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LL.M. Criminal Law and Criminal Administration Semester 3: Notes and Solved Previous Year Question Papers 2026

For students of Mumbai University and all its affiliated colleges.

As per latest University of Mumbai syllabus

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  1. Penology Treatment of Offenders

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Penology Treatment of Offenders

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 3

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in

    Penology Treatment of Offenders

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What Penology Is 1
    2. The Scope of Penology, and the Four Questions It Asks 6
    3. Penology, Criminology and Criminal Law 10
    4. Punishment: the Concept and the Definition 14
    5. The Five Marks of a Punishment 18
    6. Why the State Alone Punishes 21
    7. A Short History of Punishment 25
    8. The Sources of Indian Penal Law Today 30
    9. The Punishments Indian Law Now Allows 34
    10. The Sentence of Death in the Sanhita 38
    11. Imprisonment for Life, and What It Means 43
    12. Rigorous and Simple Imprisonment 47
    13. Fine, and Imprisonment in Default 51
    14. Forfeiture of Property as a Punishment 56
    15. Community Service: the Punishment India Did Not Have 59
    16. Solitary Confinement Under the Sanhita 64
    17. Enhanced Punishment After a Previous Conviction 68
    18. The Limits on Punishment 72
    19. Commutation Under the Sanhita 76
    20. Which Court May Pass Which Sentence 80
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The Classical Hindu Approach: Danda 84
    2. Danda in the Dharmasastra: Who Was Punished and How 88
    3. The Classical Islamic Approach: Hadd, Qisas and Tazir 92
    4. Islamic Criminal Justice: Proof, Pardon and Compensation 96
    5. What the Classical Approaches Are Worth Today 100
    6. The Ideal Penal System 104
    7. The Ideal System Measured Against India's 108
    8. What a Theory of Punishment Is 112
    9. The Deterrent Theory 116
    10. Does Punishment Deter? The Evidence 120
    11. Deterrence and Heinous Crimes Against Women 124
    12. The Retributive Theory 129
    13. Retribution and Just Deserts 133
    14. The Preventive or Incapacitative Theory 137
    15. The Reformative Theory 141
    16. Reformation in the Supreme Court 146
    17. The Expiation Theory 150
    18. Compensation and the Restorative Approach 154
    19. The Theories Compared 158
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Which Theory Indian Law Has Adopted 162
    2. Anti-Social Conduct Does Not Finally Pay 166

    Module II

    1. Capital Punishment: What It Is, and Where India Keeps It 170
    2. The Offences Punishable With Death 174
    3. Capital Punishment in the World Today 178
    4. The First Constitutional Challenge: Jagmohan Singh 182
    5. Rajendra Prasad and the Attempt to Narrow the Sentence 186
    6. Bachan Singh and the Rarest of Rare 190
    7. Machhi Singh and the Five Categories 194
    8. Mithu and the Mandatory Death Sentence 199
    9. Bariyar and What Went Wrong With the Rarest of Rare 203
    10. The Judicial Doubt: Sangeet and Shankar Kisanrao Khade 207
    11. Manoj and the Mitigation Framework 211
    12. Capital Punishment and Article 21 216
    13. Can the Right to Life Be Curtailed in the Name of Justice? 220
    14. Capital Punishment and Article 14 224
    15. The Merits Claimed for the Death Penalty 228
    16. The Demerits of the Death Penalty 232
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. The Deterrence Argument Tested 237
    2. Irrevocability, and the Wrongly Convicted 241
    3. Confirmation by the High Court 245
    4. The Death Warrant, and Shabnam 249
    5. The Mode of Execution 253
    6. Delay in Execution: Triveniben 257
    7. Delay, Mental Illness and Shatrughan Chauhan 261
    8. The Death Row Phenomenon 265
    9. Review, Curative Petition and Mohd. Arif 269
    10. Mercy: Articles 72 and 161 272
    11. Kehar Singh and the Nature of the Pardon Power 276
    12. Epuru Sudhakar and the Judicial Review of Mercy 280
    13. Commutation of a Death Sentence to Life Imprisonment 284
    14. Judge-Centric Sentencing: MU's Own Question 288
    15. Life Without Remission: Shraddananda and Sriharan 292
    16. What the Law Commission Has Recommended 297
    17. Who May Not Be Executed 301

