LL.M. Human Rights Law Semester 3: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

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1. Science Technology and Human Rights

   Official Notes munotes.in

   Science Technology and Human Rights

   LL.M. · SEMESTER 3

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

   For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in Group 4 Human Rights Law

   Science Technology and Human Rights

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What This Paper Is About 1
   2. What a Human Right Is 5
   3. The Right to Share in Scientific Advancement 9
   4. Privacy and Health in the Universal Declaration 13
   5. The Right to Science in the Covenant 17
   6. The Duty to Conserve, Develop and Diffuse Science 21
   7. Freedom Indispensable for Scientific Research 28
   8. International Co-operation in Science 36
   9. The Right to Health in the Covenant 42
   10. General Comment 25 and the Content of the Right 49
   11. Availability, Accessibility, Acceptability and Quality 57
   12. Participation in Scientific Progress 62
   13. Benefit Sharing 69
   14. Dual Use: the Same Technology Both Ways 78
   15. Scientific Temper as a Fundamental Duty 84
   16. Science Under Article 21 90
   17. Education and the Diffusion of Knowledge 98
   18. The Directive Principles on Health and Work 103
   19. The Environment in the Constitution 110
   20. The Scientist: Rights and Responsibilities 116

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. The Precautionary Principle 122
   2. How a Technology Becomes a Rights Question 129
   3. Privacy and Surveillance 136
   4. Bodily Integrity and Intervention Without Consent 142
   5. Equality and the Digital Divide 149
   6. Health and Medical Technology 155
   7. Work, Automation and Livelihood 160
   8. Expression and Information Technology 166
   9. Environment and Technological Harm 172
   10. Weapons, Warfare and the Right to Life 179
   11. Biotechnology, Genetics and Human Dignity 186
   12. Artificial Intelligence and Decisions by Machines 192
   13. Reproductive Technology and Autonomy 197
   14. Forensic Science and the Rights of the Accused 202
   15. Technology and the Rights of the Child 207
   16. Technology and Persons with Disabilities 213
   17. Access to Medicines and Patents 219
   18. The State's Duty to Regulate Technology 225
   19. Remedies When Technology Causes Harm 230

   Contents continued

   Module II

   1. What Medical Law Is 235
   2. The Doctor and the Patient 240
   3. The Right to Health Under Article 21 245
   4. Emergency Treatment and the Duty to Treat 251
   5. Informed Consent: the Principle 257
   6. Informed Consent: the Indian Standard 262
   7. Consent for a Person Who Cannot Consent 268
   8. Medical Confidentiality and Its Limits 274
   9. Health Data and Privacy 280
   10. Medical Negligence: the Civil Action 285
   11. Medical Negligence: the Criminal Standard 290
   12. Medical Services Under Consumer Law 295
   13. Compensation and How It Is Measured 300
   14. Regulating the Profession 305
   15. Regulating the Hospital 311
   16. Drugs, Standards and Control 316
   17. Clinical Trials and Research on Patients 322
   18. Access to Medicines: Price and Patent 329
   19. Organ Transplantation: the Scheme of the Act 335

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Brain Stem Death and the Law 342
   2. Transplantation: Regulation and Registration 348
   3. Trade in Organs and Its Punishment 354
   4. Termination of Pregnancy: the Act 360
   5. Abortion, Autonomy and the 2021 Amendment 367
   6. Sex Selection: the PCPNDT Scheme 373
   7. PCPNDT: Registration and Authorities 380
   8. PCPNDT: Offences and Enforcement 386
   9. Assisted Reproductive Technology: the Scheme 393
   10. ART: Donors, Consent and the Commissioning Couple 399
   11. ART: Authorities and the National Registry 406
   12. ART: Offences and Penalties 412
   13. Surrogacy: the Scheme of the Act 419
   14. Surrogacy: Clinics, Registration and Procedure 427
   15. Surrogacy: Boards and Appropriate Authorities 433
   16. Surrogacy: Offences, and the Rights Question 440
   17. Mental Health: Capacity and the Advance Directive 448
   18. The Nominated Representative 455
   19. The Rights of a Person with Mental Illness 461

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. HIV: Consent, Testing and Treatment 469
   2. HIV: Confidentiality and Disclosure 476
   3. HIV: Ombudsman, Courts and Remedies 484
   4. Euthanasia, the Living Will and Dying with Dignity 492
   5. Public Health Powers and Epidemics 499
   6. Medical Examination, Medical Evidence and the Accused 506
   7. The Unborn, the Newborn and the Law 513

