Page 1
1 1
CRITICAL STUDY OF LITERARY
MOVEMENTS - I
Unit Structure:
1.0 Objective
1.1 Classicism
1.2 Romanticism
1.3 Realism
1.4 Suggested Questions
1.5 References
1.0 OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this chapter is to elaborate on literary movements such as
Classi cism, Romanticism, and Realism. It aims to bring a clear
understanding of literary movements that transformed literary tenets.
1. Classicism:
The word “classicism ” is a derivative of the word “classic, ” which itself is
a derivative of the word “class. ” The t erm “classic ” refers to established
Greek and Roman authors. But later, it was applied to modern authors and
their works of literature. Naturally, “classic ” refers to the ancient Greek
and Roman works of literature that were studied in Greek and Roman
universities. A classic embodies the ideal in terms of literature and the
arts.
There are clearer definitions of “classic, ” “classical, ” and “classicism ” in
the Critical Idiom Series. They define “classic ” as typical, outstanding,
and of the best caliber in it s field, making it deserving of study and
imitation. The term “classical ” is often reserved for the greatest ancient
authors. A style of writing or painting known as classicism is
characterized by calm beauty, taste, restraint, order, and clarity. It is a
style of literary composition from the second half of the 17th century.
The ancient cultures of Rome and Greece significantly influenced the
cultural movement known as classicism, which emerged in the second part
of the 18th century. It is a recreation of ancient artworks, especially those
from Greece and Rome. It typically expresses its traditional principles in
literature, music, architecture, and other forms of the arts. This movement
was an expression of the desire to force sobriety on humanity to restr ain
human emotion and instinctual instincts. It devalues everything about
people that are associated with mundane perfectionism. munotes.in
Page 2
Literary Criticism -II
2 Following the fall of Byzantium, classicism first appeared during the
Italian Renaissance. People started to imitate its forms and ideas as
education grew following the medieval era and information about
Europe ’s ancient past became available. In terms of shape, symmetry,
balance, and an overall sense of order, artists started to imitate ancient art.
Michelangelo, Raphael, and Cor reggio are three prominent representatives
of Renaissance classicism. In sculpture, drawing, and painting during the
Renaissance, classical principles were particularly expressed.
The origins of classicism can be traced to a movement that tried to adhere
as closely as possible to the apex artistic periods in Ancient Rome and
Greece. It demonstrated class and dignity as a result. It was notable for
being a cultural movement that awakened perfectionism and aesthetic
instincts in people, therefore categorizing the populace.
The term “literary classicism ” describes a literary genre that emerged
throughout the Renaissance and Enlightenment periods and purposefully
imitated the forms and subjects of classical antiquity. In this respect, the
great writers of the Gr eco-Roman era were most frequently emulated,
notably their poets and playwrights. Literary classicism ’s aesthetic and
critical tenets were upheld by its authors. They emulated the Greco -
Roman styles of epic, eclogue, elegy, ode, satire, tragedy, and comedy ,
being influenced by the Poetics of Aristotle, the Poetic Art of Horace, and
On the Sublime of Longinus. These writings defined the guidelines for
writers to follow to be true to nature. The fundamental guideline was to
write what was generally accurate a nd believable. In response to the
Baroque, the style emphasized harmony and grandeur.
This movement ’s Golden Age occurred between the middle and end of the
18th century. Its first representative wrote in Latin but later switched to
their native European la nguages. Literary classicism emerged as Europe
entered the Age of Enlightenment, a period that celebrated reason and
intellectualism. This arose in the 16th century following the rediscovery of
Aristotle ’s Poetics by Giorgio Valla, Francesco Robortello, Lu dovico
Castelvetro, and other Italian humanists. The authors exemplified these
concepts in the epic poetry of the ancient Greeks and Romans in the latter
half of the 17th century.
The Classical Literary Movement flourished in England during the
Classical A ge, the Augustan Age, and the Age of Reason and Good Sense.
During the middle of the 17th century, the English poetic attitude shifted.
Metaphysical Poetry had lost its allure, which had muddled literary
standards and values. Ben Jonson was a visionary who saw the danger of
poetry and showed a way out. The matter of the Greek and Latin classics
inspired the older Elizabethans. Johnson looked for inspiration in the
‘form ’ of the classics. He agreed with the concepts of literary order and
discipline. At first , his example was overlooked.
When Charles II retook power, however, France ’s literary tendencies
began to influence England. The English authors complied with the strict
guidelines of literary writing, fundamentally altering English literary munotes.in
Page 3
Critical Study of Literary
Movements - I
3 workmanship. Numerous literary genres had undergone this
transformation; for instance, tragedy was written after Plautus and
Terence. The poetry that was based on Virgil ’s style was epic and pastoral.
Juvenal served as the model for satire. Horace ’s “Ars Poetica ” serve d as
the foundation for literary criticism. Edmund Waller and Sir John Denham
were the leaders of this movement. They responded to the metaphysical
excess and composed exquisite verses in the classical style.
Various artists and critics have defined variou s aspects of Classicism.
According to academia, classical literature has clarity, artistic restraint,
artistic unity, and consideration of the literary work rather than focusing
on various aspects of the work. Gilbert Murray believes that literary works
must be both simple and grand. It must be regular, harmonious, and
powerful to achieve maximum effect with limited resources. The main
elements must be clear and consistent. The following features are more
significant and widely accepted.
a. Value for the Rules : Respect for the Law: The classical movement
values form and imagination. The discipline and norms were zealously
followed and accepted. The rules and theories outlined by Aristotle in
Poetics inspired the creation of literature. These rules applied to al l genres
of literature. If it broke the law, no work of art was regarded as good. The
idea was the perfect form. The actual content was not that significant.
b. Rational Superiority : The great writers were guided by logic and
common sense. Their poetry was in spired by logic rather than emotion. It
spoke to the intellect rather than the mind. Dryden and Pope, for example,
insisted on form over emotion.
c. Insistence on a fixed Poetic Style: The heroic couplet was the
classical movement ’s best medium. It was used t o achieve poetic ideals
because it was appropriate for drama, epic, and satire. These were the
most popular forms at the time. Pope and Dryden used them successfully
after Waller and Denham.
d. Treatment of Town Life : At the time, London was the centre for al l
writers. In the coffee shops, many writers and critics met. These
publishing houses facilitated communication between the reader and the
author.
As a result, the literary subjects were drawn from urban rather than rural
life. The latest trends in London life were satirized. Thus, classicism began
in France and was imported into England. But it never gained traction in
England. In the 15th century, the study of ancient Greek literature began in
England. By 1616, almost all the great Greek and Roman writers ’ works
had been translated into English. People then developed a talent for
reading original Greek and Latin literature. The authors began to imitate
ancient Greek and Roman literature. In the nineteenth century, Matthew
Arnold favoured classicism once mo re. However, in the nineteenth
century, there was a reaction against classicism. The Romantics openly
revolted against classicism ’s excesses. munotes.in
Page 4
Literary Criticism -II
4 Several Notable Authors and their Works include Pierre Corneille ’s
Clitandro or The persecuted Innocence (1631), The palace Gallery , Jean
Racine ’s Andromache (1667), La Tebaida (1664), Alexander the Great
(1665), Jean -Baptiste Moliere ’s The Misanthrope (1666), The Precious
Ridiculous (1659), The School of the Husbands (1661), The School of the
Women (1662) and The For ced Marriage (1663), Dante Alighieri ’s The
Divine Comedy (1307) and Alexander Pope ’s The Stolen Curl (1712 -14).
1.2 ROMANTICISM
The French word “Romanesque, ” which means “a peculiar adventurous
deed, ” is where the English phrases “romance ” and “romantic ” first
appeared. Spanish and French were referred to as “romance languages. ”
The term “romances ” was used to describe the made -up stories published
in various languages. The term “romantic ” originally meant “imaginary
and unreal ” in the 17th century. It was used to denote “strangeness,
unrestraint, and diversity ” in the 18th century. In the same time frame, the
conflict between a love of novelty and a love of tradition began. The rise
of “Romanticism ” as a literary movement was made possible by all of this.
Romanticism was an opposition to “Classicism. ” At the start of the 18th
century, it rebelled against the order and restraint of classicism. It was a
trend in literary writing that was novel. In literature, as well as in social,
political, and religious affa irs, it was a rebellion against convention,
tradition, and authority. It roughly began in 1798 and did not end until
1837.
It is difficult to define “Romanticism ” because many critics have
broadened its spheres through their definitions. Romanticism, accor ding to
Rousseau, is a “Return to Nature. ” Victor Hugo defines Romanticism as
“literary liberalism. ” According to Phelps, Romanticism is “subjectivity, a
love of the picturesque, and a reactionary spirit. ” Romanticism, according
to George Sand, is emotion rather than reason, with the heart opposed to
the head. According to Neilson, Romanticism is “imagination as opposed
to reason and the sense of fact. ” According to Watts and Dunton,
Romanticism is a “renaissance of wonder. ” According to Walter Pater,
Roman ticism is “the addition of strangeness to beauty. ” Romanticism,
according to Ker, is “the fairy way of writing. ” According to Grieron, ‘the
spirit is more important than the form in Romanticism. ’ To Saintsbury,
Romanticism leaves the idea to the reader sug gestively and symbolically.
Two major factors contributed to the rise of Romanticism in English
literature. The first factor is Rousseau ’s teachings. He argued for a return
to nature. Feelings, according to him, are superior to thoughts. He desired
to alte r society ’s established order to protect human rights. These ideas
gained traction in France, England, and other European countries. As a
result, Rousseau influenced the English Romantics. They felt a general
revolt against tradition and authority. The pri nciples of the French
Revolution are the second factor. It introduced the concepts of liberty,
equality, and fraternity. These ideals drew the attention of the English munotes.in
Page 5
Critical Study of Literary
Movements - I
5 Romantics. They began a literary movement known as Romanticism
because of its influence.
The common important features of romanticism are defined as follows:
a. A Reaction against Rule and Custom: Romanticism was liberalism in
literature, and it was a reaction against law and custom. It demanded
spontaneity. Every man has the right to communicat e his opinions in his
unique way, according to this belief. Individuality was crucial. So,
Romantic poetry was remarkably diverse. Milton, Shakespeare, and
Spenser served as inspirations for it.
b. Return to Nature and the Simple Life: Rousseau emphasized the
value of living a simple, natural life in the country. Such a way of living
was also appreciated by the Romantics. Wordsworth and his companion
specifically sought to describe actual life and regular people in everyday
terms. Their literature developed a strong focus on rural life.
c. Variety and Individuality: Shelley, Keats, and Byron were among the
second generation of Romantic poets. These poets enthusiastically
embraced subjectivity, emotionalism, and imagination. They used varied
writing styles to comp ose poems on a variety of topics.
d. The Return of the Lyric: Romantic poets aimed to openly express
their emotions. Their lyrics had musical elements. The lyric turned sensual
and unintellectual. The lyric gained new depth and breadth because of
Shelly.
e. Interest in the Middle Ages: The legends and way of life of the
Middle Ages attracted Romantic writers. They were enthralled by the
Middle Ages ’ aesthetics, values, and culture. Particularly Scott and Keats
were drawn to the lovely surroundings. The poem was also written in the
ballad style.
f. Supernaturalism: It denotes awe and a sense of mystery. The
supernatural is present in Coleridge, Scott, and Keats ’ poetry. Theodore
Watts -Dunton describes Romanticism as the “Renaissance of Wonder. ”
The poem “The Seasons ” was written by James Thomson. In terms of
form and substance, it was completely different from the historical norms.
Later, in the poem “Castle of Indolence, ” he made use of the Spenserian
stanza. Similarly, to this, Thomas Gray and Collins both composed “Elegy
Written in a Country Churchyard ” and “The Ode, ” respectively. Realistic
and rural life sketches were introduced by Goldsmith and Burns. Blake,
Crabbe, and Cowper persisted in their rebellion against the classical
principles. Preface to the Lyrical B allads , written by William Wordsworth
and S. T. Coleridge, was published in 1798. It started the Romanticism
movement off on the right foot.
As a result of the Elizabethans ’ excess, classicism was born. The excess of
classicism resulted in Romanticism. Sim ilarly, the excesses of munotes.in
Page 6
Literary Criticism -II
6 Romanticism gave birth to realism. Despite this, we must remember
Abercrombie ’s words: “Romanticism is a way of taking an experience. ”
1.3 REALISM
A literary and artistic trend known as realism got its start in the middle of
the 19th century. It can be described as a reaction against Romanticism that
emphasized subject matter that was authentic, relatable, and realistic.
Romantic literature or the Romantic era was frequently characterised by
magical tales that were perceived by many to be detached from reality.
Realism, then, was a development from Romanticism into more relatable
circumstances and narratives in literature. It represented a turn away from
Romanticism ’s exotic and poetic traditions.
After the 1848 Revolution, the Realis t literary movement is said to have
started in France. Later, it had a significant impact on both Europe and the
US. Literary realism gave rise to a brand -new genre of writing in which
authors attempted to capture reality through the depiction of commonpla ce
events through believable yet complicated real -life people, places, and
stories focusing on the middle and lower classes. Because of this, the idea
of realism emerged to portray a tale without dramatizing or romanticizing
it, but rather as truthfully an d realistically as possible. This trend has had a
significant impact on the literary expectations of readers as well as how
authors write. Realism in literature was a component of a larger artistic
trend that emphasized common people and events.
Realism, i ncluding neo -realism, focuses on long -term patterns of
interaction in an international system with no centralized political
authority. Because of this state of anarchy, the logic of international
politics frequently differs from that of domestic politics, which is
governed by a sovereign power. Realism attempts to depict life without
the use of romantic subjectivity and idealization. It focuses on the realities
of life and treats the commonplace characters of everyday life truthfully.
The goal of using real ism is to emphasize reality and morality, which are
usually relativistic and intrinsic to people and society. This type of realism
forces readers to confront reality as it exists in the real world, rather than
the make -believe world of fantasy.
Realism in the United Kingdom dates to the decade of 1850 but it started
during the Victorian period (1837 -the 1901). Although the English ideals
were being portrayed in literary pieces, Victorians turned to the depiction
of what is known as the opposite of that. The imminent Victorian writers
who were realists were George Eliot, Charlotte Bronte, Charles
Dickens, Thomas Hardy, etc.
Stendhal, a French writer, was famed for helping popularize the Realist
literary movement. He, along with other writers, created characte rs and
situations that were relatable to common people. Realism often focused on
middle and lower -class people within typical locations and periods.
Literary Realism as a movement fizzled out a bit by the mid -20th century, munotes.in
Page 7
Critical Study of Literary
Movements - I
7 but subsequent writers were inspi red by the movement and still seek to
create relatable characters and situations.
The French writer who is credited with starting realism is Honore de
Balzac. Balzac was a writer of plays, novels, and short stories. He is best
known for his collection, Hum an Comedy, which focused on ordinary
human lives. Henrik Ibsen was a Norwegian playwright in the 19th
century who became well -known throughout the world for his significant
influence on decades of authors and playwrights after him. Considered the
father of realism, he holds a place in history as a founder of modernism in
theatrical works.
Realist literature has essential, widespread, and recurring themes and
motifs, as do most literary genres. Here are a few typical literary realism
instances of various the mes and conventions. It emphasises a close, in -
depth, and thorough portrayal of reality. It places a strong emphasis on
what appears to be real and true. The character was given more weight
than action and story, which was a key component of realism. Compl ex
ethical choices are frequently the focus of realism. Character complexity,
behaviour, and motivations give them a realistic appearance. They
organically develop about one another and their surroundings. Economic
and social class interests, particularly those of the “middle ” class, were
given importance. Considerable, logical events that were not overly
spectacular or sensational were considered. The focus of realism was on
the characters ’ natural speaking patterns in terms of diction and
vernacular, with out using unduly flowery language or tone. Realistic
storytelling required the narrative to be “neutral ” and impartial.
Literature uses six different kinds of realism. According to magical
realism, fiction can be presented as reality, as in Gabriel Garcia Marquez ’s
books and short tales. In works like Hugo ’s Les Misérables, social realism
depicts the workers ’ actual living circumstances. The Darwinian theory of
evolution is highlighted by naturalism, as in the works of Emile Zola and
William Faulkner. Psych ological realism depicts the darker side of
personalities found in works by authors like Dostoyevsky that are based
on real people. Bathroom Sink the Youthful British working class is the
emphasis of realism, as seen in John Braine ’s writings. Gladkov ’s use of
socialist realism in his writings to glorify the class struggle is an example
of this.
Some major Realist writers, along with some of their most famous works,
include Gustave Flaubert ’s Madame Bovary (1856), Alexandre Dumas ’
The Lady of the Camellias (1848), Henry James ’ The Art of the
Novel (1909), Stendhal ’s Red and Black (1830), The Charterhouse of
Parma (1839), and Armancy (1836), Fedor Dostoyevsky ’s Crime and
Punishment (1866) and The Insulted and Humiliated (1861), Charles
Dickens ’ A Tale of Two C ities (1859), Great Expectations (1860), Bleak
House (1852), and Oliver Twist (1837), Mark Twain ’s The Gilded
Age (1873), The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn (1884), and The Prince and the Pauper (1881). munotes.in
Page 8
Literary Criticism -II
8 Most of the works me ntioned above focused on social issues in their
period and nation and were frequently regarded as revolutionary. Many of
the masterpieces also frequently provoked disputes. The works are
regarded as classics and are still read widely today because they off er
comments on the eras and environments in which they were written. For
instance, Mark Twain used the Deep South as the setting for his writings
to show the complexity of socioeconomic class and race. Additionally, he
reflected the reality and accents of the places his characters were from by
giving them a specific style and voice, a technique known as
“regionalism. ” The more realistic characters and narratives that are
common in the literature about realism are made possible by regionalism.
1.4 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS:
a. Classicism as a literary movement
b. Romanticism in English literature
c. Realism as a literary movement
1.5 REFERENCES:
Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms . Boston, MA: Thomson,
Wadsworth, 2005.
Kallendorf, Craig. A Companion to the Classical Tradition . Blackwell
Publishing, 2007.
