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LL.M. Intellectual Property and Information Technology Semester 2: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

For students of Mumbai University and all its affiliated colleges.

As per latest University of Mumbai syllabus

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  1. Copyrights Law and other related rights

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Copyrights Law and other related rights

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 2

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force, with every section read from three prints of the Copyright Act 1957 current to 15-06-2026

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai taking Group III, Law of Intellectual Property and Information Technology

    munotes.in Group 3 Law of Intellectual Property and Information Technology

    Copyrights Law and other related rights

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I Introduction, Conventions, Indian Law, Nature, Subject Matter and Term

    1. What Copyright Is 1
    2. Why the Law Protects Copyright 6
    3. A Short History of Copyright 10
    4. Copyright Among the Intellectual Property Rights 14
    5. The Scheme of the Copyright Act, 1957 18
    6. No Copyright Except as Provided by the Act 22
    7. The Definitions the Act Turns On 26
    8. Why Copyright Needed Treaties 31
    9. The Berne Convention: the Frame 35
    10. Berne: the Minimum Rights 39
    11. Berne: Moral Rights and the Three Step Test 43
    12. Berne: Term, Formalities and the Appendix 48
    13. The Universal Copyright Convention 53
    14. The Rome Convention, 1961 58
    15. The Geneva Phonograms Convention, 1971 63
    16. The Brussels Satellite Convention, 1974 67
    17. TRIPS and Copyright 71
    18. The WIPO Copyright Treaty, 1996 75
    19. The WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty, 1996 80
    20. The Beijing Treaty on Audiovisual Performances, 2012 84
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Introduction, Conventions, Indian Law, Nature, Subject Matter and Term

    1. The Marrakesh Treaty, 2013 88
    2. WIPO and the Machinery of the Treaties 93
    3. Copyright in India Before 1957 98
    4. The Act of 1957 and Its Amendments 102
    5. The Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012 106
    6. The Copyright Rules, 2013 and the 2021 Amendment 111
    7. The Other Statutes a Copyright Lawyer Uses 116
    8. Copyright as a Bundle of Negative Rights 121
    9. Works in Which Copyright Subsists 125
    10. The Idea Expression Dichotomy 129
    11. Originality and the Standard of Skill and Judgment 134
    12. Fixation and the Form of Expression 139
    13. What Copyright Does Not Protect 143
    14. Copyright and Registered Designs 147
    15. Copyright as Property and Its Territorial Reach 152
    16. Literary Works and Computer Programmes 156
    17. Compilations, Databases and Tables 160
    18. Dramatic Works 163
    19. Musical Works 167
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued Introduction, Conventions, Indian Law, Nature, Subject Matter and Term

    1. Artistic Works 170
    2. Cinematograph Films 174
    3. Sound Recordings 178
    4. Government Works and Works of Public Undertakings 182
    5. How Long Copyright Lasts 186
    6. Term in Anonymous and Pseudonymous Works 189
    7. Term in Posthumous Works 192
    8. Term in Films and Sound Recordings 195
    9. Term in Government and Institutional Works 198
    10. The Public Domain 201

    Module II Ownership, the Rights Conferred, Neighbouring Rights, Assignment and Registration

    1. Who Is the Author of a Work 205
    2. Joint Authorship 208
    3. The First Owner of Copyright 212
    4. Works Made in the Course of Employment 216
    5. Commissioned Works 220
    6. The Composer, the Lyricist and the Film Producer 224
    7. Lectures, Speeches and Addresses 228
    8. Transmission of Copyright by Will 232
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Ownership, the Rights Conferred, Neighbouring Rights, Assignment and Registration

    1. Relinquishment of Copyright 235
    2. The Meaning of Copyright: Section 14 239
    3. The Reproduction Right 243
    4. Issuing Copies and First Sale 246
    5. Performance in Public and Communication to the Public 249
    6. Adaptation and Translation 253
    7. The Rental Right 256
    8. The Author's Special Rights 259
    9. The Resale Share Right 264
    10. Protection of Separate Rights 268
    11. Neighbouring Rights and Why They Are Separate 271
    12. The Broadcast Reproduction Right 275
    13. The Performer's Right 279
    14. The Exclusive Right of Performers 283
    15. The Moral Rights of the Performer 287
    16. Acts That Do Not Infringe Neighbouring Rights 291
    17. The Provisions Borrowed for Chapter VIII 294
    18. Producers of Phonograms 298
    19. Assignment of Copyright 302
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued Ownership, the Rights Conferred, Neighbouring Rights, Assignment and Registration

    1. The Mode of Assignment 306
    2. Royalties and the Author's Unwaivable Share 310
    3. Disputes About an Assignment 314
    4. Licences by the Owner of Copyright 318
    5. Assignment Compared with a Licence 322
    6. Transmission by Operation of Law 326
    7. The Register of Copyrights 330
    8. Entries in the Register 334
    9. Indexes, Form and Inspection of the Register 338
    10. How to Apply for Registration 342
    11. Registration Is Not Compulsory 346

    Module III Licences, Publication, Copyright Societies, the Copyright Office and Infringement

    1. Voluntary and Compulsory Licences: the Scheme 350
    2. Compulsory Licence in Works Withheld from the Public 354
    3. Compulsory Licence in Unpublished or Published Works 358
    4. Compulsory Licence for the Benefit of the Disabled 362
    5. The Statutory Licence for Cover Versions 366
    6. The Statutory Licence for Broadcasting 371
    7. Licence to Produce and Publish Translations 376
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued Licences, Publication, Copyright Societies, the Copyright Office and Infringement

    1. Licence to Reproduce and Publish Works 381
    2. Termination of Licences Under Chapter VI 386
    3. How a Licence Application Is Decided 390
    4. The Meaning of Publication 395
    5. When a Work Is Not Deemed Published 399
    6. When a Work Is First Published in India 402
    7. Disputes About Publication and Comparative Term 406
    8. Nationality and Domicile of the Author 410
    9. Why Collective Administration Exists 414
    10. Registration of a Copyright Society 418
    11. The Tariff Scheme 423
    12. Administration of Rights by a Copyright Society 427
    13. Control of the Society by Its Members 431
    14. Returns, Reports and the Transparency Report 436
    15. Performing Rights Societies 441
    16. The Societies in India and the Owner Who Licenses Directly 445
    17. The Copyright Office 450
    18. The Registrar and Deputy Registrars of Copyrights 454
    19. The Copyright Board: Its Life and Its Abolition 458
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued Licences, Publication, Copyright Societies, the Copyright Office and Infringement

    1. The Powers of a Civil Court and Execution of Orders 465
    2. Good Faith Action and Public Servants 469
    3. When Copyright Is Infringed 473
    4. How a Court Decides Substantial Similarity 477
    5. Fair Dealing: the General Scheme 481
    6. Fair Dealing for Private Use and Criticism 486
    7. Exceptions for Courts, Legislatures and Public Life 490
    8. Exceptions for Education and Libraries 494
    9. Exceptions for Computer Programmes 499
    10. Exceptions for Performance and Broadcasting 503
    11. Exceptions for Artistic Works and Public Places 508
    12. Exceptions for the Disabled and Transient Storage 513
    13. Particulars in Sound Recordings and Video Films 518
    14. Importation of Infringing Copies 522
    15. Who May Sue 526
    16. Civil Remedies for Infringement 530
    17. Rights Against a Person Holding Infringing Copies 534
    18. Works of Architecture and the Limit on Remedies 538
    19. Groundless Threats of Legal Proceedings 542
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued Licences, Publication, Copyright Societies, the Copyright Office and Infringement

    1. Where a Copyright Suit May Be Filed 546
    2. The Offence of Infringement 550
    3. Enhanced Penalty and Computer Programmes 554
    4. Seizure, Plates and Disposal 558
    5. Protection of Technological Measures 562
    6. Protection of Rights Management Information 566
    7. False Entries and False Statements 570
    8. Offences by Companies and Cognizance 574
    9. Interim Orders in a Copyright Suit 578

    Module IV Emerging Trends, International Copyright, the Register and Appeals

    1. Copyright in the Digital Environment 583
    2. Technological Protection and Digital Rights Management 588
    3. Online Intermediaries and Safe Harbour 592
    4. Website Blocking and Dynamic Injunctions 597
    5. Software Copyright and Open Source Licensing 602
    6. Databases, Text and Data Mining and Scraping 606
    7. Artificial Intelligence and Copyright 610
    8. Streaming and the Limits of the Statutory Licence 615
    9. User Generated Content, Parody and Memes 620
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued Emerging Trends, International Copyright, the Register and Appeals

