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LL.M. Business Law Semester 1: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

For students of Mumbai University and all its affiliated colleges.

As per latest University of Mumbai syllabus

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  1. Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. How to Read the Constitution 1
    2. What Federalism Is 5
    3. Is India a Federation? 9
    4. The Union and Its Territory 15
    5. Making and Remaking States 19
    6. The Legislative Lists 24
    7. Pith and Substance 29
    8. Colourable Legislation and Incidental Encroachment 34
    9. Repugnancy and the Occupied Field 39
    10. Residuary Power 44
    11. When Parliament May Legislate on a State Subject 48
    12. The Reach of a Legislature 52
    13. Administrative Relations and Federal Comity 56
    14. Inter-State Water Disputes 61
    15. The Inter-State Council and the Commissions 66
    16. Fiscal Federalism 70
    17. The Goods and Services Tax and Its Council 76
    18. Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse 81
    19. The Governor 86
    20. Emergency and the Federal Balance 92
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. President's Rule 98
    2. Article 370 103
    3. Asymmetric Federalism: Articles 371 to 371-J 108
    4. Union and State Disputes in Court 113
    5. Cooperative and Competitive Federalism 117
    6. Why the Definition of "State" Decides Everything 122
    7. The Named Authorities 126
    8. "Other Authorities": The Early Cases 130
    9. The Instrumentality Test 134
    10. The Retreat, and What Survived It 139
    11. Is the Judiciary "State"? 144
    12. Private Bodies and Public Functions 148
    13. Liberalisation, Privatisation and the Case for Widening Article 12 152
    14. Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights 157
    15. Eclipse, Severability and Waiver 162

    Module II

    1. The Equality Code 167
    2. Equality Before the Law and Equal Protection 171
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Reasonable Classification 175
    2. Arbitrariness 179
    3. Articles 15 and 16: The Prohibited Grounds 184
    4. Reservation in Education 188
    5. Reservation in Public Employment 192
    6. The Ceiling on Reservation 196
    7. The Creamy Layer 200
    8. Reservation in Promotion 205
    9. Economically Weaker Sections 209
    10. The Lists, and the Commissions That Watch Them 213
    11. Protective Discrimination 218
    12. Privatisation and Affirmative Action 222
    13. Saving of Laws: Articles 31A, 31B and 31C 227
    14. Untouchability and Titles 232
    15. The Empowerment of Women: The Constitutional Scheme 236
    16. Special Provision for Women 240
    17. Women at Work 244
    18. Sexual Harassment at the Workplace 249
    19. Women, Religion and Personal Law 254
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Women in Local Government 259
    2. The 106th Amendment, and Why It Has Not Started 263
    3. Freedom of Speech, and the Freedom of the Press Inside It 267
    4. The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction 271
    5. Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship 275
    6. The Press and the Legislature 279
    7. The Right to Information 283
    8. Speech Online 287
    9. Privacy, Surveillance and Data 292
    10. Hate Speech, Fake News and Broadcasting 296
    11. New Scientific Development and the Freedom of Speech 301

    Module III

    1. Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka 305
    2. Procedure Established by Law 311
    3. The Expansion of "Life" 316
    4. Livelihood and Shelter 321
    5. Health and the Environment 327
    6. Education Before Article 21A 333
    7. Article 21A and the Right to Education Act 339
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Privacy 345
    2. Dignity, Autonomy and the End of Life 350
    3. Article 20: The Protections of an Accused 356
    4. Preventive Detention 362
    5. The Right Against Exploitation 368
    6. Article 32 and the Writs 374
    7. Article 226 380
    8. Limits: Articles 33, 34 and 35 386
    9. Public Interest Litigation 392
    10. Compensatory Jurisprudence 398
    11. Continuing Mandamus and Judicial Guidelines 404
    12. Hartal and Bandh 410
    13. The Right to Property 416
    14. The Directive Principles 422
    15. The Fundamental Duties 428
    16. Who Is a Minority? 434
    17. Article 29: The Right to Conserve 440
    18. Article 30: To Establish and to Administer 446
    19. State Control and Regulation 452
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. The Eleven-Judge Answer 458
    2. After the Eleven-Judge Answer 463
    3. Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act 469
    4. Linguistic Minorities 475
    5. What Secularism Means Here 481
    6. Articles 25 and 26 487
    7. Essential Religious Practices 493
    8. Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction 499
    9. Secularism as a Basic Feature 505
    10. Religious Fanaticism 511
    11. A Uniform Civil Code 517

    Module IV

    1. Separation of Powers: The Doctrine 523
    2. The Indian Scheme 529
    3. Delegated Legislation 535
    4. Judicial Review 541
    5. Ultra Vires 547
    6. The Amending Power 553
    7. The Basic Structure 559
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Appointment of Judges 565
    2. The National Judicial Appointments Commission 571
    3. Transfer and Removal of Judges 577
    4. Judicial Independence 583
    5. Judicial Accountability 589
    6. Judicial Activism, Restraint and Overreach 595
    7. Legislative Privilege 601
    8. Advisory Jurisdiction 607
    9. Complete Justice: Article 142 613
    10. The Supreme Court 619
    11. The High Courts 625
    12. The Subordinate Judiciary 631
    13. Tribunals 636
    14. The Rule of Law 642
    15. Democracy and Free and Fair Elections 648
    16. The Election Commission 654
    17. Articles 325 to 329 660
    18. The Voter's Right to Know 666
    19. Electoral Reform and the Criminalisation of Politics 671
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Funding of Elections 677
    2. Defection and the Tenth Schedule 683
    3. Grass Root Democracy: The Panchayats 689
    4. Urban Local Government: The Municipalities 695
    5. The Nexus of Politics, Crime and Business 701
    6. The New Challenges 707
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    711 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 711 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 136 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 35 chapters

    1. 1 How to Read the Constitution pages 1–4
    2. 2 What Federalism Is pages 5–8
    3. 3 Is India a Federation? pages 9–14
    4. 4 The Union and Its Territory pages 15–18
    5. 5 Making and Remaking States pages 19–23
    6. 6 The Legislative Lists pages 24–28
    7. 7 Pith and Substance pages 29–33
    8. 8 Colourable Legislation and Incidental Encroachment pages 34–38
    9. 9 Repugnancy and the Occupied Field pages 39–43
    10. 10 Residuary Power pages 44–47
    11. 11 When Parliament May Legislate on a State Subject pages 48–51
    12. 12 The Reach of a Legislature pages 52–55
    13. 13 Administrative Relations and Federal Comity pages 56–60
    14. 14 Inter-State Water Disputes pages 61–65
    15. 15 The Inter-State Council and the Commissions pages 66–69
    16. 16 Fiscal Federalism pages 70–75
    17. 17 The Goods and Services Tax and Its Council pages 76–80
    18. 18 Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse pages 81–85
    19. 19 The Governor pages 86–91
    20. 20 Emergency and the Federal Balance pages 92–97
    21. 21 President's Rule pages 98–102
    22. 22 Article 370 pages 103–107
    23. 23 Asymmetric Federalism: Articles 371 to 371-J pages 108–112
    24. 24 Union and State Disputes in Court pages 113–116
    25. 25 Cooperative and Competitive Federalism pages 117–121
    26. 26 Why the Definition of "State" Decides Everything pages 122–125
    27. 27 The Named Authorities pages 126–129
    28. 28 "Other Authorities": The Early Cases pages 130–133
    29. 29 The Instrumentality Test pages 134–138
    30. 30 The Retreat, and What Survived It pages 139–143
    31. 31 Is the Judiciary "State"? pages 144–147
    32. 32 Private Bodies and Public Functions pages 148–151
    33. 33 Liberalisation, Privatisation and the Case for Widening Article 12 pages 152–156
    34. 34 Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights pages 157–161
    35. 35 Eclipse, Severability and Waiver pages 162–166