    Module III

    1. What Sentencing Is 305
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Where Sentencing Sits in a Criminal Trial 309
    2. The Sentencing Hearing 315
    3. Reasons for a Sentence 319
    4. The Approaches to Sentencing 323
    5. Individualisation of Punishment 327
    6. Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances 331
    7. Proportionality in Sentencing 335
    8. India Without a Sentencing Policy 339
    9. Sentencing Guidelines: What Has Been Proposed 343
    10. Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences 347
    11. Set-Off and Time Already Served 351
    12. The Sentence of Fine, and How It Is Recovered 355
    13. Compensation to the Victim 360
    14. The Victim Compensation Scheme 364
    15. Community Service as a Sentence 368
    16. Probation: the Idea 373
    17. Probation as a New Form of Social and Legal Control 377
    18. The Probation of Offenders Act 1958: the Scheme 382
    19. Release After Admonition: Section 3 386
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Release on Probation of Good Conduct: Section 4 390
    2. Compensation and Costs Under Section 5 394
    3. Offenders Under Twenty-One: Section 6 398
    4. Breach of the Bond, and What Follows 402
    5. Removal of the Disqualification of Conviction 406
    6. The Probation Officer 409
    7. The Functions of the Probation Officer 413
    8. Where Probation Does Not Apply 417
    9. Probation Under Section 401 of the Sanhita 422
    10. Probation and Parole Distinguished 427
    11. Parole and Furlough in India 430
    12. The Place of Probation in Penal Policy 435
    13. Probation as an Alternative to Imprisonment, and Its Utility 439
    14. Plea Bargaining: What It Is 443
    15. Plea Bargaining in India Before 2005 448
    16. The Statutory Scheme of Plea Bargaining 453
    17. Plea Bargaining: the Procedure Step by Step 459
    18. Plea Bargaining in the United States 463
    19. Plea Bargaining in England and Elsewhere 468
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Plea Bargaining in India Compared With the West 473
    2. White Collar Crime: the Concept 477
    3. White Collar Crime in Different Sectors in India 481
    4. The Difficulty in Sentencing White Collar Criminals 485
    5. What the Courts Have Done About White Collar Sentencing 490
    6. The Recidivist and the Habitual Offender 494
    7. Provisions for Sentencing a Recidivist 498
    8. Habitual Offender Legislation, and Surveillance 503
    9. Collective Fine 508
    10. Summary Punishment 513
    11. Forfeiture of Property as a Sentence 518

    Module IV

    1. Imprisonment: What It Is 523
    2. The Prisons of India: the Institutions 528
    3. The Prisons Act 1894: the Scheme 532
    4. Who Runs a Prison 537
    5. The Superintendent and the Records He Keeps 542
    6. The Medical Officer 547
    7. The Jailer and the Subordinate Staff 552
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Duties of Custodial Staff 557
    2. Admission of a Prisoner 562
    3. Classification of Prisoners 567
    4. Separation, Association and Segregation 571
    5. Solitary Confinement in Prison 576
    6. The Prisoner Under Sentence of Death 581
    7. Food, Clothing and Bedding 586
    8. The Employment of Prisoners 591
    9. Corrective Labour and Prison Wages 596
    10. Health and the Prison Hospital 601
    11. Visits, Letters and Contact With the Outside 606
    12. Prohibited Articles and Communication With Prisoners 611
    13. Prison Offences 616
    14. Summary Punishment by the Superintendent 621
    15. Whipping, Fetters and Irons 626
    16. Prison Rules and the Model Prison Manual 631
    17. The Model Prisons and Correctional Services Act 2023 635
    18. Rights of Prisoners: the Foundation 639
    19. The Right to Life in Prison 644
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. Sunil Batra: Solitary Confinement and Bar Fetters 649
    2. Sunil Batra (II) and the Prison Under the Constitution 654
    3. Charles Sobraj and the Limits of Prison Discipline 659
    4. Handcuffs: Prem Shankar Shukla 663
    5. Fetters and Handcuffs After Citizens for Democracy 668
    6. The Right to Legal Aid in Prison 673
    7. Speedy Trial and the Undertrial 678
    8. The Undertrial Today: Section 479 683
    9. Attendance of Prisoners in Court 688
    10. Women Prisoners 694
    11. Children of Women Prisoners 699
    12. Custodial Violence and Custodial Death 704
    13. Compensation for a Custodial Wrong 709
    14. Caste in the Prison 713
    15. Judicial Surveillance of the Prison 718
    16. Prison Reform: the History to 1947 723
    17. Prison Reform Since 1947 727
    18. The Judicial Approach to Prison Reform 731
    19. The Challenges Prison Reform Faces 736
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. The Jail as a Reformative Institution 740
    2. The Open Prison 745
    3. Remission and the Remission System 750
    4. The Restriction on Remission 755
    5. Premature Release 759
    6. Transfer and Repatriation of Prisoners 764
    7. Identification and Measurement of Convicts 771
    8. The Prisoner of Unsound Mind 776
    9. Juvenile Institutions 783
    10. What May Be Done With a Child in Conflict With Law 789
    11. Rehabilitation Programmes for Juveniles 795
    12. After-Care and Social Re-Integration 801
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    806 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 806 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2023, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 181 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 41 chapters

