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IDEAS ON STATE
Unit Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Mahadev Govind Ranade
1.3.1 Life Sketch
1.3.2 Idea of the State
1.3.3 Theory of Individual Freedom
1.3.4 Organic conception of the state
1.3.5 Role of the Elite in Society
1.3.6 Concluding remarks
1.4 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
1.4.1 Life Sketch
1.4.2 Basic precepts
1.4.3 Concept of Swaraj
1.4.4 Satyagraha
1.4.5 Sarvodaya
1.4.6 Doctrine of Trusteeship
1.4.7 Vision of Classless Society
1.4.8 Ideal Social Order
1.4.9 Concluding remarks
1.5 Summary/ Conclusion
1.6 References
1.1 OBJECTIVES
The unit aims to make you understand the political thought of M ahadev
Govind Ranade and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi about their ideas on
the state. After studying this unit, you may be able to – munotes.in
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2 Know about the Idea of the State of M.G. Ranade and his thoughts on
Individual freedom.
Understand the organic conception of the state and the role of the elite
in society as per M.G. Ranade.
Explain the concept of Swaraj, Satyagraha, and Sarvodaya given by
M.K. Gandhi.
Explicate M.K. Gandhi’s vision of a classless society and ideal social
order.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
The sta te is a political entity or an institution of government. It has been
formed by humans with the purpose of ensuring proper order and security
in a specified territory. It works towards the welfare of its citizens.
Therefore, the state as an entity has a lo t of significance. Various scholars
have given their valuable remarks on how a state should be. This
particular chapter deals with the political thought of Mahadev Govind
Ranade and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi with special reference to their
ideas on the St ate. Let’s understand their philosophy in the following
section.
1.3 MAHADEV GOVIND RANADE
1.3.1 Life Sketch
M.G. Ranade was born in a Brahmin family in Nashik in Maharashtra in
1842. He was a student at Mumbai University. He received primary
education at Kolhapur and higher education at Mumbai. He was a well -
educated social reformer of Maharashtra and got B.A. LL.B degree. He
served the British judiciary and became a Bombay High Court judge in
1893. Though he served as a judge during the British era, t his did not stop
him from bringing social and political reforms to society. He was
associated with many socio -religious organizations which had their base in
Mumbai and the Pune region of Maharashtra. He had very close relations
with the PrarthanaSamaj, Pu ne Sarvajanik Sabha, and Indian National
Congress. He was an inspiration behind the establishment of the Deccan
Education Society in 1884. He wrote many books and articles to enlighten
the masses. In short, he was one of the most important social reformers in
India. He gave a philosophical foundation for the liberal movement in
India (Vora, 1986) .
1.3.2 Ideas of the State:
Ranade’s basic idea of the state revolves around his critique of the
Laissez -faire state. Laissez -Faire state talks about the minimum
intervention of the state, especially in the economic sphere. Instead, he has
advocated for the doctrine of the positive role of the state, especially in
matters concerning the economy. According to him, the major problem munotes.in
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3 underlying the Indian economy was e xtreme poverty. Also, another issue
concerning our economy was its complete reliance on agriculture. He felt
that the solution to both these problems lay in Industrialisation and the
field of agriculture should be commercialized. He believed that Indian
Economy should follow a capitalist model of development to solve its
major economic problems. He opined that in the agricultural field, the
doctrine of private property could solve the issue of poverty to a great
extent.
The agricultural land in India was u nder the control of poor peasants.
Therefore, he advocated for mixed relations as far as land is concerned
wherein two classes would be there – peasants would have proprietary
rights whereas land ownership would be held by the capitalist farmers. He
believ ed that property should be held by intelligent and educated masses.
He contended that the average Indian does not get motivated by the spirit
of free competition. Their lives are only revolving around the system of
caste and family. In such a scenario, bot h the capital and labor get
unutilized. Such a backward economy can only be progressed with the
help of the capitalist model. Here, the role of the state becomes even more
important to encourage such a development process.
The Indian state was extending i ts functions to give support to railway
companies, tobacco, cotton, tea plantations, and iron and coal mines.
Ranade viewed these steps as insufficient for the needs of the economy.
Indian economy needed support from the state also in starting new
ventures and industries. He thought that the state could extend its support
in establishing new industries. In the initial years, the state can subsidize
these industries or else can start such industries under the aegis of the state
itself. Also, the state can en courage the formation of cooperatives to help
these industries in getting loans at lower interest rates.
He said that the non -intervention of the state should be abolished in
foreign trade as well. Because the industries of the Indian economy were
backwar d in comparison to the European economyand they were not able
to compete well with the British industries. Therefore, he was against free
trade. According to him, Indian industries required protection from the
state, especially in devising tariffs on the l ines of British industries.
In this way, he has provided the way through which the Indian capitalist
economic model can be implemented. He truly believed that the problems
underlying the Indian economy can be solved by state -supported
capitalism. Apart fr om this, he also suggested a positive role of the state in
the upliftment of the weaker sections of society. He suggested that the
tenure and the rent should be fixed to protect the tenants. Similarly, he
advocated for fixing the rates of interest for loan s to protect the peasants
who usually take loans from money lenders. In his famous essay titled
“Indian Political Economy”, he opined that the distribution of resources
should be done based on the principle of equity. In short, he held the view
that the st ate needs to protect the weaker sections of society within the
framework of the capitalistic economy. munotes.in
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4 Moreover, he also sought to provide a role for the state in reforming
society. He especially wanted to reform the institution of marriage and
family in high -caste Hindus. Ranade believed that the state should take
steps to improve the status of women and children in society. The state can
act positively to eradicate the social evils from the country. However, he
felt that the role of the state in br inging social reforms is limited to a
certain extent. Because, if we want to bring change in society, the attitude
of the people must be changed. Mere institutional changes cannot bring
reforms in a real sense. People’s consciences should change accordingl y
and then only we can achieve the aim of bringing social reforms in society
(Vora, 1986) .
1.3.3 Theory of Individual Freedom
Ranade’s views on Individual Freedom are based on the doctrine of
theism. He was influenced by A.C. Fraser’s theistic philosoph y. Ranade
delivered a lecture on ‘Indian Theism’ in 1896. Here, he gave an Indian
perspective to Fraser’s thoughts on theism. Joseph Butler was also a strong
inspiration behind Ranade’s ideas on theism. Ranade was influenced by
the Westernphilosophy of the ism. But, his conception was highly rooted in
the Hindu tradition.
In Ranade article on “Hindu Protestantism”, he interpreted the Bhakti
Movement of Maharashtra from the point of view of his conception of
theism. It was a movement of religious reforms whi ch was nothing but the
theistic movement of the saints. According to him, there are three
components of existence –Ego, Non -Ego, and Infinite. He argued that
there should not be any kind of exaggeration of these postulates.
Therefore, he rejected Mysticism , Materialism, and Idealism as these
things exaggerate the three postulates of existence. There is asupernatural
relationship between man and nature. Man is different from other animals.
The fact that differentiates between a man and other animals is the s elf-
consciousness of a man. This factor makes a man responsible for his
actions. It is this conscience which has built a relationship between a man
and God.
According to Ranade, real freedom is the freedom of conscience of an
individual. People should on ly listen to their inner conscience and not to
the authority of religious scriptures, customs, or traditions. This freedom
of conscience and reason should guide individuals in their behavior and
conduct. But this freedom guaranteed to individuals is not ab solute. This is
delegated to them. Therefore, it has to exercise with utmost responsibility.
People should have a sense of duty while exercising this freedom. The
conscience can play a major here in helping an individual determine what
is right or wrong. A lso, Ranade believes that freedom of conscience is
limited in the sense that it should not be harmful to the freedom of others
in society.
Ranade criticized the caste system prevailing in society. He believed that
the saints belonging to Bhakti Movement h ad rejected the notion that the
Brahmin caste has been created by God and therefore all other castes munotes.in
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5 should worship them. He advocated for the Bhagwat dharma which is
open for all people from all castes. Here, even people belonging to lower
castes can beco me saints. In this way, Bhakti Movement has helped
improve the status of lower castes people in our country. He opined that
the caste system prevalent in society is the biggest blow to our social
system. The caste system is discriminatory in nature and cre ated a division
in society. Instead, he suggested developing a feeling of brotherhood
among people in society.
He was also a strong advocate for the equality of gender in society. He
studied the status of women in society and found that during the Vedic
age, women had equal status with those men . They could choose their
husband, complete their studies, took an equal part in the affairs of the
state. It was during the medieval age, the status of women got deteriorated.
He argued that the family system shoul d be reformed to improve the status
of women in society. So, Ranadebelieved that to protect the liberty of all,
Indian society should be transformed. We need to work on asserting social
equality in society.
1.3.4 Organic conception of the state
Ranade tho ught that all the elements in society are interdependent on one
another. Each of the elements needs to be developed for the development
of society. Taking inspiration from Herbert Spencer’s ideas, he held the
view that Society and humans have certain simil arities between them.
Human body parts are connected. The development of one organ depends
on the other. Similarly, progress in society is mutually related to all its
aspects. Progress in one aspect cannot be achieved by neglecting the other
aspects of soc iety. For instance, individuals cannot be liberal in politics
and conservative in religious aspects. Therefore, he made an emphasis on
bringing both political as well as religious reforms in society. He believed
that social, political, religious, and econo mic reforms should go hand in
hand. We cannot analyze a question simply by looking at it from one
single lens. Individuals may not be able to exercise their political rights
unless their social background is good. Similarly, the social condition of a
perso n plays a vital role in their economic development. Hence, all
spheres should be developed simultaneously.
Even if India achieves political freedom, we won’t be able to preserve it
unless we achieve social progress in society. Therefore, society needs to
be transformed. This transformation of society is to be achieved slowly
and gradually. Social change will be achieved in a step -by-step manner
and it should be slow if we want to make it real. Progress can be achieved
faster by using rebellious methods. But he rejected the usage of such
methods. Instead, he advocated the use of moderate means to achieve
growth naturally.
Ranade was also a staunch supporter of the ‘Method of Tradition’ wherein
the reforms would be based on age -old Hindu tradition. He argued that
though Indian society is conservative in nature, it has adopted new
principles gradually. He favored such a slow progression of society munotes.in
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6 without any revolutionary changes happening. Ranade suggested reforms
based on Hindu tradition to make the orthodo x section of society accept
such reforms. Moreover , he opined that Indians were not ready for full
political representation. Therefore, he wanted to have a gradual
advancement toward the representative government in India.
1.3.5 Role of the Elite in Socie ty
Ranade had a very strong opinion regarding the role of the elite in society.
He viewed elites as the only capable ones to make a sure transformation of
India into a liberal nation. They are a minority who possess adequate
knowledge and are very influent ial to make an impact on almost every
sphere of society. According to him, Brahmans, Baniya, zamindars, and
the educated middle class are the elites in society. They possess
knowledge, they are wealthy and they do take initiative if needed. He also
argued that the property -holding and the intelligent class should be given
political representation at the local level of governance. Because the
educated class can be the leader of the country. They have taken an
education equivalent to the Britishers and they h ave achieved the
competency required to be in the administrative sphere. Therefore, seats
must be reserved for the educated class in civil services.