    Module II 32 chapters

    1. 36 The Equality Code pages 167–170
    2. 37 Equality Before the Law and Equal Protection pages 171–174
    3. 38 Reasonable Classification pages 175–178
    4. 39 Arbitrariness pages 179–183
    5. 40 Articles 15 and 16: The Prohibited Grounds pages 184–187
    6. 41 Reservation in Education pages 188–191
    7. 42 Reservation in Public Employment pages 192–195
    8. 43 The Ceiling on Reservation pages 196–199
    9. 44 The Creamy Layer pages 200–204
    10. 45 Reservation in Promotion pages 205–208
    11. 46 Economically Weaker Sections pages 209–212
    12. 47 The Lists, and the Commissions That Watch Them pages 213–217
    13. 48 Protective Discrimination pages 218–221
    14. 49 Privatisation and Affirmative Action pages 222–226
    15. 50 Saving of Laws: Articles 31A, 31B and 31C pages 227–231
    16. 51 Untouchability and Titles pages 232–235
    17. 52 The Empowerment of Women: The Constitutional Scheme pages 236–239
    18. 53 Special Provision for Women pages 240–243
    19. 54 Women at Work pages 244–248
    20. 55 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace pages 249–253
    21. 56 Women, Religion and Personal Law pages 254–258
    22. 57 Women in Local Government pages 259–262
    23. 58 The 106th Amendment, and Why It Has Not Started pages 263–266
    24. 59 Freedom of Speech, and the Freedom of the Press Inside It pages 267–270
    25. 60 The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction pages 271–274
    26. 61 Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship pages 275–278
    27. 62 The Press and the Legislature pages 279–282
    28. 63 The Right to Information pages 283–286
    29. 64 Speech Online pages 287–291
    30. 65 Privacy, Surveillance and Data pages 292–295
    31. 66 Hate Speech, Fake News and Broadcasting pages 296–300
    32. 67 New Scientific Development and the Freedom of Speech pages 301–304

    Module III 37 chapters

    1. 68 Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka pages 305–310
    2. 69 Procedure Established by Law pages 311–315
    3. 70 The Expansion of "Life" pages 316–320
    4. 71 Livelihood and Shelter pages 321–326
    5. 72 Health and the Environment pages 327–332
    6. 73 Education Before Article 21A pages 333–338
    7. 74 Article 21A and the Right to Education Act pages 339–344
    8. 75 Privacy pages 345–349
    9. 76 Dignity, Autonomy and the End of Life pages 350–355
    10. 77 Article 20: The Protections of an Accused pages 356–361
    11. 78 Preventive Detention pages 362–367
    12. 79 The Right Against Exploitation pages 368–373
    13. 80 Article 32 and the Writs pages 374–379
    14. 81 Article 226 pages 380–385
    15. 82 Limits: Articles 33, 34 and 35 pages 386–391
    16. 83 Public Interest Litigation pages 392–397
    17. 84 Compensatory Jurisprudence pages 398–403
    18. 85 Continuing Mandamus and Judicial Guidelines pages 404–409
    19. 86 Hartal and Bandh pages 410–415
    20. 87 The Right to Property pages 416–421
    21. 88 The Directive Principles pages 422–427
    22. 89 The Fundamental Duties pages 428–433
    23. 90 Who Is a Minority? pages 434–439
    24. 91 Article 29: The Right to Conserve pages 440–445
    25. 92 Article 30: To Establish and to Administer pages 446–451
    26. 93 State Control and Regulation pages 452–457
    27. 94 The Eleven-Judge Answer pages 458–462
    28. 95 After the Eleven-Judge Answer pages 463–468
    29. 96 Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act pages 469–474
    30. 97 Linguistic Minorities pages 475–480
    31. 98 What Secularism Means Here pages 481–486
    32. 99 Articles 25 and 26 pages 487–492
    33. 100 Essential Religious Practices pages 493–498
    34. 101 Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction pages 499–504
    35. 102 Secularism as a Basic Feature pages 505–510
    36. 103 Religious Fanaticism pages 511–516
    37. 104 A Uniform Civil Code pages 517–522

    Module IV 32 chapters

    1. 105 Separation of Powers: The Doctrine pages 523–528
    2. 106 The Indian Scheme pages 529–534
    3. 107 Delegated Legislation pages 535–540
    4. 108 Judicial Review pages 541–546
    5. 109 Ultra Vires pages 547–552
    6. 110 The Amending Power pages 553–558
    7. 111 The Basic Structure pages 559–564
    8. 112 The Appointment of Judges pages 565–570
    9. 113 The National Judicial Appointments Commission pages 571–576
    10. 114 Transfer and Removal of Judges pages 577–582
    11. 115 Judicial Independence pages 583–588
    12. 116 Judicial Accountability pages 589–594
    13. 117 Judicial Activism, Restraint and Overreach pages 595–600
    14. 118 Legislative Privilege pages 601–606
    15. 119 Advisory Jurisdiction pages 607–612
    16. 120 Complete Justice: Article 142 pages 613–618
    17. 121 The Supreme Court pages 619–624
    18. 122 The High Courts pages 625–630
    19. 123 The Subordinate Judiciary pages 631–635
    20. 124 Tribunals pages 636–641
    21. 125 The Rule of Law pages 642–647
    22. 126 Democracy and Free and Fair Elections pages 648–653
    23. 127 The Election Commission pages 654–659
    24. 128 Articles 325 to 329 pages 660–665
    25. 129 The Voter's Right to Know pages 666–670
    26. 130 Electoral Reform and the Criminalisation of Politics pages 671–676
    27. 131 The Funding of Elections pages 677–682
    28. 132 Defection and the Tenth Schedule pages 683–688
    29. 133 Grass Root Democracy: The Panchayats pages 689–694
    30. 134 Urban Local Government: The Municipalities pages 695–700
    31. 135 The Nexus of Politics, Crime and Business pages 701–706
    32. 136 The New Challenges pages 707–711
    Every paper that is solved: 17 papers
    • 2025-26 - Group I
    • 2025-26 - Group II
    • 2025-26 - Group III
    • 2025-26 - Group IV
    • 2025-26 - Group V
    • 2025-26 - Group VI
    • 2024-25
    • 2024 - Group I
    • 2024 - Group II
    • 2024 - Group III
    • 2024 - Group V
    • 2023
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  2. Law and Social Transformation of India

