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LL.M. Human Rights Law Semester 1: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

For students of Mumbai University and all its affiliated colleges.

As per latest University of Mumbai syllabus

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  1. Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Indian Constitutional Law New Challenges

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. How to Read the Constitution 1
    2. What Federalism Is 5
    3. Is India a Federation? 9
    4. The Union and Its Territory 15
    5. Making and Remaking States 19
    6. The Legislative Lists 24
    7. Pith and Substance 29
    8. Colourable Legislation and Incidental Encroachment 34
    9. Repugnancy and the Occupied Field 39
    10. Residuary Power 44
    11. When Parliament May Legislate on a State Subject 48
    12. The Reach of a Legislature 52
    13. Administrative Relations and Federal Comity 56
    14. Inter-State Water Disputes 61
    15. The Inter-State Council and the Commissions 66
    16. Fiscal Federalism 70
    17. The Goods and Services Tax and Its Council 76
    18. Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse 81
    19. The Governor 86
    20. Emergency and the Federal Balance 92
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. President's Rule 98
    2. Article 370 103
    3. Asymmetric Federalism: Articles 371 to 371-J 108
    4. Union and State Disputes in Court 113
    5. Cooperative and Competitive Federalism 117
    6. Why the Definition of "State" Decides Everything 122
    7. The Named Authorities 126
    8. "Other Authorities": The Early Cases 130
    9. The Instrumentality Test 134
    10. The Retreat, and What Survived It 139
    11. Is the Judiciary "State"? 144
    12. Private Bodies and Public Functions 148
    13. Liberalisation, Privatisation and the Case for Widening Article 12 152
    14. Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights 157
    15. Eclipse, Severability and Waiver 162

    Module II

    1. The Equality Code 167
    2. Equality Before the Law and Equal Protection 171
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Reasonable Classification 175
    2. Arbitrariness 179
    3. Articles 15 and 16: The Prohibited Grounds 184
    4. Reservation in Education 188
    5. Reservation in Public Employment 192
    6. The Ceiling on Reservation 196
    7. The Creamy Layer 200
    8. Reservation in Promotion 205
    9. Economically Weaker Sections 209
    10. The Lists, and the Commissions That Watch Them 213
    11. Protective Discrimination 218
    12. Privatisation and Affirmative Action 222
    13. Saving of Laws: Articles 31A, 31B and 31C 227
    14. Untouchability and Titles 232
    15. The Empowerment of Women: The Constitutional Scheme 236
    16. Special Provision for Women 240
    17. Women at Work 244
    18. Sexual Harassment at the Workplace 249
    19. Women, Religion and Personal Law 254
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Women in Local Government 259
    2. The 106th Amendment, and Why It Has Not Started 263
    3. Freedom of Speech, and the Freedom of the Press Inside It 267
    4. The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction 271
    5. Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship 275
    6. The Press and the Legislature 279
    7. The Right to Information 283
    8. Speech Online 287
    9. Privacy, Surveillance and Data 292
    10. Hate Speech, Fake News and Broadcasting 296
    11. New Scientific Development and the Freedom of Speech 301

    Module III

    1. Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka 305
    2. Procedure Established by Law 311
    3. The Expansion of "Life" 316
    4. Livelihood and Shelter 321
    5. Health and the Environment 327
    6. Education Before Article 21A 333
    7. Article 21A and the Right to Education Act 339
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Privacy 345
    2. Dignity, Autonomy and the End of Life 350
    3. Article 20: The Protections of an Accused 356
    4. Preventive Detention 362
    5. The Right Against Exploitation 368
    6. Article 32 and the Writs 374
    7. Article 226 380
    8. Limits: Articles 33, 34 and 35 386
    9. Public Interest Litigation 392
    10. Compensatory Jurisprudence 398
    11. Continuing Mandamus and Judicial Guidelines 404
    12. Hartal and Bandh 410
    13. The Right to Property 416
    14. The Directive Principles 422
    15. The Fundamental Duties 428
    16. Who Is a Minority? 434
    17. Article 29: The Right to Conserve 440
    18. Article 30: To Establish and to Administer 446
    19. State Control and Regulation 452
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. The Eleven-Judge Answer 458
    2. After the Eleven-Judge Answer 463
    3. Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act 469
    4. Linguistic Minorities 475
    5. What Secularism Means Here 481
    6. Articles 25 and 26 487
    7. Essential Religious Practices 493
    8. Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction 499
    9. Secularism as a Basic Feature 505
    10. Religious Fanaticism 511
    11. A Uniform Civil Code 517

    Module IV

    1. Separation of Powers: The Doctrine 523
    2. The Indian Scheme 529
    3. Delegated Legislation 535
    4. Judicial Review 541
    5. Ultra Vires 547
    6. The Amending Power 553
    7. The Basic Structure 559
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Appointment of Judges 565
    2. The National Judicial Appointments Commission 571
    3. Transfer and Removal of Judges 577
    4. Judicial Independence 583
    5. Judicial Accountability 589
    6. Judicial Activism, Restraint and Overreach 595
    7. Legislative Privilege 601
    8. Advisory Jurisdiction 607
    9. Complete Justice: Article 142 613
    10. The Supreme Court 619
    11. The High Courts 625
    12. The Subordinate Judiciary 631
    13. Tribunals 636
    14. The Rule of Law 642
    15. Democracy and Free and Fair Elections 648
    16. The Election Commission 654
    17. Articles 325 to 329 660
    18. The Voter's Right to Know 666
    19. Electoral Reform and the Criminalisation of Politics 671
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Funding of Elections 677
    2. Defection and the Tenth Schedule 683
    3. Grass Root Democracy: The Panchayats 689
    4. Urban Local Government: The Municipalities 695
    5. The Nexus of Politics, Crime and Business 701
    6. The New Challenges 707
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    711 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 711 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 136 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 35 chapters

    1. 1 How to Read the Constitution pages 1–4
    2. 2 What Federalism Is pages 5–8
    3. 3 Is India a Federation? pages 9–14
    4. 4 The Union and Its Territory pages 15–18
    5. 5 Making and Remaking States pages 19–23
    6. 6 The Legislative Lists pages 24–28
    7. 7 Pith and Substance pages 29–33
    8. 8 Colourable Legislation and Incidental Encroachment pages 34–38
    9. 9 Repugnancy and the Occupied Field pages 39–43
    10. 10 Residuary Power pages 44–47
    11. 11 When Parliament May Legislate on a State Subject pages 48–51
    12. 12 The Reach of a Legislature pages 52–55
    13. 13 Administrative Relations and Federal Comity pages 56–60
    14. 14 Inter-State Water Disputes pages 61–65
    15. 15 The Inter-State Council and the Commissions pages 66–69
    16. 16 Fiscal Federalism pages 70–75
    17. 17 The Goods and Services Tax and Its Council pages 76–80
    18. 18 Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse pages 81–85
    19. 19 The Governor pages 86–91
    20. 20 Emergency and the Federal Balance pages 92–97
    21. 21 President's Rule pages 98–102
    22. 22 Article 370 pages 103–107
    23. 23 Asymmetric Federalism: Articles 371 to 371-J pages 108–112
    24. 24 Union and State Disputes in Court pages 113–116
    25. 25 Cooperative and Competitive Federalism pages 117–121
    26. 26 Why the Definition of "State" Decides Everything pages 122–125
    27. 27 The Named Authorities pages 126–129
    28. 28 "Other Authorities": The Early Cases pages 130–133
    29. 29 The Instrumentality Test pages 134–138
    30. 30 The Retreat, and What Survived It pages 139–143
    31. 31 Is the Judiciary "State"? pages 144–147
    32. 32 Private Bodies and Public Functions pages 148–151
    33. 33 Liberalisation, Privatisation and the Case for Widening Article 12 pages 152–156
    34. 34 Article 13: Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights pages 157–161
    35. 35 Eclipse, Severability and Waiver pages 162–166