Ferber, Michael. 2010. Romanticism: A Very Shor t Introduction . Oxford
and New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
https://englishliterature.net/literary -devices/realism
https://www.euston96.com/en/classicism/
https://englopedia.com/what -is-classicism -in-literature/
https://www.arthistory.net/classicis m/
https://www.brighthubeducation.com/homework -help-literature/29447 -
what -is-realism -in-literature/
munotes.in
Page 9
9 2
CRITICAL STUDY OF LITERARY
MOVEMENTS -II
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objective
2.1 Naturalism
2.2 Symbolism
2.3 Aestheticism
2.4 Suggested Questions
2.5 References
2.0 OBJECTIVE
This chapter's goal is to go into greater detail about literary movements
includi ng Naturalism, Symbolism, and Aestheticism. It tries to provide a
clear understanding of literary movements that periodically changed
literary principles.
2.1 NATURALISM
Naturalism is a literary movement from the late nineteenth century that
focuses on th e fundamental causes of characters' actions, choices, and
beliefs. These causes focused on the influence of family and society on the
individual - and all the complications that come with it - leading to the
conclusion that environmental factors are the pr imary determinant of
human character. Naturalism and realism are in many ways related, but
realism is primarily a writing style, whereas naturalism is a philosophy in
writing.
The term "naturalism" refers to a genre of writing that tries to explore
humans objectively and detachedly in ascorbic principles. Naturalism
denotes a philosophical perspective, in contrast to realism, which
concentrates on literary style. Since humans are, in the words of Emile
Zola, "human beasts," characters can be studied by exam ining how they
interact with their surroundings.
The term "naturalism" was initially adopted by French art critic Jules -
Antoine Castagnary to characterize a popular early 1860s movement in
lifelike painting. Émile Zola later used the phrase to refer to lit erature. A
comprehensive analysis of the novel as the primary naturalistic literary art
form is provided in Zola's foundational essay "The Experimental Novel,"
which was published in 1880. Three primary points were made by Zola in
the essay. First, authors might use the scientific technique of French munotes.in
Page 10
Literary Criticism -II
10 physiologist Claude Bernard to inform their writing. According to
Bernard, carefully designed tests can either support or refute a theory
about the phenomenon being studied. According to Zola, a writer may
empl oy a similar strategy, with the characters serving as the phenomenon.
Second, naturalism is distinguished from realism and romanticism by its
experimental approach, according to Zola. Finally, Zola gave a defence of
his writing that refuted the accusations of immorality and offensiveness
made by his detractors.
One of the most important contributions to naturalist writing is Zola's 20
novel Les Rougon -Macquart series, which was published between 1871
and 1893. It centres on the five generations of two ficti tious French
families, one privileged and the other impoverished. The Second French
Empire's difficulties, the environment, and each family's genetic makeup
ultimately cause them to fail.
Another important figure in the development of the naturalism moveme nt
was American author Frank Norris. Like Zola, he treated his characters
like subjects in an experiment, subjecting them to various stimuli and
observing how they responded. As a result, literature, and science are
combined, combining a writer's talent fo r character and description with a
scientist's objective observations on supported or rejected theories. The
Red Badge of Courage and other works by Stephen Crane, who used a
similar method, made significant contributions to the canon of American
naturalis m.
Naturalism as a distinct literary movement came to an end around 1900
when the American magazine The Outlook published a satirical obituary
for naturalism. The publication even declared Zola's efforts to create a
new type of scientific literature a tota l failure. This viewpoint is debatable,
especially given how many writers have used heavily naturalistic elements
in their works since 1900. Naturalism was carried into the twentieth
century by authors such as Ernest Hemingway, Edith Wharton, and Jack
Lond on. Naturalism's prominence faded around the turn of the twentieth
century, but its influence lives on, as many modern writers incorporate
naturalist elements into their work.
Naturalisms come in many forms, such as Ontological Naturalism, which
maintains that reality is devoid of supernatural beings, Methodological
Naturalism, which maintains that philosophical inquiry should be
consistent with the scientific method, and Moral Naturalism, which
typically maintains that moral facts and realities exist.
Dete rminism, objectivity, pessimism, setting, and plot twists are the main
components of naturalist works. The idea of determinism holds that every
event in a person's life is brought about by outside factors. Why a
character's trip takes the course that it do es can be attributed to fate,
nature, or inheritance. Everything is predetermined by forces beyond one’s
will. For instance, it is obvious that the main character in William
Faulkner's short tale "A Rose for Emily" is insane. It is a logical outcome
of her father's repressive control over her, her co -dependent relationship munotes.in
Page 11
Critical Study of Literary
Movements - II
11 with him, and the isolation she upheld throughout her childhood. The
reader may see that Miss Emily never had a chance because her destiny
was predetermined by her surroundings.
Naturalis t authors keep their narrative objective. They distance themselves
from the story's emotional elements and act more as unbiased viewers of
what takes place. When discussing emotions at all, the emphasis is usually
on primal feelings of survival in a hazard ous environment. Crane coolly
and detachedly depicts a war scene in The Red Badge of Courage : "The
men tumbled here and there like bundles. Early in the battle, the captain of
the young man's company had been slain. His body was spread out in the
relaxed a ttitude of a worn -out man, but his face was filled with surprise
and grief as if he believed a friend had wronged him. He adopts an almost
careless approach to describing the scenario, choosing to ignore the
viscerally upsetting facts of the war in favour of calling readers' attention
to them. Instead of being horrific, the imagery it conjures is banal —
describing deceased guys as bundles or as they are resting.
Another important aspect of naturalist writing is pessimism. Naturalist
authors typically have a cynical or fatalistic worldview, in which their
characters do not have much control over their lives or decisions. These
authors see life as a glass -half-empty scenario. A classic example of this
can be found in Jack London's classic adventure novel The Ca ll of the
Wild , where the main character is a dog named Buck. "As a testament to
what a puppet thing life is," London writes, "the ancient song surged
through him, and he came into his own again." To refer to life as a "puppet
thing" is a pessimistic way o f viewing the human - or animal - experience.
Location frequently plays a large role in these works since naturalism
places a lot of attention on the effects of the environment. The
environment frequently takes on a life of its own. This is the situation i n
McTeague: A Story of San Francisco by Frank Norris. From San
Francisco to Death Valley, California serves as the setting for the demise
of the main character and his wife, where the crushed hopes of the gold -
seeking miners mirror those of the McTeague.
At the end of many naturalist works, there is a plot twist or an intense gut
punch. This emphasises the futility of the character's struggle and the fixed
nature of their fate. For example, in Kate Chopin's novel The Awakening ,
Edna Pontellier drowns hersel f in the Gulf of Mexico after defying the
societal role assigned to her.
Naturalism shows the world as it is, without embellishment, idealization,
or romance, and highlights how heavily environmental factors influence
both individual characters' lives and the universe. This viewpoint enables
the author to address the most sinister aspects of human nature.
Poverty, disease, racism, and prostitution are all common themes in
literary naturalism. The gritty perspective on the human experience can be
depressing at times, but authors write in this manner for the greater good.
They seek to improve the world's condition by highlighting the dire,
uncontrollable circumstances in which most people live. Realism and munotes.in
Page 12
Literary Criticism -II
12 naturalism are two distinct but intertwined literary m ovements that
emerged in the nineteenth century. Realism depicts characters and settings
as they would have existed in reality, whereas naturalism focuses on
biological, social, and economic aspects. Realism and naturalism attempt
to depict reality.
Natura lism emphasises the child's free and spontaneous self -expression.
Its rallying cry is "Back to Nature," as articulated by Rousseau and
Gandhiji. As a result, the child's entire learning will be derived from his
own experiences and their natural consequence s. As a result, in naturalism
work, the characters may be controlled by their surroundings or fight for
survival. The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck is an excellent example
of naturalism. At first, the Joads are instinctive animals struggling to
survive against the powerful forces of society and nature. Naturalistic
refers to something that resembles something that exists or occurs in
nature. More research under more naturalistic conditions is required.
Synonyms: realistic, real -life, and true -to-life Mo re Naturalistic Synonyms
Several notable examples of naturalist writings include Emile Zola’s
Thérèse Raquin, Germinal , Nana , Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie , Frank
Norris’ McTeague , Jack London’s The Call of the Wild, Upton Sinclair’s
The Jungle and The Age of Innocence .
2.2 SYMBOLISM
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, France gave birth to
Symbolism, an aesthetic movement devoted primarily to discovering the
true nature of poetry. The use of symbols in a literary work is referred to
as symboli sm, which is a literary device. A symbol is something that
represents something other than its literal meaning; it represents
something other than its literal meaning. A symbol in literature can be a
word, object, action, character, or concept that embodie s and evokes
additional meaning and significance.
Symbolism is the use of concrete images to communicate abstract ideas.
Because this literary device is so open to interpretation, and because many
readers form different relationships with concrete objects, it is one of the
more difficult literary elements to understand and convey to an audience.
Nonetheless, understanding symbolism and what a symbol is are critical to
mastering both poetry and prose.
Understanding how an image is used in the text is what ma kes symbolism
particularly difficult. Fire, for example, can represent destruction and evil,
but it can also represent re -growth and life's cycles. As a result, this article
deconstructs the complexities of symbolism in literature. We will look at
symbolis m examples in fiction and poetry along the way, before moving
on to representing abstract ideas in your work
Symbolism is the use of representational imagery in which the writer
employs an image with a deeper, non -literal meaning to convey complex
ideas. S ymbolism in literature is the use of a concrete image to represent
an abstract idea. The heart, for example, is frequently used as a symbol of munotes.in
Page 13
Critical Study of Literary
Movements - II
13 love. Love is complex and all -encompassing - it does not reside solely in
the chest - but we frequently refer to a loving person as "having a big
heart," or a person who has lost their love as "heartbroken."
Etymology defines a symbol as "something that has been put together."
The word comes from the Greek word symballein , which refers to the idea
of putting things t ogether to contrast them and eventually became a word
for compare. The concept of symbolism arose from the word symbol, in
which one object is used to refer to something else. So, when a writer or
poet uses one object to represent a completely different id ea, he or she is
using symbolism.
Sometimes a symbol serves as a springboard for a more elaborate
metaphor. If the heart represents love, what does it mean when a heart
freezes over, two hearts beat in the same chest, or someone has the heart
of a deer? Wh ile a good symbol can certainly stand on its own, it also
allows us to experiment with ideas in ways that abstract language does
not.
A symbol, however, is not a metaphor. A metaphor contrasts two
seemingly unrelated things, whereas symbolism uses a pertin ent image to
express a relevant notion. As opposed to metaphors and similes,
symbolism uses a symbolic picture frequently throughout the text with the
goal to serves the primary image and concept.
Words, items, and even concepts used every day frequently h ave several
meanings. Aspects of daily life and experience change through time in
significance and meaning, becoming representations of something other
than what they truly are. Some typical examples of symbolism in daily life
include the following: the ra inbow symbolises hope and promise; the red
rose, love and romance; the four -leaf clover, good luck or fortune; the
wedding ring, commitment, and matrimony; the red, white, and blue
colour scheme, American patriotism; the green traffic light, "go" or
procee d; the Pilgrim hat, the Thanksgiving holiday; the dollar sign,
money, earnings, and wealth; and the image of a shopping cart.
Symbolism enhances the enjoyment of reading prose and poetry. It gives
us a reason to seek insights into the writer's thinking and to try to
understand why a writer would present a theory in the manner that he or
she has. It is the writer's way of teasing the reader.
2.3 AESTHETICISM
Aestheticism, also known as the Aesthetic movement, was a late -
nineteenth -century art movement that e mphasised the aesthetic value of
literature, music, and the arts over their socio -political functions. It is a
doctrine that the principles of beauty are fundamental to all other
principles, particularly moral principles. It is regarded as a devotion to or
emphasis on beauty or the development of the arts.
The Aesthetic Movement gained traction in English literature in the late
nineteenth century. Although the Pre -Raphaelite movement is considered munotes.in
Page 14
Literary Criticism -II
14 distinct from the aesthetic movement, aestheticism was influ enced by its
predecessor. Aesthetic writers let their imaginations and fantasies run
wild. The Aesthetic art movement emerged in both the visual and literary
arts. With the works of Charles Algernon Swinburne and later Oscar
Wilde, the Aesthetic movement r ose to prominence in Victorian culture
beginning in the 1870s. A famous Aestheticism slogan is 'art for art's
sake,' emphasising the movement's preference for beauty over morality.
Oscar Wilde's novel The Picture of Dorian Gray is the most famous
example o f Aestheticism in literature. It was published in 1890. Victorian
writers and critics thought it was important for works of fiction to be
moralistic, if not didactic. This belief was challenged by aestheticism.
The aesthetic philosophies of the German rom antic school, John Ruskin's
art criticism, and French writers such as Théophile Gautier and Charles
Baudelaire all influenced aestheticism. Aestheticism can be found in the
poetry and painting of the British Pre -Raphaelites beginning in the 1850s,
as well as in the work of Edgar Allan Poe in America. However, as a
cultural movement, aestheticism peaked in the 1870s and 1880s before
devolving into the decadent aestheticism of the 1890s. Aestheticism is
associated with artists and writers such as James McNeil l Whistler, Walter
Pater, and Oscar Wilde.
Aestheticism promotes the principles of art for the sake of art: art is an end
in itself; art does not need to serve moral, didactic, or political purposes;
and art should not be judged using non -aesthetic criteri a. Aestheticism is
distinguished stylistically by precocity, archaisms, and, at times, obscurity.
Because aesthetes believed that any subject matter could be made
beautiful in art, some aesthetes treated the perverse, abnormal, and morbid
in their work. Ae stheticism was an ideological reaction to the materialism
of Victorian middle -class culture, as well as the effects of industrialization
and mass production. Aesthetes retreated into the world of art to escape
the ugliness of middle -class Victorian life. A t the same time, aesthetes
sought to beautify their surroundings and live life in the spirit of art. As a
result, the influence of aestheticism extended beyond literature and art into
fashion, furniture design, the decorative arts, and architecture.
With t he works of Charles Algernon Swinburne and later Oscar Wilde, the
Aesthetic movement rose to prominence in Victorian culture beginning in
the 1870s. The need for the arts to set a moral example was rejected by
Wilde and Swinburne. The aesthetes were later associated with the
decadent movement, a group throughout Europe that valued excess and
artifice over nature. Both groups' work would be heavily symbolic and
frequently suggestive rather than explicitly realistic.
Romantic poets such as John Keats and Perc y Bysshe Shelley were early
influences on aesthetic writers. Unlike the romantics, however, the
aesthetes were uninspired by nature and turned to escapism to create a
world of beauty and colour. In Britain, the dominant aesthetic writers were
Algernon Char les Swinburne and Oscar Wilde. The most popular aesthetic
artists in the visual arts were Pre -Raphaelite Dante Gabriel Rossetti and
American painter Whistler. munotes.in
Page 15
Critical Study of Literary
Movements - II
15 The movement is widely thought to have ended in 1895, following Oscar
Wilde's trial. Wilde was co nvicted of indecency and sentenced to prison.
Most aesthetes were disillusioned by morality's triumph over the aesthetic
ideals of beauty and freedom.
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland on October 16, 1854. He was a
playwright, poet, and author of the infamous novel The Picture of Dorian
Gray (1891). Wilde's flamboyance and witticisms were almost as well
known as his literary output. In the nineteenth century, he was at the
forefront of the Aesthetic movement.
The following were the style's main charac teristics: suggestion rather than
statement, sensuality, extensive use of symbols, and synaesthetic /
ideasthetic effects - that is, correspondence between words, colours, and
music. Music was used to set the tone.
Imitationalism, Formalism, and Emotionali sm are the three most common
aesthetic theories of art criticism. Aesthetics is defined as the concept of
what is visually acceptable, fashionable, or expected at the time.
Minimalism is an example of an aesthetic. The Aesthetic Movement was
identified by critic Walter Hamilton, who published The Aesthetic
Movement in England in 1882. He not only writes about key figures
associated with the movement, but he also describes contemporary
responses to it.
In literature, aesthetics is the incorporation of refere nces to artistic
elements or expressions within a textual work. Authors usually include
aesthetic concepts because they can help strengthen their purpose for
writing or because they want to share their thoughts and opinions on the
subject.
Aesthetic Ideolo gy is the definitive collection of man's ideas on
philosophy, politics, and history. Aesthetic Ideology is founded on a
rigorous investigation of the relationship between rhetoric, epistemology,
and aesthetics, as well as radical notions of materiality. Pl ato sees no
opposition between the pleasures that beauty brings and the goals of
philosophy, which is the fundamental datum in understanding Platonic
beauty as part of Plato's aesthetics. Plato makes no mention of any other
Form in the Symposium; the Form of beauty is sufficient.
Aesthetic criticism is a branch of aesthetics concerned with critically
judging beauty and ugliness, tastefulness and tastelessness, style, and
fashion, meaning and quality of design - as well as issues of human
sentiment and how it affects the elicitation of pleasure and pain, likes and
dislikes.
2.4 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS:
a. Naturalism in English Literature
b. Symbolism as a literary device
c. Aestheticism as a literary movement munotes.in
Page 16
Literary Criticism -II
16 2.5 REFERENCES:
Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms . Boston, MA: Thomson,
Wadsworth, 2005.
https://www.supersummary.com/naturalism/
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Naturalism_(literature)
https://writers.com/what -is-symbolism -in-literature
https://literarydevices.net/symbolism/
https://lit erariness.org/2020/12/12/symbolism/
https://penlighten.com/symbolism -in-literature
https://www.studysmarter.us/explanations/english -literature/literary -
movements/aestheticism -in-literature/
munotes.in
Page 17
17 3
UNDERSTANDING CRITICAL
APPROACHES: PART - I
Unit Structure:
3.0 Objective
3.1 New Criticism
3.2 Structuralism
3.3 Suggested Questions
3.4 References
3.0 OBJECTIVE
This chapter's goal is to provide a brief overview of critical approaches
such as New C riticism and Structuralism. It also intends to investigate
these approaches as critical literary theories useful for analyzing literary
texts considering their elements. It also seeks to comprehend how these
critical literary approaches are skillfully empl oyed by authors in their
works.