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Law and Social Transformation of India

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Law and Social Transformation of India

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. Law and Society: How Each Shapes the Other 1
    2. Law as an Instrument of Social Change 6
    3. What Law Cannot Do: The Limits of Legislating Change 12
    4. Law as the Product of Tradition and Culture 17
    5. Custom as a Source of Law 22
    6. Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering 26
    7. Pound's Scheme of Interests 30
    8. The Criticisms of Social Engineering 34
    9. Bentham, Marx and Ehrlich: The Other Answers 38
    10. The Preamble: The Charter of Transformation 43
    11. The Directive Principles and the Welfare State 47
    12. Social Security Legislation 53
    13. The Fundamental Duties 57
    14. The Judiciary as an Engine of Social Change 61
    15. Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation 66
    16. Social Justice 70
    17. Religion and the Law: The Two Questions 74
    18. Freedom of Religion: Articles 25 to 28 78
    19. The Essential Religious Practices Doctrine 83
    20. Secularism 88
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The State and Religion: No State Religion 92
    2. Religion as a Divisive Factor 95
    3. No Discrimination on the Ground of Religion 99
    4. Who Is a Minority 103
    5. Articles 29 and 30: The Minority's Educational Rights 107
    6. The National Commission for Minorities 111
    7. Conversion and the Law 115
    8. Personal Law: What It Is, and Why India Has Several 119
    9. The Hindu Code Bills 124
    10. Muslim Personal Law and Maintenance: Shah Bano to Danial Latifi 128
    11. Triple Talaq 134
    12. Christian and Parsi Law, and the Special Marriage Act 139
    13. The Uniform Civil Code 143
    14. Religious Freedom against Social Reform 148
    15. Temple Entry 152
    16. Places of Worship, and the Character Frozen in 1947 157

    Module II

    1. Language and the Law: Why a Country Legislates about Language 161
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Language as a Divisive Factor 166
    2. The Official Language of the Union 170
    3. The Official Languages Act 1963 175
    4. Many Languages, One Union 180
    5. Constitutional Guarantees to Linguistic Minorities 184
    6. The Formation of Linguistic States 189
    7. The Commissions That Redrew the Map 193
    8. The Medium of Instruction 198
    9. Enforcing Language Rights 203
    10. Regionalism, and India as One Unit 207
    11. The Language of the Courts and of the Statute Book 211
    12. Community and the Law: Caste, Tribe and a Plural Society 216
    13. Caste as a Divisive Factor 221
    14. Non-discrimination on the Ground of Caste 225
    15. Untouchability, and the Act That Abolished It 229
    16. The Atrocities Act 1989 234
    17. Manual Scavenging and Bonded Labour 240
    18. Reservation: The Constitutional Scheme 245
    19. Protective Discrimination 249
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Backward Classes, the Creamy Layer and the Ceiling 253
    2. Reservation in Promotion, and the Ten Per Cent for the Economically Weaker 258
    3. Substantive Equality 263
    4. The Safeguards: Seats, Services and Commissions 267
    5. Tribal India: The Fifth and Sixth Schedules 272
    6. Land, Forest and the Gram Sabha's Consent 278
    7. The Naxalite Movement: Origin and Development 286
    8. The Causes: Land, Dispossession and the Failure of Law 291
    9. The Cure: What the State Has Tried 298
    10. Internal Security, Social Justice and Development 304
    11. The Human Rights Commissions 311

    Module III

    1. Women and the Law: Where the Constitution Started 317
    2. Article 15(3): Special Provision for Women 323
    3. Gender Injustice and Its Forms 328
    4. Dignity and the Right to Privacy 333
    5. Empowerment of Women 338
    6. Women in Public Employment and the Armed Forces 343
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Equal Pay and Maternity Benefit 349
    2. Sexual Harassment at the Workplace 354
    3. Crimes against Women 363
    4. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013 370
    5. Dowry 376
    6. Domestic Violence 383
    7. Sati 391
    8. Sex Selection and the Missing Daughters 397
    9. Reproductive Autonomy 404
    10. Trafficking and Prostitution 411
    11. Indecent Representation 419
    12. The National Commission for Women 425
    13. Women in the Legislatures 431
    14. Women's Property Rights 436
    15. Adultery and Marital Autonomy 443
    16. Who Counts as a Woman 449
    17. The Judiciary and Women's Rights: The Record 456
    18. Children and the Law: The Child as a Rights-Holder 462
    19. The Constitution and the Child 467
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. India and the Convention on the Rights of the Child 472
    2. Child Abuse 478
    3. The Sexual Exploitation of Children 484
    4. POCSO: Objects and Scheme 490
    5. How Far POCSO Has Worked 499
    6. Child Labour: Causes and Consequences 505
    7. The Law against Child Labour 510
    8. The Courts and the Enforcement against Child Labour 517
    9. The Right to Education 523
    10. Juvenile Justice 532
    11. The Child in Need of Care and Protection 542
    12. Adoption 552
    13. Inter-country Adoption 559
    14. The Child Rights Commissions 565
    15. Child Marriage 572

    Module IV

    1. Modernisation and the Law 579
    2. Modernisation as a Value 584
    3. Modernising Social Institutions Through Law 590
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Agrarian Reform: Abolishing the Intermediary 595
    2. Ceilings, Tenancy and Redistribution 601
    3. The Ninth Schedule and the Property Amendments 606
    4. Industrialisation and the Law 613
    5. Industrialisation against Environmental Protection 619
    6. What the Courts Built out of Article 21 626
    7. Industrialisation and the Sustainable Development Goals 633
    8. Urbanisation and the Pavement Dweller 638
    9. Science, Technology and the Law Behind Them 646
    10. Democratic Decentralisation and Local Self-Government 652
    11. The Prison in India 659
    12. The Committees on Prison Reform 665
    13. The Prisoner's Rights 671
    14. Alternative Approaches to Law 679
    15. Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code 684
    16. The Types of Alternative Dispute Mechanism, and What Each Is Good For 689
    17. Arbitration 694
    18. Mediation and Conciliation 701
    19. Lok Adalat 708
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Legal Aid 716
    2. Nyaya Panchayats 726
    3. Gram Nyayalayas 732
    4. Plea Bargaining 743
    5. Reform of Court Processes and of the Justice Delivery System 752
    6. Legal Pluralism, and the Forums the State Did Not Create 761
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    768 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 768 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 135 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 36 chapters

