LL.B. 3 Years Semester 1: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

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• Previous year question papers, with full solutions. Professional Ethics and Professional Accounting System has no solved papers, so it is not included.
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1. Law of Torts Motor Accident Claims and Consumer Protection

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Law of Torts Motor Accident Claims and Consumer Protection

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Law of Torts Motor Accident Claims and Consumer Protection

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I General Principles of Tort

   1. What a Tort Is 1
   2. The Nature and Scope of Tortious Liability 6
   3. The Object of the Law of Torts 12
   4. Law of Tort or Law of Torts 17
   5. Tort in India 21
   6. The Mental Element in Tort 26
   7. Tort Distinguished from Crime 30
   8. Tort Distinguished from Breach of Contract and Other Wrongs 34
   9. Who May Sue 38
   10. Death and the Fatal Accidents Act 1855 43
   11. Who May Not Be Sued 49
   12. Damnum Sine Injuria 54
   13. Injuria Sine Damno 58
   14. Ubi Jus Ibi Remedium 62
   15. Volenti Non Fit Injuria 66
   16. Extinguishment and Discharge of Liability in Tort 71
   17. Limitation in an Action for Tort 75
   18. General Defences I 81
   19. General Defences II 85

   Contents continued

   Module II Torts against person, property, Freedom &Reputation

   1. Trespass to the Person 90
   2. Battery 94
   3. Assault 97
   4. Mayhem 100
   5. False Imprisonment 103
   6. Trespass to Land 108
   7. Trespass ab Initio 112
   8. Remedies for Trespass to Land 115
   9. Trespass to Goods 119
   10. Detinue 122
   11. Conversion 126
   12. Defamation: What It Is 130
   13. Libel and Slander 134
   14. The Essentials of Defamation 138
   15. Defences to Defamation 141
   16. Defamation in India 146
   17. Torts Affecting Personal Relations 150
   18. Nuisance: What It Is 153
   19. Public Nuisance 156

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Torts against person, property, Freedom &Reputation

   1. Private Nuisance 160
   2. Defences and Remedies in Nuisance 164
   3. Negligence: What It Is 168
   4. The Duty of Care 172
   5. Breach of Duty and the Standard of Care 177
   6. Damage, Causation and Remoteness 181
   7. Res Ipsa Loquitur 185
   8. Contributory and Composite Negligence 189
   9. Medical Negligence 193
   10. Nervous Shock 198
   11. Fraud or Deceit 202
   12. Joint Tortfeasors 206
   13. Malicious Prosecution 210
   14. Malicious Abuse of Legal Process 214

   Module III Principles of Liability in Torts and Legal Remedies

   1. Vicarious Liability: Basis and Justification 218
   2. Who Is a Servant 222
   3. Course of Employment 226
   4. Liability for an Independent Contractor 230

   Contents continued

   Module III continued Principles of Liability in Torts and Legal Remedies

   1. Other Relations that Attract Vicarious Liability 233
   2. Vicarious Liability of the State 236
   3. Constitutional Tort 240
   4. Strict Liability: The Rule in Rylands v. Fletcher 245
   5. Exceptions to Strict Liability 250
   6. Absolute Liability 254
   7. The Bhopal Gas Disaster 259
   8. The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 263
   9. Judicial Remedies: Damages 268
   10. Kinds of Damages 271
   11. Injunction and Specific Restitution of Property 275
   12. Extra-Judicial Remedies 279

   Module IV Concept of Consumer & Consumer Protection Act 2019

   1. Why a Consumer Law, and the Scheme of the Act of 2019 283
   2. Who Is a Consumer 287
   3. Goods and Defect 291
   4. Service and Deficiency 295
   5. Types of Services and Denial of Service 299
   6. Commercial and Professional Services 302

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued Concept of Consumer & Consumer Protection Act 2019

   1. Medical Services under the Act 305
   2. Unfair and Restrictive Trade Practices 309
   3. Misleading Advertisements and the Liability of an Endorser 313
   4. Consumer Rights and the Consumer Protection Councils 317
   5. The Central Consumer Protection Authority 320
   6. The District Commission 324
   7. How a Complaint Is Decided 328
   8. The State Commission 332
   9. The National Commission 336
   10. Mediation under the Act 340
   11. Product Liability 344
   12. Offences and Penalties under the Consumer Law 348
   13. Judicial Review of the Consumer Commissions 352
   14. The Motor Vehicles Act 1988: Scheme and Definitions 357
   15. What a Motor Accident Claim Is 361
   16. Claims Tribunals: Constitution and Jurisdiction 365
   17. The Application for Compensation 369
   18. The Award of the Claims Tribunal 375
   19. Computing Just Compensation 380

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued Concept of Consumer & Consumer Protection Act 2019

   1. Appeal, Recovery and Rules 385
   2. Liability without Fault 389
   3. Hit and Run, and the Golden Hour 397
   4. Compulsory Third-Party Insurance 403
   5. The Insurer: Duties, Defences and Pay and Recover 409
   6. The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act I: Licensing 417
   7. The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act II: Conductors and Registration 421
   8. The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act III: Permits and State Undertakings 425
   9. The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act IV: Construction, Traffic and Foreign Vehicles 429
   10. The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act V: Offences and Miscellaneous 434

   Page 1 onwards

   440 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 440 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 103 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 19 chapters

   1. 1 What a Tort Is pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 The Nature and Scope of Tortious Liability pages 6 to 11
   3. 3 The Object of the Law of Torts pages 12 to 16
   4. 4 Law of Tort or Law of Torts pages 17 to 20
   5. 5 Tort in India pages 21 to 25
   6. 6 The Mental Element in Tort pages 26 to 29
   7. 7 Tort Distinguished from Crime pages 30 to 33
   8. 8 Tort Distinguished from Breach of Contract and Other Wrongs pages 34 to 37
   9. 9 Who May Sue pages 38 to 42
   10. 10 Death and the Fatal Accidents Act 1855 pages 43 to 48
   11. 11 Who May Not Be Sued pages 49 to 53
   12. 12 Damnum Sine Injuria pages 54 to 57
   13. 13 Injuria Sine Damno pages 58 to 61
   14. 14 Ubi Jus Ibi Remedium pages 62 to 65
   15. 15 Volenti Non Fit Injuria pages 66 to 70
   16. 16 Extinguishment and Discharge of Liability in Tort pages 71 to 74
   17. 17 Limitation in an Action for Tort pages 75 to 80
   18. 18 General Defences I pages 81 to 84
   19. 19 General Defences II pages 85 to 89