3.1 NEW CRITICISM
The roots of 'New Criticism' can be found in T. S. Eliot's and I. A.
Richards' critical theories. T. S. Eliot was inspired by the French critic -
poet Remy de Gourment. In his essay "Tradition and Individual Talent,"
he presented an impersonal theory of art. He emphasized the liberating
nature of poetry. The poet, according to him, is a catalyst (medium) who
combines emotions and feelings to create poetry. In his book Dante and
Shakespeare , he argued that a gr eat philosophy does not make a great
poem. He discussed the autonomy of poetry in the introduction to his book
The Sacred Wood .
Poetry was proposed by I. A. Richards. The discovery of the writer's
name, he claims, distorts our understanding of his works. S o, to fully
comprehend a poem, we must consider its sense, feeling, tone, and
intonation. He distinguished between scientific truth and poetic truth.
Science makes claims that can be tested in a laboratory. Poetry creates
fictitious statements whose truth is determined by our emotions and
attitudes. Based on this distinction, he defined and distinguished
referential language in science from emotive language use in poetry. Many
Americans reacted to both Eliot and Richards. These new poetics and
textual analy sis were accepted by them. Certain changes were made.
Anglo -American Formalism arose because of this New Criticism. munotes.in
Page 18
Literary Criticism -II
18 The structure and meaning of the text, according to New Critics, were
inextricably linked and should not be analyzed separately. They aimed to
exclude the reader's response, the author's intention, historical and cultural
contexts, and moralistic bias from their analysis to return the focus of
literary studies to text analysis.
Richards' theory was criticized by John Crow Ransom in his book Ne w
Criticism. Richards' relevant poetic structure is imaginary and subjective
to him. If the balanced poise is in our response rather than in the poem's
structure, our analysis will be incorrect and whimsical. Ransom discusses
poetic structure in his book The World's Body . A poem, according to him,
has a logical structure that serves as its argument. It has an irrelevant local
texture, which is its imagery, metaphor, and symbolism, which enriches
the poem. So, poetry is not a phony assertion. It is because t he poem's
logical structure contains some scientific truth. The poem is objective. The
preceding books provided principles such as - i. A poem has its entity. in
our analysis, we should proceed from structure to meaning rather than vice
versa. These princi ples became the foundation for all contemporary
American critics. However, the New Critics quickly split into two groups.
Handy and Westbrook identified these groups:
a. Formalist Criticism:
These critics adhered to Kant and Coleridge's philosophy. They adhe red to
Ransom's philosophical aesthetics, which is based on Kant. They
abandoned the Victorian and Neo -Humanist emphasis on the moral uses of
literature, the historical tradition, and the author's biography. They
disproved Roger Fry's theory of pure form. They considered poetry to be a
reliable source of information. And it can only be communicated in its
terms. As a result, a close reading of the text is required in terms of its
form and materials. Meter, stanza form, rhyme, and rhythm are all
expected. Si mile, metaphor, imagery, allusion, and symbol are among the
materials. A poem is the material of the logical structure and irrelevant
local texture, so much close reading became important.
Ransom claims that logical structure contains scientific truth. As a result,
that must be understood. A poem, according to Cleanth Brooks, is an
organic composition of images. The irony is defined as "the obvious
warping of a statement by its context." The principle of poetic structure is
irony and paradox. In "Understan ding Poetry," "Understanding Fiction,"
and "Understanding Drama," he explains his method of analysis. It is in
his essay "The Formalist Critic." Because of this essay, younger critics
dubbed New Criticism Formalist Criticism.
b. Genre Critics/ Neo -Aristotelia ns:
This is the name given by the scholars Handy and Westbrook to the
Chicago School of Critics' criticism. Thus, a genre critic is a critic who
focuses on formal differences in literature. The study of Aristotle sparked
this type of criticism. This criti cism was based on the use of the inductive
method. These critics were distinct from those such as Ransom and
Brooks. As a result, they were dubbed Neo -Aristotelians. Elder Olson munotes.in
Page 19
Understanding Critical
Approaches: Part - I
19 wrote an essay titled "Aristotle's Poetic Method: Its Powers and
Limitations." "The art of poetry is a productive science; mathematics is a
theoretical science, and politics is a practical science," he says of
Aristotle's Poetics.
Aristotle divided knowledge using both inductive and deductive
reasoning. He used the same method for i dentifying and categorizing
poetry. He classified fine art into medium, object, mode, and function and
stated that an artist is a maker. For example, a statue -maker may imitate
the human form when creating a marble statue, but the statue he has
created is neither a human being nor a piece of marble. It is a work of art
with its structure
e Neo -Aristotelians, led by R. S. Crane, criticized Cleanth Brooks on two
grounds: a) Irony or paradox is the principle of structure, according to the
Formalist. As a resul t, his method is deductive. However, the critic should
employ both methods. He should start with the inductive method. b)
Formalist fails to distinguish between two literary genres. Two texts of the
same genre are not the same, according to Neo -Aristotelia ns. Othello , for
example, is written in the style of Greek tragedy. However, Macbeth is not
written in the manner of a Greek tragedy. To give "Macbeth" justice, a
critic must define its place in the history of tragedy and distinguish it from
other tragedie s. He can then analyze it inductively and deductively to
understand its structure.
Knowledge, according to Neo -Aristotelians, is based on systematic
analyses. The subject under investigation may be irregular, but the
investigation must be systematic and pr incipled. As a result, literature is a
product of the imagination. It is bound to be subjective and erroneous.
However, its critical study must be scientific. On the contrary, Formalists
believe that research should be ontological and scientific in nature.
Second, Formalists believe that knowledge can be gained solely from the
poem under consideration. Knowledge, according to the Neo -
Aristotelians, does not exist within the framework of the thing itself. It is
when we introduce it into the system in which i t already exists. Despite
their differences, both Formalists and Neo -Aristotelians employ the same
technique.
A careful, exacting examination of a passage of prose or poetry in New
Critical style was required. The theme of the text was identified using
formal elements such as rhyme, metre, setting, characterization, and plot.
The New Critics looked for paradox, ambiguity, irony, and tension in
addition to the theme to help establish the single best and most unified
interpretation of the text.
Although the N ew Criticism is no longer a dominant theoretical model in
American universities, some of its methods (such as close reading) remain
fundamental tools of literary criticism, laying the groundwork for a variety
of subsequent theoretic approaches to literatur e such as post -structuralism,
deconstruction theory, and reader -response theory.
munotes.in
Page 20
Literary Criticism -II
20 3.2 STRUCTURALISM:
The emergence of critical theory in the postwar period, which included
various complex disciplines such as linguistics, literary criticism,
psychoanalytic criticism, structuralism, post -colonialism, and so on,
proved hostile to the liberal consensus that dominated the realm of
criticism between the 1930s and the 1950s. The two intellectual
movements, Structuralism and Post -structuralism, which originated in
France in the 1950s and had an impact on English studies in the late 1970s
and early 1980s, were the most contentious among these overarching
discourses. Language and philosophy, rather than history or author, are the
primary concerns of these two approach es.
Structuralism is a school of thought that holds that everything in the world
is a part of a larger structure. This school of thought holds that any
individual item can only be studied in the context of the larger 'structure'
to which it belongs. Struct uralism did not begin as a literary movement in
general.
The structuralist movement is widely regarded as having been founded by
the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. For him, semiology - the science of
natural language meaning - consists in determining the formal place of any
sign within the all -encompassing system of signs that is language (langue),
that is, to see it as a 'difference' among the system of inextricably linked
'differences.' Similarly, literary significance is treated. However, in both
lingui stic and literary studies, the existence of a complete and closed
system has been largely anticipated, presupposed rather than confirmed,
with only fragments of the alleged system ever truly collected.
Some scholars believe it evolved from the tenets of th e Russian Formalism
School. Many scholars, however, credit Ferdinand de Saussure with
establishing the Structuralists' School of Theory. Saussure's main concern
was the notion that no word can have its definition proposed in his seminal
work, Course in Gen eral Linguistics , that the definition of a specific word
is dependent on other words in the larger structure. He coined the highly
debated terms langue and parole.
Structuralism is a term that refers to a group of theories that address all
aspects of the human world, most notably language, literature, cookery,
kinship relations, dress, and human self -perception. According to
structuralists, the observable, seemingly separate elements are correctly
understood only when viewed as positions in a structure or system of
relations. Structuralism is a way of understanding culture and meaning in
the arts by connecting individual works of art to something larger. The
relationship between cultural phenomena, according to Structuralist
theory, is a web, network, or st ructure that exists beneath the way we
think, act, and create art.
The focus on the underlying structure of a literary text is the main feature
of structuralist literary theory. The interrelationship of a text's parts
determines its meaning. Binary opposit ions are essential for munotes.in
Page 21
Understanding Critical
Approaches: Part - I
21 comprehending a text. The author's individuality and personality are
unimportant. What are the deep structures that are important? Literary
texts are constructed entities. Meaning does not emerge from within the
text. Instead, meanin g is derived from the interaction of each part of the
text with the others.
Structuralism is a philosophical, historical, anthropological, and literary
theory term. Structuralism is derived from the field of linguistics known as
structural linguistics. Thi s method was created by a French linguist named
Ferdinand de Saussure. He developed a method for studying a language
that saw the linguistic sign (a word) as a relationship between a 'sound
image' - a spoken or written word, which he referred to as a 'sign ifier,' and
the concept itself, which he referred to as the 'signified.' This was distinct
from previous approaches to comprehending the relationship between
words and things. Until Saussure, it was assumed that words and the
things they denoted had a dire ct relationship.
The term "tree" referred to a physical tree in the real world. As a result, the
word "tree" meant "an actual, physical tree." This is not how language
works, as Saussure realized. Instead of a real tree, the word/sound 'tree'
represents a mental image (or concept) of one. This is because language
(and the concepts it employs) is a mental property. Language, as such,
enables us to comprehend and interpret the world through a system of
signs which is words and concepts.
René Magritte depicted this in his 1929 painting This Is Not a Pipe.
Magritte's point is that a painting of a pipe is not only a pipe
representation. Similarly, when we hear the word "pipe," we envision a
pipe (like the one in the painting). When we hear the word "pipe," we
think of a pipe. The pipe is a mental representation of a real pipe.
Following Saussure's work, others took up the idea in their respective
fields, most notably Claude Levi -Strauss, another Frenchman, in
anthropology. Other key figures in Structuralism includ e sociology's
Emile Durkheim and psychoanalysis' Jacques Lacan. In the 1960s,
structuralism grew in importance and influence. What made it so popular?
It appeared to provide a unified approach that could be applied universally
across academic disciplines. Following World War II and the rise of
Nazism, a unified approach was appealing.
Because linguistics and literary theory are so closely related, Saussure's
linguistic ideas were easily adapted to the study of literature. When a
literary text is studied usi ng Structuralism, it is linked to a larger
'structure.' This could include the genre of the text's literature, or the
universal ways stories are told around the world.
The structuralist mines the text for common themes or patterns in this
case. The idea he re is that human consciousness has universal
characteristics, and it is the literary critic's job to find and explain them.
Any literary text can be broken down into its constituent parts. The text
can then be compared to other stories with similar narrati ve structures. munotes.in
Page 22
Literary Criticism -II
22 Structuralism interprets literary texts by asking some basic questions. Is
there anything in text A that resembles anything in text B? The similarities
between texts are of interest to structuralists. Is there any textual
opposition in the f orm of opposites? Structuralism refers to opposites as
'binary oppositions,' such as good/evil, light/dark, tall/short, and so on.
Terry Eagleton claims in his book Literary Theory (1983) that
Structuralism represents a "remorseless demystification of lite rature."
Structuralism, when applied to a literary text, strips it of its aesthetic form
and subjective meaning, reducing it to its essentials. The underlying
structure is all that remains.
Structuralism is thus explicitly anti -individual and, to some exte nt, anti -
artist. It is not interested in individuality or artistic creativity as a distinct
manifestation of an author's personality. It is only interested in the
underlying and shared consciousness structures found in works of art or
literature. It is a u nifying strategy. However, as it unites, it also obliterates.
This concept can be found in Roland Barthes' famous essay "The Death of
the Author" published in 1977.
However, each school of criticism has both validity and limitations. This
is true of struct uralism as well. One criticism levelled at structuralism is
that identifying structures, recurring patterns, and binary oppositions in
literacy is not required to understand what makes literature great or sign
significant.
3.3 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS:
a. What is New Criticism? Explain it as a critical approach.
b. Explain Structuralism as a critical approach to literature.
3.4 REFERENCES:
Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms . Boston, MA: Thomson,
Wadsworth, 2005.
Brooks, Cleanth. "The New Criticism." The Sewanee Review 87:4 (1979)
598.
Nasrullah Mambrol, Structuralism, literariness.org, 2016
Eagleton, Terry. Literary theory: An introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford:
Blackwell Publishing, 1996.
https://englishsummary.com/structuralism -in-literature/
https://liter ariness.org/2016/03/20/structuralism/
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/learn/glossaryterms/structuralism#:~:te
xt=In%20literary%20theory%2C%20structuralism%20challenged,and%2
0situated%20among%20other%20texts.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd -herkimer -english2/chapter/new -
criticism/
munotes.in
Page 23
23 4
UNDERSTANDING CRITICAL
APPROACHES: PART - II
Unit Structure:
4.0 Objective
4.1 Psychoanalytical Criticism
4.2 Archetypal Criticism
4.3 Suggested Questions
4.4 References
4.0 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this chapter is to present a brief study of criti cal
approaches such as Psychoanalytical Criticism and Archetypal Criticism.
It also aims at studying these approaches as critical literary theories useful
to analyze literary texts under the light of their elements. It also aims at
understanding how these critical literary approaches are skillfully
practiced by authors in their texts.
4.1 PSYCHOANALYTICAL CRITICISM
Psychoanalytical Criticism has its roots in the psychology of Sigmund
Freud. His concept of the unconscious is his contribution to literature a nd
literary criticism. He believes that man's psyche is divided into two parts.
They are the conscious and unconscious minds. The unconscious is the
repository for repressed feelings that have been censored by the conscious.
Later, he revised his ideas abo ut the nature of the psyche and employed
four technical terms. Libido is the primary source of energy and is sexual
in nature. The unconscious is the id. The conscious personality that
mediates between the unconscious and the superego is known as the ego.
The conscience, which is the total sum of social norms, is the super -ego.
Any libidinous desire that violates social norms causes the perpetrator to
feel guilty, and he becomes neurotic (fearful). Such a tabooed (forbidden)
act finds a home in the unconsc ious. When the ego and superego are
asleep, the unconscious is awake. Dreams are expressions of the
unconscious's activities. They are a kind of wish fulfillment and a
displacement of reality. According to Freud, a creative writer is a type of
neurotic who is unable to act in real life and thus retreats to his fantasy,
where his wishes are granted. Here, he is guided by the constructive
pleasure principle. munotes.in
Page 24
Literary Criticism -II
24 The essay "Creative Writers and Day Dreaming" by Sigmund Freud traced
the origins of a writer's work a nd explained how the writer impresses the
reader. His personal experiences are the sources, which are structured on
the pattern of myths and folk tales that explain basic human instincts,
conflicts, and desires. For example, consider the myths of Oedipus,
Electra, and Adonis. There is a distinction to be made between the
neurotic and the writer. The neurotic has no control over the unconscious,
but the writer does. Every imaginable activity of man can be found in his
childhood. The child imagines and humani zes his toys while playing. It
takes the play seriously, which results in a shift (dislocation) of reality.
The imaginative writer, too, takes this world of fantasy, which is a
distortion of reality, seriously. Unable to cope with reality, he immerses
hims elf in the world of fantasy. He gains pleasure thereby equating today's
serious occupations with his childhood games, and he throws off the heavy
reality. But he cannot tell anyone about his fantasy. It is simple for him to
admit his wrongdoing. He is caug ht between fantasy and reality. As a
result, he modifies it to reveal it to others. He reveals his altered fantasy
and learns about his nervous illness. Only dissatisfied people fantasize
because fantasies are motivated by unsatisfied wishes, and every fan tasy is
the fulfillment of a wish. A wish can be ambitious and serve to improve
the subject's personality. It could be an erotic (sexual) desire to obtain the
object of one's life. Both are sometimes intertwined.
The fantasies can be changed. Their relatio nship to time is crucial. Present
impressions, i.e., provoking events that arouse one of the subject's major
desires, first arouse fantasies. The subject then recalls a previous
experience in which this wish was granted. Finally, he creates a future
situat ion that represents a fulfillment of the wish, such as a poor orphan
working in a house. He fantasizes about his marriage to the only beautiful
girl in the company and the succession of his property. Dickens looks back
to the past in David Copperfield and creates a situation relating to the
future, fulfilling his desire to be a well -known writer. In the poem "When
You Are Old," Yeats imagines his beloved repenting for rejecting his
sincere love in her old age, at a time when she has moved on from love.
Acco rding to Freud, an author's biography aids in understanding his
works. For this, choose lesser -known writers whose works feature the hero
as the main character. Providence has given him special protection (fate).
Every woman falls in love with him. All the characters are split in half. In
contrast to the bad characters, the good characters back him up.
As a result, the writer's intense experience of the present stirs up a
memory of his early experience, which now gives rise to a want that is
realized in his created work. The produced work is like a daydream, a
continuation of and replacement for what was previously children's play.
Additionally, he typically works with pre -made materials found in the
storehouse of myths, stories, and fairy tales. The work is enjoyable since it
softens the tone of his egotistical daydreams. Through the portrayal of his
fantasies, he modifies, conceals, and provides the readers with artistic
pleasure. munotes.in
Page 25
Understanding Critical
Approaches: Part - II
25 Following Freud, there were two major trends in psychological criticism.
The writing of an author's biography is referred to as psychobiography. It
focuses on an author's psychological development. Sir Herbert Read's
biographical criticism of Wordsworth is the first example. The Writers
and Their World series include biographies of Mark Twain, Jane Austen,
E. M. Forster, Virginia Wool, and others. The study of literary texts began
with Dr. Ernest Jones's Hamlet and Oedipus . It was followed by "The
Regulated Hatred," an essay about Jane Austen.
