LL.B. 3 Years Semester 2: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

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1. Constitutional Law I

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Constitutional Law I

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 2

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Constitutional Law I

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What a Constitution Is, and What This One Has to Do 1
   2. The Constitution as the Basic Norm 6
   3. What Constitutionalism Means, and Why a Constitution Is Not Enough 11
   4. The Rule of Law, and What Survives of Dicey 17
   5. The Rule of Law Inside Our Own Constitution 22
   6. Constitutional Supremacy, and Parliamentary Sovereignty Compared 27
   7. The Constitution as a Living Document 32
   8. Forms and Models of a Constitution 37
   9. Written and Unwritten, Rigid and Flexible 41
   10. The Concept of Liberty, and Who Limits Whom 46
   11. The Company That Could Make Law 51
   12. The Regulating Act 1773, and the Supreme Court at Calcutta 56
   13. The Charter Acts of 1813, 1833 and 1853 62
   14. The Crown Takes Over: the Government of India Act 1858 66
   15. The Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909 70
   16. The Government of India Act 1919, and Dyarchy 75
   17. The Government of India Act 1935 79
   18. The Simon Commission, and the Nehru Report 84
   19. The Communal Award, and the Poona Pact 88

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. The Civil Disobedience Movement 93
   2. The Cripps Mission, the Cabinet Mission and the Road to Partition 98
   3. The Mountbatten Plan 1947 103
   4. The Indian Independence Act 1947 108
   5. The Constituent Assembly: How It Was Composed 113
   6. Framing and Drafting: the Committees and the Drafting Committee 118
   7. Where the Constitution's Provisions Came From 123
   8. The Preamble, Word by Word 128
   9. Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic 133
   10. Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity 139
   11. The Preamble as a Tool to Interpret the Constitution 145
   12. What the Courts Have Held About the Preamble 150
   13. Is the Preamble Part of the Constitution, and May It Be Amended? 155
   14. The Salient Features of the Indian Constitution 160
   15. The Longest Written Constitution, and Why 165
   16. A Federation With a Unitary Bias 169
   17. Parliamentary Government, and the Separation of Powers Here 175

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. Single Citizenship, Universal Franchise and an Independent Judiciary 181
   2. Who Became a Citizen in 1950 187
   3. Persons of Indian Origin Abroad, and Voluntary Foreign Citizenship 193
   4. Parliament's Power Over Citizenship 198
   5. Citizenship by Birth and by Descent 202
   6. Citizenship by Registration, by Naturalisation, and by Territory 207
   7. The Assam Accord: Section 6A 212
   8. The Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2019, and Section 6B 217
   9. Overseas Citizenship of India 223
   10. Losing Citizenship: Renunciation, Termination and Deprivation 228
   11. Registers, Identity Cards and the Rest of the Act 233

   Module II

   1. Why There Are Fundamental Rights At All 238
   2. Why the Definition of State Decides Everything 243
   3. The Authorities Article 12 Names 247
   4. Other Authorities, and the Tests the Courts Built 251
   5. Is the Judiciary State? 258

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Article 13: Laws Inconsistent With Fundamental Rights 262
   2. Pre-Constitutional and Post-Constitutional Laws 267
   3. The Doctrine of Eclipse 272
   4. The Doctrine of Severability 277
   5. The Doctrine of Waiver 281
   6. The Doctrine of Ultra Vires 285
   7. The Equality Code: How Articles 14 to 18 Fit Together 290
   8. Equality Before the Law, and Equal Protection of the Laws 295
   9. Reasonable Classification: the Twin Test 299
   10. Arbitrariness: the Newer Doctrine 304
   11. Article 14 Applied: Working Three Problems 309
   12. Article 15: The Prohibited Grounds 315
   13. Special Provision for Women and Children 320
   14. Reservation in Education: Article 15(4) and 15(5) 325
   15. The Economically Weaker Sections: Article 15(6) and 16(6) 330
   16. Article 16: Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment 335
   17. Reservation in Public Employment 339
   18. The Fifty Per Cent Ceiling, and the Creamy Layer 343
   19. Reservation in Promotion 348

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Article 17: Untouchability Abolished 352
   2. Article 18: Titles 356
   3. Article 19: The Six Freedoms 359
   4. Freedom of Speech and Expression 363
   5. The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction 368
   6. Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship 374
   7. Assembly, Association, Movement and Residence 379
   8. Profession, Trade, Occupation and Business 384
   9. Article 19 Applied: Working the Problems 389
   10. Article 20: The Three Protections of an Accused 394
   11. Ex Post Facto Law 398
   12. Double Jeopardy 402
   13. The Protection Against Self-Incrimination 406
   14. Article 22: Arrest and Detention 411
   15. Preventive Detention 416
   16. Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka Gandhi 422
   17. Procedure Established by Law, and Due Process 427
   18. The Expansion of the Word Life 431
   19. Personal Liberty, and the Writ That Protects It 437

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Article 21 and the Emergency 442
   2. Article 21A: The Right to Education 447
   3. Education Before Article 21A 453
   4. Article 21 Applied: Working the Problems 458

   Module III

   1. Articles 23 and 24: The Right Against Exploitation 464
   2. Traffic in Human Beings 470
   3. Forced Labour and Begar 474
   4. Bonded Labour 480
   5. Article 24: Child Labour 487
   6. What Secularism Means Here 494
   7. Article 25: Freedom of Conscience and Free Profession of Religion 500
   8. Essential Religious Practices 509
   9. The Limits of Religious Freedom 517
   10. Article 26: Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs 523
   11. Articles 27 and 28: Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction 530
   12. The Uniform Civil Code 536
   13. Who Is a Minority 545

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Article 29: The Right to Conserve a Culture 552
   2. Article 30: To Establish and to Administer 559
   3. How Far the State May Regulate a Minority Institution 568
   4. Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act 578
   5. Article 32: A Fundamental Right to a Remedy 585
   6. The Five Writs 594
   7. Habeas Corpus 601
   8. Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo Warranto 608
   9. Article 32 and Article 226 Compared 615
   10. Public Interest Litigation 621
   11. The Limits of Public Interest Litigation 629
   12. Saving of Certain Laws, and the Article MU Names That No Longer Exists 636
   13. Article 31B and the Ninth Schedule 645
   14. Article 31C: When a Directive Principle Beats a Fundamental Right 652
   15. What Happened to the Right to Property 659
   16. Articles 33, 34 and 35: The Forces, Martial Law, and Who Legislates 666

   Contents continued

   Module IV

   1. Part IV: The Directive Principles of State Policy 674
   2. Why the Principles Are Not Enforceable, and What That Costs 680
   3. The Socialistic Principles 688
   4. The Gandhian Principles 696
   5. The Liberal and Intellectual Principles 703
   6. Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights: the Relationship 711
   7. Judicial and Legislative Trends on the Directive Principles 720
   8. The Directive Principles and the Welfare State 729
   9. Part IVA: The Fundamental Duties 736
   10. Where the Duties Came From 742
   11. Are the Duties Enforceable? 748
   12. Part V Chapter IV: The Supreme Court 755
   13. The Appointment of Judges, and the Collegium 763
   14. Removal: What Impeachment Actually Is 772
   15. How the Constitution Protects Judicial Independence 779
   16. The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court 787
   17. Special Leave to Appeal: Article 136 794
   18. Review, Advisory Jurisdiction and Complete Justice 799
   19. The Court's Own Machinery 810

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Part VI Chapter V: The High Courts 817
   2. Additional, Acting and Retired Judges 825
   3. The Jurisdiction of a High Court 832
   4. Article 226: The Power to Issue Writs 840
   5. Part XIVA: Tribunals 849
   6. Part XVII: The Official Language of the Union 857
   7. Regional Languages, and Language Between Governments 864
   8. Language in the Courts, and the Language of the Law 870
   9. Language and the Minorities 877
   10. Part XIX: Miscellaneous Provisions 884
   11. Treaties, Rulers and the Bar on Interference by Courts 892
   12. Definitions and Interpretation 901
   13. Part XXII: Short Title, Commencement and the Authoritative Texts 908
   14. Article 395: The Repeals 914

   Page 1 onwards

   919 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 919 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 156 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 47 chapters