He was aware that the masses were poor and only caredaboutfood and
employment rather than education. The majority of people availing higher
education come from the upper caste i.e. the Brahmins. Therefore, he
wanted the Brahmins to play an important role in the overall progress of
our country. He called it a privilege for Brahmins to be able to guide the
nation. Apart from Brahmins, he also included Zamindars among the
elites. He advocated giving special representation to them in local politics
as well as reservation of seats for them in civil services.
1.3.6 Concluding remarks
Mahadev Govind Ranade was a hi ghly influential social reformer. He took
immense efforts to eradicate certain evil social practices prevailing in
society. His ideas on the State mostly revolved around his criticism of the
Laizess -Faire State. He explained clearly the need for a welfare state in a
developing country like India. He stressed that the State should intervene
for the all -around development of its people. He was a votary of
Individual freedom. He was highly appreciated by many for his
revolutionary ideas. But, his marriage with a child girl was questioned by
many critics.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Describe the Idea of the State of the M.G. Ranade.
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Ideas on State
7 1.4 MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHI
1.4.1 Life Sketch
Mohandas Karamchand G andhi was born in 1869. He was conferred the
title “Mahatma” by Rabindranath Tagore. He is popularly known as the
Father of Nation. Gandhi studied law in England. In 1893, he went to
South Africa to deal with a legal case. During that period, he witnessed
widespread racial discrimination against colored people. To deal with this
inhuman practice, he devised the technique of Satyagraha which means
non-violent protests. The aim was to give justice to the sufferers. Nelson
Mandela rightly pointed out that “Gan dhi came to South Africa as a
lawyer and returned as Mahatma”.
In 1914, Gandhi returned to India and played a vital role in the freedom
struggle of India. Gandhi launched several movements against the tyranny
of British rule in India. For instance, in 1920 , he launched Non -Co-
operation Movement, then the Civil disobedience movement in 1930, and
in 1942 Quit India movement. India became an independent country in
1947. This coincided with the partition of a country that was not peaceful.
Pakistan was carved o ut of the Indian Union. It led to severe Hindu -
Muslim riots. Gandhi took a lot of effort to bring communal peace but was
not successful. In 1948, he was assassinated by a Hindu fanatic.
1.4.2 Basic precepts
The two most basic tenets of Gandhian politica l thought are as follows:
a) End and Means
This doctrine of End and Means believes that if we wish to achieve the
right ends, the means used to achieve those ends should be equally
righteous. According to Mahabharata, A king can resort to dubious
methods to deal with emergencies. Because here the cause is to protect the
country. Even Kautilya has propounded the use of Sama, Dam, Danda,
and Bhed to strengthen the state power as the cause is right. Niccolo
Machiavelli has advocated that the king may use wro ngful methods such
as creating fear in the minds of people to achieve their unity which is
again a right cause. He even suggested that politics and ethics should be
separated from one another. King can resort to any means to protect the
territory and ensur e political stability. In the end, people will not be
against him as the results would be in their interests. Here the cause i.e.
the end goal is right. But means advised to achieve that goal is not
righteous.
However, Mahatma Gandhi never supported the u se of unjust means in
any circumstance, even if the goal is noble. Gandhi opined that means
should be as just as the ends. He strongly argued that to achieve the right
ends only the right means should be adopted. He never agreed with the
principle of “End justifies the Means”. He made a comparison between
End and Means on one hand and Trees and Seeds on the other. The nature
of the tree depends upon the seeds we sow. Good quality seeds will grow munotes.in
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8 good trees. Therefore, means are of utmost importance while ac hieving
any objective. It is similar to the action and its consequences. We need to
be careful of our actions for favorable consequences.
Gandhi argued that Ends and means cannot be separated from one another.
Wrong means will never lead to righteousness. Gandhi always advocated
for the right course of action. Therefore, he resorted to the use
of Satyagraha to achieve the goal of Swaraj i.e. self -rule. His emphasis on
ends and means theory is also reflected in his theory of ethics and politics.
He opined t hat ethical behavior is a guiding principle for humans, and
politics is not an exception here. Therefore, ethics and politics cannot be
separated from one another. Politics has to be guided by the highest moral
principles. He was inspired by the thoughts o f Gopal Krishna Gokhale and
advocated for the principle of ‘Spiritualization of Politics”. This means
that politics cannot be considered as the ‘Power Over’ someone, rather it
is the ‘Power To’ uplift the condition of people in society. In this way,
Gandhi was a staunch advocate of the righteous “ends and Means” theory.
b) Truth and Non -Violence
The essence of Gandhian political thought lies in the adherence to Truth.
But, discovering the truth is as difficult as finding God. He believed that
God and Truth cannot be separated from each other. The devotion to God
can be expressed by showing devotion to ordinary people, especially the
weaker sections of society. He opined that by serving the masses, we are
in a way serving God.
Non-Violence is one aspect of adherence to the Truth. Non -violence or
Ahimsa means the absence of violence in one’s behavior. This is the
negative perception of the term non -violence. On the positive side, it
means showing love/affection towards all including those who hate us. For
him, even the intent to harm others is a sin. Acquisition of materialist
things beyond basic needs will constitute a form of violence as we are
depriving others of their basic needs. He rightfully said that “There is
enough for everyone’s need, but not for ev eryone’s grid”. Act causing
environmental pollution or acts which affect public health is also a form of
violence. In short, Non -violence contains all such principles of being a
good citizen.
Gandhi thought that Non -violence is not everyone’s cup of tea. It’s a sign
of being a strong individual. With the use of moral power and adherence
to the principle of truth comes such power. By resorting to non -violent
methods, the person compels the mighty opponent to bend. It’s a victory
over physical force. He used this strategy against the Britishers during the
struggle for India’s independence.
Gandhi’s views on Non -violence do not imply the absence of differences
of opinion. It means tolerance to the views of others which is very
significant for co -existence. T o practice the Non -violence principle in a
real sense, one must devote themselves physically as well as emotionally
to this principle. It helps individuals fight against the social injustices
happening in society. It also involves the absence of any kind o f munotes.in
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9 exploitation of the weaker for personal motives. So, Gandhian thought on
Non-Violence teaches us to live peaceful lives and be harmonious with
nature. Nature will always have enough for everyone’s needs; if we stop
damaging it. This also promotes the spi rit of co -existence in the real sense.
1.4.3 Concept of Swaraj
The term Swaraj means Self -rule or independence from the foreign rule.
Swaraj does not mean only political freedom from foreign rule, but it also
constitutes cultural freedom. A country shoul d be equally free in terms of
deciding upon the cultural front. Otherwise, it will not be considered a
Swaraj in true terms. Swaraj believes in having confidence in one’s
potential in decision -making while learning from others. Gandhi thought
that in Swara j everyone will have affection towards their own country
thereby helping to achieve the objective of nation -building.
Another aspect of Swaraj is Self -Government. It means that people should
not be dependent on the government be it foreign or national gov ernment.
Government should not regulate the daily affairs of people. This negates
the idea of “Swaraj”. His conception of Swaraj also focuses on
strengthening democracy. Here, people will choose their representatives
and will also have the power to keep a check on them to avoid any misuse
of authority. If the power is getting abused, then people have a right to
resist such authority under Swaraj. Here, people have the power to control
the authority and not the other way.
Gandhi viewed Swaraj as not just ac quiring political freedom, but also
constitute self -discipline, self -control, and self -determination. He never
wished for India’s political freedom only. For him, the struggle to achieve
India’s freedom was the struggle for attaining Swaraj and self -purifi cation.
His idea of Swaraj revolves around three tenets, i.e. Self -rule, Self -
government, and Self -discipline. All three would help achieve the welfare
of all.
1.4.4 Satyagraha
Satyagraha means a non -violent protest against injustice. The term
Satyagra ha is derived from two terms – ‘Satya’ means the Truth and
‘Agraha’ means to insist. So, Satyagraha can be simply understood as
adherence to the truth. This technique was devised by M.K. Gandhi when
he was residing in South Africa. The objective was to giv e justice to the
colored people who were discriminated against by the South African
Government. According to him, Satyagraha was a means to secure justice.
It involves personal/ self-suffering which is opposed to resistance by
force. In returned to India i n 1914 and used the technique of Satyagraha to
fight against the brutal British rule. Apart from this, he also applied the
principles of Satyagraha to eradicate the evil social practices in Indian
society such as untouchability, communal hatred, and the li ke.
He thought that the use of violence to fight evil practices would multiply
the problems. The only effective way to fight against evil is the use of the
non-violent method. Therefore, Satyagraha will prove to be a significant munotes.in
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10 way to deal with injustice s. This technique can be applied at both
individual and the political level. At an individual level, it can lead to
moral upliftment of an individual, and at political levels, it can be used to
attain freedom from foreign rule as well as to secure justice for people
against discrimination.
The one who resorts to the method of Satyagraha is known as the
Satyagrahi. They advocate for self -suffering to have a psychological effect
on the person who is doing injustice. This technique is different from
Duragraha means stubborn resistance to the opponent’s actions. Duragrahi
always think that they are the only righteous people and never allowed
their opponent to share their views. They consider the opponent as evil
and negate the possibility that even the opponent s can be right in some
cases. On the other hand, Satyagrahi listens to the views of their
opponents. They try to resolve the issue with mutually acceptable
solutions and once they come to a consensus even the opponent becomes
their friend. Gandhi opined th at we should be against the wrong and not
against the wrong -doer. This suggests a peaceful resolution of conflicts.
1.4.5 Sarvodaya
Sarvodaya is derived from two words – ‘Sarva’ means all and ‘Udaya’
means rise. In a literal sense, it means Rise of All. I n simple terms, we can
understand it as the upliftment of all the sections in society. Power,
knowledge, and wealth are concentrated in only a few hands. Therefore,
Gandhi thought to have the empowerment of all in society. He never
wanted to create a rift between the haves and have -nots in society as he
believed in the principle of Ends and Means.
Gandhi was inspired by John Ruskin’s “Unto This Last”. This particular
piece of work gives a message of ‘Upliftment of the neglected sections of
society’. Gandhi was highly influenced by the ideas of Ruskin.
Accordingly, he published a summary of the work of Ruskin in the
Gujarati language titled ‘Sarvodaya’. The idea of Satvodayaemphasizes on
‘Welfare of All’, but it specifically focuses on the empowerment of low er
sections of society. He opined that these things are to be applied not only
in the personal sphere but also while taking decisions of public
importance.
Critics have pointed out that it can understand that we need to be
concerned about the weaker secti ons. But, why there is a need to think
about those who are well -off? The answer to this has been given by
VinobaBhave who was a staunch follower of the ideas of Gandhi. He said
that Sarvodaya aims to uplift the weaker sections materially while
uplifting th e rich people on moral terms. In this way, the Sarvoadaya
concept focuses on the Material as well as spiritual well -being of all the
people in society.
Being the advocate for the concept of Sarvodaya, Gandhi was against the
principle of utilitarianism. Je remy Bentham originated the concept of
utilitarianism which means ‘The greatest happiness of greatest number of
People’. According to this, in policy formulation, this principle of the munotes.in
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11 greatest good of the greatest number of people should be taken into
consideration. However, Gandhi never agreed with this principle. He
asserted that utilitarianism is very harmful to humans. Therefore, he
always supported the greatest good of all. Moreover, Gandhi felt that
Utilitarianism only focuses on the material well -being of people, whereas
the principle of Sarvodaya also includes the Spiritual growth of all.