    1. 1 What Penology Is pages 1–5
    2. 2 The Scope of Penology, and the Four Questions It Asks pages 6–9
    3. 3 Penology, Criminology and Criminal Law pages 10–13
    4. 4 Punishment: the Concept and the Definition pages 14–17
    5. 5 The Five Marks of a Punishment pages 18–20
    6. 6 Why the State Alone Punishes pages 21–24
    7. 7 A Short History of Punishment pages 25–29
    8. 8 The Sources of Indian Penal Law Today pages 30–33
    9. 9 The Punishments Indian Law Now Allows pages 34–37
    10. 10 The Sentence of Death in the Sanhita pages 38–42
    11. 11 Imprisonment for Life, and What It Means pages 43–46
    12. 12 Rigorous and Simple Imprisonment pages 47–50
    13. 13 Fine, and Imprisonment in Default pages 51–55
    14. 14 Forfeiture of Property as a Punishment pages 56–58
    15. 15 Community Service: the Punishment India Did Not Have pages 59–63
    16. 16 Solitary Confinement Under the Sanhita pages 64–67
    17. 17 Enhanced Punishment After a Previous Conviction pages 68–71
    18. 18 The Limits on Punishment pages 72–75
    19. 19 Commutation Under the Sanhita pages 76–79
    20. 20 Which Court May Pass Which Sentence pages 80–83
    21. 21 The Classical Hindu Approach: Danda pages 84–87
    22. 22 Danda in the Dharmasastra: Who Was Punished and How pages 88–91
    23. 23 The Classical Islamic Approach: Hadd, Qisas and Tazir pages 92–95
    24. 24 Islamic Criminal Justice: Proof, Pardon and Compensation pages 96–99
    25. 25 What the Classical Approaches Are Worth Today pages 100–103
    26. 26 The Ideal Penal System pages 104–107
    27. 27 The Ideal System Measured Against India's pages 108–111
    28. 28 What a Theory of Punishment Is pages 112–115
    29. 29 The Deterrent Theory pages 116–119
    30. 30 Does Punishment Deter? The Evidence pages 120–123
    31. 31 Deterrence and Heinous Crimes Against Women pages 124–128
    32. 32 The Retributive Theory pages 129–132
    33. 33 Retribution and Just Deserts pages 133–136
    34. 34 The Preventive or Incapacitative Theory pages 137–140
    35. 35 The Reformative Theory pages 141–145
    36. 36 Reformation in the Supreme Court pages 146–149
    37. 37 The Expiation Theory pages 150–153
    38. 38 Compensation and the Restorative Approach pages 154–157
    39. 39 The Theories Compared pages 158–161
    40. 40 Which Theory Indian Law Has Adopted pages 162–165
    41. 41 Anti-Social Conduct Does Not Finally Pay pages 166–169

    Module II 33 chapters

    1. 42 Capital Punishment: What It Is, and Where India Keeps It pages 170–173
    2. 43 The Offences Punishable With Death pages 174–177
    3. 44 Capital Punishment in the World Today pages 178–181
    4. 45 The First Constitutional Challenge: Jagmohan Singh pages 182–185
    5. 46 Rajendra Prasad and the Attempt to Narrow the Sentence pages 186–189
    6. 47 Bachan Singh and the Rarest of Rare pages 190–193
    7. 48 Machhi Singh and the Five Categories pages 194–198
    8. 49 Mithu and the Mandatory Death Sentence pages 199–202
    9. 50 Bariyar and What Went Wrong With the Rarest of Rare pages 203–206
    10. 51 The Judicial Doubt: Sangeet and Shankar Kisanrao Khade pages 207–210
    11. 52 Manoj and the Mitigation Framework pages 211–215
    12. 53 Capital Punishment and Article 21 pages 216–219
    13. 54 Can the Right to Life Be Curtailed in the Name of Justice? pages 220–223
    14. 55 Capital Punishment and Article 14 pages 224–227
    15. 56 The Merits Claimed for the Death Penalty pages 228–231
    16. 57 The Demerits of the Death Penalty pages 232–236
    17. 58 The Deterrence Argument Tested pages 237–240
    18. 59 Irrevocability, and the Wrongly Convicted pages 241–244
    19. 60 Confirmation by the High Court pages 245–248
    20. 61 The Death Warrant, and Shabnam pages 249–252
    21. 62 The Mode of Execution pages 253–256
    22. 63 Delay in Execution: Triveniben pages 257–260
    23. 64 Delay, Mental Illness and Shatrughan Chauhan pages 261–264
    24. 65 The Death Row Phenomenon pages 265–268
    25. 66 Review, Curative Petition and Mohd. Arif pages 269–271
    26. 67 Mercy: Articles 72 and 161 pages 272–275
    27. 68 Kehar Singh and the Nature of the Pardon Power pages 276–279
    28. 69 Epuru Sudhakar and the Judicial Review of Mercy pages 280–283
    29. 70 Commutation of a Death Sentence to Life Imprisonment pages 284–287
    30. 71 Judge-Centric Sentencing: MU's Own Question pages 288–291
    31. 72 Life Without Remission: Shraddananda and Sriharan pages 292–296
    32. 73 What the Law Commission Has Recommended pages 297–300
    33. 74 Who May Not Be Executed pages 301–304

