TYBA-Psychology-Paper-VIII-Sem-V-Practicals-in-Cognitive-processes-and-psychological-Testing-munotes

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1 1
INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY AND STATISTICS IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH - I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Variables
1.2.1 Independent Variable
1.2.2 Dependent Variable
1.2.3 Control Variable
1.2.4 Confounding Variable
1.3 Operational Definitions
1.4 Experimental Designs
1.4.1Experimental designs with One IV
1.4.2Experimental designs with Two IVs
1.5 Sampling, Randomization and Counterbalancing
1.5.1 Sampling
1.5.2 Randomization
1.5.3 Counterbalancing
1.6 Hypothesis
1.6.1 Null Hypothesis
1.6.2 Alternative Hypothesis
1.6.3 Directional Hypothesis
1.6.4 Non -directional Hypothesis
1.7 Summ ary
1.8 Reference
1.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, learner should be able to –
1. Describe the characteristics of an Experiment.
2. Identify the I.V, D.V and CVs in an experiment
3. Describe the different Experimental designs with one IV and two IVs
4. Evaluate the different Experimental designs
5. Explain the concepts - Sampling, Randomization and
Counterbalancing
6. Frame null and alternate hypot hesis for experiments with one IV munotes.in

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2 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
2 1.1 INTRODUCTION Psychology is a science of human and animal behaviour. It aims at
scientifically building an organized body of knowledge. Another aim of
psychology is to provide scientific explanation for behaviour.
The s cientific method of organizing and explaining behaviour, requires
following steps to be followed. This consists of ---
i. Observing the phenomena or behaviour
ii. Formulating Tentative Explanations
iii. Further Observing and Experimenting
iv. Refining and Retesting Explanations
Let us see it with an example. One famous experiment that was conducted
by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer. This was known as the Car Crash
Experiment.
Loftus and Palmer observed that our memory is not always right and it can
deceiv e us. They hypothesized that the way in which the questions are
worded can influence the participant’s recall of the event. They further
experimented to test this explanation or hypothesis.
In their experiment, participants watched slides of a car accident and were
asked to describe what had happened during the scene. The participants
were divided into five groups and each group was exposed to a different
form of question.
Group I was asked --- How fast was the car driving at the time of contact?
Group II w as asked – How fast was the car going when it smashed into the
other car?
Group III was asked – How fast was the car going when they collided?
Group IV was asked – How fast was the car going when they bumped
against each other?
Group V was asked – How fast were the cars going when they hit each
other?
It was found that participants in the ‘smashed’ condition reported the
highest speed estimate (40.8 mph), followed by ‘collided’ (39.3 mph),
‘bumped’ (38.1 mph), ‘hit’ (34 mph) and contacted (31.8 mph)
From th is experiment it was concluded that the verb used in the question
influenced the estimate of the speed of the car which impacted the
perception of the eyewitness. munotes.in

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3 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I This was not the only experiment that Loftus and Palmer conducted. They
further conducted sev eral other researches to refine and further understand
the Eyewitness Testimony.
Several such experiments have been conducted to understand the different
mental processes. Let us now see the important characteristics of
Experimental method.
Characteristic s of Experimental Research :
Experimental research enables us to test hypothesis or the tentative
explanation. This type of research has two important characteristics –
i. Manipulation of Independent Variables
ii. Control Over Extraneous Variables
Let us lo ok into these characteristics in detail.
i. Manipulation of Independent Variables :
An independent variable is the variable whose values are set by the
experimenter. For instance in the experiment by Palmer and Loftus, they
manipulated or set different type s of verbs in their questions. ‘The type of
verb used in the question’ was the independent variable. They altered the
verb in different groups of participants. In an experimental method, the
Independent variable is artificially introduced and manipulated b y the
Experimenter. This is a very important characteristic of Experimental
method which distinguishes it from Observational method.
Control Over Extraneous Variables :
Another characteristic of an Experimental research is that it involves
controlling the various extraneous variables. Extraneous variables are
those factors apart from the independent variable which may affect the
behaviour that the experimenter wishes to study. For instance, in the
experiment by Palmer and Loftus the way in which the slides were
presented too would have had an influence on the memory. Hence they
kept the slides same for all the groups. Similarly, if one group were
presented the scene under noisy condition while another group in a quiet
condition, that too may have had an impa ct on the participant’s memory.
This means that noise level, distraction level and any other conditions that
are likely to affect memory, apart from the kind of verb (Which is our IV)
should be controlled while conducting the experiment. Thus in an
experim ental method, all the factors that are likely to influence the
behaviour under study, except for the Independent variable, we try to
control them.
Thus Experimental research involves understanding the behaviour and
testing the hypothesis through careful ma nipulation of the Independent
variable under controlled conditions.
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4 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
4 Check Your Progress :
1. What are the important characteristics of an Experimental Method?
2. State with reasons whether the following research involves
Experimental Method
a. A researcher wanted to study whether use of mobile has an effect on
the level of distraction of the students. The researcher measured the
attention level of 100 students who possessed mobile and found that
the level of distraction is high.
b. A researcher wanted to study the eff ect of training to use of imagery
in improving memory. One group of participants were trained for use
of imagery while another group was not. Followed by that both the
groups of participants were taught a matter and memory for the
material taught was measu red for the two groups and compared.
Now that you have understood the two important characteristics of an
experiment, we will see in the next section the different types of variables
involved in the Experimental method.
1.2 VARIABLES Experimental Researc h requires the understanding of the different types of
variables. The three important types of variables in an Experimental
method are –
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Control variable
We will now see each of them
1.2.1 Independent Variable:
It is the variable that is set by the experimenter and manipulated in the
experiment. For instance, in order to study the effect of Information about
Mnemonic device on memory, the experiment will involve two conditions
i. Condition with Mnemonic Device : This will involve training given to
the participants about the different Mnemonic device.
ii. Condition without Mnemonic Device : This will involve no training
given to the participants about the different Mnemonic devices.
One group will be exposed to one condi tion (Mnemonic device
information condition) and the other group will be exposed to another
condition (No Mnemonic device information condition). The first group of
participants will be exposed to a training program where they will be
given information abo ut the different Mnemonic devices while the other
group is not exposed to this kind of information. Followed by that, both munotes.in

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5 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I the groups will be given a task to test the memory. In this way the variable
‘Information about Mnemonic device’ is manipulated or s et up by the
experimenter. Thus ‘Information about Mnemonic device’ will be
considered as the Independent variable in this experiment.
The set values of the Independent variable are called as levels. Thus in
this experiment the Independent variable – Mnemo nic device has two
levels :
1. Information about Mnemonic device
2. No information provided about Mnemonic device.
Let us now see another example. Suppose the experimenter wishes to
study the effect of Method of teaching on learning. In order to conduct the
expe riment, the experimenter will expose the participants to different
methods of teaching – Lecture method/ Discussion Method/ Self - study
method. The same topic may be taught to three groups of participants with
different methods. Followed by that, the exper imenter may check their
level of learning through a test on the content. In this experiment, the
‘method of teaching’ will be the Independent variable and it will have
three levels –
Lecture method condition
Discussion method condition
Self-study method co ndition.
Some important things to be remembered about Independent variable are :
1. It is a variable that is manipulated by the experimenter.
2. In an experiment the independent variable must have at least two
levels. Although there can be more than two levels a s well, minimal
of two levels of the I.V. is required to undertake experimental
research.
3. An experiment may have more than one independent variable.
We will now go to the second type of variable in the next section.
1.2.2 Dependent Variable :
In an experime nt, the researcher manipulates a variable and observes its
effect. The variable whose value is observed and recorded in the
experimental research is called as the ‘Dependent variable (DV). It is the
variable which is measured in the experiment.
In the expe riment by Loftus and Palmer, what they measured and observed
was the estimate of speed that the participants mentioned. This estimate of
the speed was their Dependent variable (D.V.) munotes.in

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6 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
6 In the experiment on effect of mnemonic device on memory, after
manipulat ing the mnemonic device, the experimenter will measure the
memory of the participant. Hence memory which will be measured in
terms of the number of words that the participant is able to recall will
become the dependent variable in that experiment.
In the n ext example where we wanted to study the effect of the method of
teaching on the learning, after exposing the participants to different
methods of teaching, the researcher may give the participants a small test
to see how much learning has taken place. Thu s, in this experiment ‘The
amount of material learned’ will be the dependent variable.
Some important characteristics of dependent variables that must be kept in
mind are :
1. It is a variable that is measured in an experiment.
2. In an experiment there can be m ore than one dependent variable
Another very important type of variable in an experimental method is the
Control variable, which we will be discussing in the next section.
1.2.3 Control Variables :
One important characteristic of Experimental method is that it involves
control over extraneous variables. It is important to control the extraneous
variable because, if it is not controlled it may become difficult to establish
cause -effect relationship. For instance if all the participants in the
‘Mnemonic group condition’ of our memory experiment are high on
intelligence in comparison to those in the ‘No Mnemonic group
condition’, it will be difficult to know whether the memory in the
Mnemonic group condition is influenced by the use of mnemonic device
or because of their high level of intelligence.
Those extraneous variables which are controlled in an experiment, are
called Control variables.
In the experiment to study the effective of Method of teaching on learning,
it is important that in all the conditions (M ethods of teaching) the age and
intellectual abilities of the participants are kept constant. If all the
participants in the Discussion method are more intelligent as compared to
those in the other two groups, we may not know whether the difference in
the level of learning is due to the method of teaching or whether it is due
to differences in the intellectual ability. This makes it necessary for the
experimenter to control the influence of the extraneous factors. Also it is
necessary that either the same topic is taught or the difficulty level of the
matter taught should be kept constant. If these are allowed to vary, they
may interfere with the results and make it difficult to know whether the
differences in the learning was due to the method of teaching or not. Thus
in this experiment some of the control variables to be considered would be
as follows –
1. Age and abilities of the participant munotes.in

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7 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I 2. Difficulty level of the material to be taught
3. Duration of the teaching period
There are two ways of controlling the in fluence of extraneous factors –
1. Holding the extraneous variable constant :
This involves keeping it constant so that it does not vary across the
different levels of the independent variable. For eg., we may keep the
same topic for the 3 groups with diffe rent types of teaching method so that
the difficulty level of the topic will not influence the amount of learning.
2. Randomize their effects :
This involves randomly placing participants into different conditions. To
control the effect of intellectual abil ities of the participant, we may
randomly assign participants to different groups. By doing this the effect
of the differential intellectual ability may be distributed across the
different groups and may even out.
1.2.4 Confounding Variables :
Controlling t he extraneous variables is very important in an experimental
method. When important variables which influences the behavior under
study is not adequately controlled, there are chances that the study will
have several alternative explanations. Let us unders tand this with an
example. If in our study where we wish to understand the effect of method
of teaching on learning, we fail to keep the difficulty level of the content
constant, it is possible that the differences in learning in the three methods
could be not only because of the method but also due to another reason -
difficulty level of the content. Thus if discussion method is introduced
using a easier topic while self -study method is introduced using difficult
topic, we may not know whether the differenc es in the learning is due to
the method of teaching (Discussion Vs Self -study) or due to difficulty
level of the content (Easy Vs Difficult)
Under such circumstances it becomes very difficult to state the extent to
which learning is due to the method of te aching and to what extent it is
due to the level of difficulty of the topic. In this case, difficulty level of the
content is considered as a confounding variable.
A confounding variable is a variable which systematically keeps varying
along with the Indep endent variable and produces difficulty in separating
the role played by the Independent variable on the dependent variable.
In an experimental method, it is necessary to identify the factors which
may act as a confounding variable and make an attempt to c ontrol its
effect. This is necessary since confounding variables can affect the
internal validity of the experiment. However it is not possible to eliminate
all the sources that can confound the study.
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8 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
8 Check Your Understanding :
1. What are the two character istics on an experimental research?
2. Define – Independent variable
3. Define – Dependent variable
4. Define – Control variable
5. Define --Confounding variable
6. What are the ways in which extraneous variables are controlled in an
experimental research?
7. In the followi ng examples, Identify the IV and DV and CVs --
a. A researcher wanted to know if there is a difference in the
comprehension level of sentences in Active voice Vs. Passive voice.
The participants were matched for age and language abilities. All the
participan ts were then exposed to sentences which were either
constructed in Active voice or Passive voice and the sentence
comprehension was measured with the help of the number of errors
committed in comprehending the two types of sentences.
b. A researcher wanted to understand whether there is a difference in the
time taken to take the decision when an individual is working alone as
compared to working with a team. A group of participants were
chosen from the same age -group and educational level. They were
given a si tuation and were asked to take a decision as an individually.
The participants were then put into a group situation and asked to take
a decision as a team. The time taken to take the decision in the two
situation (Individual Vs Team) was compared.
All the above kinds of variables - Independent Variable, Dependent
Variables and Control Variables should be operationally defined in a
study. Let us now see what we mean by Operational definitions.
1.3 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION A good research requires stating the problem or research question in such
a way that it becomes possible for us to test it. This means that it should be
stated precisely. Precision involves the specific definition of the variable
and the way in which it will be measured in the study. In the e xperimental
method as well, it is necessary to specifically state what the variables
mean and the precise way in which it will be used in the experiment. Such
specific and precise statement describing the variable and how it will be
measured, is called as Operational definition.
For example, in our experiment, it is important to state the Operational
definitions for the different variables. This helps us to frame the
hypothesis more precisely, which can then be tested. For instance when
we want to test the hypothesis that – ‘There is a difference in learning as a munotes.in

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9 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I function of the method of teaching’, it is necessary to state what exactly
we mean by learning and what do we mean by the method of teaching.
What do these variables mean in our experiment needs to be clearly stated.
Thus the Operational definition of learning could be –
i. Number of questions based on the content that is correctly answered.
ii. Ratings given by the teacher at the end of the lecture on the quality of
learning demonstrated by the part icipant.
iii. Ratings given by the participant on the amount of content understood
by them.
Out of the different ways, the exact way in which we will be using it in
our research, needs to be mentioned. Such operational definitions helps
not only the resear cher to formulate a testable hypothesis, but it also helps
others who are reading the research and further conduct researches related
to the same variable.
Check Your Understanding.
1. What do you mean by Operational Definition?
2. In the following example, Iden tify the I.V..D.V. and C.Vs and give
one operational definition of each of the variable.
A researcher wanted to understand the effect of Exercise on Stress level by
keeping the Socioeconomic status constant.
Another important concept related to Experimenta l method is the design of
the experiment. We will now see the different Experimental designs.
1.4 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS We will see the different designs by categorizing them into two groups –
i. Experimental Designs with One IV and
ii. Experimental Designs with Two IV
We will now see the designs of an experiment in each of the above
category.
1.4.1 Experimental Designs with One IV :
Any true experiment will necessarily have one independent variable and a
dependent variable. Although it may have more than one independent
variable or also more than one dependent variable, at least one is a
necessity. Also the independent variable, which is manipulated in the
experiment, will involve at least two levels. There can be no experiment
with less than two levels of th e independent variable. The different levels
of the independent variable may be may be manipulated either by using
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10 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
10 1. Random groups design
2. Repeated measures design.
We will now see these two types of design one by one.
1. Random group design :
This design involves assigning participants to different groups in a random
manner. This means that different participants participate in different
condition and any participant has equal chance of being put into any
group.
Let us se e this with the example of the memory experiment. If we want to
study the effect of Mnemonic device on memory, we will have two levels
of the Independent variable –
Mnemonic device condition
No Mnemonic device condition
Thus the experiment will be conducte d on two groups of participants.
Suppose we decide to conduct this experiment on 100 participants by
having 50 participants put into the first condition (Mnemonic device
condition) and train them to use mnemonic device and assign another 50
participants to the other condition (No Mnemonic device condition) with
no training on use of mnemonic device. At the end of the session we may
measure the memory for a list of ten words. This will involve random
measures design or which is also called as between subject s design.
This method thus involves the following steps –
1. Sample a group of participants from general population
2. Randomly assign the participants into the different conditions of the
experiment
3. Expose the participants to the treatment conditions
4. Compare th e two groups by measuring the dependent variable
2. Repeated Measures Design (Within Subjects Design) :
This design involves each participant to be exposed to all the levels of the
independent variable. It is also called as the within - subjects design.
Thus rather than having different participants participating in the different
treatment conditions, the same participant goes through all the conditions.
We will now see how the experiment on Mnemonic device can be
conducting using the repeated measures design .
In order to understand the effect of Mnemonic device on memory, we may
have a group of 100 participants and each of the participant may be first be
exposed to a list of 10 words and asked to recall them (No Mnemonic munotes.in

