TYBA-SEM-VI-PAPER-VII-19th-Century-English-Literature-II-munotes

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BACKGROUND - I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Effects of Industrial Revolution
1.3 Victorian Dilemma
1.4 Survey of the Literature of the Period
1.5 Conclusion
1.6 Check Your Progress
1.7 Bibliography
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this Unit are to introduce the learners with following important
aspects 19th century literature:
 Industrial Revolution and its Effects
 Society and its impact on literature
 Impact of Victorian dilemma and its impact on literature
 Types of literary genres of the period
1.1 INTRODUCTION
19th century English literature has its unique characteristic features due to the
peculiar socio -cultural conditions of the time. This century is known as the time
of industrial revolution that seriously affected entire European world leading to
the widespread colonization. This specific aspect not only affected the political
and geographical aspects of the world but it more closely affected the personal,
familial, social, religious, literary and cultural lives of all the concerned. So it
woul d be worthwhile to attempt to understand all those aspects that changed the
life and literature of the time.
1.2 EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
1.2.1 Middle Class Complacency and the Rise of the Working Class :
The Victorian Age (1832 -1901), one of the remarkable periods in British
history was the period of the reign of Queen Victoria. It was an era of
material affluence, political consciousness, democratic reforms, industrial
and mechanical progress, scientific advancement, social unrest,
educational expansion, empire building and religious uncertainty. munotes.in

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2 Whatever may be the strengths and defects of the Victorian way of life, it
cannot be denied that it was in many ways a glorious age in the history of
English lit erature, and the advancement made in the field of poetry, prose
and fiction was quite commendable.
The Victorian Age was essentially a period of peace and prosperity in
England as the age witnessed the end of colonial wars like the Crimean
War and the any revolutionary upsurge which impacted all aspects of their
industrial, commercial and social life. It was an era when the ‘war drum
throbb’d no longer’ and the people felt safe and secured in their island
home.
The industrial revolution during the age tra nsformed the agrarian economy
of England into an industrial economy. The revolution gave birth to three
social classes viz. upper class, middle class, and lower class. The upper
class comprised landowners who did not perform manual labour hence
hired lower class workers to work for them. The middle class also referred
as bourgeoisie, consisted of those who had skilled jobs. While the lower
class comprised labourers living in appalling condition. The growth in
industries brought about growth in trade and com merce. Mills and
factories were established at important centres and the entire England
hummed with the rattle of looms and booms of weaving machines. The
expansion of middle class due to industrial development, rapid growth of
cities and the economy categ orically led to the rise in the Middle Class
Complacency. The affluence naturally was accompanied by snobbery and
self-satisfaction. Middle class families had their own well - furnished
homes with ready supply of water, own car, wore fancy clothing and sin ce
education was open for them, sent their children to colleges, were saving
for retirement and had enough saving to afford luxuries like dining out and
going for vacations. They took pride in their hard work and were
determined to ‘get ahead’. Very few ha d sympathy for the poor class.
They exerted some political power however it was minimal compared to
the upper class. No wonder, t he Age witnessed two dominant and yet
conflicting tendencies – the spirit of complacency and growing unrest
among the poor.
England being the fast pacing industrial economy, the poor class thronged
towards industrial towns which resulted in creating contrasting social
atmosphere – prosperity as well as poverty, technological progress as well
as manual labour and virtue as well a s depravity. The intense activities in
commerce, industry and finance, simultaneously gave birth to appalling
social conditions. It gave rise to filthy slums, exploitation of cheap labour
- often of women and children, poor wages to factory workers, etc. T he
industrial advancement while creating the privileged class of capitalists
and mill owners, rolling in wealth and riches, also brought in its wake the
semi -starved and ill -clad class of thoroughly dissatisfied labourers and
factory workers who were force d to live and work in the factories of the
new towns. The working conditions in factories were deplorable. With no
safety regulations and no laws limiting either the number of hours people
could be required to work or the age of factory workers, some facto ry munotes.in

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Background -I

3 owners were willing to sacrifice the well -being of their employees for
greater profit. Children as young as five worked in factories and mines.
1.2.2 Impact of Social Life on Literature:
Victorian literature not only presented the rapid progress in com merce,
democracy and science but remarkably revealed its impact on the society
as well. Barrett Browning’s “The Cry of the Children” (1843) is an
example of poems written specifically to address the problems of
industrialisation. The age essentially being the age of novel and prose, t he
evils of the industrial revolution were vividly painted by writers like
Disraeli, Dickens and Mrs. Gaskell. The social novel was most diligently
cultivated by Benjamin Disraeli. For example, his novel Sybil (1845)
while revealing the conflict between Capitalists and Labour, presents a
terrible picture of the contemporary working class. While Mrs. Elizabeth
Gaskell in her novels, Mary Barton (1854) and North and South (1854) ,
gives a realistic view of the hardships caused by t he industrial revolution
as seen from the workers’ point of view. Dickens is seen as a great
reformer through his novels written from humanitarian approach.
Thackeray and Carlyle, another prominent representative of the Victorian
era, essentially satirize the Victorian society and denounce snobbery,
shams and insincerity. George Eliot is critical about the rigid class
distinctions in her novels. Charles Kingsley too gives a vivid picture of the
wretched life of the labouring class and shows his interest in the oppressed
labouring class.
1.3 THE VICTORIAN DILEMMA
1.3.1. Age of Science, Faith, and Doubt: Victorian age was primarily an age of
social interests, practical ideals, and the progress of democracy keeping pace
with development of science. As science was progressing day by day the
Victorian age witnessed an unprecedented intellectual growth and scientific
advancement. It was a period of intellectual ferment and scientific thinking.
Science, once a sealed book saved for an elect few, was democratized and more
and more scientific enthusiasts dedicated themselves to the popularization of
scientific works like Darwin’s Origin of Spe cies. The man of science was
regarded no more as academic recluse but as a social figure exercising a deep and
profound influence on the social and educational life of the age. Science
underwent dramatic change during the age as all branches of science (e. g. botany,
geology, astronomy, zoology, medicine, etc.) saw major developments and
expansion. The scientific discoveries tremendously impacted the lifestyle,
beliefs, and attitudes of people. The biologist Charles Darwin and Physicist
Thomas Huxley appeare d as revolutionaries on the Victorian scene. Darwin’s
Origin of Species (1859), a landmark in the history of human thought, brought
about a revolution in the fabric and framework of contemporary philosophy.
Much of the middle class began to doubt the reli ability of the book of
Genesis according to which the universe was created by the divine power.
Moreover, William Paley’s book Natural Theology: Or Evidences of the
Existence and Attributes of the Deity Collected from the Appearances of
Nature written in 1802 that emphasised the idea of God as a creator of the
universe and all existing species was outrightly challenged by Darwin’s munotes.in

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4 The Origin of the Species. His Evolution theory revolutionised the thought
of the age as it challenged the literal truth of the Bible and the nature of
Christian belief. However, many who believed that the nature and man are
created by God saw it as an attack on religion and hence continued
believing in religious teachings.
A substantial number of public figures like many educated people,
intellectuals and writers openly challenged the religious beliefs as they
found it difficult to accept the literal truth of Bible and hence rejected the
teachings of Christianity altogether. The tremendous impact of Darwin
and his followers – T.H. Huxley, Herbert Spenser, A.R. Wallace, John
Stuart Mill and Tyndall shook the religious faith. So amazing were the
achievements of science that people began to think that science will not
only supply their physical needs but will also answer those fundame ntal
questions to which religion had given unconvincing replies. The Bible, so
long regarded as infallible, came in for criticism. What to many was an
icon of faith became to some a mere fiction.
Yet, in this age of doubt, wherein the intellectuals battle d the Church and
struggled to absorb scientific discoveries, religion had its sway and could
not be completely crushed. The religion of the middle class known as
Evangelicalism was not only the religion of mind and spirit but also of
manners and taste, whi ch was extraneous. The age, hence, was at once the
age of the triumph of science and religion. In spite of the advance of
science and various discoveries, the tenor of life was still governed by
religious and moral consciousness as the Victorians were mora lists at heart
and religion was the anchor of their lives. Undoubtedly, there was a
marked conflict between religion and science between moralists and
scientists, each outdoing the other.
1.3.2. Impact of the Victorian Dilemma on Literature: The revolution
in thinking left a deep impact on the literature of the time as literature
reflects the spirit of the age. The reflections of dilemma can be found in
the skeptical reactions from prominent poets like Arnold, Clough, James
Thomson, Fitzgerald , etc. They mourn over the decay of faith in their
works with a poignant note of pessimism. Some of Arnold’s remarkable
poems – The Scholar Gypsy (1853), Thyrsis (1867), Rugby Chapel
(1867), Dover Beach (1867) are deeply elegiac as they wail over decay of
faith. A. H. Clough’s philosophical poem ‘Dipsychus’ reveals a deep -
seated unrest and despondency due to dilemma between faith and doubt.
James Thomson’s ‘The City of Dreadful Night’ (1870 -73) contains similar
essence of melancholy when he says – “Life is a hell and Progress is an
illusion”. Tennyson’s poetry is also considerably influenced by the
advancement of science in the age and the undertones of scientific
research can be heard in his “In Memoriam’ (1850). The fiction of
Charlotte Bronte, Dickens, K ingsley, Reade, George Eliot is also found to
be influenced by scientific spirit. The marked development of realism in
literature was due to the analytical and critical habit of mind fostered by
science. The scientific temper also coloured the historical l iterature of
Carlyle, Buckle and Macaulay who followed the method of discovering,
ascertaining facts of history. Thus the Victorian literature was marked munotes.in

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5 throughout by the prominence of the spirit inquiry and criticism, by
skepticism and religious uncerta inty, and by spiritual struggle and unrest;
and these are among the most persistent and characteristic notes of its
literature.
However, some writers like Browning, and Newman remained unaffected
by the scientific temper. Newman and his Oxford Movement sought to
revive the faith, rituals and dogmas of Roman Catholic religion. While the
Pre Raphaelites challenged Victorian materiali sm and pragmatism and
withdrew themselves into the world of art and advocated the creed of art
for art’s sake.
1.4 SURVEY OF THE LITEARTURE OF THE PERIOD
1.4.1. Survey of Victorian Literature: The Victorian age was one of the
most remarkable periods in t he history of English literature. It witnessed
the flowering of poetry in the hands of a host of poets, great and small. It
marked the growth of the English novel and laid the foundation of English
prose. The literature of the age had salient features of i ts own.
The literary figures were endowed with originality in outlook, character
and style. For example, one could find energy in Macaulay while
Tennyson loved to praise independence. Dickens was known for his
unique originality while Bronte sisters had p ride and endurance. Tennyson
loved to follow a haphazard path in his stories.
The age was essentially the age of prose and novel. Though the age
produced many poets it is “ … emphatically and age of prose and poetry”
says W.J Long. The novels took the place of drama and became as popular
as the drama was popular during the Elizabethan age. The age also
witnessed great number of novels with perfection.
The Literature was marked with a moral note both in prose and poetry.
Tennyson, Browning, Carlyle, Rus kin, Thackeray, George Eliot, Dickens
were primarily interested in giving message and write to uplift and instruct
their countrymen.
The literary artists were inspired by a social zeal to represent the problem
of their age. No wonder the literature of t he age known as the literature of
realism rather than romance. Literature became an instrument of social
reform and hence was purposeful and didactic.
A few literary artists revolted against the materialistic tendencies of the
age and sought refuge in the Middle ages. For example, Rossetti delved in
the folklore of the Middle ages. Morris engaged himself in its legends and
sagas.
The literature of the age though was insisted on rationality and reason,
cannot cut itself off from Romanticism. It’s traces c an be found in the
works of Tennyson, Thackeray , Browning and Arnold. munotes.in

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6 The note of pessimism, doubt and despair can be found in the poetry of
Arnold, and Arthur H. Clough. Similarly, a note of idealism and optimism
also is struck by the poets like Brownin g and prose writers like Ruskin.
While faith in humanity can be seen in the essayists like Macaulay ,
Carlyle, Ruskin and the novelists like Dickens, Thackeray and George
Eliot.
The literature of the age was also found under the impact of science. The
scientific spirit is found in the works of Clough, James Thomson, Arnold
and Fitzgerald.
The note of patriotism runs through the Victorian literature. Tennyson,
Dickens and Disraeli were inspired by a national pride.
1.4.2. Victorian Novel: Victorian age is essentially the age of the novel
since the novel made a phenomenal progress during the age. This was
partly because the middle class rose in power and importance, partly
because of the steady increase of the reading public with growth of
lending librari es and the development of publishing and partly because the
novel presented a picture of life of the middle -class society which the
people wanted to read about. The novel of the age used as a popular
medium for expressing its rapid progress in commerce, de mocracy and
science. The material and scientific progress had its influence upon the
Victorian life and it was inevitable that it should be expressed through its
prose, poetry and fiction. Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, the
novel of the age be came the vehicle of ideas as well as a means of
amusement. The writers though belonged to different perspectives, used
literature in general and novel in particular for noting criticism of life. The
novel reflected all the factors influencing and shaping t he complex modern
world. It became more realistic and analytical with the spread of science;
more humanitarian with the spread of democratic approach; and more
inquiring and interrogative with the religious and moral unrest.
The early Victorian novel a s cultivated by Disraeli, Trollope, Dickens,
Thackeray, Kingsley, Mrs. Gaskell and Charles Reade was essentially a
transcript from life and the novelists concentrated on the social, political,
economic aspects of Victorian society. Realism, sometimes blata nt and
sometimes in the subdued key, became a characteristic feature of early
Victorian novel. The novelists came to close grips with the problems faced
by Victorian society and sought to find a solution to the rampant evils of
the age. The novel, like oth er forms of literature, became purposive in
character, and ceased to be a source of pure entertainment. The Victorian
reader found in fiction what he looked for, and the early Victorian
novelists provided him a historical perspective of the age in all its varied
aspects. Thus, the early Victorian novelists were in accord with their
public, and gratified the public taste by portraying their own life. They
identified with the age and were its spokesmen. No wonder there is a
satiric tinge in the novels of Disr aeli, Thackeray and Dickens as well.
1.4.3. Victorian Poetry: Victorian poetry was differed from the poetry of
the previous era. Yet the salient features of both the poetries were similar. munotes.in

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7 From the rich imagery and rhythmic quality of Alfred Lord Tennyson to
Christina Rossetti's lyrical purity and powerful exploration of loss and
faith, the Victorian period heralded a new wave of poetry that was
influenced by its Romantic predecessors yet distinctly different. The poets
experimented with innovative forms an d types of prosody that enabled
new kind of poetic voices. We find a note of feminism in Elizabeth
Browning while Mathew Arnold was a precursor of the modernist
revolution. Ger ald Hopkins’s poetry with its unusual style influenced a lot
of the 1940s poets. The Victorian poetry can be divided into early
Victorian poets and the Pre Raphaelites. The early Victorian poets are
Alfred Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, Elizabeth Browning, Mathew
Arnold, Gerald Hopkins. The Pre Raphaelites are D.G. Rossetti, Holman
Hunt, J.E. Millais, William Morris and A.C. Swinburne.
The poetry of the age was quite realistic in nature and was contrary to the
romantic poetry which was idealistic. Nature that was valorized by the
Romantics lost its idealized position and became ju st a source of leisure
and inspiration for the poets.
Unlike Romantic poetry which was imbued in rural and rustic life, the
theme of Victorian poetry was city life. Hence it focused on masses for
masses. Moreover, the poets took interest in Medieval lite rature and loved
mythical and chivalrous anecdotes of Medieval knights, courtly love, etc.
Since the Victorian poetry was realistic, it was associated with real life
situations rather than the ideal world. The themes included the impact of
industrial rev olution and advancements on the masses who were poor,
unemployed, corrupt, and living in slums. The Poetry thus was pessimistic
as it focused on the pains and miserable life of the commoners.
The advancement in science and inventions was welcomed by the
Victorian poets. It made them believe that a man can find all solutions to
his problems and sufferings. They made their readers believe that they
should use science for their betterment.
Victorian poets took the responsibility of social reform and gave voi ce to
the commoners by living with them.
Patriotism was the significant feature of the age. The Victorian took pride
in their nation and national glories. A sense of national pride is well
sounded in Tennyson’s poetry.
"Throughout this era poetry addressed issues such as patriotism, religious
faith, science, sexuality, and social reform, that often aroused polemical
debate.
Robert browning broke the mould of Victorian conventional poetic style
by employing dramatic method in the presentation. He is one of the
greatest love poets in English poetry. His love poetry i s intensely realistic
in character. He intellectualized the passion of love. His remarkable works
are The last ride together, Parting at Morning , etc. His My Last Duchess
is the best example of dramatic monologue. It deals with the Victorian munotes.in

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8 social issues about the condition of woman. The poem explores the class
consciousness and the Victorian morality code where a woman is strictly
adhered to certain social norms.
Tennys on being the most prominent literary figure of the age, faithfully
reflected various aspects of Victorian life in his poetry. During the long
span of his career as a poet he essayed every kind of poetry – the song, the
idyll, the dramatic monologue, the d ialect poem, the ballad, the war ode,
etc. The extraordinary diversity of his work is itself typical of the strongly
marked eclecticism of his age. He rote s on classical, romantic, and modern
subjects; on English history and Celtic legend; on the deepest problems of
philosophy and religion. The finest jewel of his poetic art is Ulysses and
Locksley Hall . His first long poem The Princess a Medley comments on
women’s education and their claim for equality. His famous elegy In
Memoriam mourn the death of h is close friend Arthur Hallam.
Matthew Arnold is a significant writer of the Victorian age. He was at
once a poet, and prose writer. His poetry is reflective and intellectual
while his prose writing awakened the middle class from materialism and
complacen cy. Arnold's remarkable work includes The Strayed Reveller
and other Poems, Empedocles on Etna and other poems, Poems, Quiet
Work, The Forsaken Merman, To Marguerite, The Scholar Gipsy, and
Dover Beach. His poetry is characterized by doubt and melancholy. Being
a humanist, he expressed his disappointment about the collapse of
traditional faith in English society.
1.4.4. The Victorian Prose: The early Victorian prose is in keeping with
the energetic temperament of the time. An expansive energy seems to be
characteristic of the whole period, displaying itself as freely in literature as
in the development of science, geographical exploration and the rapidity
of econ omic change. The Victorian prose carried the spirit of realism like
that of Victorian poetry and novel. Unlike the highly imaginative prose in
the Romantic age, the Victorian prose confronted contemporary problems
like religion, science, politics, arts, etc. posed by modern, materialistic
urban life with intellectual fervour. This highly creative non fiction which
was popular during the age was originated by a literary historian – John
Holloway who named the genre as “sage writing”. The wide popularity of
the writing was due to the increase in nineteenth century periodicals and
newspapers like Edinburg h Reviews, the Quarterly Reviews, Fraser’s
Magazine, etc. The major contributors of this genre were Thomas Carlyle,
John Ruskin, and Mathew Arnold who with their philosophical, observant
and enlightened thoughts enriched Victorian non fictional prose. Ther e
were some minor essayists too, like Walter Peter, John Stuart Mill and
Thomas Macaulay.
Thomas Carlyle was a Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher. He is
found to be critical of intellectual and spiritual mediocracy, self -
contentment with mater ial prosperity, moral stupor, surrender to scientific
skepticism , and analytical reasoning of the time. His one of the significant
contributions to prose literature is his book – On Heroes, Hero -Worship,
and The Heroic in History (1841) wherein he discusse s the hero as munotes.in