    1. Photocopying, Course Packs and Access to Education 625
    2. Private Copying and Format Shifting 629
    3. Film Piracy and the Cinematograph Amendment of 2023 633
    4. Non-Fungible Tokens and the Block Chain 638
    5. How India Protects Foreign Works 642
    6. Foreign Broadcasters and Performers 647
    7. Works of Certain International Organisations 651
    8. Restricting the Rights of Foreign Authors 655
    9. Restricting Foreign Broadcasters and Performers 658
    10. Orders Under Chapter IX and Parliament 662
    11. The International Copyright Order, 1999 665
    12. Parallel Imports and Exhaustion 670
    13. Enforcing Copyright Across Borders 675
    14. The Register as Evidence 679
    15. Correction of Entries by the Registrar 683
    16. Rectification of the Register by the High Court 687
    17. Publication of Entries in the Register 691
    18. What Registration Proves and What It Does Not 695
    19. Appeals Against Orders of a Magistrate 699
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued Emerging Trends, International Copyright, the Register and Appeals

    1. Appeals Against Orders of the Registrar 703
    2. The Procedure for Appeals 707
    3. Where a Copyright Dispute Goes Now 710
    4. The Shape of Copyright Litigation in India 714
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    719 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 719 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 173 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I Introduction, Conventions, Indian Law, Nature, Subject Matter and Term 49 chapters

    1. 1 What Copyright Is pages 1–5
    2. 2 Why the Law Protects Copyright pages 6–9
    3. 3 A Short History of Copyright pages 10–13
    4. 4 Copyright Among the Intellectual Property Rights pages 14–17
    5. 5 The Scheme of the Copyright Act, 1957 pages 18–21
    6. 6 No Copyright Except as Provided by the Act pages 22–25
    7. 7 The Definitions the Act Turns On pages 26–30
    8. 8 Why Copyright Needed Treaties pages 31–34
    9. 9 The Berne Convention: the Frame pages 35–38
    10. 10 Berne: the Minimum Rights pages 39–42
    11. 11 Berne: Moral Rights and the Three Step Test pages 43–47
    12. 12 Berne: Term, Formalities and the Appendix pages 48–52
    13. 13 The Universal Copyright Convention pages 53–57
    14. 14 The Rome Convention, 1961 pages 58–62
    15. 15 The Geneva Phonograms Convention, 1971 pages 63–66
    16. 16 The Brussels Satellite Convention, 1974 pages 67–70
    17. 17 TRIPS and Copyright pages 71–74
    18. 18 The WIPO Copyright Treaty, 1996 pages 75–79
    19. 19 The WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty, 1996 pages 80–83
    20. 20 The Beijing Treaty on Audiovisual Performances, 2012 pages 84–87
    21. 21 The Marrakesh Treaty, 2013 pages 88–92
    22. 22 WIPO and the Machinery of the Treaties pages 93–97
    23. 23 Copyright in India Before 1957 pages 98–101
    24. 24 The Act of 1957 and Its Amendments pages 102–105
    25. 25 The Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012 pages 106–110
    26. 26 The Copyright Rules, 2013 and the 2021 Amendment pages 111–115
    27. 27 The Other Statutes a Copyright Lawyer Uses pages 116–120
    28. 28 Copyright as a Bundle of Negative Rights pages 121–124
    29. 29 Works in Which Copyright Subsists pages 125–128
    30. 30 The Idea Expression Dichotomy pages 129–133
    31. 31 Originality and the Standard of Skill and Judgment pages 134–138
    32. 32 Fixation and the Form of Expression pages 139–142
    33. 33 What Copyright Does Not Protect pages 143–146
    34. 34 Copyright and Registered Designs pages 147–151
    35. 35 Copyright as Property and Its Territorial Reach pages 152–155
    36. 36 Literary Works and Computer Programmes pages 156–159
    37. 37 Compilations, Databases and Tables pages 160–162
    38. 38 Dramatic Works pages 163–166
    39. 39 Musical Works pages 167–169
    40. 40 Artistic Works pages 170–173
    41. 41 Cinematograph Films pages 174–177
    42. 42 Sound Recordings pages 178–181
    43. 43 Government Works and Works of Public Undertakings pages 182–185
    44. 44 How Long Copyright Lasts pages 186–188
    45. 45 Term in Anonymous and Pseudonymous Works pages 189–191
    46. 46 Term in Posthumous Works pages 192–194
    47. 47 Term in Films and Sound Recordings pages 195–197
    48. 48 Term in Government and Institutional Works pages 198–200
    49. 49 The Public Domain pages 201–204

    Module II Ownership, the Rights Conferred, Neighbouring Rights, Assignment and Registration 38 chapters

    1. 50 Who Is the Author of a Work pages 205–207
    2. 51 Joint Authorship pages 208–211
    3. 52 The First Owner of Copyright pages 212–215
    4. 53 Works Made in the Course of Employment pages 216–219
    5. 54 Commissioned Works pages 220–223
    6. 55 The Composer, the Lyricist and the Film Producer pages 224–227
    7. 56 Lectures, Speeches and Addresses pages 228–231
    8. 57 Transmission of Copyright by Will pages 232–234
    9. 58 Relinquishment of Copyright pages 235–238
    10. 59 The Meaning of Copyright: Section 14 pages 239–242
    11. 60 The Reproduction Right pages 243–245
    12. 61 Issuing Copies and First Sale pages 246–248
    13. 62 Performance in Public and Communication to the Public pages 249–252
    14. 63 Adaptation and Translation pages 253–255
    15. 64 The Rental Right pages 256–258
    16. 65 The Author's Special Rights pages 259–263
    17. 66 The Resale Share Right pages 264–267
    18. 67 Protection of Separate Rights pages 268–270
    19. 68 Neighbouring Rights and Why They Are Separate pages 271–274
    20. 69 The Broadcast Reproduction Right pages 275–278
    21. 70 The Performer's Right pages 279–282
    22. 71 The Exclusive Right of Performers pages 283–286
    23. 72 The Moral Rights of the Performer pages 287–290
    24. 73 Acts That Do Not Infringe Neighbouring Rights pages 291–293
    25. 74 The Provisions Borrowed for Chapter VIII pages 294–297
    26. 75 Producers of Phonograms pages 298–301
    27. 76 Assignment of Copyright pages 302–305
    28. 77 The Mode of Assignment pages 306–309
    29. 78 Royalties and the Author's Unwaivable Share pages 310–313
    30. 79 Disputes About an Assignment pages 314–317
    31. 80 Licences by the Owner of Copyright pages 318–321
    32. 81 Assignment Compared with a Licence pages 322–325
    33. 82 Transmission by Operation of Law pages 326–329
    34. 83 The Register of Copyrights pages 330–333
    35. 84 Entries in the Register pages 334–337
    36. 85 Indexes, Form and Inspection of the Register pages 338–341
    37. 86 How to Apply for Registration pages 342–345
    38. 87 Registration Is Not Compulsory pages 346–349

    Module III Licences, Publication, Copyright Societies, the Copyright Office and Infringement 54 chapters

