B.Sc. (Information Technology) Semester 3 Notes 2026

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• The notes of the Semester 3 subjects written so far, as per the latest syllabus 2026: Applied Mathematics; Operating System; Python Programming; Data Structures; Major Practical 3.
• The other Semester 3 subject is not written yet. It comes into this same pass when it is written.
• The practical subjects too, worked out exercise by exercise: 1 practical book of 38 chapters, beside 4 theory books of 476.
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1. Applied Mathematics

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Applied Mathematics

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 3

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in Second Year

   Applied Mathematics

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I 1 Complex Numbers: Complex number, Equality of complex numbers, Graphical representation of complex number (Argand's Diagram), Polar form

   1. What This Subject Is About, and Where an IT Student Meets It 1
   2. How This Paper Is Examined, and What That Means for Your Revision 3
   3. Why the Square Root of Minus One Had To Be Invented 5
   4. The Complex Number, and Its Two Parts 7
   5. The Powers of i, and the Cycle of Four 10
   6. Equality of Two Complex Numbers, and the Two Equations It Gives You 12
   7. Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers 15
   8. Multiplying Complex Numbers 17
   9. The Conjugate, and the Three Things It Is For 19
   10. Dividing Complex Numbers 22
   11. The Argand Diagram: Drawing a Complex Number 24
   12. The Modulus, and Distance in the Plane 27
   13. The Argument, and the Trap Every Calculator Sets 30
   14. Addition and Subtraction on the Argand Diagram 33
   15. Multiplication and Division on the Argand Diagram 36
   16. The Polar Form of a Complex Number 38
   17. The Polar Form of x + iy for Every Combination of Signs 40
   18. Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form 42
   19. De Moivre's Theorem 44

   Contents continued

   Module I continued 1 Complex Numbers: Complex number, Equality of complex numbers, Graphical representation of complex number (Argand's Diagram), Polar form

   1. Taking a Power with De Moivre's Theorem 47
   2. The n Roots of a Complex Number 49
   3. The Roots of Unity, and Why a Computer Scientist Meets Them 52
   4. Euler's Formula, and the Exponential Form 54
   5. Why e to the i theta Really Is cos theta + i sin theta 56
   6. The Exponential Form at Work 58
   7. The Logarithm of a Complex Number 60
   8. Circular Functions of a Complex Angle 62
   9. Separating sin(x + iy) and cos(x + iy) 64
   10. The Hyperbolic Functions 66
   11. The Hyperbolic Identities 68
   12. The Relations Between the Circular and the Hyperbolic Functions 70
   13. Osborn's Rule, and Where It Fails 72
   14. tan(x + iy), and Separating It Into Real and Imaginary Parts 74
   15. The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions, and Why They Are Logarithms 76
   16. Inverse Circular Functions of a Complex Number 78
   17. Separating an Inverse Function Into Real and Imaginary Parts 80
   18. Indeterminate Forms, and Why Zero Over Zero Is Not a Number 82

   Contents continued

   Module I continued 1 Complex Numbers: Complex number, Equality of complex numbers, Graphical representation of complex number (Argand's Diagram), Polar form

   1. L'Hopital's Rule, and the Three Places This Paper Needs It 84
   2. What a Transform Is, and Why Anyone Would Want One 86
   3. The Definition of the Laplace Transform 88
   4. Does the Integral Exist? Piecewise Continuity and Exponential Order 91
   5. The Transform of 1, of t, and of t to the n, From the Definition 94
   6. The Transform of e to the at, From the Definition 96
   7. The Transform of sin at and cos at, From the Definition 98
   8. The Transform of sinh at and cosh at 100
   9. The Table of Elementary Transforms 102
   10. Linearity, and What It Does and Does Not Let You Do 104
   11. The First Shifting Theorem 106
   12. The First Shifting Theorem at Work 108
   13. Multiplying by t: Differentiating the Transform 110
   14. Multiplying by a Power of t 112
   15. Dividing by t: Integrating the Transform 114
   16. Change of Scale 116
   17. The Transform of a Derivative 118
   18. The Transform of an Integral 120

   Contents continued

   Module I continued 1 Complex Numbers: Complex number, Equality of complex numbers, Graphical representation of complex number (Argand's Diagram), Polar form

   1. The Initial and Final Value Theorems 122
   2. The Unit Step Function 125
   3. The Second Shifting Theorem 127
   4. Writing a Piecewise Function With Step Functions 129
   5. The Transform of a Periodic Function 132
   6. The Unit Impulse, and the Dirac Delta Function 134
   7. The Transform of Special Functions 137
   8. The Convolution Theorem 139
   9. Proving the Convolution Theorem, and Using It Forwards 142
   10. What the Inverse Transform Is 145
   11. The Table Read Backwards 147
   12. Completing the Square, and the First Shifting Theorem Backwards 149
   13. Partial Fractions: Distinct Linear Factors 151
   14. Partial Fractions: Repeated Factors 153
   15. Partial Fractions: Irreducible Quadratic Factors 155
   16. The Cover-Up Rule, and How to Check a Partial Fraction in Ten Seconds 157
   17. Inverting With the Second Shifting Theorem 160
   18. Inverting by Convolution 162

   Contents continued

   Module I continued 1 Complex Numbers: Complex number, Equality of complex numbers, Graphical representation of complex number (Argand's Diagram), Polar form

   1. Inverting When F(s) Is a Derivative, an Integral, or Has a Factor of s 164
   2. Solving a Differential Equation by the Transform: The Method 166
   3. Worked First-Order Initial Value Problems 168
   4. Second-Order Initial Value Problems 170
   5. Equations Driven by a Step or an Impulse 172
   6. Simultaneous Differential Equations by the Transform 174

   Module II 1 Equation of the first order and of the first degree: Separation of variables, 15 Hrs

   1. What a Differential Equation Is 176
   2. Order, Degree, and Linearity 178
   3. Where Differential Equations Come From 180
   4. Forming a Differential Equation by Eliminating the Constants 182
   5. What a Solution Is: General, Particular, and Singular 184
   6. Separating the Variables 187
   7. Worked Separable Equations 189
   8. Equations That Become Separable by a Substitution 191
   9. Equations Homogeneous in x and y 193
   10. Worked Homogeneous Equations 196
   11. Non-Homogeneous Linear Equations 199

   Contents continued

   Module II continued 1 Equation of the first order and of the first degree: Separation of variables, 15 Hrs

   1. When the Two Lines Are Parallel 201
   2. The Exact Differential Equation 203
   3. The Test for Exactness, and Why It Works 205
   4. Solving an Exact Equation 207
   5. Integrating Factors: What They Are and Why They Exist 210
   6. Finding an Integrating Factor by Inspection 212
   7. The Integrating Factor of a Homogeneous Equation 214
   8. The Integrating Factor When the Equation Has the Form y f(xy) dx + x g(xy) dy 216
   9. The Integrating Factor That Depends on x Alone 218
   10. The Integrating Factor That Depends on y Alone 220
   11. The Linear Equation of the First Order 223
   12. Bernoulli's Equation, and Other Equations Reducible to the Linear Form 226
   13. The Method of Substitution, Gathered Into One Place 229
   14. First-Order Equations in Practice: Decay, Cooling, Circuits and Trajectories 231
   15. An Equation of the First Order and a Degree Higher Than the First 234
   16. Solvable for p: The Method of Factors 236
   17. Worked Equations Solvable for p 239

   Contents continued

   Module II continued 1 Equation of the first order and of the first degree: Separation of variables, 15 Hrs

   1. Solvable for y 241
   2. Worked Equations Solvable for y 243
   3. Solvable for x 245
   4. Clairaut's Form 247
   5. The Singular Solution, and the Envelope 249
   6. Reducing an Equation to Clairaut's Form 252
   7. Choosing the Method: A Decision Table for Module 2 254
   8. What a Linear Equation With Constant Coefficients Is 256
   9. The Differential Operator D 259
   10. The Laws D Obeys, and the One It Does Not 261
   11. The Auxiliary Equation 263
   12. Case One: Real and Distinct Roots 265
   13. Case Two: Repeated Roots 267
   14. Case Three: Complex Roots 269
   15. Case Four: Repeated Complex Roots 271
   16. The Complete Solution: Complementary Function Plus Particular Integral 273
   17. The Complementary Function, and What It Physically Means 276
   18. The Inverse Operator 1 Over f(D) 278
   19. The Particular Integral When X Is an Exponential 280

   Contents continued

   Module II continued 1 Equation of the first order and of the first degree: Separation of variables, 15 Hrs