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11 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I device condition). Followed by this th e same participants may be trained
for use of Mnemonic device and again exposed to another list of 10 words
and tested on the number of items that they are able to recall. We will now
be able to know the effect of Mnemonic device by comparing the number
of words correctly recalled in the two conditions (Mnemonic device
condition Vs No Mnemonic device condition)
In this design, the same participant participates in both the conditions of
the experiment and hence involves the repeated measures design.
Both th e designs have their own strengths as well as weaknesses. It is
necessary to evaluate the variables before deciding on an appropriate
experimental design.
Check Your Progress :
1. What is Random measures design?
2. What is Repeated measures design?
3. How will you conduct the experiment that we have discussed above
on ‘Effect of teaching method on learning’ using the Random group
design?
4. How will you conduct the experiment on ‘Effect of teaching method
on learning’ using Repeated measures design?
1.4.2 Experimental Designs With Two Ivs :
Till now we have been discussing Experimental designs with one
Independent variable. Let us now see research designs with experiments
having two Independent variables.
Before seeing the designs with two IVs, we will see how the total number
of conditions in an experiment is calculated when a design has 2 IVs.
When an experiment has two I.Vs, each of the I.V. may have different
levels. For example, if we want to understand the effect of subject taught
and method of teaching on learning, then this experiment now has 2
independent variables –
1. Subject – with two levels (Maths and Science)
2. Method of teaching – with three levels (Lecture method, Discussion
method and Self -study method)
When there are more than one independent variables in an experiment, we
need to first know how many conditions the experiment will totally consist
of. This may be calculated by multiplying the levels of each of the I.Vs.
Thus in this experiment, there will be (2 X 3) since the first IV (Subject)
has two levels (Maths and Science) while the second IV (Method of
teaching ) has three levels (Lecture method, discussion method and Self -
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12 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
12 Since (2 X 3 = 6), this experiment will have 6 conditions which are as
follows :
Lecture method Discussion method Self-study method Maths Condition 1 Maths with Lecture method Condition 3 Maths with Discussion method Condition 5 Maths with Self-study method Science Condition 2 Science with lecture method Condition 4 Science with Discussion method Condition 6 Science with Self-study method
We will now consider another example. Suppose the experimenter wishes
to study the effect of Emotional state of an individual (Relaxed Vs.
Anxiety) and Type of stimulus (Abstract Vs. Concrete) on the recall of the
words.
In this Exper iment, there are two I.Vs and each of the IVs have two levels
each.
1. Emotional state – Relaxed and Anxious
2. Types of Stimulus – Abstract and Concrete.
The number of conditions that this experiment will contain will be
= 2 X 2 = 4
The four conditions will be as follows
ABSTRACT WORDS CONCRETE WORDS RELAXED STATE CONDITION 1 Abstract words in Relaxed emotional state CONDITION 2 Concrete words in Relaxed emotional state ANXIOUS STATE CONDITION 3 Abstract words in Anxious emotional state. CONDITION 4 Concrete words in Relaxed emotional state
Now that we have seen how the total number of conditions in an
experiment is computed when experiments have more than one IV, we
will now discuss the different designs when experiment has two IVs.
When an experiment has 2 I.Vs, the following designs are used –
1. Completely Randomized Design :
In this design different participants participate in all the different
conditions of the experiment. In the above experiment with 6 conditions,
if we are using Completely randomized design, then different participants
will be randomly be assigned to any of the 6 conditions. This means that munotes.in

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13 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I the experiment will require 6 groups of participants and each group of
participant will be exposed to one of the 6 conditions.
Similarly in the sec ond example, since there are altogether four conditions
and if we are using Completely randomized design, there will be four
groups of participants and each of the group will be exposed to one of the
four conditions.
2. Completely Repeated Measures Design :
In this design, the same participant is exposed to all the different
conditions of the experiment. This means that in the context of the above
experiment which has 6 conditions, the same set of participants will be
exposed to all the 6 conditions and in e ach of the condition the content of
the teaching will be of same difficulty level.
Similarly in the second example, where there are four conditions in all, if
the experimenter uses completely repeated measures design, then the same
participant will be expo sed to all the conditions of the experiment.
Apart from these two designs, there are other designs that we can use
when an experiment has two I.Vs.
Mixed Design
Factorial design
We will be seeing the Mixed design in Semester 6 (Section A)
Check Your Unders tanding :
1. What are the designs used when there is one IV in an experiment?
2. Describe Completely Randomized group design with an example
3. Describe Completely Repeated measures design with an example.
1.5 SAMPLING, RANDOMIZATION AND COUNTERBALANCING While planni ng an experiment it is necessary to understand the role played
by the characteristics of the participant and also that of the stimulus
material that is used while conducting the experiment. In this section let us
see important concepts related to the selec tion of the participants and the
presentation of the stimulus material while conducting the experiment. We
will be seeing three important terms - Sampling, Randomization and
Counterbalancing.
1.5.1 Sampling :
In any research, it is not possible to include e very member of the
population. Hence we conduct it on a selected small group of participants.
This small group of participant is known as the sample. The results
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14 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
14 Random sampling means that every individual has equal chance of being a
part of the study. When the sample is randomly selected or assigned, there
are greater chances of obtaining conclusions which can be generalized to
the population.
Let us now see what are the different types of sampl ing techniques that
can be used.
i. Simple Random sampling : This means that we are going to select
participants in such a way that any individual will have equal chance
of being a participant in our experiment. For example, an
experimenter may decide to in volve every third person he or she
comes across in the experiment. This is called Simple Random
Sampling.
ii. Stratified Sampling : This kind of sampling involves including all the
segments of the population in the study. For instance, in an
experiment on p arenting styles, it may be necessary to have
participants from all the section of the society - Upper -class, Middle -
class as well as Lower class. This kind of sampling is called as
Stratified Sampling.
iii. Proportionate Sampling : In this form of sampling, all the sections of
the society are included, but proportionate to their existence in the
population. For example, if in India 50% of the population belongs to
Middle -class, 25 % to Upper -class and 25 % to Lower -class, the same
proportion should be reflec ted in the sample. The sample of the
experiment too should have 50% of participants from Middle -class,
25 % from Upper and Lower - class. This type of sampling is called as
proportionate sampling.
iv. Cluster Sampling : In researches that involve a larger po pulation, the
research becomes more meaningful if participants from different
geographical areas or other relevant categories are included in the
study. For instance to understand the importance of the type of
parenting, it is necessary to have participant s from different parts of
the country, rather than only from one state or city.
Check Your Understanding
Explain the following :
i. Random sampling
ii. Stratified sampling
iii. Proportionate sampling
iv. Cluster samplin g
1.5.2 Randomization :
From the earl ier section it is seen that the sample that is studied is
necessary to be representative of the general population. This brings us to munotes.in

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15 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I the importance of randomization. When experiments are conducted, since
we conduct it on a sample of population, it is nece ssary to choose the
participants randomly so that every individual has equal chance of being a
member of the study. This helps in bringing out sample closer to the
general population.
Similarly, when we use random group design in which different
participan t participate in different conditions, it is necessary that we assign
participants to each of the conditions randomly. For instance if we are
conducting the experiment related to the differences in learning produced
by the three methods of teaching, it is necessary to randomly place
participants into one or the other of three groups.
Another situation where randomization is required is in the presentation of
the stimulus. When there are a number of stimuli or conditions in an
experiment, it is necessary to take into consideration the effect of the
position of the stimulus or conditions. For instance, if in an experiment
where we want to understand the effect of the method of teaching on
learning and we use repeated measures design, then all participants will
participate in all the three method of teaching. Under that condition, if for
all the participants the order of the method of teaching used is as follows
(1) Discussion method (2) Self -study method (3) Lecture method.
If the presentation is the same f or all the participants, it is possible that the
lecture method being the last one may either produce fatigue or practice,
due to its position. Randomization can be used here so that for every
participant any method can be randomly chosen for any position.
Thus randomization helps in controlling for many interfering factors.
Another such method which helps in controlling for interfering factors is
counterbalancing. Let us now discuss about counterbalancing.
1.5.3 Counterbalancing :
When repeated measures de sign is used, the same participant participates
in more than one conditions of the experiment. This may result to a
number of carryover effects like – fatigue, practice eff ect, habituation,
sensitization , etc. For instance in the experiment on understandin g the
effects of 3 methods of teaching on learning, if we plan to use repeated
measures design and all the participants are first exposed to discussion
method, then to lecture method and finally to self -study method. In this
case learning in the different methods may be different not only because of
the inherent characteristic of the method of teaching, but it can also be the
result of the position of the method. Those in the beginning are less likely
to be affected by fatigue, while those towards the end a re likely to be
influenced by fatigue or practice or other factors.
In an experimental method, it is necessary to control the effect of the
carryover effects. One way of doing this is through Counterbalancing.
Counterbalancing involves assigning different participants to different
order of the conditions so as to balance them across the positions. Thus for munotes.in

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16 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
16 the study on the effect of method of teaching on learning, we may have 3
groups of participants with each of them exposed to the 3 different orders
as follows : GROUP 1 GROUP 2 GROUP 3 Lecture method Discussion method Self-study method Discussion method Self-study method Lecture method Self-study method Lecture method Discussion method
Note that in this way the carryover effects are likely to get bala nced. This
is called as Counterbalancing.
Check Your Understanding
1. What do you mean by Randomization?
2. Explain Counterbalancing with an example.
In this unit we are seeing the important features and concepts in
Experimental method. After having seen some of the concepts like
Variables and designs, let us now see one more important term –
Hypothesis.
1.6 HYPOTHESIS Hypothesis is a very important aspect of an experiment. Before conducting
the experiment, the experimenter may propose a possible relationship
between the Independent variable and the Dependent variable. This
proposed relationship is called as a hypothesis.
For instance, in the experiment on Mnemonic device, if the experimenter
expects that recall will be better in the Mnemonic device condition rat her
than the No -Mnemonic device condition, then this expected relationship
will have to be stated as a hypothesis.
Conventionally, in research, there are two forms in which hypotheses are
written :
i. Null Hypothesis
ii. Alternative Hypothesis
We will now see these two forms of hypotheses one after the other.
1.6.1 Null Hypothesis :
The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two
variables.
For the experiment on Mnemonic device, the null hypothesis could be
stated as follows : munotes.in

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17 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I There is no significant difference in number of items recalled as a function
of Mnemonic device (i.e. There is no significant difference the in mean
number of items that are recalled in the Mnemonic device condition Vs.
No-Mnemonic device condition)
1.6.2 Altern ative Hypothesis :
The alternative hypothesis is a hypothesis which states that there is a
relationship between the IV and the DV and that IV has an impact on DV.
For the experiment on Mnemonic device, the alternative hypothesis could
be stated as follows –
Mnemonic device has a significant effect on recall of items (i.e. The
number of items recalled is significantly greater in the Mnemonic device
condition as compared to the No -Mnemonic device condition)
An experimental hypothesis many be Non -directional or Directional. Let
us now see Directional and Non -Directional hypothesis.
1.6.3 Directional Hypothesis :
This is a one -tailed hypothesis which specifically predicts the direction or
nature of effect that the IV will have on the DV.
For the example on Mnem onic device, the Directional hypothesis may be
stated in the following way :
Mnemonic device significantly enhances the recall (i.e. the mean number
of words recalled is significantly higher in the Mnemonic device condition
as compared to the No -Mnemonic de vice condition.
Thus in this hypothesis, the experimenter is specifically stating the
direction in which he or she expects the difference to occur.
1.6.4 Non -Directional Hypothesis :
This is a two -tailed hypothesis which predicts that the IV will have an
effect, but does not specify the direction in which the effect will be seen.
For the experiment on Mnemonic device, the Non -Directional hypothesis
may be stated as follows –Mnemonic device significantly influences the
recall (i.e. the mean number of words re called is significantly different in
the two conditions – Mnemonic device condition and the No Mnemonic
device condition.
Writing the hypotheses clearly is very important for any research. Let us
see some of the important steps to be followed for writing h ypotheses
precisely and clearly in a research.
How To Write A Hypothesis For A Research :
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18 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
18 i. First identify the key variables of your research. Identify what will be
your I.Vs and the D. Vs.
ii. It is then necessary to operationally define the Variables. If you say
you want to measure memory, be specific about how will you
measure memory – are you going to use the method of recall, or the
method of recognition. It is necessary to specific about how the
variable is being used in the experiment. This is called as Operational
definitions.
iii. Decide on the Direction of the relationship between the IV and the
DV. For this it is essential to look into the literature of the topic. If the
literat ure supports a specific direction of effect, a directional
hypothesis may be stated. However sometimes, the earlier researches
and literature may have inconsistent findings. At such times a non -
directional hypothesis may be stated.
Check Your Understanding :
1. What is the difference between a null hypothesis and an alternate
hypothesis?
2. How does a directional hypothesis differ from a non -directional
hypothesis?
3. State a null hypothesis, directional hypothesis and non -directional
hypothesis in the following examp les.
a. A researcher wishes to study whether motivational level (High Vs
Low) has an impact on the performance of an employee.
b. A researcher wishes to study the level of anxiety in the individual
(High Vs Low) affects their reaction time.
1.7 SUMMARY Experimen tal method is one of the research method that is used in
psychology to understand behaviour. Two main characteristics of
experimental method are that the Independent variable is manipulated by
the experimenter and there is control over the extraneous fac tors.
Experimental method involves 3 important types of variables -
1. Independent variable : It is the variable that is manipulated by the
experimenter.
2. Dependent variable : It is the variable that is measured by the
experimenter.
3. Control Variable : It refers to those variables that are kept constant
by the experimenter.
An experimenter needs to design the experiment before conducting it. The
designs of the experiment when there is one IV in an experiment are – munotes.in

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19 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I Random group design and Repeated measures design. In Random group
design there are different participants participating in different conditions.
On the other hand in the Repeated measures design, there is one group of
participant which participates in all the conditions of the experiment.
When there are two IVs in an experiment, each of the IV may have more
than two levels and hence it is necessary to first determine the number of
conditions that the experiment involves. The total number of conditions
can be determined by finding out the product of the level s of the IVs. In
this kind of situation, there are different designs possible – Completely
random group design, Completely repeated measures design, Factorial
design and Mixed design.
In Completely random group design, there are different participants
participating in each of the different conditions of the experiment.
Whereas Completely repeated measures design consists of the same group
of participants participating in all the conditions of the experiment.
The participants and the stimulus material that i s involved in the
experiment can also affect the results of the experiment. Hence it is
necessary to consider the aspects of experimentation like - Sampling,
Randomization and Counterbalancing.
Sampling is the procedure used to plan the sample on whom the
experiment will be conducted. It may involve Random sampling in which
any participant has equal chance of participating in an experiment. Other
forms of sampling involves Stratified sampling (involving all the segments
of the population), Proportionate sam pling (all segments covered
proportionate to its prevalence in the society) and Cluster sampling
(Covering different geographical areas)
The material and conditions planned in an experiment may affect the
results through its order of presentation and carry over effects.
Randomization involves presenting the material and conditions in such a
way that any stimulus material or condition has equal chances of being
presented in any position. Counterbalancing involves presenting the
material or condition so as to have a balanced position.
Another important term in experimental method is – Hypothesis.
Hypothesis is a statement of proposed relationship among the variables in
the experiment. While a null hypothesis states that there is no relationship,
the alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship. An
experimental research may either state the direction of relationship(
Directional Hypothesis) or may not state the direction of relationship
(Non -directional).
Framing the hypothesis clearly and precisely helps in expressing the
relationship between the variables and makes it possible to test it through
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20 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
20 Thus Experiments have to be properly designed with clear description of
the variables, planning its design and stating the direction of re lationship
expected between the variables through hypothesis.
1.8 REFERENCES  Bordens, Kenneth S and Bruce B. Abbott , Research Design
and Methods : A Process Approach. New York, NY: McGraw -Hill
Education, 2014.
 Myers, Anne, and Christine H. Hansen. Experimen tal Psychology.
Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002.

