B.Sc. (Information Technology) Semester 1 Notes 2026

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1. Database Management System

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Database Management System

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Database Management System

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Databases and transactions, data models, database design and the ER diagram, the relational database model

   1. What a Database Is, and What a Database System Is 1
   2. The Purpose of a Database System 5
   3. Setting Up MySQL and Your First Statements 10
   4. The View of Data: Schemas and Instances 14
   5. The Three Levels of Abstraction, and Data Independence 18
   6. Degrees of Data Abstraction 22
   7. Relational Databases: the Table as the Only Structure 26
   8. Inside a DBMS: the Parts, and the People 30
   9. Client Server, Two Tier and Three Tier Architecture 35
   10. Transaction Management: What a Transaction Is 40
   11. ACID: the Four Properties Every Transaction Must Have 44
   12. Savepoints, and the Limits of Undo 49
   13. Why a Data Model Matters 53
   14. The Basic Building Blocks 57
   15. Business Rules, and Where They Come From 61
   16. Turning Business Rules Into a Design 66
   17. Before Databases: the File System and Its Problems 71
   18. The Hierarchical and Network Models 75
   19. The Relational Model, and Why It Won 80
   20. The Object, Object Relational and XML Models 85

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Databases and transactions, data models, database design and the ER diagram, the relational database model

   1. NoSQL, and What It Gave Up 90
   2. Database Design: the Whole Process 95
   3. The ER Model: Entities, Entity Types and Entity Sets 100
   4. Attributes and Their Kinds 105
   5. Keys in the ER Model 110
   6. Relationships, Relationship Sets, Degree and Roles 115
   7. Key Constraints and Cardinality 119
   8. Participation Constraints: Total and Partial 124
   9. Weak Entities and Identifying Relationships 128
   10. Generalization, Specialization and Inheritance 133
   11. Aggregation 138
   12. Drawing an ER Diagram: Chen Notation 142
   13. Crow's Foot Notation, and Reading Someone Else's Diagram 146
   14. A Complete ER Diagram, Built From Requirements 150
   15. ERD Issue: an Entity or an Attribute 155
   16. ERD Issue: an Entity or a Relationship 159
   17. ERD Issue: Binary or Ternary 163
   18. ERD Issue: the Fan Trap and the Chasm Trap 167
   19. Codd's Rules: Rule Zero and Rules One to Four 172

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Databases and transactions, data models, database design and the ER diagram, the relational database model

   1. Codd's Rules: Five to Eight 176
   2. Codd's Rules: Nine to Twelve, and How MySQL Scores 180
   3. Relational Schemas: Mapping Entities to Tables 185
   4. Mapping Relationships to Tables 189
   5. Mapping Multivalued Attributes, Specialization and N-ary Relationships 194
   6. The Logical View of Data: What a Relation Is 199
   7. Keys in the Relational Model 204
   8. The Foreign Key 208
   9. Integrity Rules: Entity and Referential Integrity 212
   10. Domain Integrity: NOT NULL, DEFAULT and CHECK 216
   11. Referential Actions: CASCADE, SET NULL and RESTRICT 220
   12. The Elements of a Relational DBMS, in One Place 225

   Module II Design theory and normalization, SQL and indexing, transaction management, concurrency control and recovery

   1. Functional Dependencies 229
   2. Finding the Functional Dependencies of a Table 233
   3. Armstrong's Axioms and the Rules of Inference 237
   4. Attribute Closure, and Finding Every Candidate Key 241
   5. Equivalent FD Sets and the Minimal Cover 246

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Design theory and normalization, SQL and indexing, transaction management, concurrency control and recovery

   1. Why Normalize: the Three Anomalies 251
   2. First Normal Form 255
   3. Second Normal Form 259
   4. Third Normal Form 263
   5. Boyce Codd Normal Form 268
   6. Lossless Join Decomposition 272
   7. Dependency Preservation, and 3NF Synthesis 276
   8. Decomposing Into BCNF, and What It Costs 281
   9. Multivalued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form 286
   10. Join Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form 290
   11. Inclusion Dependencies and Domain Key Normal Form 295
   12. One Bad Table, Normalized All the Way 299
   13. Introduction to SQL: Where It Came From, and What It Is Made Of 304
   14. The Five Statement Families: DDL, DML, DQL, DCL and TCL 308
   15. Data Types in MySQL 312
   16. CREATE DATABASE, CREATE TABLE, and the Constraints That Go With Them 316
   17. INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE 320
   18. SELECT: Columns, Rows, and the Order They Come Back In 325

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Design theory and normalization, SQL and indexing, transaction management, concurrency control and recovery

   1. WHERE: the Operators, and What NULL Does to Them 329
   2. Aggregate Functions, GROUP BY and HAVING 333
   3. String, Numeric and Date Functions 338
   4. Set Operations: UNION, INTERSECT and EXCEPT 342
   5. Joining Database Tables: the Inner Join 346
   6. Outer Joins, and the FULL OUTER JOIN MySQL Does Not Have 350
   7. Self Joins, Cross Joins and Natural Joins 355
   8. Complex Queries: Subqueries With IN, ANY and ALL 359
   9. Complex Queries: EXISTS and the Correlated Subquery 364
   10. Complex Queries: Derived Tables and Common Table Expressions 368
   11. Complex Queries: Window Functions 373
   12. Views: Creating, Using and Dropping 378
   13. Updatable Views and WITH CHECK OPTION 385
   14. Triggers: BEFORE, AFTER, and What They Are For 391
   15. Writing a Trigger That Enforces a Business Rule 398
   16. Schema Modification: ALTER TABLE 404
   17. DROP, TRUNCATE and RENAME 410
   18. Database Protection: What You Are Protecting Against 415
   19. Users, Privileges, GRANT and REVOKE 421

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Design theory and normalization, SQL and indexing, transaction management, concurrency control and recovery

   1. Discretionary Access Control, Roles and Least Privilege 427
   2. File Structure: the Storage Hierarchy and the Block 433
   3. Records and Page Organization 437
   4. File Organization: Heap, Sequential, Hashed and Clustered 443
   5. The Buffer Manager 448
   6. Hashing: Static Hashing and Bucket Overflow 453
   7. Hashing: Extendible and Linear Hashing 458
   8. Indexing: What an Index Is, Dense and Sparse 463
   9. Multilevel Indexes and the B+ Tree 468
   10. Indexes in MySQL: Primary, Secondary, Clustered and Covering 475
   11. When an Index Does Not Help 481
   12. Query Processing: From SQL Text to an Evaluation Plan 487
   13. Relational Algebra: the Language a Plan Is Written In 491
   14. How a Selection Is Actually Done 496
   15. How a Join Is Actually Done 501
   16. Sorting, Materialization and Pipelining 507
   17. Query Optimization: Equivalence Rules and Heuristics 512
   18. Cost Based Optimization and Statistics 517
   19. Reading EXPLAIN on a Real Query 522

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Design theory and normalization, SQL and indexing, transaction management, concurrency control and recovery

   1. Transaction Processing Concepts: the Transaction and Its States 527
   2. The Three Problems Concurrency Causes 531
   3. Schedules and What Makes One Serializable 535
   4. Testing Conflict Serializability with a Precedence Graph 540
   5. View Serializability and Recoverable Schedules 544
   6. Isolation Levels Seen on a Real Server 548
   7. Concurrency Control: Locks and Two Phase Locking 552
   8. Deadlock Prevention and Detection 558
   9. Timestamp Ordering 563
   10. Validation and Multiversion Concurrency Control 567
   11. Granularity and Intention Locks 572
   12. Recovery: What Can Fail, and the Log 576
   13. Deferred and Immediate Update 580
   14. Checkpoints and Recovering After a Crash 584
   15. Shadow Paging and Backup Against Media Failure 589

   Module P Major Practical 1, Module 2: the ten practicals set on this subject

   1. Practical: Keeping the Journal, and the Viva 593
   2. Practical 1: Conceptual Design With an ER Diagram 597

   Contents continued

   Module P continued Major Practical 1, Module 2: the ten practicals set on this subject

   1. Practical 2: Databases, Tables and CRUD 600
   2. Practical 3: Altering, Dropping, Truncating and Backing Up 604
   3. Practical 4: Simple Queries and Aggregate Functions 608
   4. Practical 5: Date, String and Math Functions 612
   5. Practical 6: Inner and Outer Join Queries 616
   6. Practical 7: Subqueries With IN and With EXISTS 620
   7. Practical 8: ER Model to Relational Model, and Normalization 623
   8. Practical 9: Views, With and Without the Check Option 628
   9. Practical 10: DCL Statements, COMMIT and ROLLBACK 632

   Page 1 onwards

   635 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 635 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 138 chapters across 3 modules

   Module I Databases and transactions, data models, database design and the ER diagram, the relational database model 51 chapters