Sarvodya also redefines the concept of Democracy. Commonly,
democracy is understood as the rule of the majority. Gandhi viewed that
here to minority gets suppress ed by the majority. People lack individual
freedom in such scenarios. Therefore, he stressed that the democratic
government should act as per the will of the people. Individual freedom of
people, and equality of opportunity to all should be strengthened to
maintain democratic principles in a real sense. Gandhi also differentiated
between a welfare state and a state under Sarvodaya. He observed that
under the welfare state, the state provides equal services to all, and
positive discrimination is observed. Bu t, here state taxes heavily on rich
people. Gandhi believed that the Sarvodaya state appeals to the rich to
share their surplus wealth and this completely voluntarily. So, his
conception of Sarvodaya aims to achieve the common good of all in
society.
1.4.6 Doctrine of Trusteeship
Gandhi believed in simple living. He emphasized more on the use of
simple technology rather than heavy industrialization. He argued that
simple technology would help generate employment which was necessary
at the time of indepen dence as India just started developing. However, he
thought that if we rely on heavy industrialization, it may lead to large -
scale unemployment in India. Therefore, he preferred production by the
masses. He was aware of the fact that such change cannot be introduced
immediately. The existing system of production can be continued, but the
attitude of the owners of the means of production needs to be changed.
Therefore, to change their attitude, Gandhi came up with the idea of
Trusteeship.
Gandhi’s principle of trusteeship is mainly addressed to the rich people.
Gandhi advises them to consider themselves as not the owners of their
property but as trustees of it. It is based on Gandhi’s principle of
Aparigraha or Non -Possession. It means that people should not possess
anything beyond their basic needs and Gandhi’s principle of Asteys or
Non-Stealing means that if the individual is possessing wealth to satisfy
his greed, then it will constitute theft. However, he never believed to
overthrow the entire economic s ystem. He wanted to change the attitude of
those who possess surplus wealth. He stressed that the relationship
between capitalists and common people should be changed. However,
critics have appreciated the thought behind the idea of trusteeship, but they
pointed out the fact that it is far from reality.
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12 1.4.7 Vision of Classless Society
Gandhi always favoured for equality of all in society. Therefore, he was a
staunch supporter of a classless society. He observed that physical labour
is looked down upon by people in comparison to mental labour. Therefore,
he advocated for ‘Bread labour’ to seek to achieve equality among all. The
idea of Bread Labour required everyone to do the physical labour of
production in proportion to their consumption ofbread. This was to
promote the dignity of physical labour and to eliminate the division of
labourers in society. He thought that it would help generate a sense of
equality among all the people. The principle of ‘bread labour’ aimed to
promote three things – Simple Liv ing, Dignity of Labour, and a Sense of
equality among all. Initially, Caste was used to symbolize the division of
labour in society. However, this bread labour principle will not create such
division among people into a high and lower caste.
Gandhi was a lso against discrimination among people based on Gender
and faith. He advocated for equality between men and women and also
people belonging to different religions. He aimed to create a classless
society. For that, he wanted to change the attitude of peopl e. He thought
that fundamentally men and women are equal as their problems in essence
do not differ. Their soul is one and they cannot live without each other.
But, men have dominated women for ages due to which women remained
marginalized in society. Slow ly and steadily men have started recognizing
the importance of the equal status of women in society. Also, he believed
that temples, Mosques, and Churches all are equal. He made no distinction
between the gods. According to him, it is all about faith. This is how he
sought to achieve the goal of a classless society.
1.4.8 Ideal Social Order
Gandhi’s ideal social order was ‘Swaraj’ which means self -government.
He was a votary of Purna Swaraj means complete self -government. He
was mainly concerned with the welfare of all the people. First of all, he
was against the institution of the state as the state exerts its power over the
people in society. Therefore, he gave the principles of an ideal social order
and not the ideal state. Here, people would have indi vidual power and
there arefewer requirementsfor an order.
The basic principles of the ideal social order of Gandhi include:
The social order is based on the principle of Ahimsa or non -violence.
The dignity of all should be respected.
The existing system of centralization of power should be discontinued.
Instead, the Decentralisation of power needs to be encouraged.
The moral and Cultural traditions of Indian society should be revived.
It is significant to note that though Gandhi was against the central ization
of power, he was never against the establishment of central authority. He
thought that central authority is required to keep India united and to
imbibe the spirit of nationalism among people who are divided into
various lines. A central authority w ould manage the affairs of such people munotes.in
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Ideas on State
13 by forming the panchayats i.e. village councils. Each village would be
independent in terms of legislative, executive, and judicial powers. They
would not be dependent on the government for their daily affairs. Here,
the state will not exert powers over the villages, but it would give strength
to the villages. Each community would feel safe under such a system of
social order.
There was a further expansion above the category of village. Villages were
grouped to form a Taluka, Talukas were grouped to form districts, then
districts into provinces and the like. Each of these units will be governed
by elected representatives. They will have the autonomy to govern
themselves. The central government’s task was to hold them t ogether. In
this way, Gandhi believed that his vision of ideal social order was
upholding democracy in its true spirit.
1.4.9 Concluding remarks
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was a great Indian leader and contributed
immensely to the freedom struggle of In dia. His philosophy has sought to
achieve the common good of all in society. His vision was to transform
India. The basic precepts given by Gandhi such as Non -Violence, Non -
Possession, Swaraj, Satyagraha, Sarvodaya, Doctrine of Trusteeship, Ideal
Social Or der, etc. were highly appreciated as its objective was the
empowerment of all the sections of society.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Describe the Basic tenets of the philosophy of M.K. Gandhi.
1.5 SUMMAR Y/ CONCLUSION
To conclude, we can say that the State is an important political entity for
the governance of a country. Many scholars have different views about the
existence of a state and its role in the development of a country. In this
particular chap ter, we have understood the ideas of M.G. Ranade and
M.K. Gandhi with special reference to their views on the State. Both of
them have contradictory opinions as far as the State is concerned.
Ranadethought that the state should intervene in society for its
development whereas Gandhi did not believe in the idea of the State as an
entity rather he suggested the ideal social order based on decentralization
and the presence of a central authority to unite various autonomous
structures. Though they had differenc es of opinion on the idea of the state,
their philosophies have contributed immensely towards the progress of
society.
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Indian Political Thought
14 1.6 REFERENCES
Gandhi, M. (2015). Village Swaraj. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing
House.
Gauba, O. (2019). Indian Political Thought. Delhi: National
Paperbacks.
Mehta, V. R. (1992). Foundations of Indian Political Thought. New
Delhi: Manohar Publishers.
Pandey, B. C. (2009). Modern Indian Political Thought. SAGE
Publication.
Vora, R. (1986). Two Strands of Liberalism: The Ideas of Ranad e and
Phule. In T. P. Deutsch, Political Thought in Modern (pp. 92 - 109).
New Delhi: Sage Publication.
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15 2
NATIONALISMS
Unit Structure
2.0 Objective
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Work of Ravindranath Tagore
2.2.1 Tagore’s Nationalism
2.3 Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
2.3.1 Savarkar on Nationalism
2.3.2 Hindutva as cultural nationalism
2.4 Summary
2.5 Check your pr ogress
2.0 OBJECTIVE
To understand the concept of nationalism as concept of determinants
of Politics
To learn the political aspects of Indian nationalism
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Though some scholars hold that the father of Indian nationalism is Bal
Gangadhar Til ak, it cannot be denied that artist, poet like Ravindranath
Tagore also developed ideas on nationalism. Before we discuss Tagore’s
ideas on nationalism, we should briefly understand how nationalism took
shape in Europe.
Nationalism in Europe:
Nationalism i n Europe developed after the Treaty of Westphalia was
signed in 1648 AD. Westphalia was a small town in Germany [Prussia
then]. This treaty ended the Thirty Years War [1618 -1648] and hence this
treaty is also known as ‘Peace Treaty’. The Treaty of Westphal ia is
regarded as the birth -place of modern nation -state.
Two destructive wars were the major triggers behind signing the final
peace treaty at Westphalia. Those wars were the Thirty Years’ War in the
Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years’ War between Spa in and the
Dutch Republic. This war was a 17th-century religious conflict fought
basically in Central Europe. It remained one of the longest and most brutal
wars in human history, with more than 80 lacs people died. munotes.in
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Indian P olitical Thought
16 The Peace treaty of Westphalia establish ed the precedent of peace reached
by diplomatic efforts and a new system of political order in Europe based
upon the concept of co -existing sovereign states. Further, it created a new
precedent of recognition of another state’s sovereignty and right to dec ide
its own fate rests of the foundations of international law which developed
later. With this, started the decline of Holy Roman Church in all walks of
life.
Nationalism in South Asia:
In case of South Asia, nationalism grew as anti -colonial movement. It is
accepted by many important scholars that the Nationalism in India rose in
response to the common oppressor — Britain and was used as an anti -
colonial tool to unite Indians, during the national movement, which makes
Nationalism in India similar to nation alism in other colonies. In other
words, nationalism in India was born as a reaction to the opposition to
British rule.
2.2 WORK OF RAVINDRANATH TAGORE
Ravindranath Tagore [1861 -1941] was the foremost Bengali writer, poet,
painter, musician, educationist o f his time. He had won the Nobel Prize for
literature of the collection of poem ‘Gitanjali’ in the year 1913. This made
him the first non -European writer and the first lyricist to have won the
most prestigious award. After Tagore, so far no Indian has won that award
for literature.
Tagore was born in Calcutta [now Kolkata] in 1861. His father,
Debendranath was a religious -minded person. And yet Debendranath had
supported the Reformation movement. The family of Tagore was a well -
known family that had many ar tists, thinkers.
If one looks at Tagore’s life, one notices that he was born and lived his
whole life in a colonial country. India had long been under the feudal lords
and later came the British imperial occupation. The war of 1857 was an
attempt to replac e the White rule and revert back to traditional feudalism.
Till the late 1880s, Tagore led a life of leisure, composing romantic poems
and writing and staging operas.
Let us not forget that this is just one side of the picture. He would not turn
his back on what was happening in India and in rest of the world. In 1881,
he wrote an article called ‘Chine Maraner Byabosay’ [Trade of death in
China]. In this article, he wrote about the evil perpetrated by the British in
China by forcing China to produce and co nsume opium. Then came some
of his poems in Naibedya [1901] which should alert us about imperialism
that was devastating Africa during the Second Boer War [1889 -1902].
This was perhaps the moment when he discovered the limitations of
nationalism and the po tential dangers of its excesses.
Though he had spent many years in Calcutta, he moved to Shantiniketan
in 1901 to found an Ashram. Shantiniketan was a unique experimental
school, quite different from the conventional schools. munotes.in
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Nationalism
17 Though he is largely known as a poet, writer and painter, one cannot
ignore his other side which developed political ideas, especially
nationalism. He had travelled a lot to Europe and many Asian countries
like Japan, etc.
Like all sensible people, Tagore opposed imperialism and suppor ted
Indian freedom struggle. Here we must also mention the Ghadar Mutiny
also known as the Ghadar Conspiracy. It was a big plan to initiate an all -
India mutiny in the British Indian Army. It was to take place in February
1915 to end the British rule in In dia. It was largely believed then that
Germans were secretly supporting this mutiny. This is why the trial is
known as ‘Hindu -German conspiracy. Evidence has surfaced lately which
proves that Tagore was aware of Ghadarites and he sought the support of
the prime minister of Japan.