   1. When the Exponential Rule Fails, and What To Do 282
   2. The Particular Integral When X Is a Sine or a Cosine 284
   3. When the Sine Rule Fails 286
   4. The Particular Integral When X Is a Polynomial 288
   5. The Particular Integral When X Is an Exponential Times Something Else 290
   6. The Particular Integral When X Is x Times a Function 293
   7. The General Method, For When No Rule Fits 295
   8. Worked Equations End to End 298
   9. Where These Equations Come From: Circuits, Springs and Signals 301

   Page 1 onwards

   303 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 303 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 135 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Complex Numbers, The Laplace Transform, and Inverse Laplace Transform 79 chapters

   1. 1 What This Subject Is About, and Where an IT Student Meets It pages 1 to 2
   2. 2 How This Paper Is Examined, and What That Means for Your Revision pages 3 to 4
   3. 3 Why the Square Root of Minus One Had To Be Invented pages 5 to 6
   4. 4 The Complex Number, and Its Two Parts pages 7 to 9
   5. 5 The Powers of i, and the Cycle of Four pages 10 to 11
   6. 6 Equality of Two Complex Numbers, and the Two Equations It Gives You pages 12 to 14
   7. 7 Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers pages 15 to 16
   8. 8 Multiplying Complex Numbers pages 17 to 18
   9. 9 The Conjugate, and the Three Things It Is For pages 19 to 21
   10. 10 Dividing Complex Numbers pages 22 to 23
   11. 11 The Argand Diagram: Drawing a Complex Number pages 24 to 26
   12. 12 The Modulus, and Distance in the Plane pages 27 to 29
   13. 13 The Argument, and the Trap Every Calculator Sets pages 30 to 32
   14. 14 Addition and Subtraction on the Argand Diagram pages 33 to 35
   15. 15 Multiplication and Division on the Argand Diagram pages 36 to 37
   16. 16 The Polar Form of a Complex Number pages 38 to 39
   17. 17 The Polar Form of x + iy for Every Combination of Signs pages 40 to 41
   18. 18 Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form pages 42 to 43
   19. 19 De Moivre's Theorem pages 44 to 46
   20. 20 Taking a Power with De Moivre's Theorem pages 47 to 48
   21. 21 The n Roots of a Complex Number pages 49 to 51
   22. 22 The Roots of Unity, and Why a Computer Scientist Meets Them pages 52 to 53
   23. 23 Euler's Formula, and the Exponential Form pages 54 to 55
   24. 24 Why e to the i theta Really Is cos theta + i sin theta pages 56 to 57
   25. 25 The Exponential Form at Work pages 58 to 59
   26. 26 The Logarithm of a Complex Number pages 60 to 61
   27. 27 Circular Functions of a Complex Angle pages 62 to 63
   28. 28 Separating sin(x + iy) and cos(x + iy) pages 64 to 65
   29. 29 The Hyperbolic Functions pages 66 to 67
   30. 30 The Hyperbolic Identities pages 68 to 69
   31. 31 The Relations Between the Circular and the Hyperbolic Functions pages 70 to 71
   32. 32 Osborn's Rule, and Where It Fails pages 72 to 73
   33. 33 tan(x + iy), and Separating It Into Real and Imaginary Parts pages 74 to 75
   34. 34 The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions, and Why They Are Logarithms pages 76 to 77
   35. 35 Inverse Circular Functions of a Complex Number pages 78 to 79
   36. 36 Separating an Inverse Function Into Real and Imaginary Parts pages 80 to 81
   37. 37 Indeterminate Forms, and Why Zero Over Zero Is Not a Number pages 82 to 83
   38. 38 L'Hopital's Rule, and the Three Places This Paper Needs It pages 84 to 85
   39. 39 What a Transform Is, and Why Anyone Would Want One pages 86 to 87
   40. 40 The Definition of the Laplace Transform pages 88 to 90
   41. 41 Does the Integral Exist? Piecewise Continuity and Exponential Order pages 91 to 93
   42. 42 The Transform of 1, of t, and of t to the n, From the Definition pages 94 to 95
   43. 43 The Transform of e to the at, From the Definition pages 96 to 97
   44. 44 The Transform of sin at and cos at, From the Definition pages 98 to 99
   45. 45 The Transform of sinh at and cosh at pages 100 to 101
   46. 46 The Table of Elementary Transforms pages 102 to 103
   47. 47 Linearity, and What It Does and Does Not Let You Do pages 104 to 105
   48. 48 The First Shifting Theorem pages 106 to 107
   49. 49 The First Shifting Theorem at Work pages 108 to 109
   50. 50 Multiplying by t: Differentiating the Transform pages 110 to 111
   51. 51 Multiplying by a Power of t pages 112 to 113
   52. 52 Dividing by t: Integrating the Transform pages 114 to 115
   53. 53 Change of Scale pages 116 to 117
   54. 54 The Transform of a Derivative pages 118 to 119
   55. 55 The Transform of an Integral pages 120 to 121
   56. 56 The Initial and Final Value Theorems pages 122 to 124
   57. 57 The Unit Step Function pages 125 to 126
   58. 58 The Second Shifting Theorem pages 127 to 128
   59. 59 Writing a Piecewise Function With Step Functions pages 129 to 131
   60. 60 The Transform of a Periodic Function pages 132 to 133
   61. 61 The Unit Impulse, and the Dirac Delta Function pages 134 to 136
   62. 62 The Transform of Special Functions pages 137 to 138
   63. 63 The Convolution Theorem pages 139 to 141
   64. 64 Proving the Convolution Theorem, and Using It Forwards pages 142 to 144
   65. 65 What the Inverse Transform Is pages 145 to 146
   66. 66 The Table Read Backwards pages 147 to 148
   67. 67 Completing the Square, and the First Shifting Theorem Backwards pages 149 to 150
   68. 68 Partial Fractions: Distinct Linear Factors pages 151 to 152
   69. 69 Partial Fractions: Repeated Factors pages 153 to 154
   70. 70 Partial Fractions: Irreducible Quadratic Factors pages 155 to 156
   71. 71 The Cover-Up Rule, and How to Check a Partial Fraction in Ten Seconds pages 157 to 159
   72. 72 Inverting With the Second Shifting Theorem pages 160 to 161
   73. 73 Inverting by Convolution pages 162 to 163
   74. 74 Inverting When F(s) Is a Derivative, an Integral, or Has a Factor of s pages 164 to 165
   75. 75 Solving a Differential Equation by the Transform: The Method pages 166 to 167
   76. 76 Worked First-Order Initial Value Problems pages 168 to 169
   77. 77 Second-Order Initial Value Problems pages 170 to 171
   78. 78 Equations Driven by a Step or an Impulse pages 172 to 173
   79. 79 Simultaneous Differential Equations by the Transform pages 174 to 175

   Module II Equations of the First Order and First Degree, Equations of Higher Degree, and Linear Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 56 chapters

   1. 80 What a Differential Equation Is pages 176 to 177
   2. 81 Order, Degree, and Linearity pages 178 to 179
   3. 82 Where Differential Equations Come From pages 180 to 181
   4. 83 Forming a Differential Equation by Eliminating the Constants pages 182 to 183
   5. 84 What a Solution Is: General, Particular, and Singular pages 184 to 186
   6. 85 Separating the Variables pages 187 to 188
   7. 86 Worked Separable Equations pages 189 to 190
   8. 87 Equations That Become Separable by a Substitution pages 191 to 192
   9. 88 Equations Homogeneous in x and y pages 193 to 195
   10. 89 Worked Homogeneous Equations pages 196 to 198
   11. 90 Non-Homogeneous Linear Equations pages 199 to 200
   12. 91 When the Two Lines Are Parallel pages 201 to 202
   13. 92 The Exact Differential Equation pages 203 to 204
   14. 93 The Test for Exactness, and Why It Works pages 205 to 206
   15. 94 Solving an Exact Equation pages 207 to 209
   16. 95 Integrating Factors: What They Are and Why They Exist pages 210 to 211
   17. 96 Finding an Integrating Factor by Inspection pages 212 to 213
   18. 97 The Integrating Factor of a Homogeneous Equation pages 214 to 215
   19. 98 The Integrating Factor When the Equation Has the Form y f(xy) dx + x g(xy) dy pages 216 to 217
   20. 99 The Integrating Factor That Depends on x Alone pages 218 to 219
   21. 100 The Integrating Factor That Depends on y Alone pages 220 to 222
   22. 101 The Linear Equation of the First Order pages 223 to 225
   23. 102 Bernoulli's Equation, and Other Equations Reducible to the Linear Form pages 226 to 228
   24. 103 The Method of Substitution, Gathered Into One Place pages 229 to 230
   25. 104 First-Order Equations in Practice: Decay, Cooling, Circuits and Trajectories pages 231 to 233
   26. 105 An Equation of the First Order and a Degree Higher Than the First pages 234 to 235
   27. 106 Solvable for p: The Method of Factors pages 236 to 238
   28. 107 Worked Equations Solvable for p pages 239 to 240
   29. 108 Solvable for y pages 241 to 242
   30. 109 Worked Equations Solvable for y pages 243 to 244
   31. 110 Solvable for x pages 245 to 246
   32. 111 Clairaut's Form pages 247 to 248
   33. 112 The Singular Solution, and the Envelope pages 249 to 251
   34. 113 Reducing an Equation to Clairaut's Form pages 252 to 253
   35. 114 Choosing the Method: A Decision Table for Module 2 pages 254 to 255
   36. 115 What a Linear Equation With Constant Coefficients Is pages 256 to 258
   37. 116 The Differential Operator D pages 259 to 260
   38. 117 The Laws D Obeys, and the One It Does Not pages 261 to 262
   39. 118 The Auxiliary Equation pages 263 to 264
   40. 119 Case One: Real and Distinct Roots pages 265 to 266
   41. 120 Case Two: Repeated Roots pages 267 to 268
   42. 121 Case Three: Complex Roots pages 269 to 270
   43. 122 Case Four: Repeated Complex Roots pages 271 to 272
   44. 123 The Complete Solution: Complementary Function Plus Particular Integral pages 273 to 275
   45. 124 The Complementary Function, and What It Physically Means pages 276 to 277
   46. 125 The Inverse Operator 1 Over f(D) pages 278 to 279
   47. 126 The Particular Integral When X Is an Exponential pages 280 to 281
   48. 127 When the Exponential Rule Fails, and What To Do pages 282 to 283
   49. 128 The Particular Integral When X Is a Sine or a Cosine pages 284 to 285
   50. 129 When the Sine Rule Fails pages 286 to 287
   51. 130 The Particular Integral When X Is a Polynomial pages 288 to 289
   52. 131 The Particular Integral When X Is an Exponential Times Something Else pages 290 to 292
   53. 132 The Particular Integral When X Is x Times a Function pages 293 to 294
   54. 133 The General Method, For When No Rule Fits pages 295 to 297
   55. 134 Worked Equations End to End pages 298 to 300
   56. 135 Where These Equations Come From: Circuits, Springs and Signals pages 301 to 303