   1. 1 What a Database Is, and What a Database System Is pages 1–4
   2. 2 The Purpose of a Database System pages 5–9
   3. 3 Setting Up MySQL and Your First Statements pages 10–13
   4. 4 The View of Data: Schemas and Instances pages 14–17
   5. 5 The Three Levels of Abstraction, and Data Independence pages 18–21
   6. 6 Degrees of Data Abstraction pages 22–25
   7. 7 Relational Databases: the Table as the Only Structure pages 26–29
   8. 8 Inside a DBMS: the Parts, and the People pages 30–34
   9. 9 Client Server, Two Tier and Three Tier Architecture pages 35–39
   10. 10 Transaction Management: What a Transaction Is pages 40–43
   11. 11 ACID: the Four Properties Every Transaction Must Have pages 44–48
   12. 12 Savepoints, and the Limits of Undo pages 49–52
   13. 13 Why a Data Model Matters pages 53–56
   14. 14 The Basic Building Blocks pages 57–60
   15. 15 Business Rules, and Where They Come From pages 61–65
   16. 16 Turning Business Rules Into a Design pages 66–70
   17. 17 Before Databases: the File System and Its Problems pages 71–74
   18. 18 The Hierarchical and Network Models pages 75–79
   19. 19 The Relational Model, and Why It Won pages 80–84
   20. 20 The Object, Object Relational and XML Models pages 85–89
   21. 21 NoSQL, and What It Gave Up pages 90–94
   22. 22 Database Design: the Whole Process pages 95–99
   23. 23 The ER Model: Entities, Entity Types and Entity Sets pages 100–104
   24. 24 Attributes and Their Kinds pages 105–109
   25. 25 Keys in the ER Model pages 110–114
   26. 26 Relationships, Relationship Sets, Degree and Roles pages 115–118
   27. 27 Key Constraints and Cardinality pages 119–123
   28. 28 Participation Constraints: Total and Partial pages 124–127
   29. 29 Weak Entities and Identifying Relationships pages 128–132
   30. 30 Generalization, Specialization and Inheritance pages 133–137
   31. 31 Aggregation pages 138–141
   32. 32 Drawing an ER Diagram: Chen Notation pages 142–145
   33. 33 Crow's Foot Notation, and Reading Someone Else's Diagram pages 146–149
   34. 34 A Complete ER Diagram, Built From Requirements pages 150–154
   35. 35 ERD Issue: an Entity or an Attribute pages 155–158
   36. 36 ERD Issue: an Entity or a Relationship pages 159–162
   37. 37 ERD Issue: Binary or Ternary pages 163–166
   38. 38 ERD Issue: the Fan Trap and the Chasm Trap pages 167–171
   39. 39 Codd's Rules: Rule Zero and Rules One to Four pages 172–175
   40. 40 Codd's Rules: Five to Eight pages 176–179
   41. 41 Codd's Rules: Nine to Twelve, and How MySQL Scores pages 180–184
   42. 42 Relational Schemas: Mapping Entities to Tables pages 185–188
   43. 43 Mapping Relationships to Tables pages 189–193
   44. 44 Mapping Multivalued Attributes, Specialization and N-ary Relationships pages 194–198
   45. 45 The Logical View of Data: What a Relation Is pages 199–203
   46. 46 Keys in the Relational Model pages 204–207
   47. 47 The Foreign Key pages 208–211
   48. 48 Integrity Rules: Entity and Referential Integrity pages 212–215
   49. 49 Domain Integrity: NOT NULL, DEFAULT and CHECK pages 216–219
   50. 50 Referential Actions: CASCADE, SET NULL and RESTRICT pages 220–224
   51. 51 The Elements of a Relational DBMS, in One Place pages 225–228

   Module II Design theory and normalization, SQL and indexing, transaction management, concurrency control and recovery 76 chapters

   1. 52 Functional Dependencies pages 229–232
   2. 53 Finding the Functional Dependencies of a Table pages 233–236
   3. 54 Armstrong's Axioms and the Rules of Inference pages 237–240
   4. 55 Attribute Closure, and Finding Every Candidate Key pages 241–245
   5. 56 Equivalent FD Sets and the Minimal Cover pages 246–250
   6. 57 Why Normalize: the Three Anomalies pages 251–254
   7. 58 First Normal Form pages 255–258
   8. 59 Second Normal Form pages 259–262
   9. 60 Third Normal Form pages 263–267
   10. 61 Boyce Codd Normal Form pages 268–271
   11. 62 Lossless Join Decomposition pages 272–275
   12. 63 Dependency Preservation, and 3NF Synthesis pages 276–280
   13. 64 Decomposing Into BCNF, and What It Costs pages 281–285
   14. 65 Multivalued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form pages 286–289
   15. 66 Join Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form pages 290–294
   16. 67 Inclusion Dependencies and Domain Key Normal Form pages 295–298
   17. 68 One Bad Table, Normalized All the Way pages 299–303
   18. 69 Introduction to SQL: Where It Came From, and What It Is Made Of pages 304–307
   19. 70 The Five Statement Families: DDL, DML, DQL, DCL and TCL pages 308–311
   20. 71 Data Types in MySQL pages 312–315
   21. 72 CREATE DATABASE, CREATE TABLE, and the Constraints That Go With Them pages 316–319
   22. 73 INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE pages 320–324
   23. 74 SELECT: Columns, Rows, and the Order They Come Back In pages 325–328
   24. 75 WHERE: the Operators, and What NULL Does to Them pages 329–332
   25. 76 Aggregate Functions, GROUP BY and HAVING pages 333–337
   26. 77 String, Numeric and Date Functions pages 338–341
   27. 78 Set Operations: UNION, INTERSECT and EXCEPT pages 342–345
   28. 79 Joining Database Tables: the Inner Join pages 346–349
   29. 80 Outer Joins, and the FULL OUTER JOIN MySQL Does Not Have pages 350–354
   30. 81 Self Joins, Cross Joins and Natural Joins pages 355–358
   31. 82 Complex Queries: Subqueries With IN, ANY and ALL pages 359–363
   32. 83 Complex Queries: EXISTS and the Correlated Subquery pages 364–367
   33. 84 Complex Queries: Derived Tables and Common Table Expressions pages 368–372
   34. 85 Complex Queries: Window Functions pages 373–377
   35. 86 Views: Creating, Using and Dropping pages 378–384
   36. 87 Updatable Views and WITH CHECK OPTION pages 385–390
   37. 88 Triggers: BEFORE, AFTER, and What They Are For pages 391–397
   38. 89 Writing a Trigger That Enforces a Business Rule pages 398–403
   39. 90 Schema Modification: ALTER TABLE pages 404–409
   40. 91 DROP, TRUNCATE and RENAME pages 410–414
   41. 92 Database Protection: What You Are Protecting Against pages 415–420
   42. 93 Users, Privileges, GRANT and REVOKE pages 421–426
   43. 94 Discretionary Access Control, Roles and Least Privilege pages 427–432
   44. 95 File Structure: the Storage Hierarchy and the Block pages 433–436
   45. 96 Records and Page Organization pages 437–442
   46. 97 File Organization: Heap, Sequential, Hashed and Clustered pages 443–447
   47. 98 The Buffer Manager pages 448–452
   48. 99 Hashing: Static Hashing and Bucket Overflow pages 453–457
   49. 100 Hashing: Extendible and Linear Hashing pages 458–462
   50. 101 Indexing: What an Index Is, Dense and Sparse pages 463–467
   51. 102 Multilevel Indexes and the B+ Tree pages 468–474
   52. 103 Indexes in MySQL: Primary, Secondary, Clustered and Covering pages 475–480
   53. 104 When an Index Does Not Help pages 481–486
   54. 105 Query Processing: From SQL Text to an Evaluation Plan pages 487–490
   55. 106 Relational Algebra: the Language a Plan Is Written In pages 491–495
   56. 107 How a Selection Is Actually Done pages 496–500
   57. 108 How a Join Is Actually Done pages 501–506
   58. 109 Sorting, Materialization and Pipelining pages 507–511
   59. 110 Query Optimization: Equivalence Rules and Heuristics pages 512–516
   60. 111 Cost Based Optimization and Statistics pages 517–521
   61. 112 Reading EXPLAIN on a Real Query pages 522–526
   62. 113 Transaction Processing Concepts: the Transaction and Its States pages 527–530
   63. 114 The Three Problems Concurrency Causes pages 531–534
   64. 115 Schedules and What Makes One Serializable pages 535–539
   65. 116 Testing Conflict Serializability with a Precedence Graph pages 540–543
   66. 117 View Serializability and Recoverable Schedules pages 544–547
   67. 118 Isolation Levels Seen on a Real Server pages 548–551
   68. 119 Concurrency Control: Locks and Two Phase Locking pages 552–557
   69. 120 Deadlock Prevention and Detection pages 558–562
   70. 121 Timestamp Ordering pages 563–566
   71. 122 Validation and Multiversion Concurrency Control pages 567–571
   72. 123 Granularity and Intention Locks pages 572–575
   73. 124 Recovery: What Can Fail, and the Log pages 576–579
   74. 125 Deferred and Immediate Update pages 580–583
   75. 126 Checkpoints and Recovering After a Crash pages 584–588
   76. 127 Shadow Paging and Backup Against Media Failure pages 589–592