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9 divinity (Odin), Prophet (Mahomet), poet (Dante and Shakespeare), priests
( Luther and Knox), Men of letter ( Johnson, Rousseau and Burns) and
King ( Cromwell and Napoleon). His other prominent historical books are
French Revolution (1837), Past and Present (1843), Oliver Cromwell’s
Letters and Speeches (1845), Frederick II of Prussia (1858 -65), etc. While
sympathizing with the poor and industrial class in England he also dealt
with the spiritual degradation of the nineteenth century middle cl ass,
materialistic tendency of the age, etc.
John Ruskin believed that the great art is moral and the working men of
industrial England were spiritually impoverished. His writing on the
aesthetics of painting showed similarity with the Pre Raphaelites as both
had a conviction that medieval writers were more free in their thoughts
and expressions than the Victorians. However, like the Pre Raphaelites, he
did not believe in the principle of ‘art for art’s sake’ but in ‘art towards the
spiritual health of ma n’. His major works Modern Painters (1843 -60) ,
The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1840), The Stone of Venice (1851 -53)
introduce Ruskin as an art critic well familial with Victorian paintings.
While his other works – Sesame and Lilies (1865), Ethics of th e Dust
(1866), The Crown of Wild Olive (1866), The Political Economy of Art
(1857), The Two Paths (1859) and Unto the Last (1862) deal with the
problems related to industrial society and his criticism on them. Ruskin’s
later work shows his change of focus from art to the consequences of
industrialism. Charles Dickens’ Hard Times is said to be inspired by
Ruskin’s writing.
Matthew Arnold was a man of liberal ideas, reformist tendencies and
moral earnestness. Undoubtedly, his writing reveals him as a literary critic
and social philosopher. Owing to his early training in the classics of
ancient Greece and Rome and the study of B ible, his poems are a graceful
fusion of classicism and Romanticism. Arnold’s major non -fiction works
are Essays in Criticism – First and Second Series (1865 and 1888), On
Translating Homer (1861), Culture and Anarchy (1869) The Study of
Poetry (1880). In Essays in Criticism , he shows how authors as different
as Marcus Aurelius, Leo Tolstoy, Homer and Wordsworth provide the
virtues he sought in his society. His On Translating Homer shows his
passion for the literary heritage of the classical past. While in his Culture
and Anarchy he introduces himself as a critic of society wherein he
criticises middle class as ignorant, narrow -minded and intellectually dull.
Some minor essayists of the age were Walter Pater, John Stuart Mill and
Thomas Macaulay. Walter Pat er, a scholar, critic, an essayist and idealistic
worshipper of beauty was associated with the Pre -Raphaelite movement.
His potential influence on the cult of art later led to the Aesthetic
Movement towards the end of the century. His major work Studies in the
History of the Renaissance (1873) is a brilliant collection of essays on
Italian painters and writers from the fourteenth to sixteenth century
wherein he advocates a fusion of psychic, moral and sensuous ecstasy. His
other works are Imaginary Portrait s (1887), Appreciation with an Essay in
Style (1889), Plato and Platonism (1893), The Child in the House (1894),
and Greek Studies and Miscellaneous Studies (1895). John Stuart Mill was munotes.in

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10 an English philosopher, political economist, Member of Parliament and
civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of classical
liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory, political theory, and
political economy. Mill’s essay Utilitarianism (1861) emphasizes the
value of utilitarianism as a mora l theory. Mill can be considered the
earliest proponent of gender equality. His book The Subjection of Women
(1869) attacks the concepts that have subjected women. Thomas Macaulay
was a historian and political leader. His Minutes on Indian Education is a
discourse on educational institutions and development and expressed his
belief on ‘downward filtration of education’ that will educate the elite who
in turn educate the masses.
1.5 CONCLUSION
The above discussion shows that the literature written during the 19th century is
closely affected by various socio -political and cultural forces of the time. These
effects can be seen in the beliefs and faiths of common people in religion, social
conventions and moral values. All of these doubts are reflected in the literature of
the time.
1.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Discuss the effects of industrial revolution on English literature of the 19th
century.
2. What is Victorian Dilemma? Discuss its impacts on English literature.
3. Write short notes on the following:
A) Victorian Novel
B) Victorian poetry
C) Victorian Prose
1.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Afreen Sultana (BRAC uni, Dhaka) "Industrial Rev. in literary Imagination
(Responses from three phases' the romantic, Victorian and late Victorian
period.
2. Peter Temin - Two views of the British Industrial Revolution Influence of
Industrial Rev. on Victorian Age & upper class. Devasi M. chandravadya
Assist Prof. Shri. Arablush Sc. Lalpur Jamnagar Guajrat .
3. Stein Richard (1987) Victorian years NY OUP.
4. Horn, Jeff; Rosenband, Leonard; Smith, Merritt (2010). Reconceptualizing
the Industrial Revolution . Cambridge MA, London: MIT Press.
5. E. Anthony Wrigley, "Reconsidering the Industrial Revolution: England and
Wales." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 49.01 (2018): 9 –42.
6. Felluga, Dino Franco, et al. The Encyclopedia of Victorian Literature (2015).
7. Flint, Kate, Ed. The Cambridge History of Victorian Literature (2014). munotes.in

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11 8. Horseman , Alan. The Victorian Novel (Oxford History of English Literature,
1991)
9. Hroncek, Susan. Strange Compositions: Chemistry and its Occult History in
Victorian Speculative Fiction (2016)
10. O'Gorman, Francis, Ed. The Cambridge Companion to Victorian
culture (2010)
11. Roberts, Adam Charles, ed. Victorian culture and society: the essential
glossary (2003).
12. Somervell, D. C. English thought in the nineteenth century (1929) .

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12 2
BACKGROUND - II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Utilitarianism
2.3 Darwinism
2.4 Victorian Concept of Morality
2.5 Aestheticism
2.6 Pre-Raphaelite Movement
2.7 The Oxford Movement
2.8 Bildungsroman and the Victorian Novel
2.9 Conclusion
2.10 Check Your Progress
2.11 Bibliography
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this Unit are to introduce the learners with following important
aspects of 19th century literature:
 Utilitarianism
 Darwinism
 Victorian morality
 Aestheticism
 Pre-Raphaelite movement
 The Oxford movement and
 Bildungsroman novels
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Victorian literature in England is very rich in character as there were varieties of
different trends practiced by the literary artists. Besides, the literature and social
thoughts were getting seriously affected by th e principle of “survival of the
fittest” propounded by Charles Darwin. The society was given to the idea of
morality and moral values. Such kinds of trends gave birth to the movements like munotes.in

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13 aestheticism, Pre -Raphaelite movement, Oxford movement, etc. that r eally
changed the entire outlook of the people towards life.
2.2 UTILITARIANISM
The Victorian age along with a chain of thinkers like Newman, Arnold,
Ruskin, witnessed the force of utilitarian thinkers like John Stuart Mill and
agnostic scientists like Dar win, Spencer, Huxley, etc. Although
utilitarianism – “the greatest -happiness principle” was propounded by an
English philosopher, jurist and social reformer, Jeremy Bentham, the
philosophy was brought into operation during the age by John Stuart Mill.
Whil e Bentham holds that one’s actions must aim at producing the
greatest aggregate happiness among all beings within reason, Mills looks
at utility from a moral point of view and states that given a choice between
two actions, one ought to choose the action t hat contributes most to the
total happiness experienced by the people in the world That is if the
people generally experience more happiness following ‘Action A’ than
‘Action B’, the utilitarian should conclude that Action A produces more
utility than Action B and so is to be preferred. Mill asserts that upon
reflection, even when we value virtues for selfish reasons we are in fact
cherishing them as a part of our happiness. As a strong supporter of the
philosophy of utilitarianism, Mill describes it as the principle that holds
that “actions are right in the proportion as they tend to promote happiness,
wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness”. For him
happiness was an intended pleasure and absence of pain; while
unhappiness was pain and priv ation of pleasure. Both the state and the
industry of the age came under the heavy influence of this mechanical
approach to matters of the human soul.
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory that holds the belief that
actions – legal, politica l, administrative, etc. are justified in so far as they
produce a desirable outcome. Hence the celebrated goal of utilitarianism is
to achieve “the greatest good for the greatest number as the end result of
human action”. In utilitarianism, Mills states t hat happiness is the sole end
of human action. In other words, ‘free will’ leads everyone towards
making actions inclined on their own happiness and if they are reasoned
properly, they can improve the happiness of others as well. In such a case
one can cla im that the greatest utility is achieved. Mill claims that
utilitarianism is a default lifestyle people use subconsciously when they
have to take a decision.
2.3 DAR WINISM
Darwinism is a theory of the evolution mechanism propounded by Charles
Darwin. It reveals Darwin’s thesis that evolution is driven chiefly by
natural selection. In 1859 Darwin, the father of evolutionary biology,
published his seminal work On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection, or the Preservation of favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.
Darwin’s Evolution theory or the theory of ‘transmutation’ was a live
topic in the Victorian intellectual culture. It soon got blended with theories
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14 to introduce the idea of evolution, as it had been around long before his
birth, he was the first to carry out extensive research to back up the
theory.
Naturally the mantle of ‘Darwinism’ was co -opted by social theorists,
psychologists and biologists. Darwin’s most acknowledged contribution is
his theories of ‘natural selection’ and ‘common descent’. His theory of
natural selection states the process by w hich particular traits become more
or less common within a population. As Darwin put it: “ any being, if it
varies however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the
complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better
chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected.” Darwin further states
that the individual who has a better chance of surviving, tends to
propagate its new and modified form. His theory of ‘Common Descent’
argues for the shared ancestry of different individual s, varieties,
subspecies, species, and genera. Darwin offered many ideas to biological
theory. He coined the concept of sexual selection, developed a
superannuated account of heredity that describes how parents’
characteristics are transmitted to offspring . He published discoveries on
subjects as diverse as the formation of coral reefs, the movement of plants
and the action of earthworms. These and more of Darwin’s endeavours
can be characterized as “Darwinism”.
The impact of Darwin’s Evolution Theory was so remarkable that many
Victorians saw it befitting to their own social experience as it was deeply
impacted by industrialization, urbanization and technological innovations.
Darwin’s idea of a ‘struggle for existence’ that was central to Darwin’s
theory, perfectly described Britain’s competitive capitalist economy
wherein some section of society was enormously wealthy while the other
one was living a miserable life. The theory of Evolution confirmed the
idea that species compete and struggle and only the fittest and best
survive. In fact, the term, “survival of the fittest” was coined by the
Philosopher, Herbert Spencer to describe Evolution was later added by
Darwin in his book.
Though some Victorians were convinced that competition was the key to
develo pment, Darwin was of the conviction that cooperation is important
for development and it is the key word for those creatures, including
human beings, who live in group. Darwinian themes can be found in the
works of Thomas Hardy, Alfred Tennyson, Samuel Bec kett, George Eliot
and Bernard Shaw. It still inspires writers of today.
While Darwin has long been an interest to the scholars in the sciences, it
has also attracted the attention of social scientists, historians of ideas,
literary and other textual crit ics, philosophers and cultural critics. The
breadth of discipline itself is a testament of the cultural importance and
intellectual reach of Darwinism.
Darwin’s revolutionary idea of evolution sparked a dramatic debate in the
scientific and religious com munities of the time. It inspired a new wave of
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15 for all natural phenomena which resulted in an initiation of powerful
intellectual and spiritual revolution. Though the leading scien tists and
philosophers of the time believed in creationism and strongly opposed
Darwin’s theories, as they were shocked by the idea that human are
basically animals. His theory compelled the Victorian question their
values and ideals. Ultimately Darwin’s evolution theory refuted any belief
in the Christian dogma of creation as it eliminated the need for some
supernatural force as a creator or designer. What was a rebellious thought,
Darwinism has been unanimously accepted by all sciences.
2.4 VICTORIAN CO NCEPT OF MORALITY
Victorian morality describes the moral views and social expectations of
people living during Queen Victoria’s regime between 1837 and 1901.
Along with technical and social advancements, the Victorian age
witnessed a repressive set of mora l codes known as Victorian morality.
This form of personal ethics was founded on the religious beliefs of the
time and displayed severe austerity and repression. England is much noted
for its strong unprecedented concern for morality because of the loss of
religious beliefs and material progress. Hard work, morality, social
respect, truthfulness, economizing, duty, personal responsibility, strong
work ethics and religious conformity were strongly regarded as morals
during the age. Today, the moral views are widely regarded as too austere
and non -indulgent.
Family life was given utmost importance. It had to have large relatives and
at least 5 to 6 children. Upper - and middle -class families usually lived in
big houses and the parents made sure that children know ‘their place’.
They believed that a child must know ethics to become a proper adult.
Children’s education was considered as parents’ most important duty. The
family system was patriarchal that considered children and women as sub
human.
Since the r ich and the poor had incredibly different lifestyle, opportunities
for and expectations from men and women too varied. The rich received
many opportunities like education in good schools, luxurious homes, and
abundant resources while, the poor had to live in miserable houses or in
workhouses. Their children had to work with their parents. The middle
class lived comfortably unlike the lower class. However, despite the stark
difference between the wealthy and poor, the wealthy attempted to help
the poor in ge tting free educational facilities wherein the young people
learnt reading, arithmetic, writing and Biblical scriptures.
The age also witnessed the difference in lifestyle of upper -class men and
women. While Victorian boys attended best schools and were g roomed for
various professions, the Victorian girls often taught at homes and expected
to learn homely duties, singing, drawing and playing piano. The inequality
between men and women is a significant part of the legacy of Victorian
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16 The Victoria n morality also displayed zero tolerance towards sexual
promiscuity and breaches of law. There was a common saying during the
age “Men are polygamous; women are monogamous”. This statement
clearly introduced the idea that here different sexual standards fo r men and
women. Women were expected to remain pure until marriage.
The age regarded men as ambitious, independent, active, reasonable, and
aggressive. On the contrary the women were looked at as passive,
dependent, submissive, weak, and self -sacrificing. Hence, men were
expected to pursue their career of choice while women were expected to
marry, serve husband, bear children, tend to home and instruct servants.
The inequality between men and women also is manifested in the rights
enjoyed by men and women. The women were regarded as the literal
property of men. Unlike men, they could not vote, sue or own property.
Moreover, the divorced women had to lose all their property to their
husbands. The middle -class women who were earning as a paid labour in
industries had restrictions on their financial, social and political rights.
They had to give control of their property and earnings to their husbands.
This severely restricted the class mobility of Victorian women. As a
response to this, the Victorian age later gave way to many movements that
gave rights to the poor and women. For example, the women’s Suffrage
Movement has its roots in the Victorian times.
The Victorian era was also a time of evangelism with churches calling for
higher moral principles an d standards from the congregations. Both the
middle -class growth and the rise of evangelism are thought to have
influenced the ethical issues surrounding gender, equality, censorship and
sexual repression.
Victorian Morality is a significant element in li terary works throughout
history. As a result, many literary Victorian personalities, in their search
for a solution to the inner conflict constituted a strong ethical and moral
element in their works.
2.5 AESTHETICISM
Aesthetic movement is an intellectual and art movement that emphasized
aesthetic values more than socio -political themes for literature, fine art,
music, other arts as well as philosophy and science. The movement which
began in 1890 lasted till 1920. As the beauty was considered primary,
ethics, knowledge, religiousness, social issues were naturally given
subordinate status. The movement was supported by notable figures like
Walter Peter and Oscar Wilde and critics like Harold Bloom. In 1891,
Oscar Wilde’s preface to The Portrait of Dorian Gra y became a kind of
manifesto of aestheticism. The Aesthetic movement in Briton aimed at
escaping the ugliness and materialism of the industrial Age and instead
focuses on producing art that was beautiful. The movement sought to
demolish Britain’s pompous, domineering, sober morality, middle class
orthodox values that characterized Victorian era and embraced beauty as
the chief pursuit of both art and life. The movement was unlike Pre -munotes.in

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17 Raphaelite Movement which advocated deeper thought - ‘Art for Art’s
Sake”. According to the aesthetics an art should not have any moral
purpose but should be an end in itself. In England Walter Peter rejected
religious faith and believed tha t life should be lived as ‘a work of art’.
This belief was quite subversive in the Victorian Age which believed in
the strict moral code. In fact, the movement began in the eighteenth
century and is laid on the philosophical foundation of Immanuel Kant who
advocated the autonomy of the aesthetic standards setting them apart from
morality, utility and pleasure.
The Victorians who were fed up of literature filled in with moral and
sentimental messages, got attracted towards aesthetic movement. The
artists and writers who supported this form believed that art should be
used to offer a refined sensual pleasure to the readers and the writers.
Hence the aesthetics themselves developed a cult of beauty for their
literature and they wanted to use that cult for their work. To make their
work more attractive, they used symbols, suggestions, music, colours,
diction and sensuality. Aesthetic art soon was more than just a fine art
trend, it influenced everything from literature and music to fashion and
interior. The artis ts preferred visual and sensual qualities of art and design
over practical, ethical and moral considerations. The movement was not
only popular in England but also in France and Italy.
From 1885 to 1915 aestheticism influenced impressionism, symbolism,
realism, naturalism, and also neoclassicism. Representatives of
aestheticism were Walter Peter, John Ruskin, Oscar Wilde, Aubrey
Beardsley, Fredric Leighton, Thomas Mann etc. More than anyone else,
the British writers were influenced by Walter Peter’s essays wherein he
stated that life had to be lived intensely, with an ideal of beauty. Walter
Pater, a scholar, critic, an essayist and idealistic worshipper of beauty is
considered to be the father of Aesthetic movement. His potential influence
on the cult of a rt led to the Aesthetic Movement towards the end of the
century. His major work Studies in the History of the Renaissance (1873)
is a brilliant collection of essays on Italian painters and writers from the
fourteenth to sixteenth century wherein he advocat es a fusion of psychic,
moral and sensuous ecstasy.
J.A. Symonds and Oscar Wilde too are the significant contributors in the
Aesthetic movement of the Victorian age. Oscar Wilde upheld the theory
of ‘Arts for Arts sake’, and carried forward the aesthetic movement
throwing morality out of view altogether. For Wilde, Art had no other aim
save to gratify the taste of the artist. It had no bearing on social problems.
It had no relation with morality. Hugh Walker in his The Literature of the
Victorian Era states: “ Ruskin’s aestheticism is ethical; Wilde adopted the
aestheticism but eliminated the moral”.
2.6 PRE -RAPHAELITICISM
The Pre -Raphaelite Movement during the Victorian era was an idealistic
reaction against the didacticism, moral fervour and pre occupat ion of the
poets and novelists with contemporary society. During the reign of Queen munotes.in