   Module II 33 chapters

   1. 20 Trespass to the Person pages 90 to 93
   2. 21 Battery pages 94 to 96
   3. 22 Assault pages 97 to 99
   4. 23 Mayhem pages 100 to 102
   5. 24 False Imprisonment pages 103 to 107
   6. 25 Trespass to Land pages 108 to 111
   7. 26 Trespass ab Initio pages 112 to 114
   8. 27 Remedies for Trespass to Land pages 115 to 118
   9. 28 Trespass to Goods pages 119 to 121
   10. 29 Detinue pages 122 to 125
   11. 30 Conversion pages 126 to 129
   12. 31 Defamation: What It Is pages 130 to 133
   13. 32 Libel and Slander pages 134 to 137
   14. 33 The Essentials of Defamation pages 138 to 140
   15. 34 Defences to Defamation pages 141 to 145
   16. 35 Defamation in India pages 146 to 149
   17. 36 Torts Affecting Personal Relations pages 150 to 152
   18. 37 Nuisance: What It Is pages 153 to 155
   19. 38 Public Nuisance pages 156 to 159
   20. 39 Private Nuisance pages 160 to 163
   21. 40 Defences and Remedies in Nuisance pages 164 to 167
   22. 41 Negligence: What It Is pages 168 to 171
   23. 42 The Duty of Care pages 172 to 176
   24. 43 Breach of Duty and the Standard of Care pages 177 to 180
   25. 44 Damage, Causation and Remoteness pages 181 to 184
   26. 45 Res Ipsa Loquitur pages 185 to 188
   27. 46 Contributory and Composite Negligence pages 189 to 192
   28. 47 Medical Negligence pages 193 to 197
   29. 48 Nervous Shock pages 198 to 201
   30. 49 Fraud or Deceit pages 202 to 205
   31. 50 Joint Tortfeasors pages 206 to 209
   32. 51 Malicious Prosecution pages 210 to 213
   33. 52 Malicious Abuse of Legal Process pages 214 to 217

   Module III 16 chapters

   1. 53 Vicarious Liability: Basis and Justification pages 218 to 221
   2. 54 Who Is a Servant pages 222 to 225
   3. 55 Course of Employment pages 226 to 229
   4. 56 Liability for an Independent Contractor pages 230 to 232
   5. 57 Other Relations that Attract Vicarious Liability pages 233 to 235
   6. 58 Vicarious Liability of the State pages 236 to 239
   7. 59 Constitutional Tort pages 240 to 244
   8. 60 Strict Liability: The Rule in Rylands v. Fletcher pages 245 to 249
   9. 61 Exceptions to Strict Liability pages 250 to 253
   10. 62 Absolute Liability pages 254 to 258
   11. 63 The Bhopal Gas Disaster pages 259 to 262
   12. 64 The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 pages 263 to 267
   13. 65 Judicial Remedies: Damages pages 268 to 270
   14. 66 Kinds of Damages pages 271 to 274
   15. 67 Injunction and Specific Restitution of Property pages 275 to 278
   16. 68 Extra-Judicial Remedies pages 279 to 282

   Module IV 35 chapters

   1. 69 Why a Consumer Law, and the Scheme of the Act of 2019 pages 283 to 286
   2. 70 Who Is a Consumer pages 287 to 290
   3. 71 Goods and Defect pages 291 to 294
   4. 72 Service and Deficiency pages 295 to 298
   5. 73 Types of Services and Denial of Service pages 299 to 301
   6. 74 Commercial and Professional Services pages 302 to 304
   7. 75 Medical Services under the Act pages 305 to 308
   8. 76 Unfair and Restrictive Trade Practices pages 309 to 312
   9. 77 Misleading Advertisements and the Liability of an Endorser pages 313 to 316
   10. 78 Consumer Rights and the Consumer Protection Councils pages 317 to 319
   11. 79 The Central Consumer Protection Authority pages 320 to 323
   12. 80 The District Commission pages 324 to 327
   13. 81 How a Complaint Is Decided pages 328 to 331
   14. 82 The State Commission pages 332 to 335
   15. 83 The National Commission pages 336 to 339
   16. 84 Mediation under the Act pages 340 to 343
   17. 85 Product Liability pages 344 to 347
   18. 86 Offences and Penalties under the Consumer Law pages 348 to 351
   19. 87 Judicial Review of the Consumer Commissions pages 352 to 356
   20. 88 The Motor Vehicles Act 1988: Scheme and Definitions pages 357 to 360
   21. 89 What a Motor Accident Claim Is pages 361 to 364
   22. 90 Claims Tribunals: Constitution and Jurisdiction pages 365 to 368
   23. 91 The Application for Compensation pages 369 to 374
   24. 92 The Award of the Claims Tribunal pages 375 to 379
   25. 93 Computing Just Compensation pages 380 to 384
   26. 94 Appeal, Recovery and Rules pages 385 to 388
   27. 95 Liability without Fault pages 389 to 396
   28. 96 Hit and Run, and the Golden Hour pages 397 to 402
   29. 97 Compulsory Third-Party Insurance pages 403 to 408
   30. 98 The Insurer: Duties, Defences and Pay and Recover pages 409 to 416
   31. 99 The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act I: Licensing pages 417 to 420
   32. 100 The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act II: Conductors and Registration pages 421 to 424
   33. 101 The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act III: Permits and State Undertakings pages 425 to 428
   34. 102 The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act IV: Construction, Traffic and Foreign Vehicles pages 429 to 433
   35. 103 The Rest of the Motor Vehicles Act V: Offences and Miscellaneous pages 434 to 440
   Every paper that is solved: 36 papers

   • Feb 2026 - 60/40
   • Feb 2026 - 75/25
   • May 2026 - 75/25
   • Apr 2025 - 60/40
   • Apr 2025 - 75/25
   • Dec 2025 - 75/25
   • Jan 2025 - 60/40
   • Jan 2025 - 75/25
   • Apr 2024 - 60/40
   • Apr 2024 - 75/25
   • Jan 2024 - 75/25
   • Jan 2024 - ATKT 60/40
   • Aug 2023 - 75/25
   • Aug 2023 - ATKT 60/40
   • Dec 2023 - 60/40
   • Jun 2023 - 60/40
   • Mar 2023 - 75/25
   • May 2022
   • Oct 2022
   • Dec 2019
   • Feb 2019
   • May 2019
   • Jan 2018
   • Jun 2018
   • Jan 2017
   • May 2017
   • May 2016
   • Apr 2015
   • Nov 2015
   • Apr 2014
   • Nov 2014
   • Dec 2012
   • May 2012
   • Apr 2011
   • Nov 2011
   • Nov 2010

2. Law of Contract and Specific Relief

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Law of Contract and Specific Relief

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Law of Contract and Specific Relief

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I Introduction, Offer and Acceptance, Types of Contracts including E-Contracts