    Module III 50 chapters

    1. 75 What Sentencing Is pages 305–308
    2. 76 Where Sentencing Sits in a Criminal Trial pages 309–314
    3. 77 The Sentencing Hearing pages 315–318
    4. 78 Reasons for a Sentence pages 319–322
    5. 79 The Approaches to Sentencing pages 323–326
    6. 80 Individualisation of Punishment pages 327–330
    7. 81 Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances pages 331–334
    8. 82 Proportionality in Sentencing pages 335–338
    9. 83 India Without a Sentencing Policy pages 339–342
    10. 84 Sentencing Guidelines: What Has Been Proposed pages 343–346
    11. 85 Concurrent and Consecutive Sentences pages 347–350
    12. 86 Set-Off and Time Already Served pages 351–354
    13. 87 The Sentence of Fine, and How It Is Recovered pages 355–359
    14. 88 Compensation to the Victim pages 360–363
    15. 89 The Victim Compensation Scheme pages 364–367
    16. 90 Community Service as a Sentence pages 368–372
    17. 91 Probation: the Idea pages 373–376
    18. 92 Probation as a New Form of Social and Legal Control pages 377–381
    19. 93 The Probation of Offenders Act 1958: the Scheme pages 382–385
    20. 94 Release After Admonition: Section 3 pages 386–389
    21. 95 Release on Probation of Good Conduct: Section 4 pages 390–393
    22. 96 Compensation and Costs Under Section 5 pages 394–397
    23. 97 Offenders Under Twenty-One: Section 6 pages 398–401
    24. 98 Breach of the Bond, and What Follows pages 402–405
    25. 99 Removal of the Disqualification of Conviction pages 406–408
    26. 100 The Probation Officer pages 409–412
    27. 101 The Functions of the Probation Officer pages 413–416
    28. 102 Where Probation Does Not Apply pages 417–421
    29. 103 Probation Under Section 401 of the Sanhita pages 422–426
    30. 104 Probation and Parole Distinguished pages 427–429
    31. 105 Parole and Furlough in India pages 430–434
    32. 106 The Place of Probation in Penal Policy pages 435–438
    33. 107 Probation as an Alternative to Imprisonment, and Its Utility pages 439–442
    34. 108 Plea Bargaining: What It Is pages 443–447
    35. 109 Plea Bargaining in India Before 2005 pages 448–452
    36. 110 The Statutory Scheme of Plea Bargaining pages 453–458
    37. 111 Plea Bargaining: the Procedure Step by Step pages 459–462
    38. 112 Plea Bargaining in the United States pages 463–467
    39. 113 Plea Bargaining in England and Elsewhere pages 468–472
    40. 114 Plea Bargaining in India Compared With the West pages 473–476
    41. 115 White Collar Crime: the Concept pages 477–480
    42. 116 White Collar Crime in Different Sectors in India pages 481–484
    43. 117 The Difficulty in Sentencing White Collar Criminals pages 485–489
    44. 118 What the Courts Have Done About White Collar Sentencing pages 490–493
    45. 119 The Recidivist and the Habitual Offender pages 494–497
    46. 120 Provisions for Sentencing a Recidivist pages 498–502
    47. 121 Habitual Offender Legislation, and Surveillance pages 503–507
    48. 122 Collective Fine pages 508–512
    49. 123 Summary Punishment pages 513–517
    50. 124 Forfeiture of Property as a Sentence pages 518–522

    Module IV 57 chapters

    1. 125 Imprisonment: What It Is pages 523–527
    2. 126 The Prisons of India: the Institutions pages 528–531
    3. 127 The Prisons Act 1894: the Scheme pages 532–536
    4. 128 Who Runs a Prison pages 537–541
    5. 129 The Superintendent and the Records He Keeps pages 542–546
    6. 130 The Medical Officer pages 547–551
    7. 131 The Jailer and the Subordinate Staff pages 552–556
    8. 132 The Duties of Custodial Staff pages 557–561
    9. 133 Admission of a Prisoner pages 562–566
    10. 134 Classification of Prisoners pages 567–570
    11. 135 Separation, Association and Segregation pages 571–575
    12. 136 Solitary Confinement in Prison pages 576–580
    13. 137 The Prisoner Under Sentence of Death pages 581–585
    14. 138 Food, Clothing and Bedding pages 586–590
    15. 139 The Employment of Prisoners pages 591–595
    16. 140 Corrective Labour and Prison Wages pages 596–600
    17. 141 Health and the Prison Hospital pages 601–605
    18. 142 Visits, Letters and Contact With the Outside pages 606–610
    19. 143 Prohibited Articles and Communication With Prisoners pages 611–615
    20. 144 Prison Offences pages 616–620
    21. 145 Summary Punishment by the Superintendent pages 621–625
    22. 146 Whipping, Fetters and Irons pages 626–630
    23. 147 Prison Rules and the Model Prison Manual pages 631–634
    24. 148 The Model Prisons and Correctional Services Act 2023 pages 635–638
    25. 149 Rights of Prisoners: the Foundation pages 639–643
    26. 150 The Right to Life in Prison pages 644–648
    27. 151 Sunil Batra: Solitary Confinement and Bar Fetters pages 649–653
    28. 152 Sunil Batra (II) and the Prison Under the Constitution pages 654–658
    29. 153 Charles Sobraj and the Limits of Prison Discipline pages 659–662
    30. 154 Handcuffs: Prem Shankar Shukla pages 663–667
    31. 155 Fetters and Handcuffs After Citizens for Democracy pages 668–672
    32. 156 The Right to Legal Aid in Prison pages 673–677
    33. 157 Speedy Trial and the Undertrial pages 678–682
    34. 158 The Undertrial Today: Section 479 pages 683–687
    35. 159 Attendance of Prisoners in Court pages 688–693
    36. 160 Women Prisoners pages 694–698
    37. 161 Children of Women Prisoners pages 699–703
    38. 162 Custodial Violence and Custodial Death pages 704–708
    39. 163 Compensation for a Custodial Wrong pages 709–712
    40. 164 Caste in the Prison pages 713–717
    41. 165 Judicial Surveillance of the Prison pages 718–722
    42. 166 Prison Reform: the History to 1947 pages 723–726
    43. 167 Prison Reform Since 1947 pages 727–730
    44. 168 The Judicial Approach to Prison Reform pages 731–735
    45. 169 The Challenges Prison Reform Faces pages 736–739
    46. 170 The Jail as a Reformative Institution pages 740–744
    47. 171 The Open Prison pages 745–749
    48. 172 Remission and the Remission System pages 750–754
    49. 173 The Restriction on Remission pages 755–758
    50. 174 Premature Release pages 759–763
    51. 175 Transfer and Repatriation of Prisoners pages 764–770
    52. 176 Identification and Measurement of Convicts pages 771–775
    53. 177 The Prisoner of Unsound Mind pages 776–782
    54. 178 Juvenile Institutions pages 783–788
    55. 179 What May Be Done With a Child in Conflict With Law pages 789–794
    56. 180 Rehabilitation Programmes for Juveniles pages 795–800
    57. 181 After-Care and Social Re-Integration pages 801–806
    Every paper that is solved: 7 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024-25
    • 2023
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