   Module P Major Practical 1, Module 2: the ten practicals set on this subject 11 chapters

   1. 128 Practical: Keeping the Journal, and the Viva pages 593–596
   2. 129 Practical 1: Conceptual Design With an ER Diagram pages 597–599
   3. 130 Practical 2: Databases, Tables and CRUD pages 600–603
   4. 131 Practical 3: Altering, Dropping, Truncating and Backing Up pages 604–607
   5. 132 Practical 4: Simple Queries and Aggregate Functions pages 608–611
   6. 133 Practical 5: Date, String and Math Functions pages 612–615
   7. 134 Practical 6: Inner and Outer Join Queries pages 616–619
   8. 135 Practical 7: Subqueries With IN and With EXISTS pages 620–622
   9. 136 Practical 8: ER Model to Relational Model, and Normalization pages 623–627
   10. 137 Practical 9: Views, With and Without the Check Option pages 628–631
   11. 138 Practical 10: DCL Statements, COMMIT and ROLLBACK pages 632–635

2. Combinational and Sequential Design

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Combinational and Sequential Design

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Combinational and Sequential Design

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I 1. Study of Logic gates and their ICs and universal gates:

   1. How This Paper Is Examined, and How to Read This Book 1
   2. The Bench: Breadboard, Power Supply and the Five Volt Rail 3
   3. Reading a DIP: Pin One, the Notch, and the Chips That Break the Rule 6
   4. Switches, LEDs and the Logic Probe 9
   5. Wiring a Circuit That Works the First Time 12
   6. When It Does Not Work: Finding the Fault 15
   7. Bits, and Why a Digital Circuit Has Only Two Voltages 18
   8. Binary, Decimal, Octal and Hexadecimal 20
   9. Converting Between the Bases 23
   10. Binary Addition and Subtraction 25
   11. Signed Numbers, and the Two Complements 28
   12. BCD: the 8421 Code 31
   13. Excess-3, and Why It Is Self-Complementing 34
   14. Gray Code, and Why Exactly One Bit Changes 37
   15. The Three Basic Gates: AND, OR and NOT 40
   16. NAND and NOR 43
   17. XOR and XNOR 46
   18. Positive Logic, Negative Logic and the Bubble 49
   19. TTL: What a 1 and a 0 Really Are 52
   20. The 7400, 7408, 7432 and 7404 55

   Contents continued

   Module I continued 1. Study of Logic gates and their ICs and universal gates:

   1. The 7402, and Its Reversed Pins 58
   2. The 7486 and the 74266, Which Needs a Resistor 61
   3. Testing a Gate IC Before You Trust It 64
   4. Boolean Algebra: the Postulates 67
   5. The Laws: Commutative, Associative and Distributive 70
   6. The Theorems: Idempotence, Absorption and Consensus 73
   7. Duality, and What It Saves You 77
   8. De Morgan's Two Laws 80
   9. Verifying De Morgan on the Bench 84
   10. Simplifying an Expression by Algebra 88
   11. The Truth Table as the Statement of a Problem 92
   12. Minterms and the Sum of Products 96
   13. Maxterms and the Product of Sums 100
   14. Moving Between SOP, POS and the Table 104
   15. The Karnaugh Map: Why Gray Order Makes It Work 107
   16. Two and Three Variable Maps 111
   17. The Four Variable Map 115
   18. Grouping: Prime Implicants and Essential Prime Implicants 119
   19. Don't-Care Conditions 123

   Contents continued

   Module I continued 1. Study of Logic gates and their ICs and universal gates:

   1. Reading a Product of Sums Answer Off the Map 127
   2. When the Map Gives Two Answers 131
   3. NAND Is Universal 135
   4. Building the Five Gates from NAND 139
   5. NOR Is Universal 143
   6. Building the Five Gates from NOR 146
   7. Converting an SOP Circuit to All-NAND 150
   8. Converting a POS Circuit to All-NOR 154
   9. Implementing an Expression with the Fewest Gates 157
   10. The Fewest ICs, Which Is a Different Question 161
   11. Designing a Combinational Circuit from Words 165
   12. A Worked Design, End to End 168
   13. A Second Worked Design, in POS Form 172
   14. What a Code Converter Is 177
   15. Binary to Gray Code Converter 181
   16. Gray to Binary Code Converter 184
   17. Binary to BCD Code Converter 187
   18. Binary to Excess-3 Code Converter 191
   19. The Half Adder 194

   Contents continued

   Module I continued 1. Study of Logic gates and their ICs and universal gates:

   1. The Full Adder 197
   2. The Four Bit Ripple Carry Adder 200
   3. The Half and Full Subtractor 204
   4. Subtraction by Complement, and the Adder-Subtractor 208
   5. The BCD Adder 211
   6. The BCD Subtractor 215
   7. The Excess-3 Adder 219
   8. The Excess-3 Subtractor 222

   Module II 6. Implement Arithmetic circuits.

   1. Arithmetic Circuits Beyond the Adder 225
   2. Multiplying in Binary by Hand 228
   3. The Two by Two Binary Multiplier 231
   4. Comparing Two Bits 235
   5. The Two Bit Magnitude Comparator 238
   6. Cascading Comparators, and the 74266 242
   7. The Data Path Family 245
   8. What an Encoder Does 248
   9. The Eight to Three Encoder 250
   10. The Priority Encoder 254

   Contents continued

   Module II continued 6. Implement Arithmetic circuits.

   1. What a Decoder Does 257
   2. The 2-to-4 and 3-to-8 Decoder from Gates 260
   3. The 74138 263
   4. The 74139 266
   5. What a Multiplexer Does 269
   6. The Four to One Multiplexer from Gates 272
   7. The 74153 276
   8. The 74157 279
   9. What a Demultiplexer Does 282
   10. The One to Four Demultiplexer 285
   11. The 74151 288
   12. Realising a Three Variable Function on a 74151 291
   13. Realising a Four Variable Function on a 74151 295
   14. Realising a Function on a 74138 299
   15. Combinational Against Sequential 303
   16. The SR Latch from NOR Gates 307
   17. The SR Latch from NAND Gates 311
   18. The Gated Latch and the D Latch 314
   19. Level Triggering, Edge Triggering and Master-Slave 317

   Contents continued

   Module II continued 6. Implement Arithmetic circuits.

   1. The SR Flip-Flop 321
   2. The D Flip-Flop 324
   3. The JK Flip-Flop, and the Race Around 327
   4. The T Flip-Flop 330
   5. Characteristic Tables and Excitation Tables 333
   6. The 7473 336
   7. The 7474 340
   8. The 7476 343
   9. Converting SR to JK, D and T 346
   10. Converting JK to D, T and SR 349
   11. Converting D to T and T to D 352
   12. What a Counter Is 355
   13. The Three Bit Ripple Counter with the 7473 358
   14. Propagation Delay, and Why Ripple Counters Glitch 361
   15. Designing a Synchronous Counter 365
   16. The Three Bit Synchronous Counter with the 7473 369
   17. An Up-Down Counter, and a Counter with a Gap 372
   18. Mod-N Counters 376
   19. Mod-N Counters from the 7473 and 7400 380

   Contents continued

   Module II continued 6. Implement Arithmetic circuits.