******


























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21 2
INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY AND STATISTICS IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH - II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Statistical Analysis
2.2.1 Descriptive Statistics
2.2.2 Inferential Statistics
2.2.3 T -test
2.2.4 F test
2.2.5 St atistical significance
2.3 Summary
2.4 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES After learning this unit the learner should be able to -
1. Distinguish between Descriptive statistics and Inferential statistics
2. Explain the experimental situation where t -test and F -test is
appropriate
3. Explain the concept of Statistical significance
2.1 INTRODUCTION In the earlier unit we saw the different characteristics of Experimental
method and some important concepts which needs to be considered while
designing the experiment. One more im portant aspect of planning an
experiment is the planning of statistical analysis of the data that will be
collected through the experiment. In this unit we will discuss the statistical
analysis of the data.
2.2 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Once the experiment is designed and planned with a systematic
methodology, the experiment is conducted to collect the data. Thus in the
experiment to understand whether use of Mnemonic device influences the
recall, after designing the experiment, the experimenter actually conduc ts
the experiment to collect the data.
The collected data thereafter needs to be organized, summarized and
described before we can draw conclusion. This may be done by coding the munotes.in

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22 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
22 information and using different statistical methods. Although the
summarizing and describing happens after the data is collected, it is
important that the experimenter plans how to effectively summarize,
describe and the method to be used to draw conclusions, during the
planning stage itself.
The different statistical methods tha t are used are of two categories –
Descriptive Statistics and
Inferential Statistics
We will now discuss these two categories of statistical method.
2.2.1 Descriptive Statistics :
This involves different statistical methods that enable us to describe the
data that has been collected. Graphical representations, Measures of
Central tendency (Mean, Median and Mode), Measures of variability, are
some of the commonly used statistical procedures which help us to
describe the data.
Thus, after conducting an expe riment on several participants, we will have
the recall scores of participants in the No -Mnemonic device group and
those from the Mnemonic device condition. If we conduct the experiment
on several participants, we will have the data of all the participants . This
data that is collected from one or more participants needs to be properly
organized so that we will be able to describe it more effectively. The
experimenter will be able to summarize the findings with the help of the
graphs, mean, standard deviatio n (SD) and other descriptive statistics.
With this we will be able to understand the data. For example, consider the
table given below.
Mean recall scores and SD of 20 Participants of the Mnemonic device
condition and the No Mnemonic device condition :
Mnemonic device condition No Mnemonic device condition Mean recall scores 8.5 4.2 SD 2.1 1.2
After conducting the experiment on 20 participants, if the experimenter
puts the information in a tabular form like this and even plots a bar graph,
it will help the experimenter to explain the data that has been collected
from the experiment.
Statistical methods like these form what is considered as Descriptive
Statistics. However this is not sufficient for drawing conclusions.
Although the mean recall score is g reater for the Mnemonic device
condition than the No Mnemonic device condition, we cannot draw a
conclusion that ‘Mnemonic device facilitates memory’. To draw
conclusions the researcher needs to use Inferential Statistics. munotes.in

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23 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - II Let us now see what is Inferentia l statistics.
2.2.2 Inferential Statistics :
Descriptive statistics does not help us to assess the reliability of our data
and hence inferential statistics is required. Inferential statistics enables us
to assess the extent to which our findings are reliab le.
While conducting an experiment we cannot conduct it on the entire
population. Hence we select a sample of population and conduct
experiment on that sample. Inferential statistics help us to know the extent
to which we will be able to infer from the da ta that we have collect from
the sample to the entire population.
For example, in our experiment where we wanted to investigate the
effectiveness of Mnemonic device, we conducted the experiment only on
20 participants. These 20 participants form our sample . However a
researcher does not want to know what happens with only these 20
participants. We would want to draw conclusion about the entire
population. We would want to know the probability of the two means of
the two conditions (Mnemonic device condition and the No Mnemonic
device condition) being obtained due to chance factor. The statistical
methods which enable us to draw such inferences are called as inferential
statistics.
There are different types of inferential statistical techniques used. These
are classified into – Parametric Statistics and Non -parametric statistics.
Parametric statistics are those statistical methods which involves making
certain assumptions about the sample. These methods are useful when the
sample is normally distributed. Howe ver if the data is not normally
distributed, we cannot use Parametric tests. Instead we can use Non -
parametric tests which do not make any assumptions about the sample.
Some of the important parametric tests are – t –test and F -test. Some of the
non-parame tric tests that can be used are inferential statistical methods
like Chi -square, Wilcoxcin Sign Rank Test, etc.
Check Your Understanding :
1. What is the difference between Descriptive and Inferential Statistics?
2. Why is Inferential statistics important in a r esearch?
3. How does Parametric statistics differ from Non -parametric tests?
Let us see some of the important Inferential Statistics –
2.2.3 The t -test:
This is the inferential statistical test that is used when the experiment
includes only two levels of I.V. and so there are two means to be
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24 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
24 In the experiment on the effect of Mnemonic device on recall, there are
two levels of a single I.V. This means that we have two means that we
have to compare (Mean recall score of the Mnemonic device condition V s
Mean recall score of the No Mnemonic group condition). Even if we find
the mean recall scores to be higher in the Mnemonic group condition as
compared to the No -Mnemonic group condition, we cannot draw
conclusion only on the basis of the means. We will have to use t -test since
there are two means to be compared.
There are different types of t -tests to be used based on the design of the
experiment.
Repeated measures t -test: This is used when there are two means to be
compared and the D.V lies on the inte rval or ratio scale of measurement
and the design used in the experiment is Repeated measures design
Random measures t -test: This is used when there are two means to be
compared and the D.V. lies on interval or ratio scale of measurement and
the design use d in the experiment is Random measures design.
Thus if the experiment on Mnemonic device is conducted using the same
participant exposed to both the condition (No -Mnemonic device condition
and Mnemonic device condition) then the inferential statistics that will be
appropriate will be Repeated measures t -test. On the other hand if the
experiment is conducted using the random group design, then the
inferential statistics that will be used will be Random measures t -test.
The following steps are to be followed while using t -test ---
1. Calculate the degrees of freedom (Number of scores that are free to
vary). When we use Repeated measures t -test, degrees of freedom is
calculated as (N -1) where N is the total number of participants in the
experiment and for Random m easures t -test it is (N -2)
2. Then the formula for t -test is applied, which gives us a score (t -value)
3. We find the critical value for the calculated degrees of freedom
4. The statistical table for t -value is referred to find out the critical value
for the desire d alpha level.
5. If the obtained t -value (In step 2) is greater or equal to the critical
value in the table, it means that the difference between the two means
is statistically significant.
Check Your Understanding :
1. When do we use t -test in a research?
2. In the following experiments, state which type of descriptive and
inferential statistics will be appropriate and why - munotes.in

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25 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - II a. A research wishes to study the effect of type of family on perceive
family cohesiveness level. Participants from Joint and Nuclear family
were assessed on their level of perceived family cohesiveness.
b. A researcher wishes to study the effect of kind of words (Abstract Vs.
Concrete) on recognition. Participants were exposed to a list of words
(consisting of randomly arranged abstract and concrete words) and
were then given a recognition task to compare the number of words
recognized in both the categories.
2.2.4 F -test:
Another Inferential statistics that is used when the DV lies on the interval
or ratio scale is the F -test or ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)
This test is used when there are more than two levels of I.V. and there are
more than two means to be compared. For instance, in the experiment
where we wanted to study the effect of three different methods of teaching
(Lecture method, Discussion method and Self -study method), there will be
three means that we need to compare. T -test will not be appropriate over
here. Instead the inferential statistics that will be appropriate will be F -test.
F-test helps us to compare more than two means. The typ e of ANOVA to
be used depends upon the number of IVs and the design. When there is
only one IV , the appropriate inferential statistics is known as One -factor or
One-way ANOVA while in an experiment with two IVs, the appropriate
inferential statistics will be Two -Factor or Two -way ANOVA.
Based on the design of the experiment we will have to use repeated
measures or randomized measures ANOVA.
The steps to be followed while using ANOVA are –
1. Calculate the F -ratio using the appropriate formula.
2. Calculate the degrees of freedom for the numerator and the
denominator
3. Using the two degrees of freedom, the critical value for the required
alpha value will be identified.
4. Check whether the calculated F -value (In step 1) is equal to or greater
than the critical value.
5. If the calculate F -value is greater than or equal to the critical value,
we conclude that the means are significantly different.
6. However with F -ratio being statistically significant it only tells us that
there is a significant difference in the means, but it fails to tell us
where among the possible comparisons the reliable differences occur.
For example, in the experiment regarding the 3 methods of teaching,
if we find that the F -ratio is statistically significant, we do not know
between which pairs of mea ns (Lecture method Vs. Discussion munotes.in

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26 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
26 method), (Discussion method Vs. Self -study method) and (Discussion
method Vs. Self -study method) there exists reliable differences.
7. To isolate which means differ significantly, comparisons should be
made between the differ ent pairs of means. This may either involve a
planned comparison or an unplanned comparison.
8. Planned comparisons are made if we have some specific hypothesis
about some pairs of means. In case of no specific hypothesis, the
unplanned comparisons are made w here all the possible comparisons
are undertaken using Post -hoc tests.
Post- hoc tests are not required in t -test since in t -test there are only two
means to be compared. However F -test is conducted when there are more
than two means and hence there are mu ltiple comparisons involved.
Some of the commonly used Post -hoc tests are –
Scheffe test
Dunnett test
Tukey -a HSD test
Duncan test
Fisher test
Check Your Understanding :
1. When do we use F -test?
2. What are the different types of F -test?
3. What is a Post -hoc test? Where is it used?
4. What Descriptive statistical and Inferential statistical methods will
you use in the following examples? Why?
a. A researcher wanted to know the effectiveness of three types of
psychotherapy (REBT, Psychodynamic and Behavioral) on
Generaliz ed Anxiety disorder. Three groups of participants diagnosed
with Phobic disorder were randomly exposed to one of the three types
of psychotherapy. The level of anxiety of the three groups was
compared after 10 session of the therapy with the help of scores on
Beck’s Anxiety Inventory.
b. A researcher wishes to understand the effect of emotional state
(neutral, anxious and depressed) on recall of words. All participants
were exposed all the three emotional states (which were induced
experimentally) one at a ti me. List of 10 words (different for each
condition) were presented and they were asked to recall and write
down the words immediately after presentation. The number of words
recalled in the three condition were compared. munotes.in

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27 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - II In the previous sections of this un it we saw the types of statistical methods
and some of the commonly used Inferential statistical method (t -test and
F-test). The Inferential statistical methods helps us to know whether the
data that we have obtained is statistically significant or not. In this section
let us understand what we mean by the term Statistical significance.
2.2.5 Statistical Significance :
The inferential statistical tests are important because they help us to
determine the probability of our data is obtained due to chance. If t he
probability of the data being obtained out of chance factor is high we
consider the data as being not statistically significant. However if the
probability of the data being obtained out of chance factor is low, we
consider it as statistically significa nt. This probability is symbolized with
alpha. Thus if alpha is .05, it means that the probability of the data being
obtained out of chance factor is 5 times in 100 cases. This is indicative of
high chances that the data is not obtained due to any chance f actor.
Similarly, if alpha is .01 it means that the probability of the data being
obtained out of chance factor is 1 out of 100. This kind of a data is
statistically even more significant than when alpha is at .05 level.
How does one find out whether the d ata is statistically significant or not?
To determine this we have to look into the table of significance for that
particular inferential statistics. These tables contain information about the
required statistical value for statistical significance. There are different
tables for t -test, F -test and other inferential statistics.
Let us now see this with an example. After having conducted an
experiment to study the effect of Mnemonic device of memory if the data
obtained is as follows :
Mnemonic device condition No Mnemonic device condition Mean recall scores 8.5 4.2
Merely on the basis of means we cannot conclude that the mean
differences between the two conditions are not due to chance factors. This
makes it necessary to conduct inferential statistics – in this case it will be
t-test. With the calculated t -value we get the data as follows,
t (28) = 4.16 (p < 0.05)
It means that the obtained t -value is 4.16 and (p< 0.05) means that the
probability of this data being obtained out of chance factor is less tha n 5
out of 100. This shows that the difference in the recall in the two
conditions is not due to chance alone. The difference is greater than what
can be obtained due to chance factors. Hence we say that the difference is
statistically significant. From th is we will now conclude that ‘Use of
Mnemonic device can facilitate recall’.
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28 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
28 Let us now consider another example.
A researcher wanted to study whether lecture method produces better
learning in comparison to discussion method. Two groups of participant
were taught the topics through two different methods and then they were
tested on a test. The obtained results were as follows :
Lecture Method Discussion method Scores on the test 7.8 8.6 t (28) = 0.78 (n.s.)
In this example, although the mean scores on the test were different, the
obtained t -value was not significant. This means that the probability of the
data being obtained due to chance factor was greater than .05. In social
sciences we consider the data as not significant, if the probability of the
data being obtained due to chance factors is greater than 5 out of 100.
Hence in this case the conclusion that we will be drawing is ‘ The
difference in the leaning through Lecture and discussion method is not
statistically significant’.
Check Your Underst anding :
1. What do you mean by Statistical significance?
2. How will you interpret the following results in terms of statistical
significance?
i. An experimenter conducted a study to compare the reading level of
participants in anxious and non -anxious condition and obtained the
following results.
Anxious condition Non-anxious condition Mean no of words read per minute 16 22
t(18) =1.1 (n.s.)
ii. An experimenter wanted to know whether there is a difference in the
number of errors committed while listening to sentences in active Vs
passive voice. Participants were exposed to the two kinds of sentences
and the number of errors committed was recorded.
Active Voice Passive Voice Mean no. of errors 3 6
t(28)= 2.98 (p< 0.05)
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29 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - II 2.3 SUMMARY Once the data is collect ed from an experiment, it needs to be analysed
statistically. Statistical methods are required to describe and organize the
data (Descriptive Statistics) and to draw inferences on the basis of the
obtained data (Inferential Statistics). Inferential statist ics enables us to
draw inferences from the sample on which we conduct the experiment.
When the data is normally distributed and the DV lies on the interval or
ratio scale, we use inferential statistical methods which are called as
Parametric tests. Non -parametric tests are used when the data is not
normally distributed and also when DV lies on Nominal and ordinal scale
of measurement.
Two important Parametric tests are - t-test and F -test. T -test is used when
there are two means to be compared while F -test i s a parametric test which
is used when there are more than two means to be compared.
Inferential statistical methods enable us to understand the probability or
the extent to which the data is obtained due to chance factor. When the
chances of the data bein g obtained due to chance factor is low (Less than 5
out of 100) it is said to be statistically significant.
2.4 REFERENCES  Bordens, Kenneth S and Bruce B. Abbott , Research Design
and Methods : A Process Approach. New York, NY: McGraw -Hill
Education, 2014.
 Myers, Anne, and Christine H. Hansen. Experimental Psychology.
Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002.

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21 3
INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY AND STATISTICS IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH -III
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Scales of Measurement
3.2.1 Nominal Scale Exercise
3.2.2 Ordinal Scale Exercise
3.2.3 Interval Scale Exercise
3.2.4 Ratio Scale Exercise
3.3 Summary
3.4 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, learner should be able to
1. State the four types of scales of measurement
2. Identify the scales of measurement
3.1 INTRODUCTION In any research that is undertaken it wi ll involve measurement of the
variables that are included in the research. The same variable can be
measured in different ways and the researcher needs to reflect upon what
is the best way in which it can be done. The way in which the variable is
measured should be determined by what suits the purpose of the study or
research.
For instance, in our experiment related to the role of Mnemonic device in
memory, we would want to measure memory. Memory may be measured
here in many different ways – qualitatively a s well as quantitatively.
 On the basis of the number of items that they are able to reproduce,
we may categorise it into ‘good’, ‘average’ and ‘poor’
 We may ask the participants to recall and reproduce as many as
possible items that they were exposed to (M ethod of Recall)
 We may give a sheet of paper with many items, which includes some
items from the list along with some extra items and ask the
participants to place a tick mark against those items that they were
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22 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
22 Let us n ow discuss the different scales of measurement in the next section.
3.2 SCALES OF MEASUREMENT Based on how the variable is measured, Stevens (1946) identified four
basic scales of measurement. We will now discuss these four scales of
measurement:
1. Nominal S cale: This is the lowest level of measurement which
involves defining the variable by identifying the different types.
For eg.,
i. When we classify gender into Males and females
ii. Classifying personality into Introverts, Extroverts and Ambiverts
When our variable lies on Nominal scale, it is not possible to apply any
mathematical operations on them. Hence we count the number of
observations and then we will be able to further apply mathematical
operations on them.
For eg., if the researcher wishes to find out the gender differences in
students pursuing Psychology, he or she will find out the count of cases in
each type – Males, Females, Transgender. The counts in each of the
categories will then make it possible for us to further analyse the data
statistic ally.
2. Ordinal Scale :
The next level of measurement involve measuring the variable by putting
them into categories and further ranking it according the quantity.
For eg., if we administer a scale of introversion and classify the
participants into ‘High’, ‘moderate’ and ‘low’ on introversion.
In this scale of measurement, we know that ‘Low’ is the lowest category
while ‘High’ is the highest category. However we do not know the
distance between ‘Low and Moderate’ or ‘Moderate and High’ and it is
not necessa ry that the distance will be equal.
3. Interval Scale :
This is the level after the Ordinal scale of measurement. In this the
distance or spacing between the values on the scale is also known to us.
With respect to variables on this scale of measurement, we are able to not
only know which one is smaller and greater but we also know how much
is the gap between the two.
For example, If we ask the teachers to rate students on the level of
introversion on a rating scale from 1 to 7, with 1 indicating low level o f
introversion and 7 indicating high level of introversion, then the data that
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23 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research -III Another example of variable which lies on Interval scale is IQ.
4. Ratio Scale :
This is the highest level of scale of measureme nt. In this scale of
measurement, like in Interval scale, we know which one is larger and
smaller. Like in Interval scale we are also aware of the distance and gap
between successive points of the scale. In addition to that it also has a zero
point. Having a zero point is the factor that distinguishes ratio scale from
Interval scale. Zero refers to complete absence of the variable. Some of the
variables that fall in the ratio scale of measurement are –
When memory is measured in terms of number of items rec alled by the
participant. In this case it is possible that a person may score a zero.
Ratio scale differs from Interval scale with respect to another
characteristic – possibility of ratio comparison. When a variable lies on
Interval scale we cannot make r atio comparison whereas if in the example
that we saw for ratio scale, if one individual (A) is able to recall 6 items
and another individual (B) is able to recall 3 items, we can make ratio
comparison and state that the number of words recalled by A is do uble
than that of B.
In research it is very important to understand the scale of measurement on
which our variables lie, since it helps us to decide the descriptive and
inferential statistics that can be used to understand and analyse the data.
While plann ing a research it is important to choose the right scale of
measurement since it determines the amount of information that we will
be able to obtain.
When a variable lies on nominal or ordinal scale it provides us with very
little and crude information in terms of the count, but fails to provide
precise information. Hence as far as possible a researcher will adopt
interval or ratio scale. However it also depends upon the research question
as well as the variable in question.
Check Your Understanding :
Explain the following with examples
1. Nominal scale of measurement
2. Ordinal scale of measurement
3. Interval scale of measurement
4. Ratio scale of measurement
Let us know see how a researcher analyses the data based on each of these
scales of variables.