   Module III

   1. What Ethics Adds to Law 520
   2. Human Experimentation Before Nuremberg 525
   3. The Nuremberg Code 530
   4. The Declaration of Helsinki 538
   5. Research Ethics Committees 544
   6. Free and Informed Consent in Research 550
   7. Vulnerable Participants and Exploitation 556
   8. Research Carried Out in Developing Countries 562
   9. Placebo, Standard of Care and After the Trial 569
   10. Registration, Publication and Research Integrity 576
   11. The Genome and Human Dignity 582

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. The Genome: Rights of the Person Concerned 588
   2. Research on the Genome and Its Limits 594
   3. The Genome: Solidarity and Implementation 601
   4. Genetic Data: What It Is and Why It Is Special 608
   5. Genetic Data: Collection and Consent 615
   6. Genetic Data: Access, Privacy and Quality 622
   7. Genetic Data: Use, Storage and Benefit Sharing 628
   8. The Bioethics Declaration: Scope and Aims 635
   9. The Bioethics Declaration: the Core Principles 641
   10. The Bioethics Declaration: Society and the Future 647
   11. The Bioethics Declaration: Applying the Principles 654
   12. The Bioethics Declaration: Promotion and Final Provisions 661
   13. Benefit Sharing, Biopiracy and Traditional Knowledge 669
   14. Precaution, Risk and Dual-Use Research 679
   15. The Ethics of Emerging Technology 688

   Module IV

   1. The Information Society and Human Rights 696
   2. Access to the Internet 702
   3. The Right to Information 710

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Privacy as a Fundamental Right 719
   2. Informational Privacy and the Proportionality Test 726
   3. Data Protection: Scope and Consent 734
   4. Data Protection: Duties of the Data Fiduciary 743
   5. Data Protection: Rights and Duties of the Data Principal 751
   6. Data Protection: Exemptions and the Board 759
   7. Data Protection: Penalties, Appeals and the Rest of the Act 769
   8. Surveillance, Interception and Monitoring 779
   9. Speech Online and Its Limits 788
   10. Intermediaries, Safe Harbour and Takedown 796
   11. Internet Shutdowns 809
   12. Cybercrime: the Scheme of the IT Act 818
   13. Identity Theft and Cheating by Personation 826
   14. Violation of Privacy and Obscene Material Online 833
   15. Cyber Terrorism: Section 66F 841
   16. Investigation, Jurisdiction and the Transnational Problem 849
   17. Digital Identity and Biometrics 857
   18. Children Online 866
   19. Disinformation, Elections and the Public Sphere 874

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. What a Normative Response Is 882
   2. The 1975 Declaration: How It Came About 889
   3. The 1975 Declaration: What It Obliges States To Do 895
   4. Article 15 of the Covenant Read Whole 903
   5. General Comment 25 as the Authoritative Reading 910
   6. The UNESCO Trilogy of 1997, 2003 and 2005 918
   7. Professional Self-Regulation as a Normative Response 925
   8. The Regional Response: the Council of Europe 932
   9. Special Procedures and the Special Rapporteur 939
   10. Reporting, Treaty Bodies and Enforcement 945
   11. India and the International Response 951
   12. The Gaps in the International Response 958
   13. Technologies That Did Not Exist in 1975 966

   Page 1 onwards

   973 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 973 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 145 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 39 chapters