  2. Forensic Science and Scientific Investigation of Crime

    Official Notes munotes.in

    Forensic Science and Scientific Investigation of Crime

    LL.M. · SEMESTER 3

    Strictly as per the University of Mumbai LL.M. syllabus in force

    For LL.M. students of the University of Mumbai and all its affiliated law colleges

    munotes.in

    Forensic Science and Scientific Investigation of Crime

    Copyright © 2026 munotes.in. All rights reserved.

    Written and first published by munotes.in, 2026.

    This book is free for individual students to read at munotes.in. No part of it may be reproduced, distributed, stored, translated or used for institutional or classroom purposes in any form without a prior written licence from munotes.in.

    Licensing and permissions: contact@munotes.in

    The text of statutes and of judgments reproduced in this book is in the public domain under section 52(1)(q) of the Copyright Act 1957. The commentary, arrangement, examples and questions are the original work of munotes.in.

    munotes.in is an independent study resource for MU students. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or officially connected to the University of Mumbai. Course names and university references describe the students and syllabus the material relates to.

    munotes.in

    Contents

    Module I

    1. What This Paper Is About 1
    2. What Forensic Science Is 6
    3. The Principles Forensic Science Rests On 11
    4. The Scope of Forensic Science, and Where It Stops 16
    5. The Criminal Justice System of India 20
    6. Forensic Science as an Integral Component 24
    7. How Forensic Evidence Reaches a Criminal Trial 28
    8. The Expert Witness: Section 39(1) 32
    9. The Examiner of Electronic Evidence: Section 39(2) 37
    10. Facts Bearing on the Opinion of Experts: Section 40 41
    11. Opinion as to Handwriting and Signature: Section 41 45
    12. When the Court Compares for Itself: Section 72 49
    13. Reports of Government Scientific Experts: Section 329 53
    14. When the Expert Need Not Be Called: Section 330 57
    15. The Successor in Office: Section 336 61
    16. The Weight of Expert Evidence 65
    17. The Forensic Expert at the Crime Scene: Section 176(3) 70
    18. Seizure, Sealing and Forwarding an Exhibit 74
    19. The Chain of Custody 78
    20. Medical Examination of the Arrested Person: Sections 51 to 53 83
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. Medical Examination of the Victim: Section 184 88
    2. Inquest and Post-Mortem: Section 194 92
    3. Specimen Signatures, Handwriting and Voice Samples: Section 349 96
    4. The Criminal Procedure (Identification) Act 2022 100
    5. Article 20(3) and the Evidence the Body Carries 105
    6. Consent, and the Limits on Involuntary Techniques 109
    7. Article 21, Privacy and the Holding of Forensic Data 114
    8. Where the System Fails 118
    9. Before the Laboratories: India Before 1849 122
    10. How the Subject Grew Abroad 126
    11. The Chemical Examiners to Government 131
    12. Anthropometry, and Why India Abandoned It 135
    13. The Fingerprint Bureau of 1897 139
    14. The Government Examiner of Questioned Documents 143
    15. The Serologist to the Government 147
    16. The Scientific Sections of the Police 151
    17. The State Forensic Science Laboratories 155
    18. The Central Forensic Science Laboratories 158
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module I continued

    1. The Bureau of Police Research and Development, and the Directorate 161
    2. The National Crime Records Bureau and the Finger Print Bureaux 164
    3. The Committees and Commissions 168
    4. The Statutes: 1920 to 2022 172
    5. The DNA Bills, and Why India Still Has No DNA Statute 176
    6. The Three New Criminal Laws of 2023 180
    7. The National Forensic Sciences University Act 2020 184
    8. Where Indian Forensic Science Stands Now 187

    Module II

    1. Module II: The Sentence the University Did Not Finish 191
    2. What a Forensic Science Laboratory Does 195
    3. How a Laboratory Is Divided 199
    4. Forensic Ballistics: What the Branch Is 202
    5. Firearms and Their Classification 206
    6. Internal, External and Terminal Ballistics 210
    7. Rifling, Striations and the Identification of a Firearm 214
    8. Cartridge Cases, Firing Pin and Breech Face Marks 218
    9. Range of Fire, and Entry and Exit Wounds 221
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Gunshot Residue 224
    2. Ballistics Evidence in an Indian Court 228
    3. Forensic Biology: What the Branch Is 232
    4. Blood: Is It Blood, Whose Species, Whose Group 235
    5. Serology: Semen, Saliva and the Other Fluids 239
    6. Hair, Fibre and Botanical Trace 243
    7. DNA and DNA Profiling 247
    8. DNA Evidence in Indian Criminal Courts 251
    9. DNA in Paternity and Other Civil Questions 255
    10. India Has No DNA Statute 259
    11. Forensic Chemistry: What the Branch Is 262
    12. Forensic Toxicology: What the Branch Is 265
    13. The Classes of Poison, and How Each Is Detected 269
    14. Viscera, Sampling and the Chemical Examiner's Report 273
    15. Narcotic Drugs, Their Analysis, and the Quantity Question 277
    16. Alcohol, Its Estimation, and Drunken Driving 281
    17. Explosives, Arson and Fire Debris 286
    18. Forensic Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence 290
    19. The Medico-Legal Autopsy 294
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Identification of the Living and the Dead 298
    2. Time Since Death 301
    3. Injuries and Wounds 305
    4. Asphyxial Deaths 309
    5. Sexual Offences and the Medical Evidence 313
    6. The Medical Witness in Court 317
    7. Forensic Anthropology: What the Branch Is 321
    8. The Analysis of Human Bones 324
    9. Age Determination and the Law 328
    10. Superimposition and Facial Reconstruction 332
    11. Forensic Odontology 335
    12. Fingerprints: The Three Principles 339
    13. Fingerprint Patterns and Their Types 343
    14. Classification, and the Henry System 347
    15. Developing and Lifting a Latent Print 351
    16. Comparison, Points of Similarity, and the Automated Systems 355
    17. Fingerprint Evidence in an Indian Court 359
    18. Questioned Documents: What the Branch Is 363
    19. Handwriting Identification 367
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module II continued