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18 Victoria, there was a growing tendency to make literature a handmaiden of
social reform and an instrument for the propaganda of moral and spiritual
ideas. Literature becam e the vehicle of social, political and moral
problems confronting the Victorian people. Ruskin, Carlyle, Dickens were
engaged in attacking the social evils; even the poets were free from the
taint of the age.
It was against this pre -occupation of poets, p rose writers, and novelists
that some radical artists formed a group in 1848 called the Pre -Raphaelite
Group. The founder members of this group were D.G. Rossetti, Holman
Hunt and J.E. Millais and later it joined by William Morris and A.C.
Swinburne. All t he members of this group were repelled by the sordidness,
ugliness and materialism that had taken hold of the leading Victorian
minds. Hence they sought to escape from the world of stark realities to a
land of beauty, art and loveliness. The Pre -Raphaelite poets sought refuge
in the romance and mysticism of the Middle Ages.
Originally it was the movement of the regeneration of painting on the
models of the early Italian painters. Being dissatisfied with Raphael’s
loftiness of conception and perfection of technique, the young painters
thought of early Italian painters who were known for simplicity and
natural grace. The young painters who wanted to break away from the
stereotyped traditions in painting set up by Raphael, returned to the earlier
Italian pain ters whose work was fascinated them due to its freshness and
freedom. The movement soon extended its bounds to include the revival of
poetry and sculpture on the same lines. It was joined by Morris and
Swinburne and became a full fledged organisation for t he revival of art in
its varied aspects.
In the sphere of poetry, the Pre -Raphaelite poets did remarkable work. The
poetry of the Pre -Raphaelites like Rossetti, Morris, Swinburne was a
revolt against the conventionality of poetry represented by Tennyson. The
poets revolted against the idea of using poetry social and political thought.
The Pre -Raphaelites were the votaries of art for art’s sake. They had no
morality to preach and no reforms to introduce. Love of beauty was their
creed.
The Pre -Raphaelite s were pictorial artists and their paintings as well as
poems ere symphonies of colour. Rossetti who had an observant eye of a
meticulous painter, was the most poetical of the Raphaelite poets. The
Pre-Raphaelite poetry is rich in melody. The free flow of the swift moving
lines is remarkable in Swinburne. The poetry of the Pre -Raphaelites is
marked by sensuousness. Rossetti’s poetry is sensuous and passionate.
The Pre -Raphaelite poets were considerable influenced in their art by
Keats and Tennyson. Hence i t can be said that the movement was a direct
and legitimate development of the Romantic revival.
2.7 THE OXFORD MOVEMENT
The Oxford movement also known as the Tractarian movement was
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19 movement opposed liberalism in all its aspects, the Oxford leaders derived
much from the philosophy of conservatism. Among the many aims of the
Oxford Movement was to rehabilitate the dignity of the Church, to defen d
the Church against the inter ference of the State, to fight against liberalism,
to restore reverence for the sacraments, rituals and dogmas of the Roman
Catholic faith.
The Oxford Movement was opposed to rationalism in matters concerned
with the Church. With the unprecedented growth of science in the
nineteenth century, it stood against too much insistence on reason and
proof in religious matters.
The Oxford Movement was allied with the Romantic movement and
derived much inspiration from the Middle Ages. According to Prof. Gates,
the Oxford M ovement was in its essence an attempt to reconstruct the
English Church in harmony with romantic (medieval) ideals. The Oxford
Movement thus owed much to Coleridge and Scott who made the
Victorians return to Middle Ages. The Oxford men turned towards the
Middle Ages in order to escape from the drab monotony of life and the
materialistic advancement.
The Oxford Movement stood against the secular authority interfering with
the affairs of the Church. Their demand was to free the Church as it was
more than m erely a human institution.
The originator of the movement was John Keble whose sermon on the
National Apostasy inaugurated the movement. However, John Newman or
Cardinal Newman was the soul and spirit behind the Oxford Movement.
He was the expression of the new Catholic movement.
The Oxford Movement exercised remarkable impact on the taste of its age.
It inspired the poetry of the Pre -Raphaelites. It coloured the poetry of
Christina Rossetti, G. M. Hopkins, Coventry Patmore, Richard Dixon and
Richard Fr oude. In fiction the movement can be seen in the novels of
Charlotte Young and the mystical fiction of J.M. Shorthouse. The
movement also produced ecclesiastical journalism which grew up as a
protest against the interference of the State in the Church affa irs.
The Oxford Movement had a profound impact on the intellectual life of
the time. Though it could not effect a change in the fundamental character
of the English Church, it showed to the Englishmen the historic continuity
of their national church.
2.8 BUILDUNGSROMAN AND THE VICTORIAN
NOVEL
The word bildungsroman is derived from a German word ‘bildung’
meaning formation and ‘roman’ meaning novel. The German essayist
Wilhelm Dilthey, in 1904, introduced the Bildungsroman, the novel of
development, or coming of age novel and explained the narrative process
of the genre as: A regulated development within the life of the individual
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20 same time the basis for a higher stage. In other w ords, bildungsroman is a
genre of novel that shows a young protagonist’s journey from childhood to
adulthood with a focus on the trials and misfortunes that affect the
character’s growth.
The dissonances and conflicts of life appear as the necessary growt h
points through which the individual must pass on his way to maturity and
harmony. According to Jerome Hamilton Buckley, a typical
Bildungsroman plot portrays a child who comes into contact with others
who are hostile to his imaginative growth, and as a r esult, he leaves the
repressive atmosphere of home to make his way independently in the city.
There his real education begins. In male Bildungsroman, the boy hero
usually seeks autonomy and freedom from social constrains, isolating
himself from his communi ty and searching the answers of the questions of
life to gain all the experience related to the world. Later the genre
influenced the Europe and then across the world. It can also be referred as
‘novel of education’ or ‘novel of formation’.
The genre indi cates an individual’s growth and an all round self -
development in the context of social order. The aim is to develop the self
and search for the significant existence in the society. In the course of time
values and norms of the society are understood and assessed by the
character. Bildungsroman novels are generally written in the first -person
and often feature the name of the protagonist directly in the title, such
as Emma , Jane Eyre , and David Copperfield .
The maturity process of the character is gradual, long and arduous as they
struggle to meet their desires and needs while living away from the family
in the rigid social order. The character gets influenced by the views and
judgments of the society in which he lives. Many a times it has to deal
with the conflicts of values between the society and himself, tragedies,
difficulties and losses. Naturally the protagonist goes through the moral
and psychological growth of the protagonist. The protagonist looks for the
answers to the questions which crowd in his mind and he /she begins their
journey to satisfy discontentment. This focus on personal growth and self -
realization —particularly through making and learning from mistakes —
remains the key feature of the Bildungsroman. The genre grew in
popularity dramatica lly during the 20th century and spread to different
cultures around the world.
Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield is one of the foremost examples of
Bildungsroman. In David Copperfield , Dickens maintains a romantic
perspective in which human personality i s highly emphasised and the
character is master of his destiny, independent and able to be fulfilled
personally in spite of all social interaction and determinism. The
determinism of the milieu is strong but not successful; there is no real
social influenc e or effect on the development of personality, and the
outcome is the success of character formation. In Great Expectations ,
however, the character is highly individualized but reveals strong bonds
with the background: the character is a subjected subject, dependent on his
milieu; he is subject to social determinism and as such subject to inner and munotes.in

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21 outer change. Social determinism is strong and successful; society
influences and affects the development of personality negatively, hence
the failure of charact er formation.
The Victorian Bildungsroman involves the principle of crisis, revelation
and change leading to the formation of personality. Victorian author of
Bildungsroman reveal s the very essence of the hero’s inner life. In this
respect, they become ele ments of a psychological, mental process of
change which may determine the hero’s maturation in the sense of
formation of his personality. The most important stage of development
and the final consolidation of the Bildungsroman as a literary tradition in
English literature belong to the Victorian Age.
2.9 CONCLUSION
The Victorian period in English literature is one of the most important and
productive literary periods. There were many movements and literary trends like
Utilitarianism , Darwinism , Aestheticism , Pre-Raphaelitism , The Oxford
Movement and others during this period that enriched Victorian life and
literature.
2.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Write essays on the following concepts:
1) Utilitarianism
2) Darwinism
3) Victorian Concept of Morality
4) Aestheticism
5) Pre -Raphaelitism
6) The Oxford Movement
7) Bildungsroman and the Victorian Novel
2.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Amigoni, David. Colonies, Cults and Evolution: Literature, Science
and Culture in Nineteenth Century Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge
Unive rsity Press, 2007.
 Bexell, Oloph, "The Oxford Movement as received in
Sweden." Kyrkohistorisk årsskrift. Publications of the Swedish Society
of Church History 1:106 (2006).
 Bolaki, Stella (2011), Unsettling the Bildungsroman: Reading
Contemporary Ethnic Am erican Women's Fiction, Amsterdam and
New York: Rodopi . munotes.in

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22  Brown, Stewart J. & Nockles, Peter B. ed. The Oxford Movement:
Europe and the Wider World 1830 –1930 , Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2012.
 Felluga, Dino Franco, et al. The Encyc lopedia of Victorian Literature
(2015).
 Flint, Kate, Ed. The Cambridge History of Victorian Literature (2014).
 Fortunato, Paul (2013). Modernist Aesthetics and Consumer Culture in
the Writings of Oscar Wilde . Routledge.
 Mayr, Ernst. (1985). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity,
Evolution, and Inheritance . Harvard University Press.


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POETRY: SELECTED VERSE FROM THE
VICTORIAN PERIOD - I
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 19th Century English Poetry
3.3 Introduction to Alfrd Lord Tennyson
3.4 Selected Poems of Alfrd Lord Tennyson
3.5 Introduction to Robert Browning
3.6 Selected Poems of Rober Browning
3.7 Conclusion
3.8 Check Your Progress
3.9 Bibliography
3.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit is written with the following objectives:
 To introduce the learners with Alfred Lord Tennyso n and Robert
Browning
 To introduce them with th e poetry of Alfred Lord Tennyson and
Robert Browning
3.1 19TH CENTURY ENGLISH POETRY
19th Century English Poetry:
The 19th century was a time of great literary and artistic achievement in
England, and poetry was a particularly popular and influential art form.
During this period, English poe try was marked by a number of key
characteristics and trends.
One characteristic of 19th century English poetry was a focus on nature
and the natural world. Many poets, such as William Wordsworth and
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, were part of the Romantic movem ent, which
emphasized emotion, imagination, and a connection to nature. As a result,
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24 world, as well as an exploration of the emotional and spiritual dimensions
of human experience.
Another characteristic of 19th century English poetry was a concern with
social and moral issues. Poets such as John Keats and Lord Alfred
Tennyson wrote about contemporary problems and conflicts, such as the
Industrial Revolution and urbanization. They us ed their poetry as a way to
comment on and critique society, and to explore themes of love, loss, and
human experience.
In addition to the Romantic and moral concerns of 19th century English
poetry, there was also a fascination with the past, especially th e medieval
period. Many poets, such as John Keats and Lord Alfred Tennyson, drew
inspiration from classical and mythological themes, as well as from the
literature and culture of the Middle Ages. This interest in the past often
manifested itself in the use of archaic language and poetic forms, such as
the sonnet and the ballad.
Thus, 19th century English poetry was characterized by a focus on nature
and the natural world, a concern with social and moral issues, and a
fascination with the past. These charact eristics, along with the innovative
styles and techniques of individual poets, helped to make this a rich and
diverse period in English literature.
3.1.1 Salient Features of Victorian Poetry :
Victorian poetry refers to poetry written during the reign of Q ueen
Victoria in Great Britain, which lasted from 1837 to 1901. During this
time, poetry was a popular and influential art form, and many poets
emerged who became well -known for their contributions to the genre.
One characteristic of Victorian poetry was a focus on moral and social
issues. Many Victorian poets wrote about contemporary problems and
conflicts, such as the Industrial Revolution, urbanization, and class
struggle. They often used their poetry as a way to comment on and critique
society, and to e xplore themes of love, loss, and human experience.
Another characteristic of Victorian poetry was a fascination with the past,
especially the medieval period. Many Victorian poets drew inspiration
from classical and mythological themes, as well as from the literature and
culture of the Middle Ages. This interest in the past often manifested itself
in the use of archaic language and poetic forms, such as the sonnet and the
ballad.
Alfred Tennyson and Robert Browning were two of the most influential
and respe cted Victorian poets. Tennyson, who was appointed Poet
Laureate in 1850, is known for his lengthy and emotionally powerful
poems, such as "The Lady of Shalott" and "In Memoriam A.H.H." He is
also known for his use of mythology and classical themes in his p oetry.
Robert Browning is known for his dramatic monologues, in which a
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25 most famous poems in this style include "My Last Duchess" and "The
Pied Piper of Hamelin." Browning was also kn own for his
experimentation with form and structure in his poetry, and for his use of
unconventional language and syntax.
Thus, Victorian poetry was characterized by a focus on moral and social
issues, a fascination with the past, and a variety of innovati ve poetic styles
and techniques. Alfred Tennyson and Robert Browning were two of the
most important and influential Victorian poets, and their work continues to
be widely studied and admired today.
3.2 INTRODUCTION TO ALFRED LORD TENNYSON
3.2.1 Alfred Lor d Tennyson: Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809 -1892) was an
English poet who served as the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom from
1850 until his death. He is considered one of the most important Victorian
poets and is known for his mastery of lyricism, musicalit y, and sensibility.
Some of Tennyson's most famous works include "The Charge of the Light
Brigade," a poem that commemorates a British cavalry charge during the
Crimean War; "In Memoriam A.H.H.," a long elegiac poem that reflects
on the death of Tennyson's close friend Arthur Henry Hallam; and "The
Lady of Shalott," a ballad that tells the story of a cursed woman who
weaves a magic web. Tennyson was highly regarded by his
contemporaries and was often referred to as "Alfred the Great" for his
contributions t o English literature. He was also made a Baron in 1884 and
became known as Alfred Lord Tennyson.
3.2.2 Tennyson as a Poet: Tennyson is considered one of the greatest
poets of the Victorian era and his works are known for their musicality,
sensory richness, and deeply emotional themes. His poetry often reflects
the Victorian preoccupation with death, loss, and faith, and many of his
works explore the tensions between tradition and progress, order and
chaos, and reason and intuition.
Tennyson's poetry is mark ed by its lyricism, with a focus on musicality
and sound. He frequently used alliteration, assonance, and other poetic
devices to create a memorable, rhythmic effect. Tennyson's language is
often rich in sensory imagery, with a particular focus on nature a nd the
natural world.
His work is also notable for its use of myth, legend, and history, and he
frequently drew on classical and medieval themes in his poetry. Many of
his poems deal with mythic or historical figures, such as Ulysses or King
Arthur, and he often used these characters to explore broader themes of
heroism, courage, and human struggle. Overall, Tennyson's work is
characterized by its poetic excellence, emotional depth, and enduring
popularity and he remains one of the most celebrated poets in the English
language.
3.2.3 Themes in Tennyson’s Poetry: Tennyson's poems explore a wide
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26 Death and Loss: Many of Tennyson's poems deal with themes of grief,
mourning, and loss, often reflecting his own personal experiences of loss
and the broader Victorian preoccupation with death.
Nature: Tennyson was deeply influenced by the natural world and
frequently used descriptions of landscapes, weather, and other natural
phenomena to evoke mood and emotion in h is poetry.
Faith and Doubt: Tennyson struggled with questions of faith throughout
his life and his poetry often reflects this tension, exploring themes of
doubt, skepticism, and religious questioning.
Love and Relationships: Tennyson's poetry often explore s the
complexities of romantic love and relationships, with a focus on the
emotional nuances and tensions that arise between lovers.
Myth and Legend: Tennyson frequently drew on myths, legends, and
historical figures in his poetry, using these stories to e xplore themes of
heroism, honor, and human struggle.
Progress and Change: Tennyson lived during a time of significant
technological and social change, and his poetry often reflects the tensions
between tradition and progress, order and chaos, and reason an d intuition.
Identity and Self -Discovery: Many of Tennyson's poems explore themes
of personal identity and self -discovery, with a focus on the inner
emotional and psychological lives of his characters
3.3 SELECTED POEMS OF ALFRED LORD TENNYSON
3.3.1 In Me moriam: In Memoriam" is a long and complex poem written
by Alfred, Lord Tennyson in the mid -19th century. It is a meditation on
grief and loss, inspired by the death of the poet's close friend, Arthur
Henry Hallam.
One of the most striking features of "In Memoriam" is its structure and
form. The poem is divided into 135 separate sections, each one focusing
on a different aspect of grief and loss. The sections range in length and
tone, from short and pithy to long and lyrical, and they are arranged in a
loosely chronological order. This structure reflects the unfolding of the
poet's own emotional journey as he grapples with the loss of his friend and
tries to come to terms with his grief.
Another notable aspect of "In Memoriam" is its language and style.
Tenn yson uses a wide range of literary devices and techniques to convey
his emotions and ideas, including metaphor, simile, allusion, and
personification. He also makes extensive use of Biblical and classical
references, which lend depth and resonance to his t hemes.
One of the central themes of "In Memoriam" is the struggle to find
meaning and purpose in the face of loss and death. Throughout the poem,
Tennyson grapples with the question of whether there is any significance
or significance to suffering and deat h. He grapples with the idea of an
afterlife, and the possibility of finding solace in the belief that his friend
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27 One of the most famous lines from "In Memoriam" is "Tis better to have
loved and lost / Than never to have lov ed at all" (Section LXXXVI). This
line encapsulates the theme of love and loss that runs throughout the
poem, and suggests that the experience of love, even if it is ultimately lost,
is still worth having.
Therefore, "In Memoriam" is a deeply moving and th ought -provoking
poem that explores the universal human experience of grief and loss with
great depth and sensitivity. Its structure, language, and themes all
contribute to its enduring appeal and significance as a work of literature.
3.3.1.1 Understaning ‘ In Memoriam': One of Tennyson's most famous
works is the long poem "In Memoriam ", which was published in 1850.
This poem, also known simply as "In Memoriam", is a tribute to the poet's
friend Arthur Henry Hallam, who died unexpectedly at the age of 22. Th e
poem consists of 131 cantos, or sections, and is written in a variety of
poetic forms, including blank verse, rhymed stanzas, and sonnets.
In "In Memoriam", Tennyson explores themes of grief, loss, and the
search for meaning in the face of death. The poe m is a deeply personal and
emotional work, as Tennyson writes about his own feelings of grief and
his struggle to come to terms with the loss of his friend.
One of the key themes in "In Memoriam" is the idea of time and how it
changes our understanding of the world and our place in it. Tennyson
writes about the passage of time and how it can both heal and wounds and
bring new insights and understanding. For example, in Canto 27, he
writes:
"I sometimes hold it half a sin
To put in words the grief I feel;
For words, like Nature, half reveal
And half conceal the Soul within."
Here, Tennyson suggests that the act of expressing grief through words
can be both a help and a hindrance. On the one hand, it can be cathartic
and help us to understand and cope with our emotions. On the other hand,
words can only ever partially capture the depth and complexity of grief,
and may not fully convey the intensity of our feelings.
Another important theme in "In Memoriam" is the idea of faith and the
search for spiritual meanin g in the face of death. Throughout the poem,
Tennyson grapples with questions of faith and the existence of an afterlife,
and ultimately comes to a place of acceptance and hope. For example, in
Canto 90, he writes:
"Be near me when my light is low,
When th e blood creeps, and the nerves prick
And tingle; and the heart is sick,
And all the wheels of Being slow." munotes.in

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28 In these lines, Tennyson expresses his need for spiritual comfort and
support during times of difficulty and uncertainty. He also suggests that,
even in the darkest moments, there is always the possibility of finding
hope and meaning through faith.
Hence, “In Memoriam" is a deeply moving and thought -provoking work
that demonstrates Tennyson's skill as a poet and his ability to explore
complex themes wi th sensitivity and nuance. It remains one of his most
enduring and popular works and is a testament to his enduring legacy as a
poet.
3.3.2 Lyric 7, "Dark House”: Lyric 7, titled "Dark House," is a section of
Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "In Memoriam." It is a meditation on grief
and loss, inspired by the death of the poet's close friend, Arthur Henry
Hallam.
In this particular lyric, the speaker stands outside a dark house, which may
symbolize the physical manifestation of his grief and loss. The house is
described as being "dark" and "empty," suggesting that the speaker feels a
sense of emptiness and despair.
The speaker reflects on the fact that he has stood outside this house before,
perhaps suggesting that he has revisited this place of grief and loss
multiple times. He wonders if he will ever be able to enter the house, or if
it will always remain a symbol of his pain and loss.
The speaker also expresses a sense of hopelessness, as he reflects on the
fact that he has "never" found "rest" or "peace" in t he house. This may
suggest that the speaker feels that his grief and loss are insurmountable,
and that he will never be able to fully heal from his friend's death.
Hence, Lyric 7 of "In Memoriam" captures the feelings of grief and loss
that the speaker is experiencing, as he stands outside a dark and empty
house, symbolizing his sense of emptiness and despair. It also reflects on
the theme of finding meaning and purpose in the face of loss and death, as
the speaker grapples with his feelings of hopelessness and the possibility
of finding solace in the belief that his friend may still be alive in some
way.
3.3.3 Lyric 54, titled "Oh Yet We Trust”: Lyric 54, titled "Oh Yet We
Trust," is a section of Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem "In Memoriam." It is
a meditatio n on grief and loss, inspired by the death of the poet's close
friend, Arthur Henry Hallam.
In this particular lyric, the speaker reflects on the idea of "trust" and how it
relates to the concept of "good." The speaker expresses a sense of hope
and optimis m, as he states that "some how good" will come of the
suffering and loss that he has experienced.
The speaker suggests that this belief in the possibility of good is
something that he and others "trust" in, even in the face of immense pain
and adversity. T his belief may provide some comfort and solace for the munotes.in