    Module II 32 chapters

    1. 36 The Equality Code pages 167–170
    2. 37 Equality Before the Law and Equal Protection pages 171–174
    3. 38 Reasonable Classification pages 175–178
    4. 39 Arbitrariness pages 179–183
    5. 40 Articles 15 and 16: The Prohibited Grounds pages 184–187
    6. 41 Reservation in Education pages 188–191
    7. 42 Reservation in Public Employment pages 192–195
    8. 43 The Ceiling on Reservation pages 196–199
    9. 44 The Creamy Layer pages 200–204
    10. 45 Reservation in Promotion pages 205–208
    11. 46 Economically Weaker Sections pages 209–212
    12. 47 The Lists, and the Commissions That Watch Them pages 213–217
    13. 48 Protective Discrimination pages 218–221
    14. 49 Privatisation and Affirmative Action pages 222–226
    15. 50 Saving of Laws: Articles 31A, 31B and 31C pages 227–231
    16. 51 Untouchability and Titles pages 232–235
    17. 52 The Empowerment of Women: The Constitutional Scheme pages 236–239
    18. 53 Special Provision for Women pages 240–243
    19. 54 Women at Work pages 244–248
    20. 55 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace pages 249–253
    21. 56 Women, Religion and Personal Law pages 254–258
    22. 57 Women in Local Government pages 259–262
    23. 58 The 106th Amendment, and Why It Has Not Started pages 263–266
    24. 59 Freedom of Speech, and the Freedom of the Press Inside It pages 267–270
    25. 60 The Grounds of Reasonable Restriction pages 271–274
    26. 61 Prior Restraint and Pre-Censorship pages 275–278
    27. 62 The Press and the Legislature pages 279–282
    28. 63 The Right to Information pages 283–286
    29. 64 Speech Online pages 287–291
    30. 65 Privacy, Surveillance and Data pages 292–295
    31. 66 Hate Speech, Fake News and Broadcasting pages 296–300
    32. 67 New Scientific Development and the Freedom of Speech pages 301–304

    Module III 37 chapters

    1. 68 Article 21: From Gopalan to Maneka pages 305–310
    2. 69 Procedure Established by Law pages 311–315
    3. 70 The Expansion of "Life" pages 316–320
    4. 71 Livelihood and Shelter pages 321–326
    5. 72 Health and the Environment pages 327–332
    6. 73 Education Before Article 21A pages 333–338
    7. 74 Article 21A and the Right to Education Act pages 339–344
    8. 75 Privacy pages 345–349
    9. 76 Dignity, Autonomy and the End of Life pages 350–355
    10. 77 Article 20: The Protections of an Accused pages 356–361
    11. 78 Preventive Detention pages 362–367
    12. 79 The Right Against Exploitation pages 368–373
    13. 80 Article 32 and the Writs pages 374–379
    14. 81 Article 226 pages 380–385
    15. 82 Limits: Articles 33, 34 and 35 pages 386–391
    16. 83 Public Interest Litigation pages 392–397
    17. 84 Compensatory Jurisprudence pages 398–403
    18. 85 Continuing Mandamus and Judicial Guidelines pages 404–409
    19. 86 Hartal and Bandh pages 410–415
    20. 87 The Right to Property pages 416–421
    21. 88 The Directive Principles pages 422–427
    22. 89 The Fundamental Duties pages 428–433
    23. 90 Who Is a Minority? pages 434–439
    24. 91 Article 29: The Right to Conserve pages 440–445
    25. 92 Article 30: To Establish and to Administer pages 446–451
    26. 93 State Control and Regulation pages 452–457
    27. 94 The Eleven-Judge Answer pages 458–462
    28. 95 After the Eleven-Judge Answer pages 463–468
    29. 96 Minority Institutions and the Right to Education Act pages 469–474
    30. 97 Linguistic Minorities pages 475–480
    31. 98 What Secularism Means Here pages 481–486
    32. 99 Articles 25 and 26 pages 487–492
    33. 100 Essential Religious Practices pages 493–498
    34. 101 Religious Taxation and Religious Instruction pages 499–504
    35. 102 Secularism as a Basic Feature pages 505–510
    36. 103 Religious Fanaticism pages 511–516
    37. 104 A Uniform Civil Code pages 517–522

    Module IV 32 chapters

    1. 105 Separation of Powers: The Doctrine pages 523–528
    2. 106 The Indian Scheme pages 529–534
    3. 107 Delegated Legislation pages 535–540
    4. 108 Judicial Review pages 541–546
    5. 109 Ultra Vires pages 547–552
    6. 110 The Amending Power pages 553–558
    7. 111 The Basic Structure pages 559–564
    8. 112 The Appointment of Judges pages 565–570
    9. 113 The National Judicial Appointments Commission pages 571–576
    10. 114 Transfer and Removal of Judges pages 577–582
    11. 115 Judicial Independence pages 583–588
    12. 116 Judicial Accountability pages 589–594
    13. 117 Judicial Activism, Restraint and Overreach pages 595–600
    14. 118 Legislative Privilege pages 601–606
    15. 119 Advisory Jurisdiction pages 607–612
    16. 120 Complete Justice: Article 142 pages 613–618
    17. 121 The Supreme Court pages 619–624
    18. 122 The High Courts pages 625–630
    19. 123 The Subordinate Judiciary pages 631–635
    20. 124 Tribunals pages 636–641
    21. 125 The Rule of Law pages 642–647
    22. 126 Democracy and Free and Fair Elections pages 648–653
    23. 127 The Election Commission pages 654–659
    24. 128 Articles 325 to 329 pages 660–665
    25. 129 The Voter's Right to Know pages 666–670
    26. 130 Electoral Reform and the Criminalisation of Politics pages 671–676
    27. 131 The Funding of Elections pages 677–682
    28. 132 Defection and the Tenth Schedule pages 683–688
    29. 133 Grass Root Democracy: The Panchayats pages 689–694
    30. 134 Urban Local Government: The Municipalities pages 695–700
    31. 135 The Nexus of Politics, Crime and Business pages 701–706
    32. 136 The New Challenges pages 707–711
    Every paper that is solved: 17 papers
    • 2025-26 - Group I
    • 2025-26 - Group II
    • 2025-26 - Group III
    • 2025-26 - Group IV
    • 2025-26 - Group V
    • 2025-26 - Group VI
    • 2024-25
    • 2024 - Group I
    • 2024 - Group II
    • 2024 - Group III
    • 2024 - Group V
    • 2023
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  2. Law and Social Transformation of India

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Law and Social Transformation of India