    1. Signatures and the Classes of Forgery 371
    2. Alterations, Erasures, Obliterations and Indented Writing 375
    3. Ink, Paper, Typescript and Printing 379
    4. Counterfeit Currency 383
    5. Questioned Document Evidence in an Indian Court 387
    6. Forensic Physics and the Instruments 391
    7. Ultraviolet and Infrared in Crime Detection 394
    8. Forensic Psychology and the Detection of Deception 397
    9. Digital and Cyber Forensics 401
    10. Voice and Speaker Identification 405
    11. Forensic Photography and Videography 409
    12. Crime Scene Management 413
    13. The Other Divisions a Laboratory Holds 417

    Module III

    1. What Module III Asks 421
    2. The Modern Devices, Listed and Grouped 424
    3. Modern Techniques of Crime Control 427
    4. Narco-Analysis 431
    5. The Polygraph 435
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module III continued

    1. Brain Electrical Activation Profile and Brain Mapping 439
    2. The Constitutional Line Across All Three 443
    3. Closed Circuit Television and Video Surveillance 447
    4. Facial Recognition 451
    5. Number Plate Recognition and Traffic Enforcement 455
    6. Biometric Identification and the Measurements Database 460
    7. The Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and the Inter-operable Criminal Justice System 464
    8. The National Databases a Police Officer Can Search 468
    9. Explosive Trace Detection and the Portable Bomb Sniffer 471
    10. Screening: Metal Detectors, Scanners and Baggage Systems 476
    11. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Aerial Surveillance 480
    12. Interception of Communications and Call Data Records 485
    13. Mobile Device Forensics and Location Evidence 492
    14. Electronic Records in Evidence: Section 63 and the Certificate 497
    15. Tracking Devices and Vehicle Telematics 502
    16. Artificial Intelligence and Predictive Policing 506
    17. Designing Crime Out: Situational Prevention 510
    18. What Technological Crime Control Costs 514
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV

    1. What an Inter-State Crime Is 519
    2. Inter-State Crimes as the University Sets Them 523
    3. Why the Constitution Makes Them Hard 527
    4. Territorial Jurisdiction Under the Sanhita 532
    5. The Extra-Territorial Reach of the Nyaya Sanhita 537
    6. Organised Crime: Section 111 541
    7. Petty Organised Crime: Section 112 545
    8. Terrorist Act: Section 113 and the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act 549
    9. Investigating Across a State Line 555
    10. Arrest Outside Jurisdiction and Transit Remand 560
    11. The Central Bureau of Investigation and the Act of 1946 566
    12. State Consent, General Consent, and Its Withdrawal 572
    13. The National Investigation Agency 577
    14. Records, Coordination and the National Picture 584
    15. The Inter-State Criminal: History Sheets and Surveillance 588
    16. INTERPOL: What It Is 593
    17. How INTERPOL Is Constituted 598
    18. What INTERPOL Does: Its Functions and Its Databases 604
    19. INTERPOL Notices 608
    munotes.in

    Contents continued

    Module IV continued

    1. India and INTERPOL 614
    2. What INTERPOL Cannot Do 619
    3. Extradition 624
    4. Mutual Legal Assistance and Letters Rogatory 632
    5. Transnational Crime 638
    6. The Scientific Investigation of an Inter-State Crime 644
    7. Where the System Fails 649
    munotes.in

    Page 1 onwards

    munotes.in

    654 pages in this book. The cover and the contents are above. Everything from page one is in the pass.