2. Operating System

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Operating System

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 3

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in Second Year

   Operating System

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Operating System Overview: Basics of operating systems: Generations, Types, Structure, Services, System Calls, System Boot, System Programs, Protection and Security

   1. What an Operating System Is 1
   2. The Two Jobs: Handing Out the Machine, and Hiding It 5
   3. Interrupts, Traps and the Two Modes 8
   4. The Timer, and Getting the Processor Back 12
   5. The First Generation: a Machine with No Operating System 15
   6. The Second Generation: the Batch and the Resident Monitor 18
   7. The Third Generation: Multiprogramming and Spooling 21
   8. The Fourth Generation: Time Sharing and the Personal Computer 24
   9. Batch, Multiprogrammed and Time Sharing Systems 27
   10. Multiprocessor Systems 30
   11. Distributed and Clustered Systems 33
   12. Real Time Systems, Hard and Soft 36
   13. Embedded and Handheld Systems 39
   14. The Simple Structure and the Monolithic Kernel 42
   15. The Layered Approach 45
   16. The Microkernel 48
   17. Modules, Hybrid Kernels and the Virtual Machine 51
   18. The Services an Operating System Offers 55
   19. The User Interface: Command Line, Batch and Graphical 58
   20. What a System Call Is, and the Trap that Makes One 61

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Operating System Overview: Basics of operating systems: Generations, Types, Structure, Services, System Calls, System Boot, System Programs, Protection and Security

   1. How a System Call Carries Its Arguments 64
   2. The Six Kinds of System Call 67
   3. System Boot: from Power On to the First Process 70
   4. System Programs 74
   5. Protection 77
   6. Security 81
   7. Protection and Security on a Machine You Can Log In To 85
   8. What a Process Is 89
   9. The Memory a Process Occupies 92
   10. Operations on Processes: Creation and Termination 95
   11. The Five Process States 99
   12. The Queues a Process Waits In 102
   13. The Process Control Block 105
   14. The Context Switch, and What It Costs 108
   15. The Five Scheduling Criteria 112
   16. First Come First Served 115
   17. Shortest Job First 118
   18. Shortest Remaining Time First 121
   19. Priority Scheduling and Starvation 124

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Operating System Overview: Basics of operating systems: Generations, Types, Structure, Services, System Calls, System Boot, System Programs, Protection and Security

   1. Round Robin and the Quantum 128
   2. Multilevel Queue Scheduling 132
   3. Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling 135
   4. Every Algorithm on One Problem 139
   5. Evaluating a Scheduling Algorithm: Deterministic Modelling 143
   6. Queueing Models, Simulation and Implementation 146
   7. What a Thread Is 150
   8. User Threads, Kernel Threads and the Three Models 153
   9. Threading Issues 156
   10. Two Processes, One Variable, and an Answer that Changes 160
   11. A Race Condition Made to Happen 163
   12. The Critical Section Problem 167
   13. Two Attempts that Fail, and Why 171
   14. Peterson's Solution 174
   15. Why Peterson's Solution Works, and Where It Still Breaks 178
   16. Synchronization Hardware: Test and Set 182
   17. Compare and Swap, and the Atomic Variable 186
   18. Mutex Locks and the Spinlock 190
   19. Semaphores: Wait and Signal 193

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Operating System Overview: Basics of operating systems: Generations, Types, Structure, Services, System Calls, System Boot, System Programs, Protection and Security

   1. Counting and Binary Semaphores, Without Busy Waiting 197
   2. The Bounded Buffer Problem 201
   3. The Readers and Writers Problem 204
   4. The Dining Philosophers Problem 208
   5. Deadlock and Starvation from Semaphores Used Wrongly 212

   Module II Memory Management: Main Memory, Swapping, Contiguous Memory 15 Hrs

   1. The Address the Program Uses, and the Address the Hardware Sees 216
   2. Binding an Address: Compile, Load and Run Time 219
   3. The Memory Management Unit and the Relocation Register 222
   4. The Base and Limit Registers 225
   5. Dynamic Loading and Dynamic Linking 228
   6. Swapping 231
   7. What Swapping Costs, and When It Is Worth It 234
   8. One Partition, then Fixed Partitions 237
   9. Variable Partitions and the List of Holes 240
   10. First Fit, Best Fit and Worst Fit 243
   11. External and Internal Fragmentation, and Compaction 246
   12. Paging: the Page and the Frame 249

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Memory Management: Main Memory, Swapping, Contiguous Memory 15 Hrs

   1. The Page Table and the Address Split 252
   2. Working a Paging Sum 255
   3. The Frame Table, and What Paging Costs in Space 258
   4. The Translation Look-aside Buffer 261
   5. Effective Access Time with a TLB 264
   6. Protection Bits, the Valid-Invalid Bit, and Shared Pages 267
   7. Hierarchical Page Tables 270
   8. Hashed and Inverted Page Tables 273
   9. Segmentation 276
   10. Segmentation with Paging 279
   11. Virtual Memory: What It Is, and What It Buys 282
   12. Demand Paging 285
   13. The Page Fault, Step by Step 288
   14. The Effective Access Time of Demand Paging 291
   15. Page Replacement: the Problem and the Reference String 294
   16. First In First Out Replacement, and Belady's Anomaly 298
   17. Optimal Replacement 302
   18. Least Recently Used Replacement 305
   19. Approximating LRU: the Reference Bit and Second Chance 308

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Memory Management: Main Memory, Swapping, Contiguous Memory 15 Hrs

   1. Counting Based Replacement, and Page Buffering 311
   2. Every Replacement Algorithm on One Reference String 315
   3. Allocation of Frames: How Many Each Process Gets 318
   4. Global and Local Replacement 321
   5. Thrashing 324
   6. The Working Set Model 327
   7. Page Fault Frequency, and What to Do About Thrashing 330
   8. The System Model: Resources and Instances 333
   9. The Four Necessary Conditions 336
   10. The Resource Allocation Graph 339
   11. The Four Ways to Handle a Deadlock 342
   12. Deadlock Prevention, Condition by Condition 345
   13. The Safe State 349
   14. The Resource Allocation Graph Algorithm 352
   15. The Banker's Algorithm 355
   16. A Request Tested Against the Banker's Algorithm 358
   17. Detecting a Deadlock with a Wait-For Graph 362
   18. The Detection Algorithm for Several Instances 365
   19. Recovery by Killing Processes 368

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Memory Management: Main Memory, Swapping, Contiguous Memory 15 Hrs