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Foundation Course

    Law and Social Transformation of India

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. Law and Society: How Each Shapes the Other 1
    2. Law as an Instrument of Social Change 6
    3. What Law Cannot Do: The Limits of Legislating Change 12
    4. Law as the Product of Tradition and Culture 17
    5. Custom as a Source of Law 22
    6. Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering 26
    7. Pound's Scheme of Interests 30
    8. The Criticisms of Social Engineering 34
    9. Bentham, Marx and Ehrlich: The Other Answers 38
    10. The Preamble: The Charter of Transformation 43
    11. The Directive Principles and the Welfare State 47
    12. Social Security Legislation 53
    13. The Fundamental Duties 57
    14. The Judiciary as an Engine of Social Change 61
    15. Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation 66
    16. Social Justice 70
    17. Religion and the Law: The Two Questions 74
    18. Freedom of Religion: Articles 25 to 28 78
    19. The Essential Religious Practices Doctrine 83
    20. Secularism 88
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The State and Religion: No State Religion 92
    2. Religion as a Divisive Factor 95
    3. No Discrimination on the Ground of Religion 99
    4. Who Is a Minority 103
    5. Articles 29 and 30: The Minority's Educational Rights 107
    6. The National Commission for Minorities 111
    7. Conversion and the Law 115
    8. Personal Law: What It Is, and Why India Has Several 119
    9. The Hindu Code Bills 124
    10. Muslim Personal Law and Maintenance: Shah Bano to Danial Latifi 128
    11. Triple Talaq 134
    12. Christian and Parsi Law, and the Special Marriage Act 139
    13. The Uniform Civil Code 143
    14. Religious Freedom against Social Reform 148
    15. Temple Entry 152
    16. Places of Worship, and the Character Frozen in 1947 157

    Module II

    1. Language and the Law: Why a Country Legislates about Language 161
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Language as a Divisive Factor 166
    2. The Official Language of the Union 170
    3. The Official Languages Act 1963 175
    4. Many Languages, One Union 180
    5. Constitutional Guarantees to Linguistic Minorities 184
    6. The Formation of Linguistic States 189
    7. The Commissions That Redrew the Map 193
    8. The Medium of Instruction 198
    9. Enforcing Language Rights 203
    10. Regionalism, and India as One Unit 207
    11. The Language of the Courts and of the Statute Book 211
    12. Community and the Law: Caste, Tribe and a Plural Society 216
    13. Caste as a Divisive Factor 221
    14. Non-discrimination on the Ground of Caste 225
    15. Untouchability, and the Act That Abolished It 229
    16. The Atrocities Act 1989 234
    17. Manual Scavenging and Bonded Labour 240
    18. Reservation: The Constitutional Scheme 245
    19. Protective Discrimination 249
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Backward Classes, the Creamy Layer and the Ceiling 253
    2. Reservation in Promotion, and the Ten Per Cent for the Economically Weaker 258
    3. Substantive Equality 263
    4. The Safeguards: Seats, Services and Commissions 267
    5. Tribal India: The Fifth and Sixth Schedules 272
    6. Land, Forest and the Gram Sabha's Consent 278
    7. The Naxalite Movement: Origin and Development 286
    8. The Causes: Land, Dispossession and the Failure of Law 291
    9. The Cure: What the State Has Tried 298
    10. Internal Security, Social Justice and Development 304
    11. The Human Rights Commissions 311

    Module III

    1. Women and the Law: Where the Constitution Started 317
    2. Article 15(3): Special Provision for Women 323
    3. Gender Injustice and Its Forms 328
    4. Dignity and the Right to Privacy 333
    5. Empowerment of Women 338
    6. Women in Public Employment and the Armed Forces 343
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Equal Pay and Maternity Benefit 349
    2. Sexual Harassment at the Workplace 354
    3. Crimes against Women 363
    4. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013 370
    5. Dowry 376
    6. Domestic Violence 383
    7. Sati 391
    8. Sex Selection and the Missing Daughters 397
    9. Reproductive Autonomy 404
    10. Trafficking and Prostitution 411
    11. Indecent Representation 419
    12. The National Commission for Women 425
    13. Women in the Legislatures 431
    14. Women's Property Rights 436
    15. Adultery and Marital Autonomy 443
    16. Who Counts as a Woman 449
    17. The Judiciary and Women's Rights: The Record 456
    18. Children and the Law: The Child as a Rights-Holder 462
    19. The Constitution and the Child 467
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. India and the Convention on the Rights of the Child 472
    2. Child Abuse 478
    3. The Sexual Exploitation of Children 484
    4. POCSO: Objects and Scheme 490
    5. How Far POCSO Has Worked 499
    6. Child Labour: Causes and Consequences 505
    7. The Law against Child Labour 510
    8. The Courts and the Enforcement against Child Labour 517
    9. The Right to Education 523
    10. Juvenile Justice 532
    11. The Child in Need of Care and Protection 542
    12. Adoption 552
    13. Inter-country Adoption 559
    14. The Child Rights Commissions 565
    15. Child Marriage 572

    Module IV

    1. Modernisation and the Law 579
    2. Modernisation as a Value 584
    3. Modernising Social Institutions Through Law 590
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Agrarian Reform: Abolishing the Intermediary 595
    2. Ceilings, Tenancy and Redistribution 601
    3. The Ninth Schedule and the Property Amendments 606
    4. Industrialisation and the Law 613
    5. Industrialisation against Environmental Protection 619
    6. What the Courts Built out of Article 21 626
    7. Industrialisation and the Sustainable Development Goals 633
    8. Urbanisation and the Pavement Dweller 638
    9. Science, Technology and the Law Behind Them 646
    10. Democratic Decentralisation and Local Self-Government 652
    11. The Prison in India 659
    12. The Committees on Prison Reform 665
    13. The Prisoner's Rights 671
    14. Alternative Approaches to Law 679
    15. Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code 684
    16. The Types of Alternative Dispute Mechanism, and What Each Is Good For 689
    17. Arbitration 694
    18. Mediation and Conciliation 701
    19. Lok Adalat 708
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Legal Aid 716
    2. Nyaya Panchayats 726
    3. Gram Nyayalayas 732
    4. Plea Bargaining 743
    5. Reform of Court Processes and of the Justice Delivery System 752
    6. Legal Pluralism, and the Forums the State Did Not Create 761
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    768 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 768 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 135 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 36 chapters

    1. 1 Law and Society: How Each Shapes the Other pages 1–5
    2. 2 Law as an Instrument of Social Change pages 6–11
    3. 3 What Law Cannot Do: The Limits of Legislating Change pages 12–16
    4. 4 Law as the Product of Tradition and Culture pages 17–21
    5. 5 Custom as a Source of Law pages 22–25
    6. 6 Roscoe Pound and Social Engineering pages 26–29
    7. 7 Pound's Scheme of Interests pages 30–33
    8. 8 The Criticisms of Social Engineering pages 34–37
    9. 9 Bentham, Marx and Ehrlich: The Other Answers pages 38–42
    10. 10 The Preamble: The Charter of Transformation pages 43–46
    11. 11 The Directive Principles and the Welfare State pages 47–52
    12. 12 Social Security Legislation pages 53–56
    13. 13 The Fundamental Duties pages 57–60
    14. 14 The Judiciary as an Engine of Social Change pages 61–65
    15. 15 Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation pages 66–69
    16. 16 Social Justice pages 70–73
    17. 17 Religion and the Law: The Two Questions pages 74–77
    18. 18 Freedom of Religion: Articles 25 to 28 pages 78–82
    19. 19 The Essential Religious Practices Doctrine pages 83–87
    20. 20 Secularism pages 88–91
    21. 21 The State and Religion: No State Religion pages 92–94
    22. 22 Religion as a Divisive Factor pages 95–98
    23. 23 No Discrimination on the Ground of Religion pages 99–102
    24. 24 Who Is a Minority pages 103–106
    25. 25 Articles 29 and 30: The Minority's Educational Rights pages 107–110
    26. 26 The National Commission for Minorities pages 111–114
    27. 27 Conversion and the Law pages 115–118
    28. 28 Personal Law: What It Is, and Why India Has Several pages 119–123
    29. 29 The Hindu Code Bills pages 124–127
    30. 30 Muslim Personal Law and Maintenance: Shah Bano to Danial Latifi pages 128–133
    31. 31 Triple Talaq pages 134–138
    32. 32 Christian and Parsi Law, and the Special Marriage Act pages 139–142
    33. 33 The Uniform Civil Code pages 143–147
    34. 34 Religious Freedom against Social Reform pages 148–151
    35. 35 Temple Entry pages 152–156
    36. 36 Places of Worship, and the Character Frozen in 1947 pages 157–160