Though he was a strong nationalist, he was not a blind hater of Western
culture. In fact, he insisted that we should learn good things from the
Western civilization.
2.2.1 Tagore’s Nationalism:
In 1908, Rabindranath Tagore wrote a letter to his A N Bose and said,’
Patriotism can’t be our final spiritual leader. I will not buy glass for the
piece of diamonds and I will never allow patriotism to triumph over
humanity as long as I live’.
As noted above, he was a versatile genius. He go t worried about the
spread of aggressive nationalism which had gained popularity before and
during the World War I. A collection of his speeches on nationalism was
published in 1917 with the same title. This book was published amid the
First World War. His views were influenced by the Indian national
movement, World War I and the industrial revolution of the late 19th
century and early 20th century. All these factors shaped his views on
nationalism.
For Tagore, nationalism was ‘the political and economic u nion of a
people, is that aspect which a whole population assumes when organized
for a mechanical purpose’. [Tagore, 1917, p. 4]. From the very first
chapter of ‘Nationalism’, Tagore was highly critical of modern concept of
nation. He argued that nationali sm is a new name for greed, inhuman
application of science leading to mechanization of life.
If he was critical of western nationalism, he also warned Indian nationalist
not to borrow these ideas blindly and become ‘xenophobic’. This is why
he was critical of burning of foreign cloth, a programme initiated by the
Congress popularly known as Swadeshi. In fact, he was an admirer of the
West’s contribution in Arts and Literature as well as ideas like liberty.
In this book, one speech shows his unconventional v iews on Indian
Nationalism. He argued that the true spirit of nationalism lies in the broad
humanistic approach rather than a limited political strategy. He tried to munotes.in
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Indian P olitical Thought
18 lessen the importance of aggressive nationalism which had encouraged
powerful nations to g rab the less -powerful nations.
While developing his ideas on nationalism, he relied heavily on ancient
Indian philosophy. In Indian philosophy the focus is on the world as one
family. This is why he expected India to contribute to the world peace
through h umanity. Tagore’s humanism does not recognize national
boundaries. He showed how the teachings of Nanak, Kabir, etc. had
enriched the minds of Indian and how these got faded over time due to rise
of aggressive nationalism.
He had completely different ideas on nationalism. He felt that in addition
to political freedom, the freedom of mind is equally important. He was
deeply worried about the influence of the West on Indian mind. He writes
‘the history has come to a stage when the moral man, the complete man, is
more and more giving way, almost without knowing it, to make room for
the political and the commercial man, the man of the limited purpose
[Tagore, 1917, p. 8].
Tagore valued the power of the soul above all else. He said that no matter
how powerful Wes tern civilization may seem, uncritical assimilation of it,
to the point of losing one’s soul, is a weakening of the self. If the Western
Civilization has an evil side, which he believes it does, the dangers will be
great. He had said, ‘Europe is supremely good in her beneficence where
her face is turned to all humanity; and Europe is supremely evil in her
maleficent aspect where her face is turned only upon her own interest,
using all her power of greatness for ends which are against the infinite and
the et ernal in Man’.
He was a witness to the devastation brought in by the World War I. He
was equally worried about the aggressive face of Indian nationalism. He
stated that India’s immediate problems were social and cultural and not
political. He realized that the aggressive nationalism as was practices
before and during World War I was the real villain. This is what he meant
when he noted ‘so long as nations are rampant in this world, we have not
the option freely to develop our higher humanity [Tagore, 1917, p.13]
Last Days of Tagore:
In the year 1940, Tagore was very ill and had gone into a coma. He never
recovered. He had suffered years of chronic pain and long-term illness.
Finally, he died on 7th August 1941 at the age of 80 years. Tagore took his
last bre ath in the mansion he was brought up.
2.3 VINAYAK DAMODAR SAVARKAR [1883 -1966]
The 21st century politics of India is dominated by the Hindutva discourse.
V D Savarkar is often hailed as the father of Hindutva. Hence it is
necessary to understand his views on Nationalism. Before that one must
know of his life, his career, etc.
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Nationalism
19 Life sketch of Savarkar
V D Savarkar was born on 28th May 1883 in the village of Bhagur, near
Nashik, Maharashtra. He had three other siblings, Ganesh, Narayan and a
sister Maina. Rig ht from his school days, Savarkar showed political
inclinations. In 1903, he and his elder brother Ganesh founded the ‘Mitra
Mela’ which was an underground revolutionary organization which in
1906 became Abhinav Bharat Society. The main objective of the So ciety
was the overthrow of British rule.
In 1906 V D Savarkar got a scholarship to study in UK. While in London
he involved himself in the activities of bodies like the India House and the
Free India Society. While in London, he wrote books like ‘The India n War
of Independence’ and the ‘Indian Rebellion of 1857’. These books were
banned by the British government.
One must also note the influence of the Italian Nationalist leader Joseph
Mazzini. Savarkar translated Mazzini’s biography in Marathi.
On 13th March 1910, he was arrested in London on multiple charges like
procuring and distributing arms, waging war against the state and
delivering seditious speeches. Though his crimes were committed both in
UK and in India, he was to be tried in India. Accordingly, he was put on a
commercial ship ‘Morea’ with a police escort for his transport to India.
When the ship docked in the French Mediterranean port of Marseille,
Savarkar escaped by jumping from the ship’s window and then swam to
the French shore. He did ask f or political asylum but his request was
rejected and he was handed back to UK police. He was rearrested,
deported to India, tried by the court and sent to Cellular Jail, Port Blair in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands for a term of 50 years. Later in 1921, he
was confined to house -arrest in Ratnagiri. He met important people like
Mahatma Gandhi, Subhash Chandra Bose and Dr Ambedkar during his
house -arrest. In 1937 he was unconditionally released by the Bombay
Governor.
During incarceration in Ratnagiri in 1 922, he wrote ‘Essentials of
Hindutva’ that was the base of his theory of Hindutva. His seminal work
‘Hindutva’ was published in 1923. Here he argued for a militant form of
Hinduism and demanded a Hindu resistance against ‘others’ which
included Christians , Muslims and Communists. He criticized Anglicized
Hindus like Gandhiji and Nehru.
After his release from Ratnagiri in 1937, he joined the Tilakite Democratic
Party. However, he could not do much for the Hindus in that party. Out of
frustration, he joined the Hindu Maha Sabha [HMS] and remained its
President till 1945. He tried very hard to put life into the HMS. Later he
resigned and decided to lead a solitary life. He died in Mumbai on 26th
February 1966.
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Indian P olitical Thought
20 2.3.1 Savarkar on Nationalism:
The Hindu nationa lism has witnessed many ups and downs in our country.
Even during the closing years of 19th century, this brand of nationalism
was in discussion. In the 20th century, the Moplah Riots of 1921 -22
affected Hindu nationalists like V D Savarkar. In these riots , the Moplah
Muslims of the Malabar region targeted innocent Hindus, killed lakhs of
them. Leaders like V D Savakar started looking at the Muslim issues in
different light which finally led to the formation of Hindutva, published in
1923.
The Communal Awa rd of 1932 was another turning point in this regard.
The Khilafat Movement and the failure of the Non-Cooperation
Movement also contributed to the rise of Hindu nationalism. Like
Savarkar, Dr Keshav Baliram Hedgewar was also upset with the mindset
of India n Muslims and established the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
[RRS] at Nagpur in 1925. He had blessings of V D Savarkar.
Savarkar was convinced that the support given to the spiritual values and
rich heritage of India by Gandhiji, Pandit Nehru and others had i n fact a
bad impact on the Hindu society. These people were subduing and
weakening the Hindus. Savarkar felt that these leaders’ real intention is to
weaken Hindu society. This is why Savarkar started emphasizing on
Hindu identity, Hindu unity and solidari ty. For this, he had idolized Hindu
leaders from Ancient Indian History like the Guptas, the Cholas and
medieval history like the Marathas. Savarkar was a great fan of Shivaji
Maharaj, Rana Pratap Singh, Maharani Laxmi of Jhansi. For Savarkar,
these mediev al leaders were very inspiring as they led glorious fight
against foreign invaders and would inspire the Hindus in modern era.
As a student of history from Hindutva perspective, Savarkar felt that the
rule of Hindu Kings from the Vedic era to the end of Pr ithviraj Chauhan’s
kingdom, was the golden era of Hindus in India. For him, the time span
between the Delhi Sultanate to the arrival of the British in 1757 was the
dark age of Hindu society. He had criticized the British rule as equally
brutal for the Hind us.
For Savarkar, to solve all the ills of modern India, Hindu unity and
solidarity was extremely essential. He identified caste system/Varna
system as the main hurdle in this path. He accused Gandhiji of weakening
the Hindus by supporting the Varna system . He felt that Gandhiji’s
support to Varna system will continue to keep the Hindus divided. On the
other hand, Gandhiji will continue to promote pan -Islamism. He further
felt that only a true Hindu Rashtra could give the Hindus justice. This is
why he argu ed that the Muslims and Christians either should leave India
or should stay here as second -class citizens. He charged the Muslims and
Christians with ‘extra -territorial loyalties.
2.3.2 Hindutva as cultural nationalism:
Savarkar was a supporter of Cultural nationalism. He sincerely felt that the
identity formation was the essence of nationalism. India had received munotes.in
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Nationalism
21 identity from Hindu religion. This identity has evolved over a long period
of time. Despite having outward differences, the Hindu society is
internally bound together by cultural, religious, linguistic, social and
historical affinities. These affinities were developed over a period of
centuries and have moulded the Hindus into an organic nation. This
homogeneity becomes important because other sect ions in society had
divergent cultural traditions. For Savarkar, cultural, racial and religious
unity are important in the formation of a nation. Savarkar had defined
nation as ‘nation meant a political community which had occupied a
contiguous and adequat e territory and developed independent national
identity. This community was internally organized and was bound together
by cultural and racial affinities. He further argued that Hindus have
become a nation as they possess all these characteristics.
As an ideologue, Savarkar was one of the first in the 20th century who had
attempted to give a definitive description of the term ‘Hindu’ in terms of
what he called ‘Hindutva’ which really. meant ‘hinduness’. Savarkar’s
usage of Hindutva had no content of religi on. His conception was
essentially non -religious and rationalist. This is why he defined the word
Hindu as ‘he who considers India as both his fatherland and Holyland’.
‘You, who are of the same race, have almost all same values, and were
forced out of our ancestral home by force -you only have to love our
common mother wholeheartedly and recognize her not only as our
Fatherland [pitrubhumi] but also as our Holyland [Punyabhumi] and you
will be most welcome in the Hindu fold’.
It simply means his Hindutva o r Hindu was different from Hinduism. He
had this distinction in mind on the basis of territorial loyalty rather than on
religious practices. He also insisted on Hindu Rashtra [Hindu Polity]
which should be organized to protect Hindu people and their cultur e. For
this, the political and economic systems should be based on native thought
rather than on the concepts blindly borrowed from the West.
2.4 SUMMARY
The chapter introduces Rabindranath Tagore, a prominent Bengali writer,
poet, and nationalist, who pl ayed a significant role in India's nationalist
movement. It discusses Tagore's views on nationalism, emphasizing his
concerns about the aggressive nature of nationalism and his belief in the
importance of humanity and global peace. The chapter also explore s
Tagore's criticism of blind nationalism and his admiration for Western
contributions in arts, literature, and ideas like liberty.