   1. 1 What a Constitution Is, and What This One Has to Do pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 The Constitution as the Basic Norm pages 6 to 10
   3. 3 What Constitutionalism Means, and Why a Constitution Is Not Enough pages 11 to 16
   4. 4 The Rule of Law, and What Survives of Dicey pages 17 to 21
   5. 5 The Rule of Law Inside Our Own Constitution pages 22 to 26
   6. 6 Constitutional Supremacy, and Parliamentary Sovereignty Compared pages 27 to 31
   7. 7 The Constitution as a Living Document pages 32 to 36
   8. 8 Forms and Models of a Constitution pages 37 to 40
   9. 9 Written and Unwritten, Rigid and Flexible pages 41 to 45
   10. 10 The Concept of Liberty, and Who Limits Whom pages 46 to 50
   11. 11 The Company That Could Make Law pages 51 to 55
   12. 12 The Regulating Act 1773, and the Supreme Court at Calcutta pages 56 to 61
   13. 13 The Charter Acts of 1813, 1833 and 1853 pages 62 to 65
   14. 14 The Crown Takes Over: the Government of India Act 1858 pages 66 to 69
   15. 15 The Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909 pages 70 to 74
   16. 16 The Government of India Act 1919, and Dyarchy pages 75 to 78
   17. 17 The Government of India Act 1935 pages 79 to 83
   18. 18 The Simon Commission, and the Nehru Report pages 84 to 87
   19. 19 The Communal Award, and the Poona Pact pages 88 to 92
   20. 20 The Civil Disobedience Movement pages 93 to 97
   21. 21 The Cripps Mission, the Cabinet Mission and the Road to Partition pages 98 to 102
   22. 22 The Mountbatten Plan 1947 pages 103 to 107
   23. 23 The Indian Independence Act 1947 pages 108 to 112
   24. 24 The Constituent Assembly: How It Was Composed pages 113 to 117
   25. 25 Framing and Drafting: the Committees and the Drafting Committee pages 118 to 122
   26. 26 Where the Constitution's Provisions Came From pages 123 to 127
   27. 27 The Preamble, Word by Word pages 128 to 132
   28. 28 Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic pages 133 to 138
   29. 29 Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity pages 139 to 144
   30. 30 The Preamble as a Tool to Interpret the Constitution pages 145 to 149
   31. 31 What the Courts Have Held About the Preamble pages 150 to 154
   32. 32 Is the Preamble Part of the Constitution, and May It Be Amended? pages 155 to 159
   33. 33 The Salient Features of the Indian Constitution pages 160 to 164
   34. 34 The Longest Written Constitution, and Why pages 165 to 168
   35. 35 A Federation With a Unitary Bias pages 169 to 174
   36. 36 Parliamentary Government, and the Separation of Powers Here pages 175 to 180
   37. 37 Single Citizenship, Universal Franchise and an Independent Judiciary pages 181 to 186
   38. 38 Who Became a Citizen in 1950 pages 187 to 192
   39. 39 Persons of Indian Origin Abroad, and Voluntary Foreign Citizenship pages 193 to 197
   40. 40 Parliament's Power Over Citizenship pages 198 to 201
   41. 41 Citizenship by Birth and by Descent pages 202 to 206
   42. 42 Citizenship by Registration, by Naturalisation, and by Territory pages 207 to 211
   43. 43 The Assam Accord: Section 6A pages 212 to 216
   44. 44 The Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2019, and Section 6B pages 217 to 222
   45. 45 Overseas Citizenship of India pages 223 to 227
   46. 46 Losing Citizenship: Renunciation, Termination and Deprivation pages 228 to 232
   47. 47 Registers, Identity Cards and the Rest of the Act pages 233 to 237

   Module II 47 chapters

   1. 48 Why There Are Fundamental Rights At All pages 238 to 242
   2. 49 Why the Definition of State Decides Everything pages 243 to 246
   3. 50 The Authorities Article 12 Names pages 247 to 250
   4. 51 Other Authorities, and the Tests the Courts Built pages 251 to 257
   5. 52 Is the Judiciary State? pages 258 to 261
   6. 53 Article 13: Laws Inconsistent With Fundamental Rights pages 262 to 266
   7. 54 Pre-Constitutional and Post-Constitutional Laws pages 267 to 271
   8. 55 The Doctrine of Eclipse pages 272 to 276
   9. 56 The Doctrine of Severability pages 277 to 280
   10. 57 The Doctrine of Waiver pages 281 to 284
   11. 58 The Doctrine of Ultra Vires pages 285 to 289
   12. 59 The Equality Code: How Articles 14 to 18 Fit Together pages 290 to 294
   13. 60 Equality Before the Law, and Equal Protection of the Laws pages 295 to 298
   14. 61 Reasonable Classification: the Twin Test pages 299 to 303
   15. 62 Arbitrariness: the Newer Doctrine pages 304 to 308
   16. 63 Article 14 Applied: Working Three Problems pages 309 to 314
   17. 64 Article 15: The Prohibited Grounds pages 315 to 319
   18. 65 Special Provision for Women and Children pages 320 to 324
   19. 66 Reservation in Education: Article 15(4) and 15(5) pages 325 to 329
   20. 67 The Economically Weaker Sections: Article 15(6) and 16(6) pages 330 to 334
   21. 68 Article 16: Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment pages 335 to 338
   22. 69 Reservation in Public Employment pages 339 to 342
   23. 70 The Fifty Per Cent Ceiling, and the Creamy Layer pages 343 to 347
   24. 71 Reservation in Promotion pages 348 to 351
   25. 72 Article 17: Untouchability Abolished pages 352 to 355
   26. 73 Article 18: Titles pages 356 to 358
   27. 74 Article 19: The Six Freedoms pages 359 to 362
   28. 75 Freedom of Speech and Expression pages 363 to 367
   29. 76 The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction pages 368 to 373
   30. 77 Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship pages 374 to 378
   31. 78 Assembly, Association, Movement and Residence pages 379 to 383
   32. 79 Profession, Trade, Occupation and Business pages 384 to 388
   33. 80 Article 19 Applied: Working the Problems pages 389 to 393
   34. 81 Article 20: The Three Protections of an Accused pages 394 to 397
   35. 82 Ex Post Facto Law pages 398 to 401
   36. 83 Double Jeopardy pages 402 to 405
   37. 84 The Protection Against Self-Incrimination pages 406 to 410
   38. 85 Article 22: Arrest and Detention pages 411 to 415
   39. 86 Preventive Detention pages 416 to 421
   40. 87 Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka Gandhi pages 422 to 426
   41. 88 Procedure Established by Law, and Due Process pages 427 to 430
   42. 89 The Expansion of the Word Life pages 431 to 436
   43. 90 Personal Liberty, and the Writ That Protects It pages 437 to 441
   44. 91 Article 21 and the Emergency pages 442 to 446
   45. 92 Article 21A: The Right to Education pages 447 to 452
   46. 93 Education Before Article 21A pages 453 to 457
   47. 94 Article 21 Applied: Working the Problems pages 458 to 463

   Module III 29 chapters

   1. 95 Articles 23 and 24: The Right Against Exploitation pages 464 to 469
   2. 96 Traffic in Human Beings pages 470 to 473
   3. 97 Forced Labour and Begar pages 474 to 479
   4. 98 Bonded Labour pages 480 to 486
   5. 99 Article 24: Child Labour pages 487 to 493
   6. 100 What Secularism Means Here pages 494 to 499
   7. 101 Article 25: Freedom of Conscience and Free Profession of Religion pages 500 to 508
   8. 102 Essential Religious Practices pages 509 to 516
   9. 103 The Limits of Religious Freedom pages 517 to 522
   10. 104 Article 26: Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs pages 523 to 529
   11. 105 Articles 27 and 28: Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction pages 530 to 535
   12. 106 The Uniform Civil Code pages 536 to 544
   13. 107 Who Is a Minority pages 545 to 551
   14. 108 Article 29: The Right to Conserve a Culture pages 552 to 558
   15. 109 Article 30: To Establish and to Administer pages 559 to 567
   16. 110 How Far the State May Regulate a Minority Institution pages 568 to 577
   17. 111 Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act pages 578 to 584
   18. 112 Article 32: A Fundamental Right to a Remedy pages 585 to 593
   19. 113 The Five Writs pages 594 to 600
   20. 114 Habeas Corpus pages 601 to 607
   21. 115 Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo Warranto pages 608 to 614
   22. 116 Article 32 and Article 226 Compared pages 615 to 620
   23. 117 Public Interest Litigation pages 621 to 628
   24. 118 The Limits of Public Interest Litigation pages 629 to 635
   25. 119 Saving of Certain Laws, and the Article MU Names That No Longer Exists pages 636 to 644
   26. 120 Article 31B and the Ninth Schedule pages 645 to 651
   27. 121 Article 31C: When a Directive Principle Beats a Fundamental Right pages 652 to 658
   28. 122 What Happened to the Right to Property pages 659 to 665
   29. 123 Articles 33, 34 and 35: The Forces, Martial Law, and Who Legislates pages 666 to 673

   Module IV 33 chapters

   1. 124 Part IV: The Directive Principles of State Policy pages 674 to 679
   2. 125 Why the Principles Are Not Enforceable, and What That Costs pages 680 to 687
   3. 126 The Socialistic Principles pages 688 to 695
   4. 127 The Gandhian Principles pages 696 to 702
   5. 128 The Liberal and Intellectual Principles pages 703 to 710
   6. 129 Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights: the Relationship pages 711 to 719
   7. 130 Judicial and Legislative Trends on the Directive Principles pages 720 to 728
   8. 131 The Directive Principles and the Welfare State pages 729 to 735
   9. 132 Part IVA: The Fundamental Duties pages 736 to 741
   10. 133 Where the Duties Came From pages 742 to 747
   11. 134 Are the Duties Enforceable? pages 748 to 754
   12. 135 Part V Chapter IV: The Supreme Court pages 755 to 762
   13. 136 The Appointment of Judges, and the Collegium pages 763 to 771
   14. 137 Removal: What Impeachment Actually Is pages 772 to 778
   15. 138 How the Constitution Protects Judicial Independence pages 779 to 786
   16. 139 The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court pages 787 to 793
   17. 140 Special Leave to Appeal: Article 136 pages 794 to 798
   18. 141 Review, Advisory Jurisdiction and Complete Justice pages 799 to 809
   19. 142 The Court's Own Machinery pages 810 to 816
   20. 143 Part VI Chapter V: The High Courts pages 817 to 824
   21. 144 Additional, Acting and Retired Judges pages 825 to 831
   22. 145 The Jurisdiction of a High Court pages 832 to 839
   23. 146 Article 226: The Power to Issue Writs pages 840 to 848
   24. 147 Part XIVA: Tribunals pages 849 to 856
   25. 148 Part XVII: The Official Language of the Union pages 857 to 863
   26. 149 Regional Languages, and Language Between Governments pages 864 to 869
   27. 150 Language in the Courts, and the Language of the Law pages 870 to 876
   28. 151 Language and the Minorities pages 877 to 883
   29. 152 Part XIX: Miscellaneous Provisions pages 884 to 891
   30. 153 Treaties, Rulers and the Bar on Interference by Courts pages 892 to 900
   31. 154 Definitions and Interpretation pages 901 to 907
   32. 155 Part XXII: Short Title, Commencement and the Authoritative Texts pages 908 to 913
   33. 156 Article 395: The Repeals pages 914 to 919
   Every paper that is solved: 31 papers