   1. Recovery by Taking Resources Back 371
   2. What a File Is 374
   3. The Operations on a File, and the Open File Table 377
   4. File Types and the Structure Inside a File 380
   5. Sequential Access 383
   6. Direct Access 386
   7. Indexed Access 389
   8. The Single Level and Two Level Directory 392
   9. The Tree Directory 395
   10. The Acyclic Graph and General Graph Directory 398
   11. The Layers of a File System 402
   12. The Structures on the Disk Itself 405
   13. A Real File System Opened Up 408
   14. The Disk the File System Is Written On 411
   15. Disk Scheduling 414
   16. The Examination Itself 418

   Page 1 onwards

   421 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 421 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 129 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Operating System Overview, Process Management and Process Synchronization 63 chapters

   1. 1 What an Operating System Is pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 The Two Jobs: Handing Out the Machine, and Hiding It pages 5 to 7
   3. 3 Interrupts, Traps and the Two Modes pages 8 to 11
   4. 4 The Timer, and Getting the Processor Back pages 12 to 14
   5. 5 The First Generation: a Machine with No Operating System pages 15 to 17
   6. 6 The Second Generation: the Batch and the Resident Monitor pages 18 to 20
   7. 7 The Third Generation: Multiprogramming and Spooling pages 21 to 23
   8. 8 The Fourth Generation: Time Sharing and the Personal Computer pages 24 to 26
   9. 9 Batch, Multiprogrammed and Time Sharing Systems pages 27 to 29
   10. 10 Multiprocessor Systems pages 30 to 32
   11. 11 Distributed and Clustered Systems pages 33 to 35
   12. 12 Real Time Systems, Hard and Soft pages 36 to 38
   13. 13 Embedded and Handheld Systems pages 39 to 41
   14. 14 The Simple Structure and the Monolithic Kernel pages 42 to 44
   15. 15 The Layered Approach pages 45 to 47
   16. 16 The Microkernel pages 48 to 50
   17. 17 Modules, Hybrid Kernels and the Virtual Machine pages 51 to 54
   18. 18 The Services an Operating System Offers pages 55 to 57
   19. 19 The User Interface: Command Line, Batch and Graphical pages 58 to 60
   20. 20 What a System Call Is, and the Trap that Makes One pages 61 to 63
   21. 21 How a System Call Carries Its Arguments pages 64 to 66
   22. 22 The Six Kinds of System Call pages 67 to 69
   23. 23 System Boot: from Power On to the First Process pages 70 to 73
   24. 24 System Programs pages 74 to 76
   25. 25 Protection pages 77 to 80
   26. 26 Security pages 81 to 84
   27. 27 Protection and Security on a Machine You Can Log In To pages 85 to 88
   28. 28 What a Process Is pages 89 to 91
   29. 29 The Memory a Process Occupies pages 92 to 94
   30. 30 Operations on Processes: Creation and Termination pages 95 to 98
   31. 31 The Five Process States pages 99 to 101
   32. 32 The Queues a Process Waits In pages 102 to 104
   33. 33 The Process Control Block pages 105 to 107
   34. 34 The Context Switch, and What It Costs pages 108 to 111
   35. 35 The Five Scheduling Criteria pages 112 to 114
   36. 36 First Come First Served pages 115 to 117
   37. 37 Shortest Job First pages 118 to 120
   38. 38 Shortest Remaining Time First pages 121 to 123
   39. 39 Priority Scheduling and Starvation pages 124 to 127
   40. 40 Round Robin and the Quantum pages 128 to 131
   41. 41 Multilevel Queue Scheduling pages 132 to 134
   42. 42 Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling pages 135 to 138
   43. 43 Every Algorithm on One Problem pages 139 to 142
   44. 44 Evaluating a Scheduling Algorithm: Deterministic Modelling pages 143 to 145
   45. 45 Queueing Models, Simulation and Implementation pages 146 to 149
   46. 46 What a Thread Is pages 150 to 152
   47. 47 User Threads, Kernel Threads and the Three Models pages 153 to 155
   48. 48 Threading Issues pages 156 to 159
   49. 49 Two Processes, One Variable, and an Answer that Changes pages 160 to 162
   50. 50 A Race Condition Made to Happen pages 163 to 166
   51. 51 The Critical Section Problem pages 167 to 170
   52. 52 Two Attempts that Fail, and Why pages 171 to 173
   53. 53 Peterson's Solution pages 174 to 177
   54. 54 Why Peterson's Solution Works, and Where It Still Breaks pages 178 to 181
   55. 55 Synchronization Hardware: Test and Set pages 182 to 185
   56. 56 Compare and Swap, and the Atomic Variable pages 186 to 189
   57. 57 Mutex Locks and the Spinlock pages 190 to 192
   58. 58 Semaphores: Wait and Signal pages 193 to 196
   59. 59 Counting and Binary Semaphores, Without Busy Waiting pages 197 to 200
   60. 60 The Bounded Buffer Problem pages 201 to 203
   61. 61 The Readers and Writers Problem pages 204 to 207
   62. 62 The Dining Philosophers Problem pages 208 to 211
   63. 63 Deadlock and Starvation from Semaphores Used Wrongly pages 212 to 215

   Module II Memory Management, Deadlock and the File System Interface 66 chapters

   1. 64 The Address the Program Uses, and the Address the Hardware Sees pages 216 to 218
   2. 65 Binding an Address: Compile, Load and Run Time pages 219 to 221
   3. 66 The Memory Management Unit and the Relocation Register pages 222 to 224
   4. 67 The Base and Limit Registers pages 225 to 227
   5. 68 Dynamic Loading and Dynamic Linking pages 228 to 230
   6. 69 Swapping pages 231 to 233
   7. 70 What Swapping Costs, and When It Is Worth It pages 234 to 236
   8. 71 One Partition, then Fixed Partitions pages 237 to 239
   9. 72 Variable Partitions and the List of Holes pages 240 to 242
   10. 73 First Fit, Best Fit and Worst Fit pages 243 to 245
   11. 74 External and Internal Fragmentation, and Compaction pages 246 to 248
   12. 75 Paging: the Page and the Frame pages 249 to 251
   13. 76 The Page Table and the Address Split pages 252 to 254
   14. 77 Working a Paging Sum pages 255 to 257
   15. 78 The Frame Table, and What Paging Costs in Space pages 258 to 260
   16. 79 The Translation Look-aside Buffer pages 261 to 263
   17. 80 Effective Access Time with a TLB pages 264 to 266
   18. 81 Protection Bits, the Valid-Invalid Bit, and Shared Pages pages 267 to 269
   19. 82 Hierarchical Page Tables pages 270 to 272
   20. 83 Hashed and Inverted Page Tables pages 273 to 275
   21. 84 Segmentation pages 276 to 278
   22. 85 Segmentation with Paging pages 279 to 281
   23. 86 Virtual Memory: What It Is, and What It Buys pages 282 to 284
   24. 87 Demand Paging pages 285 to 287
   25. 88 The Page Fault, Step by Step pages 288 to 290
   26. 89 The Effective Access Time of Demand Paging pages 291 to 293
   27. 90 Page Replacement: the Problem and the Reference String pages 294 to 297
   28. 91 First In First Out Replacement, and Belady's Anomaly pages 298 to 301
   29. 92 Optimal Replacement pages 302 to 304
   30. 93 Least Recently Used Replacement pages 305 to 307
   31. 94 Approximating LRU: the Reference Bit and Second Chance pages 308 to 310
   32. 95 Counting Based Replacement, and Page Buffering pages 311 to 314
   33. 96 Every Replacement Algorithm on One Reference String pages 315 to 317
   34. 97 Allocation of Frames: How Many Each Process Gets pages 318 to 320
   35. 98 Global and Local Replacement pages 321 to 323
   36. 99 Thrashing pages 324 to 326
   37. 100 The Working Set Model pages 327 to 329
   38. 101 Page Fault Frequency, and What to Do About Thrashing pages 330 to 332
   39. 102 The System Model: Resources and Instances pages 333 to 335
   40. 103 The Four Necessary Conditions pages 336 to 338
   41. 104 The Resource Allocation Graph pages 339 to 341
   42. 105 The Four Ways to Handle a Deadlock pages 342 to 344
   43. 106 Deadlock Prevention, Condition by Condition pages 345 to 348
   44. 107 The Safe State pages 349 to 351
   45. 108 The Resource Allocation Graph Algorithm pages 352 to 354
   46. 109 The Banker's Algorithm pages 355 to 357
   47. 110 A Request Tested Against the Banker's Algorithm pages 358 to 361
   48. 111 Detecting a Deadlock with a Wait-For Graph pages 362 to 364
   49. 112 The Detection Algorithm for Several Instances pages 365 to 367
   50. 113 Recovery by Killing Processes pages 368 to 370
   51. 114 Recovery by Taking Resources Back pages 371 to 373
   52. 115 What a File Is pages 374 to 376
   53. 116 The Operations on a File, and the Open File Table pages 377 to 379
   54. 117 File Types and the Structure Inside a File pages 380 to 382
   55. 118 Sequential Access pages 383 to 385
   56. 119 Direct Access pages 386 to 388
   57. 120 Indexed Access pages 389 to 391
   58. 121 The Single Level and Two Level Directory pages 392 to 394
   59. 122 The Tree Directory pages 395 to 397
   60. 123 The Acyclic Graph and General Graph Directory pages 398 to 401
   61. 124 The Layers of a File System pages 402 to 404
   62. 125 The Structures on the Disk Itself pages 405 to 407
   63. 126 A Real File System Opened Up pages 408 to 410
   64. 127 The Disk the File System Is Written On pages 411 to 413
   65. 128 Disk Scheduling pages 414 to 417
   66. 129 The Examination Itself pages 418 to 421