   1. The 7490 384
   2. The 7492 and the 7493 388
   3. Mod-N Counters from the 7490, 7492 and 7493 392
   4. Cascading Counters Past Ten 396
   5. Registers and What They Hold 399
   6. The Serial In, Serial Out Register 402
   7. The Serial In, Parallel Out Register 405
   8. The Parallel In, Serial Out Register 408
   9. The Parallel In, Parallel Out Register 411
   10. The Bidirectional Shift Register 414
   11. The 7495 417
   12. Ring Counters and Johnson Counters 420
   13. The Seven Segment Display 424
   14. Designing the Seven Segment Decoder by K-Map 427
   15. The 7447 431
   16. Simulating Before You Wire 435

   Module J The certified journal, the two-hour practical examination, the viva and the internal assessment

   1. The Journal, and Why It Decides Whether You Sit the Exam 438
   2. Writing Up One Practical, Completely 441

   Contents continued

   Module J continued The certified journal, the two-hour practical examination, the viva and the internal assessment

   1. The Two Hour Practical Examination 444
   2. The Viva: the Questions That Are Actually Asked 447
   3. The Internal Twenty Marks 451

   Page 1 onwards

   453 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 453 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 135 chapters across 3 modules

   Module I Logic gates and their ICs, Boolean algebra and De Morgan, minimisation and K-maps, combinational design, code converters, adders and subtractors 66 chapters

   1. 1 How This Paper Is Examined, and How to Read This Book pages 1–2
   2. 2 The Bench: Breadboard, Power Supply and the Five Volt Rail pages 3–5
   3. 3 Reading a DIP: Pin One, the Notch, and the Chips That Break the Rule pages 6–8
   4. 4 Switches, LEDs and the Logic Probe pages 9–11
   5. 5 Wiring a Circuit That Works the First Time pages 12–14
   6. 6 When It Does Not Work: Finding the Fault pages 15–17
   7. 7 Bits, and Why a Digital Circuit Has Only Two Voltages pages 18–19
   8. 8 Binary, Decimal, Octal and Hexadecimal pages 20–22
   9. 9 Converting Between the Bases pages 23–24
   10. 10 Binary Addition and Subtraction pages 25–27
   11. 11 Signed Numbers, and the Two Complements pages 28–30
   12. 12 BCD: the 8421 Code pages 31–33
   13. 13 Excess-3, and Why It Is Self-Complementing pages 34–36
   14. 14 Gray Code, and Why Exactly One Bit Changes pages 37–39
   15. 15 The Three Basic Gates: AND, OR and NOT pages 40–42
   16. 16 NAND and NOR pages 43–45
   17. 17 XOR and XNOR pages 46–48
   18. 18 Positive Logic, Negative Logic and the Bubble pages 49–51
   19. 19 TTL: What a 1 and a 0 Really Are pages 52–54
   20. 20 The 7400, 7408, 7432 and 7404 pages 55–57
   21. 21 The 7402, and Its Reversed Pins pages 58–60
   22. 22 The 7486 and the 74266, Which Needs a Resistor pages 61–63
   23. 23 Testing a Gate IC Before You Trust It pages 64–66
   24. 24 Boolean Algebra: the Postulates pages 67–69
   25. 25 The Laws: Commutative, Associative and Distributive pages 70–72
   26. 26 The Theorems: Idempotence, Absorption and Consensus pages 73–76
   27. 27 Duality, and What It Saves You pages 77–79
   28. 28 De Morgan's Two Laws pages 80–83
   29. 29 Verifying De Morgan on the Bench pages 84–87
   30. 30 Simplifying an Expression by Algebra pages 88–91
   31. 31 The Truth Table as the Statement of a Problem pages 92–95
   32. 32 Minterms and the Sum of Products pages 96–99
   33. 33 Maxterms and the Product of Sums pages 100–103
   34. 34 Moving Between SOP, POS and the Table pages 104–106
   35. 35 The Karnaugh Map: Why Gray Order Makes It Work pages 107–110
   36. 36 Two and Three Variable Maps pages 111–114
   37. 37 The Four Variable Map pages 115–118
   38. 38 Grouping: Prime Implicants and Essential Prime Implicants pages 119–122
   39. 39 Don't-Care Conditions pages 123–126
   40. 40 Reading a Product of Sums Answer Off the Map pages 127–130
   41. 41 When the Map Gives Two Answers pages 131–134
   42. 42 NAND Is Universal pages 135–138
   43. 43 Building the Five Gates from NAND pages 139–142
   44. 44 NOR Is Universal pages 143–145
   45. 45 Building the Five Gates from NOR pages 146–149
   46. 46 Converting an SOP Circuit to All-NAND pages 150–153
   47. 47 Converting a POS Circuit to All-NOR pages 154–156
   48. 48 Implementing an Expression with the Fewest Gates pages 157–160
   49. 49 The Fewest ICs, Which Is a Different Question pages 161–164
   50. 50 Designing a Combinational Circuit from Words pages 165–167
   51. 51 A Worked Design, End to End pages 168–171
   52. 52 A Second Worked Design, in POS Form pages 172–176
   53. 53 What a Code Converter Is pages 177–180
   54. 54 Binary to Gray Code Converter pages 181–183
   55. 55 Gray to Binary Code Converter pages 184–186
   56. 56 Binary to BCD Code Converter pages 187–190
   57. 57 Binary to Excess-3 Code Converter pages 191–193
   58. 58 The Half Adder pages 194–196
   59. 59 The Full Adder pages 197–199
   60. 60 The Four Bit Ripple Carry Adder pages 200–203
   61. 61 The Half and Full Subtractor pages 204–207
   62. 62 Subtraction by Complement, and the Adder-Subtractor pages 208–210
   63. 63 The BCD Adder pages 211–214
   64. 64 The BCD Subtractor pages 215–218
   65. 65 The Excess-3 Adder pages 219–221
   66. 66 The Excess-3 Subtractor pages 222–224

   Module II Multiplier and comparator, encoders, decoders, multiplexers and demultiplexers, flip-flops, counters, shift registers and the seven-segment display 64 chapters

   1. 67 Arithmetic Circuits Beyond the Adder pages 225–227
   2. 68 Multiplying in Binary by Hand pages 228–230
   3. 69 The Two by Two Binary Multiplier pages 231–234
   4. 70 Comparing Two Bits pages 235–237
   5. 71 The Two Bit Magnitude Comparator pages 238–241
   6. 72 Cascading Comparators, and the 74266 pages 242–244
   7. 73 The Data Path Family pages 245–247
   8. 74 What an Encoder Does pages 248–249
   9. 75 The Eight to Three Encoder pages 250–253
   10. 76 The Priority Encoder pages 254–256
   11. 77 What a Decoder Does pages 257–259
   12. 78 The 2-to-4 and 3-to-8 Decoder from Gates pages 260–262
   13. 79 The 74138 pages 263–265
   14. 80 The 74139 pages 266–268
   15. 81 What a Multiplexer Does pages 269–271
   16. 82 The Four to One Multiplexer from Gates pages 272–275
   17. 83 The 74153 pages 276–278
   18. 84 The 74157 pages 279–281
   19. 85 What a Demultiplexer Does pages 282–284
   20. 86 The One to Four Demultiplexer pages 285–287
   21. 87 The 74151 pages 288–290
   22. 88 Realising a Three Variable Function on a 74151 pages 291–294
   23. 89 Realising a Four Variable Function on a 74151 pages 295–298
   24. 90 Realising a Function on a 74138 pages 299–302
   25. 91 Combinational Against Sequential pages 303–306
   26. 92 The SR Latch from NOR Gates pages 307–310
   27. 93 The SR Latch from NAND Gates pages 311–313
   28. 94 The Gated Latch and the D Latch pages 314–316
   29. 95 Level Triggering, Edge Triggering and Master-Slave pages 317–320
   30. 96 The SR Flip-Flop pages 321–323
   31. 97 The D Flip-Flop pages 324–326
   32. 98 The JK Flip-Flop, and the Race Around pages 327–329
   33. 99 The T Flip-Flop pages 330–332
   34. 100 Characteristic Tables and Excitation Tables pages 333–335
   35. 101 The 7473 pages 336–339
   36. 102 The 7474 pages 340–342
   37. 103 The 7476 pages 343–345
   38. 104 Converting SR to JK, D and T pages 346–348
   39. 105 Converting JK to D, T and SR pages 349–351
   40. 106 Converting D to T and T to D pages 352–354
   41. 107 What a Counter Is pages 355–357
   42. 108 The Three Bit Ripple Counter with the 7473 pages 358–360
   43. 109 Propagation Delay, and Why Ripple Counters Glitch pages 361–364
   44. 110 Designing a Synchronous Counter pages 365–368
   45. 111 The Three Bit Synchronous Counter with the 7473 pages 369–371
   46. 112 An Up-Down Counter, and a Counter with a Gap pages 372–375
   47. 113 Mod-N Counters pages 376–379
   48. 114 Mod-N Counters from the 7473 and 7400 pages 380–383
   49. 115 The 7490 pages 384–387
   50. 116 The 7492 and the 7493 pages 388–391
   51. 117 Mod-N Counters from the 7490, 7492 and 7493 pages 392–395
   52. 118 Cascading Counters Past Ten pages 396–398
   53. 119 Registers and What They Hold pages 399–401
   54. 120 The Serial In, Serial Out Register pages 402–404
   55. 121 The Serial In, Parallel Out Register pages 405–407
   56. 122 The Parallel In, Serial Out Register pages 408–410
   57. 123 The Parallel In, Parallel Out Register pages 411–413
   58. 124 The Bidirectional Shift Register pages 414–416
   59. 125 The 7495 pages 417–419
   60. 126 Ring Counters and Johnson Counters pages 420–423
   61. 127 The Seven Segment Display pages 424–426
   62. 128 Designing the Seven Segment Decoder by K-Map pages 427–430
   63. 129 The 7447 pages 431–434
   64. 130 Simulating Before You Wire pages 435–437