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29 speaker, as he grapples with the loss of his friend and tries to come to
terms with his grief.
The phrase "somehow good" may also be interpreted as a reference to a
higher power or divine force that is ultimately responsible for the good
that may come out of suffering. The speaker may be expressing a belief in
a higher purpose or meaning that lies beyond human understanding.
Therefore, Lyric 54 of "In Memoriam" captures the feelings of hope and
optimism that the speaker is experiencing, as he tries to find meaning and
purpose in the face of loss and death. It also reflects on the theme of trust
and the role that it plays in providing comfort and solace in times of grief.
3.3.4 Tennyson as a R epresentativ e Poet of Victorian Age: Alfred,
Lord Tennyson was a poet who is considered one of the greatest and most
influential poets of the Victorian age. During his lifetime, which spanned
from 1809 to 1892, he was a central figure in the literary and cultural
landscape of Great Britain, and his poetry was widely admired and
respected.
One reason why Tennyson is considered a representative poet of the
Victorian age is because of the themes and concerns that he explored in
his poetry. Many of his poems, such as "The Lady of Shalott" and "In
Memoriam A.H.H," deal with moral and social issues that were
particularly relevant to the Victorian era, such as the Industrial Revolution
and urbanization. These poems often comment on and critique society, and
explore themes of l ove, loss, and human experience.
Another reason why Tennyson is considered a representative poet of the
Victorian age is because of his style and technique. He was known for his
use of elaborate and ornate language, as well as for his innovative poetic
forms and structures. His poetry often featured vivid and detailed
descriptions of the natural world, as well as an exploration of the
emotional and spiritual dimensions of human experience.
Therefore, Alfred, Lord Tennyson was a central figure in the literar y and
cultural landscape of the Victorian age, and his poetry reflects the
concerns and interests of this time period. His innovative style and
technique, as well as his exploration of moral and social issues, make him
a representative poet of the Victoria n era.
3.4 INTRODUCTION TO ROBERT BROWING
Robert Browning was a prominent poet of the Victorian age, known for
his dramatic monologues and psychological insights into the inner lives of
his characters. Born in 1812, Browning grew up in a time of great soc ial,
political, and artistic change, and his poetry reflects the complexities and
contradictions of the era.
One of the defining features of Browning's poetry is his use of the
dramatic monologue, a form in which a character speaks to an audience or
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30 and actions. This technique allowed Browning to explore the
psychological depths of his characters and to reveal their motivations and
desires in a way that was both nuanced and dramatic.
Browning's dramatic monologues often deal with themes of love, jealousy,
and guilt, and his characters are often deeply flawed and conflicted. In
"My Last Duchess," for example, the speaker is a wealthy nobleman who
is showing a portrait of his late wife to a potential suitor for his daughter.
Through the speaker's words, we learn that he is jealous, possessive, and
controlling, and that he ultimately had his wife killed because she did not
meet his expectations.
In addition to his use of the dramatic monolo gue, Browning is also known
for his ability to create vivid, detailed descriptions of people, places, and
events. He has a keen eye for detail and a gift for creating vivid, evocative
imagery, which helps to bring his poems to life and to make them more
engaging and immersive for readers.
To conclude, Robert Browning was a masterful poet who used his skills
and techniques to create deeply nuanced and complex characters and to
explore a wide range of themes and ideas. His work has had a lasting
impact on the literary world and continues to be widely read and studied
today.
3.4.1 The chief characteristic Features of the Poetry of Robert
Browning: The chief characteristics and distinctive features of the poetry
of Robert Browning include:
Use of the dramatic mo nologue: Browning is known for his use of the
dramatic monologue, a form in which a character speaks to an audience or
to themselves, revealing their thoughts and feelings through their words
and actions. This technique allows Browning to explore the psych ological
depths of his characters and to reveal their motivations and desires in a
nuanced and dramatic way.
Complex and flawed characters: Browning's characters are often deeply
flawed and conflicted, and his poetry often deals with themes of love,
jealou sy, and guilt. He is interested in the inner lives of his characters and
is skilled at creating vivid and detailed portrayals of their thoughts and
emotions.
Vivid imagery and detailed descriptions: Browning has a keen eye for
detail and is able to create vivid and evocative imagery that helps to bring
his poems to life and make them more immersive for readers.
Exploration of themes and ideas: Browning's poetry often explores a wide
range of themes and ideas, including love, jealousy, guilt, and the
complex ities of human relationships.
Use of irony and satire: Browning often employs irony and satire in his
poetry, using these techniques to reveal the flaws and foibles of his
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31 3.5 DELECTED POEMS OF ROBERT BROWNING
3.5.1 “Porphyria's Lover ”:’Porphyria's Lover ’ is a dramatic monologue
written by Robert Browning, in which the speaker, a man, describes how
he killed his lover, Porphyria, and then kept her body with him for the rest
of the night. The p oem is a powerful and disturbing portrayal of love,
jealousy, and obsession, and it offers a glimpse into the twisted
psychology of the speaker.
One of the most striking aspects of "Porphyria's Lover" is the speaker's
twisted logic and justification for hi s actions. He claims that he killed
Porphyria out of love, because he couldn't bear the thought of losing her.
He describes how he strangled her and then kept her body with him, sitting
by the fire and watching her face as it slowly turned blue. The speake r's
love for Porphyria is all -consuming and unhealthy, and his actions reveal a
deep -seated jealousy and possessiveness.
Another notable aspect of the poem is the contrast between the speaker's
words and actions. On the one hand, he speaks of his love for Porphyria
and how much he cherishes her. On the other hand, he has just killed her,
revealing a deep disconnect between his words and his actions. This
contrast adds to the disturbing and unsettling nature of the poem and
serves to highlight the speaker's twisted psychology.
Overall, "Porphyria's Lover" is a powerful and disturbing portrayal of
love, jealousy, and obsession. It offers a glimpse into the twisted
psychology of the speaker and serves as a reminder of the dangers of
unhealthy and obsessive love .
3.5.2 “Fra Lippo Lipi” : ‘Fra Lippo Lipi ’is a dramatic monologue written
by Robert Browning, in which the speaker, a Renaissance artist named Fra
Lippo Lippi, describes his life and work as a painter. The poem is a
powerful exploration of the relationship between art and society, and it
offers insight into the struggles and challenges faced by artists throughout
history.
One of the defining features of "Fra Lippo Lippi" is the speaker's voice,
which is lively, irreverent, and full of personality. Fra Lippo Lippi is a
complex and multifaceted character, and his words reveal a deep
appreciation for the beauty and power of art, as well as a keen
understanding of the social and political forces that shape the art world.
Another notable aspect of the poem is its exploration of the theme of
conformity versus individuality. Fra Lippo Lippi is a nonconformist who
rebels against the expectations and conventions of his time, and his art
reflects this independent spirit. He speaks of his desire to create art that is
true to his own vision and to resist the pressure to conform to the standards
of his peers.
To conclude, "Fra Lippo Lippi" is a powerful and thought -provoking
exploration of the relationship between art and society. It offers insight
into the struggles and c hallenges faced by artists throughout history and munotes.in

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32 serves as a reminder of the importance of individuality and
nonconformity.
3.6 CONCLUSION
The study of the selected poems of Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert
Browning shows that both of these poets are very important names in the
history of Victorian poetry. Their poems share many similarities with
reference to the themes, style, diction and poetic devices.
3.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Write a detailed note on 19th Century English Poetry.
2. Write a note on Vic torian Poetry with a focus on its s alient features.
3. Write a detailed note on Alfred Tennyson as a poet giving examples
from the poems you studied .
4. What are the key themes in "In Memoriam".
5. Discuss Tennyson as a representative poet of Victorian a ge.
6. What are the chief characteristics and silent features of the poetry of
Robert Browning?
7. Critical appreciation of the poem, ‘Porphyria’s Lover’ by Robert
Browning
8. Attempt critical appreciation of the poem 'Fra Lippo Lipi” by Robert
Brown ing.
9. Answer the following questions briefly:
1. Who was Alfred, Lord Tennyson?
2. When was "In Memoriam" written?
3. What is "In Memoriam" about?
4. How is "In Memoriam" structured?
5. What is the central theme of "In Memoriam"?
6. Who was Robert Browning?
7. What is a dramatic monologue?
8. What is the theme of "Porphyria's Lover"?
9. What is the speaker's justification for killing Porphyria in
"Porphyria's Lover"?
10. Who is Fra Lippo Lippi?
11. What is the theme of "Fra Lippo Lippi"?
12. What is Fra Lippo Lippi's attitude towards conformity? munotes.in

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33 3.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1989). Tennyson: A Selected Edition .
Berkeley and Los Angeles, Calif: University of California Press.
 Anonymous (1873). "Alfred Tennyson". Cartoon portraits and
biographical sketches of men of the day. Illustrated by Frederick
Waddy. London: Tinsley Brothers. pp. 78–84. Retrieved 6
January 2011.
 Browning, Robert (2009). Roberts, Adam; Karlin, Daniel (eds.). The
Major Works. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press.
 Browning, Robert. Ed. Karlin, Daniel (2004) Selected Poems Penguin.
 Chesterton, G K (1903). Robert Browning (1951 ed.). London:
Macmillan Interactive Publishing.
 H. Tennyson (1897). Alfred Lord Tennyson: A Memoir by His Son ,
New York: MacMillan
 Isobel Armstrong, Victorian Poetry: Poetry, Poetics and
Politics (London and New York: Routledge, 1993.
 Leslie, Stephen (1898). "Life of Tennyson" . Studies of a Biographer.
Vol. 2. London: Duckworth and Co. pp. 196–240.

 
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34 4
POETRY: SELECTED VERSE FROM THE
VICTORIAN PERIOD - II
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Introduction to Elizabeth Barrett Browing
4.3 Selected Poems of Elizabeth Barrett Browing
4.4 Introduction to Matthew Arnold
4.5 Selected Poems of Matthew Arnold
4.6 Introd uction to Thomas Hardy
4.7 Selected Poems of Thomas Hardy
4.8 Conclusion
4.9 Check Your Progress
4.10 Bibliography
4.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit is written with the following objectives:
 To introduce the learners with Elizabeth Barrett Browing, Matthew
Arnold , D.G. Rosett i and Thomas Hardy
 To introduce them with the poetry of Elizabeth Barrett Browing,
Matthew Arnold , D.G. Rosetti and Thomas Hardy
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Elizabeth Barrett Browing, Matthew Arnold and Thomas Hardy are three
important poets of the Victorian age. The ir poems generally speak about
the impacts of industrial revolution on human life in general and litearture
in particular. All the selected poems of these poets are their masterpieces
that represent them as the true representatives of their age.
4.2 INTRO DUCTION TO ELIZABETH BARRETT
BROWINING
Elizabeth Barrett Browning was a 19th -century English poet, known for
her romantic and intellectually rigorous poetry. She was a leading figure in munotes.in

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35 the Victorian era, and her work was widely popular and influential dur ing
her lifetime.
One of the chief characteristics of Barrett Browning's poetry is its intense
emotional depth. She often wrote about love and relationships, exploring
the complexities and nuances of human emotion with great sensitivity and
insight. Many o f her poems are deeply personal, reflecting her own
experiences and feelings, and they often convey a sense of vulnerability
and openness.
Barrett Browning's poetry is also notable for its formal structure and use
of language. She was a skilled craftsman, and her poetry is carefully
constructed, with well -crafted rhyme schemes and meter. She also had a
wide -ranging vocabulary, and she often used literary and classical
allusions to enrich the meaning of her poems.
In addition to her love poetry, Barrett Brow ning also wrote about a variety
of other subjects, including social and political issues. She was a strong
advocate for social justice, and many of her poems address themes of
oppression and injustice. She was particularly concerned with the rights of
wome n and the abolition of slavery, and she used her poetry as a platform
to speak out against these issues.
To conclude, Elizabeth Barrett Browning was a highly respected and
influential poet, known for the emotional depth, formal structure, and
social consci ousness of her work.
4.3 SELECTED POEMS OF ELIZABETH BARRETT
BROWINING
4.3.1 “Sonnets from the Portuguese”: “Sonnets from the Portuguese ” is
a collection of 44 love sonnets written by Elizabeth Barrett Browning. The
collection was published in 1850, and it is widely considered one of the
greatest love poems of the 19th century.
The sonnets in "Sonnets from the Portuguese" are written in the traditional
14-line sonnet form, and they are characterized by their deep emotion,
poetic craftsmanship, and intellect ual depth. The poems explore the
themes of love, desire, and commitment, and they convey the intensity and
complexity of the poet's feelings for her lover.
The collection takes its name from the fact that the sonnets were originally
written in Portuguese b y Elizabeth Barrett Browning's husband, Robert
Browning, as a way of expressing his love for her. Elizabeth later
translated the sonnets into English, and the resulting collection is a
testament to the depth and intensity of their love for one another.
The sonnets in "Sonnets from the Portuguese" are often praised for their
beautiful language and emotional intensity. They are rich in imagery and
metaphor, and they explore the many facets of love, from its joys and
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36 Hence, "Sonnets from the Portuguese" is a powerful and enduring
expression of love, and it remains a classic of English literature to this
day.
4.3.2 “Say over again and yet once over again” : “Say Over Again, and
Yet Once Over Again ” is a poem written b y Elizabeth Barrett Browning
that explores the theme of love and the enduring power of words to
convey its depth and complexity.
The poem is structured as a series of short, lyrical lines that repeat the
phrase "Say over again, and yet once over again." Th is repetition creates a
sense of urgency and insistence, as if the speaker is urging her lover to
keep repeating their words of love and devotion. The poem's use of
repetition also highlights the enduring nature of love, suggesting that it is
something tha t must be constantly reaffirmed and re -stated in order to
remain strong.
Throughout the poem, the speaker reflects on the many ways in which
love is expressed and communicated, both through words and through
actions. She describes the power of words to con vey the depth of feeling
and emotion that lies at the heart of love, and she suggests that they are an
essential part of any loving relationship.
The poem also touches on the idea of faith and trust, as the speaker
expresses her belief that the love betwee n her and her lover is strong
enough to withstand any challenges or difficulties they may face. She
suggests that their love is rooted in a deep and enduring connection that
will never be broken, no matter what life may bring.
Hence, "Say Over Again, and Y et Once Over Again" is a beautiful and
powerful poem that explores the many facets of love and the enduring
power of words to convey its depth and complexity. Its use of repetition
and its focus on the importance of communication and trust make it a
compel ling and enduring expression of love.
4.4 INTRODUCTION TO MATTHEW ARNOLD
Matthew Arnold was an English poet and critic of the Victorian era. He is
known for his elegiac poems that often deal with themes of loss and
melancholy, as well as for his satirical and humorous poetry.
One of the chief characteristics of Arnold's poetry is its focus on the
conflict between the individual and society. Many of his poems explore
the theme of the individual's search for meaning and identity in a rapidly
changing and ofte n alienating world. In his poem "Dover Beach," for
example, Arnold describes the changing landscape of society and the
erosion of traditional values, leading the speaker to feel a sense of despair
and isolation.
Another notable feature of Arnold's poetry i s its use of classical allusions
and literary references. Arnold was well -educated and well -read, and he
often drew on the works of classical authors such as Homer, Virgil, and munotes.in

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37 Sophocles in his poetry. He also frequently referenced other poets, such as
Shakespeare and Milton, in his work.
The selling features of Matthew Arnold's poetry include its elegiac tone,
its exploration of the individual's place in society, and its use of classical
allusions and literary references.
4.5 SELECTED POEM OF MATTHEW ARNOL D
4.5.1 “The Forsaken Merman”: The poem, “ The Forsaken Merman ” is a
poem written by Matthew Arnold. It was first published in 1849, and it
tells the story of a merman who has left his underwater home to live
among humans. The merman is deeply unhappy, howe ver, and longs to
return to the sea.
One of the chief characteristics of "The Forsaken Merman" is its elegiac
tone. The merman's sense of loss and longing for his former life is
palpable throughout the poem, and the use of language and imagery
reflects thi s sense of melancholy. For example, the merman's memories of
his life in the sea are described as "dear" and "sweet," while his current
existence among humans is depicted as dull and mundane.
Another notable feature of the poem is its use of symbolism. The merman
represents the individual's search for meaning and identity in a rapidly
changing and often alienating world. The sea, with its vastness and depth,
represents the unknown and the unexplored, while the land represents the
constraints and limitations of human society. The merman's inability to
return to the sea symbolizes the individual's sense of isolation and
disconnection from their true self.
"The Forsaken Merman" is a poignant and thought -provoking poem that
explores the theme of loss and the in dividual's search for meaning in a
society that often fails to provide it.
4.6 INTRODUCTION TO DANTE GABRIELLE
ROSETTI
Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828 -1882) was an English poet, painter, and
translator who was a leading figure in the Pre -Raphaelite Brotherhoo d, a
group of artists and writers who sought to revive the spirit of medieval art
and culture. Rossetti is considered one of the greatest Victorian poets and
was known for his lush, sensuous language and his preoccupation with
themes of love, death, and th e supernatural.
Rossetti was born in London to an Italian father and an English mother,
and his work was deeply influenced by his dual heritage. He was a prolific
poet and his work is characterized by its intense emotional depth, its use of
vivid imagery a nd symbolism, and its musicality and rhythmic
complexity.
Some of Rossetti's most famous poems include "The Blessed Damozel," a
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38 monologue that explores the exploitation of women in Vic torian society;
and "Goblin Market," a complex allegory about temptation, desire, and
redemption.
In addition to his poetry, Rossetti was also an accomplished painter, and
his artwork often featured the same sensuous, symbolic imagery that
characterized hi s poetry. He was a major influence on the Symbolist and
Aesthetic movements, and his work continues to be celebrated for its
beauty, passion, and emotional intensity .
4.7 SELECTED POEM OF DANTE GABRIELLE
ROSETTI
The ideas contained in the poem ' The Cloud Confined ‘written by Dante
Gabrielle Rossetti'
"The Cloud Confined" is a poem written by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, not
Matthew Arnold. It is a sonnet that explores the theme of love and the
speaker's desire to be with their beloved.
In the poem, the speaker compares their love to a cloud that is confined
and unable to fully express itself. The speaker longs to break free from the
constraints of society and be with their beloved, but they recognize that
this is not possible due to societal expectations and ob ligations. Despite
this, the speaker remains hopeful and believes that their love will
eventually find a way to break free and be expressed.
The main idea contained in "The Cloud Confined" is the theme of love
and the struggles and limitations that it can face in a society that imposes
strict rules and expectations on relationships. The poem also touches on
themes of desire, longing, and the power of love to transcend social
barriers
4.6 INTRODUCTION TO THOMAS HARDY
Thomas Hardy (1840 -1928) was an English n ovelist and poet who is
widely regarded as one of the most important writers of the late Victorian
and early modernist periods. Hardy's work often deals with themes of fate,
tragedy, and the conflict between traditional values and modernity.
As a novelist, Hardy is best known for works such as "Tess of the
d'Urbervilles," a novel that explores the sexual double standards and social
inequalities of Victorian England, and "Jude the Obscure," a dark and
pessimistic novel that deals with the themes of love, mar riage, and
education.
As a poet, Hardy's work is often characterized by its melancholic tone and
its focus on the transience and fragility of human existence. Many of his
poems deal with themes of loss, nostalgia, and the passage of time, and he
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39 Some of Hardy's most famous poems include "The Darkling Thrush," a
meditation on the passing of the old year and the coming of the new, and
"Hap," a poem that explores the theme of fate and the idea that human
beings are powerless in the face of an indifferent universe.
Hardy's poetry reflects his deep love of the natural world and his concern
for the plight of ordinary people, particularly those who lived in the
countryside. His poetry is often characterized by its strong sense of place
and its bleak, melancholic tone.
Hardy's most famous poetry collections include "Wessex Poems" (1898)
and "Poems of the Past and the Present" (1901). In these collections,
Hardy explores themes of love, loss, and the passage of time, and his
poems often reflect his own personal experiences and emotions.
Some of Hardy's best -known poems include "The Darkling Thrush," "The
Convergence of the Twain," and "The Man He Killed." These poems are
notable for their vivid ima gery and their powerful evocations of the
natural world and the human experience.
Overall, Hardy's work is notable for its depth of insight into the human
condition and its exploration of the complex social and cultural forces that
shape our lives. His wri ting continues to be celebrated for its beauty, its
emotional intensity, and its enduring relevance to contemporary concerns.
Thomas Hardy is remembered as a major figure in English literature and
as a poet who captured the essence of rural life and the hu man experience
with honesty and sensitivity.
4.7 SELECTED POEM S OF THOMAS HARDY
4.7.1 “ Channel Firing : “Channel Firing” is a poem written by Thomas
Hardy that was published in 1914. The poem is set in a small village in
England and describes the events tha t take place when the villagers are
awakened in the middle of the night by the sound of artillery fire.
One of the key themes of the poem is the destructive nature of war and the
way in which it disrupts the normal rhythms of everyday life. The
villagers a re rudely awakened by the noise of the firing and are left in a
state of confusion and fear as they try to make sense of what is happening.
The poem suggests that war is a destructive force that has the power to
disrupt and destroy even the most peaceful a nd idyllic communities.
Another theme of the poem is the idea of human mortality and the way in
which death is always present, even in times of peace. The villagers are
shocked by the sudden intrusion of death into their lives and are forced to
confront th eir own mortality as they try to come to terms with the events
of the night.
"Channel Firing" is a powerful and poignant poem that captures the
destructive nature of war and the way in which it can disrupt and destroy
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40 imagery help to bring the events of the poem to life, making it an enduring
and memorable work of literature.
4.7.2 “ Dead Man Walking” : "Dead Man Walking" is a poem written by
Thomas Hardy that was published in 1914. The poem is set in a small
village in England and describes the final journey of a condemned man as
he walks to the gallows to be hanged.
One of the key themes of the poem is the idea of injustice and the way in
which the legal system can fail to deliver j ustice. The condemned man is
described as "innocent" and "wrongly tried," suggesting that he has been
wrongly accused and sentenced to death. The poem suggests that the legal
system can be flawed and that innocent people can be wrongly punished.
Another th eme of the poem is the idea of the finality of death and the way
in which it ends all hope and possibility. The condemned man is described
as being "beyond the reach of grace," suggesting that there is no hope for
him and that his death is inevitable. The poem reflects on the fragility of
life and the way in which death can come at any time, even to those who
are young and innocent.
"Dead Man Walking" is a poignant and thought -provoking poem that
explores themes of injustice, mortality, and the finality of death. Its
powerful imagery and emotive language help to bring the events of the
poem to life, making it a memorable and thought -provoking work of
literature.
4.8 CONCLUSION
The study of the selected poems of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Matthew
Armold, D.G . Rosetti and Thomas Hardy represents these poets as the
chief exponents of Victorian social, moral and cultural vaues. They have
realistically show n the effects of industrial revolution on human life.
These poems deal with one or the other aspect of this very significant
historical event that changed the entire world .
4.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What kind of a poet is Matthew Arnold? Write a note on the s alient
features of his poetry .
2. Attempt a critical appreciation of the poem, ‘The Forsaken Mermain ’
by Mathew Arnold.
3. Discuss Thomas Hardy as a poet .
4. Attempt cri tical appreciation of the poem ‘Channel F iring ’ by Thomas
Hardy .
5. Attempt a cri tical appreciation of the poem ‘D ead Man Walking ’ by
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Poetry: Selected Vers e from
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41 6. Summarize the ideas contained in the poe m ‘The Cloud Confined’ by
Dante Gabrielle Rossetti'.
7. Write a note on “Sonnets from the Portuguese” written by
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
8. Answer the following questions briefly:
1. Who was Elizabeth Barrett Browning?
2. When was "Sonnets from the Portuguese" published?
3. What are some of the themes explored in "Sonnets from the
Portuguese"?
4. How does Elizabeth Barrett Browning use language and structure in
her poetry?
5. What was Elizabeth Barrett Browning known for advocating in her
poetry?
6. What is the theme of “Sonnet 21 ”?
7. How does the speaker in “Sonnet 21 ” express her love for her lover?
8. What literary devices does Elizabeth Barrett Browning use in “Sonnet
21”?
4.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Marjorie Stone, "Browning, Elizabeth Barrett (1806 –1861) ", Oxford
Dictionary of National Biography , Oxford University Press, 2004;
online edition, October 2008.
 Sampson, Fiona (2021). Two Way Mirror: The Life of Elizabeth
Barrett Browning . Profile Books, p 33
 Wörn, Alexandra M. B (2004). ""Poetry is Where God i s": The
Importance of Christian Faith and Theology in Elizabeth Barrett
Browning's Life and Work". Victorian Religious Discourse .
 Elizabeth Barrett Browning (15 August 1986). Sonnets from the
Portuguese: A Celebration of Love . St. Martin's Press.
 W. F. Con nell, The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew
Arnold (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd, 1950)
 Laurence W. Mazzeno, Matthew Arnold: The Critical
Legacy (Woodbridge: Camden House, 1999)
 Matthew Arnold , Selected Poetry of Matthew Arnold , Represent ative
Poetry Online, UToronto.ca, Web, June 23, 2011. munotes.in