   • Apr 2026 - 60/40
   • Jun 2026 - 75/25
   • Oct 2026 - ATKT 60/40
   • Oct 2026 - ATKT 75/25
   • May 2025 - 75/25
   • Oct 2025 - ATKT 75/25
   • May 2024 - 60/40
   • May 2024 - 75/25
   • Oct 2024 - 75/25
   • Apr 2023
   • Aug 2023 - 60/40
   • Nov 2023 - 75/25
   • Nov 2023 - ATKT 60/40
   • Dec 2022
   • May 2022
   • May 2019
   • Nov 2019
   • Dec 2018
   • Jan 2018
   • Jun 2018
   • May 2017
   • May 2016
   • Nov 2016
   • Apr 2015
   • Apr 2014
   • Nov 2014
   • Dec 2012
   • May 2012
   • Apr 2011
   • Nov 2011
   • Nov 2010

2. Environmental Law

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Environmental Law

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 2

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Environmental Law

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What the Environment Is, and What the Law Means by It 1
   2. The Components of the Environment 6
   3. What Makes the Environment Worse 11
   4. The Kinds of Pollution 16
   5. Global Warming 21
   6. Climate Change 26
   7. What Environmental Law Is For 31
   8. How Indian Environmental Law Was Built 37
   9. The Constitution Before 1976 43
   10. Article 48A and the State's Duty 47
   11. Article 51A(g) and the Citizen's Duty 52
   12. Article 21 and the Right to a Clean Environment 57
   13. Article 19 and the Limits on Trade 63
   14. Articles 14, 32 and 226: Getting Into Court 68
   15. Who May Legislate on the Environment 73
   16. The Local Body's Duty 79
   17. Public Interest Litigation 85
   18. Judicial Activism in Environmental Cases 91
   19. Nuisance 97
   20. Negligence and Trespass 103

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. Strict Liability 109
   2. Absolute Liability 115
   3. The Penal Code Is Now the Sanhita 121
   4. The Criminal Procedure Code Is Now the Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita 128

   Module II

   1. Why a Treaty Reaches an Indian Court 135
   2. The Stockholm Conference 1972 141
   3. The Stockholm Declaration and Its Principles 145
   4. The Rio Conference and Declaration 1992 151
   5. Agenda 21 and What Followed Rio 157
   6. The Johannesburg Declaration 2002 161
   7. The Climate Change Convention 1992 166
   8. The Kyoto Protocol 1997 171
   9. The Montreal Protocol 1987 and the Ozone Layer 176
   10. The Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 181
   11. Sustainable Development 187
   12. Sustainable Development in the Indian Courts 192
   13. The Polluter Pays Principle 197

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. The Precautionary Principle 203
   2. Environmental Impact Assessment 209
   3. The EIA Notification: the Central Government's Order 214
   4. Eco-mark 220
   5. Intergenerational and Intragenerational Duty 224
   6. The Public Trust Doctrine 229

   Module III

   1. The Water Act and Article 252 234
   2. The Words the Water Act Defines 239
   3. The Central Pollution Control Board 244
   4. The State Pollution Control Board 249
   5. Who May Sit on a Board, and Who May Not 255
   6. How a Board Works 259
   7. The Joint Board 263
   8. Functions of the Central Board 268
   9. Functions of the State Board 273
   10. Directions, and Where the Act Applies 279
   11. The Power to Obtain Information 284
   12. Taking a Sample of Effluent 290

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Entry and Inspection 298
   2. The Prohibition on Polluting a Stream or Well 304
   3. Consent for a New Discharge 310
   4. Refusal, Withdrawal and Guidelines 317
   5. Appeal and Revision Under the Water Act 323
   6. When the Board Does the Work Itself 329
   7. Emergency Measures 335
   8. The Board Goes to Court 341
   9. Closure Directions, and the Appeal to the Tribunal 349
   10. The Money of a Board 359
   11. The Penalties After the 2024 Amendment 367
   12. Penalties for Polluting and for Breaking a Consent 376
   13. The Adjudicating Officer and the Appeal 385
   14. The Fund, and the Offence of Not Paying 395
   15. Naming Offenders, and Government Departments 404
   16. Who May Prosecute Under the Water Act 413
   17. The Water Laboratories and the Analysts 422
   18. The Rest of the Water Act 429
   19. The Air Act and Article 253 439

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. The Words the Air Act Defines 446
   2. The Boards Under the Air Act 456
   3. Membership and Working of a Board 464
   4. Functions of the Boards Under the Air Act 476
   5. Air Pollution Control Areas 487
   6. Industrial Plants and the Consent to Operate 496
   7. Information, Entry and Samples of Air 511
   8. The State Air Laboratory 525
   9. Appeals and Directions Under the Air Act 532
   10. The Money of a Board Under the Air Act 542
   11. The Air Act Penalties, and What Jan Vishwas Changed 551
   12. The Adjudicating Officer Under the Air Act 562
   13. Offences, Prosecution and the Rest of the Air Act 575
   14. The Umbrella Act 590
   15. The Words the EPA Defines 598
   16. The General Powers of the Central Government 608
   17. Officers, Directions and Rules 619
   18. The Duty Not to Pollute 629
   19. When Something Goes Wrong 637

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. The Laboratories and the Government Analysts 648
   2. The Environment Act Penalties After Jan Vishwas 655
   3. Adjudication, the Fund, and Offences by Departments 665
   4. Prosecution and the Rest of the EPA 677
   5. The Forest Acts MU Names, and the One It Does Not 691
   6. The Indian Forest Act in Maharashtra 699
   7. The Words the Forest Act Defines 709
   8. The Four Kinds of Forest 718
   9. Reserving a Forest 727
   10. What Is Forbidden in a Reserved Forest 738
   11. The Protected Forest 748
   12. Forests Not Owned by the State 760
   13. Duty on Timber, and the Transit of Forest-Produce 770
   14. Forest Offences, Seizure and Confiscation 781
   15. Forest-Officers, Penalties and the Rest of the Forest Act 794
   16. The Van Adhiniyam: Why It Exists 813
   17. Non-Forest Use of Forest Land 825
   18. The Advisory Committee, and the Penalty 841

   Contents continued

   Module IV

   1. Why There Is a Green Tribunal 855
   2. The Words the Tribunal Act Defines 863
   3. The Tribunal, and Who Sits On It 873
   4. What the Tribunal May Decide 884
   5. How a Case Reaches the Tribunal 894
   6. The Principles the Tribunal Must Apply 902
   7. Decisions, Appeals, Costs and Execution 909
   8. The Penal Provisions of the Tribunal Act 917
   9. The Rest of the Tribunal Act 924
   10. The Wildlife Act and the 2022 Amendment 931
   11. The Words the Wildlife Act Defines 938
   12. The Wildlife Authorities 946
   13. The Prohibition on Hunting 954
   14. Grant of Licences and Dealings: What MU's Range Skips 962
   15. Specified Plants 965
   16. Sanctuaries: How One Is Made 972
   17. What May and May Not Happen in a Sanctuary 980
   18. Tiger and Elephant Conservation 991
   19. Captivity, Trade, and Government Property 1000

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. CITES and the New Chapter VB 1010
   2. Offences Against Wildlife 1018
   3. Forfeiture, and the Offences of International Trade 1028
   4. The Rest of the Wildlife Act 1036
   5. Why a Rule Can Bind Like an Act 1043
   6. The Bio-Medical Waste Rules 1049
   7. The Hazardous Waste Rules 1056
   8. The Noise Pollution Rules 1064
   9. The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules 1073
   10. The Solid Waste Management Rules 1078

   Page 1 onwards

   1,085 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 1,085 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 140 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 24 chapters

   1. 1 What the Environment Is, and What the Law Means by It pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 The Components of the Environment pages 6 to 10
   3. 3 What Makes the Environment Worse pages 11 to 15
   4. 4 The Kinds of Pollution pages 16 to 20
   5. 5 Global Warming pages 21 to 25
   6. 6 Climate Change pages 26 to 30
   7. 7 What Environmental Law Is For pages 31 to 36
   8. 8 How Indian Environmental Law Was Built pages 37 to 42
   9. 9 The Constitution Before 1976 pages 43 to 46
   10. 10 Article 48A and the State's Duty pages 47 to 51
   11. 11 Article 51A(g) and the Citizen's Duty pages 52 to 56
   12. 12 Article 21 and the Right to a Clean Environment pages 57 to 62
   13. 13 Article 19 and the Limits on Trade pages 63 to 67
   14. 14 Articles 14, 32 and 226: Getting Into Court pages 68 to 72
   15. 15 Who May Legislate on the Environment pages 73 to 78
   16. 16 The Local Body's Duty pages 79 to 84
   17. 17 Public Interest Litigation pages 85 to 90
   18. 18 Judicial Activism in Environmental Cases pages 91 to 96
   19. 19 Nuisance pages 97 to 102
   20. 20 Negligence and Trespass pages 103 to 108
   21. 21 Strict Liability pages 109 to 114
   22. 22 Absolute Liability pages 115 to 120
   23. 23 The Penal Code Is Now the Sanhita pages 121 to 127
   24. 24 The Criminal Procedure Code Is Now the Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita pages 128 to 134

   Module II 19 chapters

   1. 25 Why a Treaty Reaches an Indian Court pages 135 to 140
   2. 26 The Stockholm Conference 1972 pages 141 to 144
   3. 27 The Stockholm Declaration and Its Principles pages 145 to 150
   4. 28 The Rio Conference and Declaration 1992 pages 151 to 156
   5. 29 Agenda 21 and What Followed Rio pages 157 to 160
   6. 30 The Johannesburg Declaration 2002 pages 161 to 165
   7. 31 The Climate Change Convention 1992 pages 166 to 170
   8. 32 The Kyoto Protocol 1997 pages 171 to 175
   9. 33 The Montreal Protocol 1987 and the Ozone Layer pages 176 to 180
   10. 34 The Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 pages 181 to 186
   11. 35 Sustainable Development pages 187 to 191
   12. 36 Sustainable Development in the Indian Courts pages 192 to 196
   13. 37 The Polluter Pays Principle pages 197 to 202
   14. 38 The Precautionary Principle pages 203 to 208
   15. 39 Environmental Impact Assessment pages 209 to 213
   16. 40 The EIA Notification: the Central Government's Order pages 214 to 219
   17. 41 Eco-mark pages 220 to 223
   18. 42 Intergenerational and Intragenerational Duty pages 224 to 228
   19. 43 The Public Trust Doctrine pages 229 to 233