    1. 1 Law and Society: How Each Shapes the Other pages 1–5
    2. 2 Law as an Instrument of Social Change pages 6–11
    3. 3 What Law Cannot Do: The Limits of Legislating Change pages 12–16
    4. 4 Law as the Product of Tradition and Culture pages 17–21
    5. 5 Custom as a Source of Law pages 22–25
    6. 6 Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering pages 26–29
    7. 7 Pound's Scheme of Interests pages 30–33
    8. 8 The Criticisms of Social Engineering pages 34–37
    9. 9 Bentham, Marx and Ehrlich: The Other Answers pages 38–42
    10. 10 The Preamble: The Charter of Transformation pages 43–46
    11. 11 The Directive Principles and the Welfare State pages 47–52
    12. 12 Social Security Legislation pages 53–56
    13. 13 The Fundamental Duties pages 57–60
    14. 14 The Judiciary as an Engine of Social Change pages 61–65
    15. 15 Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation pages 66–69
    16. 16 Social Justice pages 70–73
    17. 17 Religion and the Law: The Two Questions pages 74–77
    18. 18 Freedom of Religion: Articles 25 to 28 pages 78–82
    19. 19 The Essential Religious Practices Doctrine pages 83–87
    20. 20 Secularism pages 88–91
    21. 21 The State and Religion: No State Religion pages 92–94
    22. 22 Religion as a Divisive Factor pages 95–98
    23. 23 No Discrimination on the Ground of Religion pages 99–102
    24. 24 Who Is a Minority pages 103–106
    25. 25 Articles 29 and 30: The Minority's Educational Rights pages 107–110
    26. 26 The National Commission for Minorities pages 111–114
    27. 27 Conversion and the Law pages 115–118
    28. 28 Personal Law: What It Is, and Why India Has Several pages 119–123
    29. 29 The Hindu Code Bills pages 124–127
    30. 30 Muslim Personal Law and Maintenance: Shah Bano to Danial Latifi pages 128–133
    31. 31 Triple Talaq pages 134–138
    32. 32 Christian and Parsi Law, and the Special Marriage Act pages 139–142
    33. 33 The Uniform Civil Code pages 143–147
    34. 34 Religious Freedom against Social Reform pages 148–151
    35. 35 Temple Entry pages 152–156
    36. 36 Places of Worship, and the Character Frozen in 1947 pages 157–160

    Module II 31 chapters

    1. 37 Language and the Law: Why a Country Legislates about Language pages 161–165
    2. 38 Language as a Divisive Factor pages 166–169
    3. 39 The Official Language of the Union pages 170–174
    4. 40 The Official Languages Act 1963 pages 175–179
    5. 41 Many Languages, One Union pages 180–183
    6. 42 Constitutional Guarantees to Linguistic Minorities pages 184–188
    7. 43 The Formation of Linguistic States pages 189–192
    8. 44 The Commissions That Redrew the Map pages 193–197
    9. 45 The Medium of Instruction pages 198–202
    10. 46 Enforcing Language Rights pages 203–206
    11. 47 Regionalism, and India as One Unit pages 207–210
    12. 48 The Language of the Courts and of the Statute Book pages 211–215
    13. 49 Community and the Law: Caste, Tribe and a Plural Society pages 216–220
    14. 50 Caste as a Divisive Factor pages 221–224
    15. 51 Non-discrimination on the Ground of Caste pages 225–228
    16. 52 Untouchability, and the Act That Abolished It pages 229–233
    17. 53 The Atrocities Act 1989 pages 234–239
    18. 54 Manual Scavenging and Bonded Labour pages 240–244
    19. 55 Reservation: The Constitutional Scheme pages 245–248
    20. 56 Protective Discrimination pages 249–252
    21. 57 Backward Classes, the Creamy Layer and the Ceiling pages 253–257
    22. 58 Reservation in Promotion, and the Ten Per Cent for the Economically Weaker pages 258–262
    23. 59 Substantive Equality pages 263–266
    24. 60 The Safeguards: Seats, Services and Commissions pages 267–271
    25. 61 Tribal India: The Fifth and Sixth Schedules pages 272–277
    26. 62 Land, Forest and the Gram Sabha's Consent pages 278–285
    27. 63 The Naxalite Movement: Origin and Development pages 286–290
    28. 64 The Causes: Land, Dispossession and the Failure of Law pages 291–297
    29. 65 The Cure: What the State Has Tried pages 298–303
    30. 66 Internal Security, Social Justice and Development pages 304–310
    31. 67 The Human Rights Commissions pages 311–316

    Module III 40 chapters

    1. 68 Women and the Law: Where the Constitution Started pages 317–322
    2. 69 Article 15(3): Special Provision for Women pages 323–327
    3. 70 Gender Injustice and Its Forms pages 328–332
    4. 71 Dignity and the Right to Privacy pages 333–337
    5. 72 Empowerment of Women pages 338–342
    6. 73 Women in Public Employment and the Armed Forces pages 343–348
    7. 74 Equal Pay and Maternity Benefit pages 349–353
    8. 75 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace pages 354–362
    9. 76 Crimes against Women pages 363–369
    10. 77 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013 pages 370–375
    11. 78 Dowry pages 376–382
    12. 79 Domestic Violence pages 383–390
    13. 80 Sati pages 391–396
    14. 81 Sex Selection and the Missing Daughters pages 397–403
    15. 82 Reproductive Autonomy pages 404–410
    16. 83 Trafficking and Prostitution pages 411–418
    17. 84 Indecent Representation pages 419–424
    18. 85 The National Commission for Women pages 425–430
    19. 86 Women in the Legislatures pages 431–435
    20. 87 Women's Property Rights pages 436–442
    21. 88 Adultery and Marital Autonomy pages 443–448
    22. 89 Who Counts as a Woman pages 449–455
    23. 90 The Judiciary and Women's Rights: The Record pages 456–461
    24. 91 Children and the Law: The Child as a Rights-Holder pages 462–466
    25. 92 The Constitution and the Child pages 467–471
    26. 93 India and the Convention on the Rights of the Child pages 472–477
    27. 94 Child Abuse pages 478–483
    28. 95 The Sexual Exploitation of Children pages 484–489
    29. 96 POCSO: Objects and Scheme pages 490–498
    30. 97 How Far POCSO Has Worked pages 499–504
    31. 98 Child Labour: Causes and Consequences pages 505–509
    32. 99 The Law against Child Labour pages 510–516
    33. 100 The Courts and the Enforcement against Child Labour pages 517–522
    34. 101 The Right to Education pages 523–531
    35. 102 Juvenile Justice pages 532–541
    36. 103 The Child in Need of Care and Protection pages 542–551
    37. 104 Adoption pages 552–558
    38. 105 Inter-country Adoption pages 559–564
    39. 106 The Child Rights Commissions pages 565–571
    40. 107 Child Marriage pages 572–578