    Notes
    2026 Edition, as per the latest syllabus. 654 pages.
    Papers
    Previous year question paper solutions. Revised edition 2026. 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2023, 2025, 2026
    Every chapter in the notes: 155 chapters across 4 modules

    Module I 46 chapters

    1. 1 What This Paper Is About pages 1–5
    2. 2 What Forensic Science Is pages 6–10
    3. 3 The Principles Forensic Science Rests On pages 11–15
    4. 4 The Scope of Forensic Science, and Where It Stops pages 16–19
    5. 5 The Criminal Justice System of India pages 20–23
    6. 6 Forensic Science as an Integral Component pages 24–27
    7. 7 How Forensic Evidence Reaches a Criminal Trial pages 28–31
    8. 8 The Expert Witness: Section 39(1) pages 32–36
    9. 9 The Examiner of Electronic Evidence: Section 39(2) pages 37–40
    10. 10 Facts Bearing on the Opinion of Experts: Section 40 pages 41–44
    11. 11 Opinion as to Handwriting and Signature: Section 41 pages 45–48
    12. 12 When the Court Compares for Itself: Section 72 pages 49–52
    13. 13 Reports of Government Scientific Experts: Section 329 pages 53–56
    14. 14 When the Expert Need Not Be Called: Section 330 pages 57–60
    15. 15 The Successor in Office: Section 336 pages 61–64
    16. 16 The Weight of Expert Evidence pages 65–69
    17. 17 The Forensic Expert at the Crime Scene: Section 176(3) pages 70–73
    18. 18 Seizure, Sealing and Forwarding an Exhibit pages 74–77
    19. 19 The Chain of Custody pages 78–82
    20. 20 Medical Examination of the Arrested Person: Sections 51 to 53 pages 83–87
    21. 21 Medical Examination of the Victim: Section 184 pages 88–91
    22. 22 Inquest and Post-Mortem: Section 194 pages 92–95
    23. 23 Specimen Signatures, Handwriting and Voice Samples: Section 349 pages 96–99
    24. 24 The Criminal Procedure (Identification) Act 2022 pages 100–104
    25. 25 Article 20(3) and the Evidence the Body Carries pages 105–108
    26. 26 Consent, and the Limits on Involuntary Techniques pages 109–113
    27. 27 Article 21, Privacy and the Holding of Forensic Data pages 114–117
    28. 28 Where the System Fails pages 118–121
    29. 29 Before the Laboratories: India Before 1849 pages 122–125
    30. 30 How the Subject Grew Abroad pages 126–130
    31. 31 The Chemical Examiners to Government pages 131–134
    32. 32 Anthropometry, and Why India Abandoned It pages 135–138
    33. 33 The Fingerprint Bureau of 1897 pages 139–142
    34. 34 The Government Examiner of Questioned Documents pages 143–146
    35. 35 The Serologist to the Government pages 147–150
    36. 36 The Scientific Sections of the Police pages 151–154
    37. 37 The State Forensic Science Laboratories pages 155–157
    38. 38 The Central Forensic Science Laboratories pages 158–160
    39. 39 The Bureau of Police Research and Development, and the Directorate pages 161–163
    40. 40 The National Crime Records Bureau and the Finger Print Bureaux pages 164–167
    41. 41 The Committees and Commissions pages 168–171
    42. 42 The Statutes: 1920 to 2022 pages 172–175
    43. 43 The DNA Bills, and Why India Still Has No DNA Statute pages 176–179
    44. 44 The Three New Criminal Laws of 2023 pages 180–183
    45. 45 The National Forensic Sciences University Act 2020 pages 184–186
    46. 46 Where Indian Forensic Science Stands Now pages 187–190

    Module II 60 chapters

    1. 47 Module II: The Sentence the University Did Not Finish pages 191–194
    2. 48 What a Forensic Science Laboratory Does pages 195–198
    3. 49 How a Laboratory Is Divided pages 199–201
    4. 50 Forensic Ballistics: What the Branch Is pages 202–205
    5. 51 Firearms and Their Classification pages 206–209
    6. 52 Internal, External and Terminal Ballistics pages 210–213
    7. 53 Rifling, Striations and the Identification of a Firearm pages 214–217
    8. 54 Cartridge Cases, Firing Pin and Breech Face Marks pages 218–220
    9. 55 Range of Fire, and Entry and Exit Wounds pages 221–223
    10. 56 Gunshot Residue pages 224–227
    11. 57 Ballistics Evidence in an Indian Court pages 228–231
    12. 58 Forensic Biology: What the Branch Is pages 232–234
    13. 59 Blood: Is It Blood, Whose Species, Whose Group pages 235–238
    14. 60 Serology: Semen, Saliva and the Other Fluids pages 239–242
    15. 61 Hair, Fibre and Botanical Trace pages 243–246
    16. 62 DNA and DNA Profiling pages 247–250
    17. 63 DNA Evidence in Indian Criminal Courts pages 251–254
    18. 64 DNA in Paternity and Other Civil Questions pages 255–258
    19. 65 India Has No DNA Statute pages 259–261
    20. 66 Forensic Chemistry: What the Branch Is pages 262–264
    21. 67 Forensic Toxicology: What the Branch Is pages 265–268
    22. 68 The Classes of Poison, and How Each Is Detected pages 269–272
    23. 69 Viscera, Sampling and the Chemical Examiner's Report pages 273–276
    24. 70 Narcotic Drugs, Their Analysis, and the Quantity Question pages 277–280
    25. 71 Alcohol, Its Estimation, and Drunken Driving pages 281–285
    26. 72 Explosives, Arson and Fire Debris pages 286–289
    27. 73 Forensic Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence pages 290–293
    28. 74 The Medico-Legal Autopsy pages 294–297
    29. 75 Identification of the Living and the Dead pages 298–300
    30. 76 Time Since Death pages 301–304
    31. 77 Injuries and Wounds pages 305–308
    32. 78 Asphyxial Deaths pages 309–312
    33. 79 Sexual Offences and the Medical Evidence pages 313–316
    34. 80 The Medical Witness in Court pages 317–320
    35. 81 Forensic Anthropology: What the Branch Is pages 321–323
    36. 82 The Analysis of Human Bones pages 324–327
    37. 83 Age Determination and the Law pages 328–331
    38. 84 Superimposition and Facial Reconstruction pages 332–334
    39. 85 Forensic Odontology pages 335–338
    40. 86 Fingerprints: The Three Principles pages 339–342
    41. 87 Fingerprint Patterns and Their Types pages 343–346
    42. 88 Classification, and the Henry System pages 347–350
    43. 89 Developing and Lifting a Latent Print pages 351–354
    44. 90 Comparison, Points of Similarity, and the Automated Systems pages 355–358
    45. 91 Fingerprint Evidence in an Indian Court pages 359–362
    46. 92 Questioned Documents: What the Branch Is pages 363–366
    47. 93 Handwriting Identification pages 367–370
    48. 94 Signatures and the Classes of Forgery pages 371–374
    49. 95 Alterations, Erasures, Obliterations and Indented Writing pages 375–378
    50. 96 Ink, Paper, Typescript and Printing pages 379–382
    51. 97 Counterfeit Currency pages 383–386
    52. 98 Questioned Document Evidence in an Indian Court pages 387–390
    53. 99 Forensic Physics and the Instruments pages 391–393
    54. 100 Ultraviolet and Infrared in Crime Detection pages 394–396
    55. 101 Forensic Psychology and the Detection of Deception pages 397–400
    56. 102 Digital and Cyber Forensics pages 401–404
    57. 103 Voice and Speaker Identification pages 405–408
    58. 104 Forensic Photography and Videography pages 409–412
    59. 105 Crime Scene Management pages 413–416
    60. 106 The Other Divisions a Laboratory Holds pages 417–420