   Module III 68 chapters

   1. 44 The Water Act and Article 252 pages 234 to 238
   2. 45 The Words the Water Act Defines pages 239 to 243
   3. 46 The Central Pollution Control Board pages 244 to 248
   4. 47 The State Pollution Control Board pages 249 to 254
   5. 48 Who May Sit on a Board, and Who May Not pages 255 to 258
   6. 49 How a Board Works pages 259 to 262
   7. 50 The Joint Board pages 263 to 267
   8. 51 Functions of the Central Board pages 268 to 272
   9. 52 Functions of the State Board pages 273 to 278
   10. 53 Directions, and Where the Act Applies pages 279 to 283
   11. 54 The Power to Obtain Information pages 284 to 289
   12. 55 Taking a Sample of Effluent pages 290 to 297
   13. 56 Entry and Inspection pages 298 to 303
   14. 57 The Prohibition on Polluting a Stream or Well pages 304 to 309
   15. 58 Consent for a New Discharge pages 310 to 316
   16. 59 Refusal, Withdrawal and Guidelines pages 317 to 322
   17. 60 Appeal and Revision Under the Water Act pages 323 to 328
   18. 61 When the Board Does the Work Itself pages 329 to 334
   19. 62 Emergency Measures pages 335 to 340
   20. 63 The Board Goes to Court pages 341 to 348
   21. 64 Closure Directions, and the Appeal to the Tribunal pages 349 to 358
   22. 65 The Money of a Board pages 359 to 366
   23. 66 The Penalties After the 2024 Amendment pages 367 to 375
   24. 67 Penalties for Polluting and for Breaking a Consent pages 376 to 384
   25. 68 The Adjudicating Officer and the Appeal pages 385 to 394
   26. 69 The Fund, and the Offence of Not Paying pages 395 to 403
   27. 70 Naming Offenders, and Government Departments pages 404 to 412
   28. 71 Who May Prosecute Under the Water Act pages 413 to 421
   29. 72 The Water Laboratories and the Analysts pages 422 to 428
   30. 73 The Rest of the Water Act pages 429 to 438
   31. 74 The Air Act and Article 253 pages 439 to 445
   32. 75 The Words the Air Act Defines pages 446 to 455
   33. 76 The Boards Under the Air Act pages 456 to 463
   34. 77 Membership and Working of a Board pages 464 to 475
   35. 78 Functions of the Boards Under the Air Act pages 476 to 486
   36. 79 Air Pollution Control Areas pages 487 to 495
   37. 80 Industrial Plants and the Consent to Operate pages 496 to 510
   38. 81 Information, Entry and Samples of Air pages 511 to 524
   39. 82 The State Air Laboratory pages 525 to 531
   40. 83 Appeals and Directions Under the Air Act pages 532 to 541
   41. 84 The Money of a Board Under the Air Act pages 542 to 550
   42. 85 The Air Act Penalties, and What Jan Vishwas Changed pages 551 to 561
   43. 86 The Adjudicating Officer Under the Air Act pages 562 to 574
   44. 87 Offences, Prosecution and the Rest of the Air Act pages 575 to 589
   45. 88 The Umbrella Act pages 590 to 597
   46. 89 The Words the EPA Defines pages 598 to 607
   47. 90 The General Powers of the Central Government pages 608 to 618
   48. 91 Officers, Directions and Rules pages 619 to 628
   49. 92 The Duty Not to Pollute pages 629 to 636
   50. 93 When Something Goes Wrong pages 637 to 647
   51. 94 The Laboratories and the Government Analysts pages 648 to 654
   52. 95 The Environment Act Penalties After Jan Vishwas pages 655 to 664
   53. 96 Adjudication, the Fund, and Offences by Departments pages 665 to 676
   54. 97 Prosecution and the Rest of the EPA pages 677 to 690
   55. 98 The Forest Acts MU Names, and the One It Does Not pages 691 to 698
   56. 99 The Indian Forest Act in Maharashtra pages 699 to 708
   57. 100 The Words the Forest Act Defines pages 709 to 717
   58. 101 The Four Kinds of Forest pages 718 to 726
   59. 102 Reserving a Forest pages 727 to 737
   60. 103 What Is Forbidden in a Reserved Forest pages 738 to 747
   61. 104 The Protected Forest pages 748 to 759
   62. 105 Forests Not Owned by the State pages 760 to 769
   63. 106 Duty on Timber, and the Transit of Forest-Produce pages 770 to 780
   64. 107 Forest Offences, Seizure and Confiscation pages 781 to 793
   65. 108 Forest-Officers, Penalties and the Rest of the Forest Act pages 794 to 812
   66. 109 The Van Adhiniyam: Why It Exists pages 813 to 824
   67. 110 Non-Forest Use of Forest Land pages 825 to 840
   68. 111 The Advisory Committee, and the Penalty pages 841 to 854

   Module IV 29 chapters

   1. 112 Why There Is a Green Tribunal pages 855 to 862
   2. 113 The Words the Tribunal Act Defines pages 863 to 872
   3. 114 The Tribunal, and Who Sits On It pages 873 to 883
   4. 115 What the Tribunal May Decide pages 884 to 893
   5. 116 How a Case Reaches the Tribunal pages 894 to 901
   6. 117 The Principles the Tribunal Must Apply pages 902 to 908
   7. 118 Decisions, Appeals, Costs and Execution pages 909 to 916
   8. 119 The Penal Provisions of the Tribunal Act pages 917 to 923
   9. 120 The Rest of the Tribunal Act pages 924 to 930
   10. 121 The Wildlife Act and the 2022 Amendment pages 931 to 937
   11. 122 The Words the Wildlife Act Defines pages 938 to 945
   12. 123 The Wildlife Authorities pages 946 to 953
   13. 124 The Prohibition on Hunting pages 954 to 961
   14. 125 Grant of Licences and Dealings: What MU's Range Skips pages 962 to 964
   15. 126 Specified Plants pages 965 to 971
   16. 127 Sanctuaries: How One Is Made pages 972 to 979
   17. 128 What May and May Not Happen in a Sanctuary pages 980 to 990
   18. 129 Tiger and Elephant Conservation pages 991 to 999
   19. 130 Captivity, Trade, and Government Property pages 1,000 to 1,009
   20. 131 CITES and the New Chapter VB pages 1,010 to 1,017
   21. 132 Offences Against Wildlife pages 1,018 to 1,027
   22. 133 Forfeiture, and the Offences of International Trade pages 1,028 to 1,035
   23. 134 The Rest of the Wildlife Act pages 1,036 to 1,042
   24. 135 Why a Rule Can Bind Like an Act pages 1,043 to 1,048
   25. 136 The Bio-Medical Waste Rules pages 1,049 to 1,055
   26. 137 The Hazardous Waste Rules pages 1,056 to 1,063
   27. 138 The Noise Pollution Rules pages 1,064 to 1,072
   28. 139 The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules pages 1,073 to 1,077
   29. 140 The Solid Waste Management Rules pages 1,078 to 1,085
   Every paper that is solved: 35 papers

   • Jun 2026 - 75/25
   • May 2026 - 60/40
   • May 2026 - 75/25
   • Oct 2026 - ATKT 60/40
   • Oct 2026 - ATKT 75/25
   • May 2025 - 60/40
   • May 2025 - 75/25
   • May 2024 - 60/40
   • May 2024 - 75/25
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   • Aug 2023 - 75/25
   • May 2023
   • Nov 2023 - 60/40
   • Nov 2023 - 75/25
   • 2021-22
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   • Oct 2022
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   • Jun 2019
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   • May 2017
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   • Apr 2015
   • Apr 2014
   • Nov 2014
   • Dec 2012
   • May 2012
   • Apr 2011
   • Nov 2011
   • Nov 2010

3. Family Law I

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Family Law I

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 2

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Family Law I

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What This Paper Covers, and What It Does Not 1
   2. Who Muslim Law Applies To, and Who Decides 5
   3. Why a Legal System Needs Sources at All 10
   4. The Quran 13
   5. The Sunna 17
   6. Ijma, the Consensus of the Jurists 20
   7. Qiyas, Analogical Deduction 24
   8. Custom and Usage 28
   9. Judicial Precedent, Legislation, and Equity 32
   10. Why Muslim Law Divides Into Schools 36
   11. The Hanafi School 40
   12. The Maliki, Shafii and Hanbali Schools 44
   13. The Shia Schools 48
   14. Marriage Under Muslim Law: Contract or Sacrament 52
   15. The Essential Requisites of a Valid Muslim Marriage 57
   16. Capacity to Marry, and the Prohibited Relationships 62
   17. Valid, Void and Irregular Marriages 67
   18. What Follows From a Void or an Irregular Marriage 71
   19. The Option of Puberty 75
   20. Muta, the Marriage for a Fixed Term 79

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. Iddat 83
   2. Halala 87
   3. Mehr: What It Is and Why the Law Insists On It 91
   4. The Classification of Mehr 95
   5. The Wife's Remedies for Unpaid Dower 99

   Module II

   1. The Ways a Muslim Marriage Can End 105
   2. Dissolution by the Death of a Spouse 109
   3. Talaq, and Why Muslim Law Permits Divorce 113
   4. Who May Pronounce Talaq, and When It Takes Effect 117
   5. Oral Talaq and Talaq in Writing 122
   6. Talaq al Sunna: Ahsan and Hasan 126
   7. Talaq al Biddat, the Triple Pronouncement 130
   8. Shayara Bano v. Union of India 135
   9. The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act 2019 140
   10. Talaq e Tafwid, the Delegated Divorce 145
   11. Khula 150
   12. Mubarat 155
   13. Ila, the Vow of Abstinence 158