Marie Banabarte, Norman Holland, Norman Brown, and Jacques Lacan
are recent critics. The most influential creative writers have been
influenced by Freud's psychoanalytical criticism. Postmodern writers
include Lawrence, Auden, Sylvia Plath, Eugene O'Neill, and others.
Among his detractors, post structuralists and feminists have accepted some
of his ideas while rejecting his absurd notions of the Oedipus complex,
Narcissism, and "the Lack." His greatest student critic, however, is his
disciple C.G. Jung.
4.2 ARCHETYPAL CRITICISM
Although archetypa l theory and criticism are frequently used
interchangeably with myth theory and criticism, they have distinct
histories and processes. The term "archetype" dates to Plato (arche,
"original"; typos, "form"), but it gained currency in twentieth -century
literary theory and criticism thanks to the work of C. G. Jung, the Swiss
founder of analytical psychology (1875 -1961).
The term "archetype" is derived from the Latin word "archytypos." 'Arch'
means "first of its kind," and "typos" means "types, patterns, or
impression." An archetype in literature refers to the original type or basic
model. They include stories about basic human concerns such as birth and
rebirth, death and rebirth, and the quest of a father or son.
The theory of archetypal literary criticism in terprets a text by focusing on
recurring myths and archetypes in the narrative as well as symbols,
images, and character types in a literary work. The term archetype refers
to recurring narrative designs, patterns of action, character types, themes,
and im ages that can be found in a wide range of works of literature, as
well as myths, dreams, and even social rituals. These recurring items are
caused by elemental and universal patterns in the human psyche.
Nature is imitated by archetypes in literature. For example, the seasonal
cycle of spring represents comedy, summer represents romance, autumn
represents tragedy, and winter represents irony. Archetypes are used in
literature to suggest concepts/problems/questions that inform the work. It
is also used to ad d something unique to the basic pattern to make the
writer's work stand out. The archetype is reflected in literature as a
universal theme, situation, or character that recurs in life.
Archetypal Criticism was founded by James Frazer and C. G. Jung. The
Golden Bough is a book written by James Frazer. It is a global
comparative study of mythology. The concept of the collective munotes.in
Page 26
Literary Criticism -II
26 unconscious was developed by C. G. Jung. Archetypes are aspects of the
human unconscious. Every man who comes out in a riot or when h e is
angry is primitive. In short, archetypes are created by the collective
unconscious.
Archetypal criticism is a product of both cultural anthropology and
psychoanalysis, two academic fields that appear to be opposed to the
concept of archetypal criticis m. However, the characters of Sir James
Frazer and Carl Jung contributed significantly to the development of
archetypal criticism. Frazer, a classic, and religion historian conducted an
in-depth study of the cross -cultural origins of religion through myths and
rituals in his book "The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion."
He discovered that, even in the absence of interaction, humanity shares the
same ritual patterns or substance, with only the time and details differing.
Frazer's discovery had an i mpact on the field of literature as well because
critics began to look for mythic figures and patterns throughout the texts.
The archetype explains how mankind's earliest experiences are stored in
an individual's "collective unconscious" according to Jung' s Theory of
Collective Unconscious. A writer gets his theme, character, and situation
from this store. Thus, archetypes are considered 'universals' in literature
and are thought to be present in all kinds of literature around the world.
Characters, types, conflicts, feuds, symbols, and images reoccur regularly.
As a result, they are referred to as archetypes. The role of the archetypal
critic is to investigate why writers use such things consistently. This is
because they are archetypes.
Archetypal criticis m contends that archetypes determine the form and
function of literary writing and that cultural and psychological myths
shape a text's meaning. Archetypes are unknowable basic forms
personified or concretized in recurring images, symbols, or patterns that
may include motifs such as the quest or the heavenly ascent, recognizable
character types such as the trickster or the hero, symbols such as the apple
or snake, or images such as crucifixion as in King Kong or Bride of
Frankenstein - all of which are lade n with meaning when used in a
specific work.
The origins of archetypal criticism can be traced back to psychologist Carl
Jung, who proposed that humanity has a "collective unconscious," a kind
of universal psyche manifested in dreams and myths and containi ng
themes and images that we all inherit. As a result, literature imitates the
"total dream of humankind" rather than the world. Jung referred to
mythology as "the textbook of archetypes."
Northrop Frye was a Canadian philosopher who expanded on Jung's ide as.
He was less concerned with the how and why of natural -born archetypes
and more concerned with their functions and effects. He considered
archetypes and archetypal criticism to be important components of
literature. The archetypes allow stories and lite rature to be refreshed and
reformatted repeatedly. This means that old stories can be told in new
ways, but with the archetypes present to give people meaning. munotes.in
Page 27
Understanding Critical
Approaches: Part - II
27 Levi- Strauss examines the similarities of myths from cultures all over the
world in his essay " The structural Study of Myth." He notices that myths
from cultures separated by geography or time have striking similarities.
He finds an answer by examining the structure of each myth rather than its
content. While the characters and actions differ signif icantly, Levi -Strauss
contends that their structures are nearly identical. According to Levi -
Strauss, myth is a language because it must be told to exist. Myth, as a
language, is made up of langue and parole, a synchronic, historical
structure, and specifi c diachronic details within that structure. Parole is a
particular thing, an instance, or an event that only happens in linear time.
The structure of a language, on the other hand, never changes and can
exist in the past, present, or future. A myth's core shape or structure can be
changed, expanded, condensed, and paraphrased without losing meaning.
Whatever further information is included in the story, the relationships
between the units' structures never change.
As a result of neglecting inter -textual com ponents and treating the text as
though it was in a vacuum, archetypal critics view New Criticism to be
overly atomistic. Since we are accustomed to encountering black hats,
springtime locations, evil stepmothers, and other tropes, we can generate
assumpti ons and expectations about story patterns and symbolic linkages,
if not instinctively. So, it stands to reason that a work's meaning cannot be
contained only inside its pages, nor can it be viewed as a separate entity.
Archetypal images and story patterns encourage readers (and viewers of
films and advertisements) to participate ritualistically in their generation's
fundamental beliefs, fears, and anxieties. These archetypal features not
only contribute to the text's readability but also a level of human de sires
and anxieties. Northrop Fry's book "Anatomy of Criticism" in 1950
established archetypal criticism. Images and patterns are frequently
repeated in literary works. And there is reason to ponder it. We will learn
about the original patterns through arc hetypal study.
The role of criticism is to connect these images and symbols in other
works. Suicide, for example, occurs in "Hamlet," "Julius Caesar," and
"Romeo and Juliet." Thus, the theme of suicide can be found in as many
books as one can find because it is an archetype that has been found from
the beginning of time to the present. Archetypal criticism has thus
broadened the scope of criticism. Northrop Fry pinpoints the limitations of
structuralism as it relates to the text. However, archetypal critici sm
focuses on the text at hand and how it relates to other texts. There are
many brothers and sisters in a text. It comes from a large family. The
fathers of Shakespeare's Hamlet , for example, are Thomas Kyd's The
Spanish Tragedy and Saxo Grammaticus' Haml et. According to Northrop
Fry, "If one follows archetypal criticism, he/she comes to literary
anthropology." To be more specific, archetypal criticism broadens the
scope of a text.
The criticism of story types has evolved from the archetypal criticism of
literary characters. This raises the question of whether specific plot
archetypes exist. Christopher Booker's ideas on archetypal criticism munotes.in
Page 28
Literary Criticism -II
28 reduced stories to seven fundamental plots. These are the quest, the
journey, rebirth, and comedy. The final three ar e tragedy, rags to riches,
and defeating the monster.
Archetypal criticism, as defined by Jung's theory and practice of
archetypal (analytical) psychology, is thus a young and often
misunderstood field of study with significant but unrealized potential for
the study of literature and aesthetics in general.
4.3 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS:
a. Write a critical note on Psychoanalytical Criticism as a critical
approach.
b. Explain Archetypal Criticism with suitable examples.
4.4 REFERENCES:
Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms . Boston, MA: Thomson,
Wadsworth, 2005.
Frye, Northrop. "The Archetypes of Literature." The Norton Anthology:
Theory and Criticism . Ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New York: Norton, 2001.
1445 - 1457
Bowie, Malcolm. Psychoanalysis and the Future of T heory. Cambridge,
MA: B. Blackwell,1994.
https://www.languagehumanities.org/what -is-archetypal -criticism.htm
https://cornsmashers.wordpress.com/2018/06/02/archetypal -theory/
munotes.in
Page 29
29 5
MARXISM AND FEMINISM
Unit - Structure
5.0 Objective
5.1 Marxism
5.1.1 Marxism: Historical Background
5.1.2 Theory of Marxism
5.1.3 Marxist Literary Criticism
5.1.4 Conclusion
5.2 Feminism
5.2.1 Historical Background
5.2.2 Three p hases of Modern Feminism
5.2.3 The Four Waves of Feminism
5.2.4 Literature survey of Feminist Literary critics
5.2.5 Foregrounding Methods of Feminist Literary Critics
5.2.6 Conclusion
5.3. Exercise
5.4. References
5.0. OBJECTIVE:
This Unit will focus on the concept of Marxism and its critical theory by
other philosophers and critics. After reading this unit a student must be
able to discuss about the Marxist theory its historical significance and
basic principles. They must be able to know about the ot her proponents of
Marxism around the world and their contribution to the development of
the theory. The discussion will provoke the students to ponder over current
situation and the need of the theory. Similarly, this unit will also focus on
the history an d concept of feminism of different ages. It also focuses on
the different waves and phases of feminism and the struggle for gender
equality. This section is thought provoking to analyse the contemporary
situation and position of women in today’s society.
munotes.in
Page 30
Literary Criticism -II
30 5.1. MARXISM:
5.1.1. Historical Background:
Marxism is a revolutionary theory named after the influential German
philosopher Karl Marx (1818 -1883) who focused on the analysis of the
society and its class conflicts. It is an ideological theory which is r elated to
a socio -economic, political, and philosophical theory that analyses social
relations pertaining to class conflicts through materialistic interpretation of
historical development. It is a continuous process developing with the
change of time till today’s era. History has been in a progression
throughout the years through class conflict in the then society. The conflict
between the feudal lords who exploited the peasants and tried to suck their
lands by suppression. Even the Capitalists conflict wit h the proletariats
created class conflict and hence brought social transformation. The
Marxists were of the view that slowly and gradually the difference
between the social classes should get vanish and there should be a
classless society where there will be no economic difference. But the
capitalists did not agree to it and said that it was impractical.
Later joined by his fellow, Friedrich Engel in the mid -19th century found
that they had similar views regarding the class and capitalism and thought
to wo rk together. In 1842 as Friedrich Engels became a communist, he
analysed the life of workers in one of the Industry in England and wrote
the effects of Industrialization and its capitalism on proletariats and their
sunk condition in his book, The Condition of the Working Class in
England and published it in 1845. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engles were
the strong proponents and pioneers of this ideology and wrote some
literature in their book entitled “Communist Manifesto” in 1848 and
analysed the economy syste m of the then society and ‘Das Capital’ which
was published in 1867 in which they mentioned about the unequal
distribution of economy and its consequences on common people. They
closely examined the society and wrote many pamphlets, essays, books
that ref lected the problems within the social classes and their reasons
behind it. They found that the capitalists always wanted to have economic
and political power to keep control over common people and buy labours
as to own the means of production. As there was a large economic
difference between social classes Karl Marx brought into focus the novel
idea about capitalism and economy of the society. He always criticised the
capitalists. He named the owners as bourgeoisie and the working class as
the proletariats. He was of the view that alienation is the outcome of
capitalism and hence the means of production should be handed over to its
actual makers or labours. The economic and political revolution would
then be truly successful to bring in power in the hands of common people
and the labourers. The competition between the communist and capitalist
countries during 20th century was at its pivot. This era can be said to be
remarkable as the proletariats voiced for the equal economy. It is
concerned about the produc tion level, labour cost and economic
development of the country which was never thought on a broader scale
before Marx. Marxism considers a dialectic view for social munotes.in
Page 31
Marxism and Feminism
31 transformation. Marx introduced the difference between the class and class
struggle which according to him was an axel for the evolution of social
systems. According to him every individual must be able to get proper
returns of their labour and must have equal share of wealth. And when this
economic difference will get diminished class division s will get stopped.
Subsequently, this became a revolution and spread all over the world in
different variants. Marxism later got developed in Russia and Europe. The
European revolution in 1848 brought upheaval in political and social arena
that saw the Ma rxism theory more analytical than practical so there was an
inclination towards Leninism and Maoism. Marxism theory continued to
develop, it spread over Russia as Russian Marxism through Lenin called
as Leninism. Lenin used the Marxist principle for the 19 17 Bolshevik
revolution. The theorists like Georgii Plekhonov (1856 -1918) developed
the thoughts of Marxism comprehensively based on economic systems.
Later, Stalin (1879 -1953) set Marxism as the party doctrine. Soviet or
Russian Marxism focused more on so cial development through the
analysis of economic condition which became the sole doctrine of Russia.
The European Marxism that began in 1920’s is also called as the Western
Marxism. The theorists like Georg Lukacs (1885 -1971), Antonio Gramsci -
(1891 -1937) had different views than the Russian Marxism. Instead of
focusing on political economy they focused on aesthetics, philosophy, art,
and culture. The philosophers of Frankfurt School like Walter Benjamin,
Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, and Jean Paul Sart re also found the
Soviet Marxism inadequate so they tried to develop it by including
aesthetics, art and literature which brought in new ideas and analysis of
literature studies. Hence it created the base for the formation of critical
approach of Marxist c riticism. Marxist ideas mainly the Soviet Marxism
highly influenced the Indian political thinking during the national freedom
movement from 1920’s and reflected its influence on socio -economic
level of post -independence period too. Its adherents propagated the
principles and influenced many young activists and so also got influenced
by the young activists in India and joined the Communist Party of India.
5.1.2. Theory of Marxism and its Key Principles:
The beginning of the twentieth century brought in m any changes in the
socio -political canvas and so also in the field of literature. There was a
need of a theory which talked about the society and its class difference.
Basic Principles of Marxism:
1. Capitalism and class conflict:
Karl Marxbelieved that the capitalists are reluctant to pay the wages of the
labour according to their work and goods produced that brings unequal
distribution of economy in the social classes. This is also an injustice
towards the proletariats. He was concerned with the power r elationships
between the capitalists and the labours. The labours had no right to
produce their goods, in fact, producing various parts lost their control over
their goods and thus got alienated. Marxism centres on capitalists’
economic profits and the acu te labour charges given to them by the munotes.in
Page 32
Literary Criticism -II
32 capitalists in amount of their quantity. Marx has stated in Das Capital that
"the mode of production of material life determines altogether the social,
political, and intellectual life process. It is not the consciou sness of men
that determines their being, but on the contrary their social being, that
determines their consciousness." Marxism is based on the real
materialistic physical world or the society in which we live in; opposite to
the spiritual or the ideal wor ld or philosophies. Karl Marx comments on
this revolutionary nature of Marxism that, “The philosophers have only
interpreted the world in various ways; the point is to change it.” Hence
according to Marx there is a struggle between two opposite forces
resulting in the alteration or modification of the society that progresses.
They wanted a society which will be free from exploitation of one class by
the other class.
2. Dialectical Materialism:
Another significant concept developed by Marx and Engel is a th eory of
dialectical materialism a scientific analysis and interpretation of history.
This theory imparted more importance to the real condition and their
contradictions within things without limiting it to class, labour or social
economic conditions.
This is an ancient philosophy and was originated by a German Philosopher
Hegel who believed that idea or consciousness is the essence of the world
and hence ideology governs the material world. Truths are discovered by
imposing contradictory ideas and progress takes place through opposite
forces of truth and false. The false elements get reduced due to thesis and
anti-thesis treatment and truth remains. So, the process continues and
finally the process ends. But Marx was of different thought as according
to hi s concept, ideology is the product of the real society and economic
existence that we live in. Hence, Marxist is of the view that society is the
product to ignite the thoughts or the ideologies depends on the society
product.
3. Theory of Alienation:
Whe n the labours were deprived of the fruits of their labour and were not
even given the chance to take the credit. Hence, they are away from their
profits as well as from their ownership of their products and got alienated.
The bourgeoisie always led the pro letariats towards estrangement which
brought them loss of identity and freedom. The concern for this dimension
reflects humanism in Marx’s philosophy. George Lukacs developed this
theory of alienation further in 1932 before the publication of Manuscript.
Marx found four different phases of alienation. First phase of alienation
arises when the worker has no right to decide what to produce or how to
produce hence gets alienated from his work. This does not give him any
work satisfaction and he get alienated n aturally from himself. He is not
able to use his creativity and has to do the same monotonous work; this is
the second stage of alienation. The Third stage brings him financial
dependency and has to live on other’s expenses. This alienation detaches
him fr om other men. And fourthly he becomes forlorn as he depends on munotes.in
Page 33
Marxism and Feminism
33 the capitalists for his necessities. The ownership of the capitalists brings
poverty to the workers due to unequal share of economy. Hence it paves
way to class struggle and conflict.
4. Model of Base and Superstructure:
Classical Marxism by Marx states that society is divided into base and
superstructure and its relation is production and ideology. The conceptual
idea of this is that; the base is the material means of production and socio -
economic relations and superstructure is the cultural world of art and
religion, politics, philosophy, laws and basically related to ideology.
According to Marx the cultural world is reflection of physical world or life
and is directly proportional to the economic condition of the society. The
based hence is governed by the superstructure means the proletariats are
always dominated by the super class people. As the super class has the
capacity to buy the labours, they consider them as their property and
exploit them according to their wish. The super class or superstructure has
no direct connection with the production.