    Module IV 28 chapters

    1. 108 Modernisation and the Law pages 579–583
    2. 109 Modernisation as a Value pages 584–589
    3. 110 Modernising Social Institutions Through Law pages 590–594
    4. 111 Agrarian Reform: Abolishing the Intermediary pages 595–600
    5. 112 Ceilings, Tenancy and Redistribution pages 601–605
    6. 113 The Ninth Schedule and the Property Amendments pages 606–612
    7. 114 Industrialisation and the Law pages 613–618
    8. 115 Industrialisation against Environmental Protection pages 619–625
    9. 116 What the Courts Built out of Article 21 pages 626–632
    10. 117 Industrialisation and the Sustainable Development Goals pages 633–637
    11. 118 Urbanisation and the Pavement Dweller pages 638–645
    12. 119 Science, Technology and the Law Behind Them pages 646–651
    13. 120 Democratic Decentralisation and Local Self-Government pages 652–658
    14. 121 The Prison in India pages 659–664
    15. 122 The Committees on Prison Reform pages 665–670
    16. 123 The Prisoner's Rights pages 671–678
    17. 124 Alternative Approaches to Law pages 679–683
    18. 125 Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code pages 684–688
    19. 126 The Types of Alternative Dispute Mechanism, and What Each Is Good For pages 689–693
    20. 127 Arbitration pages 694–700
    21. 128 Mediation and Conciliation pages 701–707
    22. 129 Lok Adalat pages 708–715
    23. 130 Legal Aid pages 716–725
    24. 131 Nyaya Panchayats pages 726–731
    25. 132 Gram Nyayalayas pages 732–742
    26. 133 Plea Bargaining pages 743–751
    27. 134 Reform of Court Processes and of the Justice Delivery System pages 752–760
    28. 135 Legal Pluralism, and the Forums the State Did Not Create pages 761–768
    Every paper that is solved: 17 papers
    • 2025-26 - Group I
    • 2025-26 - Group II
    • 2025-26 - Group III
    • 2025-26 - Group IV
    • 2025-26 - Group V
    • 2025-26 - Group VI
    • 2024-25
    • 2024 - Group I
    • 2024 - Group II
    • 2024 - Group III
    • 2024 - Group V
    • 2023
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  3. Global Trade Under World Trade Organisation

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Global Trade Under World Trade Organisation

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 2 Business Law

    Global Trade Under World Trade Organisation

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. The World Before the System: Trade Law to 1944 1
    2. The Bretton Woods Conference of 1944 6
    3. The International Monetary Fund 11
    4. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 16
    5. The Havana Charter and the Organization That Never Was 20
    6. GATT 1947: The Agreement That Stood In 24
    7. How GATT Worked, and How Far It Succeeded 28
    8. The Rounds: Geneva 1947 to Tokyo 1979 33
    9. The Uruguay Round 37
    10. The Final Act and the Single Undertaking 42
    11. The Marrakesh Agreement, Article by Article 45
    12. Objectives, Scope and Functions of the WTO 50
    13. The Organisational Chart: Ministerial Conference to the Committees 54
    14. The Secretariat and the Director-General 58
    15. Decision-Making: Consensus, Voting, Interpretations and Waivers 62
    16. Membership, Accession, Non-Application and Withdrawal 66
    17. Amending the Agreements 70
    18. GATT and the WTO Compared 74
    19. The Trade Policy Review Mechanism 78
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The Plurilateral Agreements of Annex 4 81
    2. The Ministerial Conferences: Singapore to Yaounde 85
    3. Developing Countries, Least-Developed Countries and Special Treatment 89
    4. India and the WTO 94
    5. The Sources of Law for Global Trade, and the Constitution of India 99
    6. The Mission Statement, and Whether the Trade Is Fair and Free 103

    Module II

    1. What GATT 1994 Consists Of 108
    2. Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment: Article I 112
    3. Schedules of Concessions and Tariff Bindings: Article II 116
    4. National Treatment I: Internal Taxation, Article III:2 121
    5. National Treatment II: Regulation and Procurement, Article III:4 and III:8 125
    6. The Exceptions to MFN: Preferences, the Enabling Clause and Waivers 129
    7. Freedom of Transit: Article V 133
    8. The Working Articles: Films, Fees, Marks and Publication, Articles IV and VII to X 137
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The General Elimination of Quantitative Restrictions: Article XI 141
    2. The Balance-of-Payments Exceptions: Articles XII, XIV, XV and XVIII:B 146
    3. State Trading Enterprises: Article XVII 150
    4. Governmental Assistance to Economic Development: Article XVIII 154
    5. The General Exceptions: Article XX 158
    6. The Security Exceptions: Article XXI 163
    7. Customs Unions and Free-Trade Areas: Article XXIV 168
    8. The Institutional Articles and Part IV: Articles XXII to XXXVIII 172
    9. Dumping I: The Concept and Article VI 176
    10. Dumping II: The Investigation, the Duty and the Review 180
    11. Dumping III: India's Law and Practice 186
    12. Subsidies I: Definition, Specificity and the Prohibited List 190
    13. Subsidies II: Countervailing Duties, and India's Cases 196
    14. Safeguards: Article XIX and the Agreement 200
    15. Customs Valuation: Article VII and the Agreement 206
    16. Preshipment Inspection 212
    17. Rules of Origin 217
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Import Licensing Procedures 221
    2. The Agreement on Agriculture 226
    3. Agriculture and India: Public Stockholding to the Sugar Dispute 232
    4. Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures 237
    5. Technical Barriers to Trade 244
    6. Trade-Related Investment Measures 249
    7. Textiles: The MFA, the ATC and Its Self-Termination 254
    8. The Agreement on Trade Facilitation 259
    9. The Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies 264
    10. Trade and the Environment: Tuna Dolphin to Shrimp and After 268

    Module III

    1. Why Services Entered the Trading System 273
    2. Trade in Services Defined: The Four Modes 278
    3. Scope and Definitions: Articles I and XXVIII 282
    4. MFN under the GATS: Article II and the Exemptions 286
    5. The General Obligations: Articles III to V bis 290
    6. Domestic Regulation: Article VI 294
    7. Recognition of Qualifications: Article VII 298
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Monopolies, Exclusive Suppliers and Business Practices: Articles VIII and IX 302
    2. The Unfinished Rules: Articles X to XIII and XV 306
    3. The GATS Exceptions: Articles XIV and XIV bis 310
    4. Market Access: Article XVI 314
    5. National Treatment and Additional Commitments: Articles XVII and XVIII 318
    6. Schedules of Specific Commitments, and How to Read One 322
    7. Progressive Liberalisation and Modifying a Schedule: Articles XIX and XXI 326
    8. Consultation, Dispute Settlement and the Final Provisions: Articles XXII to XXIX 330
    9. The Annexes: Movement of Persons, Air Transport, Telecommunications 334
    10. Financial Services 339
    11. Maritime Transport Services 343
    12. Professional Services, and the Lawyers' Question 347
    13. India's Services Trade, Sector by Sector 351
    14. The Salient Features of the GATS, Drawn Together 356