3. Python Programming

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Python Programming

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 3

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in Second Year

   Python Programming

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Basic Elements of Python Programming

   1. What Python Is, and the Features That Made It Popular 1
   2. Installing Python and Running Your First Program 6
   3. How a Python Program Is Executed: Source, Bytecode and the PVM 10
   4. The Python Interpreter: The Prompt, Script Mode and the Command Line 14
   5. Comments 18
   6. IDLE: The Shell, The Editor and The Debugger 22
   7. The Data Types Python Gives You 26
   8. Numbers: int, float, complex and bool 30
   9. The Dictionary as a Data Type 34
   10. Sets and the frozenset 37
   11. Mapping: What a Mapping Type Is 41
   12. Tokens, Keywords, Identifiers and Literals 44
   13. Statements, Lines and Indentation 48
   14. Variables and What a Name Really Holds 52
   15. Reading What the User Types: The input() Function 56
   16. Output Statements: The print() Function 60
   17. Command Line Arguments and sys.argv 63
   18. Arithmetic Operators 66
   19. Relational Operators and Chained Comparison 70

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Basic Elements of Python Programming

   1. Logical Operators and Short-Circuit Evaluation 74
   2. Bitwise Operators 78
   3. Assignment Operators 82
   4. Membership and Identity Operators 86
   5. Precedence and Associativity of Operators 90
   6. Control Statements: The Three Kinds Python Has 94
   7. The if Statement 98
   8. The if...else Statement and the Conditional Expression 101
   9. The if...elif...else Statement 105
   10. The while Loop 109
   11. The for Loop and the range() Function 113
   12. The Infinite Loop and The Nested Loop 117
   13. The else Suite on a Loop 122
   14. break, continue and pass 125
   15. The assert Statement 129
   16. The return Statement 132
   17. What an Array Is, and Why a List Is Not One 135
   18. Creating an Array with the array Module 139
   19. Indexing and Slicing an Array 143

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Basic Elements of Python Programming

   1. Basic Array Operations 147
   2. Processing an Array 151
   3. NumPy and the ndarray 156
   4. Mathematical Operations on an Array 160
   5. Aliasing an Array Against Copying One 165
   6. Slicing and Indexing in NumPy Arrays 170
   7. Basic Slicing of a NumPy Array 174
   8. Advanced Indexing 178
   9. Dimensions and Attributes of an Array 183
   10. Function Definition and Call 188
   11. Returning a Result from a Function 192
   12. Returning Multiple Values from a Function 196
   13. The Built-in Functions 200
   14. The Difference Between a Function and a Method 204
   15. Pass by Object Reference 208
   16. Parameters and Arguments 213
   17. Default and Keyword Arguments 216
   18. *args and **kwargs: Any Number of Arguments 220
   19. Local and Global Scope 224

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Basic Elements of Python Programming

   1. Recursive Functions 229
   2. Anonymous Functions: The lambda 234
   3. Modules in Python 239
   4. Writing Your Own Module and the __name__ == '__main__' Idiom 244
   5. Creating Strings 249
   6. The Functions and Methods of a String 253
   7. Working with Strings: Indexing, Slicing, Concatenation and Membership 258
   8. Formatting Strings: The f-string 263
   9. Formatting Strings with format() and the Percent Operator 267
   10. Finding the Number of Characters and Words 271
   11. Inserting a Substring into a String 276
   12. Module 1: The Practical Set 280

   Module II List

   1. Exploring the List: What Makes It Different 289
   2. Creating a List 293
   3. List Functions and Methods 298
   4. List Operations 303
   5. List Slices 308

   Contents continued

   Module II continued List

   1. Nested Lists and the Matrix 312
   2. Tuples 317
   3. The Functions That Work on a Tuple 321
   4. Creating a Dictionary 325
   5. The Operators That Work on a Dictionary 330
   6. Dictionary Methods 334
   7. Using a for Loop with a Dictionary 339
   8. Operations on Dictionaries 343
   9. Sorting a Dictionary by Value 348
   10. Opening and Closing a File 352
   11. Working with Text Files 356
   12. Reading the Last n Lines of a File 361
   13. Working with Binary Files 365
   14. The with Statement 370
   15. Pickle in Python 374
   16. seek() and tell() 380
   17. Random Access to a Binary File 385
   18. Zipping and Unzipping Files 390
   19. Working with Directories 395

   Contents continued

   Module II continued List

   1. Regular Expressions: An Introduction 401
   2. Sequence Characters in a Regular Expression 407
   3. Special Characters in a Regular Expression 412
   4. Using a Regular Expression on a File 418
   5. Retrieving Information from an HTML File 423
   6. Time in Python: The Epoch and struct_time 428
   7. The date Object 433
   8. The Date and Time Now 438
   9. Combining a Date and a Time 442
   10. Formatting a Date and a Time 446
   11. Finding and Comparing Dates 451
   12. Sorting Dates 457
   13. Knowing the Time a Program Takes 462
   14. Working with the Calendar Module 467
   15. Module 2: The Practical Set 472
   16. Sitting the Paper: Thirty Marks in One Hour 479

   Page 1 onwards

   483 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 483 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 109 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Basic Elements of Python Programming 69 chapters

   1. 1 What Python Is, and the Features That Made It Popular pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 Installing Python and Running Your First Program pages 6 to 9
   3. 3 How a Python Program Is Executed: Source, Bytecode and the PVM pages 10 to 13
   4. 4 The Python Interpreter: The Prompt, Script Mode and the Command Line pages 14 to 17
   5. 5 Comments pages 18 to 21
   6. 6 IDLE: The Shell, The Editor and The Debugger pages 22 to 25
   7. 7 The Data Types Python Gives You pages 26 to 29
   8. 8 Numbers: int, float, complex and bool pages 30 to 33
   9. 9 The Dictionary as a Data Type pages 34 to 36
   10. 10 Sets and the frozenset pages 37 to 40
   11. 11 Mapping: What a Mapping Type Is pages 41 to 43
   12. 12 Tokens, Keywords, Identifiers and Literals pages 44 to 47
   13. 13 Statements, Lines and Indentation pages 48 to 51
   14. 14 Variables and What a Name Really Holds pages 52 to 55
   15. 15 Reading What the User Types: The input() Function pages 56 to 59
   16. 16 Output Statements: The print() Function pages 60 to 62
   17. 17 Command Line Arguments and sys.argv pages 63 to 65
   18. 18 Arithmetic Operators pages 66 to 69
   19. 19 Relational Operators and Chained Comparison pages 70 to 73
   20. 20 Logical Operators and Short-Circuit Evaluation pages 74 to 77
   21. 21 Bitwise Operators pages 78 to 81
   22. 22 Assignment Operators pages 82 to 85
   23. 23 Membership and Identity Operators pages 86 to 89
   24. 24 Precedence and Associativity of Operators pages 90 to 93
   25. 25 Control Statements: The Three Kinds Python Has pages 94 to 97
   26. 26 The if Statement pages 98 to 100
   27. 27 The if...else Statement and the Conditional Expression pages 101 to 104
   28. 28 The if...elif...else Statement pages 105 to 108
   29. 29 The while Loop pages 109 to 112
   30. 30 The for Loop and the range() Function pages 113 to 116
   31. 31 The Infinite Loop and The Nested Loop pages 117 to 121
   32. 32 The else Suite on a Loop pages 122 to 124
   33. 33 break, continue and pass pages 125 to 128
   34. 34 The assert Statement pages 129 to 131
   35. 35 The return Statement pages 132 to 134
   36. 36 What an Array Is, and Why a List Is Not One pages 135 to 138
   37. 37 Creating an Array with the array Module pages 139 to 142
   38. 38 Indexing and Slicing an Array pages 143 to 146
   39. 39 Basic Array Operations pages 147 to 150
   40. 40 Processing an Array pages 151 to 155
   41. 41 NumPy and the ndarray pages 156 to 159
   42. 42 Mathematical Operations on an Array pages 160 to 164
   43. 43 Aliasing an Array Against Copying One pages 165 to 169
   44. 44 Slicing and Indexing in NumPy Arrays pages 170 to 173
   45. 45 Basic Slicing of a NumPy Array pages 174 to 177
   46. 46 Advanced Indexing pages 178 to 182
   47. 47 Dimensions and Attributes of an Array pages 183 to 187
   48. 48 Function Definition and Call pages 188 to 191
   49. 49 Returning a Result from a Function pages 192 to 195
   50. 50 Returning Multiple Values from a Function pages 196 to 199
   51. 51 The Built-in Functions pages 200 to 203
   52. 52 The Difference Between a Function and a Method pages 204 to 207
   53. 53 Pass by Object Reference pages 208 to 212
   54. 54 Parameters and Arguments pages 213 to 215
   55. 55 Default and Keyword Arguments pages 216 to 219
   56. 56 *args and **kwargs: Any Number of Arguments pages 220 to 223
   57. 57 Local and Global Scope pages 224 to 228
   58. 58 Recursive Functions pages 229 to 233
   59. 59 Anonymous Functions: The lambda pages 234 to 238
   60. 60 Modules in Python pages 239 to 243
   61. 61 Writing Your Own Module and the __name__ == '__main__' Idiom pages 244 to 248
   62. 62 Creating Strings pages 249 to 252
   63. 63 The Functions and Methods of a String pages 253 to 257
   64. 64 Working with Strings: Indexing, Slicing, Concatenation and Membership pages 258 to 262
   65. 65 Formatting Strings: The f-string pages 263 to 266
   66. 66 Formatting Strings with format() and the Percent Operator pages 267 to 270
   67. 67 Finding the Number of Characters and Words pages 271 to 275
   68. 68 Inserting a Substring into a String pages 276 to 279
   69. 69 Module 1: The Practical Set pages 280 to 288