   Module J The certified journal, the two-hour practical examination, the viva and the internal assessment 5 chapters

   1. 131 The Journal, and Why It Decides Whether You Sit the Exam pages 438–440
   2. 132 Writing Up One Practical, Completely pages 441–443
   3. 133 The Two Hour Practical Examination pages 444–446
   4. 134 The Viva: the Questions That Are Actually Asked pages 447–450
   5. 135 The Internal Twenty Marks pages 451–453

3. Fundamentals of Telecommunication Systems

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Fundamentals of Telecommunication Systems

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Fundamentals of Telecommunication Systems

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Signals and Systems

   1. What a Signal Is 1
   2. Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals 5
   3. Real and Complex Signals 9
   4. Where Signals Come From in a Telephone Call 13
   5. What a System Is 17
   6. The Three Kinds of System 20
   7. Why Signals and Systems 23
   8. The Notation This Book Uses 26
   9. Sets 30
   10. Operations on Sets 33
   11. Intervals on the Real Line 37
   12. Mappings 40
   13. Injective, Surjective and Bijective Mappings 44
   14. Functions 48
   15. Sequences 51
   16. Abuse of Notation 54
   17. System Operators 57
   18. Building a System Out of Elementary Operators 60
   19. Even and Odd Signals 64
   20. Periodic Signals 68

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Signals and Systems

   1. Bounded Signals, Energy and Power 71
   2. Continuous-Time Signals and Systems: An Overview 75
   3. Time Shifting 78
   4. Time Reversal 82
   5. Time Scaling 85
   6. Combined Transformations of Time 89
   7. Amplitude Scaling 93
   8. Amplitude Shifting and Combined Amplitude Transformations 96
   9. Testing a Function for Symmetry 99
   10. Periodicity, and Sums of Periodic Functions 102
   11. Energy Signals and Power Signals 106
   12. The Real Exponential 110
   13. The Complex Exponential and Euler's Relation 114
   14. The Sinusoid 118
   15. The Unit-Step and Signum Functions 122
   16. The Rectangular and Triangular Functions 126
   17. The Unit-Impulse Function 129
   18. The Cardinal Sine Function 133
   19. Building a Waveform Out of Elementary Functions 137

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Signals and Systems

   1. How a Continuous-Time System Is Specified 141
   2. Interconnecting Systems 145
   3. Memory and Memorylessness 149
   4. Causality 152
   5. Invertibility 156
   6. Bounded-Input Bounded-Output Stability 159
   7. Time Invariance 163
   8. Linearity and the LTI System 167
   9. Discrete-Time Signals and Systems: An Overview 171
   10. Shifting and Reversing a Sequence 175
   11. Downsampling and Upsampling 178
   12. Amplitude Transformations of a Sequence 182
   13. Symmetry of Sequences 185
   14. Periodicity of Sequences 188
   15. Energy and Power of a Sequence 192
   16. The Unit-Impulse Sequence 195
   17. The Unit-Step Sequence 198
   18. Exponential Sequences 201
   19. The Discrete-Time Sinusoid 204

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Signals and Systems

   1. Building a Sequence Out of Elementary Sequences 208
   2. How a Discrete-Time System Is Specified 212
   3. Memory, Causality and Invertibility in Discrete Time 215
   4. Stability in Discrete Time 218
   5. Time Invariance, Linearity and the Discrete-Time LTI System 222

   Module II Fundamentals of 5G Networks

   1. Why a Fifth Generation Was Needed 226
   2. What a Generation Is 230
   3. The First and Second Generations 233
   4. The Third Generation and IMT-2000 236
   5. LTE and the All-IP Network 239
   6. IMT-Advanced, and How LTE-Advanced Met It 243
   7. LTE-Advanced Pro, and What Was Still Missing 246
   8. The 5G Roadmap 250
   9. The IMT-2020 Requirements 253
   10. Enhanced Mobile Broadband, Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency and Massive Machine-Type 257
   11. The Ten Pillars of 5G 261
   12. What Became of Each Pillar 264

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Fundamentals of 5G Networks

   1. 5G in Europe 268
   2. 5G in Asia 271
   3. 5G in India 274
   4. 5G in the Americas 278
   5. The 5G System and Its Network Functions 281
   6. The Radio Access Network, and the CU-DU Split 285
   7. Non-Standalone and Standalone 289
   8. FR1, FR2 and the Numerologies 292
   9. What Makes 5G an Internet 296
   10. The Internet of Things and the Constrained Device 299
   11. How a Sensor Reaches the Internet 303
   12. NB-IoT, LTE-M and RedCap 307
   13. Context Awareness 310
   14. Software-Defined Networking 313
   15. Network Functions Virtualisation 316
   16. Network Slicing 319
   17. Multi-Access Edge Computing 322
   18. The Cell and the Handover 325
   19. Mobility Management in 5G 329

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Fundamentals of 5G Networks

   1. What Quality of Service Means 333
   2. Quality of Service in the Internet 336
   3. Quality of Service Control in 5G 340
   4. Resource Over-Provisioning 344
   5. The Emerging Approach to Resources 347
   6. Why the Cell Had to Get Smaller 350
   7. What a Small Cell Is 353
   8. Shannon's Law and the Capacity of a Cell 357
   9. The Three Ways to Add Capacity 360
   10. The Gains From Densification 363
   11. Mobile Data Demand 367
   12. Demand Against Capacity 370
   13. Backhaul 373
   14. Interference, and How It Is Managed 377
   15. Sites, Power and Cost 381
   16. Mobility, Handover Rate and Self-Organising Networks 385
   17. Conclusions and Future Directions 389

   Page 1 onwards

   392 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 392 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 111 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Signals and systems: sets, mappings and operators, then continuous-time and discrete-time signals and the six properties of a system 63 chapters

   1. 1 What a Signal Is pages 1–4
   2. 2 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals pages 5–8
   3. 3 Real and Complex Signals pages 9–12
   4. 4 Where Signals Come From in a Telephone Call pages 13–16
   5. 5 What a System Is pages 17–19
   6. 6 The Three Kinds of System pages 20–22
   7. 7 Why Signals and Systems pages 23–25
   8. 8 The Notation This Book Uses pages 26–29
   9. 9 Sets pages 30–32
   10. 10 Operations on Sets pages 33–36
   11. 11 Intervals on the Real Line pages 37–39
   12. 12 Mappings pages 40–43
   13. 13 Injective, Surjective and Bijective Mappings pages 44–47
   14. 14 Functions pages 48–50
   15. 15 Sequences pages 51–53
   16. 16 Abuse of Notation pages 54–56
   17. 17 System Operators pages 57–59
   18. 18 Building a System Out of Elementary Operators pages 60–63
   19. 19 Even and Odd Signals pages 64–67
   20. 20 Periodic Signals pages 68–70
   21. 21 Bounded Signals, Energy and Power pages 71–74
   22. 22 Continuous-Time Signals and Systems: An Overview pages 75–77
   23. 23 Time Shifting pages 78–81
   24. 24 Time Reversal pages 82–84
   25. 25 Time Scaling pages 85–88
   26. 26 Combined Transformations of Time pages 89–92
   27. 27 Amplitude Scaling pages 93–95
   28. 28 Amplitude Shifting and Combined Amplitude Transformations pages 96–98
   29. 29 Testing a Function for Symmetry pages 99–101
   30. 30 Periodicity, and Sums of Periodic Functions pages 102–105
   31. 31 Energy Signals and Power Signals pages 106–109
   32. 32 The Real Exponential pages 110–113
   33. 33 The Complex Exponential and Euler's Relation pages 114–117
   34. 34 The Sinusoid pages 118–121
   35. 35 The Unit-Step and Signum Functions pages 122–125
   36. 36 The Rectangular and Triangular Functions pages 126–128
   37. 37 The Unit-Impulse Function pages 129–132
   38. 38 The Cardinal Sine Function pages 133–136
   39. 39 Building a Waveform Out of Elementary Functions pages 137–140
   40. 40 How a Continuous-Time System Is Specified pages 141–144
   41. 41 Interconnecting Systems pages 145–148
   42. 42 Memory and Memorylessness pages 149–151
   43. 43 Causality pages 152–155
   44. 44 Invertibility pages 156–158
   45. 45 Bounded-Input Bounded-Output Stability pages 159–162
   46. 46 Time Invariance pages 163–166
   47. 47 Linearity and the LTI System pages 167–170
   48. 48 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems: An Overview pages 171–174
   49. 49 Shifting and Reversing a Sequence pages 175–177
   50. 50 Downsampling and Upsampling pages 178–181
   51. 51 Amplitude Transformations of a Sequence pages 182–184
   52. 52 Symmetry of Sequences pages 185–187
   53. 53 Periodicity of Sequences pages 188–191
   54. 54 Energy and Power of a Sequence pages 192–194
   55. 55 The Unit-Impulse Sequence pages 195–197
   56. 56 The Unit-Step Sequence pages 198–200
   57. 57 Exponential Sequences pages 201–203
   58. 58 The Discrete-Time Sinusoid pages 204–207
   59. 59 Building a Sequence Out of Elementary Sequences pages 208–211
   60. 60 How a Discrete-Time System Is Specified pages 212–214
   61. 61 Memory, Causality and Invertibility in Discrete Time pages 215–217
   62. 62 Stability in Discrete Time pages 218–221
   63. 63 Time Invariance, Linearity and the Discrete-Time LTI System pages 222–225