    Module II 31 chapters

    1. 37 Language and the Law: Why a Country Legislates about Language pages 161–165
    2. 38 Language as a Divisive Factor pages 166–169
    3. 39 The Official Language of the Union pages 170–174
    4. 40 The Official Languages Act 1963 pages 175–179
    5. 41 Many Languages, One Union pages 180–183
    6. 42 Constitutional Guarantees to Linguistic Minorities pages 184–188
    7. 43 The Formation of Linguistic States pages 189–192
    8. 44 The Commissions That Redrew the Map pages 193–197
    9. 45 The Medium of Instruction pages 198–202
    10. 46 Enforcing Language Rights pages 203–206
    11. 47 Regionalism, and India as One Unit pages 207–210
    12. 48 The Language of the Courts and of the Statute Book pages 211–215
    13. 49 Community and the Law: Caste, Tribe and a Plural Society pages 216–220
    14. 50 Caste as a Divisive Factor pages 221–224
    15. 51 Non-discrimination on the Ground of Caste pages 225–228
    16. 52 Untouchability, and the Act That Abolished It pages 229–233
    17. 53 The Atrocities Act 1989 pages 234–239
    18. 54 Manual Scavenging and Bonded Labour pages 240–244
    19. 55 Reservation: The Constitutional Scheme pages 245–248
    20. 56 Protective Discrimination pages 249–252
    21. 57 Backward Classes, the Creamy Layer and the Ceiling pages 253–257
    22. 58 Reservation in Promotion, and the Ten Per Cent for the Economically Weaker pages 258–262
    23. 59 Substantive Equality pages 263–266
    24. 60 The Safeguards: Seats, Services and Commissions pages 267–271
    25. 61 Tribal India: The Fifth and Sixth Schedules pages 272–277
    26. 62 Land, Forest and the Gram Sabha's Consent pages 278–285
    27. 63 The Naxalite Movement: Origin and Development pages 286–290
    28. 64 The Causes: Land, Dispossession and the Failure of Law pages 291–297
    29. 65 The Cure: What the State Has Tried pages 298–303
    30. 66 Internal Security, Social Justice and Development pages 304–310
    31. 67 The Human Rights Commissions pages 311–316

    Module III 40 chapters

    1. 68 Women and the Law: Where the Constitution Started pages 317–322
    2. 69 Article 15(3): Special Provision for Women pages 323–327
    3. 70 Gender Injustice and Its Forms pages 328–332
    4. 71 Dignity and the Right to Privacy pages 333–337
    5. 72 Empowerment of Women pages 338–342
    6. 73 Women in Public Employment and the Armed Forces pages 343–348
    7. 74 Equal Pay and Maternity Benefit pages 349–353
    8. 75 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace pages 354–362
    9. 76 Crimes against Women pages 363–369
    10. 77 The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013 pages 370–375
    11. 78 Dowry pages 376–382
    12. 79 Domestic Violence pages 383–390
    13. 80 Sati pages 391–396
    14. 81 Sex Selection and the Missing Daughters pages 397–403
    15. 82 Reproductive Autonomy pages 404–410
    16. 83 Trafficking and Prostitution pages 411–418
    17. 84 Indecent Representation pages 419–424
    18. 85 The National Commission for Women pages 425–430
    19. 86 Women in the Legislatures pages 431–435
    20. 87 Women's Property Rights pages 436–442
    21. 88 Adultery and Marital Autonomy pages 443–448
    22. 89 Who Counts as a Woman pages 449–455
    23. 90 The Judiciary and Women's Rights: The Record pages 456–461
    24. 91 Children and the Law: The Child as a Rights-Holder pages 462–466
    25. 92 The Constitution and the Child pages 467–471
    26. 93 India and the Convention on the Rights of the Child pages 472–477
    27. 94 Child Abuse pages 478–483
    28. 95 The Sexual Exploitation of Children pages 484–489
    29. 96 POCSO: Objects and Scheme pages 490–498
    30. 97 How Far POCSO Has Worked pages 499–504
    31. 98 Child Labour: Causes and Consequences pages 505–509
    32. 99 The Law against Child Labour pages 510–516
    33. 100 The Courts and the Enforcement against Child Labour pages 517–522
    34. 101 The Right to Education pages 523–531
    35. 102 Juvenile Justice pages 532–541
    36. 103 The Child in Need of Care and Protection pages 542–551
    37. 104 Adoption pages 552–558
    38. 105 Inter-country Adoption pages 559–564
    39. 106 The Child Rights Commissions pages 565–571
    40. 107 Child Marriage pages 572–578

    Module IV 28 chapters

    1. 108 Modernisation and the Law pages 579–583
    2. 109 Modernisation as a Value pages 584–589
    3. 110 Modernising Social Institutions Through Law pages 590–594
    4. 111 Agrarian Reform: Abolishing the Intermediary pages 595–600
    5. 112 Ceilings, Tenancy and Redistribution pages 601–605
    6. 113 The Ninth Schedule and the Property Amendments pages 606–612
    7. 114 Industrialisation and the Law pages 613–618
    8. 115 Industrialisation against Environmental Protection pages 619–625
    9. 116 What the Courts Built out of Article 21 pages 626–632
    10. 117 Industrialisation and the Sustainable Development Goals pages 633–637
    11. 118 Urbanisation and the Pavement Dweller pages 638–645
    12. 119 Science, Technology and the Law Behind Them pages 646–651
    13. 120 Democratic Decentralisation and Local Self-Government pages 652–658
    14. 121 The Prison in India pages 659–664
    15. 122 The Committees on Prison Reform pages 665–670
    16. 123 The Prisoner's Rights pages 671–678
    17. 124 Alternative Approaches to Law pages 679–683
    18. 125 Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code pages 684–688
    19. 126 The Types of Alternative Dispute Mechanism, and What Each Is Good For pages 689–693
    20. 127 Arbitration pages 694–700
    21. 128 Mediation and Conciliation pages 701–707
    22. 129 Lok Adalat pages 708–715
    23. 130 Legal Aid pages 716–725
    24. 131 Nyaya Panchayats pages 726–731
    25. 132 Gram Nyayalayas pages 732–742
    26. 133 Plea Bargaining pages 743–751
    27. 134 Reform of Court Processes and of the Justice Delivery System pages 752–760
    28. 135 Legal Pluralism, and the Forums the State Did Not Create pages 761–768
    Every paper that is solved: 17 papers
    • 2025-26 - Group I
    • 2025-26 - Group II
    • 2025-26 - Group III
    • 2025-26 - Group IV
    • 2025-26 - Group V
    • 2025-26 - Group VI
    • 2024-25
    • 2024 - Group I
    • 2024 - Group II
    • 2024 - Group III
    • 2024 - Group V
    • 2023
    • 2022
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  3. Human Rights and International Order