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24 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
24 3.2.1 Nominal S cale Exercise :
Exercise No.1:
A researcher wants to know which game ‘Cricket’ or ‘Football’ is more
popular among adolescents. Suppose the researcher collects data from 20
adolescents and gets the following data: Participant Game Preferred (Cricket/ Football) 1 Cricket 2 Cricket 3 Football 4 Football 5 Cricket 6 Football 7 Cricket 8 Cricket 9 Cricket 10 Cricket 11 Cricket 12 Cricket 13 Football 14 Cricket 15 Cricket 16 Cricket 17 Cricket 18 Football 19 Cricket 20 Cricket
Now since this data lies on Nominal Scale, we will describe the data by
finding out the counts of each category.
Preference for Cricket – 15
Preference for Football – 05
The Inferential statistics that will be used will be Non -parametric tests like
Chi-square. Using ch i-square we will be able to find out whether there is a
statistically significant difference in the number of adolescents preferring
Cricket to Football.
Exercise 2:
The researcher wishes to find out the social media site (Facebook/
Instagram / Twitter) that is liked by adults. The data collected from 20
participants are as follows: munotes.in

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25 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research -III PARTICIPANTS Facebook / Instagram/ Twitter 1 Instagram 2 Facebook 3 Facebook 4 Twitter 5 Facebook 6 Facebook 7 Instagram 8 Instagram 9 Twitter 10 Facebook 11 Facebook 12 Facebook 13 Twitter 14 Instagram 15 Facebook 16 Facebook 17 Twitter 18 Instagram 19 Instagram 20 Facebook
Q1) On what scale of measurement does the variable lie?
Q2) What will you describe the data ?
Q3) What Inferential Statistical meth od will you use to draw inference
from the data?
3.2.2 Ordinal Scale Exercise:
Exercise 3:
The researcher wishes to understand the level of education of individuals
diagnosed with Anxiety disorders. The data was collected from 19
individuals diagnosed with Anxiety disorders. PARTICIPANTS EDUCATION Primary School / High school/ Graduate 1 High school 2 Primary school 3 High School 4 High School 5 Graduate munotes.in

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26 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
26 6 Graduate 7 Graduate 8 High School 9 High School 10 Primary School 11 Graduate 12 Graduate 13 Graduate 14 Graduate 15 Graduate 16 Primary School 17 Primary School 18 Graduate 19 Graduate
The variable lies on an Ordinal scale of measurement
Descriptive statistics used will be Median Rank.
To calculate the median rank we use the follow ing steps :
Median rank =(N+1)/2 th Score (Where N is the total number of scores)
= (19+1)/2th Score
= 10th score
We now have to arrange the level of education in either ascending or
descending order and fin d the 10th score. If we arrange in the ascending
order, there are 4 cases in the Primary school category, 5 cases in the High
school category and 10 cases in the Graduate category.
Starting from the Primary school category if we keep counting till we
reach the 10th score, we will find the 10th score in the Graduate category.
Thus we may say that the median educational level of individuals with
anxiety disorder is up to graduate level.
The Inferential statistics used here will again be a Non -parametric tes ts
such as Kolmogorov -Smirnov test.
Exercise 4:
A researcher wanted to study the level of language ability of children
living in an orphanage. The following is the data collected from 20
children from different orphanages. The children were assessed on th eir
understanding of English and categorized into 3 levels – Beginner,
Intermediate and Fluent.
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27 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research -III PARTICIPANTS LEVEL OF LANGUAGE ABILITY (Beginner/ Intermediate / Fluent) 1 Beginner 2 Fluent 3 Beginner 4 Beginner 5 Intermediate 6 Beginner 7 Beginner 8 Intermediate 9 Intermidiate 10 Beginner 11 Beginner 12 Beginner 13 Intermidiate 14 Intermediate 15 Beginner 16 Beginner 17 Beginner 18 Intermidiate 19 Fluent 20 Beginner
Q1) On what scale of measurement does the variable lie? Why?
Q2) Use the appropriate descriptive statistics and describe the data.
Q3) What inferential statistics will you use?
3.2.3 Interval Scale Exercise:
Exercise 5:
A researcher wishes to study whether there is a difference in the extent to
which students like two su bjects (Maths and Science) . The data is
collected from 20 students by asking them to rate the extent to which they
like the two subjects, on a rating scale from 1 to 7. The data obtained is as
follows PARTICIPANTS RATINGS Maths RATINGS Science 1 4 2 2 5 3 3 3 4 4 1 5 munotes.in

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28 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
28 5 5 4 6 7 3 7 6 5 8 5 3 9 3 4 10 5 5 11 4 4 12 3 3 13 5 2 14 6 4 15 3 5 16 7 4 17 5 3 18 4 6 19 3 5 20 1 4
This data lies on Interval Scale of measurement.
The descriptive statistics that can be calculated are – Mean, Med ian,
Mode, Range, SD
The inferential statistics that we can use here is t -test since the data lies on
Interval scale. If the t -value is significant, we can say that there is a
statistically significant difference in the extent to which students like the
two subjects.
With data on Interval scale we can use Parametric tests like t -test or
ANOVA depending upon the number of means to be compared.
Exercise 6:
The researcher wanted to compare the level of numerical ability of
adolescents from 3 types of family (J oint family / Nuclear family/ Single
child family) and see whether there is a statistically significant difference
in the numerical ability of the three groups of participants. The test of
numerical ability was conducted on 20 individuals of each group. T he
scores were as follows - PARTICIPANTS Joint Family Nuclear Family Single child Family 1 21 37 27 2 34 46 36 3 54 34 43 munotes.in

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29 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research -III 4 34 33 27 5 23 31 32 6 43 28 38 7 23 30 39 8 21 39 40 9 23 42 12 10 33 39 12 11 35 40 14 12 45 31 35 13 43 34 32 14 23 36 34 15 21 39 32 16 23 40 34 17 34 42 35 18 34 39 37 19 23 34 34 20 23 39 35 Mean Median Mode Range SD
Q1) On what scale of measure does the dependent variable lie?
Q2) What descriptive statistics will you use to describe the data?
Q3) What Inferential statistics will you use to know whether there is a
statistically significant difference in the mean level of numerical
ability of the three groups of participant?

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30 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
30 3.2.4 Ratio Scale Exercise :
Exercise 7:
The researcher wished t o understand the time taken to solve a
problem by 2 groups of participants (Expert Vs Novice). The time
taken by 20 participants in each group was compared. PARTICIPANT EXPERT (Time in Secs) NOVICE (Time in Secs) 1 90 35 2 45 45 3 60 53 4 125 54 5 25 65 6 35 60 7 45 70 8 65 80 9 60 65 10 80 45 11 70 40 12 75 60 13 65 70 14 60 60 15 45 55 16 40 50 17 60 60 18 75 75 19 66 90 20 54 40 Mean Median Mode Range SD
The dependent variable in this study is the time taken to solve problem.
This lies on the Ratio Scale.
Hence Mean, median, mode, range and SD can be computed to describe
the data for the two groups.
To know whether there is a statistically significant difference in the time
taken by the two groups of participant, we c an use Parametric test (t -test)
since there are two means to be compared (Mean time taken by experts
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31 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research -III Exercise 8:
The researcher wishes the understand whether there is a statistically
significant difference in the number of da ys child attends school - with
respect to the 3 socioeconomic status –Upper/Middle/Lower. The
average number of days attended in a month was found and tabulated
as follows : PARTICIPANT UPPER-CLASS MIDDLE-CLASS LOWER CLASS 1 23 16 12 2 25 19 10 3 14 20 14 4 20 26 10 5 26 23 9 6 23 25 5 7 22 24 12 8 12 26 13 9 19 23 14 10 23 22 12 11 22 24 16 12 21 25 25 13 19 23 23 14 23 24 12 15 24 25 14 16 20 23 12 17 23 21 10 18 22 24 11 19 21 23 12 20 20 25 13 Mean Median Mode Range SD
Q1) What is the Dependent variable?
Q2) On what scale of measurement does the Dependent variable lie?
Q3) What descriptive statistics will you use to describe the data?
Q4) What Inferential statistics will you use to answer the research
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32 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
32 3.3 SUMMARY Dependent variable is the variable that is measured in an experiment. The
dependent variable may lie on one of the four scales of measurement.
When the dependent variable is measured by categorizing, it is said to lie
on Nominal scale. Wh en dependent variable involves ranking, it is said to
lie on an Ordinal scale. Dependent variable that involves expressing the
spacing between different levels of the DV is said to lie on Interval scale.
On the other hand when the DV involves equal interva ls between all the
levels of the DV, it is said to lie on Ratio scale.
Scales of measures on which the DV lies is important to decide the
Descriptive and Inferential statistics that will be used to analyse the data.
3.4 REFERENCES • Bordens, Kenneth S and B ruce B. Abbott , Research Design
and Methods : A Process Approach. New York, NY: McGraw -Hill
Education, 2014.
• Myers, Anne, and Christine H. Hansen. Experimental Psychology.
Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002.

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33 4
INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY AND STATISTICS IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH - IV
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction: Report Writing APA Format
4.2 General Format
4.2.1 Title Page
4.2.2 Abstract
4.2.3 Introduction
4.2.4 Method
4.2.5 R esults
4.2.6 Discussion
4.2.7 References
4.3 Summary
4.5 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit learner should be able to -
(i) State the important elements of the Report of Experiment as per
APA guidelines
(ii) State the important elements of an abstract as per APA guidelines
(iii) State the important elements of
4.1 INTRODUCTION: REPORT WRITING APA FORMAT Experimentation involves collection of the data which then has to be
communicated through the report that is written. In this section l et us see
how report has to be written.
In Psychology and many other social sciences, most of the journals follow
the style prescribed by the American Psychological Association (APA) in
its Publication Manual of the American psychological Association (7th
Edition, 2020)
Let us first see the general format that is suggested by APA
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34 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
34 4.2 GENERAL FORMAT Before typing the report it is necessary to keep some information of the
general format of the report in mind. We will now see some of the
important elements t o be kept in mind while formating a report :
1. Manuscript to be typed , double -spaced on a standard –sized paper
(8.5 X 11 inches)
2. 1 inch margin to be kept on all the sides of the paper.
3. Double -spacing to be followed between sentences, throughout the
text.
4. APA recommends choosing either Times New Roman or Courier
5. Font size recommended is 12 points.
6. The following order should be following while preparing the content
of the report :
 Title page
 Abstract
 Main text
 This will include Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion
 The tables and figures may be incl uded wherever applicable in the
discussion or in the end
 References to be provided in the end of the report
 Appendices.
Although this is the general order, certain other contents may also be
required as prescr ibed by the institution. This may include –
Acknowledgements, Index, List of tables and figures.
Now that we have seen the general format, we will see the guidelines for
the individual elements of the report, one after the other.
4.2.1 Title Page :
The titl e page is the first page of a report. Some important aspects to be
kept in mind while setting the title page is as follows –
1. The title should be typed in bold.
2. It should appear in the centre of the left and right margin and in the
upper half of the page.
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35 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - IV 4. The first alphabet of every word of the title should be in capital,
except for the articles, prepositions and conjunctions.
5. After the title, the title page should include the name/s of the authors
and the institutional affi liation
6. There should be four spaced between the title and the author(s) name.
7. The order in which the authors name should be written is -– First
name, Initial of the middle name and last name.
Some of the things to be considered while deciding and typing th e title
are:
1. The title should be able to give the precise information of the content
of the report
2. Too long titles should be avoided.
3. The recommended length is 10 to 12 words.
4. The title should be self -explanatory
5. There should be no use of abbreviations i n the title
6. It is better to avoid words such as ‘Methods’, ‘Results’, ‘A study of ‘,
‘Experimental investigation’ in the title.
The next page after the title page is the page which contains the abstract of
the experiment. Let us now see some of the importa nt guidelines
suggested by APA for writing an abstract.
4.2.2 Abstract :
Although in a research report this appears in the beginning of the report, it
is the last part that is prepared. This is because it is section of the report
which includes the summary of the entire report. Hence it cannot be
prepared unless all the sections of the report is prepared.
1. The abstract should begin with the heading ‘Abstract’ being written in
bold and in the centre of the page.
2. An abstract should be very specific and concise ly written.
3. It should not contain more than 250 words.
4. It should be typed in a single paragraph.
5. Generally an abstract should include the following
 Problem that is studied
 Characteristics of the sample
 Method of collecting data – equipment, tests, procedur e used to gather
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36 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
36  Finding of the study with the levels of statistical significant
 Conclusion of the study
 Application or implications of the findings.
After the abstract, the next important element of a report of an experiment
is the introductio n of the topic. Let us now see the guidelines provided by
APA for writing an introduction.
4.2.3 Introduction :
This will be the next page of the report, after the abstract. The main aim of
this part of the report is to provide a logical justification to th e study being
conducted.
It is better to go from a general to specific approach. This includes first
giving a general introduction to the topic, followed by review of the
literature. The literature may then be linked to the topic and followed by
stating th e hypotheses of the study.
 It should provide a fair and balanced view.
 Written in a comprehensive manner
 With the entire body of the report, both active and passive voices are
acceptable.
 The APA 7th edition allows the use of first person. The authors may
use the words ‘I’ and ‘we’ while writing the report.
Some of the things to be kept in mind while formatting the introduction
are:
1. Start the introduction on a fresh page
2. The title of the research to be typed on the top of the paper
3. It should include the im portant problem that is studied and the
theoretical views on the problem.
The next section of the report after the introduction is the section on the
method. We will now see the guidelines for writing the methodology.
4.2.4 Method :
This part of the report should communicate to the reader the exact method
that has been used by the researcher. Although APA style allows
flexibility in describing the method, some important things that should be
included in this part are :
i. Participants
ii. Apparatus and materi als used in the study
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37 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - IV This section involves writing in detail the characteristics of the
participants who participated in the experiment, all the apparatus and the
material that were used in the study and a detailed and precise view of the
procedure that was followed in the experiment.
This section should begin immediately after the introduction and need not
be started on a fresh page.
Followed by the method section, the report involves communication of the
results of the experiment. We will now see the important guidelines for
reporting of the results.
4.2.5 Results :
This part of the report involves the expression of the findings of the study.
Some of the important things to be considered from framing this section of
the report are :
i. All the relevant data and information should be reported.
ii. The raw data that is not analysed is not to be put up in this section,
unless it is of some significance.
iii. This section should include the results of descriptive as well as
inferential statistic s. For inferential statistics, the alpha level should be
mentioned.
For example, the results of t -test should be written as follows –
t(56) =4.96, p < .05
For Analysis of Variance it should be written as follows –
F (1, 85) = 5.96, p < .01
iv. The results may be represented in a tabular or figural manner.
v. There should also be a written narrative about the result and not just
in form of tables and figures.
The results that are expressed needs to be interpreted by the experimenter
so that the reader is a ble to understand how the experimenter explains the
trend that is observed in the result. We will now see the important
guidelines for writing the discussion.
4.2.6 Discussion :
This part of the report consists of interpretations of the result, the
conclusi ons drawn by the research and the relation of the present study
with the previous researches and theories related to the concept.
It should also bring out the implications of the study, methodological
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38 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
38 It should proceed from specific to general – Starting with the main
findings of the study, then going to the previous studies and finally
coming to broader implications of the study.
After the discussion, a very important section of the report is the
references. Let us now see what the references section entails.
4.2.7 References :
This part of the report includes the list of all the articles and books that
have been cited in the report. It should not include all the books read by
the person, but rather what is cited in the report.
APA provides specific guidelines for citing the different types of material.
For instance the guidelines for journal article is as follows –
Horowitz, L. M., & Post, D. L. (1981). The prototype as a construct in
abnormal psychology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90(6), 575 -585.
The format for citing books is as follows –
McCandless, B. R., & Evans, E. D. (1973). Children and youth:
Psychosocial development. Hinsdale, IL: Dryden Press.
Check Your Understanding :
1. What are the important elements of report of an experiment?
2. What are the guidelines suggested by APA for the general format of a
report?
3. What are the guidelines suggested by APA for the following elements
of a report :
i. Abstract
ii. Introduction
iii. Method
iv. Results
v. Discussion
vi. References
4.3 SUMMARY Report -writing is a very important aspect of any research. A report should
be precise and complete so that it helps in communicating the purpose,
method and results of the experiment or any research to others. It is a very
important aspect of scientific communication. APA has provided specific
guidelines for report writing and for every aspect of the report. Following munotes.in

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39 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - IV the guidelines can enable a researcher to express the findings of the
research to other fellow researcher and thereby help in scientific progress.
4.5 REFERENCES  Bordens, Kenneth S and Bruce B. Abbott , Research Design
and Methods : A Process Approach. New York, NY: McGraw -Hill
Education, 2014.
 Myers, Anne, and Christine H. Hansen. Experimental Psychology.
Pacific Grove, C A: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002.