   1. What a Contract Is, and Why the Law Enforces a Promise 1
   2. History and Nature of a Contractual Obligation 5
   3. The Contemporary Relevance of the Law of Contract 11
   4. Section 2: the Interpretation Clause that Carries the Whole Act 16
   5. Agreement, Contract, and the Difference that Decides Cases 20
   6. Proposal: What an Offer Is, and What Only Looks Like One 24
   7. Communication of Proposal, Acceptance and Revocation 29
   8. Revocation of Proposals and Acceptances 33
   9. Acceptance Must Be Absolute and Unqualified 38
   10. Acceptance by Performing Conditions, and Implied Promises 42
   11. Contracts Between Absent Parties: the Post, the Telephone and the Inbox 46
   12. Standard Form Agreements 50
   13. E-Contracts and the Scheme of the Information Technology Act 54
   14. Legal Recognition of Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures 59
   15. Electronic Governance 64
   16. Section 10A: the Validity of Contracts Formed Through Electronic Means 69
   17. Attribution, Acknowledgment and Despatch of Electronic Records 73

   Contents continued

   Module I continued Introduction, Offer and Acceptance, Types of Contracts including E-Contracts

   1. Secure Electronic Records, Secure Signatures and Security Procedures 78
   2. Clickwrap and Shrink Wrap Contracts 83
   3. Contingent Contracts 88
   4. Quasi Contracts: Obligations Resembling Those Created by Contract 93

   Module II Essential Ingredients for Enforceability

   1. Section 10: What Agreements Are Contracts 99
   2. Competency of Parties, and the Age of Majority 104
   3. A Minor's Agreement Is Void Ab Initio 108
   4. The Minor's Position: Necessaries, Restitution and Ratification 114
   5. Persons of Unsound Mind, and Persons Disqualified by Law 120
   6. Consent and Free Consent 125
   7. Coercion 130
   8. Undue Influence 135
   9. Setting Aside a Contract Induced by Undue Influence 141
   10. Fraud 145
   11. Misrepresentation 151
   12. Voidability of Agreements Without Free Consent 156

   Contents continued

   Module II continued Essential Ingredients for Enforceability

   1. Mistake of Fact and Mistake of Law 161
   2. Consideration: What It Is, and the Rules It Obeys 167
   3. Agreements Without Consideration Are Void, Unless 172
   4. Privity of Contract and Privity of Consideration 178
   5. Unlawful Consideration and Object 183
   6. Agreements Void in Part, and Severability 189
   7. Agreements in Restraint of Marriage 193
   8. Agreements in Restraint of Trade 197
   9. Agreements in Restraint of Legal Proceedings 203
   10. Agreements Void for Uncertainty 208
   11. Wagering Agreements 213

   Module III Performance, Discharge and Breach of Contract, and the Remedies

   1. The Obligation to Perform, and Who Is Bound 219
   2. Offer of Performance: Tender, and Its Effect 223
   3. Effect of Refusal of a Party to Perform Wholly 228
   4. By Whom a Contract Must Be Performed 233
   5. Joint Liabilities and Joint Rights 237
   6. Time and Place for Performance 243
   7. Performance of Reciprocal Promises 248

   Contents continued

   Module III continued Performance, Discharge and Breach of Contract, and the Remedies

   1. Time as the Essence of the Contract 254
   2. Impossibility of Performance, and Frustration 259
   3. The Doctrine of Frustration in Indian Law 265
   4. Reciprocal Promises to Do Legal and Illegal Things 270
   5. Appropriation of Payments 274
   6. Discharge by Agreement: Novation, Rescission and Alteration 278
   7. Remission and Waiver of Performance 282
   8. Consequences of Rescission, and Restoration of Benefit 286
   9. Communicating Rescission, and the Promisee's Neglect 291
   10. Discharge of a Contract: the Whole Picture 295
   11. Breach of Contract, Actual and Anticipatory 299
   12. Compensation for Loss or Damage Caused by Breach 304
   13. Remoteness of Damage, and the Duty to Mitigate 309
   14. Liquidated Damages and Penalty 314
   15. Compensation to a Party Rightfully Rescinding 322
   16. Types of Damages, and the Remedies for Breach 326

   Module IV Specific Relief

   1. The Origin of Specific Relief as an Equitable Relief 331
   2. The Scheme of the Specific Relief Act 1963 336

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued Specific Relief

   1. Recovering Possession of Immovable Property 341
   2. Recovering Possession of Movable Property 346
   3. Specific Performance After 2018: the Rule, Not the Discretion 351
   4. Defences in Suits for Relief Based on Contract 357
   5. Contracts Connected with Trusts, and Specific Performance of Part 361
   6. Rights of a Purchaser or Lessee Against a Person with No Title 367
   7. Contracts That Cannot Be Specifically Enforced 372
   8. The Court's Power to Engage Experts 377
   9. Who May Obtain, and Against Whom It May Be Enforced 382
   10. Personal Bars to Relief 388
   11. Substituted Performance of Contract 394
   12. Infrastructure Projects, Special Courts and Expeditious Disposal 399
   13. Compensation With or Instead of Specific Performance 404
   14. Specific Performance of Awards and Testamentary Directions 410
   15. Rectification of Instruments 414
   16. Rescission of Contracts 419
   17. Cancellation of Instruments 425

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued Specific Relief

   1. Declaratory Decrees 430
   2. Preventive Relief, and the Kinds of Injunction 435
   3. Perpetual and Mandatory Injunctions 440
   4. Damages in Lieu of, or in Addition to, an Injunction 445
   5. When an Injunction Cannot Be Granted 449
   6. Injunction to Perform a Negative Agreement 454
   7. The Closing Sections of the Act, and What Was Repealed 459

   Page 1 onwards

   462 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 462 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 93 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I. Introduction, Offer and Acceptance, Types of Contracts including E-Contracts 21 chapters

   1. 1 What a Contract Is, and Why the Law Enforces a Promise pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 History and Nature of a Contractual Obligation pages 5 to 10
   3. 3 The Contemporary Relevance of the Law of Contract pages 11 to 15
   4. 4 Section 2: the Interpretation Clause that Carries the Whole Act pages 16 to 19
   5. 5 Agreement, Contract, and the Difference that Decides Cases pages 20 to 23
   6. 6 Proposal: What an Offer Is, and What Only Looks Like One pages 24 to 28
   7. 7 Communication of Proposal, Acceptance and Revocation pages 29 to 32
   8. 8 Revocation of Proposals and Acceptances pages 33 to 37
   9. 9 Acceptance Must Be Absolute and Unqualified pages 38 to 41
   10. 10 Acceptance by Performing Conditions, and Implied Promises pages 42 to 45
   11. 11 Contracts Between Absent Parties: the Post, the Telephone and the Inbox pages 46 to 49
   12. 12 Standard Form Agreements pages 50 to 53
   13. 13 E-Contracts and the Scheme of the Information Technology Act pages 54 to 58
   14. 14 Legal Recognition of Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures pages 59 to 63
   15. 15 Electronic Governance pages 64 to 68
   16. 16 Section 10A: the Validity of Contracts Formed Through Electronic Means pages 69 to 72
   17. 17 Attribution, Acknowledgment and Despatch of Electronic Records pages 73 to 77
   18. 18 Secure Electronic Records, Secure Signatures and Security Procedures pages 78 to 82
   19. 19 Clickwrap and Shrink Wrap Contracts pages 83 to 87
   20. 20 Contingent Contracts pages 88 to 92
   21. 21 Quasi Contracts: Obligations Resembling Those Created by Contract pages 93 to 98