   1. 1 What This Paper Is About pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 What a Human Right Is pages 5 to 8
   3. 3 The Right to Share in Scientific Advancement pages 9 to 12
   4. 4 Privacy and Health in the Universal Declaration pages 13 to 16
   5. 5 The Right to Science in the Covenant pages 17 to 20
   6. 6 The Duty to Conserve, Develop and Diffuse Science pages 21 to 27
   7. 7 Freedom Indispensable for Scientific Research pages 28 to 35
   8. 8 International Co-operation in Science pages 36 to 41
   9. 9 The Right to Health in the Covenant pages 42 to 48
   10. 10 General Comment 25 and the Content of the Right pages 49 to 56
   11. 11 Availability, Accessibility, Acceptability and Quality pages 57 to 61
   12. 12 Participation in Scientific Progress pages 62 to 68
   13. 13 Benefit Sharing pages 69 to 77
   14. 14 Dual Use: the Same Technology Both Ways pages 78 to 83
   15. 15 Scientific Temper as a Fundamental Duty pages 84 to 89
   16. 16 Science Under Article 21 pages 90 to 97
   17. 17 Education and the Diffusion of Knowledge pages 98 to 102
   18. 18 The Directive Principles on Health and Work pages 103 to 109
   19. 19 The Environment in the Constitution pages 110 to 115
   20. 20 The Scientist: Rights and Responsibilities pages 116 to 121
   21. 21 The Precautionary Principle pages 122 to 128
   22. 22 How a Technology Becomes a Rights Question pages 129 to 135
   23. 23 Privacy and Surveillance pages 136 to 141
   24. 24 Bodily Integrity and Intervention Without Consent pages 142 to 148
   25. 25 Equality and the Digital Divide pages 149 to 154
   26. 26 Health and Medical Technology pages 155 to 159
   27. 27 Work, Automation and Livelihood pages 160 to 165
   28. 28 Expression and Information Technology pages 166 to 171
   29. 29 Environment and Technological Harm pages 172 to 178
   30. 30 Weapons, Warfare and the Right to Life pages 179 to 185
   31. 31 Biotechnology, Genetics and Human Dignity pages 186 to 191
   32. 32 Artificial Intelligence and Decisions by Machines pages 192 to 196
   33. 33 Reproductive Technology and Autonomy pages 197 to 201
   34. 34 Forensic Science and the Rights of the Accused pages 202 to 206
   35. 35 Technology and the Rights of the Child pages 207 to 212
   36. 36 Technology and Persons with Disabilities pages 213 to 218
   37. 37 Access to Medicines and Patents pages 219 to 224
   38. 38 The State's Duty to Regulate Technology pages 225 to 229
   39. 39 Remedies When Technology Causes Harm pages 230 to 234

   Module II 45 chapters

   1. 40 What Medical Law Is pages 235 to 239
   2. 41 The Doctor and the Patient pages 240 to 244
   3. 42 The Right to Health Under Article 21 pages 245 to 250
   4. 43 Emergency Treatment and the Duty to Treat pages 251 to 256
   5. 44 Informed Consent: the Principle pages 257 to 261
   6. 45 Informed Consent: the Indian Standard pages 262 to 267
   7. 46 Consent for a Person Who Cannot Consent pages 268 to 273
   8. 47 Medical Confidentiality and Its Limits pages 274 to 279
   9. 48 Health Data and Privacy pages 280 to 284
   10. 49 Medical Negligence: the Civil Action pages 285 to 289
   11. 50 Medical Negligence: the Criminal Standard pages 290 to 294
   12. 51 Medical Services Under Consumer Law pages 295 to 299
   13. 52 Compensation and How It Is Measured pages 300 to 304
   14. 53 Regulating the Profession pages 305 to 310
   15. 54 Regulating the Hospital pages 311 to 315
   16. 55 Drugs, Standards and Control pages 316 to 321
   17. 56 Clinical Trials and Research on Patients pages 322 to 328
   18. 57 Access to Medicines: Price and Patent pages 329 to 334
   19. 58 Organ Transplantation: the Scheme of the Act pages 335 to 341
   20. 59 Brain Stem Death and the Law pages 342 to 347
   21. 60 Transplantation: Regulation and Registration pages 348 to 353
   22. 61 Trade in Organs and Its Punishment pages 354 to 359
   23. 62 Termination of Pregnancy: the Act pages 360 to 366
   24. 63 Abortion, Autonomy and the 2021 Amendment pages 367 to 372
   25. 64 Sex Selection: the PCPNDT Scheme pages 373 to 379
   26. 65 PCPNDT: Registration and Authorities pages 380 to 385
   27. 66 PCPNDT: Offences and Enforcement pages 386 to 392
   28. 67 Assisted Reproductive Technology: the Scheme pages 393 to 398
   29. 68 ART: Donors, Consent and the Commissioning Couple pages 399 to 405
   30. 69 ART: Authorities and the National Registry pages 406 to 411
   31. 70 ART: Offences and Penalties pages 412 to 418
   32. 71 Surrogacy: the Scheme of the Act pages 419 to 426
   33. 72 Surrogacy: Clinics, Registration and Procedure pages 427 to 432
   34. 73 Surrogacy: Boards and Appropriate Authorities pages 433 to 439
   35. 74 Surrogacy: Offences, and the Rights Question pages 440 to 447
   36. 75 Mental Health: Capacity and the Advance Directive pages 448 to 454
   37. 76 The Nominated Representative pages 455 to 460
   38. 77 The Rights of a Person with Mental Illness pages 461 to 468
   39. 78 HIV: Consent, Testing and Treatment pages 469 to 475
   40. 79 HIV: Confidentiality and Disclosure pages 476 to 483
   41. 80 HIV: Ombudsman, Courts and Remedies pages 484 to 491
   42. 81 Euthanasia, the Living Will and Dying with Dignity pages 492 to 498
   43. 82 Public Health Powers and Epidemics pages 499 to 505
   44. 83 Medical Examination, Medical Evidence and the Accused pages 506 to 512
   45. 84 The Unborn, the Newborn and the Law pages 513 to 519