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40 5
PRACTICE EXERCISES
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Exercise 1
5.2 Exercise 2
5.0 OBJECTIVES With the help of the exercises, at the end of this unit, learner should be
able to :
1. Identify the IV, D.V and C.Vs in the experiment
2. State the hypothesi s of the experiment
3. Explain the design used in the experiment
4. Explain which Inferential statistical method will be appropriate for the
experiment
5.1 EXERCISE 1 The experiment was conducted to study the effect of positive and negative
emotions on log ical reasoning. In this experiment, one participant was
randomly selected to experience positive emotion by giving them a
manipulated positive feedback and the other participant was selected to
experience negative emotion by giving them a manipulated negat ive
feedback. Each participant was first asked to answer Positive and Negative
Affect Scale - PANAS (Watson et.al., 1988) questionnaire to measure the
baseline emotional state of the participant. Followed by this the participant
was asked to solve the 10 v erbal and mathematical problems, 5 each, in 10
minutes. The questions on the verbal and mathematical problems were of
very high difficulty or with no definite answer. To boost the effect of the
emotion manipulation, E also told them that the test was espec ially
developed to predict academic success and that an average student solves
approximately 50% of the items correctly. After finishing the test, the
participants received a manipulated verbal feedback on their performance
to influence their emotional sta te. Half of the participants receive positive
feedback and half of the participant received negative feedback
irrespective of whether the answers to the test were correct or incorrect.
participants were not told that their emotional state was to be altered with
a success -failure -method and they were randomly assigned to the “success
group” and “failure group.” After this the emotional state of the participant
was assessed again using PANAS to see whether the mood induction was
successful. Finally, they were given task of solving 12 problems on logical
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41 Practice Exercises that participants experiencing positive emotion would score more on the
logical reasoning problems as compared to the participants exp eriencing
negative emotion.
Questions:
Q1. What is the hypothesis of the experiment?
Q2. What is the Alternative directional hypothesis of the experiment?
Q3. What is the Alternative non directional hypothesis of the
experiment?
Q4. What is the Null d irectional hypothesis of the experiment?
Q5. What is the Null non directional hypothesis of the experiment?
Q6. What is the design of the experiment?
Q7. What is the Independent Variable and Dependent Variable of the
experiment?
Q8. What are the level s of the Independent Variable?
Q9. State important control variables of the experiment? And explain
why it was controlled?
Q10. State the reason for getting the contrary result in the Emotion and
Logical Reasoning experiment?
Q11. State the reason why P articipant who was made to experience
negative emotion would score more Logical reasoning problem as
compared to the Participant who was made to experience positive
emotion?
Q12. Which inferential statistics will you use to calculate the group data
of this experiment and why?
5.2 EXERCISE 2 The experiment was conducted to study the effect of the type of cue
presented before the presentation of the stimulus on the RT to detect the
stimulus. The type of cue, viz. Valid cue (the arrow pointed to the
directio n where the target would appear), Neutral cue (an uninformative
cue) and Invalid cue (the arrow pointed to the wrong direction) before
presentation of the stimulus were randomly presented. Participant was told
that he/she has to stare at the middle of the screen and after pressing the
spacebar a cue would be presented and after the cue disappears a target i.e.
a red square would appear. Participant was told to respond by pressing the
‘n’ key on the keyboard. The target appeared equally on left and right sid e,
i.e. on 40 trials the target appeared to the left and on the remaining 40
trials the target appeared to the right side. For 80% of the trials the cue
was a valid cue and for 20% of the trials the cue was invalid. The physical
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42 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
42 same for all the trials. After responding to one trial, to begin the next trial
he/she was told to again press the spacebar. The time duration between the
cue and the target presentation was not consistent. After presenting the
Participant with all the 80 trials, the data for each trial, i.e. the mean
reaction time for three types of cues were recorded for further analysis.
The reaction time was measured in msec. If P responded wrongly to any of
the trial, t hen that trial was repeated towards the end. It was expected that
the mean reaction time to detect the stimuli for invalid cues is highest
followed by the neutral condition and least for valid condition.
Questions:
Q1. What is the hypothesis of the experi ment?
Q2. What is the Alternative directional hypothesis of the experiment?
Q3. What is the Alternative non directional hypothesis of the
experiment?
Q4. What is the Null directional hypothesis of the experiment?
Q5. What is the Null non directional h ypothesis of the experiment?
Q6. What is the design of the experiment?
Q7. What is the Independent Variable and Dependent Variable of the
experiment?
Q8. What are the levels of the Independent Variable?
Q9. State important control variables of the ex periment? And explain
why it was controlled?
Q10. State the reason for getting the contrary result in the Spatial Cueing
task?
Q11. State the reason why Participate reaction time was highest for valid
cues as compared to invalid and neutral cues?
Q12. St ate the reason why Participate reaction time was moderate for
invalid cues?
Q13. State the reason why Participate reaction time was lowest for neutral
cues as compared to valid?
Q14. Which inferential statistics will you use to calculate the group data
of this experiment and why?

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43 6
PRACTICE EXPERIMENT
Unit Structure
6.0 Objective
6.1 Introduction: Word Superiority Effect
6.2 References
6.0 OBJECTIVE After this practice we will be able to:
 Understand experimental process
6.1 INTRODUCTION: WORD SUPERIORITY EFFECT Letters are recognized better when they are presented as words than when
they are presented alone or presented as a part of a nonword. For instance
if asked to identify a letter, it is easier to recognize a letter ‘R’ when it is a
part of a words like (CARE) than when it is a part of a pseudoword like
(RCEA) or when the letter ‘R’ is presented alone.
One model that explains the Word Superiority effect is the Interactive -
Activation model. According to this interactive -activation model, the WSE
is explained with the hel p of different detectors that are used by the reader
while being exposed to a word alone in comparison to when it is exposed
in the context of a word or a pseudoword. When the target letter is
presented within a word, the feature detectors, letter detector s and word
detectors will all be activated. Due to the activation of multiple detectors,
there is an addition to the weight to the final recognition of the stimulus.
However, when only the letter is presented, only the letter detector level
will be activat ed. Therefore, we may remember the presented stimulus
word more clearly, and thereby be more accurate in identifying its
component letters, as observed in the WSE.
Another model for explanation of the Word Superiority Effect is the
Activation Verification model. This model explains the phenomenon of
WSE with the help of three processes - encoding, verification, and
decision operations. When a stimulus is exposed, the first stage involves
encoding of the letters. Encoding results to unconscious stimulation o f
learned units in memory. After encoding comes the stage of Verification.
Verification often leads to the conscious recognition of a single lexical
entry. This process involves top-down analysis of stimulus that is guided
by the stored, or previously lea rned, representation of a word. The third
stage involves taking a decisions are based primarily on information from
encoding or verification. WSE is the result of the effect that words have on
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44 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
44 Reicher -Wheeler paradigm is generally used to study the Word
Superiority Effect. This involves presenting the participants with a word
or nonword string that is followed by a mask. After that two alternatives
are given from which the partici pant has to recognize the right alphabet
that was present in the earlier string forming word or nonword or the
alphabet.
PROBLEM : To study the recognition of alphabets in the context of word
condition as against non -word condition and only alphabet condit ion.
HYPOTHESIS : Recognition of alphabets will be better for the words
condition in comparison to the non -word condition or alphabet condition.
(The mean scores of correct recognition for the words condition will be
greater than that for the non -word condi tion or the alphabet condition)
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Context of exposure with three levels
(Word condition, Non -word context and Alphabet condition)
Word Condition :The string of letters presented forms a meaningful word
Non-word condition:The string of l etters presented does not form a
meaningful word
Alphabet condition:Presentation of a single alphabet from English
language
Dependent Variable : Number of items correctly recognized
Control Variables :
1. Each stimulus was exposed for 2 secs
2. Visual noise was pro duced for 5 secs (This consisted of a slide filled
with X’s )
3. The time for recognition for each stimulus was kept constant for 5
secs
4. There were 5 stimulus for each condition (Word, Non -word and
Alphabet)
5. No feedback was given to the participant
6. Ready sign al was given before presenting the stimulus
Design:
Repeated measures design with one IV having 3 levels (Word condition,
Non-word condition and Alphabet condition)
Material:
1. Screen to present the material munotes.in

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45 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I 2. Powerpoint presentation with every slide consisti ng of the stimulus
letter or string of letter and every slide being followed by a slide with
visual noise. The visual noise was followed by the slide consisting of
two alphabets for recognition task.
3. Slides for trial session (3, one for each condition)
4. Stop-watch
5. Paper and pencil
Procedure:
In this experiment, there will be stimulus presented to you, on this screen.
The stimulus will be either a single alphabet or sometimes it may be a
string of alphabet. This stimulus will be shown to you only for 2 secs .
Please look at it carefully. After that there will be a slide which will
appear for some time. A short while after that, there will be another slide
which will have two alphabets. Your task is to state which of the alphabet
was shown to you in the stimu lus slide and write down the alphabet that
according to you is correct, on this sheet of paper. You will be given 5
secs to write down the response. Let us see an example. The experimenter
demonstrates the task with 3 examples. STIMULUS ALPHABETS LOCK O S M V L OKOB N K
After ensuring that the Participants have understood the procedure and the
task, the experiment was started. The 15 stimulus card were presented one
after the other in the following sequence –
1. Ready signal
2. Stimulus card for 2 sec s
3. Visual noise consisting of a pattern for 5 secs
4. Pair of Alphabets for recognition
5. Participant to recognize and write down the response on the
recognition sheet within 5 secs.
In this way the 15 cards were presented with random presentation of word,
non-word and alphabet alone. Sr. No. STIMULUS STIMULUS FOR RECOGNITION RESPONSE OF THE PARTICIPANT CORRECT/INCORRECT 1 WORK R, G munotes.in

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46 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
46 2 DLAY F, L 3 F H, N 4 EGAM B, G 5 SPOT T, M 6 S B, G 7 OBOK V, B 8 MAKE L, E 9 OFRM N, R 10 D Q, J 11 TKIE H, K 12 RSAE J, S 13 SNAP Q, A 14 U V, T 15 VICE I, X
Results:
Individual Data:
TABLE NO.1 Comparison of the number of correct recognition in the
three conditions - Word -condition, Non -word condition, Alphabet
condition.
Word-Condition Non-word Condition Alphabet condition No. of correct responses
Group Data:
TABLE NO.2 Comparison of the number of correct recognition in the
three conditions - Word -condition, Non -word condition, Alphabet
condition of 20 participants

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47 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 TOAL MEAN RANGE SD
Discussion:
* Comparison of the total number of stimuli correctly recognized in the
three conditions (Word, Non -word and Alphabet) in the individual
data and the group data.
* Plotting the graph and interpretation of the figure for the data.
* Is the data in trend with the hypothe sis or not.
* Reasons for the trend seen in the data.
* Comparison of the data with the previous research.
* Theoretical explanation for the data
* Inferential statistics that will be appropriate for the study.
* Evaluation of the research.
* Suggest ed modifications
Conclusion:
Whether the data from the study is in trend with the hypothesis
6.2 REFERENCES  Chase, Christopher H.; Tallal, Paula (1990). "A developmental,
interactive activation model of the word superiority effect". Journal of
Experiment al Child Psychology. 49 (3): 448 –487 munotes.in

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48 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
48  McCelland, J.; Rumelhart, D. (1981). "An interactive activation
model of context effects in letter perception: part 1. An account of
basic findings". Psychological Review. 88 (5): 375 –407
 Reicher, G. M. (1969). "Percept ual recognition as a function of
meaningfulness of stimulus material". Journal of Experimental
Psychology. 81 (2): 275 –280.

*****


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49 7
EXPERIMENTS IN COGNITIVE
PROCESSES - I
EXPERIMENT NO.1
PRIMING AND RETRIEVAL FROM SEMANTIC MEMORY
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction: What is Priming?
7.2 Questions
7.3 References
7.4 Appendix
7.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this experim ent you will be able to:
 Conduct the psychological experiments
7.1 INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS PRIMING? In psychology, the term priming is generally used for pre -activations or
facilitations. Priming is defined, for example, as “the improvement of the
processin g of a stimulus as a function of a previous presentation.”
(Anderson, 2001, p. 471) Stroebe, Jonas, and Hewstone (2003, p. 138)
defined priming in a result -oriented fashion as well: Priming is “the
finding that a pattern will be activated with higher proba bility if it was
presented recently or if it was used in the past.” In the same vein, Major
(2008, p. ii) wrote: “Priming is the benefit that an event receives when its
processing has been preceded by the processing of a related or identical
event.” A more extended definition, which differentiates between the
phenomenon of “priming” and the method or technique of “priming” (i.e.,
the priming paradigm) was given by Chartrand und Jefferis (2004, p. 854):
An individual’s experiences in the environment temporar ily activate
concepts that are mentally represented. The activation of these concepts,
which can include traits, schemata, attitudes, ste -reotypes, goals, moods,
emotions, and behaviors, heightens their accessibility. These concepts are
said to be primed; that is, they become more likely to influence one’s
subsequent thoughts, feelings, judgments, and behaviors. Priming also
refers to an experimental technique that is used to simulate the activation
of concepts that usually occurs through real -world experie nces.
The central point, therefore, is that a stimulus or event A has an effect on
what follows, which can either be something internal (an emotion, a munotes.in

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50 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
50 decision etc.) or concern something external (a further event B and its
processing). Departing from one o f the definitions cited above, the effect
does not have to be invariably positive. In fact, there is also negative or
inverse priming (e.g., auch Krüger, Klapötke, Bode, & Mattler, 2013;
sometimes also called contrast effect, anti -priming or reverse primin g,
e.g., Fiedler, 2003; Glaser, 2003), where the presentation of a stimulus
leads to reduced performance or to opposite effects and evaluations of
subsequent identical or similar stimuli (e.g., Negative Priming: Frings,
Bermeitinger,& Gibbons, 2011; Neill, 1997)
Levels of Priming : Macro, Mid and Micro :
Essentially, anything can be a prime, that is, anything can be a stimulus or
feature influencing what follows. To this effect, a person can be a prime
for another person, the person’s behavior can be a prime , what the person
says can be a prime, the person’s clothing can be a prime etc. Any event
that we perceive, but also our own movements or thoughts are able to
influence us and the perception, processing, evaluation etc. of following
internal or external e vents (see also Bargh, 1997).1 Based on this very
broad conception, one could ask, for instance, how the way a participant is
treated (e.g., friendly vs. unfriendly) makes a difference in terms of their
ability to solve crossword puzzles, their general moo d, their music
preference, etc. In this macro sense, each stimulus, each context, each
action could be a prime that has an effect on subsequent thoughts, actions,
and feelings. Such a macro conception is often combined with the
assumption that the prime do es not only pre -activate semantic concepts,
but rather that it activates longer -lasting motivational processes (e.g., Sela,
& Shiv, 2009).
On a more specific level of conception (at the mid-level ) of priming, the
interest is no longer in the general action s and feelings of a person. The
question at the mid -level is whether the prime activates specific other
concepts (still relatively globally). For example, many memory and
recognition experiments can be located at this midi level: For instance,
when partici pants are given some words in the first experimental phase
and are asked to produce words in the next experimental phase. Without
any instructions to that effect, participants produce words in the second
phase (e.g., when participants should complete word stems, e.g. HOU_ _)
that are identical or semantically related to words processed in the first
phase, and they do so with an increased probability relative to a control
condition that does not involve the first phase (e.g. Warrington, &
Weiskrantz, 1970, 1 974; see also e.g. Bassili, Smith, & MacLeod, 1989).
The principle of pre -activation of specific concepts (or specific actions,
etc.) is also relevant in the even more specific conception of priming at the
micro -process level . At this micro level, research ers are interested in time
scales of fractions of seconds up to a maximum of approximately two
seconds. This level corresponds to the narrowest interpretation of priming,
which is the dominant understanding of the term in cognitive psychology.
In the so -defined priming paradigm, most often sequential priming is used;
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51 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I ignored) and a target stimulus are presented in rapid succession. The prime
is usually shown for a maximum of a few hund red milliseconds only.
Typically, participants are required to react to the target, for example by
classifying it according to a given criterion (e.g., as positive/negative,
living/ non -living, word/non -word, left/right, etc.). Originally, it was only
used in cognitive psychology, but is now used for various questions in
social (e.g., Degner, & Wentura, 2010), personality (e.g., Frings, &
Neubauer, 2005; Wentura, Kulfanek, & Greve, 2005), developmental,
emotional (e.g., Bermeitinger, & Kappes, 2013; Kappes, Bermeit -inger, &
Greve, subm.) motivational (e.g., Leipold et al., subm.), and clinical (e.g.,
Weisbrod et al., 1999) psychology. At the micro level, priming is (also)
related to the pre -activation of specific concepts, reactions, goals,
attitudes, or val ences.
Types of Priming :
Macro -level priming is often subdivided into perceptual priming, semantic
/ Categorical, behavior priming, and goal/ motivational priming. Semantic
priming implies that a prime leads to quicker responses to semantically
related con cepts, or to a higher rate or speed of these concepts being
associatively generated. In behavior priming it is the participant
themselves that reacts more in line with the prime (e.g., more
aggressively, more friendly); this could also be taken to include mood
induction and emotional priming. Finally, goal and motivational priming
refers to a prime that increases one’s motivation to actively pursue a
behavior that is associated with the prime (e.g., Bargh, 2006; Loersch, &
Payne, 2011). Generally, primes in both micro and macro -level priming
can affect almost any behavior and almost any cognitive process (e.g.,
Fockenberg et al., 2008).
Priming and the identification of Subsequent Stimuli :
The effect of Priming on the subsequent identification of stimuli hav e
been examined extensively in recent years. In the cognitive literature, most
research on priming effects has involved presenting subjects with a word
or group of words (the prime), followed quickly by a target letter string
that subjects must name or cla ssify (e.g., as a word vs. a non - word).
These studies found that naming or classifying the target is facilitated
when the prime is semantically related to or associated with the target
(e.g., Forbach, Stanners, & Hochhaus, 1974; Meyer, Schvaneveldt, &
Ruddy, 1975; Neely, 1977; Warren, 1977). In their classic study, Meyer
and Schvaneveldt (1971), subjects were to decide whether or not two
simultaneously presented letter strings were words. They found that
subjects' RTs were significantly faster when the tw o letter strings were
associatively related words (e.g., nurse -doctor) than when they were
unrelated words (e.g, nurse -bread). Subsequent studies, including those
cited above, showed similar effects when the two words were presented in
succession, even whe n requiring decisions only to the second member of
each pair (e.g., Neely, 1976, 1977). This effect of semantic context on
lexical decision RTs has been termed the semantic facilitation or semantic
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52 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
52 In the social cognitive literature, most r esearch on priming effects has
involved presenting subjects with a word or group of words as part of one
study, followed a few minutes later by a separate, unrelated study in which
subjects read a behavioral description of a target person and formed an
impression of him or her. These studies found that subjects tend to
characterize the target person information in terms of the construct that
had been previously primed (e.g., Bargh & Pietro -monaco, 1982; Higgins,
Rholes, & Jones, 1977; Rholes & Pryor, 1982; Srull & Wyer, 1979). In
addition to these effects of recent priming on subsequent stimulus
identification, there is also evidence that frequent priming increases the
impact of priming on subsequent processing (e.g., Hayes -Roth, 1977;
Reder, 1983; Srull & W yer, 1979, 1980). Thus, it has been well
established that both recent and frequent priming influence the
identification of subsequent stimuli. But what mechanism underlies such
priming effects? What is the relation between recent and frequent priming,
and how do their relative effects change over time?
With respect to the effects of priming on categorization, it is known that
the priming of an applicable construct increases the likelihood that it will
be used to process a subsequent stimulus, that the like lihood of utilization
increases as the frequency of priming increases, and that the likelihood of
utilization decreases as the temporal delay between priming and stimulus
presentation increases. Currently, two types of models (or, more
appropriately, metap hors) have been proposed in the literature to explain
such priming effects: mechanistic models, where the explanation is in
terms of the arrangement and the working of component parts, and
excitation transmission models, where the explanation is in terms o f the
heightening and the dissipation of excitation or energy levels.
The clearest example of a mechanistic model that has been specifically
used to interpret priming effects on categorization is Wyer and Srull’s
(1980) “storage bin” model. They proposed t hat the constructs in each
bin are stored in layers in the order in which they were previously
activated. When stimulus information is interpreted, the relevant bin is
searched from the top down so that constructs at the top are more likely to
be retrieved and utilized. Thus, when several constructs are potentially
applicable for stimulus processing, the most recently activated construct is
most likely to be used. A construct will remain at the top of the bin for a
substantial period as long as other constr ucts in the bin are not activated
during the interval. Typically though, other constructs in the bin are more
likely to be activated as the delay between priming and stimulus
presentation increases. Thus, as the delay period increases, the primed
constru ct is less likely to remain on top and so is less likely to be utilized
in subsequent processing. When a construct is frequently activated,
however, it is more likely to have been recently used, and thus it is more
likely to remain on top to be utilized su bsequently. In this model,
therefore, the effect of frequent activation is reinterpreted in terms of its
relation to recent activation. A very similar conceptualization of priming
elfects also has been proposed by Forbach et al. (1974). munotes.in