In the latter part of the chapter, it introduces Vinayak Damodar Savarkar,
known as the father of Hindutva, and provides a b rief overview of his life.
Savarkar's views on nationalism, as outlined in his work "Hindutva," are
discussed, highlighting his belief in militant Hinduism and the need for
Hindu resistance against other religious groups. The chapter touches upon
the facto rs that influenced the rise of Hindu nationalism, such as the
Moplah Riots, the Communal Award, and the failure of the Non -
Cooperation Movement. munotes.in
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Indian P olitical Thought
22 Overall, the chapter presents different perspectives on nationalism in
Europe and South Asia, highlighting the complexities and diverse
ideologies associated with this concept.
2.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Analyze Rabindranath Tagore's views on nationalism in India.
2. How did the historical context and colonial rule influence the nature
and goals of Nationalism in Free dom movements?
3. Evaluate Vinayak Damodar Savarkar's concept of Hindutva and its
impact on Indian nationalism.
4. Discuss the factors that contributed to the rise of Hindu nationalism in
the early 20th century.
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23 3
RADICAL AND RATIONAL REFORM
Unit Structure
3.0 Objective
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856 – 1895)
3.3 Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891 – 1956)
3.4 Conclusion
3.5 References
3.0 OBJECTIVE
To understand the social reforms during pre and post i ndependence
india
To undersrtand the work of GG agarkar and Dr Ambedkar in bring
rational refroms in India.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the pursuit of social justice and the eradication of inequalities, history
has witnessed the emergence of remarkable scholars whose transformative
ideas continue to shape our understanding of society. This chapter delves
into the lives and works of two influential visionaries, Gopal Ganesh
Agarkar and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who stood at the forefront of radical and
rational reforms in Ind ia. Through their relentless pursuit of justice, these
intellectual giants challenged age -old prejudices and championed the
cause of marginalized communities, leaving an indelible mark on the
nation's history. By exploring their groundbreaking contribution s, we
unravel the profound impact of their ideologies on Indian society, serving
as guiding beacons for future generations.
3.2 GOPAL GANESH AGARKAR (1856 – 1895)
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar was born on 14 July, 1856 at Thembu in Satara,
Maharashtra to Gopal Aga rkar and Saraswati Devi. Financial decline of
the family made it very difficult for Gopal Ganesh Agarkar to complete
his education. He persevered however, completing his school education
with the help of his uncle, from a local school in Akola. He joined D eccan
College where he met Vishnushastri Chiplunkar and Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
both of whom deeply influenced the course of Agarkar’s future life. It was
Chiplunkar’s influence under which Agarkar became inspired by the
ideals of patriotism and service to th e community through the spread of munotes.in
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Indian Political Thought
24 mass education. Agarkar is known as an educationist and a rationalist
reformer. He is still revered in Maharashtra for his contribution towards
the spread of education among the masses and the raising consciousness
regardi ng the need for rational social reforms. He was also a champion of
the rights of women. Agarkar is further credited for his contribution
towards the growth of vernacular Press and its role in the spread of social,
political and intellectual consciousness a mong the masses.
In order to understand the ideas and activities of Agarkar, it is essential to
understand the nature of the Indian society during the early nineteenth
century. This was a time when the Indian subcontinent was submerged in
religious superst itions and blind faith. Meaningless rituals and customs
that served the exclusive interests of the priestly and higher castes
dominated the lives of the masses. Hinduism had become synonymous to
magic, animism and polytheism. Practices like child marriage, sati, decline
in the position and autonomy of women and untouchability had spread like
malignant tumours on the body of one of the most ancient doctrinal
religions of the world. Added to this cultural decline was the insult and
intimidation imposed by the political rule of the British. The British had
initially come to India to trade but stayed on later to rule India. Unlike the
Indian concept of ‘ raja dharma ’ which entails that the king is bound to
look after his subjects like he would look after his own children, the
western notion of sovereignty is based on exercise of pure power and
extraction of absolute obedience from the subjects. Moreover, when it
came to their colonies or subject nations, the British were only interested
in ensuring their own finan cial profit and ease of administration. They
confined themselves to making such policies which would benefit
themselves and simply looked down upon the ill practices in Indian
society. Thus, socially, economically, culturally and politically, the whole
of India was enmeshed in backwardness, poverty and underdevelopment.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, the British had introduced
English as the medium of instruction in public schools and colleges, so
that they could succeed in creating a class of Ind ians ‘who were Indian by
birth but British by education and thinking’. Western education however,
served another purpose. One quite different from what was intended by the
British. It exposed Indians to European history, literature, politics,
philosophy an d sciences. This, in turn, would lead to the creation of a
sense of rationality, scienticism and humanism amongst the western
educated Indians. Social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Dayanand
Saraswati, Iswarchandra Vidyasagar and others would start insi sting upon
the need for social reforms. They would preach against the evil and
inhuman customs of sati, child marriage and untouchability. By the end of
the nineteenth century, we will find that the first pan -India political
organization – the Indian Natio nal Congress was already formed, which
shows that political consciousness was also on the rise.
In this context now let us attempt to locate the ideas and activities of
Gopal Ganesh Agarkar. Agarkar emphasized upon the need for ‘ lok
shikshan ’ (mass educati on), ‘ lok jagaran ’(raising mass consciousness)
and ‘ lok sangathan ’ (mass organizations). As mentioned earlier, Agarkar munotes.in
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Radical and
Rational Reform
25 was primarily a patriot and he believed that the best way to serve the
country was through the spread of education amongst the masses of people
which would enable and empower them to create a better society and a
stronger nation. He, along with a few of his other compatriots like
Chiplunkar, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and others established the New English
School on 1 January, 1880 in Pune, theDec can Education Society on 24
October, 1884 and the Fergusson College on 2 January, 1885. He firmly
believed that education could play a very vital role in removing the
irrational and evil practices that had crept into Indian society. As a firm
believer in t he ideals of European Enlightenment himself, he was
convinced that liberal and rational education of the masses was the
primary foundation on which a truly free and secular country could be
established. Besides institutions to spread secular and liberal ed ucation,
Agarkar was convinced that not just formal but informal education too,
was necessary to inculcate rational and liberal ideas in the mass mind. As
Altekar writes in his book regarding Agarkar, the latter said: “Persuade,
argue, cherish virtuous exa mples; bring up the youth in the habit of right
opinion and right motive, shape your social arrangements so as to
stimulate the best part of your character.” It becomes clear thus that
education was extremely important to Agarkar. It was not just a process
through which one could collect information but one which could impact
the very nature and actions of individuals and societies.
Besides mass education, he also wanted to spread the ideal of patriotism
and nationalism among the masses of India. This woul d lead to mass
consciousness or ‘lok jagaran’ and pave the path towards political
independence and nation building. To achieve this end, he realized that a
major role could be played by vernacular Press. Agarkar, along with
Chiplunkar, Tilak, Vamanrao Apte , Dr. Ganesh Krishna Garde and
Mahadevrao Namjoshi, started newspapers and periodicals in Marathi.
The Kesari and Mahratta, started in the first week of January, 1881, were
extremely important papers launched by this group. The purpose of these
newspapers was to engage in secular analysis of Indian culture, books in
vernacular languages and foreign political scenario. Both these papers
played a very important role in shaping Maratha public opinion during
their time of publication. Agarkar acted as the first editor of the Kesari
from 1881 to 1887. Later, when differences of opinion arose between
Agarkar and Tilak, the former started a separate bilingual weekly
newspaper by the name ‘ Sudharak ’ in October 1888. The English writings
in the Sudharak were edited b y Gopal Krishna Gokhale for the first few
years. This newspaper was to act as the medium through which Agarkar
could express his views regarding the need and nature of social reform that
he considered to be essential for his country.
Agarkar was very sim ilar to Raja Rammohan Roy in his ideas and
attitudes towards social problems and their reforms. He was a great
champion of social reform and believed that progressive and liberal social
legislation which would help eradicate the social evils like child mar riage
and related social problems. Agarkar prioritized ‘ Suraaj ’ over ‘ Swaraj ’.
He felt that the need for social reform was so urgent that if necessary, the
Indians should not hesitate to seek the help of the foreign bureaucrats and munotes.in
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Indian Political Thought
26 rulers in introducing so cial reforms. He was of the opinion that if social
enlightenment and reforms could be introduced in Indian society at the
earliest, the path to political emancipation would become smoother.
It is well -known that Agarkar and Tilak were fast friends from th eir
college life. They shared similar views regarding the need for the spread
of mass education and nationalistic ideas through vernacular Press. Yet, as
the years passed, their temperaments and their disagreement regarding the
nature and manner of social reforms required for Indian society created a
deep schism between the two. If we look at a few of the major issues of
disagreement between Tilak and Agarkar, it will become easier for us to
understand both these intellectual giants better.
Firstly, Tilak w as firmly of the opinion that that ‘swaraj’ should precede
‘Suraaj ’, i.e., political independence should precede any social reform so
that Indians themselves could freely decide the nature and pace of reforms.
Agarkar on the other hand, gave more importanc e to ‘ Suraaj ’, good
governance or an enlightened society. He felt that a liberal and rational
society could become the appropriate foundation of political
independence. Secondly, Tilak had his own opinion regarding social
change. He felt that each and ever y society has a collective spirit and
conforms to a set of collective values that have been created and sustained
over ages. This collective spirit helps societies to face and overcome
crises, unites them and gives them a national character. Hence, it is a lmost
sacred. Any practices that develop in a society are a result of its evolution
through time. Some of these practices might be unfair or even evil but
nonetheless, any effort to suddenly change such practices can only provide
temporary and superficial results. If changes are to be meaningful, then
slow, piecemeal, revivalist reforms should be introduced. Agarkar, on the
other hand, did not believe in evolutionary reforms. He was eager to erase
the evil impact of child marriage, illiteracy amongst women and the lower
castes, sati and other social evils. To him, the state mechanism could and
should play a pro -active role in making laws and policies that could put an
immediate end to these unwanted practices. Thirdly, Tilak was deeply
apprehensive about the ‘interference of the foreign bureaucracy’ in the
social and cultural affairs of the Indians. He found it humiliating and
degrading to ask the foreign rulers to intervene in social and cultural
affairs when he was already in the mood to acquire swaraj from the very
same foreign government, by force, if necessary. To Agarkar, the need for
social reforms was so urgent that the means through which these were
achieved, did not matter. He was of the opinion that if the British could do
any good to India by frami ng such laws and policies that could bring about
social upliftment, there was no harm in accepting their services. Let us
clarify at this juncture that Tilak was not opposed to social reforms but he
simply felt that once political independence is acquired and political rights
are established, Indians themselves could initiate, slow and gradual
reforms in society and cultural practices, keeping the core values of Indian
philosophy and culture intact. Agarkar, was a believer in the core values of
Western Enli ghtenment, liberalism and rationalism. He was not a
revivalist. Thus, his approach to the issue of social reform was different
from that of Tilak. munotes.in
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Radical and
Rational Reform
27 These differences between Tilak and Agarkar got further accentuated by a
few other issues. For instance, the group that ran the Kesari were of the
opinion that female education, though necessary, should not give in to
extreme westernization. The Sudharak on the other hand was in favour of
a more liberal approach when the question of curriculum in the Female
High School in Poona arose. This school was co -educational and the same
curriculum was delivered to both boys and girls. Tilak, being a
conservative person, was of the opinion that finally girls would get
married and have to take care of home and hearth, hence, they should be
taught to read and write and only such other skills which would train them
as better home -makers. Agarkar, on the contrary, was of the opinion that
girls and boys should be taught the same subjects and in the same place if
equality between the two sexes was to be achieved. Agarkar also saw
female education as a basic and essential step towards eradication of the
evil practices of child marriage and the sorry state of existence of widows.