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Human Rights and International Order

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 4 Human Rights Law

    Human Rights and International Order

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What This Paper Is About 1
    2. What an International Order Means 5
    3. Before the Instruments: How a Ruler Was Bound 10
    4. The Law of Nations, and the Laws of Humanity 15
    5. Abolition, and the First International Concern 20
    6. The Laws of War, and the Individual as a Protected Person 24
    7. The League of Nations and the Minorities Treaties 29
    8. The Mandates System, and the Organization That Outlived the League 33
    9. The Racial Equality Proposal of 1919 37
    10. The Charter of the United Nations, and the Pledge 42
    11. The Charter Machinery for the Order 47
    12. Drafting the Universal Declaration 52
    13. The Universal Declaration: Articles 1 to 11 56
    14. The Universal Declaration: Articles 12 to 21 61
    15. The Universal Declaration: Articles 22 to 30 66
    16. What Kind of Instrument the Declaration Is 71
    17. Why There Are Two Covenants 75
    18. The Civil and Political Covenant 79
    19. The Economic, Social and Cultural Covenant 85
    20. The International Bill of Human Rights 90
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. What a Bill of Rights Is 93
    2. The Bill of Rights in the Constitutional Tradition 96
    3. Fundamental Rights as India Bill of Rights 100
    4. Challenges in the Effective Implementation of a Bill of Rights 104
    5. Freedom of Expression in the International Order 108
    6. The Right to Know 112
    7. The Generations of Rights, and the Order They Describe 116
    8. Self-Determination 119
    9. Sovereignty, Domestic Jurisdiction and the Reach of the Order 123
    10. Universality, and What Vienna Settled 126
    11. The Concept After Vienna 130
    12. What Is Still Missing from the International Order 134

    Module II

    1. Why Regional Systems Exist at All 138
    2. The Systems That Exist, and the Ones That Do Not 141
    3. The Council of Europe and the Convention of 1950 145
    4. The European Convention: Articles 1 to 8 149
    5. The European Convention: Articles 9 to 18 154
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The European Court of Human Rights 159
    2. Admissibility, Just Satisfaction and Execution 163
    3. The Margin of Appreciation 167
    4. The European Union, the Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Court of Justice 171
    5. The European System Assessed 175
    6. The Organization of American States and the Pact of San Jose 178
    7. The American Convention: Articles 1 to 14 182
    8. The American Convention: Articles 15 to 32 188
    9. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 194
    10. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights 199
    11. What the Inter-American System Did That No Other System Did 203
    12. The African Union and the Charter of 1981 207
    13. The African Charter: Articles 1 to 18 211
    14. The African Charter: Peoples Rights 216
    15. The African Charter: The Duties of the Individual 221
    16. The African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights 225
    17. Procedure Before the African Commission 229
    18. The African Court on Human and Peoples Rights 234
    19. The African System Assessed: Scope and Effectiveness 238
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Why There Is No Asian System 242
    2. ASEAN and the Human Rights Declaration of 2012 246
    3. The Arab Charter and the League of Arab States 250
    4. SAARC and the South Asian Position 254
    5. Regional Systems Compared 258
    6. Regionalism Against Universality 262

    Module III

    1. What a Protection Agency Is, and What a Mechanism Is 266
    2. The Charter Organs 270
    3. The General Assembly as a Protection Mechanism 274
    4. The Economic and Social Council and the Commission on Human Rights 278
    5. The Human Rights Council 282
    6. The Universal Periodic Review 286
    7. The Special Procedures 290
    8. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights 294
    9. The Treaty Bodies 298
    10. Reporting, and Concluding Observations 302
    11. Individual Communications 306
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. The Security Council as a Human Rights Actor 310
    2. The International Court of Justice and Human Rights 314
    3. The International Criminal Court: Establishment and Jurisdiction 318
    4. The International Criminal Court: The Crimes 322
    5. The International Criminal Court: How a Case Starts 327
    6. The International Criminal Court: Complementarity 331
    7. The International Criminal Court: The Organs 336
    8. The International Criminal Court: Investigation and Prosecution 342
    9. The International Criminal Court: Co-operation, and the Criticisms 347
    10. The Ad Hoc Tribunals, and Individual Responsibility 352
    11. The Specialized Agencies as Protection Agencies 356
    12. The International Labour Organization: Structure 360
    13. The International Labour Organization: Standards 366
    14. The International Labour Organization: Supervision and Complaints 371
    15. The World Health Organization: Objective and Functions 376
    16. The World Health Organization and the Right to Health 380
    17. The World Health Organization: Organs and Legal Powers 384
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. The World Health Organization and Global Public Health 389
    2. UNESCO, UNICEF and the Other Agencies 393
    3. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 398
    4. The International Committee of the Red Cross 403
    5. Non-Governmental Organizations as a Protection Mechanism 407
    6. National Institutions and the Paris Principles 411
    7. The National Human Rights Commission: Constitution 415
    8. The National Human Rights Commission: Functions and Powers 420
    9. The National Human Rights Commission: What Happens After an Inquiry 425
    10. The National Human Rights Commission: Role and Effectiveness 429
    11. State Commissions and Human Rights Courts 434
    12. Domestic Courts as the Primary Protection Mechanism 439
    13. What the Machinery Cannot Do 443

    Module IV

    1. What the New International Economic Order Was 447
    2. Decolonisation, Bandung and the Non-Aligned Movement 452
    3. Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources 456
    4. The Declaration of 1 May 1974 461
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Twenty Principles: (a) to (j) 466
    2. The Twenty Principles: (k) to (t) 471
    3. The Programme of Action 476
    4. The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States: Chapter I 480
    5. The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States: Articles 6 to 19 485
    6. The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States: Articles 20 to 34 491
    7. Equity and Sovereign Equality 496
    8. The Role of the Developing Countries: the Group of 77 500
    9. The Role of the United Nations in Advocating the Order 504
    10. Nationalisation, Compensation and the Industrialised States Answer 508
    11. Why the New International Economic Order Failed 513
    12. What Survived: the Right to Development 517
    13. The Order That Was Built Instead 522
    14. The New International Economic Order Assessed Today 526
    15. Terrorism as a Problem for the International Order 530
    16. Why a Universally Accepted Definition Has Not Been Agreed 534
    17. The Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism 538
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Sectoral Conventions, and What They Define Instead 543
    2. The Financing Convention, and Article 2(1)(b) 547
    3. The Freedom Fighter Objection, and State Terrorism 553
    4. Security Council Resolution 1373 557
    5. Listing, Sanctions and the Right to a Remedy 562
    6. The Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy 567
    7. Counter-Terrorism Measures and the Rights They Engage 572
    8. Detention, Rendition and Torture 577
    9. Terrorism, Armed Conflict and Humanitarian Law 582
    10. India and Terrorism 587
    11. What the United Nations Has and Has Not Achieved 591
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    594 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 594 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 135 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 32 chapters