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53 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I Priming effects on categorization also have been interpreted in terms of
various forms of excitation transmission (see Higgins & King, 1981;
Marcel & Forrin, 1974; Reder, 1983; Warren, 1972; Wyer & Carlston,
1979). These models have generally included the following basic
postulates: (a) The priming of a construct increases its excitation level; (b)
a construct’s excitation level must reach a certain, minimal threshold for
that construct to be used in stimulus processing; (c) the more frequently a
construct is primed, the more likely it is that this minimal threshold will be
maintained; and (d) the excitation level of a construct decreases over time,
and thus the longer the period since the final priming, the less likely it is
that the minimal threshold will be maintained.
Anot her related explanation is that of spreading activation . Spreading
activation, is assumed to be an automatic consequence of encoding a
lexical stimulus (Collins & Loftus, 1975; Schvaneveldt & Meyer, 1973).
On this account, encoding a word activates the fea ture detectors in lexical
memory that represent words with features similar or equivalent to those
of the stimulus. When activation occurs at any memory location,
activation spreads from that location to others nearby. Assuming that
lexical memory is organ ized by semantic or associative relatedness,
nearby locations will be words related to the stimulus. The activation that
spreads to those related words facilitates subsequent processing of the
words.
The current experiment is situated in the above domain o f Semantic/
Categorical Priming and how it impacts the identification of subsequently
presented stimiuli.
Problem: To study the effect of Priming on retrieval from Semantic
Memory
Hypotheses :
Null:
There is no difference between the time taken to complete target words in
the priming condition as compared to absence of priming condition
There is no difference between the number of correctly completed target
words in the priming condition as compared to absence of priming
condition
Alternate:
The time taken t o complete target words would be lesser in the presence of
priming condition as compared to absence of priming condition
The number of correctly completed target words would be more in the
presence of priming condition as compared to absence of priming
condition
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54 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
54 Methodology :
Design of the Experiment:
Repeated Measures design with a Single IV having two levels
Variables:
Independent Variable:
Priming (manipulated at two levels):
 Presence of Priming (where the first word in the pair is a prime word)
 Absence o f Priming (where the first word in the pair is a non -prime
word)
Operational Definition Independent Variable:
 Presence of Priming achieved through a presentation of categorically
related word pairs For example, DOCTOR -NURSE
 Absence of Priming achieved thro ugh a presentation of Categorically
unrelated word pairs For example, DOCTOR -BREAD
Dependent Variable:
a. No. of errors in the Word Completion task
b. Time taken for the Word Completion task
Operational Definition of Dependent Variable:
a. Time taken in seconds to complete the target words with missing
alphabets
b. No. of errors - errors made by the participant in completing the target
words with missing alphabets
Control variables (past tense)
1. The number of word pairs presented was the same (15) across
conditions
2. The exposure time of the first word (prime/non -prime word) was 3
seconds across conditions
3. The first word in the pairs was a five letter concrete noun across
conditions
Material:
 In case of manually presented stimuli: munotes.in

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55 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I  15 cards with categorically related words written on either side.
(Complete Prime/non -prime words on one side and Incomplete target
words on the other side)
 15 cards with categorically unrelated words written on either side.
(Complete Prime words on one side and Incomplete target wor ds on
the other side)
In case of computerized presentation:
 30 slides for the categorically related words condition (Complete
Prime word on one slide which has been auto -timed for 3 seconds
followed by a slide with the incomplete target word)
 30 slides for the categorically unrelated words condition (Complete
non-prime word on one slide which has been auto -timed for 3 seconds
followed by a slide with the incomplete target word)
 Record sheet with word pairs from both conditions to note down time
and errors
Tables
Wooden screen
Stopwatch
Stationery
Procedure & Instructions:
The E arranged the material and brought the participant in the laboratory.
The participant was seated comfortably and rapport was established. The
participant was shown 30 pairs of words w here the first was either a prime
or non -prime word followed by the word to be completed by the
participant. The participant was then asked Post -task questions and duly
debriefed. Any queries raised by the participant were clarified and she was
thanked bef ore escorting her out of the laboratory
Following instructions were given, “This is a simple experiment. I will
present you some words one at a time on this screen. Each time I will
present you one complete word followed by one incomplete word. Your
task i s to complete the incomplete word as fast as possible. Have you
understood? Shall we begin?”
The E ensured that the following Precautions were taken:
 The cards/slides of both conditions are presented in a random order.
 The participant was shown the prim ing word for 3 seconds, followed
by the incomplete target word.
 The time taken to recognize the target word and the errors made are
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56 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
56 Post task Questions:
 How do you feel about the task we just did…
 What do you think the experiment was about…
 Did you find certain words easier to complete …If yes, why…..
 Do you think any of the complete words helped in recognizing
incomplete words…. Tell me more about them…? Give me some
examples….
Analysis of Data:
Tables:
Table I - Record sheet of participant’s perfor mance in categorically related
and unrelated word conditions Card No Word Pair Time Taken √ /x 1 2 30
Table II - Summary table of Participant’s Performance in both the
conditions
Total Time Taken Total No. of correctly completed words Presence of Priming (Categorically related words) Absence of Priming (Categorically unrelated words)
Table III : Total time taken and errors made by 30 participants across both
conditions Participant number Time Taken be participant to complete target word No. of correctly completed words
Presence of Priming Absence of Priming Presence of Priming Absence of Priming 1 30 Total munotes.in

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57 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I Mean
Statistical Treatment :
The difference between the means of both the dependent variables was
assessed for its significance using the t test. Hence two t tests were
conducte d: (i) to study the significance of the difference between the mean
time taken to complete words across both conditions and (ii) to study the
significance of the difference between the number of words correctly
completed across both conditions
Graphs:
Grap h I indicates the comparison of time taken by the participant in both
the conditions(bar graph)
Graph II indicates the comparison of errors made by the participant in both
the conditions. (bar graph)
Graph III indicates the comparison of time taken by 30 p articipants in both
the conditions(bar graph)
Graph IV indicates the comparison of errors made by 30 participants in
both the conditions(bar graph)
Discussion:
The current experiment was conducted to study the effect of Priming on
retrieval from Semantic Memory. The experiment utilized a repeated
measure design with one IV having two levels. Priming was manipulated
at two levels, whereby the first word in the pairs shown to participants was
either categorically related or unrelated to the following target word. The
time taken and the number of errors made while performing the word
completion task were measured.
Individual data:
In the current experiment it was hypothesized
that___________________(write the hypothesis). Hence it was expected
that the partici pants’ overall performance on the word completion task
would be better in the presence of priming condition as opposed to the
control condition.
Table 1 is a Record sheet of participant’s performance in categorically
related and unrelated word condition. ( Describe the results obtained on
the dimension of both time and error, in as much detail as possible ) The E
observed that____________(please write your observations of the
participants’ performance on the task)
Table 2 is a summary table which compares t he participant’s performance
across both conditions. As can be seen from the table the participant’s
____________________(compare the number of errors and time taken by
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58 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
58 higher/lower)Thus, the par ticipant’s performance was better in the
presence of priming condition than that in the control condition(or vice -
versa?) and the data is as/not as expected.
The participants responses in the PTQs also reveal
that______________(quote relevant responses to indicate support to the
hypothesis or vice -versa)
Graph 1 is a graphical representation of the time taken by the participant
in both the conditions. Through the two bars, the graph shows how the
time taken by the participant was more in the _____________co ndition
indicating that the participants performance was better in
_______________condition.
Graph 2 is a graphical representation of the errors made by the participant
in both the conditions. Through the two bars, the graph shows how the
number of words c orrectly identified by the participant were higher in
_____________condition indicating that the participants performance was
better in _______________condition.
Overall, the individual data is in / not in line with the hypothesis.
Group Data:
In a simila r vein as above, discuss Table 4 which shows the total time
taken and errors made by 30 participants across both conditions. What are
the total scores? What are the mean scores? Does the t test reveal any
significant difference between the two group data m eans? What is level of
significance of the difference? Thus, In which condition have participants
performed better? Are the group data results as expected?
Thereafter discuss the trends seen in the Group data graphs. Which of the
two bars is taller…? What does that indicate?
Finally, using the findings from both individual and group data, comment
on whether the hypothesis is supported or not.
Conclusion: does the data validate/invalidate the hypothesis? What does
that indicate about the role of priming in a iding retrieval from semantic
memory?
Application value: Priming can be consciously used to accentuate
encoding, storage and especially retrieval of information in long term
memory. It can used in combination with mnemonic devices and in order
to cue recal l. It can be used in elaborative rehearsals in order to facilitate
multiple meaningful linkages with the information to be remembered.
7.2 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the concept of Priming.
2. What is Macro, Mid and Micro Priming? munotes.in

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59 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I 3. What are the various types/ kinds of Priming?
4. What is Semantic Priming?
5. Name any two studies on Priming and their findings.
6. What is the Storage bin model?
7. What is Behavioural Priming?
8. What is the IV and DV of the Experiment?
9. What are the different CVs of the Experim ent?
10. What are the various explanations for priming effects on retrieval?
11. What Inferential statistical method is appropriate for the experiment?
Why?
7.3 REFERENCES  Anderson, N. H., & Hubert, S. (1963). Effects of concom - itant verbal
recail on order effects in personality impression formation. Journal of
Verbal Learning a rtd Verbal Behavior 2, 379-391.
 Bargh, J. A., & Pietromonaco, P. (1982). Automatic information
processing and social perception: The influence of trait information
presented out side of conscious awareness on impression formation.
Journal of Personalit y and Social Psychology, 43, 437—449.
 Bjork, R. A. (1970). Repetition and rehearsal mechanisms in models
for short term memory. In D. A. Norman (Ed.), Models of human
memory (pp. 30 7-330). New York: Academic Press.
 Brown, J. A. (1958). Some tests on the &cay theory of immediate
memo ry. Quanerly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 10. 12—21.
 Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading -activation theory
of semantic pro -cessing. Psychological Review , 82(6), 407 –428.
doi:10.1037/0033 -295X.82.6.407
 Fiedler, K. (2003). The hidden vicissitudes of the priming paradigm in
evaluative judgment research. In J. Musch & K. C. Klau er (Eds.), The
psychology of evaluation: Affective processes in cognition and
emotion (pp. 109 –137). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
 Forbach, G. B., Stanners, R. F., & Hochhaus, L. (1974). Repetition
and practice effects in a lexical decision task. 3femory & Cognition,
2, 337—339
 Holcomb, P. J., & Anderson, J. E. (1993). Cross -modal semantic
priming: A time -course analysis using event -related brain potentials.
Lan-guage and Cognitive Processes , 8(4), 379 –411.
doi:10.1080/01690969308407583 munotes.in

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60 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
60  K. Galotti, (2013) Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the
Laboratory, 5th Edition, SAGE Publications
 M. Matlin , T. Farmer , (2015) Cognition, 9th edition, Wiley
 Oreben, E. K., Fiske, S. T., & Hastie, R. (1979). The independence of
evaluative and item information: Impression and recall o rder effects
in behavior -based impression formation. Journal of Personality ‹md
Social Psychology, 37, 1758 —1768.
7.4 APPENDIX Material Categorically related word pairs
Prime Words Target Words 1 TRAIN S_ _T SEAT 2 CREAM M_L_ MILK 3 SMILE TE __H TEETH 4 MOUTH L_PS LIPS 5 WOMAN M_O_ _ _R MOTHER 6 COINS RU_ _ES RUPEES 7 CAKES O_EN OVEN 8 PANTS JE_ _S JEANS 9 APPLE S_ ED_ SEEDS 10 BREAD BU_ T _R BUTTER 11 PHONE C__L CALL 12 HOUSE _ _OR DOOR 13 NIGHT DR_ _M DREAM 14 MOUSE C__ CAT 15 CANDY S_ _A R SUGAR




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61 Introduction to Experimental Psychology and Statistics in Psychological Research - I Categorically Unrelated words 1 CLOTH F_ _H FISH 2 HAPPY BAL_ _ _N BALLOON 3 PIZZA CH_ L_ CHALK 4 BRAIN B_ DG_ BADGE 5 FRUIT D_U_ DRUM 6 DANCE SOC_ _ SOCKS 7 MONEY T_B_ _ TABLE 8 PURSE D_ _ L DOLL 9 LOTUS PAP_ _ PAPER 10 TRUCK GR_ _S GRASS 11 CLOUD C__ RK CLERK 12 HONEY COF_ _E COFFEE 13 SCARF B_ AR_ BEARD 14 WATER SH_ _S SHOES 15 CHAIR PE_ _IL PENCIL

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49 8
EXPERIMENTS IN COGNITIVE
PROCESSES -II
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
ISOLATION EFFECT (VON -RESTORFF
EFFECT)
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction: What is the Isolation Effect?
8.2 Questions
8.3 References
8.4 Appendix
8.0 OBJECTIVES After studying thi s experiment you will be able to:
 Conduct the psychological experiments
8.1 INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS THE ISOLATION EFFECT? In her classic 1933 study, Hedwig von Restorff demonstrated the powerful
effect that “difference” can have on memory. In the study, von Restorff
presented a series of three lists to participants over a span of 3 days. On
the first day, everyone saw a list of 10 unrelated items (e.g., a symbol, a
number, a word, a photograph, etc.). On Days 2 and 3, participants
received separate lists in which 1 item was different (isolated) from the
remaining list items. These isolated lists consisted of either 9 numbers and
1 nonsense syllable or 9 nonsense syllables and 1 number. The isolated
item occurred in either the second or third serial position. Delayed recall
results revealed better memory for the isolated items compared to the
average recall of the remaining list items. This effect has since been
termed the “von Restorff effect” (or isolation effect) and can be defined
simply as the enhancement of memory for events that differ, or deviate,
from their context. In the years since von Restorff initial article, a
considerable amount of research has been devoted to the investigation of
this phenomenon and the effect has proven robust, having been repl icated
with a wide variety of designs and materials (for reviews, see Cimbalo,
1978; Hunt, 1995; Schmidt, 1991; Wallace, 1965).

