Feistel Cipher Structure, Confusion and Diffusion pages 91 to 96
    19. 19 The Data Encryption Standard: The Shape of It pages 97 to 101
    20. 20 Inside a DES Round: Expansion, the S-boxes and the Permutation pages 102 to 109
    21. 21 The DES Key Schedule pages 110 to 115
    22. 22 DES Run End to End: Decryption, and the Avalanche Effect pages 116 to 124
    23. 23 The Strength of DES: Fifty-six Bits, and the Machines That Broke It pages 125 to 130
    24. 24 The Advanced Encryption Standard pages 131 to 137
    25. 25 Multiple Encryption, Double DES and the Meet-in-the-Middle Attack pages 138 to 144
    26. 26 Triple DES, and Where It Stands Now pages 145 to 153
    27. 27 Electronic Codebook Mode, and Why It Leaks pages 154 to 159
    28. 28 Cipher Block Chaining pages 160 to 165
    29. 29 Cipher Feedback, Output Feedback and Counter Mode pages 166 to 172
    30. 30 Stream Ciphers and RC4 pages 173 to 178
    31. 31 The Arithmetic of Public Keys: Modular Arithmetic and the gcd pages 179 to 186
    32. 32 Fermat, Euler and the Totient Function pages 187 to 193
    33. 33 Fast Modular Exponentiation, and Testing a Number for Primality pages 194 to 201
    34. 34 Principles of Public-Key Cryptosystems pages 202 to 207
    35. 35 The RSA Algorithm pages 208 to 214
    36. 36 Why RSA Works, and How It Is Attacked pages 215 to 222
    37. 37 Textbook RSA Is Not RSA: Why Padding Exists pages 223 to 229
    38. 38 Distributing a Public Key: Announcement, Directory, Authority, Certificate pages 230 to 234
    39. 39 Key Management for Secret Keys: Session Keys and the Key Hierarchy pages 235 to 240
    40. 40 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange pages 241 to 249
    41. 41 The Man in the Middle, and Why Diffie-Hellman Needs Authentication pages 250 to 255
    42. 42 Authentication Requirements: The Attacks on a Message pages 256 to 259
    43. 43 Authentication Functions: Encryption, MAC and Hash pages 260 to 264
    44. 44 Message Authentication Codes pages 265 to 270
    45. 45 Hash Functions: What One Must Do pages 271 to 275
    46. 46 How a Hash Function Is Built, and Breaking a Small One pages 276 to 281
    47. 47 Security of Hash Functions and MACs: The Birthday Attack pages 282 to 288
    48. 48 The Secure Hash Algorithm: SHA-1, SHA-256 and SHA-512 pages 289 to 297
    49. 49 HMAC pages 298 to 305
    50. 50 Practical: Writing a Substitution and a Transposition Cipher pages 306 to 310
    51. 51 Practical: Generating and Verifying a Message Authentication Code pages 311 to 315
    52. 52 Practical: A Diffie-Hellman Exchange in Code pages 316 to 321

    Module II Digital signatures and authentication, authentication applications, electronic mail security, IP security, web security, intrusion, malicious software and firewalls 50 chapters

    1. 53 Digital Signatures: What One Is and What It Must Do pages 322 to 326
    2. 54 The RSA Digital Signature pages 327 to 332
    3. 55 The ElGamal and Schnorr Signature Schemes pages 333 to 339
    4. 56 Direct and Arbitrated Digital Signatures pages 340 to 344
    5. 57 Authentication Protocols: Mutual Authentication and the Replay Problem pages 345 to 351
    6. 58 One-Way Authentication, and Authentication with a Public Key pages 352 to 356
    7. 59 The Digital Signature Standard, and the DSA Algorithm pages 357 to 363
    8. 60 What the Signature Standard Says Today, and Why DSA Left It pages 364 to 370
    9. 61 Kerberos: The Problem It Solves pages 371 to 380
    10. 62 The Kerberos Dialogue, Step by Step pages 381 to 391
    11. 63 Kerberos Version 5, Realms and What Changed pages 392 to 401
    12. 64 X.509: The Certificate and Its Fields pages 402 to 412
    13. 65 Certificate Chains, Revocation and the CRL pages 413 to 424
    14. 66 Public-Key Infrastructure pages 425 to 433
    15. 67 Pretty Good Privacy: The Five Services pages 434 to 442
    16. 68 How a PGP Message Is Built, and Radix-64 pages 443 to 451
    17. 69 PGP Key Management and the Web of Trust pages 452 to 459
    18. 70 S/MIME pages 460 to 467
    19. 71 IP Security: What It Is For pages 468 to 474
    20. 72 The IPsec Architecture: SA, SPD, Transport and Tunnel Mode pages 475 to 482
    21. 73 The Authentication Header pages 483 to 489
    22. 74 Encapsulating Security Payload pages 490 to 495
    23. 75 Combining Security Associations pages 496 to 502
    24. 76 IPsec Key Management: Oakley, ISAKMP and IKE pages 503 to 511
    25. 77 Web Security Considerations pages 512 to 517
    26. 78 SSL: The Architecture and the Record Protocol pages 518 to 524
    27. 79 The SSL and TLS Handshake pages 525 to 532
    28. 80 TLS, and What Each Version Fixed pages 533 to 543
    29. 81 Secure Electronic Transaction, and the Dual Signature pages 544 to 551
    30. 82 Intruders: Who They Are and What They Do pages 552 to 557
    31. 83 Intrusion Techniques: Attacking the Password File pages 558 to 563
    32. 84 Password Selection and Management pages 564 to 570
    33. 85 Intrusion Detection: Statistical Anomaly and Rule-Based pages 571 to 576
    34. 86 Audit Records, Distributed Intrusion Detection and Honeypots pages 577 to 583
    35. 87 Malicious Software: The Taxonomy pages 584 to 588
    36. 88 Viruses: The Four Phases, the Structure and the Types pages 589 to 595
    37. 89 Worms, and the Ones That Made History pages 596 to 602
    38. 90 Virus Countermeasures pages 603 to 608
    39. 91 Denial of Service and Distributed Denial of Service pages 609 to 614
    40. 92 DDoS Countermeasures pages 615 to 620
    41. 93 Firewall Design Principles pages 621 to 626
    42. 94 Types of Firewalls pages 627 to 633
    43. 95 Firewall Configurations, and a Rule Base Read Line by Line pages 634 to 639
    44. 96 Practical: Signing and Verifying a Message in Code pages 640 to 644
    45. 97 Practical: Configuring IPsec, and Reading the Policy Back pages 645 to 650
    46. 98 Practical: Certificates and a Secure Session, End to End pages 651 to 656
    47. 99 Practical: Setting Up an Intrusion Detection System pages 657 to 661
    48. 100 Practical: Analysing a Malware Sample, Safely pages 662 to 667
    49. 101 How the Paper Is Set, and How to Answer It pages 668 to 672
    50. 102 The Comparisons That Cross Both Modules pages 673 to 678
    Every paper that is solved: 7 papers
    • Mar 2026
    • Mar 2025
    • Oct 2025
    • 2023-24
    • Nov 2024
    • Nov 2022
    • Oct 2019