   Module II. Essential Ingredients for Enforceability: Competency, Free Consent, Consideration, Unlawful Object, Void Agreements 23 chapters

   1. 22 Section 10: What Agreements Are Contracts pages 99 to 103
   2. 23 Competency of Parties, and the Age of Majority pages 104 to 107
   3. 24 A Minor's Agreement Is Void Ab Initio pages 108 to 113
   4. 25 The Minor's Position: Necessaries, Restitution and Ratification pages 114 to 119
   5. 26 Persons of Unsound Mind, and Persons Disqualified by Law pages 120 to 124
   6. 27 Consent and Free Consent pages 125 to 129
   7. 28 Coercion pages 130 to 134
   8. 29 Undue Influence pages 135 to 140
   9. 30 Setting Aside a Contract Induced by Undue Influence pages 141 to 144
   10. 31 Fraud pages 145 to 150
   11. 32 Misrepresentation pages 151 to 155
   12. 33 Voidability of Agreements Without Free Consent pages 156 to 160
   13. 34 Mistake of Fact and Mistake of Law pages 161 to 166
   14. 35 Consideration: What It Is, and the Rules It Obeys pages 167 to 171
   15. 36 Agreements Without Consideration Are Void, Unless pages 172 to 177
   16. 37 Privity of Contract and Privity of Consideration pages 178 to 182
   17. 38 Unlawful Consideration and Object pages 183 to 188
   18. 39 Agreements Void in Part, and Severability pages 189 to 192
   19. 40 Agreements in Restraint of Marriage pages 193 to 196
   20. 41 Agreements in Restraint of Trade pages 197 to 202
   21. 42 Agreements in Restraint of Legal Proceedings pages 203 to 207
   22. 43 Agreements Void for Uncertainty pages 208 to 212
   23. 44 Wagering Agreements pages 213 to 218

   Module III. Performance, Discharge and Breach of Contract, and the Remedies 23 chapters

   1. 45 The Obligation to Perform, and Who Is Bound pages 219 to 222
   2. 46 Offer of Performance: Tender, and Its Effect pages 223 to 227
   3. 47 Effect of Refusal of a Party to Perform Wholly pages 228 to 232
   4. 48 By Whom a Contract Must Be Performed pages 233 to 236
   5. 49 Joint Liabilities and Joint Rights pages 237 to 242
   6. 50 Time and Place for Performance pages 243 to 247
   7. 51 Performance of Reciprocal Promises pages 248 to 253
   8. 52 Time as the Essence of the Contract pages 254 to 258
   9. 53 Impossibility of Performance, and Frustration pages 259 to 264
   10. 54 The Doctrine of Frustration in Indian Law pages 265 to 269
   11. 55 Reciprocal Promises to Do Legal and Illegal Things pages 270 to 273
   12. 56 Appropriation of Payments pages 274 to 277
   13. 57 Discharge by Agreement: Novation, Rescission and Alteration pages 278 to 281
   14. 58 Remission and Waiver of Performance pages 282 to 285
   15. 59 Consequences of Rescission, and Restoration of Benefit pages 286 to 290
   16. 60 Communicating Rescission, and the Promisee's Neglect pages 291 to 294
   17. 61 Discharge of a Contract: the Whole Picture pages 295 to 298
   18. 62 Breach of Contract, Actual and Anticipatory pages 299 to 303
   19. 63 Compensation for Loss or Damage Caused by Breach pages 304 to 308
   20. 64 Remoteness of Damage, and the Duty to Mitigate pages 309 to 313
   21. 65 Liquidated Damages and Penalty pages 314 to 321
   22. 66 Compensation to a Party Rightfully Rescinding pages 322 to 325
   23. 67 Types of Damages, and the Remedies for Breach pages 326 to 330

   Module IV. Specific Relief: Possessory Remedies, Specific Performance, Rectification, Rescission, Cancellation, Declaration and Injunctions 26 chapters

   1. 68 The Origin of Specific Relief as an Equitable Relief pages 331 to 335
   2. 69 The Scheme of the Specific Relief Act 1963 pages 336 to 340
   3. 70 Recovering Possession of Immovable Property pages 341 to 345
   4. 71 Recovering Possession of Movable Property pages 346 to 350
   5. 72 Specific Performance After 2018: the Rule, Not the Discretion pages 351 to 356
   6. 73 Defences in Suits for Relief Based on Contract pages 357 to 360
   7. 74 Contracts Connected with Trusts, and Specific Performance of Part pages 361 to 366
   8. 75 Rights of a Purchaser or Lessee Against a Person with No Title pages 367 to 371
   9. 76 Contracts That Cannot Be Specifically Enforced pages 372 to 376
   10. 77 The Court's Power to Engage Experts pages 377 to 381
   11. 78 Who May Obtain, and Against Whom It May Be Enforced pages 382 to 387
   12. 79 Personal Bars to Relief pages 388 to 393
   13. 80 Substituted Performance of Contract pages 394 to 398
   14. 81 Infrastructure Projects, Special Courts and Expeditious Disposal pages 399 to 403
   15. 82 Compensation With or Instead of Specific Performance pages 404 to 409
   16. 83 Specific Performance of Awards and Testamentary Directions pages 410 to 413
   17. 84 Rectification of Instruments pages 414 to 418
   18. 85 Rescission of Contracts pages 419 to 424
   19. 86 Cancellation of Instruments pages 425 to 429
   20. 87 Declaratory Decrees pages 430 to 434
   21. 88 Preventive Relief, and the Kinds of Injunction pages 435 to 439
   22. 89 Perpetual and Mandatory Injunctions pages 440 to 444
   23. 90 Damages in Lieu of, or in Addition to, an Injunction pages 445 to 448
   24. 91 When an Injunction Cannot Be Granted pages 449 to 453
   25. 92 Injunction to Perform a Negative Agreement pages 454 to 458
   26. 93 The Closing Sections of the Act, and What Was Repealed pages 459 to 462
   Every paper that is solved: 33 papers