The next issue of controversy was the Age of Consent A ct, 1891. This Bill
was originally introduced in the Imperial Legislative Council in Calcutta
and proposed to raise the age of marriage of Hindu girls from ten to
twelve. While this was looked upon as necessary in impeding child
marriage and was supported by the group associated withthe Sudharak , the
Kesari published many articles pointing out that if this Bill was passed it
would enable the British government to interfere in the social and
religious life of the Indians and that in turn would violate the pr ovisions of
Queen Victoria’s Declaration of 1858. Once more, it should be clarified
that Tilak was not a supporter of child marriage but he disliked the
intervention of the foreign government in the social cultural practices of
the Indians. The Bill was pa ssed, despite the resistance of Tilak and his
compatriots.
Now that we have discussed the differences in opinion and attitude
towards social reform of both Agarkar and Tilak, we can better understand
Agarkar’s views. Agarkar was passionate about the need for eradication of
social evils. He was opposed to both child marriage and late marriage and
to the problems associated with these. “His attitude partly bears
resemblance to Plato’s ideas which are formulated in the Republic and the
Laws. Plato wanted the state to make laws about marriage and other
related social problems. To Agarkar the essential problem was the
eradication of social evils and he did not see any harm or injury in the
foreign state making laws for social and marital regulation.” (Varma, V.P .,
p. 207)
In conclusion we can say that Agarkar should be remembered and revered
as a truly rational educationist and social reformer. His conviction in his
own opinion was such that he did not hesitate to stand up to his own dear
friend and hugely popu lar political leader like Tilak. In his brief life, he
remained committed to his ideals of spreading mass education as a means
to raise mass consciousness and insisted on the superiority of human
reason as the key to solve all social problems that afflicte d his beloved
motherland. He was also a true supporter of the cause of women
empowerment as evident in his criticisms of child marriage, late marriage,
female feoticide, dowry system, widowhood and illiteracy amongst munotes.in
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Indian Political Thought
28 women. His conviction that a good socie ty based on reason should precede
political independence made him a leading social reformer. He passed
away at a very young age of thirty -nine in the year 1896.
3.3 BHIMRAO RAMJI AMBEDKAR (1891 – 1956)
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar needs no introduction. He has been imm ortalised in
the history of India as a relentless rebel fighting for the social uplift of the
Dalits, a critic of Brahminism, a fiery supporter of the need for legal
provisions to protect the rights of the Dalits, as the Chairman of the
Drafting Committee of the Constituent assembly, as the first Law Minister
of independent India and as the leader of the downtrodden, the
untouchables, to whom he gave the mantra to ‘Educate, Organize,
Agitate.’ and self -help. Yet, for the sake of gaining a more holistic
unde rstanding of how Ambedkar became what he was, we shall look at the
social, cultural and political context that he was situated in.
Ambedkar was born as the fourteenth child of Ramji Sakpal and Bhimabai
on 14 April, 1891 in the Mhow military cantonment are a of Maharashtra.
Ramji Sakpal belonged to the Mahad community of Maharashtra, one of
the leading untouchable communities of the region. This community, had
for ages constituted the lions’ share of the British Indian forces. They were
known to be one of th e first untouchable castes to have come in contact
with the British, to have learned the English language and become an
important part of the Bombay army and the English East India Company.
Bhimabai too, belonged to another untouchable community of the reg ion,
Murbadkar. Both Ramji Sakpal and Bhimabai’s families were deeply
influenced by the Bhakti movement, especially by the dohas of Kabir.
Sakpal was very well aware of the importance of education. He had
acquired a diploma in education and had taught at v arious army schools.
He retired as the principal of one the schools that he served. It becomes
obvious that such a man would want the best of education for his children,
especially, their brightest child, Bhimrao.
Despite the best efforts of his father, Am bedkar faced many obstacles and
discriminations at school because of his caste. He was not allowed to sit
with his classmates and was consigned to a corner of the room, where he
had to sit on a rug that he would himself have to take to school. Teachers
avoided asking questions to him for fear of polluting their caste purity and
he was even forced to study Persian because the Sanskrit teacher refused
to teach an untouchable. Later, Ambedkar’s family moved to Bombay,
where Ambedkar finished his graduation fro m Elphinstone College in
1913. With the patronage of the Gaekwad of Baroda, Ambedkar went to
Columbia University, New York to complete his Ph.D. in Economics.
Later, with financial assistance from Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj of
Kolhapur, he would again go to London to acquire a D.Sc. from the
University of London and pass the Bar from Grey’s Inn. Ambedkar came
back to India as one the most educated men of all times, a trained
economist, a legal expert and a political leader who was focused on the
need for soc ial, economic and political reforms. munotes.in
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Radical and
Rational Reform
29 It is quite impossible to summarize the entire gamut of work written and
done by Ambedkar within the limits of this module. We shall look at the
reforms Ambedkar suggested in the economic, social and political spheres
specifically.
Economic Reforms: We often forget that Ambedkar was a trained
economist. His doctoral thesis The Problem of the Indian Rupee its Origin
and Solution was as one of his earliest works on economics. He later wrote
The Essay on Farming and Farm -holding, Administration and Finance of
the East India Company, The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British
India and many other essays that focused on various aspects of Indian
economy. We must understand that the reforms that Ambedkar suggested
were deepl y related to the social inequality and hierarchical division of
Indian society. He realized that without economic equality, social equality
and social justice would always remain a distant dream for India. In this
regard, Ambedkar was aware that private ow nership in land and industry
would only perpetuate economic inequalities, which in turn, would
perpetuate social inequalities. Hence, he proposed State Socialism for
independent India. It was Ambedkar’s idea that a financial institution like
the Reserve Ba nk of India should be formed and he placed this idea before
Hilton Young Commission which is considered to be instrumental in the
establishment of the RBI in 1935. He firmly believed that land reforms
were the urgent need of Indian economy. He was in favou r of cooperative
farming and believed that reforms were required to transfer ownership of
land holdings to the tillers of the land immediately. He was also of the
opinion that agriculture, basic and heavy industries should rest with the
state. Similarly, A mbedkar felt that banking and insurance sectors should
also be left under the ownership and control of the state and there should
be no privatization in these spheres of the economy. He also laid down the
guiding principles of Centre -state financial relati ons, later these ideas were
incorporated in the Indian Constitution.According to Ambedkar, only
national ownership and control over agriculture, banking, insurance and
basic and heavy industries could ensure that adequate employment
opportunities were gene rated for the teeming population of India and
economic equity could be established. This alone could pave the way for
social equality and a dignified existence, not just for the Dalits but for all
sections of the population of India.
Social and cultural Re forms : Now we shall discuss Ambedkar’s role in
rousing and giving shape to the innumerable millions of Hindus who,
because of their caste status, had been consigned to a sub -human state of
existence. The shudras and ati- shudras were literally ‘untouchable ’ and
‘unseeable’. The purity -pollution matrix on which the Hindu caste system
is based pushed away these ‘Dalits’ to the very margins of Hindu society
and allowed them a peripheral existence to the extent that they served their
masters - the high caste Hin dus. To these degraded and dehumanized
people Ambedkar gave the lesson of Self as Light, Self as source of
Knowledge, Self as source of Strength and Self as source of Sustenance.
This idea was earlier depicted in the Brihadaranyak Upanishad and also
later found resonance in the Buddhist teaching: “Be your own lamp, seek
no other refuge but yourself. Let Truth be your own Light”. Ambedkar munotes.in
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Indian Political Thought
30 thus taught the first very important lesson to the Dalits that they should not
look upon caste Hindus for help nor wait f or a supernatural messiah to
rescue them from their sordid existence. The Dalits themselves would
have to become conscious about their rights and would have to organize
themselves to strive constantly to acquire a dignified existence. Ambedkar
was empoweri ng the Dalits by insisting upon self -help, on ‘atma shakti’ or
self- reliance. The second lesson that Ambedkar inculcated in the Dalits
was that education was of immense importance if the Dalits were to
successfully overcome the exclusion and humiliation t hat had been
imposed upon them since the rigidification of the caste system. Education
alone could raise the social and political consciousness in the Dalits and
that would enable them to fight for their rights. (Roy, 2018, pp 255 -259)
Ambedkar also encour aged the various untouchable groups across
different regions of India to put aside their mutual differences and to unite
in their efforts towards reclaiming their human status. He founded various
political parties, associations and conferences to bring all Dalits on
common platforms. He was associated with the Samata Sainik Dal,
Independent Labour Party, Scheduled Castes Federation. He also started
and edited numerous newspapers and periodical, writing frequently about
the conditions of the Dalits and how t hey could achieve their demands.
Mooknayak (1920), Bahishkrit Bharat (1927), and Prabuddha Bharat
(1956) are notable in this regard. Ambedkar’s seminal works include
Annihilation of Caste, Who are the Shudras, The Buddha and His
Dhamma, Castes in India, Pa kistan or the Partition of India and extend to
numerous essays as he was a prolific writer.
Ambedkar, though himself an admirer of Kabir and the tenets of
Buddhism, realized that the evils of untouchability had become so deeply
entrenched in the Hindu soci al and cultural psyche that mere reforms
would not be sufficient to undo generations of faith in the superiority of
the Brahmins and the hierarchy of castes based on the principle of
karmavaad. He therefore demanded the very annihilation of the caste
syste m through a total rejection of Hinduism itself in the final stages of his
life. His burning of the Manusmriti and his final conversion to Buddhism
after a defiant declaration that he was born a Hindu abut he would not die
a Hindu are strong and courageous acts of a learned man and a leader who
had faced all the atrocities that belonging to the Dalit community entailed
during his time.
Ambedkar’s views on women’s rights and functions, both Dalit and caste
women, is the next important aspect of his views tha t one should be aware
of. At a time when the entire Indian society was in the iron grip of
patriarchy and even high caste Hindu women hardly had any autonomy or
agency, Ambedkar emphasized upon the double subjugation and
domination faced by Dalit women. Th ey suffered both as women and as
Dalits. At all his public meetings and conferences, he passionately called
upon the Dalit women to get educated and to encourage education
amongst their family members. Women, Ambedkar felt, could play a very
active role in changing and improving the lifestyle and decadent habits of
the Dalits. He exhorted Dalit women to participate in and lead their own munotes.in
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Radical and
Rational Reform
31 movements instead of waiting for external agencies to change existing
caste conditions. Not just Dalit women, Ambedkar was conscious about
and sensitive towards the needs of women in general. He had therefore
demanded a Uniform Civil Code and the Hindu Code Bill as the first Law
Minister of independent India. He was sure that equal partnership in
marriage and equal right to i nherit and own property were the keys to
women empowerment. Sadly, both these bills failed to acquire the support
of the government and Ambedkar resigned from the post of Law Minister
of the Nehru cabinet. Today, it is not difficult for us to understand th e
importance of these ideas of Ambedkar. (Roy, 2018, pp 26 -27) As a
member of the Legislative assembly of Bombay, Ambedkar had shown the
magnitude and sensitivity of introducing maternity leave and other such
benefits for the women state government workers .