    1. 88 Voluntary and Compulsory Licences: the Scheme pages 350–353
    2. 89 Compulsory Licence in Works Withheld from the Public pages 354–357
    3. 90 Compulsory Licence in Unpublished or Published Works pages 358–361
    4. 91 Compulsory Licence for the Benefit of the Disabled pages 362–365
    5. 92 The Statutory Licence for Cover Versions pages 366–370
    6. 93 The Statutory Licence for Broadcasting pages 371–375
    7. 94 Licence to Produce and Publish Translations pages 376–380
    8. 95 Licence to Reproduce and Publish Works pages 381–385
    9. 96 Termination of Licences Under Chapter VI pages 386–389
    10. 97 How a Licence Application Is Decided pages 390–394
    11. 98 The Meaning of Publication pages 395–398
    12. 99 When a Work Is Not Deemed Published pages 399–401
    13. 100 When a Work Is First Published in India pages 402–405
    14. 101 Disputes About Publication and Comparative Term pages 406–409
    15. 102 Nationality and Domicile of the Author pages 410–413
    16. 103 Why Collective Administration Exists pages 414–417
    17. 104 Registration of a Copyright Society pages 418–422
    18. 105 The Tariff Scheme pages 423–426
    19. 106 Administration of Rights by a Copyright Society pages 427–430
    20. 107 Control of the Society by Its Members pages 431–435
    21. 108 Returns, Reports and the Transparency Report pages 436–440
    22. 109 Performing Rights Societies pages 441–444
    23. 110 The Societies in India and the Owner Who Licenses Directly pages 445–449
    24. 111 The Copyright Office pages 450–453
    25. 112 The Registrar and Deputy Registrars of Copyrights pages 454–457
    26. 113 The Copyright Board: Its Life and Its Abolition pages 458–464
    27. 114 The Powers of a Civil Court and Execution of Orders pages 465–468
    28. 115 Good Faith Action and Public Servants pages 469–472
    29. 116 When Copyright Is Infringed pages 473–476
    30. 117 How a Court Decides Substantial Similarity pages 477–480
    31. 118 Fair Dealing: the General Scheme pages 481–485
    32. 119 Fair Dealing for Private Use and Criticism pages 486–489
    33. 120 Exceptions for Courts, Legislatures and Public Life pages 490–493
    34. 121 Exceptions for Education and Libraries pages 494–498
    35. 122 Exceptions for Computer Programmes pages 499–502
    36. 123 Exceptions for Performance and Broadcasting pages 503–507
    37. 124 Exceptions for Artistic Works and Public Places pages 508–512
    38. 125 Exceptions for the Disabled and Transient Storage pages 513–517
    39. 126 Particulars in Sound Recordings and Video Films pages 518–521
    40. 127 Importation of Infringing Copies pages 522–525
    41. 128 Who May Sue pages 526–529
    42. 129 Civil Remedies for Infringement pages 530–533
    43. 130 Rights Against a Person Holding Infringing Copies pages 534–537
    44. 131 Works of Architecture and the Limit on Remedies pages 538–541
    45. 132 Groundless Threats of Legal Proceedings pages 542–545
    46. 133 Where a Copyright Suit May Be Filed pages 546–549
    47. 134 The Offence of Infringement pages 550–553
    48. 135 Enhanced Penalty and Computer Programmes pages 554–557
    49. 136 Seizure, Plates and Disposal pages 558–561
    50. 137 Protection of Technological Measures pages 562–565
    51. 138 Protection of Rights Management Information pages 566–569
    52. 139 False Entries and False Statements pages 570–573
    53. 140 Offences by Companies and Cognizance pages 574–577
    54. 141 Interim Orders in a Copyright Suit pages 578–582

    Module IV Emerging Trends, International Copyright, the Register and Appeals 32 chapters

    1. 142 Copyright in the Digital Environment pages 583–587
    2. 143 Technological Protection and Digital Rights Management pages 588–591
    3. 144 Online Intermediaries and Safe Harbour pages 592–596
    4. 145 Website Blocking and Dynamic Injunctions pages 597–601
    5. 146 Software Copyright and Open Source Licensing pages 602–605
    6. 147 Databases, Text and Data Mining and Scraping pages 606–609
    7. 148 Artificial Intelligence and Copyright pages 610–614
    8. 149 Streaming and the Limits of the Statutory Licence pages 615–619
    9. 150 User Generated Content, Parody and Memes pages 620–624
    10. 151 Photocopying, Course Packs and Access to Education pages 625–628
    11. 152 Private Copying and Format Shifting pages 629–632
    12. 153 Film Piracy and the Cinematograph Amendment of 2023 pages 633–637
    13. 154 Non-Fungible Tokens and the Block Chain pages 638–641
    14. 155 How India Protects Foreign Works pages 642–646
    15. 156 Foreign Broadcasters and Performers pages 647–650
    16. 157 Works of Certain International Organisations pages 651–654
    17. 158 Restricting the Rights of Foreign Authors pages 655–657
    18. 159 Restricting Foreign Broadcasters and Performers pages 658–661
    19. 160 Orders Under Chapter IX and Parliament pages 662–664
    20. 161 The International Copyright Order, 1999 pages 665–669
    21. 162 Parallel Imports and Exhaustion pages 670–674
    22. 163 Enforcing Copyright Across Borders pages 675–678
    23. 164 The Register as Evidence pages 679–682
    24. 165 Correction of Entries by the Registrar pages 683–686
    25. 166 Rectification of the Register by the High Court pages 687–690
    26. 167 Publication of Entries in the Register pages 691–694
    27. 168 What Registration Proves and What It Does Not pages 695–698
    28. 169 Appeals Against Orders of a Magistrate pages 699–702
    29. 170 Appeals Against Orders of the Registrar pages 703–706
    30. 171 The Procedure for Appeals pages 707–709
    31. 172 Where a Copyright Dispute Goes Now pages 710–713
    32. 173 The Shape of Copyright Litigation in India pages 714–719
    Every paper that is solved: 8 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2025-26 - Set 2
    • 2024-25
    • 2023-24
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  2. Law of Trademarks

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Law of Trademarks

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 2

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force, with every section read from the Act as amended to 01-08-2024

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 3 Law of Intellectual Property and Information Technology

    Law of Trademarks

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What a Trade Mark Is 1
    2. What a Trade Mark Does 6
    3. The Vocabulary of the Act: Section 2 10
    4. The Kinds of Mark the Act Recognises 16
    5. Non Conventional Marks 21
    6. Distinctiveness and the Spectrum of Marks 25
    7. Trade Marks and Their Neighbours 29
    8. How Indian Trade Mark Law Grew 34
    9. The Scheme of the Trade Marks Act 1999 39
    10. Why Trade Mark Law Is International 43
    11. The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property 47
    12. The Marks Articles of the Paris Convention 52
    13. TRIPS and the 1999 Act 58
    14. TRIPS Section 2: Trademarks 63
    15. The Madrid Protocol 68
    16. Chapter IVA: International Registration Through India 73
    17. Classification of Goods and Services 78
    18. Convention Countries, Priority and Reciprocity 82
    19. The Trade Marks Rules 2017 86
    20. How Property in a Trade Mark Is Acquired 90
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Use Against Registration: Who Wins 95
    2. Who May Claim To Be the Proprietor 99
    3. Is a Trade Mark Property At All 104
    4. Territoriality and Transborder Reputation 108
    5. Who May Apply, and the Application 113
    6. The Appropriate Office and Its Jurisdiction 117
    7. What the Application Must Contain 121
    8. Examination, Objections and the Hearing 125
    9. Expedited Processing of an Application 130
    10. Acceptance, Advertisement and the Trade Marks Journal 133
    11. Correction and Amendment of an Application 137
    12. Withdrawal of Acceptance 141
    13. Registration and the Certificate 145
    14. Jointly Owned Trade Marks 150
    15. Duration, Renewal, Removal and Restoration 154
    16. Series Marks and Associated Marks 159
    17. Registration of Parts of a Mark, and Disclaimers 164
    18. Multi Class Applications and Division 168
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II

    1. Opposition to Registration: Section 21 171
    2. The Notice of Opposition and Its Requirements 175
    3. The Counterstatement and the Evidence Rounds 179
    4. The Hearing, the Decision and Costs 183
    5. The Grounds on Which a Registration Is Opposed 187
    6. Opposition, Rectification and Cancellation Compared 193
    7. What Registration Gives You: Section 28 198
    8. No Action for an Unregistered Mark: Section 27 203
    9. Infringement: The Scheme of Section 29 207
    10. Identical Marks, Similar Marks, and the Presumption 212
    11. Dilution and the Mark With a Reputation 217
    12. Trade Names, Advertising, Labelling and Oral Use 221
    13. The Limits on the Effect of Registration: Section 30 226
    14. Registration as Evidence, and the Seven Year Rule 231
    15. Acquiescence: Section 33 235
    16. The Savings: Sections 34, 35 and 36 239
    17. Absolute Grounds for Refusal: The Scheme of Section 9 244
    18. Marks Devoid of Any Distinctive Character 249
    19. Descriptive Marks and Marks That Have Become Customary 253
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Deceptive, Scandalous and Prohibited Marks 257
    2. The Shape Exclusions 262
    3. Limitation as to Colour 266
    4. Relative Grounds for Refusal: Section 11 270
    5. Well Known Trade Marks 275
    6. Honest Concurrent Use: Section 12 281
    7. Chemical Elements, INNs and the Names of Persons 286
    8. Deceptive Similarity: What the Act Means 291
    9. How Two Marks Are Compared 295
    10. The Anti Dissection Rule and the Dominant Feature 300
    11. Phonetic, Visual and Conceptual Similarity 304
    12. The Average Purchaser of Imperfect Recollection 308
    13. The Cadila Factors 312
    14. Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Marks 317
    15. The Goods, the Trade Channels and the Added Matter 322
    16. The Trade Marks Registry 327
    17. The Register of Trade Marks 330
    18. The Registrar's Powers and How He Exercises Them 334
    19. Rectification and Cancellation: Section 57 340
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Correction, Alteration and Adaptation of the Register 345
    2. Section 124: Stay Where Validity Is Questioned 349
    3. Where a Rectification Application Goes Now 354
    4. Assignment and Transmission: What the Words Mean 359
    5. Assignability of Registered and Unregistered Marks 363
    6. The Restrictions: Multiple Exclusive Rights 367
    7. Assignment Without Goodwill: Section 42 372
    8. Certification and Associated Marks on Assignment 376
    9. Registration of Assignments and Transmissions 380
    10. Proposed Use by a Company To Be Formed 384
    11. Removal for Non Use: Section 47 389
    12. Abandonment of a Mark, and of an Application 396
    13. What Counts As Use of a Mark 400