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50 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
50 Variations in the Isolation Paradigm :
Historically, investigators have achieved isolation by physically changing,
or augmentin g, the stimulus in some manner. Cimbalo (1978) identified a
number of such isolation techniques, including size, shape, colour,
intensity, and voice. However, other techniques have been used to isolate
items as well, such as meaningfulness, underlining, sp acing, background
colour, and electric shock (Cimbalo, 1978). Investigators have typically
placed the isolated item, or items, near the middle of the list, but
significant effects of isolation also have been found for items placed at the
beginning and at t he end of the list (Bellezza & Cheney, 1973; Pillsbury &
Raush, 1943; Experiments 1 —4). Traditionally, researchers have assessed
retention with tests of free recall, comparing recall performance for the
isolated item either against the average recall of th e remaining list items or
against the recall of a comparable item in a non -isolated list. When the
middle items of the list are isolated, the first method of comparison has the
problem of underestimating the size of the isolation effect because
primacy and recency items are included in the average recall of the non -
isolated items. The second method does not have this problem and is the
preferred technique. Other retention measures used in the isolation effect
literature include recognition and serial recall .
A number of factors influence the magnitude of the isolation effect. For
example, the nature of the isolate plays an important role in determining
the size of the effect. Cimbalo, Capria, Neider, and Wilkins (1977)
reported that size, colour, and spacing are the most effective isolation
techniques. Gumenik and Levitt (1968) showed that the degree to which
an item differs from the rest of the list is also important. In their study, the
isolated item was displayed in one of four sizes, each being *Rio of th e
next largest size. They found that the size of the isolation effect increased
as the difference between the isolate and the background items increased.
This held true both when the context stimuli were small and the size of the
isolate increased and when the context stimuli were large and the size of
the isolate decreased.
Why does the Isolation effect occur?
1. Perceptual Salience:
The von Restorff effect is known to most psychologists as the generic
label for the effects of distinctiveness on memory. D istinctiveness, is a
descriptive term for events that violate the prevailing context — that is, for
events that are perceptually salient. The intuitive explanation of the
isolation effect in particular and distinctiveness effects in general is that
the perc eptual salience of the distinctive event attracts additional
processing. This intuition is most readily realized through the mechanism
of selective attention. Jenkins and Postman (1948) were the first to
propose that differential attention could be a neces sary condition for the
isolation effect. The reason why perceptual salience intuitively appears to
be necessary for the isolation effect is that most studies place the isolate
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51 Experiments in Cognitive Processes -II Experiment No. 2 Isolation Effect (Von-Restorff Effect) distincti veness or vividness as an independent variable, this methodology
makes perfect sense. Preceding the isolate with some number of
homogeneous items maximizes the probability that the isolate will be
perceptually salient.
2. Attention:
Generally speaking, th e effect has been attributed to attention; if an isolate
is seen in a list, one focuses one’s attention to the isolate and it is hence
recalled better due to a higher level of encoding. If one has seen several
common elements, one might have established an expectation about what
the common features are. Green (1956) argued that the isolation effect
resulted from surprise induced by the change from preceding items:
“Surprise increases the attention paid to the item and hence the likelihood
of recall” (p. 340 ). Surprise, the emotional response to perceptual salience,
explicitly elicits attention to the item in Green’s theory. However, several
researchers (e.g. Fabiani and Donchin 1995; Hunt 1995; Hunt & Lamb
2001; Sikström 2006) have pointed out that the effec t cannot solely be a
matter of attention. If an isolate is presented early in a list there has not
been any time to build up an expectation of how the elements should look;
leading to that there is nothing to draw attention.
3. Gestalt Explanation:
Along with Koffka (1935), Restorff offered the Gestalt interpretation of
the isolation effect. Similarity among the massed items of either a
homogeneous list or the non -isolated items of the isolated list resulted in
aggregation of those items. The isolated ite m doesn’t get aggregated to the
homogeneous items because of its lack of similarity. Thus, the isolated
item stands out as figure against the ground of the homogeneous items.
Using the metaphor of perception, the isolation effect in memory was thus
explain ed essentially in terms of the discriminability of the isolate.
Isolation and the Learning of Lists :
Not only has the Isolation paradigm been used for understanding how
isolated items are retained better, but also how it could enhance the
learning of list s(). The classic 1933 paper by Restorff has never been
published in English and is likely to surprise the contemporary reader on
several dimensions. For example, the first page is devoted to defending
studies of memory that use lists of nonsense materials against charges of
ecological invalidity. Even though Titchener (1915) had proclaimed
Ebbinghaus’s innovation of nonsense syllables as the most important
advance in the study of memory since Aristotle, criticism of the technique
had gained momentum by 193 3 on the grounds that memorization of lists
was a meaningless activity and consequently would yield no useful
information about real -world memory (see, e.g., Bartlett, 1932). Von
Restorff ’s rejoinder is unique: “After all, we do not want to fool
ourselves : Millions of people remain in the same work situations day after
day, even though their tasks are no more meaningful than the experimental
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52 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
52 being too far removed from everyday experie nce, just because the subjects
were engaged in meaningless tasks” (von Restorff, 1933, p. 300)
In their work on the phenomenon of set size(a proportional increase in the
total number of words retained due to the introduction of isolation),
Donchin and Fabi ani (1995) propose a model based on three different
phases of memory organisation; the encoding, the rehearsal and the
retrieval phase. Herein, they claim that there are two different levels of the
encoding phase. In the first one, there is a parallel anal ysis of elementary
stimulus features. In the second one, there is a more elaborate processing
of the stimulus features. It is here that Donchin and Fabiani propose that
isolation enhances both the kind of processes leading to a higher retrieval
of the item s on the isolation list as compared to the items on the non -
isolated list.
Using the gestalt understanding researchers have tried to explain how
isolation transforms the list as a ‘whole’ compared to the singular parts of
a non -isolated list. Findings and reasoning by Osgood(1953) point at how
perceptual salience is necessary but not a sufficient condition. The isolate
could be unique/distinctive as a unit, but if the non -isolated items do not
operate to form a unique whole by agglutinating the effect is no t as strong.
Hence even when the researchers are assessing the retention of one
isolated unit in the isolated list vis -à-vis the same unit in the non -isolated
list, what actually facilitates retention is the relationship of the isolate to
the remaining ind iscriminable non -isolates which are encoded together as
a whole. Hunt and Lamb (2001) attribute the effect to the balance of
similarity and difference among the elements in a list, hence creating an
advantage for the isolated list as a whole unit which ge ts encoded and
organized differently than its non -isolated counterpart. According to Hunt
and Lamb (2001) this is due to organizational and distinctive processing.
Organizational processes result from encoding similarities among the
different items in a l ist, while distinctive processes result from encoding
similarities and differences among these elements. Isolated lists are
encoded as different, distinct ‘whole’ units and hence retained better.
Problem: To study the Isolation effect on the serial learnin g of lists
Hypotheses:
 Null: There would be no difference in serial learning across the
presence or absence of isolation conditions (i.e. There would be no
difference in the total number of nonsense syllables correctly placed
in the appropriate serial pos ition on the reconstruction sheet across
both conditions)
 Alternate: serial learning would be better in the presence of isolation
condition as opposed to the absence of isolation condition (i.e. the
total number of nonsense syllables correctly placed in the appropriate
serial position on the reconstruction sheet would be higher in the
isolation condition as compared to the absence of isolation condition)
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53 Experiments in Cognitive Processes -II Experiment No. 2 Isolation Effect (Von-Restorff Effect) Independent variable : Isolation of i tems on list – Present/Absent
Dependent variable: performance on serial learning task
Operational definition of variables
 Independent variable: Isolation achieved by changing the font, case,
colour and size (bigger than the rest of the items) of the third and sixth
item on an eight -item list
 Dependent variable: Total number of nonsense syllables correctly
placed in the appropriate serial position on the reconstruction sheet
Control variables:
1. The total number of items on both lists was eight
2. The two items used for the isolation effect were also be present in the
non-isolated list in a different position. However, their font, case,
colour and size were the same as the rest of the items on the non -
isolated list
3. The exposure time of each item was be 3 seconds
4. Half the experimenters presented the Presence of Isolation condition
followed by the Absence of Isolation condition and vice versa.
5. The participants read aloud each item on the list
6. A maximum of three minutes was given to finish the reconstruction
task
Materials :
 The materials for the experiment were prepared in a hard -copy
format, in the form of cards or the in the soft copy format in the form
of slides on a PowerPoint Presentation.
 In either case there were cards/slides, eight cards/slides per conditio n.
Each word appeared in the middle of the card slide in small case,
black ink, Calibri font, size 24(except the two isolated items on the
isolated list). The two isolated words were in all capital, blue ink,
Times New Roman font, size 36 only in one list (isolated list)
 In case the material was in soft copy (slides on a PPT presentation)
each slide with a word followed by a blank slide
 A demonstration sheet with three nonsense syllables apart from the
ones on the 2 lists.
 Two separate lists/slides for each condition consisting of the eight
words presented before, however in a scrambled order (different from
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54 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
54  Stopwatch/metronome for manual presentation. Each slide with a
word auto -timed for a three s econd display
 A reconstruction sheet with a series of seven empty boxes for the
participant to fill appropriate words in the correct serial order
 Screen, Record sheets and Stationery
Procedure:
The participants of half the experimenters were administered t he Isolation
condition followed by the absence of isolation condition and vice versa.
After the P was ushered in to the laboratory, made to sit comfortably and
rapport was established, the cards/slides of the first condition were
presented. First, each wor d was exposed individually over the screen.
Each trial began with asking if the P is READY accompanied by the
participant indicating their readiness. This was followed by the
presentation of an eight -item list, one item shown at a time. Each list item
was presented for 3 seconds with a blank slide & ready signal separating
the offset of one item from the onset of the next. Participant were
instructed to say each item aloud as it appeared on the screen. Immediately
after the last item, the participant is giv en a reconstruction test. The eight
items in the list were re - presented on the screen/ or handed out on a sheet,
in a new random order. A series of eight empty boxes, representing all
possible list positions, was handed out along with the reordered list. The
task was be to reconstruct the original order of presentation by placing the
items into their appropriate serial positions (boxes). Everyone was given
as much time as they needed to complete the reconstruction task.
Thereafter the P was given a two -minute unfilled interval and the next
condition wasstarted in a similar manner.
Instructions:
“Please be comfortable. This is a simple experiment which has two parts.
In the first part, I would be showing you few nonsense syllables…one at a
time…over this scr een. A non -sense syllable is a combination of three
letters without any dictionary meaning. I want you to look at these
syllables carefully and spell them out loudly(demonstration). Before the
presentation of every nonsense syllable…I will give you a ready signal.
After I finish showing you the syllables on by one, I will show you all of
them together in a list where the syllables would be in a random order.
Alongside, I will give you a sheet with a few blank boxes one below the
other. Your task would be to arrange the syllables in the boxes, in the
same order as they were presented to you. For example, if in the original
order of presentation XYZ was followed by PTQ and VBN…then in the
boxes too, you would be expected to write XYZ first, PTQ second and
VBN third. In case you do not remember the word for a particular
position, move to the next. In all, you would be given a total of three
minutes to finish this task. When you finish this procedure once, we will
have a short break and then start part 2. In the second part of the
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55 Experiments in Cognitive Processes -II Experiment No. 2 Isolation Effect (Von-Restorff Effect) task once again. Have you understood…? Could you explain what we
would be doing…? Shall we begin?
Post task questions:
 How do you feel about the task we just did…
 What do you think the experiment was about…
 Did you find any of the two lists easier to learn in the given order …If
yes, why…..
 Do you think any of the words that were differently coloured helped
you in remembering that list better …. Tell me more about it …? What
if those words were like the others in the list?
Analysis of data :
Tables & Graphs
Table 1: Participant’s responses in the absence of isolation condition Serial Position Correct word
shown in the
respective position Participants response on reconstruction sheet Correct / Incorrect 1. 2 3. …. 8 Total number of non-sense syllables correctly placed in serial positions (serial learning score)
Table 2: Participant’s responses in the presence of isolation condition Serial Position Correct word shown in the respective position Participants response on reconstruction sheet Correct / Incorrect 1. 2 3. … 8 Total number of non-sense syllables correctly placed in serial positions (serial learning score)
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56 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
56 Table 3: P articipant’s serial learning score across both conditions Condition Participant’s serial recall score Presence of Isolation Absence of Isolation
Table 4: Serial learning score of 20 participants across both conditions Participant number Serial learning score in Presence of Isolation Condition Serial learning score in Absence of Isolation Condition 1 2 …. 20 Total Mean
Graph1: Bar graph representing the participant’s serial learning score
across both conditions
Graph2: Bar gra ph representing the mean serial learning score of 20
participants across both conditions
Statistical treatment :
The mean of the serial learning score for both conditions is computed.
Thereafter the difference between the mean scores is tested for
signific ance using the t test as an inferential statistic.
Results and discussion:
The current experiment was conducted to study the effect brought about
by isolation on serial learning. The experiment utilised a repeated measure
design with one IV having two leve ls. Isolation was manipulated in the
experimental group by utilising a list with 2 items in different size, case
and colour than the rest of the items. A reconstruction task sheet was used
to assess serial learning in both the conditions.
Individual data:
In the current experiment it was hypothesized
that___________________(write the hypothesis). Hence it was expected
that the serial recall score of the participant would be higher in the
presence of Isolation condition as opposed to the control condition.
Table 1 is a record sheet of the participants’ performance on the serial
recall task in the absence of isolation condition. No words were isolated in
the list by changing the colour, font or size. As can be seen, the participant
accurately placed __________ _____words in their appropriate serial munotes.in

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57 Experiments in Cognitive Processes -II Experiment No. 2 Isolation Effect (Von-Restorff Effect) position. The E observed that____________(please write your
observations of the participants’ performance on the task)
Table 2 is a record sheet of the participants’ performance on the serial
recall task in the presen ce of isolation condition. Two words were isolated
in the list by changing the colour, font case and size of the words. As can
be seen, the participant accurately placed _______________words in their
appropriate serial position. The E observed that_______ _____ (please
write your observations of the participants’ performance on the task)
Table 3 is a summary table which compares the total number of words
serially placed by the participant across the two conditions. As can be seen
from the table the particip ant’s reconstruction score was _______in the
control condition, while it was _______ in the presence of isolation
condition. Thus, serial learning in the isolation condition is more/less than
that in the control condition and the data is as/not as expect ed.
The participants responses in the PTQs also reveal
that______________(quote relevant responses to indicate support to the
hypothesis or vice -versa)
Graph 1 is a graphical representation of the participants’ performance on
both the conditions. Through t he two bars, the graph indicates the number
of words correctly placed by the participant, in the appropriate serial
position, in both the conditions. As ca be seen the bar in the
_______________condition is taller than the bar in the
_______________conditi on which clearly denotes____________ (the way
isolation impacts learning of verbal material).
Overall, the individual data is in / not in line with the hypothesis.
Group Data:
In a similar vein as above, discuss Table 4 which indicates the
performance of 20 participants across both conditions. What are the total
scores? What are the mean scores? In which condition have participants
performed better? Are the group data results as expected?
Thereafter discuss the trends seen in the Group data graph. Which of the
two bars is taller…? What does that indicate?
Finally, using the findings from both individual and group data, comment
on whether the hypothesis is supported or not.
Conclusion: using the data in the discussion conclude if the hypothesis is
validated or not.
Application value:
The isolation effect would be useful in designing material in any domain
where distinctiveness and perceptual salience of the material would be of
importance. It can be used in designing learning material with special
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58 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
58 in designing presentations wherein the attention of the audience is to be
manoeuvred towards specific points. The learning could also come handy
while designing websites and advertisements.
8.2 QUESTIONS 1. What is the Isolation effect?
2. Who pioneered the isolation effect?
3. Why does the isolation effect occur?
4. What are the various ways in which isolation can be manipulated?
5. What is set size?
6. What explains the improved memory of i solated lists as opposed to
non-isolated lists ?
7. What is the retrieval measure used in this experiment? Do you know
any other methods of measuring retention/memory?
8. What is the IV and DV of the Experiment?
9. What are the CVs of the Experiment?
10. What is the design of the experiment?
11. What Inferential Statistical method is used in the experiment and
Why?
8.3 REFERENCES  Bellezza, F. S., & Cheney, T. L. (1973). Isolation effect in immediate
and delayed recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 99 , 55-60.
 Cimbalo, R. S. (1978). Making something stand out: The isolation
effect in memory performance. In M. M. Grunneberg, P. E. Morris, &
R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp. 101 —110). New
York: Academic Press.
 Cimbalo, R. S., Capria, R. A., Neider, L. L., & Wilkins, M. C. (1977).
Isolation effect: Overall list facilitation in short -term memory. Acta
f•rycbofogice, 4i, 419 -432.
 Cimbalo, R. S., Nowak, B. I., & Soderstrom, J. A. (1981). The
isolation effect in children’s short term memory. Journal of General
Psychology, POS, 215 -223.
 Greene, R. L., Thapar. A., & Westerman, D. L. (1998). Effects of
gener - ation on memory for order. Journal of Memory and Language,
38, 255 —264. munotes.in