  6. Artificial Intelligence

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Artificial Intelligence

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    Artificial Intelligence

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I Intelligent agents, problem solving and search, knowledge representation and logical reasoning, and reasoning under uncertainty

    1. What Artificial Intelligence Is 1
    2. Acting Rationally, or Thinking Like a Human 6
    3. The Agent and Its Environment 10
    4. Types of Environment 15
    5. The Simple Reflex Agent 20
    6. The Model-Based Reflex Agent 24
    7. The Goal-Based Agent 29
    8. The Utility-Based Agent 34
    9. The Learning Agent 39
    10. Formulating a Problem for Search 45
    11. The Search Tree, and How an Algorithm Is Judged 51
    12. Breadth First Search 57
    13. Depth First Search 62
    14. Uniform Cost Search 67
    15. Iterative Deepening Search 73
    16. Heuristics: Estimating What Is Left To Do 78
    17. Greedy Best First Search 85
    18. A* Search 90
    19. Admissibility, and Why A* Is Optimal 96
    20. Consistency, and A* on a Graph 102
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Intelligent agents, problem solving and search, knowledge representation and logical reasoning, and reasoning under uncertainty

    1. Recursive Best First Search 108
    2. Comparing Two Search Algorithms on One Problem 113
    3. Games as Search 119
    4. Minimax 124
    5. Alpha-Beta Pruning 129
    6. The Knowledge-Based Agent 136
    7. Propositional Logic: Syntax and Meaning 142
    8. Entailment, Models and Validity 147
    9. Inference in Propositional Logic 152
    10. Conjunctive Normal Form and Resolution 157
    11. First-Order Logic 163
    12. Inference in First-Order Logic: Unification and Chaining 168
    13. Rule-Based Systems and Expert Systems 175
    14. Planning and STRIPS 181
    15. Fuzzy Logic and the Membership Function 187
    16. Fuzzification, the Rule Base and Defuzzification 193
    17. Why an Agent Needs Probability 199
    18. The Joint Distribution and Inference by Enumeration 204
    19. Bayes Theorem 209
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Intelligent agents, problem solving and search, knowledge representation and logical reasoning, and reasoning under uncertainty

    1. Conditional Independence 215
    2. Bayesian Networks 221
    3. Inference in a Bayesian Network 227

    Module II Machine learning, supervised models, probabilistic and latent variable models, unsupervised and reinforcement learning, and responsible AI

    1. What Machine Learning Is 234
    2. Supervised Learning 240
    3. Unsupervised Learning 246
    4. Reinforcement Learning: The Third Form 250
    5. Parametric and Nonparametric Models 254
    6. Bias and Variance 259
    7. Overfitting and Underfitting 265
    8. Regularization 271
    9. Gradient Descent 277
    10. Classification and Regression 284
    11. k-Nearest Neighbours 290
    12. k-NN for Regression, and What Limits the Method 296
    13. Entropy and Information Gain 302
    14. Decision Tree Learning 308
    15. Reading, Drawing and Pruning a Decision Tree 314
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Machine learning, supervised models, probabilistic and latent variable models, unsupervised and reinforcement learning, and responsible AI

    1. The Naive Bayes Classifier 321
    2. Support Vector Machines: The Margin 328
    3. The Soft Margin and the Kernel 334
    4. The Artificial Neuron and the Perceptron 342
    5. The Multilayer Network and Backpropagation 349
    6. What Deep Learning Is 357
    7. Ensemble Methods, Bagging and the Random Forest 362
    8. Boosting and AdaBoost 370
    9. Evaluating a Model 378
    10. The Statistical Learning Framework 387
    11. Maximum Likelihood Estimation 395
    12. Learning with Complete Data 404
    13. Hidden Variables 412
    14. The EM Algorithm 420
    15. Hidden Markov Models 430
    16. The Forward Algorithm and Viterbi 439
    17. Clustering and k-Means 451
    18. Hierarchical Clustering, and Judging a Clustering 462
    19. Support, Confidence and Lift 475
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Machine learning, supervised models, probabilistic and latent variable models, unsupervised and reinforcement learning, and responsible AI