   • Feb 2026 - 75/25
   • May 2026 - 75/25
   • Apr 2025 - 75/25
   • Dec 2025 - 60/40
   • Dec 2025 - 75/25
   • Jan 2025 - I 60/40
   • Jan 2025 - I 75/25
   • Apr 2024 - 60/40
   • Apr 2024 - 75/25
   • Jan 2024 - ATKT 60/40
   • Jan 2024 - I 75/25
   • Apr 2023 - 75/25
   • Aug 2023 - I 75/25
   • Dec 2023 - 60/40
   • 2021-22
   • Nov 2022 - 60/40
   • Oct 2022
   • Feb 2019 - I
   • May 2019 - I
   • Jan 2018 - I
   • Jun 2018
   • Jan 2017 - I
   • May 2017
   • May 2016
   • Apr 2015
   • Nov 2015
   • Apr 2014
   • Nov 2014
   • Dec 2012 - I
   • May 2012
   • Apr 2011
   • Nov 2011
   • Nov 2010

3. Professional Ethics and Professional Accounting System

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Professional Ethics and Professional Accounting System

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Professional Ethics and Professional Accounting System

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What This Subject Is, and Why a Lawyer's Conduct Is Regulated by an Act of Parliament 1
   2. Who May Be Admitted as an Advocate: Section 24 and Its Five Conditions 6
   3. Disqualification for Enrolment: Section 24A and the Two-Year Rule 11
   4. The Procedure of Enrolment: Application, Disposal, Certificate and the Roll 16
   5. The All India Bar Examination: Bonnie Foi, and What Enrolment Alone Does Not Give You 21
   6. What Enrolment Costs: Section 24(1)(f) and Gaurav Kumar 26
   7. Advocate, Lawyer, Legal Practitioner and Pleader: The Words the Act Defines 31
   8. Solicitor, Barrister, Attorney: The English Words, and What Survives of Them in India 35
   9. Senior Counsel, Junior Counsel, Advocate-on-Record and Amicus Curiae 39
   10. The Seven Lamps of Advocacy 44
   11. Designation as Senior Advocate: Section 16, and Indira Jaising 49
   12. The Bar Council of India: Constitution, Powers and Functions 58
   13. The State Bar Council: Constitution, Powers and Functions 65
   14. The Two Bar Councils Compared, and Who Answers to Whom 71
   15. The Right to Practise: Sections 29 to 34 76

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. Is the Right to Practise a Fundamental Right, and May Advocates Strike? 81
   2. Privileges of a Lawyer 86
   3. Touts, and the Monopoly of the Bar: Section 45A 91
   4. Salient Features of the Advocates Act 1961: The Act as a Whole 97

   Module II

   1. What Professional Ethics Means, and Where the Bar Council Gets the Power to Impose It 104
   2. The Standards of Professional Conduct and Etiquette: How the Rules Are Arranged 109
   3. Duty to the Court: Rules 1 to 10 113
   4. Duty to the Client I: Accepting a Brief, Refusing One, and Withdrawing 119
   5. Duty to the Client II: Conflict of Interest and the Duty of Confidence 125
   6. Duty to the Client III: Fees, and What an Advocate May Not Charge 131
   7. Duty to the Opponent: Rules 34 and 35 136
   8. Duty to Colleagues, and the Rule Against Advertising: Rules 36 to 39 140
   9. Duty to the Profession: Other Employment, Training and the Welfare Fund 146

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Duty to the Public, the State and Society 153
   2. Duty to Render Legal Aid: Rule 46, Article 39A and the Legal Services Authorities Act 158

   Module III

   1. What Professional Misconduct Is: Section 35 and the Words 'Or Otherwise' 164
   2. Misconduct Towards the Client: Money, Papers and Changing Sides 170
   3. Misconduct Towards the Court: Falsehood, Fabrication and Advising a Bribe 176
   4. Misconduct Outside Professional Work, and Conduct That Is Not Misconduct 182
   5. Punishment for Misconduct: The Four Orders Under Section 35(3) 187
   6. The Disciplinary Committee of the State Bar Council: Organisation, Powers and Procedure 192
   7. The Disciplinary Committee of the Bar Council of India: Organisation, Powers and Procedure 199
   8. Transfer of Proceedings from the State Bar Council to the Bar Council of India 204
   9. Remedies I: Appeal to the Bar Council of India Under Section 37 210
   10. Remedies II: Appeal to the Supreme Court Under Section 38 215

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. Remedies III: Review Under Section 44, and Why a State Council's Review Needs Approval 220
   2. Remedies IV: Revision Under Section 48A, Review Under Section 48AA, and Directions Under Section 48B 226
   3. The Remedies Compared: Which Door, and When 231
   4. Selected Opinions of the Disciplinary Committees of the Bar Councils 236
   5. Major Judgments of the Supreme Court on Professional Misconduct 242
   6. What the Supreme Court May Not Do: Supreme Court Bar Association and the Limits of Article 142 249

   Module IV

   1. What Contempt of Court Is, and Where the Power Comes From 255
   2. Civil Contempt: Section 2(b) 261
   3. Criminal Contempt: Section 2(c) and Its Three Limbs 266
   4. What Is Not Contempt: Sections 3 to 9 and Section 13 272
   5. Contempt of Subordinate Courts: Sections 10, 11 and Section 15(2) 279
   6. Punishment for Contempt: Section 12 285
   7. Contempt Procedure: Sections 14, 15, 17, 18 and 20 291
   8. Appeals in Contempt: Section 19, and Sections 21 to 24 298
   9. Contempt by an Advocate, and the Two Jurisdictions That Bite 303

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Bar and Bench: What the Relationship Is, and Why It Matters 309
   2. The Role of the Bar in Strengthening Bar-Bench Relations 315
   3. Accountancy for Lawyers: Why a Lawyer Keeps Accounts at All 320
   4. Basic Principles of Accounting: The Double Entry, and What an Account Is 325
   5. The Books a Lawyer Keeps: Cash Book, Ledger, Journal and Trial Balance 330
   6. Financial Statements: The Income Statement and the Balance Sheet 336
   7. Client Money: Amount Due to the Client and Amount Due by the Client 342
   8. Books of Account Under the Income-tax Act 2025, and the Penalty for Not Keeping Them 348
   9. When an Accounting Failure Becomes Misconduct 354

   Page 1 onwards

   360 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 360 pages.