5. Marxists Theory of surplus:
The concept of surplus values was coined by William Thompson in 1824
and is found in Ricardian Socia lism. This is one of the important theories
later developed by Marx and Engels who explained in their famous work
Das Capital. In the continuous process of the development of the society
when the progress depends on the knowledge of economy Marx’s theory
of surplus is found to be significant even in today’s world. In order to
understand the theory of surplus we the nature of capitalist production
must be understood that is the process of creating use value and profit
accumulation and extending the capital. Marx analysed the relation of
capitalist’s creation of products and the connection of circulation of
products. It’s about examining how the capitalist make profit and what is
the source of their profit. He realised that the labours are the main source
of surplus value in the capitalist society. The products are mainly munotes.in
Page 34
Literary Criticism -II
34 produced by the workers by their hard labour but are owned by the
capitalists. Marx is of the view that the value of any commodity produced
by labour depends upon the average labour time it ne eds for its
production. The labours do not have claim over their products. They get
their wages which is minimum in relation to the product sold by the
capitalists. The capitalists sell at a maximum price the remaining is surplus
labour and the value it pr oduces is surplus value and here where they get
profit. The surplus value is appropriated by the capitalists by exploiting
them. Hence surplus value is unpaid labour of the labours; it is the
difference between values produced by the workers and the meagre labour
charges that he gets.
5.1.3. Marxist Literary Criticism
A survey of critical thinkers and their ideology of Marxism: Marxist
literary criticism is based on literary analysis of the text through various
positions of social, cultural, historical, po litical approaches and so with an
idea as literature that it is the product of socio -economic structures.
Marxist criticism analyses literature from ideological point of view and is
directly proportional to social classes. Marxism also had influences of
other European philosophers like Hegel, Saussure and Antonio Gramsci.
Marx adopted the views of Hegel as, a work of art and literature a
reflection that is influenced by the socio -economic structure and a
dialectical and a part of historical process. Saussur e’s structuralism
believes that a work of art has the reality which is present in its structure.
Louise Althusser a French Marxist developed the concepts of ideology and
over determination with his own perspective. He is of the view that,
“ideology is a sy stem of representations endowed with an existence and a
historical role at the heart of a given society.” Ideology is spread through
the books of laws, religion other text books that naturally gets imbibed in
people. Moreover, Louis Althuser developed Marx ist theory under the
umbrella of post -structural theory focusing on language, text and author.
The Gramsci’s Marxist theory who was a linguist, a political thinker as
well as a philosopher was based on hegemony of super class to maintain
control on social intellectual fields, and production of literature. He was of
the view that the super class intellectuals want to hold power and exploit
the subalterns i.e. the marginalized class of the society. Moreover, another
influential figure, Raymond Williams focuse d on the relationship of the
language, literature, and the society. He focused on Cultural Materialism.
Frederic James an American thinker who was influenced by many German
Philosophers like Sartre, Althusser highlighted the critical theory and
articulated Marxism with in relation to current philosophy and literary
trends. Along with Terry Eagleton and other Marxist critics he co -founded
the Marxist Literary Group . It is found that he was completely
committed to Hegelian Marxism with his publication of “The Political
Unconsciousness: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act” (1981). Moving
on from Jamesons, Terry Eagleton (1943) a cultural theorist of England
also contributed extensively to the critical theory of Marxism with the
subjects from ideology, literatu re, application of the Marxist perspective to
the English novels. He re -evaluated criticism and highlights on the
Marxist approach on structuralism and post -structuralism. He is of the munotes.in
Page 35
Marxism and Feminism
35 view that, “Marxist criticism is part of a larger body of theoretical
Analysis which aims to understand ideologies - the ideas, values, and
feelings by which men experience their societies at various times. And
certain of those ideas, values and feelings are available to us only in
literature. To understand both the past and p resent more deeply, and such
understanding contributes to our liberation.”
Hence Marxist criticism shows that how a literary text can be an asset for
the social change. It can also support to bring in awareness about ideology.
He has also later discussed a bout form and content and called them as
dialectical. It favoured the content rather than form as in traditional
Marxism as it must have the historical significance behind the events. He
is of the view that the form changes with the change in ideology.
5.1.4 Conclusion:
Although there is a future scope for the continuation of Marxism; few of
the predictions didn’t come to be true.As he was of the view that the
capitalists would get lesser and weaker in a gradual time and the middle
class would get down to wards the proleriates. But did not happen so. In
fact, in a social system we have witnessed that the middle class is getting
stronger creating a new class as upper middle class and the prolitariates
improving their condition moving towards lower middle and middle class.
According to Max Weber the upper middle class is identified with well -
educated professionals with good financial conditions. Though the
contemporary age has its different demands but still cannot get away from
the historical views of Marxism as it is not only about class conflict or
class struggle but also about humanism which will be continued to
transform the world according to its need. It needs a classless society. The
Marxism critics will continue to analyse the society on its terms for a shift
from the needful society towards the freedom.
5.2 FEMINISM
Feminism as a term involves a social, economic, and political
philosophies, ideologies and movements that began in 18th century Europe
and later in America that demanded equal rights and o pportunities to
women (pertaining to men) and focusing on the issues of gender
difference and unfair treatment towards women in a patriarchal culture. It
is a socio -political movement that advocated equal legal rights to women
(right to vote, right to educ ation, right to property, right to work and equal
pay and many such other etc) in all arenas. This movement heralded with
the Seneca Falls convention declaration in 1848 with more than 300 men
and women gathered for the rights of women convention in the U. S. It
discussed about the social, civil rights and religious rights of women. The
main purpose of this movement was to put an end to gender discrimination
or sexual difference, their oppression, and their domination. It demanded a
radical suffrage for equa l status. This imprinted a lasting effect on the
women’s struggle and spread all over the nation. Women were oppressed
by their male counterparts through the patriarchal systems that did not
give rights to education, economic freedom and were marginalised and munotes.in
Page 36
Literary Criticism -II
36 oppressed. Feminism existed in different forms in different ages and
phases right from the ancient world till today. In order to understand the
concerns of feminism it becomes necessary to know its historical
background.
5.2.1. Historical Background:
As earlier in one of the books it is mentioned that the Greek God Theseus
considered woman as to be born from one of the ribs of man and was
considered as secondary and treated inhumanly and oppressed by men
since centuries. Charles Fourier; a French phi losopher is said to have
coined the term ‘Feminisme’ in the year 1837. With reference to the
article in the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, Feminism as a term
was used after the first international women’s conference held in Paris in
1892 in an advoc acy for equal rights for women and should be treated
equally by law. But the roots of feminism can be traced far back to the
first influential feministic book by Mary Wollstonecraft’s ‘A Vindication
of the Rights of Woman’ which was published in 1792 that talked about
the women’s equal rights in the society and education rights and the
portrayal of women in the works of literature of Milton, Pope, Rousseau,
and their perspective about women in their works. The basic argument was
that the biological nature of the woman cannot make her inferior to men
and she is not made only for domestic chores purposes or to delight men.
It speaks about the rights of women in the wealth and property of her
father and her right to vote and equally talked about the equal labo ur
charges of women. There are several figures which then talked about the
theory of Feminism which brought all the women to propagate about the
term Feminism. Later, Friedrich Engels wrote ‘The Origin of the Family ‘,
which was published in 1884. John Stu art Mill highlighted the condition
of women in his book ‘The Subjection of Women’ published in 1869.
Women were getting unequal labour wages and were discriminated to
their male counterparts. They were exploited by the society men which
was becoming more a nd more unbearable. Women wanted to have their
own control on their life and should not be controlled by the men. A book
‘Women and Labour’ by Olive Schreiner published in 1911 proved to be
igniting the fervour of feminism. The Book published in 1929 by Vi rginia
Woolf; ‘A Room of One’s Own' talked about women’s subjugation,
oppression and the unequal rights given to them in terms of education,
labours etc. Gradually, women started realising great need for the equal
rights and to be treated as human beings t hat paved way for the emergence
and acceleration of feminism and feministic literary theory not only on
Europe and America but all over the world as British feminism, American
feminism, French feminism in which the female writers, critics and
theorists con tributed their research and mapping of the history with respect
to their nationality. Feminism and feminist criticism and its historical
development can be understood in three phases and later waves. When we
assess critically, we find that these waves are the result of political events
in Europe and the United States. In a close examination we find that with
almost similar thread of ideologies of feminism and feminist criticism, a
spectrum of varied forms of feminism gradually developed at every stage
with different points of view which are interdependent and rolls down munotes.in
Page 37
Marxism and Feminism
37 with more developmental critical theories towards the emancipation and
development of women from the past historical years, subsequently to the
present stages struggling to get a respected sp ace and place on this planet.
The feminist critics tries to re -examine the literary texts and show the
subordination of women and their experiences through literature in the
light of various critical theories. They try to re -evaluate through women
literary works in the context ofsocial, cultural psychological and sexual
harassment to expose the patriarchal prejudices. One of the most
influential books in the twentieth century was written by Simone de
Beauvoir’s ‘The Second Sex’ published in 1949 which talke d about the
woman’s situation is responsible for her character. It is the woman’s fault
for her own condition as the way she is raised.
5.2.2. Three phases of Modern Feminism:
Feminism has thus been divided into three phases by the American
feminist and theorist Elaine Showalter in her model of mapping the
literary development from past to present time studying literary works
under various critical approaches examining the representation of women
in the literary texts. She proposed three phases of differ ent ages through
which the different condition and development in life of women is studied.
In the first wave that starts from 1890 to 1960 they demanded the right to
vote and basic rights in the patriarchal property. The first is the feminine
phase (from 1840 – 1880) in which the women writers followed and
imitated the tradition and the men writers. The second is the feminist
phase (from 1880 -1920). In the feminist phase women advocated the
minority rights and protested for unjust treatment and oppression towards
them and struggled for their equal rights. There was an analysis of the
condition of women through works of literature. The third is the female
phase (1920 -present day) in which the focus was diverted towards the
discovery of the orientation of wom en’s texts and highlighting the
misogyny in male texts or to uncover the misrepresentation of women
character. The study of women’s condition and their representation in the
literary texts based on this model proved to be pivotal and branched out
several t ypes of critical approaches such as Marxism Feminism, French
Feminism, Liberal Feminism, Psychoanalytic Feminism, gender studies
and so. Elaine Showalter created four models on gender difference that are
biological, cultural, psychoanalytical and linguisti cs. Many feminist critics
studied and tried to divide the movement into various phases according the
era that highlighted the challenges of reproductive rights, equal salary,
sexual exploitation, gender discrimination and so. Hence the feminist
movement is divided into four different waves each representing the socio -
cultural period and the subordinate position and condition of women in the
modern society which made the study of feminism easy to understand.
5.2.3. The Four Waves of Feminism:
The First -wave feminism began in the mid -19th and the 20th century all
over Europe and America. It highlighted mainly the suffrage and legal
equality i.e right to vote, right to property. Women demanded for social
equality and emancipation of women not only legal or p olitical rights but munotes.in
Page 38
Literary Criticism -II
38 also in the capitalism. Juliet Mitchell a socialist feminist writer and critic
published a book Women’s Estate in 1970 . She argues from her stance that
culture is the root cause of women’s degradation and not biology so a
cultural revol ution is necessary. Martha Lear a journalist coined the term
First -Wave feminism in a New York Times Magazine in 1968. She focused
on what do these women want? They focused on acquiring political
powers. The Second Wave feminism is marked in early 1960’s w hich
lasted for almost two decades aiming to focus on the various kinds of
issues such as sexual, domestic, workplace issues, the issues of rape and
molestation, divorce laws, custody laws and so. It basically criticised the
male -dominance over females and the patriarchal culture imposed on
women in the society. It also focused on the developments in the
condition of women in a broader spectrum. This is the wave when the
feminist literary criticism became much radical and propagated its explicit
ideas effe ctively. Many kinds of ideas came up. The feminist critics such
as Simone de Beauvoir, Kate Millet propagated the critical theory of
Phallocentric criticism in which they analysed the western literary canons
to understand and expose male dominance over fem ales and male biased
approach in the society. The African -American feminism or the black
feminism also became very popular during the second wave. Alice Walker
argued that they have to endure dual oppression; as a woman and through
gender discrimination an d through white racism. Hence the white
feminists cannot represent their plight. The French feminists argued to get
dissociated form male dominated language and create a new female
version of language which express female emotions. The Third -wave
feminism began in early 1990’s that embraced diversity and
individualism. They thought to redefine the actual meaning of feminism.
New feminist stream and theories were emerged and brought in
progression such as intersectionality, vegetarian ecofeminism, postmoder n
feminism, transfeminism and so. The Third -wave feminism is credited to
Rebecca Walker an American writer and feminist activist who is of the
view that the Third wave feminism is not only a reaction but a movement.
Kimberley Crenshaw an American civil rig hts advocate and a scholar of
critical race theory introduced the term, ‘intersectionality’ in 1989 which
means the idea that women experienced several layers of oppression
caused by class, race, gender and so on. Due to the invention of computers
and inte rnet women became proactive on social media and feminism
accelerated and flourished all the world. Since late 1990’s and onwards
women started writing online their e -articles and views through blogs, and
other platforms with an objective to eradicate the s tereotypical gender
roles and to redefine and broadening the new views and cultural identities.
However, the Third -wave feminism lacked in attaining cohesive goals and
is considered as an extension of the second -wave feminism. The Fourth -
wave feminism is said to had begun around 2012 with an objective of
empowerment of women. In this phase women started to share their views,
experiences through internet and social media about sexual assault, sexual
exploitation, sexism on work place, sexual harassment, obje ctification,
molestation and so openly. Women of the Fourth -wave feminists used
internet as a tool for self -representation and self -advocacy. This wave also
brought positive progress for females. This wave argued for equal munotes.in
Page 39
Marxism and Feminism
39 opportunities and equal pay. Kira Cochrane , a British journalist and
feminist scholar, Prudence Bussey -Chamberlain describe the fourth wave
as focusing on justice for women, and sexual harassment. Kira Cochrane
argues further that the Fourth -wave feminism is ‘defined by technology’
with the extensive usage of Facebook, Twitter, You - tube and so.
However, the Fourth wave feminism is criticised by having limitations and
restricted to certain areas. Since the beginning of the Fourth -wave
feminism women have got inclined its axel towards individualism rather
than political and acceptance and recognition in the social structure where
she was considered as a second citizen.
5.2.4. Literature survey of Feminist Literary critics:
As we hav e studied so far, the objective of feminist literary criticism is to
analyse women’s position in the society and their gender role reflected in
the literary canons. Initially the feminist critics foregrounded the older
texts and found the reflection of wom en role in the texts. Later they
analysed through various convex lenses of theories. Virginia Woolf in her
first book ‘A Room of One’s Own’ published in 1929 pointed that the
literary world is male dominated and a woman must have their own space.
The moder n feminism begins with Simone de Beauvoir’s influential text
published in French in the year 1949 the ‘Second Sex’ with her
controversial statement “one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman."
She explored the female issues by analysing the Marxism, He gelian,
classical theories and exposed the female identities. She sharply remarked
that the western society was totally male -dominated and female in this
society was the “Second Sex” the ‘other’ as non -important or inessential
in the patriarchal society of He. She is of the view that the term female if
replaced by the “Second Sex” will reduce the male prejudice and
discrimination imposed on women by the male society. Kate Millet
another influential feminist studied the books by D.H. Lawrence, Henry
Miller a nd others and showed how they wrote about women in sexist way.
She announced in her famous book, ‘Sexual Politics’ (1970) that
“patriarchy has already been established and the male has already set
themselves as the human form the subject and referent to wh ich is the
female is ‘other’ or alien” (Millet, 1970:25). Gradually, the perspective of
feminist movements naturally got changed with the years. Various
feminist schools such as ra dical feminism, liberal feminism, Marxist
feminism, psychoanalytic feminism, black feminism, post -modern
feminism and so got usurped to study the equality with men, development,
and position of women in the society. It was also divided into American,
French, and British school based on its historical and cultural inheritance.
Lisa Tuttle is of the view that the final goal of feminist criticism is “ to
develop and uncover a female tradition of writing,” … “to analyze women
writers and their writings from a female perspective", … “rediscover old
texts", … “to interpret symbolism of w omen's writing so that it will not be
lost or ignored by the male point of view” … “to resist sexism in literature
and to increase awareness of the sexual politics of language and style".
(Lisa Tuttle: 1986, 184). Helene Cixous another prolific feminist wr iter
coined the term ‘Ecriture Feminine’ in her famous essay, “Laugh of the
Medusa”, published in 1975 which asserts that, “Women must write her munotes.in
Page 40
Literary Criticism -II
40 self: must write about women and bring women to writing, from which
they have been driven away as violently as from their bodies” as she is of
the view that their sexual pleasures have been suppressed and is not
accepted but denied. She also exposed the relationship between sexuality
and language. She opines that historically she observed that women have
been restr icted to express her sexual needs and is treated as sexual objects
by men. She believes that “our sexuality is directly tied to how we
communicate in the society”. Luce Irigaray expresses that woman sexual
jouissance is multiple than men unitary phallic pl easures. Julia Kristeva
the another most influential critic asserts about the multiple sexual
identities and puts forth that language should not be dissected only
through its structure but should be analysed from historical, psychological,
and sexual exper iences of the individual. The postmodern feminism
concentrated to destabilize patriarchal notion and promoting on gender
equality through various perspectives. The major postmodern feminist
critic Judith Butler views in her book Gender Trouble published in 1990;
that sex or gender is constructed through language. Many other feminist
critics all over the world including India also revolted on similar other
issues which brought out a positive effect result towards the feminist
struggle. Maityrayee Chaudhari states that in India feminist struggle was
initiated by men unlike the Western feminist struggle. Women joined their
struggle later. Revolutionists like Savitribai Phule, who initiated first
school for women. Pandita Ramabai, criticised the patriarchy and caste -
system in India. Tarabai Shinde wrote the first Indian feminist text, “Stri
Prurush Tulana” (A Comparison between Women and Men) in 1882
brought out the differences and discrimination between men and women in
India which served as an eye -opener. Des pite the feminist struggle many
Indian modern women are still facing discrimination, harassments,
domestic violence, and other physical and mental torture which still has to
overcome.