Political and Legal Reforms : As mentioned in the section on economic
reforms, Ambedkar was a supporter of State Socialism. However, we must
understand that he was favour of state ownership and enterprise in
agriculture, basic and heavy industries, bankin g and insurance only
because he felt that this could generate employment for the masses,
provide support in the form of subsidies and other benefits to public sector
units and reduce the gap between the rich and the poor. We must not
forget that the key pr inciple that Ambedkar worked for was equality, be it
economic, social or political. Politically speaking, he was in favour of
parliamentary democracy with maximum decentralization of power and
separate electorates for both Dalits and the minorities. He did not look
upon separate electorates as being a divisive mechanism. To the contrary
he felt that separate electorate would ensure the representation of the
demands of all backward, oppressed and marginalized people of the Indian
population. This view of Amb edkar collided with that of M.K. Gandhi and
led to the rise of the Gandhi - Ambedkar debate.
Another lesser discussed issue to be mentioned here is that the famous
Mahad Satyagraha organized at the behest of Ambedkar in 1927 was not
only significant becaus e the Dalits present there collected water from a
tank that had till then been prohibited to them. It was also significant
because it was at this Satyagraha that the resolution of rights for Dalits
that had been drawn up and adopted at this meeting is the perhaps the first
document or charter of human rights that had been drafted and adopted in
India. “The first resolution to be passed in this conference demanded that
the downfall of a nation such as India had been brought about by the
internal rivalries, d issensions and injustices conducted in the name of
religion.” (Roy, 2018, pp 26 – 7). The inequality of status and opportunity,
the denial of human dignity to large sections of society and the
meaningless rituals and practices that had dehumanized the Dali ts, women
and the poor could only be cleansed and corrected through the recognition
of the equal human worth of all.
3.4 CONCLUSION
In this module we have looked at the ideas and activities of two of India’s
most erudite, socially conscious men, Gopal Gan esh Agarkar and Dr. B.R. munotes.in
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Indian Political Thought
32 Ambedkar. Both showed keen inclination towards the principles of
rationalism, scientific approach and humanism. Both tried in their own
way to cleanse Indian society of the major evils that were afflicting this
great civilization. Both were keen on promoting and giving legal
recognition to the rights of the backward, the downtrodden, the illiterate
and the powerless. Both emphasized upon the need and importance of
secular and scientific education as the first requirement for social reform.
Instead of comparing the contributions of each to Indian society let us
appreciate the fact that both were dedicated towards reforming Indian
society during their time.
3.5 REFERENCES
‘Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856 – 1895) Rationalist and Social
Refor mer of Maharashtra’ Excerpts from the book Agarkar: The
Secular Rationalist Reformer by A. Ganachari in Atheist, August 10,
2019
Bhosale, B.K., ‘ Contribution of Rationalist Social Reformer Gopal
Ganesh Agarkar in Women Empowerment in Maharashtra ’ in The
Criterion An International Journal in English, Vol -9, Issue -IV, August
2018
Varma, V.P, Modern Indian Political Thought , Lakshmi Narayan
Agarwal Educational Publishers, Agra, 1961
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar: The Utopian Pragmatistby Sanjukta Roy in
Ambedkar’s Id ea of Social Justice and Indian Polity edited by Raha,
Netal, Levant Books, Kolkata, 2018
Relevance of the Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar in Contemporary India by Sanjukta Roy in Relevance of the
Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. A mbedkar in
Contemporary India edited by Roy, S. Rohini Nandan, Kolkata, 2018
Sengupta, L edited Indian Political Thought and its Contemporary
Relevance , Atlantic Publishers and Distributers, New Delhi, 2016
Ray, B.N & Misra, R.K. ed Indian Political Though t Readings and
Reflections , Kaveri Books, New Delhi, 2015
munotes.in
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33 4
SOCIALISM
Unit Structure
4.0 Objective
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nehru and socialism
4.3 Nehru's political thought
4.3.1 On Nationalist.
4.3.2 On Democracy
4.3.3 Individual Freedom and Equality
4.3.4 On Parliamentary Democracy
4.4 Nehru's thoughts on Cultural
4.5 Summary
4.6 References
4.0 OBJECTIVE
This chapter aims to examine the thoughts of Jawaharlal Nehru. The aim
objective this chapter is to develop an understanding of socialism and
understand Jawaharlal Nehru's perspective viewed on socialism in the
context of India. At the end of the chapter students would understand and
critically think about socialism and develop the personality of Jawaharlal
Nehru and his thoughts too.
INTRODUCTION
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru was born in Allabahad on November 14, 1889. He
received his early education a t home under private tutors. At the age of
fifteen, he went to England and after two years at Harrow, joined
Cambridge University where he took his tripos in Natural Sciences. He
was later called to the Bar from Inner Temple. Here turned to India in1912
and plunged straight into politics. Even as a student, he had been
interested in the struggle of all nations who suffered under foreign
domination. He took keen interest in the Sinn Fein Movement in Ireland.
In India, he was inevitably drawn into the struggl e for independence.
In 1912, he attended the Bandipore Congress as a delegate, and became
Secretary of the Home Rule League, Allahabad in 1919. In 1916 he had
his first meeting with Mahatma Gandhi and felt immensely inspired by 4.1 munotes.in
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Indian Political Thought
34 him. He organised the first Kisan March in Pratapgarh District of Uttar
Pradesh in 1920. He was twice imprisoned in connection with the Non-
Cooperation Movement of 1920 -22. Pt. Nehru became the General
Secretary of the All-India Congress Committee in September 1923. He
toured Italy, Switzerland, England, Belgium, Germany and Russiain1926.
In Belgium, he attended the Congress of Oppressed Nationalities in
Brussels as an official delegate of the Indian National Congress. He also
attended the tenth anniversary celebrations of the October Socialist
Revolution in Moscow in 1927. Earlier, in 1926, at the Madras Congress,
Nehru had been instrumental in committing the Congress to the goal of
Independence. While leading a procession against the Simon commission,
he was lathi-charged in Lucknow in 1928. On August 29, 1928 he
attended the All -Party Congress and was one of the signatories to the
Nehru Report on Indian Constitutional Reform, named after his father Shri
Motilal Nehru. The same year, he also founded the ‘Independence for
India League’ , which advocated complete severance of the British
connection with India, and became its General Secretary.
In 1929, Pt. Nehru was elected President of the Lahore Session of the
Indian National Congress, where complete independence for the country
was ado pted as the goal. He was imprisoned several times during 1930 -35
in connection with the Salt Satyagraha and other movements launched by
the Congress. He completed his ‘Autobiography’ in Almora Jail on
February 14, 1935. After release, he flew to Switzerlan d to see his ailing
wife and visited London in February -March, 1936. He also visited Spain
in July 1938, when the country was in the throws of Civil War. Just before
the court -break of the Second World War, he visited China too.
On October 31, 1940 Pt. Neh ru was arrested for offering individual
Satyagraha to protest against India’s forced participation in war. He was
released along with the other leaders in December 1941. On August 7,
1942 Pt. Nehru moved the historic ‘Quit India’ resolution at the A.I.C.C.
session in Bombay. On August 8,1942 he was arrested along with other
leaders and taken to Ahmednagar Fort. This was his longest and also his
last detention. In all, he suffered imprisonment nine times. After his
release in January 1945, he organized legal defence for those officers and
men of the in a charged with treason. In March 1946, Pt. Nehru toured
South East Asia. He was elected President of the Congress for the fourth
time on July 6, 1946 and again for three more terms from 1951 to 1954.
Jawaharlal Nehru was an Indian politician and statesman who served as
the first Prime Minister of India from 1947 until his death in 1964. He was
a central figure in Indian politics before and after independence from
British rule in 1947. Nehru was a leader in the I ndian National Congress
and worked closely with Mahatma Gandhi during India's struggle for
independence. He was a strong advocate for secularism, democracy, and
socialism, and played a key role in shaping India's modern identity as a
diverse, democratic, a nd pluralistic nation. Nehru's legacy continues to
influence Indian politics and society today. munotes.in
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Socialism
35 Nehru’s Ideology
Jawaharlal Nehru's ideology was based on the principles of secularism,
democracy, and socialism. He believed in the importance of building a
modern, industrialized India, while also promoting social justice and
equality for all citizens. Nehru was a strong advocate for education,
believing that it was essential for the development of a modern and
democratic society. He was also a supporter of non-alignment in foreign
policy, believing that India should maintain its independence and not align
with any major power blocs. Overall, Nehru's ideology was based on the
belief that India should be a progressive, democratic, and secular nation,
with a stron g commitment to social justice and equality for all. Socialism
is the political economic theory of social organisation which advocates the
means of production their distribution and exchange is regulated by the
society/community. Jawaharlal Nehru was a bri lliant exponent of the
socialist ideology. His aim was to attain the complete independence for the
people of India. The method to be adopted to accomplish this task was
democratic socialism. Democratic Socialism is practicing socialism in a
practical way. It is committed to systematic transformation of economy. It
is a logical scientific approach in democracy to realize equitable
distribution of income and wealth. He said that “There cannot be
democracy without socialism and there cannot be socialism withou t
democracy” In spite of his Marxist faith Nehru never believed in
conformity and he certainly did not think that a society where uniformity
was the rule was a good society. He wrote "I had long been drawn to
socialism and communism and Russia had appealed to me much; In Soviet
Russia I dislike the ruthless suppressing of all contrary opionions, the
wholesale regimentation, the unnecessary violence in carrying out various
policies but there was no lack of violence and suppression in the capitalist
world and realized more and more how the very basic and foundation of
our acquisitive society and property was violence.
Check Your Progress Exercise1
Q1. What did you understand about Jawaharlal Nehru's ideology?
4.2 NEHRU AND SOCIALISM
4.2.1 Nehru on Socialism
Jawaha rlal Nehru was a strong proponent of socialism and believed that it
was essential for India's development as a modern, democratic, and
egalitarian society. Nehru was inspired by the principles of socialism and
believed that it offered a path to create a mo re equitable and just society.
He saw socialism as a means to address the economic and social
inequalities that existed in India, particularly in the context of colonialism
and the exploitation of Indian resources and labour by foreign powers.
Nehru believ ed that the state had a vital role to play in promoting social
welfare, economic development, and industrialization. He believed that
the government should take an active role in promoting public ownership
of key industries and resources, such as land, water, and minerals. Nehru munotes.in
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Indian Political Thought
36 saw public ownership as a means to ensure that the benefits of economic
growth were shared more equitably among all citizens, rather than being
concentrated in the hands of a few powerful interests.
Nehru also believed that socialis m was closely linked to democracy and
that democratic institutions were essential for ensuring that the
government remained accountable to the people. He saw socialism as a
means to promote political freedom, social equality, and economic justice,
and beli eved that it offered a path to create a more egalitarian and just
society. During his tenure as Prime Minister of India, Nehru implemented
a range of socialist policies, including land reforms, the nationalization of
key industries, and the promotion of pu blic sector enterprises. He also
championed policies aimed at promoting social welfare, including
universal education, healthcare, and access to basic necessities such as
food and shelter. Overall, Nehru's commitment to socialism was a central
aspect of hi s political philosophy, and he saw it as essential for building a
modern and equitable India. While his policies and approach to socialism
have been subject to criticism and debate, Nehru's vision of a democratic
and socialist India remains an important as pect of his legacy.