    Module IV

    1. Intellectual Property Before TRIPS: Paris, Berne and WIPO 361
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Why Intellectual Property Entered the Trade System 365
    2. The Structure of TRIPS: Seven Parts 370
    3. General Provisions and Basic Principles: Articles 1 to 8 374
    4. Copyright and Related Rights: Articles 9 to 14 379
    5. Trademarks: Articles 15 to 21 384
    6. Geographical Indications: Articles 22 to 24 390
    7. Industrial Designs: Articles 25 and 26 396
    8. Patents: Articles 27 to 34 400
    9. Layout-Designs of Integrated Circuits: Articles 35 to 38 406
    10. Undisclosed Information: Article 39 410
    11. Anti-Competitive Practices in Contractual Licences: Article 40 415
    12. Enforcement: Articles 41 to 61 420
    13. Acquisition, Transparency and Dispute Settlement: Articles 62 to 64 427
    14. Transitional Arrangements and the Institutions: Articles 65 to 73 431
    15. TRIPS and Public Health: Doha, Article 31bis and the Pandemic 437
    16. What TRIPS Changed in India I: The Patents Act 443
    17. What TRIPS Changed in India II: Trademarks and Geographical Indications 449
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. What TRIPS Changed in India III: Copyright, Designs, Circuits, Secrets and Plants 455
    2. The Patent Co-operation Treaty 460
    3. Dispute Settlement under GATT, and Why It Had to Change 463
    4. The Dispute Settlement Body and the Coverage of the DSU: Articles 1 to 3 468
    5. Consultations, Good Offices, Conciliation and Mediation: Articles 4 and 5 473
    6. Panels: Articles 6 to 15 477
    7. Appellate Review: Article 17 483
    8. Adoption and the Reverse Consensus Rule: Articles 16, 19 and 20 488
    9. Implementation, Compensation and Retaliation: Articles 21 and 22 492
    10. The System's Discipline: Articles 23 to 27 497
    11. The Stages of a WTO Dispute, End to End 502
    12. Developing Countries in Dispute Settlement 507
    13. India and the Dispute Settlement Process 512
    14. The Sugar Dispute 517
    15. The Brazil-Canada Aircraft Dispute 522
    16. The Appellate Body Crisis and the MPIA 527
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    533 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 533 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 115 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 25 chapters

    1. 1 The World Before the System: Trade Law to 1944 pages 1–5
    2. 2 The Bretton Woods Conference of 1944 pages 6–10
    3. 3 The International Monetary Fund pages 11–15
    4. 4 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development pages 16–19
    5. 5 The Havana Charter and the Organization That Never Was pages 20–23
    6. 6 GATT 1947: The Agreement That Stood In pages 24–27
    7. 7 How GATT Worked, and How Far It Succeeded pages 28–32
    8. 8 The Rounds: Geneva 1947 to Tokyo 1979 pages 33–36
    9. 9 The Uruguay Round pages 37–41
    10. 10 The Final Act and the Single Undertaking pages 42–44
    11. 11 The Marrakesh Agreement, Article by Article pages 45–49
    12. 12 Objectives, Scope and Functions of the WTO pages 50–53
    13. 13 The Organisational Chart: Ministerial Conference to the Committees pages 54–57
    14. 14 The Secretariat and the Director-General pages 58–61
    15. 15 Decision-Making: Consensus, Voting, Interpretations and Waivers pages 62–65
    16. 16 Membership, Accession, Non-Application and Withdrawal pages 66–69
    17. 17 Amending the Agreements pages 70–73
    18. 18 GATT and the WTO Compared pages 74–77
    19. 19 The Trade Policy Review Mechanism pages 78–80
    20. 20 The Plurilateral Agreements of Annex 4 pages 81–84
    21. 21 The Ministerial Conferences: Singapore to Yaounde pages 85–88
    22. 22 Developing Countries, Least-Developed Countries and Special Treatment pages 89–93
    23. 23 India and the WTO pages 94–98
    24. 24 The Sources of Law for Global Trade, and the Constitution of India pages 99–102
    25. 25 The Mission Statement, and Whether the Trade Is Fair and Free pages 103–107

    Module II 35 chapters

    1. 26 What GATT 1994 Consists Of pages 108–111
    2. 27 Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment: Article I pages 112–115
    3. 28 Schedules of Concessions and Tariff Bindings: Article II pages 116–120
    4. 29 National Treatment I: Internal Taxation, Article III:2 pages 121–124
    5. 30 National Treatment II: Regulation and Procurement, Article III:4 and III:8 pages 125–128
    6. 31 The Exceptions to MFN: Preferences, the Enabling Clause and Waivers pages 129–132
    7. 32 Freedom of Transit: Article V pages 133–136
    8. 33 The Working Articles: Films, Fees, Marks and Publication, Articles IV and VII to X pages 137–140
    9. 34 The General Elimination of Quantitative Restrictions: Article XI pages 141–145
    10. 35 The Balance-of-Payments Exceptions: Articles XII, XIV, XV and XVIII:B pages 146–149
    11. 36 State Trading Enterprises: Article XVII pages 150–153
    12. 37 Governmental Assistance to Economic Development: Article XVIII pages 154–157
    13. 38 The General Exceptions: Article XX pages 158–162
    14. 39 The Security Exceptions: Article XXI pages 163–167
    15. 40 Customs Unions and Free-Trade Areas: Article XXIV pages 168–171
    16. 41 The Institutional Articles and Part IV: Articles XXII to XXXVIII pages 172–175
    17. 42 Dumping I: The Concept and Article VI pages 176–179
    18. 43 Dumping II: The Investigation, the Duty and the Review pages 180–185
    19. 44 Dumping III: India's Law and Practice pages 186–189
    20. 45 Subsidies I: Definition, Specificity and the Prohibited List pages 190–195
    21. 46 Subsidies II: Countervailing Duties, and India's Cases pages 196–199
    22. 47 Safeguards: Article XIX and the Agreement pages 200–205
    23. 48 Customs Valuation: Article VII and the Agreement pages 206–211
    24. 49 Preshipment Inspection pages 212–216
    25. 50 Rules of Origin pages 217–220
    26. 51 Import Licensing Procedures pages 221–225
    27. 52 The Agreement on Agriculture pages 226–231
    28. 53 Agriculture and India: Public Stockholding to the Sugar Dispute pages 232–236
    29. 54 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures pages 237–243
    30. 55 Technical Barriers to Trade pages 244–248
    31. 56 Trade-Related Investment Measures pages 249–253
    32. 57 Textiles: The MFA, the ATC and Its Self-Termination pages 254–258
    33. 58 The Agreement on Trade Facilitation pages 259–263
    34. 59 The Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies pages 264–267
    35. 60 Trade and the Environment: Tuna Dolphin to Shrimp and After pages 268–272

    Module III 21 chapters

    1. 61 Why Services Entered the Trading System pages 273–277
    2. 62 Trade in Services Defined: The Four Modes pages 278–281
    3. 63 Scope and Definitions: Articles I and XXVIII pages 282–285
    4. 64 MFN under the GATS: Article II and the Exemptions pages 286–289
    5. 65 The General Obligations: Articles III to V bis pages 290–293
    6. 66 Domestic Regulation: Article VI pages 294–297
    7. 67 Recognition of Qualifications: Article VII pages 298–301
    8. 68 Monopolies, Exclusive Suppliers and Business Practices: Articles VIII and IX pages 302–305
    9. 69 The Unfinished Rules: Articles X to XIII and XV pages 306–309
    10. 70 The GATS Exceptions: Articles XIV and XIV bis pages 310–313
    11. 71 Market Access: Article XVI pages 314–317
    12. 72 National Treatment and Additional Commitments: Articles XVII and XVIII pages 318–321
    13. 73 Schedules of Specific Commitments, and How to Read One pages 322–325
    14. 74 Progressive Liberalisation and Modifying a Schedule: Articles XIX and XXI pages 326–329
    15. 75 Consultation, Dispute Settlement and the Final Provisions: Articles XXII to XXIX pages 330–333
    16. 76 The Annexes: Movement of Persons, Air Transport, Telecommunications pages 334–338
    17. 77 Financial Services pages 339–342
    18. 78 Maritime Transport Services pages 343–346
    19. 79 Professional Services, and the Lawyers' Question pages 347–350
    20. 80 India's Services Trade, Sector by Sector pages 351–355
    21. 81 The Salient Features of the GATS, Drawn Together pages 356–360