5.2.5. Foregrounding Methods of Feminist Literary Critics:
The objecti ve of feminist critic writing is to rediscover the tradition of
writing and old texts by examining the role of women and their
representation in these texts. It explores and uncovers the portrayal of
feminine figures their oppression and exploitation, and the narrative of
male domination in texts of literature. The feminist literary philosophers
and critics examined the literary texts from various literary canon
perspective and critical disciplines such as historical analysis, sociological,
psychological, l inguistics and so deconstructing the structures, language,
characters and so. The feminists use many methods to examine to
foreground the condition of women through the literary canons.
The key concepts or methods that they use are as follows:
The feminis t critics interpret the reading of the texts on the gender
basis.
Reclamation of marginalised women and their contribution to
literature if earlier ignored. munotes.in
Page 41
Marxism and Feminism
41 Feminists deconstruct the women characters portrayed in novels, short
stories, plays, history, and biographies.
They explicate how the women treat their subjects in their
autobiographies and how the biographers treat women as a secondary
person in their work.
Foregrounding the use of marginalised language for women, style of
difference in writing of m en and women.
Elucidation the man woman relationship, their roles, gender power
portrayed in texts and resistance of patriarchy in texts by women
characters.
Analysing the feminist approach in multiple works. Feminists also
examine the works by men but this does not happen in gynocriticism.
Elaine Showalter coined the term ‘Gynocriticism, or gynocritics’ in
1970’s. Gynocriticism refers to the analysis of literary works and
recording of the works by women. It examines the status of women as
a gender in t he society along with her psychological consciousness and
her struggle to find her own identity in the patriarchal society.
5.2.6. Conclusion:
Feminist literary criticism aimed to review, revise, and redefine the
traditional theories and concepts which w ere accepted and considered true
for years in opposition to the women in a male dominated society. Hence,
it is a subversion against the traditional literary criticism which were male
dominated. It is a movement which aims to attain balance between male
and female and bring about an end to gender inequality, sexism, sexual
exploitation, work place harassment, economic inequality and to bring in
equality in law and in all spheres of society.
5.3. EXERCISE:
Answer the following questions in 100 to 150 word s:
1. Explain the ideas of Karl Marx briefly.
2. How is base and superstructure explained by Marx?
3. What are the basic principles of Marxism?
4. How is Russian Marxism different from Western Marxism?
5. Explain in detail the theory of alienation in Marxism.
6. Elucida te Terry Eagleton’s concept of form and content.
7. What is feminism?
8. What is the main purpose of the feminist movement?
9. Write in detail the different phases of feminism explained by Elaine
Showalter.
10. Elucidate the four waves of feminism. munotes.in
Page 42
Literary Criticism -II
42 11. Comment on the f eminist approach to literary criticism with
examples.
12. What are the key concepts of feminist literary criticism?
5.4. REFERENCES:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_literary_criticism#:~:text=It%20
is%20through%20the%20theories,in%20which%20they%20were %20
constructed.
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_ae sthetics
3. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism/Class -struggle
4. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marxism.asp#:~:text=Marxism
%20is%20a%20soci al%2C%20political%2C%20and%20economic%2
0theory%20originated%20by,would%20inevitably%20create%20class
%20conflict.
5. https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520032439/marxism -and-literary -
criticism
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_bibliography
7. https://upload.wik imedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Base -
superstructure_Dialectic.png
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_and_superstructure
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surplus_value#:~:text=According%20to
%20Marx's%20theory%2C%20surplus,profit%20when%20products%
20are%20sol d
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism
11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346426941_A_brief_history
_and_classification_of_feminism
12. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First -wave_feminism
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third -wave_feminism
14. https://www.thou ghtco.com/feminist -literary -criticism -3528960
15. file:///C:/Users/DELL/Downloads/55912763.pdf
16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89criture_f%C3%A9minine#:~:te
xt=H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne%20Cixous%20first%20coined%20%C3
%A9criture,pleasure%20has%20been%20repressed%20and
17. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_Kristeva
18. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism_in_India
munotes.in
Page 43
43 6
POSTCOLONIAL CRITICISM AND ECO
CRITICISM
Unit - Structure
6.0 Objective s
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Postcolonial Criticism
6.3 Eco Criticism
6.4 Check Your Progress
6.5 Bibliography
6.0 OBJECTIVE S
The objectives of this Unit are to make the learners familiar w ith:
Postcolonial Criticism
Eco Criticism
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Post-Colonial criticism and Eco -criticism are the new approaches to study
literary texts. Post -Colonial criticism attempts to understand, explore and
re-read the literary texts with multiple persp ectives that emerged after the
colonial period in world history ended some time in 1950s. The critics of
this school are trying to keep themselves away and unprejudiced from the
colonial perspectives. Eco -Criticism is a branch of criticism that looks at
literature from ecological perspective due to the environmental imbalance
that is resulting from the human encroachment on nature and natural
resources.
6.2 POST -COLONIAL CRITICISM
6.2.1 Introduction:
Postcolonialism is a term broadly applied to the impact a nd aftereffects on
countries, their cultural and societal changes and much more to their
endurance and experience by the countries which were once colonised by
the Western countries. It is about how the European countries conquered
the weak nations and con trolled them. These nations are called as the
‘Third World’. It is the reaction and resistance to the encroachment by the
western colonization. It is also referred to the cultural and social changes
in the later period of decolonized countries who were onc e colonised by munotes.in
Page 44
Literary Criticism -II
44 the Westerns to analyse, rethink, and reclaim their history and effects of
imperialism. The period after the retreating of the imperialists from their
colonised territories is identified as postcolonial period. Hence it is an
account for the aftermath overall effects of colonialism on the countries
especially on culture and to know about the progress of the world towards
mutual respect. It came out from the interpretation of the theory of
Orientalism from them who explained the concept of ‘Or ientalism’ in his
book published in 1978 by the cultural critic Edward Said. As quoted by
E. San Juan, Jr. about Edward Said, “the originator and inspiring patron -
saint of postcolonial theory and discourse.” Edward Said is considered as
the pioneer and the father of Postcolonial studies. It creates a new culture
and its negative impact on the colonizers such as psychological problems,
the split identities or multiple identities or solidarity and trauma. This also
created a new culture (for example in India) having the mix culture.
6.2.2 Historical Background:
Many historians and theorists thought deeply about and tried to excavate
the actual theory of postcolonialism from various perspectives such as
cultural, social, economics, philosophical, psychological, and so. The
countries after 1945 began to gain independence due to the end of the
World War -II. The modern times witnessed the independence of few
countries. The British empire, France, Netherlands, Portugal, the USA,
who had many countries under their ru le which got independent from their
clutches. Earlier the countries which were prohibiting the countries to get
colonised now the same countries are migrating to the colonised countries.
Leela Gandhi’s Postcolonial Studies is the landmark for the studies o f
postcolonialism studies. Along with the study of post structuralism,
Marxism, structuralism, feminism, and many other branches, it is
considered as one of the most influential studies in the history of literary
criticism. Many studies are based on the po stcolonial studies related to the
other studies. There are many contributors to these theories. ‘The Empire
Writes back’ is one of the influential essays written by Edward Said who
illuminated the theory of the belongingness of the country people and their
culture. There are many things which can be discussed and scrutinised for
the study of postcolonialism.
Post-colonial literature seems to be originating from the undeveloped
countries which were once colonised by the British government. These
countries we re India, African, and Caribbean . The writers from these
countries tried to protest in the form of their writings which was about
their plight living under the British rule, sufferings, struggle for
independence, migration, national identity crisis. Post -colonial literature is
about the critical approach of the writers of that country and its people,
colonies or literature as their subject matter which were once colonised.
Frantz Fanon the psychiatrist and the philosopher analyses the nature of
colonialism as destructive in his.
munotes.in
Page 45
Postcolonial Criticism and
Eco Criticism
45 6.2.3 Theory of Post -Colonialism:
Literary theory of post colonialism concerns about the history, literature,
culture, and other modes of discourses about the Third World countries
such as Africa, India, South America, and Caribbean Islands. The
Orientalist Ernest Renan propounded in his work La Reforme`
intellectuelle et morale’ in 1871 the concept of the hegemony of the
Western world over the non -western World. Colonialism in a sense
according to him was ideologically considered as “the extension of
civilisation” as the racial and cultural superiority of the Occidentals over
the Orientals i.e the Western Countries over the Eastern or non -Western
Countries. Postcolonial theory exposes and commends that the
decolonised countries must d evelop a postcolonial identity. They should
develop their own identity based on culture, class, and gender for a more
developed society. The French philosopher and a psychiatrist Frantz
Fanon in his influential work The Wretched of the Earth (1961) discuss es
about colonialism as a form of domination. He talks about identity not as
signifier Black but accept the identity as a human being means considering
the other human being as equal. He was of the view that the natives should
resist the colonial hegemony. Later, Edward Said developed a work about
postcolonialism in his book Orientalism.
6.2.4 Post-Colonial Literary Criticism:
Post-Colonial literature is the work of literature by the writers of the
country who were once colonized and the expression of their exper iences
of their plight during the colonization and repercussions, they re -examine
the colonial discourse more of the social facet. They usually depict the
problems of decolonisation effects on the dominated people by the
colonizers. They examine the repres entation of the other cultures in the
works of text. They also expose the silence of such literature that is related
to colonization and imperialism. The ubiquity of many writers brought the
theme of post -colonization in literature. Post -Colonialism is gen erally
considered as the era after the end of the colonization. The major
influential works in postcolonial theory are some of these as follows: The
Wretched of the Earth (1961) by Franz Fanon, Orientalism (1978) by
Edward Said, In Other Worlds (1987) by G ayatri Spivak, The Empire
Writes Back (1989) by Bill Ashcroft et al, Nation and Narration (1990) by
Homi K Bhabha, and Culture and Imperialism (1993) by Edward Said.
Edward Said one of the major proponents and leading figure for the
concept of postcolonial ism views that the occidents or the Western
explorers and thinkers has created a false image of the orient through their
various works. His influential book Orientalism published in 1978 ignited
the spark of the theory of postcolonialism. In his book he un covers the
cruel oppression and domination by the imperialists and their untrue
colonial discourse in the texts of well -known and prominent literary
writers. Hence whatever has been written by the Wests about the colonised
or the Eastern countries has crea ted the Western views about the East.
Such texts are highly biased according to Said and create wrong
impression. As they view the Orientals as the “other” or the primitive in
contrast with the western civilised and advanced people. These texts munotes.in
Page 46
Literary Criticism -II
46 depicted th e oriental as irrational, strange and weak as in contrast with the
Occidentals as rational, familiar, and strong. The aftermath effects of
colonialism were so terrible that people are experiencing its gruesome
consequences even today permeating the corrupt ion, chaos, bloodshed,
inequality, and by imposing their culture and language and values
fragmenting dominating the Eastern countries which were colonized. The
colonies always considered themselves as superior to the orientalists and
the colonized countrie s and depicted them as bourgeois. Edwards Said ’s
approach towards the disdainful attitude of the west towards the East is
supported by Ashcroft, Griffith and Tiffin in The Empire Writes Back by
depicting how the Africa and the Africans stands in the eyes o f the
western philosophers, thinkers, and writers as the primitive and demonic
but moving ahead as more than Hegel could define as being “outside
history”. Hence Said’s books analyses as how the works of art has
fractured the values, culture, traditions, l anguages and moral of East. Said
explicitly marks that "The post - imperial writers of the Third World
therefore bear their past within them as scars of humiliating wounds ….as
urgently reinterpretable and redeployable experiences in which the
formerly sile nt native speaks".
In this reference Gayatri Spivak’s essay, “Can the Subaltern Speak?” is a
milestone that deals with the problem of representation of the Orientals by
the Westerns and are called as “Third World”. She is of the view that even
now the powe rful dominate the powerless and hence the powerless are
voiceless and unable to express themselves. According to Spivak, “Certain
Varieties of the Indian Elite are at best native informants for first world
intellectuals interested in the voice of the other . Spivak makes a point that
"Western intellectual production is, in many ways, complicit with Western
international economic interests".
Elleke Boehmer, in, In Colonial and Postcolonial Literature , argues that,
among other functions, literature in a way re flects the social and historical
moment. Boehmer defines the colonial literature as that which was
"written by and for colonizing Europeans about non - European lands
dominated by them…Colonialist literature was informed by theories
concerning the superiori ty of European culture and the rightness of
empire".
Ashcroft views in The Empire Writes Back , that the postcolonialism
reflects the colonialism and its effects and has shaped their lives due to
colonialism experience and hence gained a worldwide importanc e since
more than 3 decades. Homi K. Bhabha a theorist argues in his The
Location of Culture (1994) that “viewing the human world as composed of
separate and unequal cultures, rather than as an integral human world,
perpetuates the belief in the existence of imaginary peoples and places -”
6.2.5 Literature survey of Post-Colonialism:
Postcolonial theory and criticism deals with the literature which is
produced in the countries which were once colonised and decolonised.
Postcolonial literature analyses the ef fects of the colonization on the munotes.in
Page 47
Postcolonial Criticism and
Eco Criticism
47 colonised people. It also concerns about the changed culture,
multiculturalism, metaphysical, ethnicity and political changes and
concerns after the decolonization. It also analyses whether the text upholds
or subverts the colonial ideas.
The postcolonial writers focused on mapping the Europeans mindset that
built their superiority over the colonised in politically prejudiced way.
Postcolonial criticism and critics foregrounds, examine and reexamines
the literary texts, thei r themes, culture, social implications, and life of
characters by focusing on the actual intentions of the Europeans in the
contexts in which they were produced, and reveal the colonial perspective.
These types of approaches are identified in many literary texts and studies
from the postcolonial point of view. One such in Chinua Achebe ’s
rereading of Joseph Conrad ’s Heart of Darkness reveals the colonial
effects on the natives. Edwards Said’s rereading of Jane Austen’s
Mansfield Park , Homi Bhabha’s rereadin g of E.M. Forster’s A Passage to
India identifies the identities, culture, assimilation of other culture and
languages and the resistance of the natives. The Africans are portrayed as
the savages and needs the grooming and enlightenment in their texts.
Chinua Achebe is one of the important writers of African literature who
voiced against domination and slavery by the western countries. He
highlighted the spread of the awareness of colonialism effects on African
people. Things Fall Apart talks about socio -political aspects and the
friction between the Igbo people and empowering Whites. The protagonist
Okonkwo an Igbo, who stays in Ogidi; Nigeria fails to take back his
people back to his culture and the slavery treatment of the whites towards
the African peopl e which was gruesome. Salman Rushdie one of the
significant postcolonial writers because of his important work of
‘Midnight’s Children’ depicts a man named Saleem who is born exactly at
the time of Independence of India which brings in a complication situa tion
in his life and there may be many such containing the themes of
colonialism and postcolonialism. Gabriel Garcia Ma`rquez a South
American influential postcolonial writer as his works is unique with the
representation of culture, tradition and history of Columbia. His famous
book One Hundred Years of Solitude portrays the postcolonial concepts
and the perception of time and reality, class inequalities and political
instability in Columbia. Another novel by Gabriel, The Autumn of
Patriarch (1975) spotlig hts on the horrible oppression and effects of
power after colonisation. Raj Rao’s Kanthapura (1938) depicts the
struggle of the villagers in pre -independence period against the British
government. Moreover, other major novelists like J M Coetzee, Ngugi wa
Thiongo, Wole Soyinka, Khushwant Singh, Nissim Ezekiel, Urvashi
Butalia, Amitav Ghosh, Rohinton Mistry and many other talks about the
postcolonial effects and the oppression of the natives. Many others are yet
to be studied. Hence many thinkers and writers contributed to the
development of this area of study.
Moreover, after long period of domination by the colonisers the writers of
the colonised countries or the so called ‘Third World’ nations are
interested in writing and recreating the old histories, ref lecting the issues
of colonization and anticolonization. The usurping of hybrid culture due to munotes.in
Page 48
Literary Criticism -II
48 the intermingling of cultures or integration developed the concept of
hybridity . But the assimilation and cross -fertilisation of cultures can be
seen in a positi ve way for enriching the lifestyles.
Postcolonialism came up with many issues to be resolved and marked the
future end of colonialism era but still the resistance persists in mind and
practices in action. Post colonialism and literature had evolved to unco ver
the subjugation, violence, oppression towards the marginalised as it is said
and the subalterns through works of literature. Yet new ways of
domination or subordination may usurp for the new way of world power
may be imposed on the countries who are in economic debts.
6.3 ECO -CRITICISM
Eco-criticism is a field of literary and cultural studies that explores the
relationship between literature, culture, and the natural environment. It is a
form of literary criticism that focuses on the representation of nature and
the environment in literature and seeks to understand how these
representations shape our understanding of the natural world and our
relationship to it.
Eco-criticism examines a wide range of literary genres and periods, from
classical poetry an d drama to contemporary fiction and non -fiction. It also
looks at other forms of cultural expression, such as film, music, and visual
arts, to explore the ways in which nature and the environment are
represented in these forms.
One of the key goals of eco -criticism is to raise awareness about
environmental issues and to promote environmental sustainability. It does
this by analyzing literary and cultural representations of the environment,
and by encouraging readers and audiences to think critically about t heir
own relationship to the natural world.
Eco-critics may examine the ways in which literary works portray human
interactions with nature, the impact of human activities on the
environment, and the role of literature in shaping our attitudes toward the
natural world. They may also explore the ways in which environmental
issues are reflected in literature, and the ways in which literature can be
used to inspire environmental activism.
Overall, eco -criticism is an interdisciplinary field that draws on a ran ge of
theoretical perspectives, including environmental science, philosophy, and
cultural studies, to analyze the complex relationship between literature,
culture, and the natural environment There are many important critics in
the field of eco -criticism. Some of the key figures in this area of literary
and cultural studies include:
Lawrence Buell - Buell is often credited with coining the term
"ecocriticism" and is considered one of the founders of the field. He is the
author of several influential books, including "The Environmental
Imagination" and "Writing for an Endangered World". munotes.in
Page 49
Postcolonial Criticism and
Eco Criticism
49 Cheryll Glotfelty - Glotfelty is another important figure in the
development of eco -criticism. She co -edited the influential anthology "The
Ecocriticism Reader" and is the aut hor of "Literary Studies and the
Environmental Debate".