    Module III 23 chapters

    1. 107 What Module III Asks pages 421–423
    2. 108 The Modern Devices, Listed and Grouped pages 424–426
    3. 109 Modern Techniques of Crime Control pages 427–430
    4. 110 Narco-Analysis pages 431–434
    5. 111 The Polygraph pages 435–438
    6. 112 Brain Electrical Activation Profile and Brain Mapping pages 439–442
    7. 113 The Constitutional Line Across All Three pages 443–446
    8. 114 Closed Circuit Television and Video Surveillance pages 447–450
    9. 115 Facial Recognition pages 451–454
    10. 116 Number Plate Recognition and Traffic Enforcement pages 455–459
    11. 117 Biometric Identification and the Measurements Database pages 460–463
    12. 118 The Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and the Inter-operable Criminal Justice System pages 464–467
    13. 119 The National Databases a Police Officer Can Search pages 468–470
    14. 120 Explosive Trace Detection and the Portable Bomb Sniffer pages 471–475
    15. 121 Screening: Metal Detectors, Scanners and Baggage Systems pages 476–479
    16. 122 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Aerial Surveillance pages 480–484
    17. 123 Interception of Communications and Call Data Records pages 485–491
    18. 124 Mobile Device Forensics and Location Evidence pages 492–496
    19. 125 Electronic Records in Evidence: Section 63 and the Certificate pages 497–501
    20. 126 Tracking Devices and Vehicle Telematics pages 502–505
    21. 127 Artificial Intelligence and Predictive Policing pages 506–509
    22. 128 Designing Crime Out: Situational Prevention pages 510–513
    23. 129 What Technological Crime Control Costs pages 514–518

    Module IV 26 chapters

    1. 130 What an Inter-State Crime Is pages 519–522
    2. 131 Inter-State Crimes as the University Sets Them pages 523–526
    3. 132 Why the Constitution Makes Them Hard pages 527–531
    4. 133 Territorial Jurisdiction Under the Sanhita pages 532–536
    5. 134 The Extra-Territorial Reach of the Nyaya Sanhita pages 537–540
    6. 135 Organised Crime: Section 111 pages 541–544
    7. 136 Petty Organised Crime: Section 112 pages 545–548
    8. 137 Terrorist Act: Section 113 and the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act pages 549–554
    9. 138 Investigating Across a State Line pages 555–559
    10. 139 Arrest Outside Jurisdiction and Transit Remand pages 560–565
    11. 140 The Central Bureau of Investigation and the Act of 1946 pages 566–571
    12. 141 State Consent, General Consent, and Its Withdrawal pages 572–576
    13. 142 The National Investigation Agency pages 577–583
    14. 143 Records, Coordination and the National Picture pages 584–587
    15. 144 The Inter-State Criminal: History Sheets and Surveillance pages 588–592
    16. 145 INTERPOL: What It Is pages 593–597
    17. 146 How INTERPOL Is Constituted pages 598–603
    18. 147 What INTERPOL Does: Its Functions and Its Databases pages 604–607
    19. 148 INTERPOL Notices pages 608–613
    20. 149 India and INTERPOL pages 614–618
    21. 150 What INTERPOL Cannot Do pages 619–623
    22. 151 Extradition pages 624–631
    23. 152 Mutual Legal Assistance and Letters Rogatory pages 632–637
    24. 153 Transnational Crime pages 638–643
    25. 154 The Scientific Investigation of an Inter-State Crime pages 644–648
    26. 155 Where the System Fails pages 649–654
    Every paper that is solved: 7 papers
    • 2025-26
    • 2024-25
    • 2023
    • 2019
    • 2018
    • 2016
    • 2015

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