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Zihar, the Injurious Comparison 162
   2. Lian, the False Charge of Adultery 166
   3. Judicial Dissolution Before the Act of 1939 170
   4. The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act 1939: The Nine Grounds 174
   5. Apostasy, Notice to the Husband, and the Rest of the 1939 Act 180
   6. What Follows a Dissolution 185
   7. Maintenance: The General Principles 189
   8. Who Is Entitled to Maintenance Under Muslim Law 193
   9. Maintenance From a Magistrate: Section 144 of the Sanhita 197
   10. Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum 203
   11. The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986 207
   12. Danial Latifi v. Union of India 214
   13. Maintenance: The Law As It Stands Now 218
   14. Parentage and Legitimacy 223
   15. The Presumption of Legitimacy 227
   16. Acknowledgement of Paternity 231
   17. Guardianship: What It Is and What Kinds There Are 237
   18. Guardianship of the Person, and Hizanat 242

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Guardianship of Property, and the De Facto Guardian 248
   2. Disqualification, Removal and Discharge of a Guardian 255
   3. Which Court, and What Can Be Appealed 261
   4. Hiba: The Three Essentials of a Muslim Gift 265
   5. Kinds of Gift, and What Is Not a Hiba 270
   6. Musha, and Gifts With Conditions Attached 275
   7. Revocation of a Gift 280
   8. Pre-emption: The Nature of the Right 284
   9. Who May Pre-empt, and How the Right Is Exercised and Lost 289
   10. Waqf, and Who a Mutawalli Is 294
   11. The Duties of a Mutawalli 300
   12. The Mutawalli's Statutory Duties: Registration, Budget and Accounts 305
   13. Alienation of Waqf Property 311
   14. Appointment and Removal of a Mutawalli 317
   15. What the Legislation of 2025 Changed 323

   Module III

   1. Parsi Personal Law and the Act of 1936 330
   2. Parsi Marriage: Requisites and Registration 335

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Offences and Irregularities Under the Parsi Act 341
   2. The Parsi Matrimonial Courts and the Delegates 346
   3. Nullity and Dissolution of a Parsi Marriage 351
   4. The Grounds for Divorce Under the Parsi Act 355
   5. Judicial Separation and Restitution of Conjugal Rights Under the Parsi Act 362
   6. Alimony, Maintenance and Property Under the Parsi Act 367
   7. Custody of Children, and Remarriage, Under the Parsi Act 373
   8. Christian Personal Law and the Act of 1872 378
   9. Who May Solemnize a Christian Marriage 384
   10. Time, Place, Notice and the Certificate 389
   11. Registration of a Christian Marriage 397
   12. Marriage By or Before a Marriage Registrar 403
   13. Marriages Between Indian Christians 412
   14. Penalties and the Remaining Provisions of the 1872 Act 420
   15. The Divorce Act 1869: Scheme and Jurisdiction 429
   16. Dissolution of a Christian Marriage 437
   17. Divorce by Mutual Consent, and Why Section 10A Had to Be Inserted 446
   18. Nullity of a Christian Marriage 453

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Judicial Separation and Restitution of Conjugal Rights 460
   2. Protection Orders 468
   3. Alimony and Settlements 476
   4. Custody of Children, and Remarriage 485
   5. Court Procedure and the Remaining Provisions 493

   Module IV

   1. The Indian Succession Act 1925: What It Does and Who It Binds 502
   2. The Scheme of the Act, Part by Part 509
   3. Domicile: Why the Act Starts Here 515
   4. Domicile of Origin 521
   5. Domicile of Choice 527
   6. The Domicile of a Married Woman, a Minor and a Lunatic 534
   7. What Marriage Does and Does Not Do to Property 541
   8. Consanguinity 548
   9. Intestate Succession: What Intestacy Means 555
   10. The Share of a Widow or Widower 562
   11. Distribution Among Lineal Descendants 569
   12. Where There Is No Lineal Descendant 576

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Intestate Succession Among Parsis 584
   2. Wills: What One Is and Who May Make One 593
   3. How an Unprivileged Will Is Executed 602
   4. Privileged Wills 610
   5. The Attesting Witness 618
   6. Revocation, Alteration and Revival of a Will 624
   7. Construing a Will: The Words the Testator Used 634
   8. Construing a Will: Reading It as a Whole 643
   9. Bequests to Heirs, Representatives and Classes 652
   10. The Residuary Legatee 662
   11. When a Legacy Lapses 668
   12. Void Bequests: The Unborn Person, Perpetuity and Accumulation 676
   13. Bequests to Religious and Charitable Uses: Section 118 and What Happened to It 685
   14. When a Legacy Vests 692
   15. Onerous Bequests 701
   16. Conditional Bequests 708
   17. Directions That Follow an Absolute Bequest 718
   18. Specific Legacies 726

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Demonstrative Legacies 735
   2. Ademption of Legacies 742
   3. Who Bears the Cost, and Bequests Described in General Terms 751
   4. Annuities, and a Legacy Alongside a Debt or a Portion 759
   5. Election 767
   6. Protecting the Property of a Deceased Person 777
   7. Who Represents the Estate 783
   8. Probate and Letters of Administration 790
   9. Which Court Grants, and When a Grant Is Revoked 800
   10. The Executor's Powers and Duties, and the Distribution of the Estate 810
   11. Succession Certificates, and the End of the Act 823

   Page 1 onwards

   832 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 832 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 137 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I. Sources, Schools, Marriage and Mehr Under Muslim Law 25 chapters

   1. 1 What This Paper Covers, and What It Does Not pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 Who Muslim Law Applies To, and Who Decides pages 5 to 9
   3. 3 Why a Legal System Needs Sources at All pages 10 to 12
   4. 4 The Quran pages 13 to 16
   5. 5 The Sunna pages 17 to 19
   6. 6 Ijma, the Consensus of the Jurists pages 20 to 23
   7. 7 Qiyas, Analogical Deduction pages 24 to 27
   8. 8 Custom and Usage pages 28 to 31
   9. 9 Judicial Precedent, Legislation, and Equity pages 32 to 35
   10. 10 Why Muslim Law Divides Into Schools pages 36 to 39
   11. 11 The Hanafi School pages 40 to 43
   12. 12 The Maliki, Shafii and Hanbali Schools pages 44 to 47
   13. 13 The Shia Schools pages 48 to 51
   14. 14 Marriage Under Muslim Law: Contract or Sacrament pages 52 to 56
   15. 15 The Essential Requisites of a Valid Muslim Marriage pages 57 to 61
   16. 16 Capacity to Marry, and the Prohibited Relationships pages 62 to 66
   17. 17 Valid, Void and Irregular Marriages pages 67 to 70
   18. 18 What Follows From a Void or an Irregular Marriage pages 71 to 74
   19. 19 The Option of Puberty pages 75 to 78
   20. 20 Muta, the Marriage for a Fixed Term pages 79 to 82
   21. 21 Iddat pages 83 to 86
   22. 22 Halala pages 87 to 90
   23. 23 Mehr: What It Is and Why the Law Insists On It pages 91 to 94
   24. 24 The Classification of Mehr pages 95 to 98
   25. 25 The Wife's Remedies for Unpaid Dower pages 99 to 104

   Module II. Dissolution, Maintenance, Paternity, Guardianship and Property Under Muslim Law 46 chapters

   1. 26 The Ways a Muslim Marriage Can End pages 105 to 108
   2. 27 Dissolution by the Death of a Spouse pages 109 to 112
   3. 28 Talaq, and Why Muslim Law Permits Divorce pages 113 to 116
   4. 29 Who May Pronounce Talaq, and When It Takes Effect pages 117 to 121
   5. 30 Oral Talaq and Talaq in Writing pages 122 to 125
   6. 31 Talaq al Sunna: Ahsan and Hasan pages 126 to 129
   7. 32 Talaq al Biddat, the Triple Pronouncement pages 130 to 134
   8. 33 Shayara Bano v. Union of India pages 135 to 139
   9. 34 The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act 2019 pages 140 to 144
   10. 35 Talaq e Tafwid, the Delegated Divorce pages 145 to 149
   11. 36 Khula pages 150 to 154
   12. 37 Mubarat pages 155 to 157
   13. 38 Ila, the Vow of Abstinence pages 158 to 161
   14. 39 Zihar, the Injurious Comparison pages 162 to 165
   15. 40 Lian, the False Charge of Adultery pages 166 to 169
   16. 41 Judicial Dissolution Before the Act of 1939 pages 170 to 173
   17. 42 The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act 1939: The Nine Grounds pages 174 to 179
   18. 43 Apostasy, Notice to the Husband, and the Rest of the 1939 Act pages 180 to 184
   19. 44 What Follows a Dissolution pages 185 to 188
   20. 45 Maintenance: The General Principles pages 189 to 192
   21. 46 Who Is Entitled to Maintenance Under Muslim Law pages 193 to 196
   22. 47 Maintenance From a Magistrate: Section 144 of the Sanhita pages 197 to 202
   23. 48 Mohd. Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum pages 203 to 206
   24. 49 The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986 pages 207 to 213
   25. 50 Danial Latifi v. Union of India pages 214 to 217
   26. 51 Maintenance: The Law As It Stands Now pages 218 to 222
   27. 52 Parentage and Legitimacy pages 223 to 226
   28. 53 The Presumption of Legitimacy pages 227 to 230
   29. 54 Acknowledgement of Paternity pages 231 to 236
   30. 55 Guardianship: What It Is and What Kinds There Are pages 237 to 241
   31. 56 Guardianship of the Person, and Hizanat pages 242 to 247
   32. 57 Guardianship of Property, and the De Facto Guardian pages 248 to 254
   33. 58 Disqualification, Removal and Discharge of a Guardian pages 255 to 260
   34. 59 Which Court, and What Can Be Appealed pages 261 to 264
   35. 60 Hiba: The Three Essentials of a Muslim Gift pages 265 to 269
   36. 61 Kinds of Gift, and What Is Not a Hiba pages 270 to 274
   37. 62 Musha, and Gifts With Conditions Attached pages 275 to 279
   38. 63 Revocation of a Gift pages 280 to 283
   39. 64 Pre-emption: The Nature of the Right pages 284 to 288
   40. 65 Who May Pre-empt, and How the Right Is Exercised and Lost pages 289 to 293
   41. 66 Waqf, and Who a Mutawalli Is pages 294 to 299
   42. 67 The Duties of a Mutawalli pages 300 to 304
   43. 68 The Mutawalli's Statutory Duties: Registration, Budget and Accounts pages 305 to 310
   44. 69 Alienation of Waqf Property pages 311 to 316
   45. 70 Appointment and Removal of a Mutawalli pages 317 to 322
   46. 71 What the Legislation of 2025 Changed pages 323 to 329