    Module III

    1. Licensing a Trade Mark 405
    2. Permitted Use and the Registered User 410
    3. Registration as a Registered User 414
    4. Variation, Cancellation and Information 419
    5. The Registered User's Right to Sue 424
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Quality Control, and Trafficking in a Mark 428
    2. Franchising and Brand Licensing in Practice 433
    3. Collective Marks: Chapter VIII 437
    4. The Regulations Governing a Collective Mark 441
    5. Infringement and Removal of a Collective Mark 445
    6. Service Marks 449
    7. Textile Trade Marks and the Repealed Chapter X 453
    8. Infringement and Passing Off Compared 457
    9. The Classical Trinity of Passing Off 462
    10. Goodwill, and What Passing Off Protects 466
    11. Misrepresentation and Damage 471
    12. Dilution, Blurring and Tarnishment 476
    13. The Court in Which a Suit Is Brought: Section 134 481
    14. Who May Sue, and Whom To Sue 485
    15. The Reliefs: Section 135 490
    16. Interim Injunctions in a Trade Mark Suit 495
    17. Ex Parte Orders, Local Commissioners, Anton Piller and John Doe 500
    18. Damages and the Account of Profits 504
    19. Delivery Up, Destruction and Erasure 508
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Defences to an Infringement Action 512
    2. Evidence in a Trade Mark Suit 518
    3. The Passing Off Action 523
    4. Trade Dress and Get Up 527
    5. Trade Names and Business Names 532
    6. Domain Names and Cybersquatting 537
    7. Reverse and Extended Passing Off 541
    8. Proving Goodwill and Reputation 546
    9. Remedies and Jurisdiction in a Passing Off Suit 551
    10. Certification Trade Marks: Chapter IX 555
    11. Registering a Certification Trade Mark 559
    12. The Regulations Governing a Certification Trade Mark 564
    13. Infringement of a Certification Trade Mark 569
    14. Certification, Collective and Ordinary Marks Compared 574

    Module IV

    1. Applying a Mark and a Trade Description 578
    2. Falsifying and Falsely Applying a Mark 583
    3. The Principal Offence: Section 103 587
    4. Selling Goods With a False Mark: Section 104 591
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Enhanced Penalty on a Second Conviction 595
    2. Falsely Representing a Mark as Registered 598
    3. The Jan Vishwas Act 2023 and Decriminalisation 603
    4. Defences, Forfeiture and Exemptions 608
    5. Offences by Companies, and Abetment Abroad 613
    6. Cognizance, Search and Seizure, and Procedure 618
    7. Groundless Threats of Legal Proceedings: Section 142 624
    8. What Is, and What Is Not, a Threat 629
    9. Quia Timet Actions and Declarations of Non Infringement 633
    10. The Intellectual Property Appellate Board 637
    11. The Tribunals Reforms Act 2021 641
    12. Appeals to the High Court: Section 91 645
    13. The Registrar in Legal Proceedings, and the Bar to Appear 649
    14. Review, Writs and the Intellectual Property Division 653
    15. Trade Marks on the Internet 657
    16. Intermediary Liability and E Commerce Marketplaces 661
    17. Non Conventional Marks in Practice 666
    18. Well Known Marks, Dilution and Brand Value 670
    19. Merchandising, Character Marks and Personality Rights 675
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Comparative Advertising and Disparagement 680
    2. Parallel Imports and Grey Market Goods 685
    3. Trade Marks, Artificial Intelligence and the Metaverse 690
    4. Border Measures and Customs Enforcement 695
    5. TRIPS Enforcement and the Indian Remedies 702
    6. Trade Mark Agents and the Address for Service 708
    7. A Mark Registered by an Agent Without Authority 713
    8. Indexes, Public Inspection and the Report to Parliament 718
    9. Fees, Savings, and the Government Bound 722
    10. Implied Warranty on Sale, and Trade Usages 727
    11. Good Faith, Public Servants and Removal of Difficulties 732
    12. The Rest of the Act, and How to Read It 737
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    742 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 742 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 162 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 38 chapters

    1. 1 What a Trade Mark Is pages 1–5
    2. 2 What a Trade Mark Does pages 6–9
    3. 3 The Vocabulary of the Act: Section 2 pages 10–15
    4. 4 The Kinds of Mark the Act Recognises pages 16–20
    5. 5 Non Conventional Marks pages 21–24
    6. 6 Distinctiveness and the Spectrum of Marks pages 25–28
    7. 7 Trade Marks and Their Neighbours pages 29–33
    8. 8 How Indian Trade Mark Law Grew pages 34–38
    9. 9 The Scheme of the Trade Marks Act 1999 pages 39–42
    10. 10 Why Trade Mark Law Is International pages 43–46
    11. 11 The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property pages 47–51
    12. 12 The Marks Articles of the Paris Convention pages 52–57
    13. 13 TRIPS and the 1999 Act pages 58–62
    14. 14 TRIPS Section 2: Trademarks pages 63–67
    15. 15 The Madrid Protocol pages 68–72
    16. 16 Chapter IVA: International Registration Through India pages 73–77
    17. 17 Classification of Goods and Services pages 78–81
    18. 18 Convention Countries, Priority and Reciprocity pages 82–85
    19. 19 The Trade Marks Rules 2017 pages 86–89
    20. 20 How Property in a Trade Mark Is Acquired pages 90–94
    21. 21 Use Against Registration: Who Wins pages 95–98
    22. 22 Who May Claim To Be the Proprietor pages 99–103
    23. 23 Is a Trade Mark Property At All pages 104–107
    24. 24 Territoriality and Transborder Reputation pages 108–112
    25. 25 Who May Apply, and the Application pages 113–116
    26. 26 The Appropriate Office and Its Jurisdiction pages 117–120
    27. 27 What the Application Must Contain pages 121–124
    28. 28 Examination, Objections and the Hearing pages 125–129
    29. 29 Expedited Processing of an Application pages 130–132
    30. 30 Acceptance, Advertisement and the Trade Marks Journal pages 133–136
    31. 31 Correction and Amendment of an Application pages 137–140
    32. 32 Withdrawal of Acceptance pages 141–144
    33. 33 Registration and the Certificate pages 145–149
    34. 34 Jointly Owned Trade Marks pages 150–153
    35. 35 Duration, Renewal, Removal and Restoration pages 154–158
    36. 36 Series Marks and Associated Marks pages 159–163
    37. 37 Registration of Parts of a Mark, and Disclaimers pages 164–167
    38. 38 Multi Class Applications and Division pages 168–170

    Module II 51 chapters

    1. 39 Opposition to Registration: Section 21 pages 171–174
    2. 40 The Notice of Opposition and Its Requirements pages 175–178
    3. 41 The Counterstatement and the Evidence Rounds pages 179–182
    4. 42 The Hearing, the Decision and Costs pages 183–186
    5. 43 The Grounds on Which a Registration Is Opposed pages 187–192
    6. 44 Opposition, Rectification and Cancellation Compared pages 193–197
    7. 45 What Registration Gives You: Section 28 pages 198–202
    8. 46 No Action for an Unregistered Mark: Section 27 pages 203–206
    9. 47 Infringement: The Scheme of Section 29 pages 207–211
    10. 48 Identical Marks, Similar Marks, and the Presumption pages 212–216
    11. 49 Dilution and the Mark With a Reputation pages 217–220
    12. 50 Trade Names, Advertising, Labelling and Oral Use pages 221–225
    13. 51 The Limits on the Effect of Registration: Section 30 pages 226–230
    14. 52 Registration as Evidence, and the Seven Year Rule pages 231–234
    15. 53 Acquiescence: Section 33 pages 235–238
    16. 54 The Savings: Sections 34, 35 and 36 pages 239–243
    17. 55 Absolute Grounds for Refusal: The Scheme of Section 9 pages 244–248
    18. 56 Marks Devoid of Any Distinctive Character pages 249–252
    19. 57 Descriptive Marks and Marks That Have Become Customary pages 253–256
    20. 58 Deceptive, Scandalous and Prohibited Marks pages 257–261
    21. 59 The Shape Exclusions pages 262–265
    22. 60 Limitation as to Colour pages 266–269
    23. 61 Relative Grounds for Refusal: Section 11 pages 270–274
    24. 62 Well Known Trade Marks pages 275–280
    25. 63 Honest Concurrent Use: Section 12 pages 281–285
    26. 64 Chemical Elements, INNs and the Names of Persons pages 286–290
    27. 65 Deceptive Similarity: What the Act Means pages 291–294
    28. 66 How Two Marks Are Compared pages 295–299
    29. 67 The Anti Dissection Rule and the Dominant Feature pages 300–303
    30. 68 Phonetic, Visual and Conceptual Similarity pages 304–307
    31. 69 The Average Purchaser of Imperfect Recollection pages 308–311
    32. 70 The Cadila Factors pages 312–316
    33. 71 Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Marks pages 317–321
    34. 72 The Goods, the Trade Channels and the Added Matter pages 322–326
    35. 73 The Trade Marks Registry pages 327–329
    36. 74 The Register of Trade Marks pages 330–333
    37. 75 The Registrar's Powers and How He Exercises Them pages 334–339
    38. 76 Rectification and Cancellation: Section 57 pages 340–344
    39. 77 Correction, Alteration and Adaptation of the Register pages 345–348
    40. 78 Section 124: Stay Where Validity Is Questioned pages 349–353
    41. 79 Where a Rectification Application Goes Now pages 354–358
    42. 80 Assignment and Transmission: What the Words Mean pages 359–362
    43. 81 Assignability of Registered and Unregistered Marks pages 363–366
    44. 82 The Restrictions: Multiple Exclusive Rights pages 367–371
    45. 83 Assignment Without Goodwill: Section 42 pages 372–375
    46. 84 Certification and Associated Marks on Assignment pages 376–379
    47. 85 Registration of Assignments and Transmissions pages 380–383
    48. 86 Proposed Use by a Company To Be Formed pages 384–388
    49. 87 Removal for Non Use: Section 47 pages 389–395
    50. 88 Abandonment of a Mark, and of an Application pages 396–399
    51. 89 What Counts As Use of a Mark pages 400–404