   Module III 26 chapters

   1. 85 What Ethics Adds to Law pages 520 to 524
   2. 86 Human Experimentation Before Nuremberg pages 525 to 529
   3. 87 The Nuremberg Code pages 530 to 537
   4. 88 The Declaration of Helsinki pages 538 to 543
   5. 89 Research Ethics Committees pages 544 to 549
   6. 90 Free and Informed Consent in Research pages 550 to 555
   7. 91 Vulnerable Participants and Exploitation pages 556 to 561
   8. 92 Research Carried Out in Developing Countries pages 562 to 568
   9. 93 Placebo, Standard of Care and After the Trial pages 569 to 575
   10. 94 Registration, Publication and Research Integrity pages 576 to 581
   11. 95 The Genome and Human Dignity pages 582 to 587
   12. 96 The Genome: Rights of the Person Concerned pages 588 to 593
   13. 97 Research on the Genome and Its Limits pages 594 to 600
   14. 98 The Genome: Solidarity and Implementation pages 601 to 607
   15. 99 Genetic Data: What It Is and Why It Is Special pages 608 to 614
   16. 100 Genetic Data: Collection and Consent pages 615 to 621
   17. 101 Genetic Data: Access, Privacy and Quality pages 622 to 627
   18. 102 Genetic Data: Use, Storage and Benefit Sharing pages 628 to 634
   19. 103 The Bioethics Declaration: Scope and Aims pages 635 to 640
   20. 104 The Bioethics Declaration: the Core Principles pages 641 to 646
   21. 105 The Bioethics Declaration: Society and the Future pages 647 to 653
   22. 106 The Bioethics Declaration: Applying the Principles pages 654 to 660
   23. 107 The Bioethics Declaration: Promotion and Final Provisions pages 661 to 668
   24. 108 Benefit Sharing, Biopiracy and Traditional Knowledge pages 669 to 678
   25. 109 Precaution, Risk and Dual-Use Research pages 679 to 687
   26. 110 The Ethics of Emerging Technology pages 688 to 695

   Module IV 35 chapters

   1. 111 The Information Society and Human Rights pages 696 to 701
   2. 112 Access to the Internet pages 702 to 709
   3. 113 The Right to Information pages 710 to 718
   4. 114 Privacy as a Fundamental Right pages 719 to 725
   5. 115 Informational Privacy and the Proportionality Test pages 726 to 733
   6. 116 Data Protection: Scope and Consent pages 734 to 742
   7. 117 Data Protection: Duties of the Data Fiduciary pages 743 to 750
   8. 118 Data Protection: Rights and Duties of the Data Principal pages 751 to 758
   9. 119 Data Protection: Exemptions and the Board pages 759 to 768
   10. 120 Data Protection: Penalties, Appeals and the Rest of the Act pages 769 to 778
   11. 121 Surveillance, Interception and Monitoring pages 779 to 787
   12. 122 Speech Online and Its Limits pages 788 to 795
   13. 123 Intermediaries, Safe Harbour and Takedown pages 796 to 808
   14. 124 Internet Shutdowns pages 809 to 817
   15. 125 Cybercrime: the Scheme of the IT Act pages 818 to 825
   16. 126 Identity Theft and Cheating by Personation pages 826 to 832
   17. 127 Violation of Privacy and Obscene Material Online pages 833 to 840
   18. 128 Cyber Terrorism: Section 66F pages 841 to 848
   19. 129 Investigation, Jurisdiction and the Transnational Problem pages 849 to 856
   20. 130 Digital Identity and Biometrics pages 857 to 865
   21. 131 Children Online pages 866 to 873
   22. 132 Disinformation, Elections and the Public Sphere pages 874 to 881
   23. 133 What a Normative Response Is pages 882 to 888
   24. 134 The 1975 Declaration: How It Came About pages 889 to 894
   25. 135 The 1975 Declaration: What It Obliges States To Do pages 895 to 902
   26. 136 Article 15 of the Covenant Read Whole pages 903 to 909
   27. 137 General Comment 25 as the Authoritative Reading pages 910 to 917
   28. 138 The UNESCO Trilogy of 1997, 2003 and 2005 pages 918 to 924
   29. 139 Professional Self-Regulation as a Normative Response pages 925 to 931
   30. 140 The Regional Response: the Council of Europe pages 932 to 938
   31. 141 Special Procedures and the Special Rapporteur pages 939 to 944
   32. 142 Reporting, Treaty Bodies and Enforcement pages 945 to 950
   33. 143 India and the International Response pages 951 to 957
   34. 144 The Gaps in the International Response pages 958 to 965
   35. 145 Technologies That Did Not Exist in 1975 pages 966 to 973
   Every paper that is solved: 1 paper