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42  Dunn, Recollections of Dante Gabriel Rossetti and his circle , ed.
Mander, (1984)
 "Dante Gabriel Rossetti" . Poetry Foundation .
 Tomalin, Claire (2007), Thomas Hardy: the Time -torn Man , Penguin,
 Wilson, Ke ith (2009). A Companion to Thomas Hardy . John Wiley &
Sons.


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43 5
CHARLES DICKENS’ DAVID
COPPERFIELD : PART I
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Victorian Novels as a Social Force in the Nineteenth Century
5.2 Charles Dickens as a Humanitarian Novelist
5.3 David Copperfield: A Brief Review
5.4 Conclusion
5.5 Important Questions
5.6 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To explore contribution of Victorian Novels to the social issues of the
time
2. To understand Charles Dickens as a representative Victorian Novelist
3. To analyse David Copperfield as a Victorian Novel
5.1 VICTORION NOVELS AS A SOCIAL FORCE IN
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
Victorian age is essentially the age of the novel since the novel made a
phenomenal progress during the age. This was partly because the middle
class rose in power an d importance, partly because of the steady increase
of the reading public with growth of lending libraries and the development
of publishing and partly because the novel presented a picture of life of the
middle -class society which the people wanted to rea d about. The novel of
the age used as a popular medium for expressing its rapid progress in
commerce, democracy and science. The material and scientific progress
had its influence upon the Victorian life and it was inevitable that it should
be expressed th rough its prose, poetry and fiction. Influenced by Darwin’s
theory of evolution, the novel of the age became the vehicle of ideas as
well as a means of amusement. The writers though belonged to different
perspectives, used literature in general and novel i n particular for noting
criticism of life. The novel reflected all the factors influencing and shaping
the complex modern world. It became more realistic and analytical with
the spread of science; more humanitarian with the spread of democratic
approach; a nd more inquiring and interrogative with the religious and
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44 The early Victorian novel as cultivated by Disraeli, Trollope, Dickens,
Thackeray, Kingsley, Mrs. Gaskell and Charles Reade was essentially a
transcript from life and the novelis ts concentrated on the social, political,
economic aspects of Victorian society. Realism, sometimes blatant and
sometimes in the subdued key, became a characteristic feature of early
Victorian novel. The novelists came to close grips with the problems face d
by Victorian society and sought to find a solution to the rampant evils of
the age. The novel, like other forms of literature, became purposive in
character, and ceased to be a source of pure entertainment. The Victorian
reader found in fiction what he l ooked for, and the early Victorian
novelists provided him a historical perspective of the age in all its varied
aspects. Thus, the early Victorian novelists were in accord with their
public, and gratified the public taste by portraying their own life. They
identified with the age and were its spokesmen. No wonder there is a
satiric tinge in the novels of Disraeli, Thackeray and Dicken as well.
The Victorian Age, though witnessed intense activities in commerce,
industry and finance and simultaneously gave birth to appalling social
conditions. It gave rise to filthy slums, exploitation of cheap labour - often
of women and children, poor wages to factory workers, etc. These evils of
the industrial revolution were vividly painted by writers like Disraeli,
Dick ens and Mrs. Gaskell. The social novel was most diligently cultivated
by Benjamin Disraeli. For example, his novel Sybil whilerevealing the
conflict between Capitalists and Labour, presents a terrible picture of the
contemporary working class. While Mrs. Elizabeth Gaskell in her novels,
Mary Barton and North and South, gives a realistic view of the hardships
caused by the in dustrial revolution as seen from the workers’ point of
view. Dickens is seen as a great reformer through his novels written from
humanitarian approach. Thackeray and Carlyle, another prominent
representatives of the Victorian era, essentially satirise the Victorian
society and denounce snobbery, shams and insincerity. George Eliot, is
critical about the rigid class distinctions in her novels. Charles Kingsley
too gives a vivid picture of the wretched life of the labouring class and
shows his interest in th e oppressed labouring class.
5.2 CHARLES DICKENS AS A HUMANITARIAN
NOVELIST
Charles Dickens (1812 – 1870) was born in a poor family. He completed
his early schooling in Chatham where he became fond of books. Due to
his father’s imprisonment and the financial difficulties, Dickens had to
leave school at the age of eleven and work i n blacking factory for a few
pennies. However, soon he left this job when he received a legacy from
one of his relatives. Dickens joined Willington House Academy at fifteen
which was a worthless and brutal school and its headmaster too was a
tyrant. The ex perience he gained at this place later inspired him to write
Nicholas Nickleby . He left the school with disgust and worked as a clerk in
a lawyer’s office. Simultaneously, he learned short hand writing and
became a parliamentary reporter. During this time, he observed the inns
and stables which he effectively used in portraying London life. Dickens munotes.in

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45 undertook foreign travels and during his visit to America he strongly
condemned slavery system. On returning from America, he penned David
Copperfield, Dombey an d Sons and Great Expectations. The success he
achieved as one of the prominent novelists of the nineteenth century and
the perspective he formed is due to the life he led, the people he met,
places he visited, and experience he gained through his life. Dic kens
penned them effectively and sensitively in his novels.
Dickens is a novelist of the Victorian London – the London of 1820’s and
1830’s. He presented the Victorian London in all its colours; with its
squares, shops, offices, schools, law courts, mur ky slums, prisons, etc. He
knew his people best and gave them what they wanted. As a very part of
the society, he never wrote down to his public. Dickens sought to derive
inspiration from real London life as he witnessed it. Being a realist in his
art, he preoccupied himself with reality rather than that of romances. He
chose to describe and portray in his novels the life he knew and the life
that he had watched and observed as a reporter. The experience he
gathered from his visits to circuses, gardens, pri sons, boarding houses,
gin-shops, etc. form the warp and woof of his novels. He railed against the
social, political, economic and educational drawbacks of his times in his
writings. As a champion of the week, the outcast and the oppressed,
Dickens satiris ed boarding schools, tyrannies of school masters, etc. in
Nicholas Nickleby , the courts of law, law’s delay and the corrupt system of
election in Bleak House , the new manufacturing system in Hard Times ,
the slums and work houses in Oliver Twist , the pettif ogging lawyers in
Great Expectations , and so on. Doing this, he attempted to arouse public
conscience to these evils. Humour, another remarkable feature of
Dickens’s novel has a satirical tinge as he employed it to expose
hypocrisy, vanity, greed, insolen ce of Victorian society.
Dicken was primarily interested in presenting the sorrows, sufferings and
privations suffered by his child characters belonging to weaker class. For
example, the hardships borne by David Copperfield under the tyrannical
dominat ion of Mr. Murdstone and Miss Murdstone are brought out in a
touching manner. Similarly, Oliver Twist wins sympathy for the cruel
treatment meted out to him by parish administrators and mentors of
workhouses. The wandering of little Nel with her grand -father are pathetic
in Old Curiosity Shop .
Dickens’ prominent novels along with their themes can be listed here:
Pickwick Papers (1836) – injustices of the legal system, Oliver Twist
(1837) – protest against the abuse of power, Nicholas Nickleby ( 1838) –
oppressive education institutions, Barnaby Rudge (1841) – Gordon Riots,
Bleak House ( 1852) – abuses of the old court of Chancery, Hard Times
(1854) – evils of industrialism, Little Dorrit (1855) rigours of prison life,
A Tale of Two Cities (1859) culminati on of French Revolution, Great
Expectations ( 1860) – life beyond wealth and station, etc.

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46 5.3 DAVID COPPERFIELD : A BRIEF REVIEW
David Copperfield is Charles Dickens’ veiled autobiography. The story,
published as a serial between 1849 and 1850 and as a book in 1850, also
serves as Dickens’ critique of the bleak conditions of many children in
Victorian England, including its notorious boarding schools. “The pen
which wrote David Copperfield was often dipped in his own blood.”, says
Hugh Walker. Dickens too has stated that David Copperfield is his most
loved novel. David Copperfield is written from the point of view of its
titular character, looking back on the ups and downs of his chequered life.
Dickens has used many incidents of his childhood and early life to create a
considerable fictional achievement. Some of the characters in the novel
are memorable figures – Betsy Trotwood, Dickens’ eccentric aunt, Ur iah
Heep, the villain feigning humility, and Murdstone, the cruel father and
Agnes, the gentle hearted lady. The novel provides a scathing criticism on
the system of teaching in schools run by masters like Creakle and his
companions. The novel is a tale o f ups and downs, joys and sorrows;
however, the prevailing tone is one of cheerfulness and confidence in the
essential goodness of life.
David Copperfield is deeply attached to his mother, who was widowed six
months before his birth. His early childhood is a very happy. Once, he
goes with his nurse Peggotty, for a holiday to Yarmouth. They stay with
her brother Mr. Peggotty and other relatives in a boat -house. On his return,
David finds that his mother has remarried the frightful Mr. Murdstone who
ill-treats him. Soon Mr. Murdstone’s sister moves into their house.
Copperfield is sent away to boarding school after he bites Murdstone
when he beats him. He is sent away to Salem House, a school run by a
cruel man named Creakle. At the boarding school, he beco mes friends
with James Steerforth and Tommy Traddles. However, Copperfield
doesn’t complete his education because his mother dies. He returns home
but he is sent to work at a factory for a few shillings a week at Murdstone
and Grinby’s warehouse in London. He lodges with Mr. Micawber and his
family and becomes attached to them. But David loses them as well since
the family leaves London due to financial problems. At the factory,
Copperfield experiences the hardships of the industrial -urban poor.
Ultimately, he escapes and walks to Dover to find his great -aunt, Miss
Betsy Trotwood, who adopts him. Miss Betsy is very kind to him and
sends him to an excellent school in Canterbury, where he boards with Mr.
Wickfield and his daughter Agnes. Mr. Wickfield has a we akness for
drink and his cunning clerk, Uriah Heep, takes advantage of this. After
leaving school, David joins the firm of Spenlow and Jorkins in London.
He meets Mr. Spenlow’s daughter, Dora and falls madly in love with her,
but Mr. Spenlow refuses to con sider him as a son -in-law. Meanwhile,
Miss Trotwood loses her money and comes to live in London. David
works extremely hard and becomes a successful reporter and writer. After
Mr. Spenlow’s death, David and Dora marry. Dora is pretty but silly and
immature , and wishes to be regarded as a ‘child wife’. She loses a child,
falls ill, slowly weakens and dies. To come over his grief, David goes
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Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield: Part I
47 loves Agnes, but is under a whim that she reg ards him as a brother. He
returns to England and when realizes that Agnes has always loved him,
marries her and becomes successful in writing fiction. Miss Trotwood’s
fortune is restored, and Uriah Heep is imprisoned for fraud. Mr.
Peggotty’s family, as we ll as Mr. Micawber’s family emigrate to Australia
and live happily there.
5.4 CONCLUSION
Being moralist and idealist at heart, Dickens bluntly presented a sinful and
sordid life which he condemned in his novels. He aimed at exposing the
evils of the society and invariably espoused the cause of virtue. As
corruption and evils were rampant in the Victorian society Dickens
undertook a task to eradicate them with his pen. His autobiographical
novel David Copperfield traces the life of David, the protagonist, from a
happy early childhood through a miserable span of cruel surrogate parents,
harsh work ing conditions, and crushing poverty to an ultimately wiser,
contented existence as a happily married adult. Along the way, he meets a
memorable cast of characters, some hateful and selfish and others kind and
loving.
5.5 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the salient features of the Victorian Novel.
2. Expound the contribution of novelists to the Victorian age.
3. Elaborate Charles Dickens as a novelist with humanitarian approach.
4. Discuss Dickens’ portrayal of children in his novels.
5. Write a note on the plot of David Copperfield.
5.6 REFERENCES
 Bodeen, Donald V. A Critical Study of Charles Dickens: Humor,
House, Humphry. OUP. 1993.
 Dickens, Charles. Devid Copperfield. 1850. England: Penguin English
Library. 2012.
 Rickett, Arthur. History of English Literature. London: Oxford
University Press. 1990.
 https://www.charlesdickensinfo.com/novels/complete -works/