   Module II Fundamentals of 5G networks: the drivers and the roadmap, the 5G Internet with slicing and quality of service, and small cells 48 chapters

   1. 64 Why a Fifth Generation Was Needed pages 226–229
   2. 65 What a Generation Is pages 230–232
   3. 66 The First and Second Generations pages 233–235
   4. 67 The Third Generation and IMT-2000 pages 236–238
   5. 68 LTE and the All-IP Network pages 239–242
   6. 69 IMT-Advanced, and How LTE-Advanced Met It pages 243–245
   7. 70 LTE-Advanced Pro, and What Was Still Missing pages 246–249
   8. 71 The 5G Roadmap pages 250–252
   9. 72 The IMT-2020 Requirements pages 253–256
   10. 73 Enhanced Mobile Broadband, Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency and Massive Machine-Type pages 257–260
   11. 74 The Ten Pillars of 5G pages 261–263
   12. 75 What Became of Each Pillar pages 264–267
   13. 76 5G in Europe pages 268–270
   14. 77 5G in Asia pages 271–273
   15. 78 5G in India pages 274–277
   16. 79 5G in the Americas pages 278–280
   17. 80 The 5G System and Its Network Functions pages 281–284
   18. 81 The Radio Access Network, and the CU-DU Split pages 285–288
   19. 82 Non-Standalone and Standalone pages 289–291
   20. 83 FR1, FR2 and the Numerologies pages 292–295
   21. 84 What Makes 5G an Internet pages 296–298
   22. 85 The Internet of Things and the Constrained Device pages 299–302
   23. 86 How a Sensor Reaches the Internet pages 303–306
   24. 87 NB-IoT, LTE-M and RedCap pages 307–309
   25. 88 Context Awareness pages 310–312
   26. 89 Software-Defined Networking pages 313–315
   27. 90 Network Functions Virtualisation pages 316–318
   28. 91 Network Slicing pages 319–321
   29. 92 Multi-Access Edge Computing pages 322–324
   30. 93 The Cell and the Handover pages 325–328
   31. 94 Mobility Management in 5G pages 329–332
   32. 95 What Quality of Service Means pages 333–335
   33. 96 Quality of Service in the Internet pages 336–339
   34. 97 Quality of Service Control in 5G pages 340–343
   35. 98 Resource Over-Provisioning pages 344–346
   36. 99 The Emerging Approach to Resources pages 347–349
   37. 100 Why the Cell Had to Get Smaller pages 350–352
   38. 101 What a Small Cell Is pages 353–356
   39. 102 Shannon's Law and the Capacity of a Cell pages 357–359
   40. 103 The Three Ways to Add Capacity pages 360–362
   41. 104 The Gains From Densification pages 363–366
   42. 105 Mobile Data Demand pages 367–369
   43. 106 Demand Against Capacity pages 370–372
   44. 107 Backhaul pages 373–376
   45. 108 Interference, and How It Is Managed pages 377–380
   46. 109 Sites, Power and Cost pages 381–384
   47. 110 Mobility, Handover Rate and Self-Organising Networks pages 385–388
   48. 111 Conclusions and Future Directions pages 389–392

4. Office Tools for Data Management

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Office Tools for Data Management

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Office Tools for Data Management

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Practical 1

   1. How This Paper Is Examined: the Journal, the Write-Up and the Practical Slip 1
   2. Access from Zero: What It Is, and What You Do With It 5
   3. The Access Window: the Ribbon, the Tabs and the Navigation Pane 9
   4. Designing Before You Build: Entities, Keys and Normalisation 15
   5. Practical 1B: Creating the Database, and Its First Two Tables 22
   6. The Twelve Data Types, and Choosing One for Every Column 26
   7. Practical 1B: Ten Rows in Each Table 31
   8. Practical 1B: Integrity Constraints, the Primary Key, Required and the Foreign Key 35
   9. Practical 1C: Building a Table With a Wizard, and Building One in Design View 40
   10. Practical 1C: Adding a Field to a Table, and Deleting One 44
   11. Practical 1C: the Input Mask 49
   12. Practical 1C: the Validation Rule and the Validation Text 55
   13. Practical 1C: Design View, Datasheet View, and Switching Between Them 60
   14. Practical 2A: Typing Into a Masked Field 65
   15. Practical 2B: Adding Records in the Datasheet, and Through a Form 69
   16. Practical 2B: Adding Records With SQL, and the SQL View 73
   17. Practical 2C: the Employee Database 79

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Practical 1

   1. Practical 2C: Deleting the Record for Kelly Marder 83
   2. Practical 2C: Changing Pamela Milgrom's Salary 87
   3. Practical 2C: Replace, and Every Manager That Becomes a Supervisor 91
   4. Practical 3A: the Bookstore Database 96
   5. Practical 3A: Adding a Book, Changing a Price, and Deleting a Title 101
   6. Practical 3B: the employ Table, and Ten Records 107
   7. Practical 3B: the Two Queries, Managers and Salary Over Fifteen Thousand 112
   8. Queries That Go Further: Totals, Subqueries and the Joins Access Writes for You 117
   9. Practical 3C: the Form Wizard 125
   10. Practical 3C: Moving and Sizing Controls in a Form 131
   11. Practical 3C: Using the Finished Form to Enter Data 137
   12. Practical 4A: Adding Fields, and the Lookup Wizard's Combo Box 142
   13. Practical 4A: Controls, Inheritance, and Command Buttons 149
   14. Practical 4B: the Four Query Wizards 156
   15. Practical 4C: a Query That Asks for Input 162
   16. Practical 4D: the Expression Builder 168
   17. Practical 5A: the Report Wizard 176

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Practical 1

   1. Practical 5A: Changing a Report's Controls 182
   2. Practical 5B: a Calculated Control, and a Report Built on That Query 189
   3. Practical 5B: Group Headers, Group Footers and the Totals They Carry 197
   4. Practical 5C: Action Queries 204
   5. Practical 5C: the Crosstab Query 211

   Module II Practical 6

   1. Practical 6: One Database, Several Tables, and the Relationships Window 219
   2. Practical 6A: One-to-Many, and a Report That Walks It 224
   3. Practical 6B: One-to-One, and When a Table Is Split in Two 230
   4. Practical 6C: Many-to-Many, and the Junction Table 236
   5. Practical 7A: Lookup Tables 242
   6. Practical 7B: a Report From Three Tables, Field by Field 248
   7. Practical 7B: Viewing by Publisher, Grouping, and Sorting 253
   8. Practical 7B: Stepped Layout, Portrait, and the Report's Title 259
   9. Practical 7C: the Relationship, and the Subform 264
   10. Practical 8A: Importing a Table Out of an Excel Workbook 270

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Practical 6

   1. Practical 8A: the Relationship, and a Query Across Two Tables 276
   2. Practical 8B: the Import Spreadsheet Wizard, Step by Step 281
   3. Practical 8C: Exporting, and Every Format Access Offers 287
   4. Practical 9A: Two Relationships, and What Referential Integrity Refuses 293
   5. Practical 9B: the Switchboard, and the Navigation Form That Replaced It 298
   6. Practical 9B: Linked Tables, and the Linked Table Manager 304
   7. Practical 9C: the AutoExec Macro, and a Macro That Closes the Database 309
   8. Practical 10A: the College Library Database 315
   9. Practical 10A: Counting Copies by Subject 321
   10. Practical 10A: Three Reports, by Publisher, by Title and by Edition 326
   11. Practical 10B: the Database Splitter 332
   12. Practical 10C: Making the Database Executable Only, the ACCDE 338
   13. The Practical Examination: a Two Hour Plan, and Two Worked Slips 344

   Page 1 onwards

   350 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 350 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 62 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Practicals 1 to 5: tables, data types, constraints, records, queries, forms and reports 39 chapters