   • 2025-26

2. International Humanitarian Law and Refugee Law

   Official Notes munotes.in

   International Humanitarian Law and Refugee Law

   LL.M. · SEMESTER 3

   Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

   For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

   munotes.in Group 4 Human Rights Law

   International Humanitarian Law and Refugee Law

   Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

   Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

   This book is for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

   Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

   The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

   munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

   Contents

   Module I

   1. What This Paper Is About 1
   2. What International Humanitarian Law Is 5
   3. Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law 9
   4. The Humanization of Welfare, and the Term the Field Uses 13
   5. The Law of Geneva and the Law of The Hague 17
   6. When Humanitarian Law Applies 21
   7. Common Article 1, and the Duty to Ensure Respect 25
   8. Common Article 3: the Convention in Miniature 29
   9. The Martens Clause 33
   10. The Principle of Distinction 37
   11. Proportionality, and Precautions in Attack 41
   12. Military Necessity, and Humanity 46
   13. The First Convention: the Wounded and Sick in the Field 50
   14. The Wounded and Sick: Articles 12 to 18 54
   15. Medical Units, Establishments and Personnel 59
   16. Buildings, Material and Medical Transports 64
   17. The Distinctive Emblem 68
   18. The First Convention: Execution and Repression 73
   19. The Second Convention: War at Sea 78
   20. The Shipwrecked, and What Shipwreck Means 82

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. Hospital Ships 87
   2. Medical Personnel at Sea, and the Emblem 93
   3. The Second Convention: Execution 98
   4. The Humanization of Welfare in Maritime Conflict 102
   5. Prisoners of War: Who Qualifies 107
   6. The General Protection of Prisoners of War 112
   7. Capture, Questioning and Evacuation 117
   8. Internment: Quarters, Food and Clothing 122
   9. Hygiene, Medical Attention, Religion and Recreation 127
   10. Discipline, Rank and Transfer 132
   11. The Labour of Prisoners of War 138
   12. Financial Resources 144
   13. Relations with the Exterior 150
   14. Complaints, and the Prisoners' Representative 156
   15. The Penal and Disciplinary Regime: General Provisions 161
   16. Disciplinary Sanctions 166
   17. Judicial Proceedings 172
   18. Repatriation and Accommodation in Neutral Countries 178
   19. Release at the Close of Hostilities 183

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. The Information Bureau and the Central Agency 188
   2. The Third Convention: Execution and Grave Breaches 193
   3. Civilians: Who Is a Protected Person 198
   4. Provisions for the Whole of the Populations 204
   5. Article 27, and the General Protection of Protected Persons 211
   6. Collective Penalties, Hostages, Reprisals and Pillage 217
   7. Aliens in the Territory of a Party to the Conflict 222
   8. Occupied Territory: the Basic Rules 228
   9. Occupation: Administration, Supplies and Property 235
   10. The Treatment of Internees 243
   11. Internees: Penal Sanctions, Transfers and Release 251
   12. The Fourth Convention: Execution and Grave Breaches 258
   13. Cultural Property: What Is Protected 264
   14. Special Protection, Transport and the Emblem 270
   15. The Additional Protocols of 1977 277
   16. Protocol I: the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked 283
   17. The Missing and the Dead 290
   18. Methods and Means of Warfare 296
   19. Civil Defence, Relief and the Natural Environment 303

   Contents continued

   Module I continued

   1. Article 75, and the Fundamental Guarantees 310
   2. Women, Children and the Family 316
   3. Protocol II: Non-International Armed Conflict 323

   Module II

   1. Why the Control of Weapons Is Part of This Law 332
   2. The Two Tests: Superfluous Injury, and Indiscriminate Effect 337
   3. The Limit on the Choice of Means and Methods 342
   4. Poison, and the Geneva Protocol of 1925 347
   5. The Biological Weapons Convention: the Prohibition 352
   6. The Biological Weapons Convention: Machinery, and What It Lacks 358
   7. The Chemical Weapons Convention: the Prohibition 364
   8. The Chemical Weapons Convention: Verification and the OPCW 370
   9. The Non-Proliferation Treaty: the Bargain 376
   10. Article VI, and the Obligation to Negotiate 382
   11. Is the Use of Nuclear Weapons Lawful? 387
   12. The Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons 393
   13. The CCW Protocols: Fragments, Mines, Incendiaries, Lasers and Remnants 399
   14. Landmines and Cluster Munitions 405