    1. The Apriori Algorithm 485
    2. The Reinforcement Learning Framework 495
    3. Markov Decision Processes 505
    4. The Bellman Equations, Value Iteration and Policy Iteration 514
    5. Q-Learning 525
    6. Ethical Issues in AI Systems 537
    7. Bias and Fairness in AI Models 543
    8. Transparency and Explainability 553
    9. Accountability and Human Oversight 559
    10. Hallucination in Generative AI 564
    11. Deepfakes and Misuse 575
    12. Using an AI Library Responsibly 581
    13. What the Examination Asks, and How to Answer It 587
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    591 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 591 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 89 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I Intelligent agents, problem solving and search, knowledge representation and logical reasoning, and reasoning under uncertainty 42 chapters

    1. 1 What Artificial Intelligence Is pages 1 to 5
    2. 2 Acting Rationally, or Thinking Like a Human pages 6 to 9
    3. 3 The Agent and Its Environment pages 10 to 14
    4. 4 Types of Environment pages 15 to 19
    5. 5 The Simple Reflex Agent pages 20 to 23
    6. 6 The Model-Based Reflex Agent pages 24 to 28
    7. 7 The Goal-Based Agent pages 29 to 33
    8. 8 The Utility-Based Agent pages 34 to 38
    9. 9 The Learning Agent pages 39 to 44
    10. 10 Formulating a Problem for Search pages 45 to 50
    11. 11 The Search Tree, and How an Algorithm Is Judged pages 51 to 56
    12. 12 Breadth First Search pages 57 to 61
    13. 13 Depth First Search pages 62 to 66
    14. 14 Uniform Cost Search pages 67 to 72
    15. 15 Iterative Deepening Search pages 73 to 77
    16. 16 Heuristics: Estimating What Is Left To Do pages 78 to 84
    17. 17 Greedy Best First Search pages 85 to 89
    18. 18 A* Search pages 90 to 95
    19. 19 Admissibility, and Why A* Is Optimal pages 96 to 101
    20. 20 Consistency, and A* on a Graph pages 102 to 107
    21. 21 Recursive Best First Search pages 108 to 112
    22. 22 Comparing Two Search Algorithms on One Problem pages 113 to 118
    23. 23 Games as Search pages 119 to 123
    24. 24 Minimax pages 124 to 128
    25. 25 Alpha-Beta Pruning pages 129 to 135
    26. 26 The Knowledge-Based Agent pages 136 to 141
    27. 27 Propositional Logic: Syntax and Meaning pages 142 to 146
    28. 28 Entailment, Models and Validity pages 147 to 151
    29. 29 Inference in Propositional Logic pages 152 to 156
    30. 30 Conjunctive Normal Form and Resolution pages 157 to 162
    31. 31 First-Order Logic pages 163 to 167
    32. 32 Inference in First-Order Logic: Unification and Chaining pages 168 to 174
    33. 33 Rule-Based Systems and Expert Systems pages 175 to 180
    34. 34 Planning and STRIPS pages 181 to 186
    35. 35 Fuzzy Logic and the Membership Function pages 187 to 192
    36. 36 Fuzzification, the Rule Base and Defuzzification pages 193 to 198
    37. 37 Why an Agent Needs Probability pages 199 to 203
    38. 38 The Joint Distribution and Inference by Enumeration pages 204 to 208
    39. 39 Bayes Theorem pages 209 to 214
    40. 40 Conditional Independence pages 215 to 220
    41. 41 Bayesian Networks pages 221 to 226
    42. 42 Inference in a Bayesian Network pages 227 to 233

    Module II Machine learning, supervised models, probabilistic and latent variable models, unsupervised and reinforcement learning, and responsible AI 47 chapters

    1. 43 What Machine Learning Is pages 234 to 239
    2. 44 Supervised Learning pages 240 to 245
    3. 45 Unsupervised Learning pages 246 to 249
    4. 46 Reinforcement Learning: The Third Form pages 250 to 253
    5. 47 Parametric and Nonparametric Models pages 254 to 258
    6. 48 Bias and Variance pages 259 to 264
    7. 49 Overfitting and Underfitting pages 265 to 270
    8. 50 Regularization pages 271 to 276
    9. 51 Gradient Descent pages 277 to 283
    10. 52 Classification and Regression pages 284 to 289
    11. 53 k-Nearest Neighbours pages 290 to 295
    12. 54 k-NN for Regression, and What Limits the Method pages 296 to 301
    13. 55 Entropy and Information Gain pages 302 to 307
    14. 56 Decision Tree Learning pages 308 to 313
    15. 57 Reading, Drawing and Pruning a Decision Tree pages 314 to 320
    16. 58 The Naive Bayes Classifier pages 321 to 327
    17. 59 Support Vector Machines: The Margin pages 328 to 333
    18. 60 The Soft Margin and the Kernel pages 334 to 341
    19. 61 The Artificial Neuron and the Perceptron pages 342 to 348
    20. 62 The Multilayer Network and Backpropagation pages 349 to 356
    21. 63 What Deep Learning Is pages 357 to 361
    22. 64 Ensemble Methods, Bagging and the Random Forest pages 362 to 369
    23. 65 Boosting and AdaBoost pages 370 to 377
    24. 66 Evaluating a Model pages 378 to 386
    25. 67 The Statistical Learning Framework pages 387 to 394
    26. 68 Maximum Likelihood Estimation pages 395 to 403
    27. 69 Learning with Complete Data pages 404 to 411
    28. 70 Hidden Variables pages 412 to 419
    29. 71 The EM Algorithm pages 420 to 429
    30. 72 Hidden Markov Models pages 430 to 438
    31. 73 The Forward Algorithm and Viterbi pages 439 to 450
    32. 74 Clustering and k-Means pages 451 to 461
    33. 75 Hierarchical Clustering, and Judging a Clustering pages 462 to 474
    34. 76 Support, Confidence and Lift pages 475 to 484
    35. 77 The Apriori Algorithm pages 485 to 494
    36. 78 The Reinforcement Learning Framework pages 495 to 504
    37. 79 Markov Decision Processes pages 505 to 513
    38. 80 The Bellman Equations, Value Iteration and Policy Iteration pages 514 to 524
    39. 81 Q-Learning pages 525 to 536
    40. 82 Ethical Issues in AI Systems pages 537 to 542
    41. 83 Bias and Fairness in AI Models pages 543 to 552
    42. 84 Transparency and Explainability pages 553 to 558
    43. 85 Accountability and Human Oversight pages 559 to 563
    44. 86 Hallucination in Generative AI pages 564 to 574
    45. 87 Deepfakes and Misuse pages 575 to 580
    46. 88 Using an AI Library Responsibly pages 581 to 586
    47. 89 What the Examination Asks, and How to Answer It pages 587 to 591
    Every paper that is solved: 5 papers
    • Mar 2026
    • Mar 2025
    • Oct 2025
    • 2023-24
    • Nov 2024