    Module IV 34 chapters

    1. 82 Intellectual Property Before TRIPS: Paris, Berne and WIPO pages 361–364
    2. 83 Why Intellectual Property Entered the Trade System pages 365–369
    3. 84 The Structure of TRIPS: Seven Parts pages 370–373
    4. 85 General Provisions and Basic Principles: Articles 1 to 8 pages 374–378
    5. 86 Copyright and Related Rights: Articles 9 to 14 pages 379–383
    6. 87 Trademarks: Articles 15 to 21 pages 384–389
    7. 88 Geographical Indications: Articles 22 to 24 pages 390–395
    8. 89 Industrial Designs: Articles 25 and 26 pages 396–399
    9. 90 Patents: Articles 27 to 34 pages 400–405
    10. 91 Layout-Designs of Integrated Circuits: Articles 35 to 38 pages 406–409
    11. 92 Undisclosed Information: Article 39 pages 410–414
    12. 93 Anti-Competitive Practices in Contractual Licences: Article 40 pages 415–419
    13. 94 Enforcement: Articles 41 to 61 pages 420–426
    14. 95 Acquisition, Transparency and Dispute Settlement: Articles 62 to 64 pages 427–430
    15. 96 Transitional Arrangements and the Institutions: Articles 65 to 73 pages 431–436
    16. 97 TRIPS and Public Health: Doha, Article 31bis and the Pandemic pages 437–442
    17. 98 What TRIPS Changed in India I: The Patents Act pages 443–448
    18. 99 What TRIPS Changed in India II: Trademarks and Geographical Indications pages 449–454
    19. 100 What TRIPS Changed in India III: Copyright, Designs, Circuits, Secrets and Plants pages 455–459
    20. 101 The Patent Co-operation Treaty pages 460–462
    21. 102 Dispute Settlement under GATT, and Why It Had to Change pages 463–467
    22. 103 The Dispute Settlement Body and the Coverage of the DSU: Articles 1 to 3 pages 468–472
    23. 104 Consultations, Good Offices, Conciliation and Mediation: Articles 4 and 5 pages 473–476
    24. 105 Panels: Articles 6 to 15 pages 477–482
    25. 106 Appellate Review: Article 17 pages 483–487
    26. 107 Adoption and the Reverse Consensus Rule: Articles 16, 19 and 20 pages 488–491
    27. 108 Implementation, Compensation and Retaliation: Articles 21 and 22 pages 492–496
    28. 109 The System's Discipline: Articles 23 to 27 pages 497–501
    29. 110 The Stages of a WTO Dispute, End to End pages 502–506
    30. 111 Developing Countries in Dispute Settlement pages 507–511
    31. 112 India and the Dispute Settlement Process pages 512–516
    32. 113 The Sugar Dispute pages 517–521
    33. 114 The Brazil-Canada Aircraft Dispute pages 522–526
    34. 115 The Appellate Body Crisis and the MPIA pages 527–533
    Every paper that is solved: 9 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024-25
    • 2024
    • 2023
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  4. Fundamental Principles of Law of Contract and Allied Laws

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Fundamental Principles of Law of Contract and Allied Laws

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 2 Business Law

    Fundamental Principles of Law of Contract and Allied Laws

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What the Law of Contract Is 1
    2. Why a Promise Binds 6
    3. Will Theory 11
    4. Bargain and Reliance 17
    5. Individualism 22
    6. Freedom of Contract 27
    7. Inequality of Bargaining Power 31
    8. Sanctity of Contract 36
    9. Encroachment on Freedom of Contract: the Statutes 41
    10. Public Policy under Section 23 46
    11. Agreements in Restraint of Trade, Marriage and Legal Proceedings 51
    12. Wagering Agreements 57

    Module II

    1. Legislative Intervention 62
    2. Socio-economic Factors 67
    3. Limitations on Sanctity of Contract 72
    4. Proposal, Promise, Agreement, Contract 77
    5. Void, Voidable, Illegal and Unenforceable 82
    6. The Offer 87
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Acceptance 92
    2. Consideration 97
    3. Privity of Contract and Privity of Consideration 102
    4. Capacity to Contract 107
    5. Free Consent: Coercion 112
    6. Undue Influence 117
    7. Fraud and Misrepresentation 122
    8. Mistake 128
    9. Lawful Object and Lawful Consideration 133
    10. Contingent Contracts 138
    11. Performance of Contracts 143
    12. Discharge of Contract 149
    13. Contracts of Indemnity 154
    14. Contracts of Guarantee 159
    15. Bailment 165
    16. Pledge 172
    17. Agency: Creation and Authority 177
    18. Agency: Relations and Termination 183
    19. The Contract of Sale of Goods 190
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Conditions and Warranties 196
    2. Transfer of Property and of Title 203
    3. Performance, and the Unpaid Seller 210
    4. Suits for Breach of the Contract of Sale 218
    5. The Standard-form Contract 224
    6. Exemption Clauses 229
    7. Protective Measures 234
    8. Quasi-Contract 239
    9. Unjust Enrichment and Restitution 245
    10. The Doctrine of Frustration 250
    11. The Effects of Frustration 255
    12. Breach of Contract 260
    13. Damages 264
    14. The Other Remedies for Breach 270
    15. The CISG: Sphere of Application 275
    16. The CISG: Formation of the Contract 283
    17. The CISG: Obligations and Remedies 290

    Module III

    1. Arbitration Before 1996 302
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. The UNCITRAL Model Law, and Why the Act Was Passed 306
    2. The 1940 Act and the 1996 Act Compared 310
    3. What Arbitration Is 315
    4. What May Be Referred to Arbitration 320
    5. The Arbitration Agreement 325
    6. Section 8: Referring the Parties to Arbitration 330
    7. Interim Measures: Sections 9 and 17 335
    8. The ADR Family 340
    9. Section 89 of the Code, and Court-Referred Settlement 345
    10. The Act: Its Extent, and How It Is Arranged 350