   1. 1 How This Paper Is Examined: the Journal, the Write-Up and the Practical Slip pages 1–4
   2. 2 Access from Zero: What It Is, and What You Do With It pages 5–8
   3. 3 The Access Window: the Ribbon, the Tabs and the Navigation Pane pages 9–14
   4. 4 Designing Before You Build: Entities, Keys and Normalisation pages 15–21
   5. 5 Practical 1B: Creating the Database, and Its First Two Tables pages 22–25
   6. 6 The Twelve Data Types, and Choosing One for Every Column pages 26–30
   7. 7 Practical 1B: Ten Rows in Each Table pages 31–34
   8. 8 Practical 1B: Integrity Constraints, the Primary Key, Required and the Foreign Key pages 35–39
   9. 9 Practical 1C: Building a Table With a Wizard, and Building One in Design View pages 40–43
   10. 10 Practical 1C: Adding a Field to a Table, and Deleting One pages 44–48
   11. 11 Practical 1C: the Input Mask pages 49–54
   12. 12 Practical 1C: the Validation Rule and the Validation Text pages 55–59
   13. 13 Practical 1C: Design View, Datasheet View, and Switching Between Them pages 60–64
   14. 14 Practical 2A: Typing Into a Masked Field pages 65–68
   15. 15 Practical 2B: Adding Records in the Datasheet, and Through a Form pages 69–72
   16. 16 Practical 2B: Adding Records With SQL, and the SQL View pages 73–78
   17. 17 Practical 2C: the Employee Database pages 79–82
   18. 18 Practical 2C: Deleting the Record for Kelly Marder pages 83–86
   19. 19 Practical 2C: Changing Pamela Milgrom's Salary pages 87–90
   20. 20 Practical 2C: Replace, and Every Manager That Becomes a Supervisor pages 91–95
   21. 21 Practical 3A: the Bookstore Database pages 96–100
   22. 22 Practical 3A: Adding a Book, Changing a Price, and Deleting a Title pages 101–106
   23. 23 Practical 3B: the employ Table, and Ten Records pages 107–111
   24. 24 Practical 3B: the Two Queries, Managers and Salary Over Fifteen Thousand pages 112–116
   25. 25 Queries That Go Further: Totals, Subqueries and the Joins Access Writes for You pages 117–124
   26. 26 Practical 3C: the Form Wizard pages 125–130
   27. 27 Practical 3C: Moving and Sizing Controls in a Form pages 131–136
   28. 28 Practical 3C: Using the Finished Form to Enter Data pages 137–141
   29. 29 Practical 4A: Adding Fields, and the Lookup Wizard's Combo Box pages 142–148
   30. 30 Practical 4A: Controls, Inheritance, and Command Buttons pages 149–155
   31. 31 Practical 4B: the Four Query Wizards pages 156–161
   32. 32 Practical 4C: a Query That Asks for Input pages 162–167
   33. 33 Practical 4D: the Expression Builder pages 168–175
   34. 34 Practical 5A: the Report Wizard pages 176–181
   35. 35 Practical 5A: Changing a Report's Controls pages 182–188
   36. 36 Practical 5B: a Calculated Control, and a Report Built on That Query pages 189–196
   37. 37 Practical 5B: Group Headers, Group Footers and the Totals They Carry pages 197–203
   38. 38 Practical 5C: Action Queries pages 204–210
   39. 39 Practical 5C: the Crosstab Query pages 211–218

   Module II Practicals 6 to 10: relationships, multi-table reports, importing and exporting, macros and deployment 23 chapters

   1. 40 Practical 6: One Database, Several Tables, and the Relationships Window pages 219–223
   2. 41 Practical 6A: One-to-Many, and a Report That Walks It pages 224–229
   3. 42 Practical 6B: One-to-One, and When a Table Is Split in Two pages 230–235
   4. 43 Practical 6C: Many-to-Many, and the Junction Table pages 236–241
   5. 44 Practical 7A: Lookup Tables pages 242–247
   6. 45 Practical 7B: a Report From Three Tables, Field by Field pages 248–252
   7. 46 Practical 7B: Viewing by Publisher, Grouping, and Sorting pages 253–258
   8. 47 Practical 7B: Stepped Layout, Portrait, and the Report's Title pages 259–263
   9. 48 Practical 7C: the Relationship, and the Subform pages 264–269
   10. 49 Practical 8A: Importing a Table Out of an Excel Workbook pages 270–275
   11. 50 Practical 8A: the Relationship, and a Query Across Two Tables pages 276–280
   12. 51 Practical 8B: the Import Spreadsheet Wizard, Step by Step pages 281–286
   13. 52 Practical 8C: Exporting, and Every Format Access Offers pages 287–292
   14. 53 Practical 9A: Two Relationships, and What Referential Integrity Refuses pages 293–297
   15. 54 Practical 9B: the Switchboard, and the Navigation Form That Replaced It pages 298–303
   16. 55 Practical 9B: Linked Tables, and the Linked Table Manager pages 304–308
   17. 56 Practical 9C: the AutoExec Macro, and a Macro That Closes the Database pages 309–314
   18. 57 Practical 10A: the College Library Database pages 315–320
   19. 58 Practical 10A: Counting Copies by Subject pages 321–325
   20. 59 Practical 10A: Three Reports, by Publisher, by Title and by Edition pages 326–331
   21. 60 Practical 10B: the Database Splitter pages 332–337
   22. 61 Practical 10C: Making the Database Executable Only, the ACCDE pages 338–343
   23. 62 The Practical Examination: a Two Hour Plan, and Two Worked Slips pages 344–350

5. Major Practical 1

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Major Practical 1

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Major Practical 1

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Programming with C

   1. How This Paper Is Examined, and What Your Journal Must Contain 1
   2. Your First Program: Writing It, Compiling It and Running It 5
   3. Writing the Algorithm, and Drawing the Flowchart 9
   4. Practical 1(a): Simple Interest 13
   5. Practical 1(b): The Greatest of Three Numbers, with the Conditional Operator 17
   6. Practical 1(c): Is This a Leap Year? 20
   7. Practical 2(a): The Roots of a Quadratic Equation 23
   8. Practical 2(b): A Menu Driven Calculator, with switch 27
   9. Practical 2(c): Patterns of Asterisks 31
   10. Practical 3(a): Reversing the Digits of a Number 34
   11. Practical 3(b): The Factorial of a Number 38
   12. Practical 3(c): The Fibonacci Series 41
   13. Practical 4(a): The Area of a Square, Using a Function 44
   14. Practical 4(b): A Recursive Function 47
   15. Practical 4(c): sqrt and abs, and the Headers They Need 51
   16. Practical 4(d): The goto Statement 54
   17. Practical 5(a): Ten Students' Roll Numbers and Names 57
   18. Practical 5(b): Sorting an Array 61
   19. Practical 6(a): Extracting Part of a String 65

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Programming with C

   1. Practical 6(b): Is This String a Palindrome? 68
   2. Practical 6(c): strlen and strcmp 72
   3. Practical 7: Swapping Two Numbers, by Value and by Reference 76
   4. Practical 8(a): Reading a Matrix of m Rows and n Columns 80
   5. Practical 8(b): Multiplying Two Matrices in a Function 83
   6. Practical 9: A Structure, and Two Records of It 87
   7. Practical 10: Designing the Bank Management System 91
   8. Practical 10: The Bank Management System, Written and Run 95

   Module II

   1. Getting Into MySQL, and What a Database Is 100
   2. Practical 1: The ER Diagram: Entities, Attributes and Keys 104
   3. Practical 1: Relationships and Cardinality 109
   4. Practical 1: Generalization and Specialization 112
   5. Practical 2: Viewing Databases, Creating One and Listing Its Tables 115
   6. Practical 2: Creating a Table, and Choosing Its Data Types 118
   7. Practical 2: The Constraints, and What Each One Refuses 122
   8. Practical 2: Inserting, Updating and Deleting Rows 127
   9. Practical 3: Altering a Table That Already Holds Data 131

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Practical 3: Dropping, Truncating and Renaming 136
   2. Practical 3: Backing Up a Database, and Restoring It 140
   3. Practical 4: Simple Queries 144
   4. Practical 4: Aggregate Functions, GROUP BY and HAVING 149
   5. Practical 5: Date Functions 153
   6. Practical 5: String Functions 157
   7. Practical 5: Math Functions 161
   8. Practical 6: The Inner Join 165
   9. Practical 6: The Outer Join 170
   10. Practical 7: Subqueries with IN 175
   11. Practical 7: Subqueries with EXISTS 180
   12. Practical 8: Turning the ER Model Into Tables 184
   13. Practical 8: Normalizing to Third Normal Form 189
   14. Practical 9: Views 194
   15. Practical 10: Granting and Revoking Permissions 199
   16. Practical 10: COMMIT and ROLLBACK 203

   Page 1 onwards

   206 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 206 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 52 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Programming with C 27 chapters