  7. Mini Project - I Real-World Application Development

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Mini Project - I Real-World Application Development

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    Mini Project - I Real-World Application Development

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I Problem Identification, Requirement Engineering & System Design Phase

    1. How Mini Project I Is Marked: the Guide's Twenty, the Examiner's Thirty and Passing Each 1
    2. The Design Phase at a Glance, and the Worked Project in This Book 8
    3. Finding a Real-World Problem: Industry, Social and Institutional 13
    4. Problem Justification and Scope Definition 20
    5. Stakeholder Identification 26
    6. Technical Feasibility 32
    7. Economic Feasibility 38
    8. Operational Feasibility and the Feasibility Report 43
    9. Requirement Engineering: Eliciting, Recording and Checking Requirements 50
    10. Functional Requirements Specification 57
    11. Non-Functional Requirements 63
    12. Use-Case Analysis 68
    13. Requirement Prioritization 74
    14. Constraints and Assumptions 79
    15. Selecting an SDLC Model for a Mini Project 84
    16. The Work Breakdown Structure 89
    17. The Project Timeline: Estimates, Dependencies and the Gantt Chart 95
    18. Resource Planning 104
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Problem Identification, Requirement Engineering & System Design Phase

    1. System Modeling with UML: the Six Diagrams and How They Fit Together 112
    2. The Use Case Diagram 119
    3. The Class Diagram 125
    4. The Sequence Diagram 132
    5. The Activity Diagram 138
    6. The ER Diagram 144
    7. The Deployment Diagram 151
    8. System Architecture Design: Styles, Layers and Choosing the Stack 155
    9. Frontend Architecture 161
    10. Backend Architecture 168
    11. Database Schema Design 175
    12. API Structure 182
    13. Security Considerations 188
    14. The Module 1 Documents: What Is Due and How They Connect 196
    15. The Project Proposal 201
    16. The SRS Document 208
    17. The Complete UML Set 218
    18. The Architecture Design Document 224
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Problem Identification, Requirement Engineering & System Design Phase

    1. The Design Review: Presenting Module 1 to Your Guide 241

    Module II Implementation, Testing, Deployment & Evaluation Phase

    1. The Build Phase at a Glance 248
    2. Setting Up the Development Machine: Node.js, MySQL, an Editor and Git 254
    3. Frontend Implementation, Part 1: the Pages, the Stylesheet and Talking to the Server 263
    4. Frontend Implementation, Part 2: the Menu, the Cart, the Orders and the Counter 274
    5. Backend Implementation, Part 1: the Express Application and Its Routes 285
    6. Backend Implementation, Part 2: the Services and the Business Rules 295
    7. Database Integration, Part 1: the Connection Pool and Safe Queries 303
    8. Database Integration, Part 2: Transactions and the Order That Must Not Oversell 312
    9. Authentication: Passwords, Sessions and Roles 319
    10. Validation: Checking Every Input on the Server 328
    11. Error Handling 336
    12. Development Progress and Code Review 342
    13. Testing the Project: the Levels, the Test Plan and the Tools 349
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Implementation, Testing, Deployment & Evaluation Phase

    1. Unit Testing 355
    2. Black-Box Testing: Equivalence Partitions, Boundary Values and Decision Tables 363
    3. Integration Testing 369
    4. System Testing and Acceptance 379
    5. Test Case Preparation 384
    6. Bug Tracking 390
    7. Local Hosting: Running the Application for the Whole Lab 394
    8. Cloud Deployment 399
    9. APK Build: Putting the Application on an Android Phone 404
    10. Server Configuration: Linux, Nginx, systemd and HTTPS 410
    11. Version Control Using GitHub, Part 1: the Repository, Commits and the Remote 416
    12. Version Control Using GitHub, Part 2: Branches, Pull Requests and Releases 421
    13. Basic Load Testing 426
    14. Input Validation Checks 432
    15. Security Validation 438
    16. The Technical Report 444
    17. The User Manual 452
    18. Screenshots 459
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Implementation, Testing, Deployment & Evaluation Phase