   Every chapter in the notes: 64 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 19 chapters

   1. 1 What This Subject Is, and Why a Lawyer's Conduct Is Regulated by an Act of Parliament pages 1 to 5
   2. 2 Who May Be Admitted as an Advocate: Section 24 and Its Five Conditions pages 6 to 10
   3. 3 Disqualification for Enrolment: Section 24A and the Two-Year Rule pages 11 to 15
   4. 4 The Procedure of Enrolment: Application, Disposal, Certificate and the Roll pages 16 to 20
   5. 5 The All India Bar Examination: Bonnie Foi, and What Enrolment Alone Does Not Give You pages 21 to 25
   6. 6 What Enrolment Costs: Section 24(1)(f) and Gaurav Kumar pages 26 to 30
   7. 7 Advocate, Lawyer, Legal Practitioner and Pleader: The Words the Act Defines pages 31 to 34
   8. 8 Solicitor, Barrister, Attorney: The English Words, and What Survives of Them in India pages 35 to 38
   9. 9 Senior Counsel, Junior Counsel, Advocate-on-Record and Amicus Curiae pages 39 to 43
   10. 10 The Seven Lamps of Advocacy pages 44 to 48
   11. 11 Designation as Senior Advocate: Section 16, and Indira Jaising pages 49 to 57
   12. 12 The Bar Council of India: Constitution, Powers and Functions pages 58 to 64
   13. 13 The State Bar Council: Constitution, Powers and Functions pages 65 to 70
   14. 14 The Two Bar Councils Compared, and Who Answers to Whom pages 71 to 75
   15. 15 The Right to Practise: Sections 29 to 34 pages 76 to 80
   16. 16 Is the Right to Practise a Fundamental Right, and May Advocates Strike? pages 81 to 85
   17. 17 Privileges of a Lawyer pages 86 to 90
   18. 18 Touts, and the Monopoly of the Bar: Section 45A pages 91 to 96
   19. 19 Salient Features of the Advocates Act 1961: The Act as a Whole pages 97 to 103

   Module II 11 chapters

   1. 20 What Professional Ethics Means, and Where the Bar Council Gets the Power to Impose It pages 104 to 108
   2. 21 The Standards of Professional Conduct and Etiquette: How the Rules Are Arranged pages 109 to 112
   3. 22 Duty to the Court: Rules 1 to 10 pages 113 to 118
   4. 23 Duty to the Client I: Accepting a Brief, Refusing One, and Withdrawing pages 119 to 124
   5. 24 Duty to the Client II: Conflict of Interest and the Duty of Confidence pages 125 to 130
   6. 25 Duty to the Client III: Fees, and What an Advocate May Not Charge pages 131 to 135
   7. 26 Duty to the Opponent: Rules 34 and 35 pages 136 to 139
   8. 27 Duty to Colleagues, and the Rule Against Advertising: Rules 36 to 39 pages 140 to 145
   9. 28 Duty to the Profession: Other Employment, Training and the Welfare Fund pages 146 to 152
   10. 29 Duty to the Public, the State and Society pages 153 to 157
   11. 30 Duty to Render Legal Aid: Rule 46, Article 39A and the Legal Services Authorities Act pages 158 to 163

   Module III 16 chapters

   1. 31 What Professional Misconduct Is: Section 35 and the Words 'Or Otherwise' pages 164 to 169
   2. 32 Misconduct Towards the Client: Money, Papers and Changing Sides pages 170 to 175
   3. 33 Misconduct Towards the Court: Falsehood, Fabrication and Advising a Bribe pages 176 to 181
   4. 34 Misconduct Outside Professional Work, and Conduct That Is Not Misconduct pages 182 to 186
   5. 35 Punishment for Misconduct: The Four Orders Under Section 35(3) pages 187 to 191
   6. 36 The Disciplinary Committee of the State Bar Council: Organisation, Powers and Procedure pages 192 to 198
   7. 37 The Disciplinary Committee of the Bar Council of India: Organisation, Powers and Procedure pages 199 to 203
   8. 38 Transfer of Proceedings from the State Bar Council to the Bar Council of India pages 204 to 209
   9. 39 Remedies I: Appeal to the Bar Council of India Under Section 37 pages 210 to 214
   10. 40 Remedies II: Appeal to the Supreme Court Under Section 38 pages 215 to 219
   11. 41 Remedies III: Review Under Section 44, and Why a State Council's Review Needs Approval pages 220 to 225
   12. 42 Remedies IV: Revision Under Section 48A, Review Under Section 48AA, and Directions Under Section 48B pages 226 to 230
   13. 43 The Remedies Compared: Which Door, and When pages 231 to 235
   14. 44 Selected Opinions of the Disciplinary Committees of the Bar Councils pages 236 to 241
   15. 45 Major Judgments of the Supreme Court on Professional Misconduct pages 242 to 248
   16. 46 What the Supreme Court May Not Do: Supreme Court Bar Association and the Limits of Article 142 pages 249 to 254

   Module IV 18 chapters

   1. 47 What Contempt of Court Is, and Where the Power Comes From pages 255 to 260
   2. 48 Civil Contempt: Section 2(b) pages 261 to 265
   3. 49 Criminal Contempt: Section 2(c) and Its Three Limbs pages 266 to 271
   4. 50 What Is Not Contempt: Sections 3 to 9 and Section 13 pages 272 to 278
   5. 51 Contempt of Subordinate Courts: Sections 10, 11 and Section 15(2) pages 279 to 284
   6. 52 Punishment for Contempt: Section 12 pages 285 to 290
   7. 53 Contempt Procedure: Sections 14, 15, 17, 18 and 20 pages 291 to 297
   8. 54 Appeals in Contempt: Section 19, and Sections 21 to 24 pages 298 to 302
   9. 55 Contempt by an Advocate, and the Two Jurisdictions That Bite pages 303 to 308
   10. 56 Bar and Bench: What the Relationship Is, and Why It Matters pages 309 to 314
   11. 57 The Role of the Bar in Strengthening Bar-Bench Relations pages 315 to 319
   12. 58 Accountancy for Lawyers: Why a Lawyer Keeps Accounts at All pages 320 to 324
   13. 59 Basic Principles of Accounting: The Double Entry, and What an Account Is pages 325 to 329
   14. 60 The Books a Lawyer Keeps: Cash Book, Ledger, Journal and Trial Balance pages 330 to 335
   15. 61 Financial Statements: The Income Statement and the Balance Sheet pages 336 to 341
   16. 62 Client Money: Amount Due to the Client and Amount Due by the Client pages 342 to 347
   17. 63 Books of Account Under the Income-tax Act 2025, and the Penalty for Not Keeping Them pages 348 to 353
   18. 64 When an Accounting Failure Becomes Misconduct pages 354 to 360

4. Labour Law and Industrial Relations I

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Labour Law and Industrial Relations I

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Labour Law and Industrial Relations I

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS CODE

   1. The Code, and the Day the Law Changed 1
   2. Why Workers Combined: The Historical Reasons 8
   3. The Legal Impediments: Conspiracy and Restraint of Trade 15
   4. The International Labour Organisation 24
   5. The ILO's Influence on Indian Labour Legislation 32
   6. What a Trade Union Is: The Definition 40
   7. The Registrar and the Criteria for Registration 48
   8. Applying for Registration, and Cancellation 58
   9. The Registered Trade Union as a Body Corporate 67
   10. The Funds of a Trade Union, and the Political Fund 77
   11. Recognition: The Negotiating Union and Negotiating Council 85
   12. Collective Bargaining 95
   13. Disputes, Change of Name, Amalgamation and Dissolution 105
   14. Immunity from Civil Suit 115
   15. Immunity from Criminal Conspiracy 125
   16. Enforceability of Agreements, and Restraint of Trade 134