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48 6
CHARLES DICKENS’ DAVID
COPPERFIELD : PART II
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Analysis: David Copperfield
6.2 Characters
6.3 Themes
6.4 Conclusion
6.5 Check Your Progress
6.6 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To analyse the novel as a social commentary.
2. To understand characters in the novel.
3. To study various themes of the novel
6.1 ANALYSIS: DAVID COPPERFIELD
The structure of David Copperfield almost perfectly fits the usual format
of a bildungsroman novel as the novel portrays little David’s journey to a
successful writer. The episodic, plot -heavy nature of David
Copperfield stems from the fact that it was originally published as a serial,
in pieces over time. Dickens inserted several mini -climaxes and
resolutions and deliberately bui lt suspense toward the end of each section
in order to compel his readers to buy and read the next installment. The
segmentation of David’s life into separate parts and the heavy -handed
foreshadowing add to the novel’s suspense. In the preface of the nove l
Dickens states that the completion of the novel is, for him, both a regret
and a pleasure. He rejoices in the completion of the novel because the
novel was a long time in coming, and he is satisfied that it is finished after
two years of hard work. He mo urns its completion, however, because it
marks the end of his association with a cast of characters to whom he has
become intensely attached. Dickens remarks that David Copperfield is his
favourite of all his novels and that, of all the characters he has i nvented
over the years, David Copperfield is dearest to him.
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Charles Dickens’ David
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49 An older David Copperfield narrates the story of his life. He begins by
saying that only the writing that follows can tell who the hero of his story
is. He gives an account of his birth, which occurred at the stroke of
midnight on a Friday night. An old woman in the neighbourhood has told
him that the time of his birth indicates he will be unlucky and will be able
to see ghosts and spirits. David ’s aunt, Miss Betsey Trotwood, appears
surprisingly on the day of David’s birth and amazingly disappears too
after knowing that the born child is a boy and not a girl. She appears later
in the novel much to the comfort of young David.
David vividly remembers his mother, Clara and his nurse, Peggotty, his
house and its surrounding. For both David and his mother, Peggotty is a
mother figure. However, the joyous moments of this little family are over
the moment David’s beautiful mother int roduces Mr. Murdstone, a large
man with black whiskers and a deep voice to Peggoty and David. In spite
of David and Peggotty’s dislike for Mr. Murdstone, Clara marries Mr.
Murdstone. Then onwards David has to deal with a life of almost as an
orphan that i s utterly miserable and humiliating. His mother’s marriage to
Mr. Murdstone who seems to be an enormous and threatening dog to
David proves a disaster for both David and his mother. Mr Murdstone
continuously reprimands his mother for not disciplining her s on. He
threatens to beat David for not behaving properly. Soon Miss Jane
Murdstone, Mr. Murdstone’s dark and masculine, cruel sisterarrives to
stay with them and in no time takes over the household management, and
when David’s mother protests her interfere nce or shows concern about
anything done to David, Mr. Murdstone threatens her into submission and
later both he and Miss Murdstone ask her to be firm with David and also
demoralise her by calling her naïve, inexperienced girl that needs their
training. To David’s misfortune, Clara fails to protect him. However,
David has unwavering faith in her. Her helplessness and fear allow Mr.
Murdstone and his sister to inflict cruelty on herself and David. She
receives the readers’ sympathies. Ultimately David is se nt to Salem
boarding school at London as a punishment when he bites Mr.
Murdstone’s hand in self - defense. Consequently, young David gets
estranged from his mother and Peggotty. The journey to London is
definitely not a joyous one for David as he is cheate d by the waiter and
teased by the coachman and other passengers which keeps him hungry till
he reaches London. He reaches the school when the school has holidays.
There too Mr. Murdstone’s threat follows David as he has to wear a sign
that identifies him a s ‘one who bites’ as his punishment for having bitten
Mr. Murdstone. In the school too David is terrorised by Mr. Creakle, the
master. However, he finds solace in his friendship with fat Tommy
Traddles and a wealthy, intelligent, confident, good -looking Ja mes
Steerforth. David’s friendship with Tommy and Steerforth and his
attachment to Peggotty reveals the way social hierarchies were strongly
observed by the Victorian society. Hence till the end of the book, Peggotty
remains a servant for David ; while Dav id is largely influenced by the
wealth and power of James Steerforth though he is scoundrel. However,
Tommy who cares for David always remains secondary for him. Here
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50 instead of the me rit of a person. Treatments meted out to Peggotty and
Steerforth show Dickens’ disagreement to the imperfections in English
class system. Eventually Clara surrenders to the Murdstones and finally
dies leaving young David at the hands of the heartless Murds tones.
Later David is sent to work at Mr. Murdstone’s wine -bottling business
where Dickens shows the exploitation of child labourers and miserable
condition of the working class. David moves in with Mr. Micawber, who
himself is in dire financial proble ms. When Mr. Micawber leaves London
to escape his creditors, David decides to search for his father’s sister, Miss
Betsey Trotwood —his only living relative who receives him affectionately
and sends him to a school run by Doctor Strong. While attending the
school David moves in with Mr. Wickfield and his daughter, Agnes whom
he later marries. Among Wickfield’s boarders is Uriah Heep, a cunning
young man who mismanages Wickfield’s accounts. After graduation, Miss
Betsey persuades David to pursue a career as a proctor, a kind of lawyer.
David apprentices himself at the London firm of Spenlow and Jorkins.
David falls in love with Mr. Spenlow’s daughter, Dora, and marries her
after Mr. Spenlow’s death. However, Dora proves a terrible housewife.
David loves her an yway and is generally happy. Miss Betsey visits
London to inform David that her financial security has been ruined
because Mr. Wickfield has joined into a partnership with Uriah Heep.
David helps Agnes and Miss Betsey to recover their losses by exposing
Uriah Heep’s fraud and also helps Mr.Peggotty to get back his estranged
niece, Little Em’ly. Mr. Peggotty decide to move to Australia, as do the
Micawbers. Meanwhile, Dora falls ill and dies. David leaves the country
to travel abroad. His love for Agnes gro ws. When David returns, he and
Agnes, who has long harboured a secret love for him, get married and
have several children. David pursues his writing career with increasing
commercial success.
Hence the novel begins with Dickens’ foreshadowing and cultiva tes an
atmosphere of mystery in order to make his story dramatic and capture our
interest from the start. The surreal circumstances under which David is
born, including the appearance of Miss Betsey, mark the first example of
mystery in the novel. Although Miss Betsey is absent for much of the
story, she returns when David is in dire need. The darkness and abruptness
established around Miss Betsey in the opening chapter characterize her
throughout the novel. Throughout David Copperfield, Dickens uses such
foreshadowing not only to create suspense about future events but also to
establish an ominous tone.
Dickens portrays David as a gentle, naïve child in order to limit the
novel’s perspective and set up the dramatic irony of many of the story’s
episodes. W e see many signs of David’s youth. For instance, his memory
of Mr. Murdstone as doglike, his memory of his mother’s hair and form,
and so on. David’s innocence pervades in his narrative voice. The child
David later rewrites the events in his life that baff led him as a child. As a
result, we see the characters and the story as the young David did at the
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Charles Dickens’ David
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51 In the guise of young David’s account of life journey, t he novel reveals
Dickens’ scathing criticism on the class -conscious Victorian society and
Dickens’ disagreement to the imperfections in institutions like schools,
law, work places, etc.
6.2 CHARACTERS
David Copperfield was written as a serial novel, obviously it largely
focuses on plot. However, the characters too are remarkably designed by
Dickens. They develop chiefly through their actions and are depicted
straightforwardly as good and evil characters. Mr. Murdstone, f or
example, sports a large black beard and evil -looking face that make him
appear like a beast; while David’s mother is all goodness and beauty. The
novel has many such characters.
David Copperfield the titulary character narrates his story as an adult , he
conveys the impressions from a point of view of young David. Since it is a
bildungsroman novel, we see David’s perspective towards the world as he
comes of age. His impressions of his young mother and Peggotty, the
Murdstone siblings, his school friend s, Mr. Creakle, his teacher, Uriah,
His wife Dora and Agnes whom he finally marries, and the people he
connects with during his schooling and his legal practice leave a lasting
impression on him. We see his life journey through a child’s eye as well as
that of a wise gentleman.
Miss Betsey Trotwood , his strong, independent aunt, plays a significant
part in David’s life. After her failed marriage, she has taken her maiden
name and is settled at Dover. She is disappointed with David’s mother for
many r easons and one of which is David’s birth. However, s he protects
David from his shrewd step-father, Mr. Murdstone, adopts him, arranges
for his education and advices him to be a lawyer. Sheis a quirky and
humorous character in the novel with characteristic eccentricities. She is
the one who advises David to be honest and kind. She is happy when
David marries Agnes. She also helps the Micawbers settle in Australia.
Mrs. Clara Copperfield is David's mother, a gentle and beautifullady
who is widowed six months before he is born. She marries a wrong man,
Mr. Murdstone due to whose dominance not only her but David’s life
becomes miserable. She dies when David is hardly eight.
Mr. Micawber is one of the comic characters in the novel. He is a stout,
middle -aged and full of life. He makes eloquent speeches in a high -flown
style. David lodges with him when he is employed with Murdstone and
Grinby’s in London. He tries hard to make David’s stay with him
comfortable. Mr. Micawber has a big family to support and is always in
debt. In spite of his financial difficulties, Mr. Micawber is always
optimistic and is always ready to extend a helping hand to the needy. He
moves to Australia to overcome fin ancial problems where he works as a
successful Magistrate. He helps Miss Trotwood recover her money by
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52 Mr. Dick can be taken as a contrast to the Mr. Murdstone. He is
optimistic and has faith in David. He is kind, gentle, and generous toward
David which is a far cry from the unforgiving Mr. Murdstone and the
brutal Mr. Creakle.
Agnes is David’s true love and s econd wife, the daughter of Mr. Wick
field. The calm and gentle Agnes admires both her father and David. She
suffers patiently through David’s other romances, and always comforts
him with kind words or advice when he needs support.
James Steer forth is an egotistical, wealthy young man whose sense of
self-importance overwhelms all his opinions. Youthful and innocent David
fails to understand his selfishness, duplicity and real motives. The
friendship between Steer forth and Davis throws light on class dis tinctions
in Victorian Society.
Uriah Heep is a foil to David. Though Both David and Uriah are raised in
miserable environment, David is innocent and compassionate while Uriah
is cunning, corrupt, bitter and vengeful. For David his movements are like
snake. Uriah’s red hair and red eyes make him more demonic. Uriah and
David not only have opposing characteristics but also operate at cross -
purposes. Uriah tries to control others and becomes power hungry in the
course of the novel. Hence, towards the en d of the novel, though he is
arrested and sent to jail, he tries to exert control over others. He stands out
in the novel as a villain.
6.3 THEMES
6.3.1. Exploitation of the Weak
David Copperfield categorically portrays the exploitation the of the weak
and helpless section of the Victorian society that comprises children,
orphans, women, poor and mentally challenged people. The shrewd
society is least compassionate towrads the poor. Dickens shows the plights
of the child labour and imprisoned debtors and the suffering of their
families. The inhumanity of the people in power goes to such an extent
that they punish the innocent and morally good people. For example,
David becomes an easy target for Mr. Murdstone as he is a child and
dependent on Mr. Murdstone. He is too young to rebel against his
exploiter. Similarly, the children at the Salem House have to tolerate Mr.
Creakle due to his authoritative position. Dickens reveals the suffering of
the orpha n children at the hands of their supposed protectors and helpless
of the weak as they have to tolerate the domination of the powerful in the
society.
6.3.2. Wealth and Class
Dickens criticises the Victorian society’s appreciation for wealth and class
rather that of a person’s values. He also attacks the opinion that believes
that poverty is a symbol of moral degeneracy and the poor people suffer
because of the inherent deficiencies. Hence, Steerforth, a young, selfish,
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Charles Dickens’ David
Copperfield : Part I I
53 appreciate his status in the society. On the contrary, the poor people like
Peggotty and Ham are generous, honest and sympathetic. By portraying
such characters Dickens comments on the injustices meted out to the
weaker secti on of the society. However, not all rich are exploiters. The
wealthy Dr. Strong and Agnes are morally upstanding people.
6.4 CONCLUSION
David Copperfield, the autobiographical narrative gave the advantages of
allowing the story to be realistic. Since it is written in episodic manner it
keeps the reader’s interest alive. Dicken’s canvas is a larger one that
encompasses the middle class of his time, particula rly industrialized
London. Dickens was deeplyconcerned with the social issues of his time.
As a Victorian novelist he vividly depicts the social life which was unjust,
superfluous and grotesque. Dicken has successfully captured the spirit of
the nineteenth century people, places and educations institutes, and shrewd
industrial world, problems of labourers and child labour, orphans, women,
poverty stricken weaker class, moral degradation of the rich class, and so
on. The novel is his critical commentary on t he social injustice he himself
experienced so far.
6.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Elucidate the theme of exploitation in David Copperfield .
2. Discuss the role of major and minor characters in shaping David’s
Destiny.
3. Sketch the character of David Copperfield.
4. State the narrative technique used in David Copperfield.
5. Discuss David Copperfield as a social commentary on Victorian Age.
6.6 REFERENCES
 Dickens, Charles. David Copperfield. (1850) England: Penguin
English Library. 2012.
 Milligan, Ian. The Novel in English. An Introduction. London: Oxford
University Press.1997.
 Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 1991.
 Wilson, Angus. The World of Charles Dickens. London: Oxford
University Press.1993.

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54 7
ESSAYS: I - JOHN NEWMAN
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Oxford Movement
7.3 Critical Analysis of ‘The Idea of a University’
7.4 Conclusion
7.5 Check Your Progress
7.6 Bibliography
7.0 OBJECTIVES
This essay has been selected by scholars as being culturally important, and
is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it.John Henry
Newman rightly insists in his classic work on the subject that narrow
specializations produce narrow minds.Ne wman suggests a university's
'soul' lies in the mark it leaves on students.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
St. John Henry Newman, (born February 21, 1801, London, England —
died August 11, 1890, Birmingham, Warwick; beatified September 19,
2010; canonized October 13, 2 019; feast day October 9), influential
churchman and man of letters of the 19th century, who led the Oxford
movement in the Church of England and later became a cardinal deacon in
the Roman Catholic Church. His eloquent books, notably Parochial and
Plain S ermons (1834 –42), Lectures on the Prophetical Office of the
Church (1837), and University Sermons (1843), revived emphasis on the
dogmatic authority of the church and urged reforms of the Church of
England after the pattern of the original “catholic,” or u niversal, church of
the first five centuries CE. By 1845 he came to view the Roman Catholic
Church as the true modern development from the original body. In 1822,
he received an Oriel College fellowship, which was then the highest
distinction of Oxford sch olarship, and was appointed a tutor at Oriel. Two
years later, he became vicar of St. Mary's, the Anglican church of the
University of Oxford, and exerted influence on the religious thought
through his sermons. When Newman resigned his tutorship in 1832, h e
made a tour of the Mediterranean region and wrote the hymn "Lead
Kindly Light." He was also one of the chief contributors to "Tracts for the
Times" (1833 -1841), writing 29 papers including "Tract 90", which
terminated the series. The final tract was met with opposition because of munotes.in

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55 its claim that the Thirty -nine Articles of the Church of England are aimed
primarily at the abuses of Roman Catholicism. Newman retired from
Oxford in 1842 to the village of Littlemore. He spent three years in
seclusion and resig ned his post as vicar of St. Mary's on October 9, 1845.
During this time, he wrote a retraction of his criticisms of the Roman
Catholic Church and after writing his "Essay on the Development of
Christian Doctrine," he became a Roman Catholic. The following year, he
went to Rome and was ordained a priest and entered the Congregation of
the Oratory. The remainder of Newman's life was spent in the house of the
Oratory that he established near Birmingham. He also served as rector of a
Roman Catholic university that the bishops of Ireland were trying to
establish in Dublin from 1854 -1858. While there, he delivered a series of
lectures that were later published as " The Idea of a University Defined "
(1873), which says the function of a university is the training of the mind
instead of the giving of practical information. In 1864, Newman published
"Apologia pro Vita Sua (Apology for His Life)" in response to the charge
that Roman Catholicism was indif ferent to the truth. It is an account of his
spiritual development and regarded as both a religious autobiography and
English prose. Newman also wrote "An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of
Assent" (1870), and the novels "Loss and Gain" (1848), Callista" (1856)
and "The Dream of Gerontius" (1865). Newman was elected an honorary
fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1877 and was made cardinal by Pope
Leo XIII in 1879. He died on August 11, 1890.
7.2 OXFORD MOVEMENT
Oxford movement , was a 19th -century movement ce ntered at the
University of Oxford that sought a renewal of “catholic,” or Roman
Catholic, thought and practice within the Church of England in opposition
to the Protestant tendencies of the church. The argument was that the
Anglican church was by history and identity a truly “catholic” church. An
immediate cause of the movement was the change that took place in the
relationship between the state and the Church of England from 1828 to
1832. Laws that required members of municipal corporations and
government -office holders to receive the Lord’s Supper in the Church of
England were repealed, and a law was passed that removed most of the
restrictions formerly imposed on Roman Catholics. For a short time it
seemed possible that the Church of England might be dis established and
lose its endowments. Consequently, many loyal Anglicans wished to
assert that the Church of England was not dependent on the state and that
it gained its authority from the fact that it taught Christian truth and its
bishops were in the apo stolic succession (i.e., able to trace their authority
and office back in an unbroken line to the Apostles). The movement
rapidly became involved in theological, pastoral, and devotional problems.
Leaders of the movement were John Henry Newman (1801 –90), a
clergyman and subsequently a convert to Roman Catholicism and a
cardinal; Richard Hurrell Froude (1803 –36), a clergyman; John Keble
(1792 –1866), a clergyman and poet; and Edward Pusey (1800 –82), a
clergyman and professor at Oxford. munotes.in

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56 The ideas of the movement were published in 90 Tracts for the Times
(1833 –41), 24 of which were written by Newman, who edited the entire
series. Those who supported the Tracts were known as Tractarians who
asserted the d octrinal authority of the catholic church to be absolute, and
by “catholic” they understood that which was faithful to the teaching of
the early and undivided church. They believed the Church of England to
be such a catholic church. Some of the movement’s followers gradually
moved closer to the beliefs of the Roman Catholic church, and
controversies over the Tractarians’ ideas developed. In 1845 Newman
joined the Roman Catholic church, and, subsequently, several others also
joined. Keble and Pusey remained active leaders of the movement, which
gradually spread its influence throughout the Church of England. Some of
the results were increased use of ceremony and ritual in church worship,
the establishment of Anglican monastic communities for men and for
women , and better -educated clergy who were more concerned with
pastoral care of their church members.
7.3 CRTICAL ANAYLSIS OF ‘THE IDEA OF A
UNIVERSITY’
The nature of higher education, and defined four 'objectives essential to
any properly balanced system'. The first objective, a utilitarian one, was
'instruction in skills'; but universities must also promote the 'general
powers of the mind', to produce 'not mere specialists but rather cultivated
men and women'. Thirdly, while the balance between teaching and
research might vary, teaching should not be separated from the
advancement of learning and the search for truth, since 'the process of
education is itself most vital when it partakes of the nature of discovery'.
Last comes 'the transmission of a common cu lture and common standards
of citizenship'. This remains a political preoccupation today, as 'social
cohesion’. This ideal can be traced to John Henry Newman, who gave the
title 'The Idea of a University Defined and Illustrated' to a series of
lectures ori ginally given at Dublin in the 1850s. Newman thought that
knowledge should be pursued 'for its own sake'. But by this he did not
mean pure research. For him the search for truth was part of an
educational ideal which shaped the personality of the cultivate d man, and
was inseparable from moral and religious education. This ideal required a
pastoral relationship between teacher and student, and it derived from
Newman's early experience as a college tutor at Oxford.
Newman thought that the personal gifts neede d for research and teaching
were quite different, and that research was best conducted outside
universities. He also described the university as a place of 'universal
knowledge', in which specialized training, though valid in itself, was
subordinate to the pursuit of a broader liberal education. These ideals, later
developed by other Victorian apostles of culture like Matthew Arnold,
became the basis of a characteristic British belief that education should
aim at producing generalists rather than narrow spe cialists, and those non -
vocational subjects - in arts or pure science - could train the mind in ways
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57 The phrase 'idea of the university' was not invented by Newman, but goes
back to a seminal period in modern university history, the reforms of
Wilhelm von Humboldt in Prussia. Starting with the University of Berlin,
founded in 1810, the 'Humboldtian' university became a model for the rest
of Europe. The Humboldtian university can be seen as the characteristic
form of the u niversity idea until the growth of mass higher education in
the late twentieth century, including nationalism, secularization, the
growth of the modern state, and the shift of social power from
aristocracies to the middle classes, on the basis of merit, in tellectual
expertise, and professionalism. The central Humboldtian principle was the
'union of teaching and research' in the work of the individual scholar or
scientist.
As this essay defines the functions of the university are to advance
knowledge by ori ginal and critical investigation, not just to transmit the
legacy of the past or to teach skills. Teaching should be based on the
disinterested search for truth, and students should participate, at however
humble a level, in this search. Hence the classic view that the university
was a 'community of scholars and students' engaged on a common task.
The union of teaching and research reflected the restricted social mission
of a university, it was based on the assumption that the subjects taught in
universitie s had a corpus of theory and knowledge which needed to be
kept up to date by current research. This model suited training for the
'learned' professions - law, medicine, and the church -to which 'liberal'
education gave a distinctive ethos of service and so cial responsibility, and
it has steadily expanded as new occupations have become
professionalized.
As universities face an increasing pressure to become more "market
driven", the recently beatified John Henry Newman would have had
something to say about th e possible impact on higher education. The
clergyman, Oxford academic and famed convert to Catholicism gave a
series of lectures in 1852 reflecting on the university's purpose that were
published as The Idea of a University in the same year. Newman certainly
offers some useful ways to think about what we want out of our university
system today. For Newman, the ideal university is a community of
thinkers, engaging in intellectual pursuits not for any external purpose, but
as an end in itself. Envisaging a broad, liberal education, which teaches
students "to think and to reason and to compare and to discriminate and to
analyze", Newman held that narrow minds were born of narrow
specialization and stipulated that students should be given a solid
grounding in all areas of study. A restricted, vocational education was out
of the question for him. Somewhat surprisingly, he also espoused the view
that universities should be entirely free of religious interference, putting
forward a s ecular, pluralist and inclusive ideal.
In its championing of a truly well -rounded education, this is a sympathetic
vision, but there are some fundamental problems with Newman's ideas.
Despite his vision of a secular university, for Newman "religious truth is
not only a portion, but a condition of general knowledge. To blot it out is
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58 Knowledge alone cannot improve the individual – God, who sustains all
truth, is a requirement, and this is an ide a that alienates many readers.
Showing his preoccupation with man's fallen nature, Newman wrote:
"Quarry the granite rock with razors, or moor the vessel with a thread of
silk; then may you hope with such keen and delicate instruments as human
knowledge an d human reason to contend against those giants, the passion
and the pride of man." This is an unattractively pessimistic view of
humankind's capacity for self -improvement. Perhaps the ultimate problem
with The Idea is its sheer anti -utilitarianism. Writing at a time when only
an elite benefited from a university education, Newman could not have
conceived of a situation where over 2 million people are enrolled at British
universities and places are heavily oversubscribed. Newman says little
about the level o f practical, employable skills that should be imparted as
part of a course of higher education, revealing his limitations as the
ultimate ivory tower -dweller. He offers us little help on how the balance
can be struck between pursuing knowledge for its own sake and giving
students the saleable skills, they surely deserve. He has even less to offer
on the pressing matter of how the whole enterprise may be paid for.
Newman’s approach is indeed dated, yet his articulation of the power of a
university education to develop the individual in ways that far exceed the
narrow limits of academic ability remains striking. Above all, Newman
was arguing that the primary role of the university was to give students a
"perfection of the intellect … the clear, calm, accurate vision and
comprehension of all things " that allows the individual to make good
judgements. He wrote of this: " It is almost prophetic from its knowledge
of history; it is almost heart -searching from its knowledge of human
nature; it has almost supernatural charity from its freedom from littleness
and prejudice; it has almost the repose of faith, because nothing can startle
it; it has almost the beauty and harmony of heavenly contemplation ".
Philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre has seen this as the ability "to thi nk about
the ends of a variety of human activities" – a skill that he feels may have
prevented the economic crisis, "brought about by some of the most
distinguished graduates of some of the most distinguished universities".
Indeed, perhaps universities are already failing to produce the intellectual
state Newman saw as crucial and, in any case, the capacity for good
judgement is not limited to university graduates.
Whatever the feasibility of Newman's concept, it gives rise to a possible
definition of the s oul of the university – nothing geographically or
temporally fixed, but the mark left on the alumnus's mind, which stays
with them all their lives. In reminding us that the university has a greater
role than just doling out qualifications – that of shaping the whole
individual – Newman's thought may usefully guide us as crucial decisions
are made about the future of our universities. Saint John Henry Newman’s
book The Idea of a University is very famous for asking what education
really is. It’s also famous because it doesn’t just ask but also answers. And
the answer might surprise you. He says in his sixth discourse (or lecture),
titled “Knowledge Viewed in Relation to Learning,” that the “end of
education” (and by that he means the goal) is “philosophy.” Th at might
seem a bit abstract or unreal. After all, when you think of philosophy you munotes.in