    1. Source Code Documentation 464
    2. The Final Deliverables: What Is Due at the End of Module 2 471
    3. The Working Application 475
    4. The GitHub Repository 480
    5. The Final Report 485
    6. Presentation and Demonstration 491
    7. The External Evaluation: How the Thirty Marks Are Earned 496
    8. The Viva Voce: Questions You Must Be Able to Answer 501
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    508 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 508 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 76 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I Problem Identification, Requirement Engineering & System Design Phase 37 chapters

    1. 1 How Mini Project I Is Marked: the Guide's Twenty, the Examiner's Thirty and Passing Each pages 1 to 7
    2. 2 The Design Phase at a Glance, and the Worked Project in This Book pages 8 to 12
    3. 3 Finding a Real-World Problem: Industry, Social and Institutional pages 13 to 19
    4. 4 Problem Justification and Scope Definition pages 20 to 25
    5. 5 Stakeholder Identification pages 26 to 31
    6. 6 Technical Feasibility pages 32 to 37
    7. 7 Economic Feasibility pages 38 to 42
    8. 8 Operational Feasibility and the Feasibility Report pages 43 to 49
    9. 9 Requirement Engineering: Eliciting, Recording and Checking Requirements pages 50 to 56
    10. 10 Functional Requirements Specification pages 57 to 62
    11. 11 Non-Functional Requirements pages 63 to 67
    12. 12 Use-Case Analysis pages 68 to 73
    13. 13 Requirement Prioritization pages 74 to 78
    14. 14 Constraints and Assumptions pages 79 to 83
    15. 15 Selecting an SDLC Model for a Mini Project pages 84 to 88
    16. 16 The Work Breakdown Structure pages 89 to 94
    17. 17 The Project Timeline: Estimates, Dependencies and the Gantt Chart pages 95 to 103
    18. 18 Resource Planning pages 104 to 111
    19. 19 System Modeling with UML: the Six Diagrams and How They Fit Together pages 112 to 118
    20. 20 The Use Case Diagram pages 119 to 124
    21. 21 The Class Diagram pages 125 to 131
    22. 22 The Sequence Diagram pages 132 to 137
    23. 23 The Activity Diagram pages 138 to 143
    24. 24 The ER Diagram pages 144 to 150
    25. 25 The Deployment Diagram pages 151 to 154
    26. 26 System Architecture Design: Styles, Layers and Choosing the Stack pages 155 to 160
    27. 27 Frontend Architecture pages 161 to 167
    28. 28 Backend Architecture pages 168 to 174
    29. 29 Database Schema Design pages 175 to 181
    30. 30 API Structure pages 182 to 187
    31. 31 Security Considerations pages 188 to 195
    32. 32 The Module 1 Documents: What Is Due and How They Connect pages 196 to 200
    33. 33 The Project Proposal pages 201 to 207
    34. 34 The SRS Document pages 208 to 217
    35. 35 The Complete UML Set pages 218 to 223
    36. 36 The Architecture Design Document pages 224 to 240
    37. 37 The Design Review: Presenting Module 1 to Your Guide pages 241 to 247

    Module II Implementation, Testing, Deployment & Evaluation Phase 39 chapters

    1. 38 The Build Phase at a Glance pages 248 to 253
    2. 39 Setting Up the Development Machine: Node.js, MySQL, an Editor and Git pages 254 to 262
    3. 40 Frontend Implementation, Part 1: the Pages, the Stylesheet and Talking to the Server pages 263 to 273
    4. 41 Frontend Implementation, Part 2: the Menu, the Cart, the Orders and the Counter pages 274 to 284
    5. 42 Backend Implementation, Part 1: the Express Application and Its Routes pages 285 to 294
    6. 43 Backend Implementation, Part 2: the Services and the Business Rules pages 295 to 302
    7. 44 Database Integration, Part 1: the Connection Pool and Safe Queries pages 303 to 311
    8. 45 Database Integration, Part 2: Transactions and the Order That Must Not Oversell pages 312 to 318
    9. 46 Authentication: Passwords, Sessions and Roles pages 319 to 327
    10. 47 Validation: Checking Every Input on the Server pages 328 to 335
    11. 48 Error Handling pages 336 to 341
    12. 49 Development Progress and Code Review pages 342 to 348
    13. 50 Testing the Project: the Levels, the Test Plan and the Tools pages 349 to 354
    14. 51 Unit Testing pages 355 to 362
    15. 52 Black-Box Testing: Equivalence Partitions, Boundary Values and Decision Tables pages 363 to 368
    16. 53 Integration Testing pages 369 to 378
    17. 54 System Testing and Acceptance pages 379 to 383
    18. 55 Test Case Preparation pages 384 to 389
    19. 56 Bug Tracking pages 390 to 393
    20. 57 Local Hosting: Running the Application for the Whole Lab pages 394 to 398
    21. 58 Cloud Deployment pages 399 to 403
    22. 59 APK Build: Putting the Application on an Android Phone pages 404 to 409
    23. 60 Server Configuration: Linux, Nginx, systemd and HTTPS pages 410 to 415
    24. 61 Version Control Using GitHub, Part 1: the Repository, Commits and the Remote pages 416 to 420
    25. 62 Version Control Using GitHub, Part 2: Branches, Pull Requests and Releases pages 421 to 425
    26. 63 Basic Load Testing pages 426 to 431
    27. 64 Input Validation Checks pages 432 to 437
    28. 65 Security Validation pages 438 to 443
    29. 66 The Technical Report pages 444 to 451
    30. 67 The User Manual pages 452 to 458
    31. 68 Screenshots pages 459 to 463
    32. 69 Source Code Documentation pages 464 to 470
    33. 70 The Final Deliverables: What Is Due at the End of Module 2 pages 471 to 474
    34. 71 The Working Application pages 475 to 479
    35. 72 The GitHub Repository pages 480 to 484
    36. 73 The Final Report pages 485 to 490
    37. 74 Presentation and Demonstration pages 491 to 495
    38. 75 The External Evaluation: How the Thirty Marks Are Earned pages 496 to 500
    39. 76 The Viva Voce: Questions You Must Be Able to Answer pages 501 to 508