   Module II List 40 chapters

   1. 70 Exploring the List: What Makes It Different pages 289 to 292
   2. 71 Creating a List pages 293 to 297
   3. 72 List Functions and Methods pages 298 to 302
   4. 73 List Operations pages 303 to 307
   5. 74 List Slices pages 308 to 311
   6. 75 Nested Lists and the Matrix pages 312 to 316
   7. 76 Tuples pages 317 to 320
   8. 77 The Functions That Work on a Tuple pages 321 to 324
   9. 78 Creating a Dictionary pages 325 to 329
   10. 79 The Operators That Work on a Dictionary pages 330 to 333
   11. 80 Dictionary Methods pages 334 to 338
   12. 81 Using a for Loop with a Dictionary pages 339 to 342
   13. 82 Operations on Dictionaries pages 343 to 347
   14. 83 Sorting a Dictionary by Value pages 348 to 351
   15. 84 Opening and Closing a File pages 352 to 355
   16. 85 Working with Text Files pages 356 to 360
   17. 86 Reading the Last n Lines of a File pages 361 to 364
   18. 87 Working with Binary Files pages 365 to 369
   19. 88 The with Statement pages 370 to 373
   20. 89 Pickle in Python pages 374 to 379
   21. 90 seek() and tell() pages 380 to 384
   22. 91 Random Access to a Binary File pages 385 to 389
   23. 92 Zipping and Unzipping Files pages 390 to 394
   24. 93 Working with Directories pages 395 to 400
   25. 94 Regular Expressions: An Introduction pages 401 to 406
   26. 95 Sequence Characters in a Regular Expression pages 407 to 411
   27. 96 Special Characters in a Regular Expression pages 412 to 417
   28. 97 Using a Regular Expression on a File pages 418 to 422
   29. 98 Retrieving Information from an HTML File pages 423 to 427
   30. 99 Time in Python: The Epoch and struct_time pages 428 to 432
   31. 100 The date Object pages 433 to 437
   32. 101 The Date and Time Now pages 438 to 441
   33. 102 Combining a Date and a Time pages 442 to 445
   34. 103 Formatting a Date and a Time pages 446 to 450
   35. 104 Finding and Comparing Dates pages 451 to 456
   36. 105 Sorting Dates pages 457 to 461
   37. 106 Knowing the Time a Program Takes pages 462 to 466
   38. 107 Working with the Calendar Module pages 467 to 471
   39. 108 Module 2: The Practical Set pages 472 to 478
   40. 109 Sitting the Paper: Thirty Marks in One Hour pages 479 to 483

4. Data Structures

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Data Structures

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 3

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in Second Year

   Data Structures

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Introduction

   1. What a Data Structure Is, and Why the One You Pick Decides Whether the Program Works 1
   2. How This Paper Is Examined, and How to Read This Book 5
   3. Data: What It Is Before Anybody Has Asked It a Question 9
   4. Information: Data With a Question Asked of It 14
   5. The Abstract Data Type: The Operations Are the Contract 17
   6. Linear Data Structures: One Thing After Another 22
   7. Non-Linear Data Structures: Where Branching Pays 26
   8. Algorithm Analysis: Why Nobody Measures an Algorithm With a Clock 30
   9. Time Complexity: Counting the Basic Operation 36
   10. Big O Notation: The Definition, and How to Read It Aloud 40
   11. The Growth Rates on This Paper, Ordered and Measured 44
   12. Best Case, Average Case and Worst Case 48
   13. Space Complexity, and the Trade Against Time 52
   14. Choosing the Faster of Two Solutions, on Evidence 56
   15. The Array: What It Is, and the One Property Everything Follows From 60
   16. Address Arithmetic: Why Indexing Costs the Same Every Time 65
   17. Traversing an Array 70
   18. Searching an Array by Walking It 74
   19. Insertion Into an Array, and the Shifting It Costs 78

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Introduction

   1. Inserting at a Stated Position: the Lab Exercise, Complete 83
   2. Deletion From an Array, and the Hole It Leaves 88
   3. Deleting From a Stated Position: the Lab Exercise, Complete 94
   4. What the Array Cannot Do 100
   5. The Singly Linked List: the Node, the Link and the Head 104
   6. How a Linked List Sits in Memory 109
   7. Dynamic Memory: Asking for a Node and Giving It Back 114
   8. Creating a Singly Linked List, and the Empty List 120
   9. Traversing a Singly Linked List 125
   10. Searching a Linked List, and the One Thing It Cannot Do 131
   11. Inserting at the Beginning and at the End 137
   12. Inserting at a Given Position 143
   13. Deleting a Node: the First, the Last and One in the Middle 150
   14. Array Against Linked List, Operation by Operation 156
   15. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Each, as a Decision 162
   16. The Stack: Last In, First Out 167
   17. The Stack ADT: Its Operations and Its Two Error States 171
   18. push, pop and peek, One at a Time 176
   19. Implementing a Stack on an Array 181

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Introduction

   1. The Lab Exercise: a Stack on an Array, Complete 187
   2. What a Stack Is Actually For 191
   3. Infix, Prefix and Postfix: Three Ways to Write One Expression 196
   4. Precedence and Associativity, Which Is What the Conversion Uses 202
   5. Converting Infix to Postfix With a Stack 207
   6. The Lab Exercise: the Conversion, Brackets Included 214
   7. Evaluating a Postfix Expression With a Stack 219
   8. The Queue: First In, First Out 226
   9. enqueue, dequeue and peek 232
   10. Implementing a Queue on an Array, and the Drift That Ruins It 238
   11. The Circular Queue: the Fix, and the Full-Against-Empty Trap 245
   12. The Lab Exercise: a Queue on an Array, Complete 253
   13. What a Queue Is For: Waiting in Turn 259
   14. A Scheduling Scenario, Worked End to End 264
   15. The Lab Exercise: a Customer Service Queue, Simulated 271
   16. Stack Against Queue, and the Limit They Share 277
   17. What Recursion Is, and the One Question That Makes It Easy 281
   18. How a Recursive Call Actually Runs: the Call Stack 286

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Introduction

   1. The Base Case: Where a Recursion Stops 292
   2. The Recursive Step: Making the Problem Smaller 299
   3. Factorial, Traced and Run 305
   4. The Fibonacci Sequence, and Why the Obvious Recursion Is Slow 311
   5. Recursion Against Iteration: Choosing Between Them 316
   6. Module 1 in One Place: Definitions, Distinctions and One-Line Answers 322

   Module II Trees

   1. The Tree: the Vocabulary Before Anything Else 328
   2. The Binary Tree: the Definition, and the Shapes One Can Take 333
   3. Representing a Binary Tree With Linked Nodes 339
   4. Representing a Binary Tree in an Array, and When That Is Better 344
   5. What a Traversal Is, and Why There Are Exactly Three of This Kind 350
   6. Inorder Traversal 356
   7. Preorder Traversal 360
   8. Postorder Traversal 365
   9. The Lab Exercise: All Three Traversals on One Tree 370
   10. The Binary Search Tree: the One Rule, and Everything It Buys 375