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59 probably think of men with long beards sitting on top of mountains in a
yoga position or perhaps rather geeky people at college pushing their
glasses up as they look at lon g patterns of logical symbols on a
chalkboard. For Newman, long beards, yoga, and even formal
mathematical logic are not absolutely necessary; the mountain is.
Newman’s understanding of philosophy is “ Thought or Reason exercised
upon Knowledge .” Education is the process by which a mind is formed
not just to learn facts and ideas but to be able to think about how they are
connected. And when he gives an image for that process, he seems to be
pointing toward a mountain. “ I say then, if we would improve the in tellect,
first of all, we must ascend; we cannot gain real knowledge on a level …”
Whenever we are educated in any subject, whether big or small, there is a
huge mountain of facts that must be scaled by means of learning the
principles and basic methods of how to organize them in our minds. If we
don’t, we can learn all the facts we want to, but we’ll still be lost just as
we are when we visit a new place without a map to help us understand
where we’re going (even if the GPS can get us to specific places).
Who has not felt the irritation of mind and impatience created by a deep,
rich country, visited for the first time, with winding lanes, and high
hedges, and green steeps, and tangled woods, and everything smiling
indeed, but in a maze? The same feeling come s upon us in a strange city,
when we have no map of the streets. Hence you hear of practiced
travelers, when they first come into a place, mounting some high hill or
church tower, by way of reconnoitering its neighborhood. In like manner
you must be above your knowledge, not under it, or it will oppress you;
and the more you have of it, the greater will be the load. You will have to
sit upon the mountain, Newman says, or the mountain will be sitting on
you. Of course, there will always be a certain sort of person who thinks it
impressive to walk around with a mountain on his head. Many writers of
books and textbooks, Newman says, glory in showing off the load they are
carrying around on their shoulders. He writes of “ authors who are as
pointless as they are inexhaustible in their literary resources .” These
brainy writers “ measure knowledge by bulk, as it lies in the rude block,
without symmetry, without design .” These figures, who like to brag about
the number of their footnotes, are often unconvincing becaus e they seem
to be “ possessed by their knowledge, not possessed of it; nay, in matter of
fact they are often carried by it, without any volition of their own .” While
they may be impressive to themselves in their non -stop tossing off
boulders and pebbles bea ring facts, figures, authors’ names, and formulas,
their readers often think quite reasonably that their fact -tossing writings
are those of a “madman” in whom reason doesn’t play a big role. Sadly, it
is not just writers but teachers who sometimes don’t un derstand what they
are doing. Writing in the 1850s, he observes that for twenty years too
many so -called educators had not only decided to “ load the memory of the
student with a mass of undigested knowledge, but to force upon him so
much that he has reject ed all .” “It is the education which gives a man a
clear conscious view of his own opinions and judgments, a truth in
developing them, an eloquence in expressing them and a force in urging
them .” defining a liberal education: “ This process of training, by w hich munotes.in

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60 the intellect, instead of being formed or sacrificed to some particular or
accidental purpose, some specific trade or profession, or study or science,
is disciplined for its own sake, for the perception of its own proper object,
and for its own highes t culture, is called Liberal Education. […] to help
forward all students towards it according to their various capacities, this I
conceive to be the business of a university ” (p 152).
The benefits of a liberal education according to Newman is: “ the man who
has learned to think and to reason and to compare and to discriminate and
to analyze, who has refined his taste, and formed his judgement, and
sharpened his mental vision, will not at once be a lawyer, […] a man of
business, or a soldier, or an engineer b ut he will be placed in that state of
intellect in which he can take up any of these sciences or callings […] with
an ease, a grace, a versatility, and a success, to which another is a
stranger ” (pp 165 –6). He insists on the residential student life, “ When a
multitude of young men, keen, open -hearted, sympathetic, and observant,
as young men are, come together and freely mix with each other, they are
sure to learn one from another, even if there be no one to teach them; the
conversation of all is a series o f lectures to each, and they gain for
themselves new ideas and views, fresh matter of thought, and distinct
principles for judging and acting, day by day.” [Life at university] “is
seeing the world on a small field with little trouble; for the pupils or
students come from very different places, and with widely different
notions, and there is much to generalize, much to adjust, much to
eliminate ” (pp 146 –7). The purpose of education: “ to fit men for this
world while it trained them for another ”…a University training is the great
ordinary means to a great but ordinary end; it aims at raising the
intellectual tone of society, at cultivating the public mind, at purifying the
national taste, at supplying true principles to popular enthusiasm and fixed
aims to pop ular aspiration, at giving enlargement and sobriety to the ideas
of the age, at facilitating the exercise of political power, and refining the
intercourse of private life. It is the education which gives a man a clear
conscious view of his own opinions and judgements, a truth in developing
them, an eloquence in expressing them, and a force in urging them. It
teaches him to see things as they are, to go right to the point, to
disentangle a skein of thought, to detect what is sophistical, and to discard
what is irrelevant. It prepares him to fill any post with credit, and to master
any subject with facility. It shows him how to accommodate himself to
others, how to throw himself into their state of mind, how to bring before
them his own, how to influence them, how to come to an understanding
with them, how to bear with them. He is at home in any society, he has
common ground with every class; he knows when to speak and when to be
silent; he is able to converse, he is able to listen; he can ask a question
pertin ently, and gain a lesson seasonably, when he has nothing to impart
himsel f” (pp 177 –8).
As far as on education in freedom is concerned, “ If then a university is a
direct preparation for this world, let it be what it professes. It is not a
Convent; it is no t a Seminary; it is a place to fit men of the world for the
world. We cannot possibly keep them from plunging into the world, with
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61 prepare them against what is inevitable; and it is not the way to learn to
swim in troubled waters, never to have gone into them. [..] Today a pupil,
tomorrow a member of the great world: today confined to the Lives of the
Saints, tomorrow thrown upon Babel ” (pp 232 –3).He writes further on
gaining a true v iew of things, “ one main portion of intellectual education,
of the labours of both school and university, is to remove the original
dimness of the mind’s eye; to strengthen and perfect its vision; to enable it
to look out into the world right forward, stea dily and truly; to give the
mind clearness, accuracy, precision; to enable it to use words aright, to
understand what it says, to conceive justly what it thinks about, to abstract,
compare, analyse, divide, define, and reason, correctly ” (p 332). Therefore
the exalted nature of education should be, “ Education is a higher word; it
implies an action upon our mental nature, and the formation of a character;
it is something individual and permanent” (p 114)… “a crucial distinction:
“knowledge is one thing, virt ue is another ” (p 120).
The Idea of a University by John Henry Newman is a collection of two
books, derived from a variety of sourcematerials, that are famous for their
interrogation of three primary themes pertaining to university life: a)
thenature of kn owledge; b) the role of religious belief in higher education;
and c) a defense of liberal education foruniversity students (Tierney,
2016). The date of publication for The Idea is frequently listed as 1852,
the year inwhich Newman first presented five lect ures to a Dublin
audience from 10 May to 7 June (McMannus, 1994).
Those lectures, along with five others that were never publicly read, were
immediately published under thetitle Discourses on the Scope and Nature
of University Education: Addressed to the C atholics of Dublin. In total,ten
discourses, along with a preface, constitute the first book of Newman’s
Idea.The second book of The Idea of a University , which largely expands
on the concepts and themes of the firstBook and also sheds considerable
light o n the evolution of Newman’s thoughts, from the 1850s to the
1880s,regarding the relationship of religious life to university research and
teaching. It also reflects the paradoxical nature of Newman’s own life. He
was a well -known conservative religious lea der who championed the
revival of Catholic liturgical rituals that had been discarded during the
English Reformation, yet he believed in liberal scientific inquiry free from
suppression or censorship. He was also a Catholic priest and cardinal who
embraced a life of seclusion and introspection, yet he was a willing and
skilled orator. The Idea of a University embracesthese tensions, and, in
fact, makes a compelling and indelible argument — namely that the
university is avaluable institution allowing individ uals to question dogma,
build on previous knowledge, and make sense of theparadoxes between
faith and reason.
Newman noted that “ if certain branches of knowledge were excluded,
those students of course would be excluded also, who desired to pursue
them ” (p. 23). Newman’s view of the nature of knowledge was not solely
influenced by England’s historical exclusion of Catholic students, but it
also revealed a desire to have different “branches of knowledge” — such
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62 work, rather than existing in silos. Additionally, Newman felt that
argumentation was vital to thelifeblood of a university. He found
doctrinaire thought that dutifully passed knowledge down from generation
togeneration objectionabl e to the pursuit of “Truth” and hoped that
universities would instead encourage reasoneddebate. In Discourse Eight
of book two, Newman asserted that “ to erect a university ... [it] is pledged
to admit,without fear, without prejudice, without compromise, al l comers,
if they come in the name of Truth; to adjust views, and experiences, and
habits of mind the most independent and dissimilar ” (p. 303).
Second, Newman considered the role of religious belief in higher
education at considerable length. Whereasmany might consider the
combination of science and religion to create the conditions for
epistemologicalincoherence, Newman felt that the two, by nece ssity,
needed to be explored and extended in tandem for humanprogress to
transpire.
This belief in Truth as an attainable and aspirational goal for university
faculty and student’s marks Newman assomething of an early positivist.
Indeed, much of his writi ng counsel’s patience in the search for Truth,
acknowledging the necessity for trial and error in university
research.Newman’s writings on education for university students are
notable for their repudiation of theUtilitarianism of Locke (1700) and Mill
(1859), who argued that a primary objective of educational
institutionsshould be the development of marketable skills in service of
broader economic goals. In The Idea of aUniversity , Newman shows
considerable (and consistent) disdain for educational outcomes “ which can
be weighed and measured ”, contending that the purpose of education
needed to be conceived more broadly than student evaluation and
specialization within a given discip line. While Newman was not
necessarily against training for a vocational career, he wanted the
university curriculum to encourage study in multiple fields so that students
and scholars alike could identify connections and engage humanity’s most
difficult p hilosophical questions, social issues, and scientific problems.
Newman may have been disappointed to see the contemporary university,
with its discrete colleges of business, education, engineering, fine arts,
law, and the corresponding lack of communicatio n between each of them.
In short, Newman makes a twofold argument concerning the nature of
education for students. He passionatelydefends a liberal education that
prizes the development of individual intellect over institutional
measurement andnarrowly -defined skill development. He also believes in
the potential of the university to bring together diverseperspectives and
areas of expertise in service of greater understanding.When first
composed, The Idea of a University were explicitly addressed to members
of the Catholic church who were predominantly Irish. Moreover, the tone
of Newman’s writing might be distasteful to secularists who are
uncomfortable with his idiosyncratic integration of religion with science.
And while it is always perilous to critique t he writing of previous
generations by the accepted standards of the present,Newman’s consistent
use of masculine pronouns betrays an attitude that, for all its impassioned munotes.in

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63 defense of diverse thought and experiences, implicitly excludes women
from his visio n of university life.
And yet, Newman’s elegant prose, grand arguments, and meticulous logic
in The Idea of a University seemingly maintain great resonance with
readers well into the twenty -first century. Barr (2015), in fact, has
estimated that, at a mini mum, Newman’s Idea exists in at least nineteen
versions, with translations in a variety of European languages, including
French, German, Italian, and Spanish. Numerous editions of the text have
also been published in recent years by scholarly publishers, i ncluding
Notre Dame and Oxford, as well as religious and secular presses.
Writers and scholars throughout the twentieth century have been drawn to
ideas from The Idea of a University and made use of them in their work.
One finds echoes of Newman in James J oyce’s Portrait of the Artist as a
Young Man, when Stephen Dedalus protests the orthodox lessons and
vocational emphasis of his professors (Muller, 1996; Pribek, 2004). Saïd’s
(1991) defense of argumentation and debate under the provision of
academic freed om can be viewed as an extension of Newman’s Idea. Both
Joyce and Saïd, among other intellectuals, deeply respected Newman’s
prose. Newman was a man of brilliant personality and the master of a
lucid and fine prose style as well as of a powerful argumentat ion of mind.
He stands as a supreme and his prose is characterized by lucidity, restraint,
balance and wonderful transparency. He is as clear in handling his subject
of extreme subtlety. The description of a classic author that he once
offered in a lecture to the School of Philosophy and Letters describes him
well: “A great author, Gentlemen, is not one who merely has a
copiaverborum, whether in prose or verse, and can, as it were, turn on at
his will any number of splendid phrases and swelling sentences; b ut he is
one who has something to say and knows how to say it.” Newman had a
lot to say; he had read and thought much about history, theology and
education. His language expresses, not only his great thoughts, but his
great self. Certainly, he might use fe wer words than he uses; but he
fertilizes his simplest ideas, and germinates into a multitude of details, and
prolongs the march of his sentences, and sweeps round to the full diapason
of his harmony. The style is graceful, quiet, flowing, mature, like a c alm
but powerful river. It is a wonderful combination of formality and
intimacy, just right for the subject matter: the history of the theological
opinions of a man composed of equal parts high intellect and religious
passion.
7.4 CONCLUSION
Newman’s depi ction of university life and its potential for transformative
learning has long been praised byeducational administrators,
policymakers, and scholars. Today,researchers and practitioners frequently
refer to Newman in criticisms of increased neoliberalism
andcorporatization in higher education, arguing in favor of a more holistic
vision for the contemporary university(Blass, 2001; Craig et al., 1999;
Deboick, 2010; Thornton, 2004). Teachers interested in promoting “whole
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64 skills, also regularly cite Newman and engage with his conceptualization
of “liberal education” (Christie, 2011; Gruenwald, 2011; McAllister,
2015;Sullivan 2015). Newman’s influence on post -World -War-II higher
education , and Newman’s continued relevance in thewake of increased
secularization, multiculturalism, and digitization in higher education
(Castro -Klarén, 1996;Garland, 1996; Landow, 1996; Marsden, 1996;
Turner, 1996). Historical scholarship on Newman’s life andinf luences also
continues to be published (Cornwell, 2010; Ker, 2009). Since its
publication, scholars have longutilized Newman’s Idea of a University as
a starting point for imagining andconceptualizing contemporaryreforms of
higher education, and the text m ay serve as inspiration decades into the
future.
7.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Critically examine Newman’s essay on ‘The Idea of a University’.
2. Trace the importance of Newman as an essayist.
7.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
● Newmanhttps://www.cardinaljohnhenrynewman.com .
● Barr, C. “Historical (mis)understandings of ‘The Idea of a
University’”, in F. D. Aquino & B. J.King, eds, Receptions of
Newman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 114 -136
● Blass, E. “What’s in a Name? A Comparative Study of the Traditional
Public University and the CorporateUniversity”, Human Resource
Development International, 4.2 (2001): 153 -172.
● Castro -Klarén, S. ‘The Paradox of Self in “The Idea of a University”,
in F. M . Turner, ed., The idea of auniversity. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 1996. 318 -38
● Christie, R. C. “Newman’s Aesthetic Vision: Theology and the
Education of the Whole Person”, Journal ofInterdisciplinary Studies,
23.1/2 (2011): 43 -57.
● Cornwell, J. Newman’s Unquiet Grave: The Reluctant Saint. New
York: Continuum, 2010.
● Craig, R. J., Clarke, F. L., &Amernic, J. H. “Scholarship in University
Business Schools - Cardinal Newman,
● Creeping Corporatism, and Farewell to “Disturber of the Peace?”,
Accounting, Auditing, and AccountabilityJournal, 12.5 (1999): 510 -
524.
● Darwin, C. On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection.
London: Murray, 1859. munotes.in

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65 ● Deboick, S. “Newman suggests a university’s ‘soul’ lies in the mark it
leaves on students”, The Guardian, 2010.
● Dunne, J. ‘Newman Now: Re -examining the Concepts of
“Philosophical” and “Liberal” in “The Idea of aUniversity’”, British
Journal of Educational Studies, 54.4 (2006): 412 -428.
● Garland, M. M. ‘Newman in his own day’, in F. M. Turner, ed., The
Idea of a University. New Haven, CT: YaleUniversity Press, 1996.
265-81
● Gruenwald, O. “The University as Quest for Truth”, Journal of
Interdisciplinary Studies, 23.1/2 (2011): 1 -18.
● Joyce, J . A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. 1916. New York:
Viking Press, 1968.
● Ker, I. John Henry Newman: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2009.
● Landow, G. P. ‘Newman and the Idea of an Electronic University’, in
F. M. Turner, ed., The Idea of a University.New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 1996. 339 -61.
● Locke, J. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. 1700.
Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1995.
● MacIntyre, A. ‘The Very Idea of a University: Aristotle, Newman, and
Us’, British Journal of Edu cationalStudies, 57.4 (2009): 347 -362.
● Marsden, G. M. ‘Theology and the University: Newman’s Idea and
Current Realities’, in F. M. Turner, ed., TheIdea of a University. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996. 302 -17.
● McAllister, J. “The Idea of a Unive rsity and School Partnership”, in R.
Heilbronn & L. Foreman -Peck,eds, Philosophical Perspectives on
Teacher Education. Chichester: Wiley, 2015. 38 -53.
● McDaniel, C. A., & Woods, V. E. ‘Martin Luther and John Henry
Newman: Balancing Heart and Mind in HigherE ducation’, Journal of
Interdisciplinary Studies, 23.1/2 (2011): 19 -40.
● McMannus, E. L. “Newman’s ‘great anxiety’”, Catholic Historical
Review, 80.3 (1994): 457 -475.
● Mill, J. S. On Liberty. London: J. W. Parker, 1859.
● Muller, J. “John Henry Newman and the E ducation of Stephen
Dedalus”, James Joyce Quarterly, 33.4 (1996): 593 -603.
● Newman, J. H. The Idea of a University. 1852. London: Aeterna Press,
2015. munotes.in

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66 ● Pribek, J. “Newman and Joyce”, An Irish Quarterly Review, 93.370
(2004): 169 -184.
● Saïd, E. W. “Identity, Authority, and Freedom: The Potentate and the
Traveler”, Boundary, 54 (1991): 4 -18.
● Sullivan, J. “Newman’s Circle of Knowledge and Curriculum
Wholeness in “The Idea of a University”, in F. D.
● Aquino & B. J. King, eds, Receptions of N ewman. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2015. 95 -113.
● Thornton, M. “The Idea of the University and the Contemporary Legal
Academy”, Sydney Law Review, 26(2004): 1 -22.
● Tierney, W. G. (2016). “Portrait of Higher Education in the Twenty -
First Century: John He nry Newman’s ‘TheIdea of a University’”,
International Journal of Leadership in Education,19.1 (2016): 5 -16.
● Turner, F. M. ‘Newman’s University and Ours’, in F. M. Turner, ed.,
The Idea of a University. New Haven, CT:Yale University Press,
1996. 282 -301.
● Michael Lanford (University of North Georgia)
● Lanford, Michael. “The Idea of a University “. The Literary
Encyclopedia. First published 02 April
2019[https://www.litencyc.com, accessed 01 August 2019.]
● This article is copyright to © The Literary Encyclopedi a.
● http://www.theguradian.com
● Most of Newman’s works can be found at:
http://www.newmanreader.org
● The official canonization website
● https://www.newmancanonis ation.com .
● Passages on education can be found on:
www.ideaofauniversity.website