   Module III. Parsi and Christian Matrimonial Law 25 chapters

   1. 72 Parsi Personal Law and the Act of 1936 pages 330 to 334
   2. 73 Parsi Marriage: Requisites and Registration pages 335 to 340
   3. 74 Offences and Irregularities Under the Parsi Act pages 341 to 345
   4. 75 The Parsi Matrimonial Courts and the Delegates pages 346 to 350
   5. 76 Nullity and Dissolution of a Parsi Marriage pages 351 to 354
   6. 77 The Grounds for Divorce Under the Parsi Act pages 355 to 361
   7. 78 Judicial Separation and Restitution of Conjugal Rights Under the Parsi Act pages 362 to 366
   8. 79 Alimony, Maintenance and Property Under the Parsi Act pages 367 to 372
   9. 80 Custody of Children, and Remarriage, Under the Parsi Act pages 373 to 377
   10. 81 Christian Personal Law and the Act of 1872 pages 378 to 383
   11. 82 Who May Solemnize a Christian Marriage pages 384 to 388
   12. 83 Time, Place, Notice and the Certificate pages 389 to 396
   13. 84 Registration of a Christian Marriage pages 397 to 402
   14. 85 Marriage By or Before a Marriage Registrar pages 403 to 411
   15. 86 Marriages Between Indian Christians pages 412 to 419
   16. 87 Penalties and the Remaining Provisions of the 1872 Act pages 420 to 428
   17. 88 The Divorce Act 1869: Scheme and Jurisdiction pages 429 to 436
   18. 89 Dissolution of a Christian Marriage pages 437 to 445
   19. 90 Divorce by Mutual Consent, and Why Section 10A Had to Be Inserted pages 446 to 452
   20. 91 Nullity of a Christian Marriage pages 453 to 459
   21. 92 Judicial Separation and Restitution of Conjugal Rights pages 460 to 467
   22. 93 Protection Orders pages 468 to 475
   23. 94 Alimony and Settlements pages 476 to 484
   24. 95 Custody of Children, and Remarriage pages 485 to 492
   25. 96 Court Procedure and the Remaining Provisions pages 493 to 501

   Module IV. The Indian Succession Act 1925 41 chapters

   1. 97 The Indian Succession Act 1925: What It Does and Who It Binds pages 502 to 508
   2. 98 The Scheme of the Act, Part by Part pages 509 to 514
   3. 99 Domicile: Why the Act Starts Here pages 515 to 520
   4. 100 Domicile of Origin pages 521 to 526
   5. 101 Domicile of Choice pages 527 to 533
   6. 102 The Domicile of a Married Woman, a Minor and a Lunatic pages 534 to 540
   7. 103 What Marriage Does and Does Not Do to Property pages 541 to 547
   8. 104 Consanguinity pages 548 to 554
   9. 105 Intestate Succession: What Intestacy Means pages 555 to 561
   10. 106 The Share of a Widow or Widower pages 562 to 568
   11. 107 Distribution Among Lineal Descendants pages 569 to 575
   12. 108 Where There Is No Lineal Descendant pages 576 to 583
   13. 109 Intestate Succession Among Parsis pages 584 to 592
   14. 110 Wills: What One Is and Who May Make One pages 593 to 601
   15. 111 How an Unprivileged Will Is Executed pages 602 to 609
   16. 112 Privileged Wills pages 610 to 617
   17. 113 The Attesting Witness pages 618 to 623
   18. 114 Revocation, Alteration and Revival of a Will pages 624 to 633
   19. 115 Construing a Will: The Words the Testator Used pages 634 to 642
   20. 116 Construing a Will: Reading It as a Whole pages 643 to 651
   21. 117 Bequests to Heirs, Representatives and Classes pages 652 to 661
   22. 118 The Residuary Legatee pages 662 to 667
   23. 119 When a Legacy Lapses pages 668 to 675
   24. 120 Void Bequests: The Unborn Person, Perpetuity and Accumulation pages 676 to 684
   25. 121 Bequests to Religious and Charitable Uses: Section 118 and What Happened to It pages 685 to 691
   26. 122 When a Legacy Vests pages 692 to 700
   27. 123 Onerous Bequests pages 701 to 707
   28. 124 Conditional Bequests pages 708 to 717
   29. 125 Directions That Follow an Absolute Bequest pages 718 to 725
   30. 126 Specific Legacies pages 726 to 734
   31. 127 Demonstrative Legacies pages 735 to 741
   32. 128 Ademption of Legacies pages 742 to 750
   33. 129 Who Bears the Cost, and Bequests Described in General Terms pages 751 to 758
   34. 130 Annuities, and a Legacy Alongside a Debt or a Portion pages 759 to 766
   35. 131 Election pages 767 to 776
   36. 132 Protecting the Property of a Deceased Person pages 777 to 782
   37. 133 Who Represents the Estate pages 783 to 789
   38. 134 Probate and Letters of Administration pages 790 to 799
   39. 135 Which Court Grants, and When a Grant Is Revoked pages 800 to 809
   40. 136 The Executor's Powers and Duties, and the Distribution of the Estate pages 810 to 822
   41. 137 Succession Certificates, and the End of the Act pages 823 to 832
   Every paper that is solved: 36 papers

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4. Law of Crimes (Bharatiya Nyay Sanhita 2023)

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Law of Crimes (Bharatiya Nyay Sanhita 2023)

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 2

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Law of Crimes (Bharatiya Nyay Sanhita 2023)

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. Law of Crimes Is Now the Sanhita 1
   2. Crime and Civil Wrong 5
   3. How Indian Criminal Law Was Made 9
   4. The Act the Law Punishes 14
   5. The Guilty Mind 19
   6. When the Law Does Not Ask for Intention 24
   7. Cause and Consequence 29
   8. The Four Stages of a Crime 34
   9. Attempt 39
   10. Preparation That Is Already an Offence 44
   11. The Punishments the Sanhita Allows 48
   12. Community Service 51
   13. Fine, Default and Commutation 55
   14. Solitary Confinement 59
   15. Fractions, Several Offences and Repeat Offenders 62
   16. Why the State Punishes 67
   17. The Death Penalty 72
   18. Negligence in the Criminal Law 78
   19. Causing Death by Negligence 83
   20. The Sanhita and the Computer 88

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. Cyber Crime Outside the Sanhita 92

   Module II

   1. Extent and Operation 97
   2. The Words the Sanhita Defines 102
   3. Property, Dishonesty and Documents Defined 107
   4. The General Explanations 111
   5. Common Intention 116
   6. Common Object and How It Differs 121
   7. Gang Rape and Dacoity as Joint Liability 127
   8. The General Exceptions and Who Must Prove Them 131
   9. Bound or Justified by Law 135
   10. Accident 140
   11. Necessity 143
   12. The Age of Criminal Responsibility 147
   13. Unsoundness of Mind 151
   14. Intoxication 156
   15. Consent 161
   16. Good Faith, Compulsion and Trifles 166
   17. The Right of Private Defence 170

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. When Private Defence May Kill 176
   2. Private Defence of Property 180
   3. Abetment 185
   4. Abetment Across Borders 189
   5. Punishing the Abettor 192
   6. Concealing a Design 197
   7. Criminal Conspiracy 201

   Module III

   1. Waging War Against India 206
   2. Sovereignty, Unity and Integrity 210
   3. Assaulting the President or a Governor 214
   4. Offences Against Friendly Foreign States 217
   5. Prisoners of State and of War 220
   6. Mutiny, Desertion and Insubordination 224
   7. Unlawful Assembly 229
   8. Rioting and Provocation 234
   9. Affray 239
   10. Promoting Enmity Between Groups 242
   11. Public Servants Who Break the Law 246

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Personating a Public Servant 251
   2. Avoiding Summons and Process 255
   3. Refusing to Produce or to Answer 259
   4. Obstructing a Public Servant 263
   5. Threatening a Public Servant 267
   6. Giving and Fabricating False Evidence 271
   7. False Certificates and Declarations 276
   8. Destroying Evidence and Screening an Offender 280
   9. Fraud on the Court and on Execution 284
   10. False Charges and Harbouring 288
   11. Public Servants Who Shield Offenders 294
   12. Escape, Rescue and Failure to Apprehend 300
   13. Insulting the Court and Jumping Bail 307
   14. Counterfeiting Coin and Currency 314
   15. Government Stamps 323
   16. Weights and Measures, and What Became of Them 331
   17. Culpable Homicide and Murder 337
   18. Punishment for Murder and for Culpable Homicide 351
   19. Abetment of Suicide 361

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Attempt to Murder 367
   2. Organised Crime 374
   3. Terrorist Act 382
   4. Hurt and Grievous Hurt 391
   5. Aggravated Hurt 399
   6. Acid Attacks 409
   7. Wrongful Restraint and Wrongful Confinement 415
   8. Force, Criminal Force and Assault 423
   9. Aggravated Assault 432
   10. Kidnapping and Abduction 439
   11. Aggravated Kidnapping 446
   12. Trafficking and Forced Labour 455
   13. Rape 462
   14. Aggravated Rape and Gang Rape 470
   15. Rape by a Husband or by a Person in Authority 477
   16. Protecting the Victim's Identity 485
   17. Outraging Modesty and Sexual Harassment 491
   18. Voyeurism and Stalking 498
   19. Miscarriage and the Unborn Child 505