    Module III 38 chapters

    1. 90 Licensing a Trade Mark pages 405–409
    2. 91 Permitted Use and the Registered User pages 410–413
    3. 92 Registration as a Registered User pages 414–418
    4. 93 Variation, Cancellation and Information pages 419–423
    5. 94 The Registered User's Right to Sue pages 424–427
    6. 95 Quality Control, and Trafficking in a Mark pages 428–432
    7. 96 Franchising and Brand Licensing in Practice pages 433–436
    8. 97 Collective Marks: Chapter VIII pages 437–440
    9. 98 The Regulations Governing a Collective Mark pages 441–444
    10. 99 Infringement and Removal of a Collective Mark pages 445–448
    11. 100 Service Marks pages 449–452
    12. 101 Textile Trade Marks and the Repealed Chapter X pages 453–456
    13. 102 Infringement and Passing Off Compared pages 457–461
    14. 103 The Classical Trinity of Passing Off pages 462–465
    15. 104 Goodwill, and What Passing Off Protects pages 466–470
    16. 105 Misrepresentation and Damage pages 471–475
    17. 106 Dilution, Blurring and Tarnishment pages 476–480
    18. 107 The Court in Which a Suit Is Brought: Section 134 pages 481–484
    19. 108 Who May Sue, and Whom To Sue pages 485–489
    20. 109 The Reliefs: Section 135 pages 490–494
    21. 110 Interim Injunctions in a Trade Mark Suit pages 495–499
    22. 111 Ex Parte Orders, Local Commissioners, Anton Piller and John Doe pages 500–503
    23. 112 Damages and the Account of Profits pages 504–507
    24. 113 Delivery Up, Destruction and Erasure pages 508–511
    25. 114 Defences to an Infringement Action pages 512–517
    26. 115 Evidence in a Trade Mark Suit pages 518–522
    27. 116 The Passing Off Action pages 523–526
    28. 117 Trade Dress and Get Up pages 527–531
    29. 118 Trade Names and Business Names pages 532–536
    30. 119 Domain Names and Cybersquatting pages 537–540
    31. 120 Reverse and Extended Passing Off pages 541–545
    32. 121 Proving Goodwill and Reputation pages 546–550
    33. 122 Remedies and Jurisdiction in a Passing Off Suit pages 551–554
    34. 123 Certification Trade Marks: Chapter IX pages 555–558
    35. 124 Registering a Certification Trade Mark pages 559–563
    36. 125 The Regulations Governing a Certification Trade Mark pages 564–568
    37. 126 Infringement of a Certification Trade Mark pages 569–573
    38. 127 Certification, Collective and Ordinary Marks Compared pages 574–577

    Module IV 35 chapters

    1. 128 Applying a Mark and a Trade Description pages 578–582
    2. 129 Falsifying and Falsely Applying a Mark pages 583–586
    3. 130 The Principal Offence: Section 103 pages 587–590
    4. 131 Selling Goods With a False Mark: Section 104 pages 591–594
    5. 132 Enhanced Penalty on a Second Conviction pages 595–597
    6. 133 Falsely Representing a Mark as Registered pages 598–602
    7. 134 The Jan Vishwas Act 2023 and Decriminalisation pages 603–607
    8. 135 Defences, Forfeiture and Exemptions pages 608–612
    9. 136 Offences by Companies, and Abetment Abroad pages 613–617
    10. 137 Cognizance, Search and Seizure, and Procedure pages 618–623
    11. 138 Groundless Threats of Legal Proceedings: Section 142 pages 624–628
    12. 139 What Is, and What Is Not, a Threat pages 629–632
    13. 140 Quia Timet Actions and Declarations of Non Infringement pages 633–636
    14. 141 The Intellectual Property Appellate Board pages 637–640
    15. 142 The Tribunals Reforms Act 2021 pages 641–644
    16. 143 Appeals to the High Court: Section 91 pages 645–648
    17. 144 The Registrar in Legal Proceedings, and the Bar to Appear pages 649–652
    18. 145 Review, Writs and the Intellectual Property Division pages 653–656
    19. 146 Trade Marks on the Internet pages 657–660
    20. 147 Intermediary Liability and E Commerce Marketplaces pages 661–665
    21. 148 Non Conventional Marks in Practice pages 666–669
    22. 149 Well Known Marks, Dilution and Brand Value pages 670–674
    23. 150 Merchandising, Character Marks and Personality Rights pages 675–679
    24. 151 Comparative Advertising and Disparagement pages 680–684
    25. 152 Parallel Imports and Grey Market Goods pages 685–689
    26. 153 Trade Marks, Artificial Intelligence and the Metaverse pages 690–694
    27. 154 Border Measures and Customs Enforcement pages 695–701
    28. 155 TRIPS Enforcement and the Indian Remedies pages 702–707
    29. 156 Trade Mark Agents and the Address for Service pages 708–712
    30. 157 A Mark Registered by an Agent Without Authority pages 713–717
    31. 158 Indexes, Public Inspection and the Report to Parliament pages 718–721
    32. 159 Fees, Savings, and the Government Bound pages 722–726
    33. 160 Implied Warranty on Sale, and Trade Usages pages 727–731
    34. 161 Good Faith, Public Servants and Removal of Difficulties pages 732–736
    35. 162 The Rest of the Act, and How to Read It pages 737–742
    Every paper that is solved: 8 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2025-26 - Set 2
    • 2024-25
    • 2023-24
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  3. Legal Education and Research Methodology

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Legal Education and Research Methodology

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 2

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Legal Education and Research Methodology

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What Legal Education Is 1
    2. Why a Country Needs Legal Education: The Lawyer and the Judge 5
    3. The Other Careers a Law Degree Builds 9
    4. Legal Education and the Citizen 13
    5. Legal Education in the Constitution and in the Advocates Act 17
    6. The Rest of the Bar Council and Enrolment Provisions 21
    7. Legal Education in Ancient and Medieval India 26
    8. Legal Education in India Before Independence 30
    9. The Fourteenth Law Commission Report 34
    10. The 184th Report and the Argument About Standards 37
    11. The National Law Universities and the Five Year Course 41
    12. Legal Education and the National Education Policy 2020 45
    13. Two Regulators, One Course 49
    14. What the LL.M. Is For 53
    15. The Rules of Legal Education 2008 56
    16. Who May Teach Law 60
    17. The Two Law Courses, and Who May Join Them 63
    18. What Must Be Taught: Standard of Courses and the Curriculum 67
    19. The Semester System, the Infrastructure and the End Semester Test 70
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Inspection, Approval and Revocation 74
    2. Accreditation, and the Machinery Behind the Rules 78
    3. Continuing Legal Education 81
    4. Foreign Degrees and Foreign Universities 85
    5. The Rest of the Rules of Legal Education 88
    6. How Law Is Taught, and Why the Method Matters 92
    7. The Lecture Method 95
    8. The Case Method 99
    9. The Problem Method 103
    10. Discussion, the Socratic Method, the Seminar and the Tutorial 106
    11. The Project and the Assignment 110
    12. Learning by Doing: The Clinical Method, Simulation and Role Play 113
    13. The Moot Court 117
    14. Out of the Classroom: Court Visits, Trial Observation and Internship 121
    15. Technology, E-Learning and the Online Classroom 125
    16. Teaching Legal Research and Legal Writing 128
    17. Choosing a Method, and Combining Methods 131
    18. What an Examination Is For 134
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. What Is Wrong With the Traditional Examination 137
    2. Continuous Internal Assessment and the Semester Pattern 140
    3. Question Types: Objective, Problem and Open Book 143
    4. Assessment Beyond the Written Paper 147
    5. Examining the Clinical Courses 151
    6. Marks, Grades and Credits 154
    7. Moderation, Revaluation and Transparency 157
    8. The All India Bar Examination 160
    9. Examination Reform in the Law Commission Reports and in NEP 2020 164
    10. Malpractice and Academic Integrity in Examinations 168
    11. What Examination Reform Actually Requires 171