Ursula Heise - Heise is a literary scholar and environmental theorist who
has written extensively on the intersection of literature and environmental
issues. Her books include "Sense of Place and Sens e of Planet" and
"Imagining Extinction".
Timothy Morton - Morton is a philosopher and cultural theorist who has
written on a wide range of topics, including ecology, literature, and
politics. His books include "Ecology without Nature" and "Hyperobjects".
Donna Haraway - Haraway is a feminist scholar and environmental
activist who has written extensively on the intersection of science,
technology, and the environment. Her books include "Staying with the
Trouble" and "When Species Meet".
These are just a few of the many important critics who have contributed to
the development of eco -criticism as a field of study.
Eco-criticism is highly relevant today because of the pressing
environmental challenges facing our planet. Climate change, habitat
destruction, and species extinction are just a few of the urgent
environmental issues that demand attention and action.
As a field of literary and cultural studies, eco -criticism provides a
framework for understanding the ways in which literature and culture
shape our atti tudes toward the natural world, and how they can be used to
promote environmental awareness and activism. By analyzing the ways in
which environmental themes are represented in literature, film, and other
forms of cultural expression, eco -critics can help to raise awareness about
environmental issues and promote sustainable practices.
Eco-criticism can also help to provide a deeper understanding of the
complex relationships between humans and the natural world. By
examining the ways in which human culture a nd society are shaped by the
environment, and the ways in which our actions impact the natural world,
eco-critics can help to foster a greater appreciation for the
interconnectedness of all living things.
Furthermore, eco -criticism can play an important ro le in inspiring
environmental activism. By highlighting the ways in which literature and
culture can be used to raise awareness about environmental issues and
promote change, eco -critics can help to mobilize individuals and
communities to take action to pr otect the environment.
Overall, eco -criticism is highly relevant today because it provides a
critical lens through which to understand the complex relationship
between humans and the natural world, and can inspire individuals and
communities to take action to protect the environment. munotes.in
Page 50
Literary Criticism -II
50 6.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What do you mean by the theory/concept of postcolonialism?
2. Explain why is the theory of postcolonialism important?
3. Who are the major proponents of postcolonial theory?
4. What are the characteristic feature s of postcolonial literature?
5. What do the postcolonial critics do?
6. Discuss with your classmates about any two postcolonial books and
write its characteristic features in your own words.
6.5 BIBLIGRAPHY
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonialism
2. https://www.britannica.com/topic/postcolonialism
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonial_literature
4. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/328024387.pdf
5. https://www.shmoop.com/study -guides/literary -
movements/postcolonial - literature/authors
munotes.in
Page 51
51 7
PRACTICAL CRITICISM - CRITICAL
APPRECIATION OF POEM -I
Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 What is a Poem?
7.2 Prosody
7.3 Types of Prosody
7.4 Rhythm
7.5 Metre
7.6 Rhyme
7.7 Diction
7.8 Poetic Diction
7.9 Figures of Speech
7.10 Poetic forms
7.11 Check Y our Progress
7.12 Bibliography
7.0 OBJECTIV ES
1. Appreciate the ways in which poetry is presented and represented.
2. Explore their feelings and those of others through poetry.
3. Develop a method that could be applied to appreciating poetry,
understanding the use of figurative language.
4. Write a critical appreciation of a poetic work.
7.1 WHAT IS A POEM?
A poem is a type of literary work written in verse, characterized by
imaginative or creative writing that often follows a specific form, rhyme
or rhythm pattern. Th e purpose of a poem is to use language in a unique
and imaginative way to create a desired effect or to express ideas and
feelings. It aims to evoke emotions, convey thoughts and ideas, tell stories,
or paint pictures with words. Poems can be serious, humo rous, or munotes.in
Page 52
Literary Criticism -II
52 personal, and may take various forms, including sonnets, haikus, ballads,
and free verse.
Poetry (ancient Greek: (poieo) = I create) is an art form in which human
language is used for its aesthetic qualities, instead of, its notional and
semantic content. It consists largely of oral or literary works in which
language is used in an artistic manner that is felt by its user and audience
to differ from ordinary prose. It may use condensed form to convey
emotion or ideas to the reader's or listener's m ind or ear. Poems frequently
depend on the effect on imagery, word association, and the musical
qualities of the language used. The interactive layering of all these effects
to generate meaning is what marks poetry. Now let us have a look at the
basic elem ents of poetry.
7.2 PROSODY
Prosody refers to the rhythm, stress, and intonation patterns of language in
verse. It encompasses the elements of meter, rhyme, and syllable count,
and is used to create musical and rhythmic effects in poetry. Prosody can
be us ed to convey emotions, set a mood, and bring attention to certain
words or phrases. Some poets may use strict meter, while others may use
more free -flowing rhythms, depending on the desired effect. Prosody is an
important aspect of poetry, as it adds to th e overall musicality and
meaning of a poem.
7.3 TYPES OF PROSODY
There are four distinguishable prosodic metrical patterns, which are:
Syllabic Prosody – Syllabic prosody counts a fixed number of syllables in
each line, while accent, tone, and quantity pla y a secondary role.
Accentual Prosody – Accentual prosody measures only the accents or
stresses in a line of verse, while the overall number of syllables may vary
in a line. It is very common in Germanic, old English, and modern English
verses.
Accentual -syllabic Prosody – Accentual -syllabic prosody counts both the
number of syllables and accents in each line. We commonly find it in
English poetry.
Quantitative Prosody – Quantitative prosody does not measure the number
of syllables, rather depending upon du ration of syllables. This can be
determined by the amount of time used on pronunciation, such as a free -
verse poem that consists of unmeasured lines. We find this type of
prosody in Roman and classical Greek poetry, and only very rarely in
English poetry.
7.4 RHYTHM
The word rhythm is derived from rhythmos (Greek) which means,
“measured motion.” Rhythm is a literary device that demonstrates the long munotes.in
Page 53
Practical Criticism -
Critical Appreciation of
Poem -I
53 and short patterns through stressed and unstressed syllables, particularly in
verse form. It helps to give a flow and musicality to language and can
influence meaning and emphasis. In linguistic terms, rhythm is often
described in terms of syllable stress, timing, and melody. Different
languages have different rhythms, and the rhythm of a language can
impact how it sounds to a speaker of another language.
Types of Rhythm:
1. Iambic (x /): unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (da -
DUM).
Such as:
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
(Sonnet 18, by William Shakespeare)
2. Trochaic (/ x): stressed s yllable followed by an unstressed syllable
(DUM -da).
For example:
“Tell me not, in mournful numbers”
(Psalm of Life, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)
3. Spondee (/ /)
Spondee is a poetic foot that has two syllables, which are consecutively
stressed. For exam ple:
“White founts falling in the Courts of the sun”
(Lepanto, by G. K. Chesterton)
4. Anapestic (x x /): two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed
syllable (da -da-DUM).
For example:
”‘Twas the night before Christmas, and all through the house,” (‘ Twas the
Night Before Christmas, by Clement Clarke Moore)
5. Dactylic: stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (DUM -
da-da).
For example:
“This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks,”
(Evangeline, by Henry Wadsworth Lo ngfellow)
The words “primeval” and “murmuring” show dactyls in this line. munotes.in
Page 54
Literary Criticism -II
54 6. Amphibrachic (x / x): unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable
and then another unstressed syllable (da -DUM -da).
7.5 METRE
Metre in poetry refers to the systematic ar rangement of stressed and
unstressed syllables in a line of verse. It creates a rhythmic pattern that
gives poetry its structure and musical quality. In addition to these basic
meters, many poems have a combination of different meters, and some
have no met er at all. The choice of meter, along with other elements such
as rhyme, can contribute to the tone and meaning of a poem. The study of
different types of versification and meters is known as “prosody.” The
word Metre is derived from a Greek word ‘metron’ which means
‘measure’.
Metre and Foot
A meter contains a sequence of several feet, where each foot has a number
of syllables such as stressed/unstressed. Hence, a meter has an overall
rhythmic pattern in a line of verse, which a foot cannot describe.
Types of Metre
English poetry employs five basic meters, including:
Iambic metre (unstressed/stressed)
Trochaic metre (stressed/unstressed)
Spondaic metre, (stressed/stressed)
Anapestic metre (unstressed/unstressed/ stressed)
Dactylic metre (stressed/unstressed /unstressed)
Meter has two subdivisions: qualitative metre, and quantitative metre.
Qualitative Metre
Qualitative metre contains stressed syllables with regular intervals, such as
iambic pentameter containing even numbered
Examples of Metre
Iambic Metre: William Shakespeare's "Sonnet 18"
Example: "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?"
Trochaic Metre: Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven"
Example: "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and
weary"
Anapestic Metre: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's "The Mi dnight Ride of
Paul Revere" munotes.in
Page 55
Practical Criticism -
Critical Appreciation of
Poem -I
55 Example: "Listen my children and you shall hear, of the midnight ride of
Paul Revere."
Dactylic Metre: Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner"
Example: "It is an ancient Mariner, and he stoppeth one of three. "
Spondaic Metre: Percy Bysshe Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind"
Example: "O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being."
Amphibrachic Metre: Alfred Lord Tennyson's "Ulysses"
Example: "Though much is taken, much abides; and though we are not
now that str ength which in old days moved earth and heaven."
7.6 RHYME
Rhyme in poetry refers to the repetition of the same or similar sounds in
words, typically at the end of lines. It creates a musical and rhythmic
quality in poetry and can also reinforce the meanin g of the poem. Some
common types of rhyme in poetry include:
End rhyme: the repetition of the same or similar sounds at the end of lines
in a poem.
Internal rhyme: the repetition of the same or similar sounds within the
lines of a poem, rather than at the end.
Masculine rhyme: a rhyme in which the final stressed syllable is rhymed.
Feminine rhyme: a rhyme in which two or more unstressed syllables are
followed by a stressed syllable that rhymes.
The use of rhyme can add musicality, humor, and emotional impac t to a
poem. Poets use rhyme in different ways to achieve different effects, such
as creating a structured pattern, emphasizing key words, and adding humor
or emotional impact to a poem. The choice and use of rhyme can also
contribute to the tone and meani ng of a poem.
Kinds of Rhymes
End rhyme occurs at the end of lines
Internal rhyme occurs within lines
Masculine or strong rhymes: a single stressed syllable -‘hill’ and ‘still’
Feminine or weak syllable: two rhyming syllable, a stressed one
followed by an unstressed one –‘hollow’ and ‘follow’.
Eye rhyme or courtesy rhyme: words spelt alike but not actually
rhyming –‘love’ and ‘prove’. munotes.in
Page 56
Literary Criticism -II
56 Imperfect rhyme (also called partial, near, slant or off – rhymes):
words which do not quite rhyme and so produce a sense di scordance –
‘soul’ and ‘wall’.
Half rhymes: repetition of the same consonant sounds before and after
different vowels – ‘groaned’ and ‘groined’
Alliteration
Alliteration is a literary device in which the initial sounds of several words
in a phrase or line a re repeated, creating a sonic effect. It adds musicality
and emphasis to language, and can also be used for humorous or rhetorical
effect. Examples of alliteration include: "She sells Seashells by the
Seashore," "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper s," and "Fuzzy
Wuzzy was a bear." Alliteration can be found in various forms of writing,
including poetry, prose, and song lyrics.
Alliteration has an important role in poetry and prose. It creates a musical
effect in the text that enhances the pleasure of reading a literary piece. It
makes reading and recitation of the poems appealing and it renders flow
and beauty to a piece of writing.
Assonance:
Assonance is a literary device in which repeated vowel sounds create a
musical effect in language. Unlike all iteration, which repeats initial
sounds, assonance focuses on repeated vowel sounds within words. This
repetition can create a unifying effect, reinforce the meaning of words, or
add emotional depth to a piece of writing. Examples of assonance include:
"gray day," "round sound," and "how now brown cow." Assonance is
often used in poetry, but it can also be found in other forms of writing,
such as prose and song lyrics.
Below are a few assonance examples that are common.
“I feel depressed and restle”
“Go and mow the lawn”.
“Men sell the wedding bells.”
7.7 DICTION
Diction refers to the choice of words and phrases used in a literary work. It
encompasses the language and style used by the author to convey the
intended meaning. Diction can be formal, informal, c oncrete, abstract,
colloquial, elevated, etc. It can vary depending on the genre of the literary
work, the intended audience, and the purpose of the work. The diction can
also contribute to the tone, mood, and atmosphere of the piece. It is an
important as pect of writing as it helps to establish the voice and style of
the author, as well as shape the reader's understanding and interpretation
of the work. munotes.in
Page 57
Practical Criticism -
Critical Appreciation of
Poem -I
57 Types of Diction
1. Formal Diction: A type of diction that is characterized by the use of
high-level voc abulary, proper grammar, and a precise and precise tone. It
is typically used in academic, legal, or formal writing, and is characterized
by its formality and distance.
2. Informal Diction: A type of diction that is characterized by the use of
colloquial, casual, and everyday language. It is used in personal writing,
such as emails, letters, and blog posts, and is typically less formal than
formal diction.
3. Concrete Diction: A type of diction that refers to the use of specific,
tangible, and observable la nguage to describe physical objects and
experiences. It is characterized by its precision and specificity.
4. Abstract Diction: A type of diction that refers to the use of language to
describe abstract concepts, emotions, and ideas. It is characterized by its
lack of concrete details and its reliance on generalizations.
5. Colloquial Diction: A type of diction that refers to the use of informal,
local, and regional language. It is characterized by its informality and its
use of slang, idioms, and other non -standard forms of language.
6. Elevated Diction: A type of diction that refers to the use of formal,
sophisticated, and elevated language. It is typically used in poetry,
speeches, and other forms of elevated discourse and is characterized by its
grandeur and formality.
7. Technical Diction: A type of diction that refers to the use of specialized
language and terminology in a particular field or discipline. It is
characterized by its use of specialized vocabulary, acronyms, and
technical terms.
8. Slang dic tion: is the use of words that are newly coined, or even
impolite.
7.8 POETIC DICTION
Poetic Diction refers to the language and style used in poetry, which is
often elevated and distinctive from ordinary language. Poetic diction often
involves the use of figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, and
allusions, as well as the manipulation of sound, such as rhyme, meter, and
alliteration. Poetic diction is an important tool for poets as it allows them
to convey complex emotions, ideas, and themes in a creative and
imaginative way. Poetic diction can also help to create a musical and
rhythmic quality in poetry, making it more enjoyable and memorable to
read. Poetic diction is often used to create a unique and memorable voice,
to evoke emotions, and to e stablish a sense of tone and atmosphere in a
poem.
munotes.in
Page 58
Literary Criticism -II
58 7.9 FIGURES OF SPEECH
A figure of speech is a word or phrase using figurative language -language
that has other meaning than its normal definition. In other words, figures
of speeches rely on implied or sug gested meaning, rather than a dictionary
definition. Figures of speech are literary devices used to create a particular
effect in writing. The following are some common figures of speech:
1. Metaphor: A figure of speech that compares two unlike things with out
using the words “like” or “as.”
Example: “Her laughter was music to my ears.”
2. Simile: A figure of speech that compares two unlike things using the
words “like” or “as.”
Example: “Her smile was as bright as the sun.”
3. Hyperbole: A figure of speech that involves an exaggeration for
emphasis or effect.
Example: “I’ve told you a million times not to do that.”
4. Personification: A figure of speech that gives human qualities to non -
human objects.
Example: “The wind whispered through the trees.”
5. Irony : A figure of speech that involves saying one thing but meaning
the opposite.
Example: “Oh, what a beautiful day for a picnic!” (said when it's raining)
6. Alliteration: A figure of speech that involves repeating the same sound
at the beginning of adjacent words.
Example: “Sally sells Seashells by the Seashore.”
7. Onomatopoeia: A figure of speech that involves words that imitate
sounds.
Example: “Hiss”, “Boom”, “Sizzle”
8. Idiom: A figure of speech that involves a phrase or expression whose
meaning cannot be understood from the literal definition of the words.
Example: “It’s raining cats and dogs.”
9. Antithesis: A figure of speech that involves contrasting two opposite
ideas or concepts.
Example: “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do
for your country.” - John F. Kennedy munotes.in
Page 59
Practical Criticism -
Critical Appreciation of
Poem -I
59 10. Oxymoron: Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite
ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a
combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting
meanings, such as “cruel kindness,” or “living death”. Oxymoron
produces a dramatic effect in both prose and poetry.
11. Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech where a term is used to
refer to something that it's closely associated with, instead of directly
naming it . For example, "the crown" to refer to the monarchy or
"Hollywood" to refer to the American film industry.
12. Synecdoche: Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part of
something is used to refer to the whole thing, or the whole thing is used to
refer to a part of it. This figure of speech allows the writer to use a part of
an object to represent the entire object, or the entire object to represent a
part of it. The following are some examples of synecdoche:
"All hands on deck!" - This is a synecdoche that refers to all people on
board a ship, but is only using the word "hands" to represent the entire
crew.
"The wheels of justice turn slowly." - This is a synecdoche that uses the
wheels to refer to the entire justice system.
"The suits in the boardroom ." - This is a synecdoche that uses the word
"suits" to refer to the people who work in the boardroom.
"I need a roof over my head." - This is a synecdoche that uses the roof to
refer to a place to live.
Synecdoche is a useful tool for writers as it allows them to simplify
complex ideas, convey complex emotions, and create memorable and
powerful images. Synecdoche can also add depth and meaning to a piece
of writing, making it more impactful and memorable for the reader.
13. Transferred Epithet: A transferr ed epithet is a literary device in which
an adjective or epithet (descriptive word or phrase) is applied to an
unintended noun, giving the noun the qualities described by the adjective.
It is also known as hypallage. Example: "The rolling hills" where "rol ling"
modifies "hills".
7.10 POET IC FORMS
Poetic forms are specific structures or patterns used in writing poems.