   1. 1 How This Paper Is Examined, and What Your Journal Must Contain pages 1–4
   2. 2 Your First Program: Writing It, Compiling It and Running It pages 5–8
   3. 3 Writing the Algorithm, and Drawing the Flowchart pages 9–12
   4. 4 Practical 1(a): Simple Interest pages 13–16
   5. 5 Practical 1(b): The Greatest of Three Numbers, with the Conditional Operator pages 17–19
   6. 6 Practical 1(c): Is This a Leap Year? pages 20–22
   7. 7 Practical 2(a): The Roots of a Quadratic Equation pages 23–26
   8. 8 Practical 2(b): A Menu Driven Calculator, with switch pages 27–30
   9. 9 Practical 2(c): Patterns of Asterisks pages 31–33
   10. 10 Practical 3(a): Reversing the Digits of a Number pages 34–37
   11. 11 Practical 3(b): The Factorial of a Number pages 38–40
   12. 12 Practical 3(c): The Fibonacci Series pages 41–43
   13. 13 Practical 4(a): The Area of a Square, Using a Function pages 44–46
   14. 14 Practical 4(b): A Recursive Function pages 47–50
   15. 15 Practical 4(c): sqrt and abs, and the Headers They Need pages 51–53
   16. 16 Practical 4(d): The goto Statement pages 54–56
   17. 17 Practical 5(a): Ten Students' Roll Numbers and Names pages 57–60
   18. 18 Practical 5(b): Sorting an Array pages 61–64
   19. 19 Practical 6(a): Extracting Part of a String pages 65–67
   20. 20 Practical 6(b): Is This String a Palindrome? pages 68–71
   21. 21 Practical 6(c): strlen and strcmp pages 72–75
   22. 22 Practical 7: Swapping Two Numbers, by Value and by Reference pages 76–79
   23. 23 Practical 8(a): Reading a Matrix of m Rows and n Columns pages 80–82
   24. 24 Practical 8(b): Multiplying Two Matrices in a Function pages 83–86
   25. 25 Practical 9: A Structure, and Two Records of It pages 87–90
   26. 26 Practical 10: Designing the Bank Management System pages 91–94
   27. 27 Practical 10: The Bank Management System, Written and Run pages 95–99

   Module II 25 chapters

   1. 28 Getting Into MySQL, and What a Database Is pages 100–103
   2. 29 Practical 1: The ER Diagram: Entities, Attributes and Keys pages 104–108
   3. 30 Practical 1: Relationships and Cardinality pages 109–111
   4. 31 Practical 1: Generalization and Specialization pages 112–114
   5. 32 Practical 2: Viewing Databases, Creating One and Listing Its Tables pages 115–117
   6. 33 Practical 2: Creating a Table, and Choosing Its Data Types pages 118–121
   7. 34 Practical 2: The Constraints, and What Each One Refuses pages 122–126
   8. 35 Practical 2: Inserting, Updating and Deleting Rows pages 127–130
   9. 36 Practical 3: Altering a Table That Already Holds Data pages 131–135
   10. 37 Practical 3: Dropping, Truncating and Renaming pages 136–139
   11. 38 Practical 3: Backing Up a Database, and Restoring It pages 140–143
   12. 39 Practical 4: Simple Queries pages 144–148
   13. 40 Practical 4: Aggregate Functions, GROUP BY and HAVING pages 149–152
   14. 41 Practical 5: Date Functions pages 153–156
   15. 42 Practical 5: String Functions pages 157–160
   16. 43 Practical 5: Math Functions pages 161–164
   17. 44 Practical 6: The Inner Join pages 165–169
   18. 45 Practical 6: The Outer Join pages 170–174
   19. 46 Practical 7: Subqueries with IN pages 175–179
   20. 47 Practical 7: Subqueries with EXISTS pages 180–183
   21. 48 Practical 8: Turning the ER Model Into Tables pages 184–188
   22. 49 Practical 8: Normalizing to Third Normal Form pages 189–193
   23. 50 Practical 9: Views pages 194–198
   24. 51 Practical 10: Granting and Revoking Permissions pages 199–202
   25. 52 Practical 10: COMMIT and ROLLBACK pages 203–206

6. Programming with C

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Programming with C

   B.SC. (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY) · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai NEP syllabus in force for B.Sc. (Information Technology)

   For B.Sc. (Information Technology) students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Programming with C

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Introduction and Type of operators

   1. What a Program Is, and What an Algorithm Is 1
   2. Pseudocode Statements and Flowchart Symbols 6
   3. The History of C, and Which C This Book Teaches 11
   4. The Structure of a C Program 14
   5. From Source to Running Program: Preprocessor, Compiler, Linker 19
   6. Program Characteristics, and Which Ones Are Desirable 25
   7. The C Character Set 30
   8. Identifiers and Keywords 35
   9. Data Types and Their Sizes 39
   10. Constants and Their Types 45
   11. Variables: Declaration, Definition and Initialisation 50
   12. Characters and Character Strings 55
   13. typedef 60
   14. Type Conversion and Typecasting 64
   15. Arithmetic Operators 69
   16. Relational and Logical Operators 74
   17. Increment and Decrement Operators 80
   18. Assignment Operators and Expressions 85
   19. The Conditional Operator 90
   20. Precedence and Order of Evaluation 94

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Introduction and Type of operators

   1. Block Structure and Initialization 99
   2. The C Preprocessor 104

   Module II Control Flow, Functions, Pointers and User-defined data types

   1. Statements and Blocks 109
   2. if and if-else 113
   3. else-if Ladders 117
   4. switch 122
   5. while Loops 127
   6. for Loops 132
   7. do-while 137
   8. break and continue 141
   9. goto and Labels 146
   10. What a Function Is: Definition, Call, Arguments, Return 150
   11. User-Defined Functions 155
   12. Library Functions 159
   13. Recursion 164
   14. Arrays 169
   15. Strings as Arrays, and the String Library 175
   16. Two-Dimensional Arrays and Matrices 182

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Control Flow, Functions, Pointers and User-defined data types

   1. Pointers and Addresses 188
   2. Pointers as Function Arguments: Call by Value and Call by Reference 194
   3. Pointers and Arrays 199
   4. Structures 205
   5. Unions 211
   6. Putting It Together: A Menu-Driven Program 216

   Page 1 onwards

   222 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 222 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 44 chapters across 2 modules

   Module I Introduction and Type of operators 22 chapters

   1. 1 What a Program Is, and What an Algorithm Is pages 1–5
   2. 2 Pseudocode Statements and Flowchart Symbols pages 6–10
   3. 3 The History of C, and Which C This Book Teaches pages 11–13
   4. 4 The Structure of a C Program pages 14–18
   5. 5 From Source to Running Program: Preprocessor, Compiler, Linker pages 19–24
   6. 6 Program Characteristics, and Which Ones Are Desirable pages 25–29
   7. 7 The C Character Set pages 30–34
   8. 8 Identifiers and Keywords pages 35–38
   9. 9 Data Types and Their Sizes pages 39–44
   10. 10 Constants and Their Types pages 45–49
   11. 11 Variables: Declaration, Definition and Initialisation pages 50–54
   12. 12 Characters and Character Strings pages 55–59
   13. 13 typedef pages 60–63
   14. 14 Type Conversion and Typecasting pages 64–68
   15. 15 Arithmetic Operators pages 69–73
   16. 16 Relational and Logical Operators pages 74–79
   17. 17 Increment and Decrement Operators pages 80–84
   18. 18 Assignment Operators and Expressions pages 85–89
   19. 19 The Conditional Operator pages 90–93
   20. 20 Precedence and Order of Evaluation pages 94–98
   21. 21 Block Structure and Initialization pages 99–103
   22. 22 The C Preprocessor pages 104–108

   Module II Control Flow, Functions, Pointers and User-defined data types 22 chapters

   1. 23 Statements and Blocks pages 109–112
   2. 24 if and if-else pages 113–116
   3. 25 else-if Ladders pages 117–121
   4. 26 switch pages 122–126
   5. 27 while Loops pages 127–131
   6. 28 for Loops pages 132–136
   7. 29 do-while pages 137–140
   8. 30 break and continue pages 141–145
   9. 31 goto and Labels pages 146–149
   10. 32 What a Function Is: Definition, Call, Arguments, Return pages 150–154
   11. 33 User-Defined Functions pages 155–158
   12. 34 Library Functions pages 159–163
   13. 35 Recursion pages 164–168
   14. 36 Arrays pages 169–174
   15. 37 Strings as Arrays, and the String Library pages 175–181
   16. 38 Two-Dimensional Arrays and Matrices pages 182–187
   17. 39 Pointers and Addresses pages 188–193
   18. 40 Pointers as Function Arguments: Call by Value and Call by Reference pages 194–198
   19. 41 Pointers and Arrays pages 199–204
   20. 42 Structures pages 205–210
   21. 43 Unions pages 211–215
   22. 44 Putting It Together: A Menu-Driven Program pages 216–222

Questions