    Module IV

    1. Composition of the Arbitral Tribunal 355
    2. Appointment of Arbitrators 359
    3. Independence and Impartiality: the Grounds of Challenge 365
    4. The Challenge Procedure 370
    5. Termination of the Arbitrator's Mandate 375
    6. Jurisdiction of the Tribunal: Section 16 379
    7. Separability of the Arbitration Clause 384
    8. Equal Treatment, and the Tribunal's Freedom of Procedure 389
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Conduct of the Proceedings 393
    2. The Rules Applicable to the Substance 399
    3. Settlement, and the Award on Agreed Terms 404
    4. Form and Contents of the Award 408
    5. Time Limits for the Award 413
    6. Correction, Interpretation and Termination of Proceedings 418
    7. Finality and Enforcement of the Award 423
    8. Recourse: Setting Aside under Section 34 428
    9. Public Policy, and Patent Illegality 434
    10. Appeals under Section 37 439
    11. Foreign Awards: the New York Convention 443
    12. Foreign Awards: the Geneva Protocol and Convention 449
    13. Commercial Arbitration: Institutional and Ad Hoc 455
    14. International Commercial Arbitration 459
    15. Conciliation: Part III 464
    16. The Settlement Agreement 470
    17. Confidentiality, and the Conciliator's Position 475
    18. Costs, Deposits and the Tribunal's Lien 480
    19. The Arbitration Council of India 486
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Supplementary Provisions 492
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    496 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 496 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 93 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 12 chapters

    1. 1 What the Law of Contract Is pages 1–5
    2. 2 Why a Promise Binds pages 6–10
    3. 3 Will Theory pages 11–16
    4. 4 Bargain and Reliance pages 17–21
    5. 5 Individualism pages 22–26
    6. 6 Freedom of Contract pages 27–30
    7. 7 Inequality of Bargaining Power pages 31–35
    8. 8 Sanctity of Contract pages 36–40
    9. 9 Encroachment on Freedom of Contract: the Statutes pages 41–45
    10. 10 Public Policy under Section 23 pages 46–50
    11. 11 Agreements in Restraint of Trade, Marriage and Legal Proceedings pages 51–56
    12. 12 Wagering Agreements pages 57–61

    Module II 42 chapters

    1. 13 Legislative Intervention pages 62–66
    2. 14 Socio-economic Factors pages 67–71
    3. 15 Limitations on Sanctity of Contract pages 72–76
    4. 16 Proposal, Promise, Agreement, Contract pages 77–81
    5. 17 Void, Voidable, Illegal and Unenforceable pages 82–86
    6. 18 The Offer pages 87–91
    7. 19 Acceptance pages 92–96
    8. 20 Consideration pages 97–101
    9. 21 Privity of Contract and Privity of Consideration pages 102–106
    10. 22 Capacity to Contract pages 107–111
    11. 23 Free Consent: Coercion pages 112–116
    12. 24 Undue Influence pages 117–121
    13. 25 Fraud and Misrepresentation pages 122–127
    14. 26 Mistake pages 128–132
    15. 27 Lawful Object and Lawful Consideration pages 133–137
    16. 28 Contingent Contracts pages 138–142
    17. 29 Performance of Contracts pages 143–148
    18. 30 Discharge of Contract pages 149–153
    19. 31 Contracts of Indemnity pages 154–158
    20. 32 Contracts of Guarantee pages 159–164
    21. 33 Bailment pages 165–171
    22. 34 Pledge pages 172–176
    23. 35 Agency: Creation and Authority pages 177–182
    24. 36 Agency: Relations and Termination pages 183–189
    25. 37 The Contract of Sale of Goods pages 190–195
    26. 38 Conditions and Warranties pages 196–202
    27. 39 Transfer of Property and of Title pages 203–209
    28. 40 Performance, and the Unpaid Seller pages 210–217
    29. 41 Suits for Breach of the Contract of Sale pages 218–223
    30. 42 The Standard-form Contract pages 224–228
    31. 43 Exemption Clauses pages 229–233
    32. 44 Protective Measures pages 234–238
    33. 45 Quasi-Contract pages 239–244
    34. 46 Unjust Enrichment and Restitution pages 245–249
    35. 47 The Doctrine of Frustration pages 250–254
    36. 48 The Effects of Frustration pages 255–259
    37. 49 Breach of Contract pages 260–263
    38. 50 Damages pages 264–269
    39. 51 The Other Remedies for Breach pages 270–274
    40. 52 The CISG: Sphere of Application pages 275–282
    41. 53 The CISG: Formation of the Contract pages 283–289
    42. 54 The CISG: Obligations and Remedies pages 290–301

    Module III 11 chapters

    1. 55 Arbitration Before 1996 pages 302–305
    2. 56 The UNCITRAL Model Law, and Why the Act Was Passed pages 306–309
    3. 57 The 1940 Act and the 1996 Act Compared pages 310–314
    4. 58 What Arbitration Is pages 315–319
    5. 59 What May Be Referred to Arbitration pages 320–324
    6. 60 The Arbitration Agreement pages 325–329
    7. 61 Section 8: Referring the Parties to Arbitration pages 330–334
    8. 62 Interim Measures: Sections 9 and 17 pages 335–339
    9. 63 The ADR Family pages 340–344
    10. 64 Section 89 of the Code, and Court-Referred Settlement pages 345–349
    11. 65 The Act: Its Extent, and How It Is Arranged pages 350–354

    Module IV 28 chapters

    1. 66 Composition of the Arbitral Tribunal pages 355–358
    2. 67 Appointment of Arbitrators pages 359–364
    3. 68 Independence and Impartiality: the Grounds of Challenge pages 365–369
    4. 69 The Challenge Procedure pages 370–374
    5. 70 Termination of the Arbitrator's Mandate pages 375–378
    6. 71 Jurisdiction of the Tribunal: Section 16 pages 379–383
    7. 72 Separability of the Arbitration Clause pages 384–388
    8. 73 Equal Treatment, and the Tribunal's Freedom of Procedure pages 389–392
    9. 74 The Conduct of the Proceedings pages 393–398
    10. 75 The Rules Applicable to the Substance pages 399–403
    11. 76 Settlement, and the Award on Agreed Terms pages 404–407
    12. 77 Form and Contents of the Award pages 408–412
    13. 78 Time Limits for the Award pages 413–417
    14. 79 Correction, Interpretation and Termination of Proceedings pages 418–422
    15. 80 Finality and Enforcement of the Award pages 423–427
    16. 81 Recourse: Setting Aside under Section 34 pages 428–433
    17. 82 Public Policy, and Patent Illegality pages 434–438
    18. 83 Appeals under Section 37 pages 439–442
    19. 84 Foreign Awards: the New York Convention pages 443–448
    20. 85 Foreign Awards: the Geneva Protocol and Convention pages 449–454
    21. 86 Commercial Arbitration: Institutional and Ad Hoc pages 455–458
    22. 87 International Commercial Arbitration pages 459–463
    23. 88 Conciliation: Part III pages 464–469
    24. 89 The Settlement Agreement pages 470–474
    25. 90 Confidentiality, and the Conciliator's Position pages 475–479
    26. 91 Costs, Deposits and the Tribunal's Lien pages 480–485
    27. 92 The Arbitration Council of India pages 486–491
    28. 93 The Supplementary Provisions pages 492–496
    Every paper that is solved: 9 papers
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    • 2024-25
    • 2024
    • 2023
    • 2022
    • 2019
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    • 2016
    • 2015

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