   Contents continued

   Module II continued

   1. Proliferation, and What a Treaty Can Control 412
   2. New Weapons, and the Duty to Review Them 417
   3. The Control of Weapons Assessed 423

   Module III

   1. What Implementation Means, and Why It Is the Hard Half 428
   2. Dissemination, Legal Advisers and the Duty of Commanders 433
   3. Grave Breaches, and the Obligation to Prosecute 439
   4. Universal Jurisdiction over Grave Breaches 446
   5. Command Responsibility 451
   6. Protecting Powers, and Their Substitutes 457
   7. The International Fact-Finding Commission 464
   8. The International Committee of the Red Cross: What It Is 470
   9. The ICRC's Treaty Functions 475
   10. The Right of Humanitarian Initiative, and Confidentiality as a Method 481
   11. The Movement: the Committee, the Federation and the National Societies 487
   12. National Legislation: How a State Implements the Conventions 493
   13. India's Geneva Conventions Act 1960: the Offences 498
   14. The Geneva Conventions Act 1960: Procedure and the Emblem 504

   Contents continued

   Module III continued

   1. What India Has Not Legislated For 511
   2. From Nuremberg to the Ad Hoc Tribunals 517
   3. The International Criminal Court: the War Crimes Article 523
   4. Complementarity, and Responsibility Under the Statute 530
   5. Reparation, State Responsibility and the Victim 537
   6. Why Implementation Fails 543

   Module IV

   1. The Concept of Refugees: Why the Category Exists 549
   2. The Definition in Article 1A(2) 554
   3. The Five Grounds, and Membership of a Particular Social Group 560
   4. Well-Founded Fear, and Persecution 565
   5. What the 1967 Protocol Changed 570
   6. Cessation, and the Exclusion Clauses 575
   7. Wider Definitions: the OAU Convention and Cartagena 581
   8. Displaced Persons, and How They Differ 589
   9. Stateless Persons 595
   10. Asylum Seekers, Migrants and the Limits of the Category 601
   11. Non-Refoulement 606

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. The Rights of a Refugee Under the Convention 612
   2. Article 31, and Refugees Unlawfully in the Country of Refuge 619
   3. From the Nansen Passport to UNRRA and the IRO 624
   4. Climate, Disaster and Conflict Displacement 630
   5. Strategies to Combat the Refugee Problem 636
   6. UNHCR: the Statute and the Mandate 641
   7. Article 35, and UNHCR's Duty of Supervision 647
   8. Determination of Status, Registration and Documentation 653
   9. The Three Durable Solutions 659
   10. Voluntary Repatriation 664
   11. Local Integration 669
   12. Resettlement 674
   13. Burden Sharing, and the Global Compact on Refugees 679
   14. Mass Influx, Temporary Protection and Camps 685
   15. Root Causes, and Prevention 690
   16. India: No Refugee Statute, and What Governs Instead 695
   17. The Immigration and Foreigners Act 2025 701
   18. Constitutional Protection for a Refugee in India 708
   19. UNHCR's Relationship and Operations in India 714

   Contents continued

   Module IV continued

   1. Why India Has Not Ratified, and the Arguments Each Way 719
   2. What the Refugee Regime Has and Has Not Achieved 726

   Page 1 onwards

   731 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

   Notes

   2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 731 pages.