  8. Computer Science Practical 5

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Computer Science Practical 5

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    Computer Science Practical 5

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I Artificial Intelligence: ten exercises in Python, from breadth first search to a TensorFlow demonstration

    1. How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the 80 Per Cent Rule and the Two-Hour Paper 1
    2. The Python Laboratory from Zero: Running Your First Program and Saving It for the Journal 5
    3. The Dataset, the Split and the Score: How Every Model in This Module Is Measured 11
    4. Practical 1: Breadth First Search and Iterative Deepening Depth First Search 20
    5. Practical 2: A* Search and Recursive Best-First Search 32
    6. Practical 3: Decision Tree Learning 45
    7. Practical 4: The Feed Forward Backpropagation Neural Network 59
    8. Practical 5: Support Vector Machines 73
    9. Practical 6: Adaboost Ensemble Learning 83
    10. Practical 7: The Naive Bayes Classifier 93
    11. Practical 8: K-Nearest Neighbours for Classification and for Regression 104
    12. Practical 9: Association Rule Mining with Apriori 114
    13. Practical 10: A Demonstration with TensorFlow and with an OpenAI-Style Tool 123

    Module II Cyber and Information Security: ten exercises, from the classical ciphers to firewall rules on a real Linux

    1. The Security Laboratory from Zero: OpenSSL, the Byte, and What Is Safe to Run 134
    2. Practical 11, Part 1: The Substitution Ciphers 139
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Cyber and Information Security: ten exercises, from the classical ciphers to firewall rules on a real Linux

    1. Practical 11, Part 2: The Transposition Ciphers 154
    2. Practical 12: RSA Encryption and Decryption 162
    3. Practical 13: Message Authentication Codes 174
    4. Practical 14: Digital Signatures 183
    5. Practical 15: Key Exchange Using Diffie-Hellman 193
    6. Practical 16: IP Security (IPsec) Configuration 204
    7. Practical 17: Web Security with SSL/TLS 214
    8. Practical 18: Intrusion Detection System 225
    9. Practical 19: Malware Analysis and Detection 234
    10. Practical 20: Firewall Configuration and Rule-Based Filtering 243
    11. The Two-Hour Paper: Sitting the Examination 254
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    261 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 261 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 26 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I Artificial Intelligence: ten exercises in Python, from breadth first search to a TensorFlow demonstration 13 chapters

    1. 1 How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the 80 Per Cent Rule and the Two-Hour Paper pages 1 to 4
    2. 2 The Python Laboratory from Zero: Running Your First Program and Saving It for the Journal pages 5 to 10
    3. 3 The Dataset, the Split and the Score: How Every Model in This Module Is Measured pages 11 to 19
    4. 4 Practical 1: Breadth First Search and Iterative Deepening Depth First Search pages 20 to 31
    5. 5 Practical 2: A* Search and Recursive Best-First Search pages 32 to 44
    6. 6 Practical 3: Decision Tree Learning pages 45 to 58
    7. 7 Practical 4: The Feed Forward Backpropagation Neural Network pages 59 to 72
    8. 8 Practical 5: Support Vector Machines pages 73 to 82
    9. 9 Practical 6: Adaboost Ensemble Learning pages 83 to 92
    10. 10 Practical 7: The Naive Bayes Classifier pages 93 to 103
    11. 11 Practical 8: K-Nearest Neighbours for Classification and for Regression pages 104 to 113
    12. 12 Practical 9: Association Rule Mining with Apriori pages 114 to 122
    13. 13 Practical 10: A Demonstration with TensorFlow and with an OpenAI-Style Tool pages 123 to 133

    Module II Cyber and Information Security: ten exercises, from the classical ciphers to firewall rules on a real Linux 13 chapters

    1. 14 The Security Laboratory from Zero: OpenSSL, the Byte, and What Is Safe to Run pages 134 to 138
    2. 15 Practical 11, Part 1: The Substitution Ciphers pages 139 to 153
    3. 16 Practical 11, Part 2: The Transposition Ciphers pages 154 to 161
    4. 17 Practical 12: RSA Encryption and Decryption pages 162 to 173
    5. 18 Practical 13: Message Authentication Codes pages 174 to 182
    6. 19 Practical 14: Digital Signatures pages 183 to 192
    7. 20 Practical 15: Key Exchange Using Diffie-Hellman pages 193 to 203
    8. 21 Practical 16: IP Security (IPsec) Configuration pages 204 to 213
    9. 22 Practical 17: Web Security with SSL/TLS pages 214 to 224
    10. 23 Practical 18: Intrusion Detection System pages 225 to 233
    11. 24 Practical 19: Malware Analysis and Detection pages 234 to 242
    12. 25 Practical 20: Firewall Configuration and Rule-Based Filtering pages 243 to 253
    13. 26 The Two-Hour Paper: Sitting the Examination pages 254 to 261

  9. Software Testing and Quality Assurance Practical

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Software Testing and Quality Assurance Practical

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    Software Testing and Quality Assurance Practical