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Trees

   1. Searching a Binary Search Tree 380
   2. Inserting Into a Binary Search Tree 386
   3. The Lab Exercise: Building a Binary Search Tree From Input 392
   4. The Lab Exercise: Searching for a Node 397
   5. Deleting From a Binary Search Tree: the Three Cases 402
   6. Inorder on a Binary Search Tree Comes Out Sorted, and Why That Matters 411
   7. The Cost of a Binary Search Tree, and the Shape That Ruins It 417
   8. What Trees Are For: Representing a Hierarchy 422
   9. A Hierarchy Worked End to End 427
   10. Hashing: Computing Where a Thing Lives Instead of Looking for It 432
   11. The Hash Function: What Makes One Good 438
   12. The Hash Table: Buckets, Table Size and the Load Factor 444
   13. Collisions: Why They Are Certain, Not Unlucky 449
   14. Separate Chaining, Built and Measured 454
   15. The Lab Exercise: a Hash Table With Separate Chaining 459
   16. Storing, Retrieving and Deleting 465
   17. What Hashing Is For: the Dictionary 473
   18. A Dictionary Worked End to End 479

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Trees

   1. What Sorting Is, and the Four Properties That Tell Two Sorts Apart 488
   2. Bubble Sort 495
   3. Insertion Sort 504
   4. Selection Sort 513
   5. The Lab Exercise: the Three Sorts Compared, Counted 521
   6. What Searching Is, and What a Search Is Allowed to Assume 529
   7. Linear Search 535
   8. Binary Search 543
   9. Binary Search Needs a Sorted Array, and What That Requirement Really Costs 552
   10. The Lab Exercise: Linear Against Binary, Counted 561
   11. Choosing a Structure for a Job, and Justifying the Choice 568
   12. One Program That Uses Several of These Structures Together 576
   13. Module 2 in One Place: Definitions, Distinctions and One-Line Answers 588

   Page 1 onwards

   594 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 594 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 103 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Introduction, Arrays and Linked Lists, Stacks and Queues, Recursion 62 chapters

   1. 1 What a Data Structure Is, and Why the One You Pick Decides Whether the Program Works pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 How This Paper Is Examined, and How to Read This Book pages 5 to 8
   3. 3 Data: What It Is Before Anybody Has Asked It a Question pages 9 to 13
   4. 4 Information: Data With a Question Asked of It pages 14 to 16
   5. 5 The Abstract Data Type: The Operations Are the Contract pages 17 to 21
   6. 6 Linear Data Structures: One Thing After Another pages 22 to 25
   7. 7 Non-Linear Data Structures: Where Branching Pays pages 26 to 29
   8. 8 Algorithm Analysis: Why Nobody Measures an Algorithm With a Clock pages 30 to 35
   9. 9 Time Complexity: Counting the Basic Operation pages 36 to 39
   10. 10 Big O Notation: The Definition, and How to Read It Aloud pages 40 to 43
   11. 11 The Growth Rates on This Paper, Ordered and Measured pages 44 to 47
   12. 12 Best Case, Average Case and Worst Case pages 48 to 51
   13. 13 Space Complexity, and the Trade Against Time pages 52 to 55
   14. 14 Choosing the Faster of Two Solutions, on Evidence pages 56 to 59
   15. 15 The Array: What It Is, and the One Property Everything Follows From pages 60 to 64
   16. 16 Address Arithmetic: Why Indexing Costs the Same Every Time pages 65 to 69
   17. 17 Traversing an Array pages 70 to 73
   18. 18 Searching an Array by Walking It pages 74 to 77
   19. 19 Insertion Into an Array, and the Shifting It Costs pages 78 to 82
   20. 20 Inserting at a Stated Position: the Lab Exercise, Complete pages 83 to 87
   21. 21 Deletion From an Array, and the Hole It Leaves pages 88 to 93
   22. 22 Deleting From a Stated Position: the Lab Exercise, Complete pages 94 to 99
   23. 23 What the Array Cannot Do pages 100 to 103
   24. 24 The Singly Linked List: the Node, the Link and the Head pages 104 to 108
   25. 25 How a Linked List Sits in Memory pages 109 to 113
   26. 26 Dynamic Memory: Asking for a Node and Giving It Back pages 114 to 119
   27. 27 Creating a Singly Linked List, and the Empty List pages 120 to 124
   28. 28 Traversing a Singly Linked List pages 125 to 130
   29. 29 Searching a Linked List, and the One Thing It Cannot Do pages 131 to 136
   30. 30 Inserting at the Beginning and at the End pages 137 to 142
   31. 31 Inserting at a Given Position pages 143 to 149
   32. 32 Deleting a Node: the First, the Last and One in the Middle pages 150 to 155
   33. 33 Array Against Linked List, Operation by Operation pages 156 to 161
   34. 34 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Each, as a Decision pages 162 to 166
   35. 35 The Stack: Last In, First Out pages 167 to 170
   36. 36 The Stack ADT: Its Operations and Its Two Error States pages 171 to 175
   37. 37 push, pop and peek, One at a Time pages 176 to 180
   38. 38 Implementing a Stack on an Array pages 181 to 186
   39. 39 The Lab Exercise: a Stack on an Array, Complete pages 187 to 190
   40. 40 What a Stack Is Actually For pages 191 to 195
   41. 41 Infix, Prefix and Postfix: Three Ways to Write One Expression pages 196 to 201
   42. 42 Precedence and Associativity, Which Is What the Conversion Uses pages 202 to 206
   43. 43 Converting Infix to Postfix With a Stack pages 207 to 213
   44. 44 The Lab Exercise: the Conversion, Brackets Included pages 214 to 218
   45. 45 Evaluating a Postfix Expression With a Stack pages 219 to 225
   46. 46 The Queue: First In, First Out pages 226 to 231
   47. 47 enqueue, dequeue and peek pages 232 to 237
   48. 48 Implementing a Queue on an Array, and the Drift That Ruins It pages 238 to 244
   49. 49 The Circular Queue: the Fix, and the Full-Against-Empty Trap pages 245 to 252
   50. 50 The Lab Exercise: a Queue on an Array, Complete pages 253 to 258
   51. 51 What a Queue Is For: Waiting in Turn pages 259 to 263
   52. 52 A Scheduling Scenario, Worked End to End pages 264 to 270
   53. 53 The Lab Exercise: a Customer Service Queue, Simulated pages 271 to 276
   54. 54 Stack Against Queue, and the Limit They Share pages 277 to 280
   55. 55 What Recursion Is, and the One Question That Makes It Easy pages 281 to 285
   56. 56 How a Recursive Call Actually Runs: the Call Stack pages 286 to 291
   57. 57 The Base Case: Where a Recursion Stops pages 292 to 298
   58. 58 The Recursive Step: Making the Problem Smaller pages 299 to 304
   59. 59 Factorial, Traced and Run pages 305 to 310
   60. 60 The Fibonacci Sequence, and Why the Obvious Recursion Is Slow pages 311 to 315
   61. 61 Recursion Against Iteration: Choosing Between Them pages 316 to 321
   62. 62 Module 1 in One Place: Definitions, Distinctions and One-Line Answers pages 322 to 327