    Module II

    1. What Clinical Legal Education Is 174
    2. Where the Clinic Came From 177
    3. What the Clinic Is For 181
    4. The Kinds of Clinic 184
    5. The Four Compulsory Clinical Papers 188
    6. The Legal Aid Clinic in a Law College 192
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Why Clinical Legal Education Has Not Worked in India 196
    2. What Legal Aid Is, and Why a State Provides It 200
    3. Article 39A and the Constitutional Duty 204
    4. Legal Aid Before the 1987 Act 209
    5. The Legal Services Authorities Act: The Machinery 213
    6. Who Is Entitled to Legal Aid 217
    7. Paying for Legal Aid, and the Rest of the Act 221
    8. How a Person Actually Gets Legal Aid 225
    9. The Legal Services Clinic 228
    10. The Lok Adalat 232
    11. The Permanent Lok Adalat 237
    12. The Judgments That Made Legal Aid a Right 242
    13. Legal Aid: What Still Does Not Work 248
    14. What Legal Literacy Is 252
    15. How Legal Literacy Is Delivered 256
    16. The Law Student and Legal Literacy 260
    17. What a Legal Survey Is 264
    18. How a Legal Survey Is Done 268
    19. Surveys That Changed the Law 272
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. What Law Reform Is, and Who Does It 276
    2. The Law Commission of India 280
    3. From Report to Statute 284
    4. Research as the Engine of Law Reform 288
    5. Law Reform by the Courts, and Its Limits 292

    Module III

    1. What Research Is 296
    2. What Legal Research Is 299
    3. The Objectives of Legal Research 302
    4. What Makes Research Good 305
    5. Pure and Applied Research 308
    6. Descriptive and Analytical Research 311
    7. Quantitative and Qualitative Research 314
    8. Conceptual and Empirical Research 317
    9. Doctrinal Research 320
    10. Doctrinal Research: Merits and Demerits 323
    11. Non Doctrinal Research 326
    12. Non Doctrinal Research: Merits and Demerits 329
    13. Induction and Deduction in Legal Reasoning 332
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Comparative Legal Research 336
    2. Historical Legal Research 340
    3. Analytical and Critical Legal Research 343
    4. Interdisciplinary Legal Research 346
    5. The Primary Sources of Legal Research 350
    6. The Secondary Sources of Legal Research 353
    7. Juristic Writings and Legal Periodicals 356
    8. Legal Databases and How to Search Them 360
    9. Computers, ICT and Legal Research 364
    10. The Digest, the Citator and Tracing a Case 368
    11. Observation and the Interview 371
    12. The Questionnaire and the Schedule 375
    13. The Case Study 379
    14. The Survey 382
    15. Sampling: What It Is and Why It Is Used 385
    16. Probability Sampling 388
    17. Non Probability Sampling 392
    18. Scaling and Measurement 396
    19. Processing and Analysing Data 399
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. What Empirical Work in Law Cannot Do 403
    2. Research and the Judicial Process 407
    3. What a Research Problem Is 411
    4. Where Research Problems Come From 414
    5. Choosing Between Problems 418
    6. Narrowing and Defining the Problem 421
    7. Research Questions, Aims and Objectives 424
    8. What a Hypothesis Is 428
    9. Where a Hypothesis Comes From, and What Makes It Usable 432
    10. The Types of Hypothesis 435
    11. Formulating a Hypothesis 439
    12. Testing a Hypothesis 442
    13. When the Hypothesis Is Disproved 446
    14. Does Doctrinal Research Need a Hypothesis 450

    Module IV

    1. What a Research Design Is 453
    2. What Makes a Research Design Good 456
    3. The Exploratory or Formulative Design 459
    4. Descriptive and Diagnostic Designs 462
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Experimental Design 465
    2. Historical and Case Study Designs 468
    3. The Parts of a Research Design, and MU's Own List 471
    4. The Introduction 475
    5. Aims and Objectives of the Study 478
    6. Scope of Study, and Its Limitations 481
    7. The Review of Literature 485
    8. Sources of Information 489
    9. The Research Methodology Section 492
    10. Chapterisation 496
    11. The Sampling Design and the Data Collection Design 499
    12. Time, Cost and the Practical Design 502
    13. The Synopsis or Research Proposal 505
    14. Citation: Footnotes, APA and Legal Citation 509
    15. Bibliography and Webliography 513
    16. Plagiarism and the UGC Regulations 516
    17. Artificial Intelligence Tools in Research 521
    18. Research Ethics Beyond Plagiarism 525
    19. Writing the Report 528
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Conclusion and Suggestions 532
    2. The Viva Voce on the Dissertation 536
    3. What Goes Wrong in a Research Design 540
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    543 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 543 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 150 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 48 chapters

    1. 1 What Legal Education Is pages 1–4
    2. 2 Why a Country Needs Legal Education: The Lawyer and the Judge pages 5–8
    3. 3 The Other Careers a Law Degree Builds pages 9–12
    4. 4 Legal Education and the Citizen pages 13–16
    5. 5 Legal Education in the Constitution and in the Advocates Act pages 17–20
    6. 6 The Rest of the Bar Council and Enrolment Provisions pages 21–25
    7. 7 Legal Education in Ancient and Medieval India pages 26–29
    8. 8 Legal Education in India Before Independence pages 30–33
    9. 9 The Fourteenth Law Commission Report pages 34–36
    10. 10 The 184th Report and the Argument About Standards pages 37–40
    11. 11 The National Law Universities and the Five Year Course pages 41–44
    12. 12 Legal Education and the National Education Policy 2020 pages 45–48
    13. 13 Two Regulators, One Course pages 49–52
    14. 14 What the LL.M. Is For pages 53–55
    15. 15 The Rules of Legal Education 2008 pages 56–59
    16. 16 Who May Teach Law pages 60–62
    17. 17 The Two Law Courses, and Who May Join Them pages 63–66
    18. 18 What Must Be Taught: Standard of Courses and the Curriculum pages 67–69
    19. 19 The Semester System, the Infrastructure and the End Semester Test pages 70–73
    20. 20 Inspection, Approval and Revocation pages 74–77
    21. 21 Accreditation, and the Machinery Behind the Rules pages 78–80
    22. 22 Continuing Legal Education pages 81–84
    23. 23 Foreign Degrees and Foreign Universities pages 85–87
    24. 24 The Rest of the Rules of Legal Education pages 88–91
    25. 25 How Law Is Taught, and Why the Method Matters pages 92–94
    26. 26 The Lecture Method pages 95–98
    27. 27 The Case Method pages 99–102
    28. 28 The Problem Method pages 103–105
    29. 29 Discussion, the Socratic Method, the Seminar and the Tutorial pages 106–109
    30. 30 The Project and the Assignment pages 110–112
    31. 31 Learning by Doing: The Clinical Method, Simulation and Role Play pages 113–116
    32. 32 The Moot Court pages 117–120
    33. 33 Out of the Classroom: Court Visits, Trial Observation and Internship pages 121–124
    34. 34 Technology, E-Learning and the Online Classroom pages 125–127
    35. 35 Teaching Legal Research and Legal Writing pages 128–130
    36. 36 Choosing a Method, and Combining Methods pages 131–133
    37. 37 What an Examination Is For pages 134–136
    38. 38 What Is Wrong With the Traditional Examination pages 137–139
    39. 39 Continuous Internal Assessment and the Semester Pattern pages 140–142
    40. 40 Question Types: Objective, Problem and Open Book pages 143–146
    41. 41 Assessment Beyond the Written Paper pages 147–150
    42. 42 Examining the Clinical Courses pages 151–153
    43. 43 Marks, Grades and Credits pages 154–156
    44. 44 Moderation, Revaluation and Transparency pages 157–159
    45. 45 The All India Bar Examination pages 160–163
    46. 46 Examination Reform in the Law Commission Reports and in NEP 2020 pages 164–167
    47. 47 Malpractice and Academic Integrity in Examinations pages 168–170
    48. 48 What Examination Reform Actually Requires pages 171–173