   Papers

   Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2026

   Every chapter in the notes: 130 chapters across 4 modules

   Module I 61 chapters

   1. 1 What This Paper Is About pages 1 to 4
   2. 2 What International Humanitarian Law Is pages 5 to 8
   3. 3 Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law pages 9 to 12
   4. 4 The Humanization of Welfare, and the Term the Field Uses pages 13 to 16
   5. 5 The Law of Geneva and the Law of The Hague pages 17 to 20
   6. 6 When Humanitarian Law Applies pages 21 to 24
   7. 7 Common Article 1, and the Duty to Ensure Respect pages 25 to 28
   8. 8 Common Article 3: the Convention in Miniature pages 29 to 32
   9. 9 The Martens Clause pages 33 to 36
   10. 10 The Principle of Distinction pages 37 to 40
   11. 11 Proportionality, and Precautions in Attack pages 41 to 45
   12. 12 Military Necessity, and Humanity pages 46 to 49
   13. 13 The First Convention: the Wounded and Sick in the Field pages 50 to 53
   14. 14 The Wounded and Sick: Articles 12 to 18 pages 54 to 58
   15. 15 Medical Units, Establishments and Personnel pages 59 to 63
   16. 16 Buildings, Material and Medical Transports pages 64 to 67
   17. 17 The Distinctive Emblem pages 68 to 72
   18. 18 The First Convention: Execution and Repression pages 73 to 77
   19. 19 The Second Convention: War at Sea pages 78 to 81
   20. 20 The Shipwrecked, and What Shipwreck Means pages 82 to 86
   21. 21 Hospital Ships pages 87 to 92
   22. 22 Medical Personnel at Sea, and the Emblem pages 93 to 97
   23. 23 The Second Convention: Execution pages 98 to 101
   24. 24 The Humanization of Welfare in Maritime Conflict pages 102 to 106
   25. 25 Prisoners of War: Who Qualifies pages 107 to 111
   26. 26 The General Protection of Prisoners of War pages 112 to 116
   27. 27 Capture, Questioning and Evacuation pages 117 to 121
   28. 28 Internment: Quarters, Food and Clothing pages 122 to 126
   29. 29 Hygiene, Medical Attention, Religion and Recreation pages 127 to 131
   30. 30 Discipline, Rank and Transfer pages 132 to 137
   31. 31 The Labour of Prisoners of War pages 138 to 143
   32. 32 Financial Resources pages 144 to 149
   33. 33 Relations with the Exterior pages 150 to 155
   34. 34 Complaints, and the Prisoners' Representative pages 156 to 160
   35. 35 The Penal and Disciplinary Regime: General Provisions pages 161 to 165
   36. 36 Disciplinary Sanctions pages 166 to 171
   37. 37 Judicial Proceedings pages 172 to 177
   38. 38 Repatriation and Accommodation in Neutral Countries pages 178 to 182
   39. 39 Release at the Close of Hostilities pages 183 to 187
   40. 40 The Information Bureau and the Central Agency pages 188 to 192
   41. 41 The Third Convention: Execution and Grave Breaches pages 193 to 197
   42. 42 Civilians: Who Is a Protected Person pages 198 to 203
   43. 43 Provisions for the Whole of the Populations pages 204 to 210
   44. 44 Article 27, and the General Protection of Protected Persons pages 211 to 216
   45. 45 Collective Penalties, Hostages, Reprisals and Pillage pages 217 to 221
   46. 46 Aliens in the Territory of a Party to the Conflict pages 222 to 227
   47. 47 Occupied Territory: the Basic Rules pages 228 to 234
   48. 48 Occupation: Administration, Supplies and Property pages 235 to 242
   49. 49 The Treatment of Internees pages 243 to 250
   50. 50 Internees: Penal Sanctions, Transfers and Release pages 251 to 257
   51. 51 The Fourth Convention: Execution and Grave Breaches pages 258 to 263
   52. 52 Cultural Property: What Is Protected pages 264 to 269
   53. 53 Special Protection, Transport and the Emblem pages 270 to 276
   54. 54 The Additional Protocols of 1977 pages 277 to 282
   55. 55 Protocol I: the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked pages 283 to 289
   56. 56 The Missing and the Dead pages 290 to 295
   57. 57 Methods and Means of Warfare pages 296 to 302
   58. 58 Civil Defence, Relief and the Natural Environment pages 303 to 309
   59. 59 Article 75, and the Fundamental Guarantees pages 310 to 315
   60. 60 Women, Children and the Family pages 316 to 322
   61. 61 Protocol II: Non-International Armed Conflict pages 323 to 331

   Module II 17 chapters

   1. 62 Why the Control of Weapons Is Part of This Law pages 332 to 336
   2. 63 The Two Tests: Superfluous Injury, and Indiscriminate Effect pages 337 to 341
   3. 64 The Limit on the Choice of Means and Methods pages 342 to 346
   4. 65 Poison, and the Geneva Protocol of 1925 pages 347 to 351
   5. 66 The Biological Weapons Convention: the Prohibition pages 352 to 357
   6. 67 The Biological Weapons Convention: Machinery, and What It Lacks pages 358 to 363
   7. 68 The Chemical Weapons Convention: the Prohibition pages 364 to 369
   8. 69 The Chemical Weapons Convention: Verification and the OPCW pages 370 to 375
   9. 70 The Non-Proliferation Treaty: the Bargain pages 376 to 381
   10. 71 Article VI, and the Obligation to Negotiate pages 382 to 386
   11. 72 Is the Use of Nuclear Weapons Lawful? pages 387 to 392
   12. 73 The Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons pages 393 to 398
   13. 74 The CCW Protocols: Fragments, Mines, Incendiaries, Lasers and Remnants pages 399 to 404
   14. 75 Landmines and Cluster Munitions pages 405 to 411
   15. 76 Proliferation, and What a Treaty Can Control pages 412 to 416
   16. 77 New Weapons, and the Duty to Review Them pages 417 to 422
   17. 78 The Control of Weapons Assessed pages 423 to 427