   Module II

   1. 'Industry': The Conceptual Analysis 143
   2. 'Industrial Dispute', and the Individual Dispute 153

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. 'Workman' Under the Code: Worker, Employee and Employer 160
   2. Standing Orders: What They Are and Who Must Have Them 170
   3. Certifying, Appealing and Modifying Standing Orders 178
   4. Bi-partite Forums: Works Committee and Grievance Redressal Committee 190
   5. Notice of Change in Conditions of Service 199
   6. Conciliation and Voluntary Arbitration 207
   7. The Industrial Tribunal and the National Industrial Tribunal 218
   8. Awards and Settlements: Powers, Form, Operation and Recovery 230

   Module III CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTE

   1. 'Strike': Concept, Legality and Justification 244
   2. 'Lock-out': Concept, Legality and Justification 255
   3. 'Lay-off' and the Right to Compensation 264
   4. 'Retrenchment': Conditions Precedent and Procedure 276
   5. Transfer of an Undertaking, and Closure 286
   6. The Larger Establishments: Chapter X and the Three Hundred Threshold 297
   7. The Worker Re-skilling Fund 307
   8. Unfair Labour Practices 314
   9. Offences and Penalties Under the Code 325

   Contents continued

   Module III continued CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTE

   1. The Remaining Provisions of the Code 337

   Module IV WAGES CODE 2020

   1. The Code on Wages: Object, Application and Commencement 349
   2. 'Wages', and the Definitions That Decide Every Calculation 357
   3. Minimum Wages: Fixation, Components and the Floor Wage 367
   4. Payment of Wages: Mode, Period and Time Limit 378
   5. Deductions From Wages 386
   6. Payment of Bonus: Eligibility, Computation and Payment 397
   7. Advisory Boards, Dues, Claims and the Inspector-cum-Facilitator 410
   8. Offences and Penalties Under the Code on Wages 425
   9. The Remaining Provisions of the Code on Wages 437

   Page 1 onwards

   449 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 449 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 45 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS CODE 16 chapters

   1. 1 The Code, and the Day the Law Changed pages 1 to 7
   2. 2 Why Workers Combined: The Historical Reasons pages 8 to 14
   3. 3 The Legal Impediments: Conspiracy and Restraint of Trade pages 15 to 23
   4. 4 The International Labour Organisation pages 24 to 31
   5. 5 The ILO's Influence on Indian Labour Legislation pages 32 to 39
   6. 6 What a Trade Union Is: The Definition pages 40 to 47
   7. 7 The Registrar and the Criteria for Registration pages 48 to 57
   8. 8 Applying for Registration, and Cancellation pages 58 to 66
   9. 9 The Registered Trade Union as a Body Corporate pages 67 to 76
   10. 10 The Funds of a Trade Union, and the Political Fund pages 77 to 84
   11. 11 Recognition: The Negotiating Union and Negotiating Council pages 85 to 94
   12. 12 Collective Bargaining pages 95 to 104
   13. 13 Disputes, Change of Name, Amalgamation and Dissolution pages 105 to 114
   14. 14 Immunity from Civil Suit pages 115 to 124
   15. 15 Immunity from Criminal Conspiracy pages 125 to 133
   16. 16 Enforceability of Agreements, and Restraint of Trade pages 134 to 142

   Module II. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS: THE INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES 10 chapters

   1. 17 'Industry': The Conceptual Analysis pages 143 to 152
   2. 18 'Industrial Dispute', and the Individual Dispute pages 153 to 159
   3. 19 'Workman' Under the Code: Worker, Employee and Employer pages 160 to 169
   4. 20 Standing Orders: What They Are and Who Must Have Them pages 170 to 177
   5. 21 Certifying, Appealing and Modifying Standing Orders pages 178 to 189
   6. 22 Bi-partite Forums: Works Committee and Grievance Redressal Committee pages 190 to 198
   7. 23 Notice of Change in Conditions of Service pages 199 to 206
   8. 24 Conciliation and Voluntary Arbitration pages 207 to 217
   9. 25 The Industrial Tribunal and the National Industrial Tribunal pages 218 to 229
   10. 26 Awards and Settlements: Powers, Form, Operation and Recovery pages 230 to 243

   Module III. CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTE 10 chapters

   1. 27 'Strike': Concept, Legality and Justification pages 244 to 254
   2. 28 'Lock-out': Concept, Legality and Justification pages 255 to 263
   3. 29 'Lay-off' and the Right to Compensation pages 264 to 275
   4. 30 'Retrenchment': Conditions Precedent and Procedure pages 276 to 285
   5. 31 Transfer of an Undertaking, and Closure pages 286 to 296
   6. 32 The Larger Establishments: Chapter X and the Three Hundred Threshold pages 297 to 306
   7. 33 The Worker Re-skilling Fund pages 307 to 313
   8. 34 Unfair Labour Practices pages 314 to 324
   9. 35 Offences and Penalties Under the Code pages 325 to 336
   10. 36 The Remaining Provisions of the Code pages 337 to 348

   Module IV. WAGES CODE 2020 9 chapters

   1. 37 The Code on Wages: Object, Application and Commencement pages 349 to 356
   2. 38 'Wages', and the Definitions That Decide Every Calculation pages 357 to 366
   3. 39 Minimum Wages: Fixation, Components and the Floor Wage pages 367 to 377
   4. 40 Payment of Wages: Mode, Period and Time Limit pages 378 to 385
   5. 41 Deductions From Wages pages 386 to 396
   6. 42 Payment of Bonus: Eligibility, Computation and Payment pages 397 to 409
   7. 43 Advisory Boards, Dues, Claims and the Inspector-cum-Facilitator pages 410 to 424
   8. 44 Offences and Penalties Under the Code on Wages pages 425 to 436
   9. 45 The Remaining Provisions of the Code on Wages pages 437 to 449
   Every paper that is solved: 38 papers

   • Feb 2026 - 75/25
   • May 2026 - 60/40
   • May 2026 - 75/25
   • 2024-25 - ATKT 75/25
   • Apr 2025 - 60/40
   • Dec 2025 - 60/40
   • Dec 2025 - 75/25
   • Jan 2025 - 60/40
   • Jan 2025 - 75/25
   • Apr 2024 - 60/40
   • Apr 2024 - 75/25
   • Jan 2024 - 75/25
   • Aug 2023 - 60/40
   • Aug 2023 - 75/25
   • Dec 2023 - 60/40
   • Jun 2023 - 60/40
   • Mar 2023
   • Mar 2023 - 75/25
   • May 2022
   • Nov 2022 - 60/40
   • Oct 2022
   • Dec 2019
   • Feb 2019
   • May 2019
   • Jan 2018
   • Jun 2018
   • Jan 2017
   • May 2017
   • May 2016
   • Apr 2015
   • Nov 2015
   • Apr 2014
   • Nov 2014
   • Dec 2012
   • May 2012
   • Apr 2011
   • Nov 2011
   • Nov 2010