Some common forms include:
Sonnet: 14 -line poem, typically with a rhyme scheme
Haiku: 3 -line poem with 5 syllables in the first line, 7 syllab les in the
second line, and 5 syllables in the third line
Villanelle: 19 -line poem consisting of 5 tercets (3 -line stanzas) and a final
quatrain (4 -line stanza) with repeating rhyme and line patterns munotes.in
Page 60
Literary Criticism -II
60 Limerick: light and humorous 5 -line poem with an AABBA r hyme pattern
Free verse: poem with no strict rhyme or meter patterns
Epic: a long narrative poem that tells the story of a hero's deeds.
These are just a few examples of the many forms poems can take. Poetic
forms can add structure and depth to a poem, he lping the poet to convey
their message and emotions in a specific way.
Couplet:
A couplet is a pair of successive lines of poetry that rhyme and have the
same meter. It is one of the simplest forms of rhymed poetry and is often
used to convey a compact ide a or expression. A couplet can be
independent, complete in itself, or it can be part of a longer poem. In
traditional poetry, a couplet often has a strong rhythmic structure and
rhyme scheme, but in modern poetry, the rhyme and meter may be more
relaxed. E xamples of famous couplets can be found in the works of
William Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, and John Donne.
Types of Couplets
Short Couplet
Split Couplet
Heroic Couplet (Closed and Open Couplets)
Shakespearean Couplet
Alexandrine Couplet
Qasida
Chinese Co uplet
The rhyming couplets are usually used in poetry in order to make a poem
interesting and rhythmic. They help create a rhyming effect in a poem. In
literature, Chaucer, Dryden, Pope and Shakespeare have been famous for
using rhyming heroic couplets.
Acrostic:
Any poem in which the first letter of each line forms a word or words. The
words formed are often names —the poet’s or the dedicatee’s. Longer
acrostic poems can create entire sentences from the first letter of each line.
Acrostic poems are free to rhyme or not rhyme and can be metered or free
verse.
Ballad:
A short narrative poem with stanzas of two or four lines and possibly a
refrain that most frequently deals with folklore or popular legends and is
suitable for singing. munotes.in
Page 61
Practical Criticism -
Critical Appreciation of
Poem -I
61 Ballads are constructed of alternating lines of four and three beats (feet).
The lines are usually iambic, but need not be. This accordion -like
construction creates a lilting, sing -song style.
An example of a ballad would be Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner” (the first three stanzas are excerpted here):
It is an ancient Mariner,
And he stoppeth one of three.
`By thy long beard and glittering eye,
Now wherefore stopp'st thou me ?
The Bridegroom's doors are opened wide,
And I am next of kin ;
The guests are met, the feast is set :
May'st hear the merry din.'
He holds him with his skinny hand,
`There was a ship,' quoth he.
`Hold off ! unhand me, grey -beard loon !'
Eftsoons his hand dropt he.
Blank Verse :
Blank verse is poetry that has no set stanzas or line length. It is a common
form of poetry seen often in Shakespeare, Milton, Yeats, Auden, Stevens,
and Frost. In fact, a great deal of the greatest literature in English has been
written in blank verse.
Blank verse is unrhymed lines that follow a strict rhythm, usually iamb ic
pentameter.
An example of unrhymed iambic pentameter (Blank Verse) is John
Milton’s Paradise Lost:
Of Man’s first disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world, and all our woe,
With the loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us and regain the blissful seat…
munotes.in
Page 62
Literary Criticism -II
62 Elegy:
A poem of lament and praise and consolation, usually formal and about
the death of a particular person. Elegies can also mourn the passing of
events or passions. They can be medit ative and distressed, such as “Elegy
Written in a Country Churchyard” by Thomas Gray (arguably the most
famous poem to take this form). Elegies are seldom without form, though
the form varies from poem to poem.
Epic:
The epic is a long narrative poem that usually unfolds a history or
mythology of a nation or race. The epic details the adventures and deeds
of a hero and, in so doing, tells the story of a nation. Epic poetry is the
oldest form of poetry dating back to classics like Gilgamesh, The
Iliad, and B eowulf. Though too long to be excerpted here, any of these
works would serve as fine examples of an epic.
Epics often follow a recognizable pattern, but there is no set pattern. The
form changes from culture to culture, language to language.
Epistle:
Poems written in the form of a letter are called epistles.
Epistle can adhere to form or can be free of meter and rhyme. The only
requirement is that it is in letter form.
One of the better known epistles is Alexander Pope’s “Epistle to Dr.
Arbuthnot.”
Limerick :
A short, humorous form known for off -color statements.
The limerick is a five line poem with meter and rhyme. The first, second,
and fifth lines are all iambic tetrameter with end rhyme. The third and
fourth lines are iambic trimeter and rhyme with each other but not the
other three lines.
The following is an example of a limerick by Rudyard Kipling:
There was a small boy of Quebec
Who was buried in snow to his neck
When they said, "Are you friz?"
He replied, "Yes, I is —
But we don't call this cold i n Quebec"
munotes.in
Page 63
Practical Criticism -
Critical Appreciation of
Poem -I
63 Ode:
Often written in praise of a person, an object, or an event, odes tend to be
longer in form and, generally, serious in nature. The patterns of the
stanzas within an ode follow noprescribed pattern. A well known example
of an ode would be “ Ode on a Grecian Urn” by John Keats.
Sonnet:
One of the most popular forms, the sonnet has two major styles, English
(or Elizabethan or Shakespearean) and Italian (or Petrarchan). Both forms
are fourteen lines long and are renowned for focusing on love. Often, the
first eight lines of the poem (the first two quatrains in an English sonnet)
demonstrate the problem to be solved, and the final six lines (the last
quatrain and a couplet in the English sonnet) resolve it.
Sonnets are written in iambic pentame ter. The English sonnet adheres to
this rhyme pattern: ABAB CDCD EFEF GG, or a variation on it. The
Italian sonnet usually follows this pattern: ABBA ABBA CDE CDE.
Sometimes the tercets (groups of three lines) vary. These variations can
look like: CDC DCD or CDC DDC or CDC EDC. Finally, there is a
second form of English sonnet known as the Spenserian sonnet. It rhymes
ABAB BCBC CDCD EE. It follows the same basic pattern as the
Shakespearean sonnet but varies the rhyme
7.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Write short n ots on the following:
1. Prosody and its types
2. Rhythm
3. Metre
4. Rhyme
5. Diction and p oetic diction
6. Figures of Speech
7.12 BIBLIGRAPHY
https://www.bucks.edu/media/bcccmedialibrary/pdf/FormsofPoetry_000 .
Pdf
Dr P. Chattopadhyay. Post -colonial L iterature. A Critical appreciation of
David Malouf’s Revolving Days .
munotes.in
Page 64
Literary Criticism -II
64
munotes.in
Page 65
64 8
PRACTICAL CRITICISM - CRITICAL
APPRECIATION OF POEM - II
Unit Structure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 What is a “Critical Appreciation”?
8.2 Writing a Good Critical Appreciation
8.3 A Critical appreciation of David Malouf’s Revolving Days
8.4 Analysis of Revolvi ng Days
8.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this Unit are to:
1. Appreciate the ways in which poetry is presented and represented.
2. Explore their feelings and those of others through poetry.
3. Develop a method that could be applied to appreciating poet ry,
understa nding the use of figurative language.
4. Write a critical appreciation of a poetic work.
8.1 WHAT IS A “ CRITICAL APPRECIATION ”?
The critical appreciation (or analysis) isa reader’s reasoned response to a
poem’s invitation to use both imagination and logical argument to
establish a conversation with the poem’s subject. It is an attempt to
explain what the given poem is ‘about’, and why it is written the way it is.
Also, it is an attempt to elucidate, as far as possible, the poet’s view of the
poem’s subject. I t also helps in the description of how poetic techniques
help to enhance the feelings evoked by the words themselves, i.e. how
form reflects content and how the poem isorganised into clear, cohesive
stanzas.
8.2 WRITI NG A GOOD CRITICAL APPRECIATION
To writ e a good critical appreciation, a reader needs to prepare by looking
for obscure vocabulary and reading the poem aloud, sentence by sentence.
Then, writing down paraphrases wherever necessary. One should cover
the whole poem, and should not leave out ‘diff icult’ parts out. There are
two main ways: (a) part by part from beginning to end (stanza by stanza,
or section by section); this means you have to decide what parts ‘hold
together’ by virtue of their focus or pattern.Then write a paragraph clearly munotes.in
Page 66
Practical Criticism -
Critical Appreciation of
Poem -II
65 focusse d on that part only. The advantage: you show how form and
content correlate; you show how poetic techniques work together to form
a complete, complex effect. (b) by themes, or ideas (one paragraph per
idea). This can be more interesting than (a), but is also more tricky to
control; it’s more difficult to be complete in your discussion; and it means
you have to be much better prepared before you begin writing. The
advantage: it allows you to prioritise ideas from the start, instead of
leaving them for you r conclusion.
Integrate quotations (your evidence) seamlessly into your own sentences;
don’t just tag them onto the end, or stick them ungrammatically in the
middle. Use short quotations, even single words, which are directly
relevant to or supportive of the overall point you are making, rather than
long ones.
Introduce the poem clearly. Briefly spark interest with a quote or other
intriguing start. Contextualise the poem and poet in its period and place,
as far as is necessary to an understanding of the poem. Briefly describe its
subject, speaker set -up, physical setting, occasion or event, and overall
form, as necessary and relevant. In one sentence ‘map out’ your approach
– part by part, thematically, or whatever, using key words as ‘signposts’.
Conclude strongly. Sum up your claims about the deepest themes and
broadest ideas contained in the poem, and their implications.
Some Suggestions for Critical Appreciation - First outline the subject
(literal matter or situation), end with the theme or themes (underlying,
broad, abstract ideas). Be selective in choice of supportive detail; one may
not have the space to unpack absolutely everything in the poem. Don’t
confuse paraphrase (saying the same thing in your own words) with
interpretation (arguing, with evidence from the poem, for a certain reading
of the unstated implications of what is on the page). What seems to escape
paraphrase is exactly what is poetically interesting; don’t back away from
that ‘difficulty’. Pursue the questions that arise. Do no t write a single
paragraph devoted to ‘metaphors’, or ‘sound effects’. Don’t ‘pull the poem
apart’; explain how it is an integrated whole. Except for introductory
summary sentences, try to make every sentence a balance of evidence,
technique and interpreta tion.
8.3 A CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF DAVID
MALOUF’S REVOLVING DAYS
That year I had nowhere to go, I fell in love — a mistake
of course, but it lasted and has lasted.
The old tug at the heart, the grace unasked for, urgencies
that boom under the pocket of a shirt. What I remember
is the colour of the shirts. I’d bought them munotes.in
Page 67
Literary Criticism -II
66 as an experiment in ways of seeing myself, hoping to catch
in a window as I passed what I was to be
in my new life as lover: one mint green, one
pink, the third, called Ivy Leag ue, tan
with darker stripes, my first button -down collar.
We never write. But sometimes, knotting my tie
at a mirror, one of those selves I had expected
steps into the room. In the next room you
are waiting (we have not yet taken back
the life we pro mised to pour into each other’s mouths
forever and for ever) while I choose between
changes to surprise you.
Revolving days. My heart
in my mouth again, I’m writing this for you, wherever
you are, whoever is staring into your blue eyes. It is me,
I’m still here. No, don’t worry, I won’t appear out of
that old time to discomfort you. And no, at this
distance, I’m not holding my breath for a reply.
Within ‘Revolving Days’ Malouf explores themes of relationships, the
past, and memory. His speaker addres ses his ex -lover, expressing his
lasting emotions and depicting the revolving days of his life and role as
“lover”. The mood is resigned and contemplative as he considers who he
was, who he is, and the person his ex -lover is now.
In the first part of thi s poem, the speaker remembers when he fell in love,
how it was a “mistake,” but that it’s also been long -lasting. As the poem
progresses, it becomes clear that the speaker and this person he loves are
no longer together. But, despite the things that have c hanged, he has
remained the same. He still loves the person to whom he’s been speaking.
In ‘Revolving Days’ Malouf engages with themes that include love,
memory, and transformation (or lack thereof). The speaker spends the bulk
of this poem describing a love he used to have and the way that that love
changed him. But since, he hasn’t changed at all. He’s still the person he
sued to be when he was with his ex -lover, for better or for worse. But, he
knows that she has changed. She’s somewhere else, (where e xactly he
doesn’t know) and he figures that she’s moved on to be with someone
else. His memories of the past are quite strong, so much so that he’s able munotes.in
Page 68
Practical Criticism -
Critical Appreciation of
Poem -II
67 to depict moments form his love affair with clarity and poignant (if
someone reserved) emotion.
‘Revol ving Days’ by David Malouf is a three -stanza poem that’s divided
into uneven sets of lines. The first stanza contains ten, the second: seven,
and the third: six. Malouf did not give this poem a specific rhyme scheme
or metrical pattern. Rather, the lines v ary in the number of syllables and
the number of words.
Although there is not a structured rhyme scheme there are moments of
rhyme within the poem. These are seen through repetition such as with
“lasted” and “lasted” in line two of the first stanza, as wel l as through half -
rhyme. Also known as slant or partial rhyme, half -rhyme is seen through
the repetition of assonance or consonance. This means that either a vowel
or consonant sound is reused within one line or multiple lines of verse. For
example, “green ” and “League” in lines eight and nine of the first stanza.
Or, another example, “seeing” and “be” in six and seven of the same
stanza.
Malouf makes use of several poetic techniques in ‘Revolving Days’.
These include alliteration, anaphora, enjambment, a nd caesura. The latter,
caesura, occurs when a line is split in half, sometimes with punctuation,
sometimes not. The use of punctuation in these moments creates a very
intentional pause in the text.
A reader should consider how the pause influences the r hythm of one’s
reading and how it might proceed an important turn or transition in the
text. For instance, line one of the third stanza. It reads: “Revolving days.
My heart”. Or, as a mother example, a reader can look to line three of the
second stanza whi ch reads: “steps into the room. In the next room you”.
Alliteration occurs when words are used in succession, or at least appear
close together, and begin with the same letter. For example, “life as lover”
in line eight of the first stanza and “writing” and “wherever” in line two of
stanza three.
Malouf also makes use of anaphora, or the repetition of a word or phrase
at the beginning of multiple lines, usually in succession. This technique is
often used to create emphasis. A list of phrases, items, or actions may be
created through its implementation.
Another important technique commonly used in poetry is enjambment. It
occurs when a line is cut off before its natural stopping point.
Enjambmentforces a reader down to the next line, and the next, quick ly.
One has to move forward in order to comfortably resolve a phrase or
sentence.
munotes.in
Page 69
Literary Criticism -II
68 8.4 ANALYSIS OF REVOLVING DAYS
8.4.1 Stanza One:
In the first stanza of ‘Revolving Days,’ the speaker looks back on his life
and remembers the year that he “fell in love”. He explains it simply, it
happened because he had nowhere to go. This frivolous start dissolves as
he adds that it “lasted and has lasted”.
The next lines use imagery as a way of painting a picture of the past, as
well as evoking in the reader an emotio nal response to the speaker’s
personal life. He recalls what it felt like to be falling in love. Specifically,
the “boom under the pocket of a shirt” urging him on and the “old tug at
the heart”.
In an original depiction of a lover’s mind, he describes b uying shirts and
using them as a way to understand himself as “lover”. These ranged in
color and one was his “first button -down collar”.
8.4.2 Stanza Two:
As the poem progresses it becomes clear that the love the speaker
experienced is a little more comp licated than it seemed. It “lasted” but not
in the way one might immediately expect. He looks to the past, while also
considering the future, in this stanza.
The past comes back to greet him while he’s in the bathroom looking in
the mirror and he recalls t he time they spent together and the promises
they made. These have fallen to the wayside as has the relationship.
8.4.3 Stanza Three:
In the final stanza of ‘Revolving Days,’ the speaker makes use of the
phrase “Revolving days” to depict the nature of his heart and memory. He
is writing “this for” his ex -lover. They are no longer together. In fact, he
doesn’t know where they are. They could be with someone new. Despite
the changes that have happened he’s the same.
Before the intended listener/the speaker’ s ex-lover starts to worry, he says
he’s not going to pop up form the past “to discomfort” them. They are at a
distance and he knows there is very little chance he’ll be getting a reply to
this letter in poem form.
In this poem, the speaker reflects on a time in his past when he fell in love.
He calls it a "mistake / of course," but it seems as though the feeling has
stayed with him nonetheless. He recalls the feelings he felt but also the
colors of the shirts he purchased then, for his new life as a love r. He and
his lover do not stay in touch. However, sometimes he feels like he tried to
feel then, like one of the new selves in the new shirts, and he feels as
though he is right back there in the relationship again. The time passes and
days go by, but the speaker still feels that his "heart / [is] in [his] mouth
again." His feelings remain unchanged, then, and he considers who she
might be involved with now. In the end, however, he assures her that he munotes.in
Page 70
Practical Criticism -
Critical Appreciation of
Poem -II
69 will not reappear in her life and doesn't mean to cause her any discomfort;
he expects nothing from her and does not expect to hear from her.
"Revolving Days" uses apostrophe and symbolism to convey the idea that
moving on from lost love can be incredibly difficult and even impossible.
Apostrophe is when the s peaker addresses someone absent or dead as
though they were there and could respond. Here, the poet's use of
apostrophe helps to convey the speaker's sense of longing, of yearning, for
the lover who has left him. Further, the color of the shirts he purchas ed
during this relationship - "mint green, one / pink, the third, called Ivy
League, tan / with darker stripes . . . " - seem to symbolize the new life he
hoped he'd have as a lover. They are bright and clean and new, probably
starched and crisp, one his "f irst button -down collar." The colorful
brightness of those shirts, as well as the "blue eyes" of his lost love, are
the only colors in the poem. Life seems as though it is, perhaps,
figuratively colorless now for him. Symbolically, then, life is duller, le ss
exciting, in the wake of this love.
8.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Write critical appreciation of any two poems of your own choice paying
attention to all the required aspects of appreciating a poem.
8.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
https://www.bucks.edu/media/bcccmedialib rary/pdf/FormsofPoetry_000 .
Pdf
Dr P. Chattopadhyay. Post -colonial Literature. A Critical appreciation of
David Malouf’s Revolving Days .
munotes.in