   Module II Trees, Hashing, Sorting and Searching 41 chapters

   1. 63 The Tree: the Vocabulary Before Anything Else pages 328 to 332
   2. 64 The Binary Tree: the Definition, and the Shapes One Can Take pages 333 to 338
   3. 65 Representing a Binary Tree With Linked Nodes pages 339 to 343
   4. 66 Representing a Binary Tree in an Array, and When That Is Better pages 344 to 349
   5. 67 What a Traversal Is, and Why There Are Exactly Three of This Kind pages 350 to 355
   6. 68 Inorder Traversal pages 356 to 359
   7. 69 Preorder Traversal pages 360 to 364
   8. 70 Postorder Traversal pages 365 to 369
   9. 71 The Lab Exercise: All Three Traversals on One Tree pages 370 to 374
   10. 72 The Binary Search Tree: the One Rule, and Everything It Buys pages 375 to 379
   11. 73 Searching a Binary Search Tree pages 380 to 385
   12. 74 Inserting Into a Binary Search Tree pages 386 to 391
   13. 75 The Lab Exercise: Building a Binary Search Tree From Input pages 392 to 396
   14. 76 The Lab Exercise: Searching for a Node pages 397 to 401
   15. 77 Deleting From a Binary Search Tree: the Three Cases pages 402 to 410
   16. 78 Inorder on a Binary Search Tree Comes Out Sorted, and Why That Matters pages 411 to 416
   17. 79 The Cost of a Binary Search Tree, and the Shape That Ruins It pages 417 to 421
   18. 80 What Trees Are For: Representing a Hierarchy pages 422 to 426
   19. 81 A Hierarchy Worked End to End pages 427 to 431
   20. 82 Hashing: Computing Where a Thing Lives Instead of Looking for It pages 432 to 437
   21. 83 The Hash Function: What Makes One Good pages 438 to 443
   22. 84 The Hash Table: Buckets, Table Size and the Load Factor pages 444 to 448
   23. 85 Collisions: Why They Are Certain, Not Unlucky pages 449 to 453
   24. 86 Separate Chaining, Built and Measured pages 454 to 458
   25. 87 The Lab Exercise: a Hash Table With Separate Chaining pages 459 to 464
   26. 88 Storing, Retrieving and Deleting pages 465 to 472
   27. 89 What Hashing Is For: the Dictionary pages 473 to 478
   28. 90 A Dictionary Worked End to End pages 479 to 487
   29. 91 What Sorting Is, and the Four Properties That Tell Two Sorts Apart pages 488 to 494
   30. 92 Bubble Sort pages 495 to 503
   31. 93 Insertion Sort pages 504 to 512
   32. 94 Selection Sort pages 513 to 520
   33. 95 The Lab Exercise: the Three Sorts Compared, Counted pages 521 to 528
   34. 96 What Searching Is, and What a Search Is Allowed to Assume pages 529 to 534
   35. 97 Linear Search pages 535 to 542
   36. 98 Binary Search pages 543 to 551
   37. 99 Binary Search Needs a Sorted Array, and What That Requirement Really Costs pages 552 to 560
   38. 100 The Lab Exercise: Linear Against Binary, Counted pages 561 to 567
   39. 101 Choosing a Structure for a Job, and Justifying the Choice pages 568 to 575
   40. 102 One Program That Uses Several of These Structures Together pages 576 to 587
   41. 103 Module 2 in One Place: Definitions, Distinctions and One-Line Answers pages 588 to 594

5. Major Practical 3

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Major Practical 3

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 3

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in Second Year

   Major Practical 3

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   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

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   Contents

   Module I 1. Write programs for the following:

   1. How This Practical Is Examined: the Slip, the Journal and the Viva 1
   2. The Laboratory from Zero: Python, IDLE, and Your First Program 5
   3. Practical 1: Input, Output, and the Year You Turn 100 10
   4. Practical 1 continued: Even or Odd, and the SGPI Grade Ladder 15
   5. Practical 2: the Fibonacci Series, and the Sum of the Digits 21
   6. Practical 3: Arrays, Basic Operations, Indexing and Slicing 27
   7. Practical 3 continued: Mathematical Functions, Aliasing and Copying 33
   8. Practical 4: NumPy Slicing, Basic and Advanced Indexing 41
   9. Practical 4 continued: the Dimensions and Attributes of an Array 48
   10. Practical 5: Functions, Armstrong Numbers and Palindromes 55
   11. Practical 5 continued: Recursion, and the Lambda 62
   12. Practical 6: Counting the Characters and the Words in a String 68
   13. Practical 6 continued: the Geometry Module, and pointyShapeVolume 73
   14. Practical 7: a Common Member, and a Dictionary Sorted by Value 79
   15. Practical 8: the Tuple Return, Area and Circumference 86
   16. Practical 8 continued: Text Files, Binary Files, and the Last n Lines 92

   Contents continued

   Module I continued 1. Write programs for the following:

   1. Practical 9: Counting a Word in a File with a Regular Expression 100
   2. Practical 9 continued: Extracting Every Hyperlink from an HTML File 106
   3. Practical 10: Comparing Two Dates in DD/MM/YYYY Form 113
   4. Practical 10 continued: Measuring Execution Time, and the Calendar Module 119

   Module II 1. Array Operations: Write a program to implement basic array operations:

   1. Python for Data Structures, and the Cost of an Operation 126
   2. Practical 1: Array Operations, Insert, Delete and Linear Search 137
   3. Practical 2: Building a Singly Linked List 144
   4. Practical 2 continued: Deleting a Node from a Linked List 152
   5. Practical 3: a Stack over an Array 160
   6. Practical 3 continued: Infix to Postfix with a Stack 167
   7. Practical 4: a Queue over an Array 177
   8. Practical 4 continued: Simulating a Customer Service Queue 186
   9. Practical 5: the Binary Search Tree, Create, Insert and Search 193
   10. Practical 6: Tree Traversal, Pre-order, In-order and Post-order 203
   11. Practical 7: a Hash Table with Separate Chaining 212

   Contents continued

   Module II continued 1. Array Operations: Write a program to implement basic array operations:

   1. Practical 8: Bubble, Insertion and Selection Sort Compared 224
   2. Practical 9: Linear and Binary Search Compared 233
   3. Practical 10: the Combined Application 243
   4. If Your College Runs Module 2 in C 253

   Module J The journal, the viva and the practical examination

   1. Keeping the Journal, and What Goes on the Page 268
   2. A Worked Practical Slip: Q1, Q2 and Q3 275
   3. The Viva: the Questions Asked at the Table 285

   Page 1 onwards

   297 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 297 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 38 chapters across 3 modules

   Module I Python: MU's ten programming exercises 20 chapters

   1. 1 How This Practical Is Examined: the Slip, the Journal and the Viva pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 The Laboratory from Zero: Python, IDLE, and Your First Program pages 5 to 9
   3. 3 Practical 1: Input, Output, and the Year You Turn 100 pages 10 to 14
   4. 4 Practical 1 continued: Even or Odd, and the SGPI Grade Ladder pages 15 to 20
   5. 5 Practical 2: the Fibonacci Series, and the Sum of the Digits pages 21 to 26
   6. 6 Practical 3: Arrays, Basic Operations, Indexing and Slicing pages 27 to 32
   7. 7 Practical 3 continued: Mathematical Functions, Aliasing and Copying pages 33 to 40
   8. 8 Practical 4: NumPy Slicing, Basic and Advanced Indexing pages 41 to 47
   9. 9 Practical 4 continued: the Dimensions and Attributes of an Array pages 48 to 54
   10. 10 Practical 5: Functions, Armstrong Numbers and Palindromes pages 55 to 61
   11. 11 Practical 5 continued: Recursion, and the Lambda pages 62 to 67
   12. 12 Practical 6: Counting the Characters and the Words in a String pages 68 to 72
   13. 13 Practical 6 continued: the Geometry Module, and pointyShapeVolume pages 73 to 78
   14. 14 Practical 7: a Common Member, and a Dictionary Sorted by Value pages 79 to 85
   15. 15 Practical 8: the Tuple Return, Area and Circumference pages 86 to 91
   16. 16 Practical 8 continued: Text Files, Binary Files, and the Last n Lines pages 92 to 99
   17. 17 Practical 9: Counting a Word in a File with a Regular Expression pages 100 to 105
   18. 18 Practical 9 continued: Extracting Every Hyperlink from an HTML File pages 106 to 112
   19. 19 Practical 10: Comparing Two Dates in DD/MM/YYYY Form pages 113 to 118
   20. 20 Practical 10 continued: Measuring Execution Time, and the Calendar Module pages 119 to 125

   Module II Data Structures: MU's ten exercises, in Python and in C 15 chapters

   1. 21 Python for Data Structures, and the Cost of an Operation pages 126 to 136
   2. 22 Practical 1: Array Operations, Insert, Delete and Linear Search pages 137 to 143
   3. 23 Practical 2: Building a Singly Linked List pages 144 to 151
   4. 24 Practical 2 continued: Deleting a Node from a Linked List pages 152 to 159
   5. 25 Practical 3: a Stack over an Array pages 160 to 166
   6. 26 Practical 3 continued: Infix to Postfix with a Stack pages 167 to 176
   7. 27 Practical 4: a Queue over an Array pages 177 to 185
   8. 28 Practical 4 continued: Simulating a Customer Service Queue pages 186 to 192
   9. 29 Practical 5: the Binary Search Tree, Create, Insert and Search pages 193 to 202
   10. 30 Practical 6: Tree Traversal, Pre-order, In-order and Post-order pages 203 to 211
   11. 31 Practical 7: a Hash Table with Separate Chaining pages 212 to 223
   12. 32 Practical 8: Bubble, Insertion and Selection Sort Compared pages 224 to 232
   13. 33 Practical 9: Linear and Binary Search Compared pages 233 to 242
   14. 34 Practical 10: the Combined Application pages 243 to 252
   15. 35 If Your College Runs Module 2 in C pages 253 to 267

   Module J The journal, the viva and the practical examination 3 chapters

   1. 36 Keeping the Journal, and What Goes on the Page pages 268 to 274
   2. 37 A Worked Practical Slip: Q1, Q2 and Q3 pages 275 to 284
   3. 38 The Viva: the Questions Asked at the Table pages 285 to 297

Not written yet, and included the day each one lands: Field Project.

Questions