    Module II 30 chapters

    1. 49 What Clinical Legal Education Is pages 174–176
    2. 50 Where the Clinic Came From pages 177–180
    3. 51 What the Clinic Is For pages 181–183
    4. 52 The Kinds of Clinic pages 184–187
    5. 53 The Four Compulsory Clinical Papers pages 188–191
    6. 54 The Legal Aid Clinic in a Law College pages 192–195
    7. 55 Why Clinical Legal Education Has Not Worked in India pages 196–199
    8. 56 What Legal Aid Is, and Why a State Provides It pages 200–203
    9. 57 Article 39A and the Constitutional Duty pages 204–208
    10. 58 Legal Aid Before the 1987 Act pages 209–212
    11. 59 The Legal Services Authorities Act: The Machinery pages 213–216
    12. 60 Who Is Entitled to Legal Aid pages 217–220
    13. 61 Paying for Legal Aid, and the Rest of the Act pages 221–224
    14. 62 How a Person Actually Gets Legal Aid pages 225–227
    15. 63 The Legal Services Clinic pages 228–231
    16. 64 The Lok Adalat pages 232–236
    17. 65 The Permanent Lok Adalat pages 237–241
    18. 66 The Judgments That Made Legal Aid a Right pages 242–247
    19. 67 Legal Aid: What Still Does Not Work pages 248–251
    20. 68 What Legal Literacy Is pages 252–255
    21. 69 How Legal Literacy Is Delivered pages 256–259
    22. 70 The Law Student and Legal Literacy pages 260–263
    23. 71 What a Legal Survey Is pages 264–267
    24. 72 How a Legal Survey Is Done pages 268–271
    25. 73 Surveys That Changed the Law pages 272–275
    26. 74 What Law Reform Is, and Who Does It pages 276–279
    27. 75 The Law Commission of India pages 280–283
    28. 76 From Report to Statute pages 284–287
    29. 77 Research as the Engine of Law Reform pages 288–291
    30. 78 Law Reform by the Courts, and Its Limits pages 292–295

    Module III 46 chapters

    1. 79 What Research Is pages 296–298
    2. 80 What Legal Research Is pages 299–301
    3. 81 The Objectives of Legal Research pages 302–304
    4. 82 What Makes Research Good pages 305–307
    5. 83 Pure and Applied Research pages 308–310
    6. 84 Descriptive and Analytical Research pages 311–313
    7. 85 Quantitative and Qualitative Research pages 314–316
    8. 86 Conceptual and Empirical Research pages 317–319
    9. 87 Doctrinal Research pages 320–322
    10. 88 Doctrinal Research: Merits and Demerits pages 323–325
    11. 89 Non Doctrinal Research pages 326–328
    12. 90 Non Doctrinal Research: Merits and Demerits pages 329–331
    13. 91 Induction and Deduction in Legal Reasoning pages 332–335
    14. 92 Comparative Legal Research pages 336–339
    15. 93 Historical Legal Research pages 340–342
    16. 94 Analytical and Critical Legal Research pages 343–345
    17. 95 Interdisciplinary Legal Research pages 346–349
    18. 96 The Primary Sources of Legal Research pages 350–352
    19. 97 The Secondary Sources of Legal Research pages 353–355
    20. 98 Juristic Writings and Legal Periodicals pages 356–359
    21. 99 Legal Databases and How to Search Them pages 360–363
    22. 100 Computers, ICT and Legal Research pages 364–367
    23. 101 The Digest, the Citator and Tracing a Case pages 368–370
    24. 102 Observation and the Interview pages 371–374
    25. 103 The Questionnaire and the Schedule pages 375–378
    26. 104 The Case Study pages 379–381
    27. 105 The Survey pages 382–384
    28. 106 Sampling: What It Is and Why It Is Used pages 385–387
    29. 107 Probability Sampling pages 388–391
    30. 108 Non Probability Sampling pages 392–395
    31. 109 Scaling and Measurement pages 396–398
    32. 110 Processing and Analysing Data pages 399–402
    33. 111 What Empirical Work in Law Cannot Do pages 403–406
    34. 112 Research and the Judicial Process pages 407–410
    35. 113 What a Research Problem Is pages 411–413
    36. 114 Where Research Problems Come From pages 414–417
    37. 115 Choosing Between Problems pages 418–420
    38. 116 Narrowing and Defining the Problem pages 421–423
    39. 117 Research Questions, Aims and Objectives pages 424–427
    40. 118 What a Hypothesis Is pages 428–431
    41. 119 Where a Hypothesis Comes From, and What Makes It Usable pages 432–434
    42. 120 The Types of Hypothesis pages 435–438
    43. 121 Formulating a Hypothesis pages 439–441
    44. 122 Testing a Hypothesis pages 442–445
    45. 123 When the Hypothesis Is Disproved pages 446–449
    46. 124 Does Doctrinal Research Need a Hypothesis pages 450–452

    Module IV 26 chapters

    1. 125 What a Research Design Is pages 453–455
    2. 126 What Makes a Research Design Good pages 456–458
    3. 127 The Exploratory or Formulative Design pages 459–461
    4. 128 Descriptive and Diagnostic Designs pages 462–464
    5. 129 The Experimental Design pages 465–467
    6. 130 Historical and Case Study Designs pages 468–470
    7. 131 The Parts of a Research Design, and MU's Own List pages 471–474
    8. 132 The Introduction pages 475–477
    9. 133 Aims and Objectives of the Study pages 478–480
    10. 134 Scope of Study, and Its Limitations pages 481–484
    11. 135 The Review of Literature pages 485–488
    12. 136 Sources of Information pages 489–491
    13. 137 The Research Methodology Section pages 492–495
    14. 138 Chapterisation pages 496–498
    15. 139 The Sampling Design and the Data Collection Design pages 499–501
    16. 140 Time, Cost and the Practical Design pages 502–504
    17. 141 The Synopsis or Research Proposal pages 505–508
    18. 142 Citation: Footnotes, APA and Legal Citation pages 509–512
    19. 143 Bibliography and Webliography pages 513–515
    20. 144 Plagiarism and the UGC Regulations pages 516–520
    21. 145 Artificial Intelligence Tools in Research pages 521–524
    22. 146 Research Ethics Beyond Plagiarism pages 525–527
    23. 147 Writing the Report pages 528–531
    24. 148 Conclusion and Suggestions pages 532–535
    25. 149 The Viva Voce on the Dissertation pages 536–539
    26. 150 What Goes Wrong in a Research Design pages 540–543
    Every paper that is solved: 8 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024-25
    • 2023-24
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  4. Judicial Process

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Judicial Process

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 2

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Judicial Process

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

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    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What the Judicial Process Is 1
    2. The Judicial Process as an Instrument of Social Ordering 6
    3. Cardozo and the Nature of the Judicial Process 11
    4. The Declaratory Theory and the Living Oracle 15
    5. Judicial Reasoning, not Calculation 19
    6. The Final Cause of Law Is the Welfare of Society 23
    7. The Gap in the Law 27
    8. Creation, not Discovery 31
    9. The Method of Philosophy: The Rule of Logic 36
    10. The Method of History 40
    11. The Method of Tradition and Custom 44
    12. The Method of Sociology 48
    13. Judicial Creativity and the Growth of Law 53
    14. The Tools and Techniques of Judicial Creativity 57
    15. The Limits of Judicial Creativity 62
    16. The Doctrine of Precedent 67
    17. Ratio Decidendi and Obiter Dicta 71
    18. When a Precedent Binds, and When It Does Not 75
    19. The Merits and the Demerits of Precedent 79
    20. Distinguishing and Overruling: Precedent as Creativity 83
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Article 141 and Stare Decisis in India 87
    2. When the Supreme Court Departs from Itself 91
    3. Legal Development through Codification 95