4.2.2 About Socialism
Socialism is a political and economic ideology that advocates for a system
of collective or public ownership and control of the means of production,
distribution, and exchange of good s and services. In a socialist societ y,
resources such as land, factories, and natural resources are owned and
managed by the state or by the community as a whole, rather than being
privately owned and controlled by individuals or corporations.
The goal of socialism is to create a more equita ble and just society, where
wealth and resources are distributed fairly and everyone has access to
basic necessities such as food, housing, healthcare, and education.
Socialism also emphasizes the importance of social welfare and collective
responsibility for the well -being of all citizens. Socialism can take
different forms, ranging from democratic socialism, which advocates for a
mixed economy where the government provides certain public services
and regulates certain industries, to more extreme forms suc h as
communism, which aims to abolish private property and establish a
classless society. Critics of socialism argue that it can lead to
inefficiencies and disincentives to work and innovate, as well as a loss of
individual freedoms and liberties. Supporte rs, however, see Socialism as a
means to promote social justice and equality, and to address issues such as
poverty, inequality, and social exclusion.
4.2.3 Socialism in the Context of India in Nehru Time and Now
In the context of India, socialism during Nehru's time referred to a set of
economic policies and measures aimed at promoting public ownership and
control of certain industries and resources, while also prioritizing social
welfare and reducing economic inequalities. Nehru's socialist policies
included th e nationalization of certain key industries, such as banking and
insurance, as well as land reforms aimed at redistributing land from munotes.in
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Socialism
37 wealthy landlords to landless peasants. During Nehru's time, socialism
was seen as a means to promote economic development and social welfare
and to address the inequalities and injustices perpetuated by colonialism
and a deeply unequal social structure. Nehru saw socialism as a means to
create a more egalitarian and just society, where everyone had access to
basic necessitie s such as food, shelter, and healthcare, and where
economic growth was shared more equitably among all citizens.
Today, socialism in India has taken on a different form, with a greater
emphasis on market -oriented economic policies and liberalization. While
certain aspects of Nehru's socialist legacy continue to shape India's
economic and social policies, such as the promotion of public sector
enterprises and certain forms of social welfare, India's current economic
system is generally seen as more market -oriented and less socialist in
nature. However, socialist ideas and principles continue to influence
Indian politics and society, particularly in the context of debates around
economic inequality and social justice. There is ongoing discussion and
debate abo ut the role of the state in promoting economic development and
social welfare, and the extent to which market -oriented policies have
contributed to rising inequality and social exclusion in India. Overall,
socialism remains a contested and evolving concept in the Indian context.
Check Your Progress Exercise2
Q1. Use the space given below for your answer
Q2. What were Jawaharlal Nehru's views on socialism and how did he
apply them in India?
4.3 NEHRU'S POLITICAL THOUGHTS
4.3.1 On Nationalism
Nehru had a thorough knowledge of what made nationalism unique. He
was aware of the benefits of nationalism and how it had helped modern
civilization advance. His command of how nationalism's role in the
development of Western culture. He was fully aware of how nationalism
continued to be the fundamental motivator of the struggle for freedom. He
thinks that nationalism contributed to some degree of neutrality and vigour
on a global scale. He claimed that "narrow nationalism caused civilization
to suffer and expressed the hope that free India would welcome the work
for global cooperation." He believed that narrow -minded and self-centered
nationalism would be a scourge. He claims that ferocious nationalism is
damaging and inspires others' anxieties. He believed that Indian
nation alism will begin on the basis of the universal virtues, peace,
liberalism, and rationalism and that nationalism's narrowness, exclusivity,
and selfishness stunt the development of the mind. He opposed fanatical
and religious nationalism because he was awar e of its limitations.
Jawaharlal Nehru's political thought was shaped by his experiences during
the Indian independence movement and his belief in the importance of
building a modern, democratic, and secular India. On nationalism, Nehru munotes.in
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Indian Political Thought
38 believed in the imp ortance of a strong and inclusive Indian nationalism
that transcended regional and religious differences. He saw Indian
nationalism as a means to unite people from different backgrounds and
create a sense of shared identity and purpose. Nehru believed that India's
struggle for independence was not just a political struggle, but a struggle
for social and economic justice. He saw India's independence as an
opportunity to build a society that was free from exploitation, poverty, and
inequality. Nehru's vision of nationalism was based on the principles of
secularism and democracy. He believed that India should be a secular
nation, where people of different religions and backgrounds were treated
equally and without discrimination. He also believed in the importan ce of
democracy as a means to ensure that the government remained
accountable to the people and that the rights and freedoms of citizens were
protected. Overall, Nehru's political thought on nationalism was centered
on the idea of building a strong and inc lusive Indian nationalism that was
based on the principles of secularism, democracy, and social and
economic justice.
4.3.2 On Democracy
Jawaharlal Nehru's political thought emphasized the importance of
democracy as a means to ensure that the government remained
accountable to the people and that the rights and freedoms of citizens were
protected. He saw democracy as essential to building a modern and
progressive India Nehru believed in the importance of free and fair
elections as a means to ensure that the gover nment reflected the will of the
people. He saw democracy as a way to ensure that power was not
concentrated in the hands of a few individuals or groups, but was
distributed fairly among all citizens.
Nehru's political thought on democracy was also based on the principles of
social justice and equality. He believed that democracy should be used as
a means to promote economic and social progress and to address the
inequalities and injustices that existed in Indian society. He saw
democracy as a way to empower the marginalized and disadvantaged
sections of society, and to ensure that their voices were heard in the
political process. Nehru also believed in the importance of a strong and
independent judiciary as a means to protect the rights and freedoms of
citizens and to ensure that the government remained accountable. He saw
the judiciary as a check on the power of the executive and legislature, and
as a means to uphold the rule of law. Nehru's political thought on
democracy emphasized the importance of buildin g a modern, progressive,
and inclusive India, where the rights and freedoms of citizens were
protected and where power was distributed fairly among all sections of
society.
4.3.3 Individual Freedom and Equality
Jawaharlal Nehru believed in the principles of individual freedom and
equality. He saw these as essential to building a modern, progressive, and
inclusive India. Nehru believed that every individual had the right to live
their life according to their own choices and preferences, as long as they or munotes.in
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Socialism
39 did not harm others or infringe upon their rights. He saw individual
freedom as essential to personal growth, creativity, and innovation. At the
same time, Nehru believed that individual freedom should not come at the
cost of equality. He saw inequality as a major challenge facing India and
believed that it needed to be addressed through a range of policies and
measures aimed at promoting social justice. Nehru's vision of equality was
based on the principles of social and economic justice. He believed that
every in dividual should have equal access to basic necessities such as
food, shelter, healthcare, and education, regardless of their background or
social status. He also believed in the importance of affirmative action and
other measures aimed at empowering margin alized and disadvantaged
sections of society, such as Dalits, Adivasis, and women.
Overall, Nehru believed that individual freedom and equality were
essential to building a just and inclusive society in India. He saw these
principles as complementary rathe r than contradictory and believed that
they could be achieved through a range of policies and measures aimed at
promoting social and economic progress, while also protecting the rights
and freedoms of citizens.
4.3.4 On Parliamentary Democracy
Jawaharlal Nehru w as a strong proponent of parliamentary democracy and
saw it as the most effective form of government for India. He believed that
parliamentary democracy was essential to building a modern and
progressive India and that it provided a framework for ensuring
accountability and transparency in government. Nehru believed that
parliamentary democracy allowed for the peaceful transfer of power,
which was essential for stability and continuity in government. He saw
democracy as a means to ensure that power was dist ributed fairly among
all citizens and that the government remained accountable to the people.
Nehru believed in the importance of a strong and independent judiciary,
which he saw as a necessary check on the power of the executive and
legislature. He believ ed that the judiciary had a critical role to play in
upholding the rule of law and protecting the rights and freedoms of
citizens. Nehru also believed in the importance of free and fair elections,
which he saw as a means to ensure that the government refle cted the will
of the people. He believed that every citizen had the right to participate in
the political process and to have their voice heard.
Nehru saw parliamentary democracy as an essential component of India's
political system. He believed that democ racy provided a framework for
ensuring accountability, transparency, and the protection of individual
rights and freedoms. Nehru's commitment to parliamentary democracy has
helped to shape India's political system and continues to be an important
part of i ts political culture today.
CheckYourProgressExercise3
Q3. What do you understand by Nehru’s political Thoughts?
Q4. How did Nehru's thoughts on individual freedom and equality
influence his political vision for India? munotes.in
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Indian Political Thought
40 4.4 NEHRU'S THOUGHTS ON CULTURAL
Jawa harlal Nehru believed that culture played a critical role in shaping the
identity of a nation and its people. He saw culture as an important aspect
of India's rich heritage and believed thatit was essential to preserve and
promote it. Nehru believed in the importance of cultural diversity and
pluralism and saw India's cultural richness as being derived from its many
different religions, languages, and traditions. He believed that this
diversity was a source of strength for the country and that it was essent ial
to preserve it. At the same time, Nehru also believed in the importance of
a common national identity that transcended regional and cultural
differences. He believed that this sense of national identity was essential to
building a modern and progressiv e India and that it could help to
overcome some of the challenges posed by regionalism and communalism.
Nehru was a strong proponent of secularism and believed that the state
should not promote any particular religion or culture. He believed that
every cit izen had the right to practice their own religion and follow their
own cultural traditions, as long as they did not infringe upon the rights of
others. Nehru saw culture as an important aspect of India's identity and
believed that it was essential to prese rve and promote its diversity. At the
same time, he believed in the importance of a common national identity
that was based on the principles of secularism, democracy, and social
justice. Nehru's thoughts on culture continue to influence India's cultural
policies and debates today.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Q 5. What role did Nehru see culture playing in the identity of India, and
how did he balance diversity with a common national identity?
4.5. SUMMARY
Jawaharlal Nehru was a visionary leader who playe d a crucial role in
shaping India's political, social, and cultural landscape. His political
thought was deeply influenced by his commitment to democracy,
socialism, individual freedom, equality, and cultural diversity. Nehru
believed that democracy was the most effective form of government for
India and that it provided a framework for ensuring accountability,
transparency, and the protection of individual rights and freedoms. He was
a strong proponent of parliamentary democracy, free and fair elections,
and an independent judiciary.
Nehru also believed in the principles of socialism and saw it as a means to
address the challenges of inequality and poverty in India. He believed in
the importance of social and economic justice and saw individual freedom
and equality as essential components of a just and inclusive society. Nehru
believed that culture played a critical role in shaping the identity of a
nation and its people. He saw culture as an important aspect of India's rich
heritage and believed in the impo rtance of preserving and promoting its
diversity. At the same time, he believed in the importance of a common munotes.in
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Socialism
41 national identity that was based on the principles of secularism,
democracy, and social justice. Nehru's political thought and vision have
had a p rofound impact on India's political, social, and cultural landscape,
and continue to influence the country's policies and debates today. His
commitment to democracy, socialism, individual freedom, equality, and
cultural diversity remains essential componen ts of India's national identity
and aspirations for the future.
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Dutt (Author)
The Socialist Thought of Jawaharlal Ne hru
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