5. Legal Language

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Legal Language

   LL.B. 3 YEARS · SEMESTER 1

   Strictly as per the revised CBCS syllabus of the University of Mumbai

   For students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in First Year

   Legal Language

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. Law, Custom and Justice 1
   2. Right, Duty, Wrong and Remedy 8
   3. Fact, Person, Offence and State 16
   4. Plaint, Complaint, Suit and Affidavit 24
   5. Judgment, Appeal, Review, Revision and Reference 32
   6. Writ, Stay Order, Injunction and Adjournment 41
   7. Cause of Action, Issue, Charge and Bail 50
   8. Ex Parte, Discharge, Acquittal and Conviction 59
   9. Legal Heirs, Legal Representative and Power of Attorney 66
   10. International Law, Arbitration, Jurisdiction and Amicus Curiae 74
   11. Legal Maxims: the First Eight 82
   12. Legal Maxims: the Remaining Seven 91

   Module II

   1. Law Reports, Law Magazines and How to Find a Case 100
   2. Statutes: Meaning and Classification 108
   3. Commencement of Statutes 115
   4. Prospective Application and Retrospective Effect 122
   5. Repeal of Statutes, and the Provisions Dealing with Repeal under the General Clauses Act 129

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. General English: Active and Passive Voice, and Direct and Indirect Speech 137
   2. General English: Degrees of Comparison, Kinds of Sentences and Question Tags 143
   3. Essay Writing and Comprehension 150

   Module III

   1. Internal Aids to the Interpretation of a Statute 156
   2. External Aids to the Interpretation of a Statute 169
   3. D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal 178
   4. M.C. Mehta v. Union of India 187
   5. Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan 194
   6. Joseph Shine v. Union of India 201
   7. Aruna Shanbaug v. Union of India 207
   8. Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala 214

   Module IV

   1. The Literal Rule 222
   2. The Golden Rule 228
   3. The Mischief Rule, or the Rule in Heydon's Case 234
   4. Secondary Rules: Noscitur a Sociis, Ejusdem Generis and Reddendo Singula Singulis 241

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Interpretation by Subject Matter and Purpose: Restrictive and Beneficial Construction 248
   2. Taxing Statutes, Penal Statutes and Welfare Legislation 255
   3. Interpretation of Directory and Mandatory Provisions 263
   4. Interpretation of Substantive and Adjective Statutes 270
   5. Presumptions in Statutory Interpretation 276
   6. The General Clauses Act 1897: What It Is, and Its Definitions 284
   7. General Rules of Construction under the General Clauses Act 291
   8. Powers, Functionaries and Subordinate Legislation under the General Clauses Act 299
   9. The Miscellaneous Provisions of the General Clauses Act 308

   Page 1 onwards

   316 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 316 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 41 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 12 chapters

   1. 1 Law, Custom and Justice pages 1 to 7
   2. 2 Right, Duty, Wrong and Remedy pages 8 to 15
   3. 3 Fact, Person, Offence and State pages 16 to 23
   4. 4 Plaint, Complaint, Suit and Affidavit pages 24 to 31
   5. 5 Judgment, Appeal, Review, Revision and Reference pages 32 to 40
   6. 6 Writ, Stay Order, Injunction and Adjournment pages 41 to 49
   7. 7 Cause of Action, Issue, Charge and Bail pages 50 to 58
   8. 8 Ex Parte, Discharge, Acquittal and Conviction pages 59 to 65
   9. 9 Legal Heirs, Legal Representative and Power of Attorney pages 66 to 73
   10. 10 International Law, Arbitration, Jurisdiction and Amicus Curiae pages 74 to 81
   11. 11 Legal Maxims: the First Eight pages 82 to 90
   12. 12 Legal Maxims: the Remaining Seven pages 91 to 99

   Module II 8 chapters

   1. 13 Law Reports, Law Magazines and How to Find a Case pages 100 to 107
   2. 14 Statutes: Meaning and Classification pages 108 to 114
   3. 15 Commencement of Statutes pages 115 to 121
   4. 16 Prospective Application and Retrospective Effect pages 122 to 128
   5. 17 Repeal of Statutes, and the Provisions Dealing with Repeal under the General Clauses Act pages 129 to 136
   6. 18 General English: Active and Passive Voice, and Direct and Indirect Speech pages 137 to 142
   7. 19 General English: Degrees of Comparison, Kinds of Sentences and Question Tags pages 143 to 149
   8. 20 Essay Writing and Comprehension pages 150 to 155

   Module III 8 chapters

   1. 21 Internal Aids to the Interpretation of a Statute pages 156 to 168
   2. 22 External Aids to the Interpretation of a Statute pages 169 to 177
   3. 23 D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal pages 178 to 186
   4. 24 M.C. Mehta v. Union of India pages 187 to 193
   5. 25 Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan pages 194 to 200
   6. 26 Joseph Shine v. Union of India pages 201 to 206
   7. 27 Aruna Shanbaug v. Union of India pages 207 to 213
   8. 28 Indian Young Lawyers Association v. State of Kerala pages 214 to 221

   Module IV 13 chapters

   1. 29 The Literal Rule pages 222 to 227
   2. 30 The Golden Rule pages 228 to 233
   3. 31 The Mischief Rule, or the Rule in Heydon's Case pages 234 to 240
   4. 32 Secondary Rules: Noscitur a Sociis, Ejusdem Generis and Reddendo Singula Singulis pages 241 to 247
   5. 33 Interpretation by Subject Matter and Purpose: Restrictive and Beneficial Construction pages 248 to 254
   6. 34 Taxing Statutes, Penal Statutes and Welfare Legislation pages 255 to 262
   7. 35 Interpretation of Directory and Mandatory Provisions pages 263 to 269
   8. 36 Interpretation of Substantive and Adjective Statutes pages 270 to 275
   9. 37 Presumptions in Statutory Interpretation pages 276 to 283
   10. 38 The General Clauses Act 1897: What It Is, and Its Definitions pages 284 to 290
   11. 39 General Rules of Construction under the General Clauses Act pages 291 to 298
   12. 40 Powers, Functionaries and Subordinate Legislation under the General Clauses Act pages 299 to 307
   13. 41 The Miscellaneous Provisions of the General Clauses Act pages 308 to 316
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