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I Selenium IDE, manual test cases, Selenium Grid and Selenium WebDriver: suites, logins, web elements and waits, data-driven testing with Apache POI, dynamic tables, counting objects, and lists

    1. How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the 80 Per Cent Rule and the Two-Hour Paper 1
    2. The Testing Laboratory from Zero: the Practice Portal, the Browsers and the Tools 7
    3. Practical 1: Creating a Test Suite with Selenium IDE 14
    4. Practical 2: Cross-Website Functional Testing with Selenium IDE 27
    5. Practical 3: Manual Test Case Design and Execution 37
    6. Selenium WebDriver from Zero: Java, Maven, the Drivers, Locators and the First Script 48
    7. Practical 4: Selenium Grid, Hub and Nodes, and Remote Execution 57
    8. Practical 5: Login Automation and Validation 64
    9. Practical 6: Web Elements, Alerts, Frames and Waits 72
    10. Practical 7: Data-Driven Testing with Apache POI 81
    11. Practical 8: Extracting Marks from a Dynamic Web Table 90
    12. Practical 9: Identifying and Counting the Objects on a Page 97
    13. Practical 10: List and Combo Box Verification 103

    Module II Checkboxes, sorting and filtering, uploads and downloads with the Robot class, Log4j and screenshots, the Page Object Model, TestNG, Jenkins, cross-browser Grid runs, JMeter load tests and Bugzilla

    1. Practical 11: Checkbox Identification and Validation 109
    2. Practical 12: Dynamic Web Table, Sorting and Filtering 114
    3. Practical 13: File Upload and Download with the Robot Class 121
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Checkboxes, sorting and filtering, uploads and downloads with the Robot class, Log4j and screenshots, the Page Object Model, TestNG, Jenkins, cross-browser Grid runs, JMeter load tests and Bugzilla

    1. Practical 14: Screenshot on Failure and Logging with Log4j 131
    2. Practical 15: The Page Object Model Framework 141
    3. Practical 16: TestNG Annotations, Groups, Priorities and Reports 151
    4. Practical 17: Continuous Integration with Jenkins 160
    5. Practical 18: Cross-Browser Testing with Selenium Grid 170
    6. Practical 19: Load Testing with Apache JMeter 179
    7. Practical 20: Bug Tracking and the Defect Life Cycle in Bugzilla 189
    8. The Two-Hour Paper: Sitting the Examination 200
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    205 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 205 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 24 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I Selenium IDE, manual test cases, Selenium Grid and Selenium WebDriver: suites, logins, web elements and waits, data-driven testing with Apache POI, dynamic tables, counting objects, and lists 13 chapters

    1. 1 How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the 80 Per Cent Rule and the Two-Hour Paper pages 1 to 6
    2. 2 The Testing Laboratory from Zero: the Practice Portal, the Browsers and the Tools pages 7 to 13
    3. 3 Practical 1: Creating a Test Suite with Selenium IDE pages 14 to 26
    4. 4 Practical 2: Cross-Website Functional Testing with Selenium IDE pages 27 to 36
    5. 5 Practical 3: Manual Test Case Design and Execution pages 37 to 47
    6. 6 Selenium WebDriver from Zero: Java, Maven, the Drivers, Locators and the First Script pages 48 to 56
    7. 7 Practical 4: Selenium Grid, Hub and Nodes, and Remote Execution pages 57 to 63
    8. 8 Practical 5: Login Automation and Validation pages 64 to 71
    9. 9 Practical 6: Web Elements, Alerts, Frames and Waits pages 72 to 80
    10. 10 Practical 7: Data-Driven Testing with Apache POI pages 81 to 89
    11. 11 Practical 8: Extracting Marks from a Dynamic Web Table pages 90 to 96
    12. 12 Practical 9: Identifying and Counting the Objects on a Page pages 97 to 102
    13. 13 Practical 10: List and Combo Box Verification pages 103 to 108

    Module II Checkboxes, sorting and filtering, uploads and downloads with the Robot class, Log4j and screenshots, the Page Object Model, TestNG, Jenkins, cross-browser Grid runs, JMeter load tests and Bugzilla 11 chapters

    1. 14 Practical 11: Checkbox Identification and Validation pages 109 to 113
    2. 15 Practical 12: Dynamic Web Table, Sorting and Filtering pages 114 to 120
    3. 16 Practical 13: File Upload and Download with the Robot Class pages 121 to 130
    4. 17 Practical 14: Screenshot on Failure and Logging with Log4j pages 131 to 140
    5. 18 Practical 15: The Page Object Model Framework pages 141 to 150
    6. 19 Practical 16: TestNG Annotations, Groups, Priorities and Reports pages 151 to 159
    7. 20 Practical 17: Continuous Integration with Jenkins pages 160 to 169
    8. 21 Practical 18: Cross-Browser Testing with Selenium Grid pages 170 to 178
    9. 22 Practical 19: Load Testing with Apache JMeter pages 179 to 188
    10. 23 Practical 20: Bug Tracking and the Defect Life Cycle in Bugzilla pages 189 to 199
    11. 24 The Two-Hour Paper: Sitting the Examination pages 200 to 205

  10. Wireless and Sensor Networks Practical

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Wireless and Sensor Networks Practical

    B.SC. (COMPUTER SCIENCE) · SEMESTER 5

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Computer Science)

    For B.Sc. (Computer Science) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

    munotes.in Third Year

    Wireless and Sensor Networks Practical

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I TinyOS, nesC and TOSSIM: the sensor node, the execution model, radio and serial communication, flooding and routing tables