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Offences Against Children 513

   Module IV

   1. Bribery and Undue Influence at Elections 521
   2. False Statements and Election Accounts 528
   3. Public Nuisance 534
   4. Spreading Infection 539
   5. Adulterated Food and Drugs 544
   6. Fouling Water and Air 550
   7. Rash Driving and Rash Navigation 554
   8. Negligence with Dangerous Things 560
   9. Obscenity 565
   10. Lotteries 571
   11. Offences Relating to Religion 575
   12. Theft 582
   13. Snatching and Aggravated Theft 589
   14. Extortion 596
   15. Robbery and Dacoity 602
   16. Misappropriation 610
   17. Criminal Breach of Trust 616

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Stolen Property 622
   2. Cheating 627
   3. Fraudulent Deeds and Dispositions 634
   4. Mischief 641
   5. Criminal Trespass 651
   6. Forgery 661
   7. Using and Possessing Forged Documents 671
   8. Counterfeit Seals and False Accounts 677
   9. Property Marks 686
   10. Offences Relating to Marriage 696
   11. Dowry Death 706
   12. Cruelty by a Husband or His Relatives 713
   13. Defamation 721
   14. Criminal Intimidation 732
   15. Insult, Public Mischief and Annoyance 739
   16. The Helpless Person Left Unattended 749
   17. What the Sanhita Repealed and What It Saved 755

   Page 1 onwards

   762 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 762 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 129 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 21 chapters

   1. 1 Law of Crimes Is Now the Sanhita pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 Crime and Civil Wrong pages 5 to 8
   3. 3 How Indian Criminal Law Was Made pages 9 to 13
   4. 4 The Act the Law Punishes pages 14 to 18
   5. 5 The Guilty Mind pages 19 to 23
   6. 6 When the Law Does Not Ask for Intention pages 24 to 28
   7. 7 Cause and Consequence pages 29 to 33
   8. 8 The Four Stages of a Crime pages 34 to 38
   9. 9 Attempt pages 39 to 43
   10. 10 Preparation That Is Already an Offence pages 44 to 47
   11. 11 The Punishments the Sanhita Allows pages 48 to 50
   12. 12 Community Service pages 51 to 54
   13. 13 Fine, Default and Commutation pages 55 to 58
   14. 14 Solitary Confinement pages 59 to 61
   15. 15 Fractions, Several Offences and Repeat Offenders pages 62 to 66
   16. 16 Why the State Punishes pages 67 to 71
   17. 17 The Death Penalty pages 72 to 77
   18. 18 Negligence in the Criminal Law pages 78 to 82
   19. 19 Causing Death by Negligence pages 83 to 87
   20. 20 The Sanhita and the Computer pages 88 to 91
   21. 21 Cyber Crime Outside the Sanhita pages 92 to 96

   Module II 24 chapters

   1. 22 Extent and Operation pages 97 to 101
   2. 23 The Words the Sanhita Defines pages 102 to 106
   3. 24 Property, Dishonesty and Documents Defined pages 107 to 110
   4. 25 The General Explanations pages 111 to 115
   5. 26 Common Intention pages 116 to 120
   6. 27 Common Object and How It Differs pages 121 to 126
   7. 28 Gang Rape and Dacoity as Joint Liability pages 127 to 130
   8. 29 The General Exceptions and Who Must Prove Them pages 131 to 134
   9. 30 Bound or Justified by Law pages 135 to 139
   10. 31 Accident pages 140 to 142
   11. 32 Necessity pages 143 to 146
   12. 33 The Age of Criminal Responsibility pages 147 to 150
   13. 34 Unsoundness of Mind pages 151 to 155
   14. 35 Intoxication pages 156 to 160
   15. 36 Consent pages 161 to 165
   16. 37 Good Faith, Compulsion and Trifles pages 166 to 169
   17. 38 The Right of Private Defence pages 170 to 175
   18. 39 When Private Defence May Kill pages 176 to 179
   19. 40 Private Defence of Property pages 180 to 184
   20. 41 Abetment pages 185 to 188
   21. 42 Abetment Across Borders pages 189 to 191
   22. 43 Punishing the Abettor pages 192 to 196
   23. 44 Concealing a Design pages 197 to 200
   24. 45 Criminal Conspiracy pages 201 to 205

   Module III 50 chapters

   1. 46 Waging War Against India pages 206 to 209
   2. 47 Sovereignty, Unity and Integrity pages 210 to 213
   3. 48 Assaulting the President or a Governor pages 214 to 216
   4. 49 Offences Against Friendly Foreign States pages 217 to 219
   5. 50 Prisoners of State and of War pages 220 to 223
   6. 51 Mutiny, Desertion and Insubordination pages 224 to 228
   7. 52 Unlawful Assembly pages 229 to 233
   8. 53 Rioting and Provocation pages 234 to 238
   9. 54 Affray pages 239 to 241
   10. 55 Promoting Enmity Between Groups pages 242 to 245
   11. 56 Public Servants Who Break the Law pages 246 to 250
   12. 57 Personating a Public Servant pages 251 to 254
   13. 58 Avoiding Summons and Process pages 255 to 258
   14. 59 Refusing to Produce or to Answer pages 259 to 262
   15. 60 Obstructing a Public Servant pages 263 to 266
   16. 61 Threatening a Public Servant pages 267 to 270
   17. 62 Giving and Fabricating False Evidence pages 271 to 275
   18. 63 False Certificates and Declarations pages 276 to 279
   19. 64 Destroying Evidence and Screening an Offender pages 280 to 283
   20. 65 Fraud on the Court and on Execution pages 284 to 287
   21. 66 False Charges and Harbouring pages 288 to 293
   22. 67 Public Servants Who Shield Offenders pages 294 to 299
   23. 68 Escape, Rescue and Failure to Apprehend pages 300 to 306
   24. 69 Insulting the Court and Jumping Bail pages 307 to 313
   25. 70 Counterfeiting Coin and Currency pages 314 to 322
   26. 71 Government Stamps pages 323 to 330
   27. 72 Weights and Measures, and What Became of Them pages 331 to 336
   28. 73 Culpable Homicide and Murder pages 337 to 350
   29. 74 Punishment for Murder and for Culpable Homicide pages 351 to 360
   30. 75 Abetment of Suicide pages 361 to 366
   31. 76 Attempt to Murder pages 367 to 373
   32. 77 Organised Crime pages 374 to 381
   33. 78 Terrorist Act pages 382 to 390
   34. 79 Hurt and Grievous Hurt pages 391 to 398
   35. 80 Aggravated Hurt pages 399 to 408
   36. 81 Acid Attacks pages 409 to 414
   37. 82 Wrongful Restraint and Wrongful Confinement pages 415 to 422
   38. 83 Force, Criminal Force and Assault pages 423 to 431
   39. 84 Aggravated Assault pages 432 to 438
   40. 85 Kidnapping and Abduction pages 439 to 445
   41. 86 Aggravated Kidnapping pages 446 to 454
   42. 87 Trafficking and Forced Labour pages 455 to 461
   43. 88 Rape pages 462 to 469
   44. 89 Aggravated Rape and Gang Rape pages 470 to 476
   45. 90 Rape by a Husband or by a Person in Authority pages 477 to 484
   46. 91 Protecting the Victim's Identity pages 485 to 490
   47. 92 Outraging Modesty and Sexual Harassment pages 491 to 497
   48. 93 Voyeurism and Stalking pages 498 to 504
   49. 94 Miscarriage and the Unborn Child pages 505 to 512
   50. 95 Offences Against Children pages 513 to 520

   Module IV 34 chapters

   1. 96 Bribery and Undue Influence at Elections pages 521 to 527
   2. 97 False Statements and Election Accounts pages 528 to 533
   3. 98 Public Nuisance pages 534 to 538
   4. 99 Spreading Infection pages 539 to 543
   5. 100 Adulterated Food and Drugs pages 544 to 549
   6. 101 Fouling Water and Air pages 550 to 553
   7. 102 Rash Driving and Rash Navigation pages 554 to 559
   8. 103 Negligence with Dangerous Things pages 560 to 564
   9. 104 Obscenity pages 565 to 570
   10. 105 Lotteries pages 571 to 574
   11. 106 Offences Relating to Religion pages 575 to 581
   12. 107 Theft pages 582 to 588
   13. 108 Snatching and Aggravated Theft pages 589 to 595
   14. 109 Extortion pages 596 to 601
   15. 110 Robbery and Dacoity pages 602 to 609
   16. 111 Misappropriation pages 610 to 615
   17. 112 Criminal Breach of Trust pages 616 to 621
   18. 113 Stolen Property pages 622 to 626
   19. 114 Cheating pages 627 to 633
   20. 115 Fraudulent Deeds and Dispositions pages 634 to 640
   21. 116 Mischief pages 641 to 650
   22. 117 Criminal Trespass pages 651 to 660
   23. 118 Forgery pages 661 to 670
   24. 119 Using and Possessing Forged Documents pages 671 to 676
   25. 120 Counterfeit Seals and False Accounts pages 677 to 685
   26. 121 Property Marks pages 686 to 695
   27. 122 Offences Relating to Marriage pages 696 to 705
   28. 123 Dowry Death pages 706 to 712
   29. 124 Cruelty by a Husband or His Relatives pages 713 to 720
   30. 125 Defamation pages 721 to 731
   31. 126 Criminal Intimidation pages 732 to 738
   32. 127 Insult, Public Mischief and Annoyance pages 739 to 748
   33. 128 The Helpless Person Left Unattended pages 749 to 754
   34. 129 What the Sanhita Repealed and What It Saved pages 755 to 762
   Every paper that is solved: 37 papers