   Module III 20 chapters

   1. 79 What Implementation Means, and Why It Is the Hard Half pages 428 to 432
   2. 80 Dissemination, Legal Advisers and the Duty of Commanders pages 433 to 438
   3. 81 Grave Breaches, and the Obligation to Prosecute pages 439 to 445
   4. 82 Universal Jurisdiction over Grave Breaches pages 446 to 450
   5. 83 Command Responsibility pages 451 to 456
   6. 84 Protecting Powers, and Their Substitutes pages 457 to 463
   7. 85 The International Fact-Finding Commission pages 464 to 469
   8. 86 The International Committee of the Red Cross: What It Is pages 470 to 474
   9. 87 The ICRC's Treaty Functions pages 475 to 480
   10. 88 The Right of Humanitarian Initiative, and Confidentiality as a Method pages 481 to 486
   11. 89 The Movement: the Committee, the Federation and the National Societies pages 487 to 492
   12. 90 National Legislation: How a State Implements the Conventions pages 493 to 497
   13. 91 India's Geneva Conventions Act 1960: the Offences pages 498 to 503
   14. 92 The Geneva Conventions Act 1960: Procedure and the Emblem pages 504 to 510
   15. 93 What India Has Not Legislated For pages 511 to 516
   16. 94 From Nuremberg to the Ad Hoc Tribunals pages 517 to 522
   17. 95 The International Criminal Court: the War Crimes Article pages 523 to 529
   18. 96 Complementarity, and Responsibility Under the Statute pages 530 to 536
   19. 97 Reparation, State Responsibility and the Victim pages 537 to 542
   20. 98 Why Implementation Fails pages 543 to 548

   Module IV 32 chapters

   1. 99 The Concept of Refugees: Why the Category Exists pages 549 to 553
   2. 100 The Definition in Article 1A(2) pages 554 to 559
   3. 101 The Five Grounds, and Membership of a Particular Social Group pages 560 to 564
   4. 102 Well-Founded Fear, and Persecution pages 565 to 569
   5. 103 What the 1967 Protocol Changed pages 570 to 574
   6. 104 Cessation, and the Exclusion Clauses pages 575 to 580
   7. 105 Wider Definitions: the OAU Convention and Cartagena pages 581 to 588
   8. 106 Displaced Persons, and How They Differ pages 589 to 594
   9. 107 Stateless Persons pages 595 to 600
   10. 108 Asylum Seekers, Migrants and the Limits of the Category pages 601 to 605
   11. 109 Non-Refoulement pages 606 to 611
   12. 110 The Rights of a Refugee Under the Convention pages 612 to 618
   13. 111 Article 31, and Refugees Unlawfully in the Country of Refuge pages 619 to 623
   14. 112 From the Nansen Passport to UNRRA and the IRO pages 624 to 629
   15. 113 Climate, Disaster and Conflict Displacement pages 630 to 635
   16. 114 Strategies to Combat the Refugee Problem pages 636 to 640
   17. 115 UNHCR: the Statute and the Mandate pages 641 to 646
   18. 116 Article 35, and UNHCR's Duty of Supervision pages 647 to 652
   19. 117 Determination of Status, Registration and Documentation pages 653 to 658
   20. 118 The Three Durable Solutions pages 659 to 663
   21. 119 Voluntary Repatriation pages 664 to 668
   22. 120 Local Integration pages 669 to 673
   23. 121 Resettlement pages 674 to 678
   24. 122 Burden Sharing, and the Global Compact on Refugees pages 679 to 684
   25. 123 Mass Influx, Temporary Protection and Camps pages 685 to 689
   26. 124 Root Causes, and Prevention pages 690 to 694
   27. 125 India: No Refugee Statute, and What Governs Instead pages 695 to 700
   28. 126 The Immigration and Foreigners Act 2025 pages 701 to 707
   29. 127 Constitutional Protection for a Refugee in India pages 708 to 713
   30. 128 UNHCR's Relationship and Operations in India pages 714 to 718
   31. 129 Why India Has Not Ratified, and the Arguments Each Way pages 719 to 725
   32. 130 What the Refugee Regime Has and Has Not Achieved pages 726 to 731
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