    1. How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the 80 Per Cent Rule and the Two-Hour Paper 1
    2. The TinyOS Laboratory from Zero: nesC, TinyOS 2.1.2 and TOSSIM on Ubuntu 7
    3. Practical 1: The Sensor Node Hardware Architecture 18
    4. Practical 2: Sensor Motes, a Base Station and Data Aggregation 28
    5. Practical 3: The TinyOS Architecture and Its Non-Preemptive Scheduler 39
    6. Practical 4: The nesC Programming Model: Modules, Configurations and Wiring 48
    7. Practical 5: Events, Commands, Tasks and Split-Phase Execution 56
    8. Practical 6: Simulating a Single Mote in TOSSIM 62
    9. Practical 7: Mote-to-Mote Radio Communication: Signal Strength and Packet Loss 70
    10. Practical 8: Mote-to-PC Serial Communication Through the SerialForwarder 79
    11. Practical 9: A Simple Ad Hoc Network in TOSSIM and Its Broadcast 87
    12. Practical 10: Routing Table Generation and Analysis 97

    Module II NS-2 and the network: MANET routing with AODV and DSR, CSMA/CA, TDMA and duty-cycling MACs, directional antennas, coverage, and a cellular request

    1. The Network Simulator Laboratory from Zero: NS-2, Tcl, the Trace File and NAM 107
    2. Practical 11: A Basic MANET with Packet Animation 123
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued NS-2 and the network: MANET routing with AODV and DSR, CSMA/CA, TDMA and duty-cycling MACs, directional antennas, coverage, and a cellular request

    1. Practical 12: The AODV Routing Protocol 136
    2. Practical 13: The DSR Routing Protocol and Its Overhead against AODV 150
    3. Practical 14: Performance Evaluation of MANET Routing Protocols 160
    4. Practical 15: The CSMA/CA MAC Protocol 170
    5. Practical 16: TDMA Slot Allocation and Its Energy against CSMA 180
    6. Practical 17: An Energy-Aware Duty-Cycling MAC for Sensor Networks 188
    7. Practical 18: A MANET with Directional Antennas 198
    8. Practical 19: Sensor Network Deployment and Coverage Analysis 204
    9. Practical 20: A Cellular Network and One Web Request through It 210
    10. The Two-Hour Paper: Sitting the Examination 223
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    234 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 234 pages.
    Every chapter in the notes: 24 chapters across 2 modules

    Module I TinyOS, nesC and TOSSIM: the sensor node, the execution model, radio and serial communication, flooding and routing tables 12 chapters

    1. 1 How This Practical Is Examined: the Journal, the 80 Per Cent Rule and the Two-Hour Paper pages 1 to 6
    2. 2 The TinyOS Laboratory from Zero: nesC, TinyOS 2.1.2 and TOSSIM on Ubuntu pages 7 to 17
    3. 3 Practical 1: The Sensor Node Hardware Architecture pages 18 to 27
    4. 4 Practical 2: Sensor Motes, a Base Station and Data Aggregation pages 28 to 38
    5. 5 Practical 3: The TinyOS Architecture and Its Non-Preemptive Scheduler pages 39 to 47
    6. 6 Practical 4: The nesC Programming Model: Modules, Configurations and Wiring pages 48 to 55
    7. 7 Practical 5: Events, Commands, Tasks and Split-Phase Execution pages 56 to 61
    8. 8 Practical 6: Simulating a Single Mote in TOSSIM pages 62 to 69
    9. 9 Practical 7: Mote-to-Mote Radio Communication: Signal Strength and Packet Loss pages 70 to 78
    10. 10 Practical 8: Mote-to-PC Serial Communication Through the SerialForwarder pages 79 to 86
    11. 11 Practical 9: A Simple Ad Hoc Network in TOSSIM and Its Broadcast pages 87 to 96
    12. 12 Practical 10: Routing Table Generation and Analysis pages 97 to 106

    Module II NS-2 and the network: MANET routing with AODV and DSR, CSMA/CA, TDMA and duty-cycling MACs, directional antennas, coverage, and a cellular request 12 chapters

    1. 13 The Network Simulator Laboratory from Zero: NS-2, Tcl, the Trace File and NAM pages 107 to 122
    2. 14 Practical 11: A Basic MANET with Packet Animation pages 123 to 135
    3. 15 Practical 12: The AODV Routing Protocol pages 136 to 149
    4. 16 Practical 13: The DSR Routing Protocol and Its Overhead against AODV pages 150 to 159
    5. 17 Practical 14: Performance Evaluation of MANET Routing Protocols pages 160 to 169
    6. 18 Practical 15: The CSMA/CA MAC Protocol pages 170 to 179
    7. 19 Practical 16: TDMA Slot Allocation and Its Energy against CSMA pages 180 to 187
    8. 20 Practical 17: An Energy-Aware Duty-Cycling MAC for Sensor Networks pages 188 to 197
    9. 21 Practical 18: A MANET with Directional Antennas pages 198 to 203
    10. 22 Practical 19: Sensor Network Deployment and Coverage Analysis pages 204 to 209
    11. 23 Practical 20: A Cellular Network and One Web Request through It pages 210 to 222
    12. 24 The Two-Hour Paper: Sitting the Examination pages 223 to 234

  11. Linux Server Administration

    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. These papers are from an older syllabus of this course. There are no notes for them. 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every paper that is solved: 4 papers
    • Mar 2026
    • Mar 2025
    • Oct 2025
    • Nov 2024

  12. Project Management

    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. These papers are from an older syllabus of this course. There are no notes for them. 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every paper that is solved: 5 papers
    • Mar 2026
    • Mar 2025
    • Oct 2025
    • 2023-24
    • Nov 2024

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