    1. 1 What This Paper Is About pages 1–4
    2. 2 What an International Order Means pages 5–9
    3. 3 Before the Instruments: How a Ruler Was Bound pages 10–14
    4. 4 The Law of Nations, and the Laws of Humanity pages 15–19
    5. 5 Abolition, and the First International Concern pages 20–23
    6. 6 The Laws of War, and the Individual as a Protected Person pages 24–28
    7. 7 The League of Nations and the Minorities Treaties pages 29–32
    8. 8 The Mandates System, and the Organization That Outlived the League pages 33–36
    9. 9 The Racial Equality Proposal of 1919 pages 37–41
    10. 10 The Charter of the United Nations, and the Pledge pages 42–46
    11. 11 The Charter Machinery for the Order pages 47–51
    12. 12 Drafting the Universal Declaration pages 52–55
    13. 13 The Universal Declaration: Articles 1 to 11 pages 56–60
    14. 14 The Universal Declaration: Articles 12 to 21 pages 61–65
    15. 15 The Universal Declaration: Articles 22 to 30 pages 66–70
    16. 16 What Kind of Instrument the Declaration Is pages 71–74
    17. 17 Why There Are Two Covenants pages 75–78
    18. 18 The Civil and Political Covenant pages 79–84
    19. 19 The Economic, Social and Cultural Covenant pages 85–89
    20. 20 The International Bill of Human Rights pages 90–92
    21. 21 What a Bill of Rights Is pages 93–95
    22. 22 The Bill of Rights in the Constitutional Tradition pages 96–99
    23. 23 Fundamental Rights as India Bill of Rights pages 100–103
    24. 24 Challenges in the Effective Implementation of a Bill of Rights pages 104–107
    25. 25 Freedom of Expression in the International Order pages 108–111
    26. 26 The Right to Know pages 112–115
    27. 27 The Generations of Rights, and the Order They Describe pages 116–118
    28. 28 Self-Determination pages 119–122
    29. 29 Sovereignty, Domestic Jurisdiction and the Reach of the Order pages 123–125
    30. 30 Universality, and What Vienna Settled pages 126–129
    31. 31 The Concept After Vienna pages 130–133
    32. 32 What Is Still Missing from the International Order pages 134–137

    Module II 30 chapters

    1. 33 Why Regional Systems Exist at All pages 138–140
    2. 34 The Systems That Exist, and the Ones That Do Not pages 141–144
    3. 35 The Council of Europe and the Convention of 1950 pages 145–148
    4. 36 The European Convention: Articles 1 to 8 pages 149–153
    5. 37 The European Convention: Articles 9 to 18 pages 154–158
    6. 38 The European Court of Human Rights pages 159–162
    7. 39 Admissibility, Just Satisfaction and Execution pages 163–166
    8. 40 The Margin of Appreciation pages 167–170
    9. 41 The European Union, the Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Court of Justice pages 171–174
    10. 42 The European System Assessed pages 175–177
    11. 43 The Organization of American States and the Pact of San Jose pages 178–181
    12. 44 The American Convention: Articles 1 to 14 pages 182–187
    13. 45 The American Convention: Articles 15 to 32 pages 188–193
    14. 46 The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights pages 194–198
    15. 47 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights pages 199–202
    16. 48 What the Inter-American System Did That No Other System Did pages 203–206
    17. 49 The African Union and the Charter of 1981 pages 207–210
    18. 50 The African Charter: Articles 1 to 18 pages 211–215
    19. 51 The African Charter: Peoples Rights pages 216–220
    20. 52 The African Charter: The Duties of the Individual pages 221–224
    21. 53 The African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights pages 225–228
    22. 54 Procedure Before the African Commission pages 229–233
    23. 55 The African Court on Human and Peoples Rights pages 234–237
    24. 56 The African System Assessed: Scope and Effectiveness pages 238–241
    25. 57 Why There Is No Asian System pages 242–245
    26. 58 ASEAN and the Human Rights Declaration of 2012 pages 246–249
    27. 59 The Arab Charter and the League of Arab States pages 250–253
    28. 60 SAARC and the South Asian Position pages 254–257
    29. 61 Regional Systems Compared pages 258–261
    30. 62 Regionalism Against Universality pages 262–265

    Module III 41 chapters

    1. 63 What a Protection Agency Is, and What a Mechanism Is pages 266–269
    2. 64 The Charter Organs pages 270–273
    3. 65 The General Assembly as a Protection Mechanism pages 274–277
    4. 66 The Economic and Social Council and the Commission on Human Rights pages 278–281
    5. 67 The Human Rights Council pages 282–285
    6. 68 The Universal Periodic Review pages 286–289
    7. 69 The Special Procedures pages 290–293
    8. 70 The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights pages 294–297
    9. 71 The Treaty Bodies pages 298–301
    10. 72 Reporting, and Concluding Observations pages 302–305
    11. 73 Individual Communications pages 306–309
    12. 74 The Security Council as a Human Rights Actor pages 310–313
    13. 75 The International Court of Justice and Human Rights pages 314–317
    14. 76 The International Criminal Court: Establishment and Jurisdiction pages 318–321
    15. 77 The International Criminal Court: The Crimes pages 322–326
    16. 78 The International Criminal Court: How a Case Starts pages 327–330
    17. 79 The International Criminal Court: Complementarity pages 331–335
    18. 80 The International Criminal Court: The Organs pages 336–341
    19. 81 The International Criminal Court: Investigation and Prosecution pages 342–346
    20. 82 The International Criminal Court: Co-operation, and the Criticisms pages 347–351
    21. 83 The Ad Hoc Tribunals, and Individual Responsibility pages 352–355
    22. 84 The Specialized Agencies as Protection Agencies pages 356–359
    23. 85 The International Labour Organization: Structure pages 360–365
    24. 86 The International Labour Organization: Standards pages 366–370
    25. 87 The International Labour Organization: Supervision and Complaints pages 371–375
    26. 88 The World Health Organization: Objective and Functions pages 376–379
    27. 89 The World Health Organization and the Right to Health pages 380–383
    28. 90 The World Health Organization: Organs and Legal Powers pages 384–388
    29. 91 The World Health Organization and Global Public Health pages 389–392
    30. 92 UNESCO, UNICEF and the Other Agencies pages 393–397
    31. 93 The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees pages 398–402
    32. 94 The International Committee of the Red Cross pages 403–406
    33. 95 Non-Governmental Organizations as a Protection Mechanism pages 407–410
    34. 96 National Institutions and the Paris Principles pages 411–414
    35. 97 The National Human Rights Commission: Constitution pages 415–419
    36. 98 The National Human Rights Commission: Functions and Powers pages 420–424
    37. 99 The National Human Rights Commission: What Happens After an Inquiry pages 425–428
    38. 100 The National Human Rights Commission: Role and Effectiveness pages 429–433
    39. 101 State Commissions and Human Rights Courts pages 434–438
    40. 102 Domestic Courts as the Primary Protection Mechanism pages 439–442
    41. 103 What the Machinery Cannot Do pages 443–446