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67 8
ESSAYS -II- JOHN RUSKIN
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Analysis of Ruskin’s Selected Essays
8.3 Conclusion
8.4 Check Your Progress
8.5 Bibliography
8.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this Unit is to make the students familiar with J ohn
Ruskin and his style of writing with the help of close readings of his
selected essays. As both the essays are based on 18th century Victorian
morality, the students can get acquainted with it. In addition, they will
understand that Ruskin’s literary s tyle is a personification of Johnson,
Pope and Byron.
8.1 INTRODCUTION
John Ruskin's "Sesame and Lilies", first published in 1865, stands as a
classic 19th -century statement on the natures and duties of men and
women.
8.2 ANALYSIS OF RUSKIN’S SELECTED ESSA YS
John Ruskin's "Sesame and Lilies", first published in 1865, stands as a
classic 19th -century statement on the natures and duties of men and
women. Although widely popular in its time, the work in its entirety has
been out of print since the early 20th c entury.This volume, by including
the often ignored "Of Kings' Treasuries", offers readers full access to
Ruskin's complex and sometimes contradictory views on men and women.
The accompanying essays place "Sesame and Lilies" within historical
debates on men , women, culture and the family. According to Ruskin in
the preface of his 1882 edition of Sesame and Lilies, ‘it must be premised
that the book is chiefly written for young people belonging to the upper, or
undistressed middle, classes; who may be suppose d to have choice of the
objects and command of the industries of their life ’[p.25.].Elizabeth
Helsinger examines the text as a meditation on the pleasures of reading;
Seth Koven gives a wide -ranging account of how Victorians read "Sesame
and Lilies"; and J an Marsh situates the work within controversies over
educational reform. This volume reunites the two halves of the work: "Of munotes.in

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68 Kings' Treasuries ", in which Ruskin critiques Victorian manhood, and " Of
Queens' Gardens ", in which he counsels women to take thei r places as the
moral guides.
John Ruskin's essay 'Of Queen’s Gardens ' was originally given as a public
lecture before being published in his two -essay collection Sesame and
Lilies (1865). It is regarded as epitomizing the conservative Victorian
ideal of f emineity which defined women as passive and belonging to the
private sphere of the domestic home – in comparison to the man who was
'the doer, the creator, the discoverer' of the public sphere...’of men and
urges the parents of girls to educate them to thi s end. It comes very close
to Dicken’s Domboy and Son . Feminist critics of the 1960s and 1970s
regarded " Of Queens' Gardens " as an exemplary expression of repressive
Victorian ideas about femininity, and they paired it with John Stuart Mill's
more progress ive "Subjection of Women". Where Mill’s women are
realistic, progressive and egalitarian invited in public life, legalequality
and even service to nation, Ruskin pushes her to house and the inner walls.
For Ruskin as a queen is responsible for the moral at mosphere of her
country; so, it is with a wife in her home. According to John Ruskin in his
lecture, Of Queen’s Gardens , a husband is to be a shield for his wife from
public stains so that in turn she may infallibly provide a home of comfort
and safety thr ough her office, presence, and wisdom. By using rhetorical
means Ruskin convinces readers even today to see the importance of a
woman’s role in society. Her position is conveyed through emotion and
rationale. Because John Ruskin holds the women to high sta ndards, he
develops credibility in his argument as he gains nothing for his sex in
voicing his insightful perspective. The Victorian Era was mostly about
advancements in society. Then came the question about women: should
they advance their education so as to further their usefulness to society?
John Ruskin addressed this in “ Of Queen’s Gardens ” by presenting the
question: what is “the woman’s true place and power” in society? (Ruskin
1615) He is commenting on the two spheres perceived by the majority of
the middle class: private and public. Ruskin is acting as a reformer of
moral responsibility. In order to properly understand a women’s role in
Victorian society, one must first see her office. Although a woman is
expected to be educated, her “ intellect is n ot for invention …show more
content …Ruskin knows that women with all their positive qualities are
still flawed through human nature; however, “ so far as she rules, all must
be right, or nothing is .” Her wisdom is not meant for self -betterment, but
for the furthence of her kingdom. She is wise “ not that she may set
herself…but with modesty of her service ”“Be thou glad, oh thirsting
Desert; let the desert be made cheerful, and bloom as the lily; and the
barren places of Jordan shall run wild with wood .”—ISAIA H xxxv, I.
(Septuagint.)The theme of this essay is how women can possess kingly
power conferred to them by education. If women get education, they
become powerful and prestigious. There is no difference between man
and woman; they are complementary to ea ch other. Aim of education is to
get acquainted with the wisest and greatest people through books.
The women in literature are drawn strong but when they are willful
everything goes wrong. Shakespeare is said to have no heroes but only munotes.in

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69 heroines. Othello , Hamlet, Julius Caesar, Merchant and Orlando are all
weaker than Desdemona, Cordelia, Isabella, Portia and Rosalind. Tragedy
occurs because the heroes do fatal mistake. Shakespeare’s women are
clever and intelligent. Among Shakespeare’s women Ophelia is weak and
Lady Macbeth, Regan and Goneril are wicked. Thus, Shakespeare views
women to be more capable than men. He also quotes women characters of
Walter Scott, Dante and Chaucer. Women in this literature are real and
not imaginary. The view that men a re always wiser, the thinker and the
ruler is wrong. Women are not dolls. They play the role of a lover to
encourage and guide men. The lover has sense of duty towards her man.
Their marriage marks the change of temporary service into eternal affair.
Man works out of his home. He faces a lot of trouble and he is hardened.
Woman is the mistress of home and she is to maintain peace and good
atmosphere at home. A good wife is a home in herself. Women must be
educated in physical training. They should gain good health and beauty.
This essay reflects Wordsworth’s “Education of Nature” and Tennyson’s
“A Prayer for my Daughter.” A woman’s good nature is reflected in her
face. She should never suffer. She should have three characters –
physical beauty, natural instinct of justice and natural tact of love. She
must read history. Theology is a dangerous science for women. It makes
her superstitious. Her knowledge must of general nature. She need not
specialize in a specific field. She must not read r omantic novels and
poetry, because they contain falsehoods. Girls should be left in library.
They must be taught music, because music has healing power. As boys
are courageous, girls are also courageous. They should not develop any
complexities like sup eriority or inferiority complex.
Later he talks about role of women in society and politics. Man’s public
duties are extensions of his duties at home similarly woman’s duty could
be extended to public. Man defends the country and a woman defends the
family economy. A woman is a queen, a queen of her lover, queen to her
husband and children. She can be called the “prince of peace”. Ruskin is
not surprised by the loss of life in war but the wasting of women power
surprises him. The world is a big garden. There is war all over the garden.
If women walk in the garden there could be change in war. Women
should come into the garden. They must help men to get shelter. As Diana
Birch and Francis O’Gorman have argued, ‘Ruskin’s complicated
relationship with Victorian gender politics is now being recognized and
explored. Assessments of his interventions that stop at a hasty reading ‘ Of
Queens’ Gardens ’ (1864) are becoming fewer’ (p.1.). Similarly, Deborah
Epstein Nord has noted that ‘without reading the two pa rts as one, without
seeing “Kings” and “Queens” together, as it were, we miss [the]
distinctiveness of Ruskin’s social vision’ (Nord; 2002, xv).
Hasty readings may be no more, but it still has a tendency to overlook
Ruskin’s construction and representation of men in favour of the idea that
the gender narrative of Sesame and Lilies is only about women and their
domestic virtues. How many of us with an interest in gender have
extended our close reading beyond Ruskin’s description of men in ‘ Of
Queens’ Gardens ’ and set this alongside his chapter ‘ Of Kings’
Treasuries ’ in order to contextualize his well -known account of munotes.in

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70 masculinity? What Ruskin meant when he stated in ‘ Of Queens’ Gardens ’
that
“[T]he man’s power is active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the
doer, the creator, the discover, the defender. His intellect is for
speculation and invention; his energy for adventure, for war, and for
conquest, wherever war is just, wherever conquest necessary…The man,
in his rough work in the open world, must en counter all peril and trial: to
him, therefore, must be the failure, the offense, the inevitable error: often
he must be wounded, or subdued; often misled, and always hardened. But
he guards the woman from all this; within his house, as ruled by her,
unles s she herself has sought it, need enter no danger, no temptation, no
cause of error or offense”.
John Ruskin opens his essay Of King’s treasuries by apologizing for the
ambiguity in the title. He says that the title is ambiguous and figurative in
nature. By king’s treasuries, he means the best books written by the most
brilliant authors and no other material things. The whole of the lecture is
about books and the way to read them. He says that modern education is
materialistic and it aims at advancement. This aim is narrow. The speaker
says that love of praise and reputation moves humankind primarily. On
the other hand, duty moves them secondarily. He says that clever persons
wish to become high in status. To achieve higher status, we should have
sincere and good friends. Best books are said to be best friends. He
divides books into four types: a) Good books of the hour – has enlightened
talks of some persons. They could talk about travels or in the form of
novels. b) Good books for all life. (c) Ba d books of the hour. (d) Bad
books for all life. Great authors, statesmen, philosophers and thinkers
write books for all life. Nobody can enter into these unless they stoop.
We must enter into the thoughts of such writers, which is a difficult task.
They write long sentences and serious thoughts are hidden in those
sentences. So, we should read them carefully. An educated man need not
know all things but he must learn a few languages. He must be aware of
words and its origins. English language is of a mongrel breed. Their
words are deceptive. For example, the word condemn originates from the
Greek word “damno”. It does not have the power of the Greek word in it.
A good scholar must know the vital meanings of words. Ruskin asks the
readers to read Max Muller’s “The Science of Languages” to understand
English language better. Later Ruskin analyses Milton’s Lycidas. He
considers Milton as a great scholar. Common minds are full of filth and
prejudice. It should be cleansed. It is necessary to burn the jungle of bad
ideas than to sow the fertile ground among thorns. The real gift of great
writers is that they kindle passion in us. Passions are good things but they
must be tested and disciplined. In England, passion means low -headed
crimes. Ruskin attacks English people. They are under the control of
passion. English people spend a lot of money and time in horse and not on
books. English people despise science. There are very few utilitarian
inventions in England when compared with other countrie s. English arts
are far behind other countries. English people destroy nature and create
racecourse. English economics is also very poor. There is wide gap
between the rich and the poor. The churches and the cathedrals are also munotes.in

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71 current in England. Rusk in concludes his lecture by saying that a nation
rich in literature would be the best in the world. A king must be
sympathetic to his people and he should encourage people to read more
books.
Considering Ruskin’s description of men in ‘ Of Queens’ Gardens ’, and
Ruskin being so critical of his male counterparts in ‘ Of Kings’ Treasuries ’
is surprising. Men were, according to Ruskin, too bent on ‘ passions, and
powers ’ and expending their ‘ masculine energy into the false business of
money -making’ to do their Ch ristian and national duty .’ (59). For Ruskin,
men’s reluctance to be ‘ faithfully helpful and compassionate ’ meant that
they had ‘ no true emotion ’ (59). British middle -class men had simply
constructed an artificial masculinity that had infantilized them. Th us, for
Ruskin, ‘modern man’ was simply a well -dressed empty vessel with no
personal soul (60).
‘Of Kings’ Treasuries ’ was, as Seth Koven notes, pitched towards the
Manchester man and those values that Ruskin thought personified
Manchester (Koven; 2002, 16 9). The Protestant ethic, to use Max Weber’s
phrase, had, according to Ruskin, created a masculine identity that was
excessively concerned with wealth, praise and social standing. Early in his
lecture, Ruskin turned to his audience and asked them if ‘ the s trongest
motive in men’s minds in seeking advancement’ was the ‘love of praise’ or
‘the honest desire of doing any kind of duty ’ (30). He reported that more
hands went up for the ‘love of praise’ then for duty leading him to
conclude ‘ Very good. I see you are with me ’ (30). The problem with
praise, according to Ruskin, was that kings measured their success by size
and ‘love -latitudes ’ (62) rather than recognizing their duty to others as
well as the cultivation of their own souls. As such, he saw them to be
cultural philistines, supporting Matthew Arnold’s argument that the
middle class were philistines. Ruskin criticized his male audience for their
inability to read the right books written by ‘Great men’ like John Milton,
William Shakespeare, St. Francis, Al ighieri and Dante (39). Instead, these
men preferred to converse with others; “ Will you go and gossip with your
housemaid, or your stable -boy, when you may talk with queens and kings;
or flatter yourself that it is with any worthy consciousness of your own
claims to respect, that you jostle with the hungry and common crowd for
entrée here, and audience there, when all the while this eternal court is
open to you”. (33).
By reading a specific canon, men would be able to ‘ enter into their
Thoughts ’ and discove r ‘what is True ’ (45 -46). Rather than simply ‘ play
with the words of the dead ’ (60), he suggested that men should truly read
and re -read their words for if they did, they would have spiritual and social
nourishment. This was important because their role an d life choices
impacted on the national consciousness. After all, ‘ No nation can last,
which has made a mob of itself, however generous at heart…a nation
cannot last as a money -making mob: it cannot with impunity, – it cannot
with existence, – go on despis ing literature, despising science, despising
art, despising nature, despising compassion and concentrating its soul on
Pence’ (49). It is perhaps not a surprise then that Ruskin advocated the munotes.in

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72 development of a civic sphere centered on libraries and art gall eries. Yet,
the image of the philistine can also be expanded to include the social duty
men had towards their inferiors. Ruskin was appalled by men’s inability to
take better care of the poor. He used specific cases to highlight his disdain
at how the poor were being ill -used and compromised by their poverty.
Like the middle classes, the poor lacked not only spiritual nourishment but
also, more disturbingly for Ruskin, the means to buy food in a capitalist
system that only profited the already wealthy. How could capitalists
justify costly wars when their poorer brethren went hungry? For Ruskin,
men had great potential. It just seems interesting to read that they were not
quite the Kings implied in his chapter ‘ Of Queens’ Gardens ’. In attacking
men in the fir st chapter, he sought to show them what they could and
should be in his second chapter. At the same time, it might also show that
his idealization of the ‘separate characters’ revealed that he was an
outsider. He was neither the Manchester man nor had grea t knowledge of
women, save his idealization of women like Adele Domecq, Effie Grey
(who he married) and Rosa La Trouche. Despite this, the first chapter
enables him to construct his own masculine identity, an identity that
positioned him on the same lines as those ‘great men’ he discusses. “No
writer of prose,” says Frederick Harrison, "before or since has ever rolled
forth such mighty fantasias, or reached such pathetic melodies in words, or
composed long books in one sustained strain of limpid grace.” (Fr ederick
Harrison. "Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill." p. 51 -2)
His taste in literature in writing both these essays come close to his
reading of the Bible, considering it "the most precious and on the whole
the one essential part" of all his education. Especially th e entire Bible
distributes the role of men and women, tilting towards men being the head
of family, society, church and nation, for example, Ephesians 5:22 -33,
“Wives, submit to your own husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is
the head of the wife ev en as Christ is the head of the church, his body, and
is himself its Savior… so also wives should submit in everything to their
husbands. Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave
himself up for her …” Further St Paul writes, “ I do not allow a woman to
teach or to exercise authority over a man ” (1Tim 2:12), he means to
prohibit women from teaching in a domineering fashion…”The word
commanding women to “ keep silent in the churches ” (1Cor 14:34) The
above stated quotations from Bible shows how the Bible became to
Ruskin the ultimate standard of literary style and thoughts Where Sesame
talks about the treasures to be found in books; lilies talk about women as
preservers and beautifiers of the world and how their education should
prepare them for this. When you read both the lectures there is a peculiar
musical quality of Ruskin's prose. One can scarcely read a passage of it
without being struck with its easy, graceful, flow, its exquisitely
modulated cadences, "The melody of Ruskin's prose," says Frederic
Harrison, "may be matched with that of Milton and Shelley. I hardly know
any other English prose which retains the ring of that ethereal music
echoes of which are more often heard in our poetry than in our prose
Frederic Harrison”. (Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill. p. 165.) George Saintsbury
in the ‘ History of English Prose Rhythm ’ writes that Ruskin largely relies munotes.in

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Essays: II - John Ruskin
73 for his effects on alliteration and assonance, particularly the latter. That
Ruskin uses alliteration to a very considerable degree the sec ret of
Ruskin's rhythm is found in his descriptive art; he had not only "the voice
of the lyric poet," but also the ear, the intuitive sense of the melody of
language. It is seen not simply in the movement but in the phraseology,
imagery and allusions; his works have a decided biblical coloring. They
are filled with quotations from the Scriptures and references to them; these
are so numerous that one comes to mind as a vital part of Ruskin's style.
Ruskin loved long sentences and often allowed them to take on enormous
proportions, frequently building them up in clauses, tier after tier, until the
result is a gigantic sentence of two or three hundred words, with a
profusion of commas, semicolons and dashes, and perhaps several
parentheses. Ruskin also employe d with considerable mastery the long
periodic sentence with its impressive rise and dramatic suspense.
Balance, parallelism and antithesis, and repetition of important words and
phrases, are among his literary tools; they are however seldom
conspicuous; if Ruskin does employ "Johnsonian balance" heis not
noticeably "Johnsonese.” (Saintsbury. "Specimens Of English Prose
Style." xix., XX.)
These lectures are written in the quiet style, with its simplicity and
naivete; but it is the quiet style brightened wit h a delightful play of fancy,
and softened with a note of tenderness, which alone would reveal the
author's well -known loneliness for young girls. " Of Queens' Gardens "
strikes the note of chivalrous devotion to women and “Of Kings’
Treasuries” is urging me n to do their Christian and national duties, by
using two metaphors of ‘Sesame’ as a potent herb seed that expands and
grows and the ‘Lilies’ that signifying purity, innocent beauty and fertility.
‘Home’ is used a symbol for a place of peacefulness from an xiety and
privation and from the terror of the outer life. Ruskin's works are filled
with allusion; indeed, one must know the Bible, Classical Mythology,
Dante, Chaucer and the whole sweep of English Literature to understand
many of Ruskin's arguments and illustrations. There is no doubt that
Ruskin was gifted with exceptional powers of perception, expression,
absolute accuracy, ornate style, and powerful rhetoric that produced
sonorous effects of unusual beauty and sublimity. There is splendor of
diction a nd imagery in his essays as they stimulate arguments and
encourage discussion. The beauty of both the lectures is Ruskin’s ability to
shift from the subject of women to the subject of men and weave them
together.
8.3 CONCLUSION
Thus the selected essays of John Ruskin reveal his style of writing and the
influence he was having of the great prose writers like Johnson and Pope.
The study of his essays further exemplifies Ruskin’s command over his
subject and his moral bent of mind.
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74 8.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Critically examine role of women in ‘Of Queens Gardens?
2. For Ruskin, men’s reluctance to be ‘faithfully helpful and
compassionate’ meant that they had no feelings’ Justify the comment?
3. Write a note on prose style of Ruskin?
8.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
● All re ferences to John Ruskin’s Sesame and Lilies are from Deborah
Nord’s 2002 edition.
● http://karthickenglish2020.blogspot.com
● http://core.ac.uk.Harrison, Frederic. John Ruskin. London, 1907.
● John Ruskin, Sesame and Lilies. Edited by Deborah Epstein Nord.
Copyr ight ©2002 by Yale University.ISBNs:0 -300-09259 -8(cl.);0 -
300-09260 -I(pbk.)
● The Works of John Ruskin, Thomas Cook and Thomas Wedderburn
(1903 -1912)
● John Rosenberg, ed., The Genius of John Ruskin: Selection from His
writings (Boston: Houghton Mufflin,1963)
● John Stuart Mill, The subjection of Women (Cambridge, Mass: MIT
Press,1970)
❖❖❖❖
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