    Module II

    1. The Special Dimensions of the Judicial Process 99
    2. What Judicial Review Is 103
    3. The Constitutional Basis of Judicial Review in India 107
    4. The Grounds of Judicial Review 111
    5. Judicial Review as a Basic Feature of the Constitution 115
    6. The Philosophy of Judicial Review and Limited Government 120
    7. The Role of the Courts in Constitutional Adjudication 124
    8. Judicial Review as a Check on Power 128
    9. What Judicial Activism Is 132
    10. The Varieties of Judicial Activism 136
    11. The Scope and the Necessity of Judicial Activism 140
    12. The Limits of Judicial Activism and the Charge of Overreach 144
    13. Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint 149
    14. Judicial Accountability 153
    15. The Institutional Liability of the Courts: Scope and Limits 157
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Accountability of the Executive 161
    2. The Judicial Process in India 165
    3. The Independence of the Judiciary 169
    4. The Constitutional Guarantees of Independence 173
    5. The Appointment of Judges 177
    6. The First Judges Case 181
    7. The Second Judges Case 184
    8. The Third Judges Case 187
    9. The National Judicial Appointments Commission 191
    10. The Political Nature of the Judicial Process 195
    11. Structural Vulnerability and the Political Executive 199
    12. The Judicial Creativity of the Supreme Court of India 203
    13. The Judicial Process in Pursuit of Constitutional Goals and Values 207
    14. New Dimensions of Judicial Activism, and the Structural Challenges 211
    15. Constitutional Jurisprudence Built through Judicial Activism 215
    16. What Public Interest Litigation Is 219
    17. Locus Standi and Epistolary Jurisdiction 223
    18. PIL as a Judicial Arm Creating New Dimensions for Achieving Justice 227
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Misuse of PIL, and the Remedies 231
    2. The Constitution as a Living Document 235
    3. Creative Law-Making and the New Socio-Economic Rights 239
    4. Substance over Technicality: Articles 14 and 21 243
    5. Individual Freedom and Collective Welfare 247
    6. Judicial Activism for the Marginalised 251
    7. The Prison Cases and the Dignity of the Individual 255

    Module III

    1. What Justice Is 259
    2. Dharma: What the Word Means 263
    3. The Sources of Dharma 267
    4. Dharma as the Foundation of Legal Ordering 271
    5. Dharma as the Foundation of Justice in India 275
    6. The Aspects of Dharma 279
    7. Raja Dharma: The Duty of the Ruler 283
    8. Dharma in the Indian Legal System Today 287
    9. The Purpose of Dharma 291
    10. Dharma Is Not Religion 295
    11. Dharma, Natural Justice and the Rule of Law 299
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Justice in Greek Thought: Plato and Aristotle 303
    2. The Liberal Contractual Tradition 307
    3. Rawls and Justice as Fairness 311
    4. The Liberal Moral Tradition: Kant 315
    5. The Liberal Utilitarian Tradition: Bentham and Mill 319
    6. The Critics of Liberal Justice 324

    Module IV

    1. The Relation between Law and Justice 328
    2. Equivalence Theories of Justice 332
    3. Dependency Theories of Justice 336
    4. The Independence of Justice from Law 340
    5. The Interrelationship, Read through the Theories of Justice 344
    6. Law and Justice in the Indian Constitutional Order 348
    7. Supreme Court Cases Read through the Theories of Justice 352
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    356 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 356 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 87 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 23 chapters

    1. 1 What the Judicial Process Is pages 1–5
    2. 2 The Judicial Process as an Instrument of Social Ordering pages 6–10
    3. 3 Cardozo and the Nature of the Judicial Process pages 11–14
    4. 4 The Declaratory Theory and the Living Oracle pages 15–18
    5. 5 Judicial Reasoning, not Calculation pages 19–22
    6. 6 The Final Cause of Law Is the Welfare of Society pages 23–26
    7. 7 The Gap in the Law pages 27–30
    8. 8 Creation, not Discovery pages 31–35
    9. 9 The Method of Philosophy: The Rule of Logic pages 36–39
    10. 10 The Method of History pages 40–43
    11. 11 The Method of Tradition and Custom pages 44–47
    12. 12 The Method of Sociology pages 48–52
    13. 13 Judicial Creativity and the Growth of Law pages 53–56
    14. 14 The Tools and Techniques of Judicial Creativity pages 57–61
    15. 15 The Limits of Judicial Creativity pages 62–66
    16. 16 The Doctrine of Precedent pages 67–70
    17. 17 Ratio Decidendi and Obiter Dicta pages 71–74
    18. 18 When a Precedent Binds, and When It Does Not pages 75–78
    19. 19 The Merits and the Demerits of Precedent pages 79–82
    20. 20 Distinguishing and Overruling: Precedent as Creativity pages 83–86
    21. 21 Article 141 and Stare Decisis in India pages 87–90
    22. 22 When the Supreme Court Departs from Itself pages 91–94
    23. 23 Legal Development through Codification pages 95–98

    Module II 40 chapters

    1. 24 The Special Dimensions of the Judicial Process pages 99–102
    2. 25 What Judicial Review Is pages 103–106
    3. 26 The Constitutional Basis of Judicial Review in India pages 107–110
    4. 27 The Grounds of Judicial Review pages 111–114
    5. 28 Judicial Review as a Basic Feature of the Constitution pages 115–119
    6. 29 The Philosophy of Judicial Review and Limited Government pages 120–123
    7. 30 The Role of the Courts in Constitutional Adjudication pages 124–127
    8. 31 Judicial Review as a Check on Power pages 128–131
    9. 32 What Judicial Activism Is pages 132–135
    10. 33 The Varieties of Judicial Activism pages 136–139
    11. 34 The Scope and the Necessity of Judicial Activism pages 140–143
    12. 35 The Limits of Judicial Activism and the Charge of Overreach pages 144–148
    13. 36 Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint pages 149–152
    14. 37 Judicial Accountability pages 153–156
    15. 38 The Institutional Liability of the Courts: Scope and Limits pages 157–160
    16. 39 The Accountability of the Executive pages 161–164
    17. 40 The Judicial Process in India pages 165–168
    18. 41 The Independence of the Judiciary pages 169–172
    19. 42 The Constitutional Guarantees of Independence pages 173–176
    20. 43 The Appointment of Judges pages 177–180
    21. 44 The First Judges Case pages 181–183
    22. 45 The Second Judges Case pages 184–186
    23. 46 The Third Judges Case pages 187–190
    24. 47 The National Judicial Appointments Commission pages 191–194
    25. 48 The Political Nature of the Judicial Process pages 195–198
    26. 49 Structural Vulnerability and the Political Executive pages 199–202
    27. 50 The Judicial Creativity of the Supreme Court of India pages 203–206
    28. 51 The Judicial Process in Pursuit of Constitutional Goals and Values pages 207–210
    29. 52 New Dimensions of Judicial Activism, and the Structural Challenges pages 211–214
    30. 53 Constitutional Jurisprudence Built through Judicial Activism pages 215–218
    31. 54 What Public Interest Litigation Is pages 219–222
    32. 55 Locus Standi and Epistolary Jurisdiction pages 223–226
    33. 56 PIL as a Judicial Arm Creating New Dimensions for Achieving Justice pages 227–230
    34. 57 The Misuse of PIL, and the Remedies pages 231–234
    35. 58 The Constitution as a Living Document pages 235–238
    36. 59 Creative Law-Making and the New Socio-Economic Rights pages 239–242
    37. 60 Substance over Technicality: Articles 14 and 21 pages 243–246
    38. 61 Individual Freedom and Collective Welfare pages 247–250
    39. 62 Judicial Activism for the Marginalised pages 251–254
    40. 63 The Prison Cases and the Dignity of the Individual pages 255–258

    Module III 17 chapters

    1. 64 What Justice Is pages 259–262
    2. 65 Dharma: What the Word Means pages 263–266
    3. 66 The Sources of Dharma pages 267–270
    4. 67 Dharma as the Foundation of Legal Ordering pages 271–274
    5. 68 Dharma as the Foundation of Justice in India pages 275–278
    6. 69 The Aspects of Dharma pages 279–282
    7. 70 Raja Dharma: The Duty of the Ruler pages 283–286
    8. 71 Dharma in the Indian Legal System Today pages 287–290
    9. 72 The Purpose of Dharma pages 291–294
    10. 73 Dharma Is Not Religion pages 295–298
    11. 74 Dharma, Natural Justice and the Rule of Law pages 299–302
    12. 75 Justice in Greek Thought: Plato and Aristotle pages 303–306
    13. 76 The Liberal Contractual Tradition pages 307–310
    14. 77 Rawls and Justice as Fairness pages 311–314
    15. 78 The Liberal Moral Tradition: Kant pages 315–318
    16. 79 The Liberal Utilitarian Tradition: Bentham and Mill pages 319–323
    17. 80 The Critics of Liberal Justice pages 324–327

    Module IV 7 chapters

    1. 81 The Relation between Law and Justice pages 328–331
    2. 82 Equivalence Theories of Justice pages 332–335
    3. 83 Dependency Theories of Justice pages 336–339
    4. 84 The Independence of Justice from Law pages 340–343
    5. 85 The Interrelationship, Read through the Theories of Justice pages 344–347
    6. 86 Law and Justice in the Indian Constitutional Order pages 348–351
    7. 87 Supreme Court Cases Read through the Theories of Justice pages 352–356
    Every paper that is solved: 8 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024-25
    • 2023-24
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

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