    Module IV 32 chapters

    1. 104 What the New International Economic Order Was pages 447–451
    2. 105 Decolonisation, Bandung and the Non-Aligned Movement pages 452–455
    3. 106 Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources pages 456–460
    4. 107 The Declaration of 1 May 1974 pages 461–465
    5. 108 The Twenty Principles: (a) to (j) pages 466–470
    6. 109 The Twenty Principles: (k) to (t) pages 471–475
    7. 110 The Programme of Action pages 476–479
    8. 111 The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States: Chapter I pages 480–484
    9. 112 The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States: Articles 6 to 19 pages 485–490
    10. 113 The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States: Articles 20 to 34 pages 491–495
    11. 114 Equity and Sovereign Equality pages 496–499
    12. 115 The Role of the Developing Countries: the Group of 77 pages 500–503
    13. 116 The Role of the United Nations in Advocating the Order pages 504–507
    14. 117 Nationalisation, Compensation and the Industrialised States Answer pages 508–512
    15. 118 Why the New International Economic Order Failed pages 513–516
    16. 119 What Survived: the Right to Development pages 517–521
    17. 120 The Order That Was Built Instead pages 522–525
    18. 121 The New International Economic Order Assessed Today pages 526–529
    19. 122 Terrorism as a Problem for the International Order pages 530–533
    20. 123 Why a Universally Accepted Definition Has Not Been Agreed pages 534–537
    21. 124 The Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism pages 538–542
    22. 125 The Sectoral Conventions, and What They Define Instead pages 543–546
    23. 126 The Financing Convention, and Article 2(1)(b) pages 547–552
    24. 127 The Freedom Fighter Objection, and State Terrorism pages 553–556
    25. 128 Security Council Resolution 1373 pages 557–561
    26. 129 Listing, Sanctions and the Right to a Remedy pages 562–566
    27. 130 The Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy pages 567–571
    28. 131 Counter-Terrorism Measures and the Rights They Engage pages 572–576
    29. 132 Detention, Rendition and Torture pages 577–581
    30. 133 Terrorism, Armed Conflict and Humanitarian Law pages 582–586
    31. 134 India and Terrorism pages 587–590
    32. 135 What the United Nations Has and Has Not Achieved pages 591–594
    Every paper that is solved: 1 paper
    • 2025-26

  4. Concepts and Development of Human Rights

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Concepts and Development of Human Rights

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 1

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in Group 4 Human Rights Law

    Concepts and Development of Human Rights

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What This Paper Is About 1
    2. What a Human Right Is 5
    3. The Four Marks: Universal, Inalienable, Indivisible, Interdependent 10
    4. Human Dignity as the Ground of Rights 16
    5. Natural Law and the Idea of a Natural Right 22
    6. From Natural Right to Human Right 28
    7. The Positivist Objection 34
    8. Rights as Legal Claims: What a Claim Needs 40
    9. Rights and Duties: the Correlativity Thesis 46
    10. The Hohfeldian Analysis 51
    11. Interdependence of Rights and Duties in a Democratic Society 57
    12. How Modern Societal Values Have Reshaped Rights and Duties 63
    13. Human Rights in Ancient Tradition: India 69
    14. Human Rights in Ancient Tradition: Greece, Rome and the Religions 75
    15. Legal, Moral, Constitutional and Human Rights 81
    16. Fundamental Rights: the Indian Form 86
    17. Who Bears the Duty: the State 92
    18. Who Bears the Duty: the Non-State Actor 97
    19. Respect, Protect, Fulfil 102
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Limitation: When a Right May Be Restricted 106
    2. Derogation and the Non-Derogable Core 111
    3. Are Human Rights Inalienable 116
    4. The Vocabulary: Right, Liberty, Freedom, Entitlement 121

    Module II

    1. The Generations Framework: Karel Vasak 126
    2. Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité as a Classification 131
    3. First Generation: What Civil and Political Rights Are 136
    4. The Universal Declaration: Articles 1 to 11 141
    5. The Universal Declaration: Articles 12 to 21 146
    6. The Significance of First Generation Rights in Daily Life 151
    7. Second Generation: What Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Are 155
    8. The Universal Declaration: Articles 22 to 27 160
    9. The Universal Declaration: Articles 28 to 30 165
    10. Historical Development of the Second Generation 170
    11. Third Generation: The Solidarity Rights 175
    12. The Significance of the Third Generation 179
    13. Magna Carta 1215 183
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The English Bill of Rights 1689 187
    2. The American Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights 191
    3. The French Declaration 1789: Articles 1 to 9 196
    4. The French Declaration 1789: Articles 10 to 17 201
    5. The Nineteenth Century: Abolition and Labour 206
    6. The Nineteenth Century: The Laws of War 210
    7. The League of Nations and the International Labour Organization 215
    8. The Charter of the United Nations 1945 220
    9. Drafting the Universal Declaration 225
    10. The Universal Declaration: What Kind of Instrument 230
    11. Why There Are Two Covenants 234
    12. The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 1 to 5 239
    13. The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 6 to 11 244
    14. The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 12 to 17 249
    15. The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 18 to 22 254
    16. The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 23 to 27 259
    17. The Economic, Social and Cultural Covenant: Articles 1 to 5 264
    18. The Economic, Social and Cultural Covenant: Articles 6 to 10 269
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Economic, Social and Cultural Covenant: Articles 11 to 15 275
    2. The Right to Development 1986: Articles 1 to 5 281
    3. The Right to Development 1986: Articles 6 to 10 286
    4. The Core United Nations Treaties After 1966 291
    5. The Criticism of the Generations Framework 296
    6. Vienna 1993 and the End of the Hierarchy 301

    Module III

    1. Human Rights as a Political Claim 306
    2. Sovereignty and Human Rights 310
    3. Domestic Jurisdiction and the Limits of the Objection 315
    4. Globalization: What It Changed 319
    5. Globalization and Human Rights: the Argument Both Ways 323
    6. Accountability: What It Means for a Right 327
    7. Transparency and the Right to Know 331
    8. Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organizations 336
    9. The Media and Human Rights 341
    10. Human Rights and Democracy 346
    11. Rights Against the Majority 351
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Human Rights and Development 356
    2. Poverty as a Human Rights Question 361
    3. Corporations and the Non-State Actor 366
    4. The National Human Rights Commission: Constitution 371
    5. The National Human Rights Commission: Functions and Powers 377
    6. The Paris Principles 383
    7. Human Rights Education 388
    8. Naming, Shaming and the Politics of Enforcement 393
    9. Social Movements and Rights From Below 398
    10. Culture, Religion and Rights Inside a Society 403

    Module IV

    1. The Claim of Universality 408
    2. Vienna 1993: Universal, Indivisible, Interdependent and Interrelated 413
    3. Cultural Relativism 418
    4. The Bangkok Declaration 423
    5. Asian Values: the Argument and the Answer 428
    6. What Hinders the Effective Implementation of Universality 433
    7. Universality, Sovereignty and the Margin of Appreciation 437
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Reservations: Universality Bought at a Price 442
    2. Colonialism and the Making of the Instruments 447
    3. Who Was in the Room in 1948 452
    4. Self-Determination as the First Third World Claim 457
    5. The New International Economic Order 462
    6. The Right to Development as the Third World Claim 467
    7. Selectivity, Double Standards and Politicization 472
    8. Third World Approaches to International Law 477
    9. Why a Consumer Is a Rights-Holder 482
    10. The United Nations Guidelines for Consumer Protection 487
    11. The Consumer Protection Act 2019: the Six Rights 492
    12. The District Commission 497
    13. The State and National Commissions 503
    14. The Major Challenges Faced by Consumers in India 508
    15. Measures to Overcome Them 513
    16. The Digital Consumer, E-Commerce and Unfair Trade Practice 518
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    522 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 522 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 104 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 23 chapters