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   • May 2019
   • Nov 2019
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   • Jan 2018
   • Jun 2018
   • May 2017
   • May 2016
   • Nov 2016
   • Apr 2015
   • Apr 2014
   • Nov 2014
   • Dec 2012
   • May 2012
   • Apr 2011
   • Nov 2011
   • Nov 2010

5. Drafting Pleading and Conveyancing I

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Drafting Pleading and Conveyancing I

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 2

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Drafting Pleading and Conveyancing I

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Letters, an accountable receipt, a promissory note, an affidavit, a declaration and a schedule of property

   1. What This Course Is, and What a Draftsman Actually Does 1
   2. The Parts Every Legal Document Has 6
   3. The Language of a Legal Document 12
   4. Describing the Parties, and Writing the Recitals 17
   5. Stamp Duty: The Question Asked of Every Document 24
   6. When a Document Must Be Registered 32
   7. Execution, Attestation and the Witnesses 39
   8. Affidavits, Oaths, and What a Notary Does 46
   9. Writing to a Public Authority 53
   10. A Letter Seeking Permission from a Statutory Authority 58
   11. Attornment, and Why a Tenant Is Asked for It 64
   12. A Letter of Attornment 70
   13. Receipts, and What Makes One Accountable 77
   14. An Accountable Receipt 83
   15. What Makes an Instrument a Promissory Note 91
   16. Drafting and Stamping a Promissory Note 99
   17. A Promissory Note That Fails, and Why 105
   18. Changing Your Name, and the Affidavit That Does It 113
   19. An Affidavit for Change of Name 119
   20. A Declaration, and How It Differs from an Affidavit 126

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Letters, an accountable receipt, a promissory note, an affidavit, a declaration and a schedule of property

   1. A Declaration 132
   2. Describing Land So That Nobody Can Dispute It 140
   3. A Schedule of Property for a Plot with a Structure 147

   Module II A public notice, an adjournment application, vakalatnamas, and a Domestic Violence Act notice and application

   1. A Public Notice: What It Achieves, and What It May Not Say 154
   2. A Public Notice 161
   3. The Power to Adjourn a Criminal Case 168
   4. An Adjournment Application in a Criminal Matter 175
   5. The Vakalatnama, and the Authority It Gives 184
   6. A Vakalatnama for the High Court 192
   7. A Vakalatnama for the City Civil or District Court 200
   8. The Reliefs the Domestic Violence Act Allows You to Ask For 207
   9. A Notice Under the Domestic Violence Act 217
   10. An Application to the Magistrate Under the Domestic Violence Act 226
   11. The Affidavit for an Ex Parte Order 237

   Module III Consumer complaints and appeals, powers of attorney, and agreements for sale, franchise and confidentiality

   1. Who May Complain Under the Consumer Protection Act 248
   2. Which Commission, and Within What Time 256

   Contents continued

   Module III continued Consumer complaints and appeals, powers of attorney, and agreements for sale, franchise and confidentiality

   1. A Consumer Complaint 263
   2. The Affidavit, the Fee and the Sets That Go With a Complaint 274
   3. Appeal Under the Consumer Protection Act 284
   4. A Memorandum of Appeal 292
   5. Revision Under the Consumer Protection Act 302
   6. A Revision Petition 309
   7. Agency, and What a Power of Attorney Really Does 319
   8. A General Power of Attorney 327
   9. A Special Power of Attorney 338
   10. Stamping, Registering and Revoking a Power of Attorney 350
   11. An Agreement for Sale, and What It Is Not 362
   12. The Agreement for Sale of a Flat Under RERA 371
   13. The Model Agreement, Clause by Clause 380
   14. An Agreement for Sale 393
   15. Stamp Duty and Registration on an Agreement for Sale 407
   16. What a Franchise Agreement Has to Settle 417
   17. The Law a Franchise Agreement Must Respect 425
   18. A Franchise Agreement 436
   19. Confidentiality, and What the Law Will Protect 453

   Contents continued

   Module III continued Consumer complaints and appeals, powers of attorney, and agreements for sale, franchise and confidentiality

   1. A Confidentiality Agreement 462

   Module IV Writ petitions under Articles 32, 226 and 227, and public interest litigation

   1. The Three Articles, and Which Court to Move 477
   2. What a Writ Petition Must Contain 487
   3. A Writ Petition Under Article 32 495
   4. A Writ Petition Under Article 226 508
   5. A Petition Under Article 227 523
   6. What the Court Requires of a Public Interest Petitioner 538
   7. A Public Interest Litigation Petition 551
   8. The Affidavit in Support, and the Papers That Travel with a Petition 570
   9. The Mistakes an Examiner Marks, and How to Correct Them 584

   Page 1 onwards

   601 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 601 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 65 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I. How a legal document is built, and the first seven: letters, a receipt, a promissory note, an affidavit, a declaration and a schedule of property 23 chapters

   1. 1 What This Course Is, and What a Draftsman Actually Does pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 The Parts Every Legal Document Has pages 6 to 11
   3. 3 The Language of a Legal Document pages 12 to 16
   4. 4 Describing the Parties, and Writing the Recitals pages 17 to 23
   5. 5 Stamp Duty: The Question Asked of Every Document pages 24 to 31
   6. 6 When a Document Must Be Registered pages 32 to 38
   7. 7 Execution, Attestation and the Witnesses pages 39 to 45
   8. 8 Affidavits, Oaths, and What a Notary Does pages 46 to 52
   9. 9 Writing to a Public Authority pages 53 to 57
   10. 10 A Letter Seeking Permission from a Statutory Authority pages 58 to 63
   11. 11 Attornment, and Why a Tenant Is Asked for It pages 64 to 69
   12. 12 A Letter of Attornment pages 70 to 76
   13. 13 Receipts, and What Makes One Accountable pages 77 to 82
   14. 14 An Accountable Receipt pages 83 to 90
   15. 15 What Makes an Instrument a Promissory Note pages 91 to 98
   16. 16 Drafting and Stamping a Promissory Note pages 99 to 104
   17. 17 A Promissory Note That Fails, and Why pages 105 to 112
   18. 18 Changing Your Name, and the Affidavit That Does It pages 113 to 118
   19. 19 An Affidavit for Change of Name pages 119 to 125
   20. 20 A Declaration, and How It Differs from an Affidavit pages 126 to 131
   21. 21 A Declaration pages 132 to 139
   22. 22 Describing Land So That Nobody Can Dispute It pages 140 to 146
   23. 23 A Schedule of Property for a Plot with a Structure pages 147 to 153

   Module II. What a litigating lawyer draws: a public notice, an adjournment application, two vakalatnamas, and the Domestic Violence Act 11 chapters

   1. 24 A Public Notice: What It Achieves, and What It May Not Say pages 154 to 160
   2. 25 A Public Notice pages 161 to 167
   3. 26 The Power to Adjourn a Criminal Case pages 168 to 174
   4. 27 An Adjournment Application in a Criminal Matter pages 175 to 183
   5. 28 The Vakalatnama, and the Authority It Gives pages 184 to 191
   6. 29 A Vakalatnama for the High Court pages 192 to 199
   7. 30 A Vakalatnama for the City Civil or District Court pages 200 to 206
   8. 31 The Reliefs the Domestic Violence Act Allows You to Ask For pages 207 to 216
   9. 32 A Notice Under the Domestic Violence Act pages 217 to 225
   10. 33 An Application to the Magistrate Under the Domestic Violence Act pages 226 to 236
   11. 34 The Affidavit for an Ex Parte Order pages 237 to 247

   Module III. Consumer proceedings, powers of attorney, and three agreements: sale, franchise and confidentiality 22 chapters

   1. 35 Who May Complain Under the Consumer Protection Act pages 248 to 255
   2. 36 Which Commission, and Within What Time pages 256 to 262
   3. 37 A Consumer Complaint pages 263 to 273
   4. 38 The Affidavit, the Fee and the Sets That Go With a Complaint pages 274 to 283
   5. 39 Appeal Under the Consumer Protection Act pages 284 to 291
   6. 40 A Memorandum of Appeal pages 292 to 301
   7. 41 Revision Under the Consumer Protection Act pages 302 to 308
   8. 42 A Revision Petition pages 309 to 318
   9. 43 Agency, and What a Power of Attorney Really Does pages 319 to 326
   10. 44 A General Power of Attorney pages 327 to 337
   11. 45 A Special Power of Attorney pages 338 to 349
   12. 46 Stamping, Registering and Revoking a Power of Attorney pages 350 to 361
   13. 47 An Agreement for Sale, and What It Is Not pages 362 to 370
   14. 48 The Agreement for Sale of a Flat Under RERA pages 371 to 379
   15. 49 The Model Agreement, Clause by Clause pages 380 to 392
   16. 50 An Agreement for Sale pages 393 to 406
   17. 51 Stamp Duty and Registration on an Agreement for Sale pages 407 to 416
   18. 52 What a Franchise Agreement Has to Settle pages 417 to 424
   19. 53 The Law a Franchise Agreement Must Respect pages 425 to 435
   20. 54 A Franchise Agreement pages 436 to 452
   21. 55 Confidentiality, and What the Law Will Protect pages 453 to 461
   22. 56 A Confidentiality Agreement pages 462 to 476

   Module IV. Petitions to the constitutional courts: Articles 32, 226 and 227, and public interest litigation 9 chapters

   1. 57 The Three Articles, and Which Court to Move pages 477 to 486
   2. 58 What a Writ Petition Must Contain pages 487 to 494
   3. 59 A Writ Petition Under Article 32 pages 495 to 507
   4. 60 A Writ Petition Under Article 226 pages 508 to 522
   5. 61 A Petition Under Article 227 pages 523 to 537
   6. 62 What the Court Requires of a Public Interest Petitioner pages 538 to 550
   7. 63 A Public Interest Litigation Petition pages 551 to 569
   8. 64 The Affidavit in Support, and the Papers That Travel with a Petition pages 570 to 583
   9. 65 The Mistakes an Examiner Marks, and How to Correct Them pages 584 to 601

Questions