    1. 1 What This Paper Is About pages 1–4
    2. 2 What a Human Right Is pages 5–9
    3. 3 The Four Marks: Universal, Inalienable, Indivisible, Interdependent pages 10–15
    4. 4 Human Dignity as the Ground of Rights pages 16–21
    5. 5 Natural Law and the Idea of a Natural Right pages 22–27
    6. 6 From Natural Right to Human Right pages 28–33
    7. 7 The Positivist Objection pages 34–39
    8. 8 Rights as Legal Claims: What a Claim Needs pages 40–45
    9. 9 Rights and Duties: the Correlativity Thesis pages 46–50
    10. 10 The Hohfeldian Analysis pages 51–56
    11. 11 Interdependence of Rights and Duties in a Democratic Society pages 57–62
    12. 12 How Modern Societal Values Have Reshaped Rights and Duties pages 63–68
    13. 13 Human Rights in Ancient Tradition: India pages 69–74
    14. 14 Human Rights in Ancient Tradition: Greece, Rome and the Religions pages 75–80
    15. 15 Legal, Moral, Constitutional and Human Rights pages 81–85
    16. 16 Fundamental Rights: the Indian Form pages 86–91
    17. 17 Who Bears the Duty: the State pages 92–96
    18. 18 Who Bears the Duty: the Non-State Actor pages 97–101
    19. 19 Respect, Protect, Fulfil pages 102–105
    20. 20 Limitation: When a Right May Be Restricted pages 106–110
    21. 21 Derogation and the Non-Derogable Core pages 111–115
    22. 22 Are Human Rights Inalienable pages 116–120
    23. 23 The Vocabulary: Right, Liberty, Freedom, Entitlement pages 121–125

    Module II 37 chapters

    1. 24 The Generations Framework: Karel Vasak pages 126–130
    2. 25 Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité as a Classification pages 131–135
    3. 26 First Generation: What Civil and Political Rights Are pages 136–140
    4. 27 The Universal Declaration: Articles 1 to 11 pages 141–145
    5. 28 The Universal Declaration: Articles 12 to 21 pages 146–150
    6. 29 The Significance of First Generation Rights in Daily Life pages 151–154
    7. 30 Second Generation: What Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Are pages 155–159
    8. 31 The Universal Declaration: Articles 22 to 27 pages 160–164
    9. 32 The Universal Declaration: Articles 28 to 30 pages 165–169
    10. 33 Historical Development of the Second Generation pages 170–174
    11. 34 Third Generation: The Solidarity Rights pages 175–178
    12. 35 The Significance of the Third Generation pages 179–182
    13. 36 Magna Carta 1215 pages 183–186
    14. 37 The English Bill of Rights 1689 pages 187–190
    15. 38 The American Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights pages 191–195
    16. 39 The French Declaration 1789: Articles 1 to 9 pages 196–200
    17. 40 The French Declaration 1789: Articles 10 to 17 pages 201–205
    18. 41 The Nineteenth Century: Abolition and Labour pages 206–209
    19. 42 The Nineteenth Century: The Laws of War pages 210–214
    20. 43 The League of Nations and the International Labour Organization pages 215–219
    21. 44 The Charter of the United Nations 1945 pages 220–224
    22. 45 Drafting the Universal Declaration pages 225–229
    23. 46 The Universal Declaration: What Kind of Instrument pages 230–233
    24. 47 Why There Are Two Covenants pages 234–238
    25. 48 The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 1 to 5 pages 239–243
    26. 49 The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 6 to 11 pages 244–248
    27. 50 The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 12 to 17 pages 249–253
    28. 51 The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 18 to 22 pages 254–258
    29. 52 The Civil and Political Covenant: Articles 23 to 27 pages 259–263
    30. 53 The Economic, Social and Cultural Covenant: Articles 1 to 5 pages 264–268
    31. 54 The Economic, Social and Cultural Covenant: Articles 6 to 10 pages 269–274
    32. 55 The Economic, Social and Cultural Covenant: Articles 11 to 15 pages 275–280
    33. 56 The Right to Development 1986: Articles 1 to 5 pages 281–285
    34. 57 The Right to Development 1986: Articles 6 to 10 pages 286–290
    35. 58 The Core United Nations Treaties After 1966 pages 291–295
    36. 59 The Criticism of the Generations Framework pages 296–300
    37. 60 Vienna 1993 and the End of the Hierarchy pages 301–305

    Module III 21 chapters

    1. 61 Human Rights as a Political Claim pages 306–309
    2. 62 Sovereignty and Human Rights pages 310–314
    3. 63 Domestic Jurisdiction and the Limits of the Objection pages 315–318
    4. 64 Globalization: What It Changed pages 319–322
    5. 65 Globalization and Human Rights: the Argument Both Ways pages 323–326
    6. 66 Accountability: What It Means for a Right pages 327–330
    7. 67 Transparency and the Right to Know pages 331–335
    8. 68 Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organizations pages 336–340
    9. 69 The Media and Human Rights pages 341–345
    10. 70 Human Rights and Democracy pages 346–350
    11. 71 Rights Against the Majority pages 351–355
    12. 72 Human Rights and Development pages 356–360
    13. 73 Poverty as a Human Rights Question pages 361–365
    14. 74 Corporations and the Non-State Actor pages 366–370
    15. 75 The National Human Rights Commission: Constitution pages 371–376
    16. 76 The National Human Rights Commission: Functions and Powers pages 377–382
    17. 77 The Paris Principles pages 383–387
    18. 78 Human Rights Education pages 388–392
    19. 79 Naming, Shaming and the Politics of Enforcement pages 393–397
    20. 80 Social Movements and Rights From Below pages 398–402
    21. 81 Culture, Religion and Rights Inside a Society pages 403–407

    Module IV 23 chapters

    1. 82 The Claim of Universality pages 408–412
    2. 83 Vienna 1993: Universal, Indivisible, Interdependent and Interrelated pages 413–417
    3. 84 Cultural Relativism pages 418–422
    4. 85 The Bangkok Declaration pages 423–427
    5. 86 Asian Values: the Argument and the Answer pages 428–432
    6. 87 What Hinders the Effective Implementation of Universality pages 433–436
    7. 88 Universality, Sovereignty and the Margin of Appreciation pages 437–441
    8. 89 Reservations: Universality Bought at a Price pages 442–446
    9. 90 Colonialism and the Making of the Instruments pages 447–451
    10. 91 Who Was in the Room in 1948 pages 452–456
    11. 92 Self-Determination as the First Third World Claim pages 457–461
    12. 93 The New International Economic Order pages 462–466
    13. 94 The Right to Development as the Third World Claim pages 467–471
    14. 95 Selectivity, Double Standards and Politicization pages 472–476
    15. 96 Third World Approaches to International Law pages 477–481
    16. 97 Why a Consumer Is a Rights-Holder pages 482–486
    17. 98 The United Nations Guidelines for Consumer Protection pages 487–491
    18. 99 The Consumer Protection Act 2019: the Six Rights pages 492–496
    19. 100 The District Commission pages 497–502
    20. 101 The State and National Commissions pages 503–507
    21. 102 The Major Challenges Faced by Consumers in India pages 508–512
    22. 103 Measures to Overcome Them pages 513–517
    23. 104 The Digital Consumer, E-Commerce and Unfair Trade Practice pages 518–522
    Every paper that is solved: 1 paper
    • 2025-26

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