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59 Experiments in Cognitive Processes -II Experiment No. 2 Isolation Effect (Von-Restorff Effect)  Gumenik, W. E., & Levitt, J. (1968). The von Restom effect as a
function of difference of the isolated item. American Journal of
Psychology, 81, 247 —252.
 Nairne, J. S. (in press). A functional analysis of primary memory. In
H. L. Roediger III, J. S. Naime, I. Neath, & A. M. Suprenant (Eds.),
fiie nature of remembering: Es saye in honor oy Robert G. Crowder.
Wash - ington, DC: American Psychological AssociaÖon.
 Naime, J. S., & Kelley, M. R. (1999). Reversing the phonological
simi- larity effect. ñfemory A Cognifion, 27, 45 —53.
 Naime, J. S., Riegler, G. L., & Serra, M. (1991). Dissociative effects
of generation on item and order retention. Journal of Experimental
Psy- c6oiogy: £eerning, Memnry, end Cogniiion, J7, 702 —709.
 von Restorff, H. (1933). Uber die wirkung von bereichsbildungen im
spiirenfeld [On the effect of spheres fo rmations in the trace field].
Psychologische Forschung, 18, 299 —342.
 Wallace, W. P. (1965). Review of the historical, empirical, and
theoretical status of the von Restorff phenomenon. Psychological
Bulletin, 63, 410 -424.
8.4 APPENDIX 1. List of nonsense Sy llables Non Isolated items Isolated Items qed bjx gok dzp zec YUL vum naq yul kiy wdk XTJ njl gox xtj fiw
2. Reconstruction task sheet Serial number Nonsense syllable in appropriate order 1 munotes.in

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60 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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49 9
PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST
Unit Structure
9.0 Objective
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Administration, Scoring & Interpretation of Warwick -Edinburgh
Mental Well -Being Scale (WEMWBS)
9.3 Questions
9.4 References
9.5 Appendix
9.0 OBJECTIVES 1. The learner will be able t o administer, score and interpret the
Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well Being Scale (WEMWB) and
Satisfaction with Life Scale.
2. The learner will be able to communicate the test interpretation to the
test taker
3. The learner will be able to calculate and interpre t reliability of a test
4. The learner will be able to calculate and interpret validity of a test
9.1 INTRODUCTION A Psychological test is a standardized and objective measure of a sample
of behaviour. It also including scales and self -report inventories to
measure of an individual’s mental and/or behavioural characteristics. The
primary characteristics of a good psychological test are reliability, validity
and standardization.
Standardization refers to the uniformity of procedure in the administering
and sc oring of the test
Reliability refers to consistency of test scores. According to Anastasi
reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same
individuals when re -examined with the same test on different occasion, or
with different sets of equivalent times, or under other variable examining
condition.
Test-retest reliability, alternate -forms reliability, split -half reliability are
different types in which reliability coefficient can be estimated.
Spearman -Brown, Kuder -Richardson formula an d Cronbach are methods
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50 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
50 Cronbach’s alpha is computed by correlating the score for each scale item
with the total score for each observation and then comparing that to the
variance for all individual it em scores.
Following are the steps used to estimate the internal consistency of the
test:
Step 1: Total of variances of scores on each item of the test to be
calculated
σi2 = σ12+ σ22 ……. + σ2n
Step 2: For estimating the internal consistency of the test Cronbach’s
Alpha can be used

Cronbach’s alpha =
Where ,
k= number of items in WEMWBS (14)
Σσi2 = Total of variances of scores on each item of W EMWBS
Σσt2= Variance of total scores on WEMWBS on 30 Test -takers (* square
the σt value)
Another important aspect of a good psychological test is the estimation of
validity.
Test validity refers to the degree to which the test actually measures what
it cla ims to measure. Any psychometric test which fulfils the purpose for
which it is developed can be called a valid measuring test.
The different methods to establish validity of the test are content, criterion,
construct.
Criterion Related Validity:
This is a val idation procedure which indicates the effectiveness of a test in
predicting an individual’s performance against a criterion. A criterion is a
standard against which the test score is evaluated. There are two types
criterion related validity, concurrent and predictive validity. To obtain the
criterion - related validity the test developer must set a relevant and
appropriate criterion. Thus, the criterion chosen for estimating the validity
must be valid, relevant and uncontaminated.
Concurrent validity is obt ained by calculating the relationship degree
between the score on the new test are related to the scores of already
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51 Psychological Test Step 1 : A relevant criterion measure is selected to establish the va lidity of
the test under consideration.Both the tests are administered
concurrently, that is at the same time.
Step 2: Validity is calculated by using the Pearson’s Product moment
formula:

9.2 ADMINISTRATION, SCORING & INTERPRETATION OF WARWICK -EDINBU RGH
MENTAL WELL -BEING SCALE (WEMWBS) &
SATISFACTION WITH LIFE SCALE (SWLS) AND
CALCULATION OF RELIABILITY, VALIDITY OF
WEMWBS. The purpose of the present practical is to administer, score and interpret
the Warwick -Edinburgh Mental Well -Being Scale (WEMBS) and
Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). And to estimate the internal
reliability coefficient using Cronbach’s alpha. The criterion test used to
estimate the validity of WEMWBS will be SWLS.
The concept of mental wellbeing is described as a state of positi ve being,
thinking, behaving and feeling. Mental wellbeing and mental health are
different terms as ‘mental health’ is a term often used to incorporate a
range of states from excellent mental health to severe mental health
problems.
The World Health organi zation states that mental wellbeing involves a
state of well -being in which people are able to cope with the normal
stresses they face in daily life.
In general, wellbeing is considered global dimension of psychological
wellbeing, emotional wellbeing and s ocial wellbeing. The component of
emotional wellbeing comprises three components, positive affect, negative
affect, life satisfaction and happiness. The psychological wellbeing
consisting of self -acceptance, personal growth, purpose of life,
environmental master, autonomy and positive relations with others. The
elements of social wellbeing associated with social actualization, social
contribution, social coherence, social integration.
There are two approaches to study mental wellbeing, the hedonic approac h
and eudaemonic approach. The hedonic approach includes the states of
happiness and life satisfaction. The eudemonic approach includes the
positive psychological functioning, good relationships with others and
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52 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
52 The Warwick -Edinburgh Mental Well -Being Scale (WEMWBS). The
scale includes affective -emotional aspects, cognitive -evaluative
dimensions and psychological functioning capturing the global aspect of
the concept of wellbeing.
The life satisfaction component is a cognitive component of t he broader
concept subjective wellbeing. Global life satisfaction is a broad concept of
an individual’s comprehensive judgment of life. The SWLS items are
global rather than specific in nature, allowing respondents to weigh
domains of their lives in terms of their own values, in arriving at a global
judgment of life satisfaction (Pavot, 1993).
Purpose:
1. To administer, score and interpret the Warwick Edinburgh Mental
Well Being Scale (WEMWB)
2. To administer, score and interpret Satisfaction with Life Scale
3. To c alculate reliability coefficient of Warwick Edinburgh Mental
Well Being Scale using Cronbach’s alpha
4. To calculate concurrent validity of WEMWB using Satisfaction with
Life Scale
Method:
Description of the scale:
Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well Being Scale ( WEMWBS)
The WEMWBSe covers eudemonic -hedonic wellbeing and psychological,
subjective wellbeing.
The development of Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well Being Scale
(WEMWS,2007) was led by Professor Sarah Stewart -Brown and
supported by Professor Stephen Platt et al.
The scale consists of 14 items covering both hedonic and eudaemonic
aspects of mental health
Test-retest reliability at one week in the student sample was 0.83. Scales
measuring components of affect or well -being all showed significant high
correlati ons with WEMWBS, PANAS -PA r = 0.71 and WHO -5 r = 0.77.
Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) :
The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) was developed by Ed Diener,
Robert A. Emmons, Randy J. Larsen and Sharon Griffin (1985). The
SWLS is a short 5 -item instru ment designed to measure global cognitive
judgments of satisfaction with one's life. The scale is scored by summing
responses to each item answered on a 1 to 5 Likert scale. munotes.in

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53 Psychological Test The internal reliability coefficient is .87, 2 months test -retest reliability is
.82 (Diener et al, 1985). The SWLS also has been examined for its
relation to an array of both self - report and external criteria in an effort to
establish its validity as a measure of life satisfaction. The correlation
between Fordyce Global Scale & SWLS was found 0.82 (Tennat et al,
2007).
Materials:
1. Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well Being Scale (WEMWS)
2. Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
3. Stationery
4. Screen
Procedure:
The test administrator ensured that all the arrangements for administering
the test were mad e. The test taker was then ushered into the laboratory and
was asked to sit comfortably.
Before giving the instructions for the scale, establish rapport with the test
taker by asking few general questions.
Instructions:
“Be comfortable, today I will be g iving you two psychological scales,
which will help you to understand some aspect of yourself. The first scale
consists of a few statements about your thoughts and feelings. Besides
each statement there are options that range from none of the time to All
the time. Please tick the option that best describe your experience over last
two weeks. (The test administrator reads aloud the instructions printed on
the test.)
There are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers, as each one of us differs in the
manner we think an d feel. The accuracy of the test result depends on how
honestly you respond to these tests.
Please note that your responses will be kept confidential and only total
score will be used for the purpose of further calculations. There is no time
limit for the test but do not spend too much time on one statement. Have
you understood? Shall we proceed”
After the instructions, the test administrator ensured that the test takers
filled the demographic details on the scale and was asked to begin. After
the test ta ker finished answering the scale, the test administrator ensured
that all the test taker had answered all the questions. And after a gap of
few minutes the next scale was given to the participant.
‘Here is another scale which I will be giving you. This sca le is developed
to assess satisfaction people feel towards their lives. Below are five
statements that you may agree or disagree with. Using the 1 - 7 scale munotes.in

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54 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
54 below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate
number on the line precedi ng that item. Please be open and honest in your
responding. Do you have any questions? Shall we proceed?”
The test -taker is then asked the following PTQs:
Post-Task Questions:
1. What are your feelings while responding to the statements of the
scale?
2. Did you face any difficulty responding to the statements of the scale?
3. Has any particular event/ incident have taken place in your life over in
the recent past, which you think might have influence the way you
answered the questions in the scale?
After taking the PTQs, a date and time when the results of the test would
be shared with the test taker. The test taker is thanked and ushered out of
the laboratory.
The two scales were scored using the instructions given in the Appendix A
&B
Data of 30 students was colle cted for both the scales. A ‘Z’ test was
calculated for the WEMWBS, the Z table was used to interpret the data
Debriefing:
[Note for the Test Administrator: It is very important the manner in which
test results are communicated to the test taker. Before de briefing the test
taker, you need to be well versed with the nature of the test and the way
test results are interpreted. The test results must be communicated in a
very sensitive manner, especially if the test scores are low or below
average. The test adm inistrator must ensure that strengths of the test taker
are to be emphasized rather than weakness]
“The scales you took earlier were Warwick Edinburg Mental Wellbeing
Scale and Life satisfaction scale. These tests help us to understand how
people feel and how they function both on a personal and social level.
Your total score on Mental Wellbeing Scale was ________. When data
from 30 adults was collected and analyzed, the average score on the
Mental Wellbeing Scale was ___________. Your score was higher than
/lower than/close to average score.
Further, to interpret the results we calculated the z score, which helps us to
know where your test score lies when compared to the population.
It was found that Z score for your score on Warwick Edinburg Mental
Wellbe ing Scale was __________. This Z score implies that
____________________________________________ (interpret the Z
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55 Psychological Test The second scale you completed was the Satisfaction with Life Scale.
Your is score on the test _____. The score indicates that _____________
(Please refer to the Appendix to interpret the score on the test)
Analysis of Data:
1) Table I: Total score for WEMWBS and SWLS for 30 test takers Test Taker Total Score on WEMWBS Total Score on SWLS 1 2 …. 30 Total Average σt *(SD)
2) Calculation of Z score for WEMWBS using the formula:
Z = Test taker Score on WEMBS - Mean of WEMBS
SD of WEMBS
(Note: For interpretation of the z score refer to the z table)
3) Table II : Item wise score of 30 Test takers on WEMWBS Test Taker/ Item No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 …. 30 Mean σ2 σ21 σ22 σ23 .. … σ214 munotes.in

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56 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
56
4. With the help of dat a from table 2 reliability coefficient was
calculated using Cronbach’s Alpha (α)
Step 1: Total of variances of scores on each item of WEMWBS (Add all
the σ2 of the Items)
σi2 = σ12+ σ22 ……. + σ214
Step 2: Use the following formula to calculate the Cronbac h’s Alpha

Cronbach’s Alpha (α) =
Cronbach’s Alpa = _____
Where ,
k= number of items in WEMWBS (14)
Σσi2 = Total of variances of scores on each item of WEMWBS
Σσt2= Variance of total scores on WEMWBS on 30 Test -takers (* square
the σt value)
5) Table III: Calculation of Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation
between WEMWBS & SWLS Test Taker Total Score on WEMWS Total Score on SWLS X2 Y2 XY 1 2 … 30 ∑ X ∑ Y ∑ X2 ∑ Y2 ∑ XY Pearson r Calculation:
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57 Psychological Test Interpretation :
Test Score Int erpretation:
1) Mention the total score of the test taker on WEMWS. Discuss the
score comparing with the mean score of the group in terms of whether
the score is higher/lower/close to the mean group score.
2) Mention the test taker’s z score and interp ret the z score referring to
the z table.
3) Mention the total score of the test taker on SWLS. Interpret the score
referring to the interpretation given in Appendix B.
4) Discuss the interpretation in terms of the PTQs and the discussion
with the test t aker during the debriefing session.
Interpretation of Reliability & Validity Coefficient :
5) Discuss the mean, standard deviation values of WEMWBS
6) Mention the internal consistency reliability estimate with the help
Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient. Is t he reliability of WEMWBS is
high/moderate/low? Discuss the reliability of the scale in terms of
research findings.
7) Mention the r value. Interpret the r - value and the validity of
WEMWBS. With the help of research findings, justify the use of
Satisfacti on with Life scale to establish validity of WEMWBS.
Conclusion:
Mention the test taker score and interpretation (in brief) on WEMBWS
and Satisfaction with life Scale.
Mention the internal consistency reliability estimate along with the
interpretation.
Mention the validity of the scale by stating the r value along with the
interpretation
9.3 QUESTIONS 1. Elaborate the nature, scope of psychological test
2. What are the characteristics of a good psychological test
3. Explain the concept of reliability and the types of reliability
4. Mention the steps to calculate reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha
5. Explain the concept of validity and the types of validity
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58 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
58 7. What is z score?
8. Explain the concept of correlation. And types of correlation
9. Explain the term mental health.
10. Explain the nature of WEMBWS.
11. Explain the concept of Life satisfaction
12. Enumerate the nature Satisfaction with Life scale
9.4 REFERENCES  Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing( 7th ed).
Pearson Education, New Delhi
 Carr, Alan. (2004) Positive Psychology: The Science of Happiness
and Human Strengths. London: Routledge
 Lombardo, P., Jones, W., Wang, L. et al. The fundamental association
between mental health and life satisfaction: results fro m successive
waves of a Canadian national survey. BMC Public Health 18, 342
(2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889 -018-5235 -x
 Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2013) The Satisfaction with Life Scale
(SWL)Mea surement Instrument Database for the Social Science.
 https://www.midss.org/sites/default/files/understanding_swls_scores.p
df
 Pavot, W. G., & Diener, E. (1993). Review o f the Satisfaction with
Life Scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164 -172
DOI: 10.1037/1040 -3590.5.2.164
 Stewart -Brown S & Janmohamed Warwick -Edinburgh Mental Well -
being Scale: User Guide
 http://www.mentalhealthpromotion.net/resources/user -guide.pdf
 Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2013) The Satisfaction with Life Scale
(SWL) Measurement Instrument Database for the Social Science .
 https://www.midss.org/sites/default/files/understanding_swls_scores.p
df
 Pavot, W. G., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the Satisfaction with
Life Scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164 -172
DOI: 10.1037/1040 -3590.5.2.164
 Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S.,
Parkinson, J., Secker, J., & Stewart -Brown, S.. The Warwick -
Edinburgh Mental Well -being Scale (WEMWBS): development and
UK validation. Health Qual Life Outcomes 5, 63 (2007).
https://doi.org/10.1186/1477 -7525 -5-63 munotes.in

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59 Psychological Test 9.5 APPENDIX Appendix A
The Warwick -Edinburgh Mental Wel l-being Scale (WEMWBS)
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….
WEMWBS
Name: ……………… Age: ………………………….
Below are some statements about feelings and thoughts.
Please tick the box that best describes your experience of each over t he
last 2 weeks
STATEMENTS None of
the time Rarely Some of the time Often All of the time I've been feeling optimistic about the future 1 2 3 4 5 I've been feeling useful 1 2 3 4 5 I've been feeling relaxed 1 2 3 4 5 I've been feeling interested in other people 1 2 3 4 5 I've had energy to spare 1 2 3 4 5 I've been dealing with problems well 1 2 3 4 5 I've been thinking clearly 1 2 3 4 5 I've been feeling good about myself 1 2 3 4 5 I've been feeling close to other people 1 2 3 4 5 I've been feeling confident 1 2 3 4 5 I've been able to make up my own mind about things 1 2 3 4 5 I've been feeling loved 1 2 3 4 5 munotes.in

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60 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
60 I've been interested in new things 1 2 3 4 5 I've been feeling cheerful 1 2 3 4 5
Warwick –Edinburgh Mental Well -being Scale (WEMWBS )
© NHS Health Scotland, University of Warwick and University of Edinburgh, 2006, all rights reserved.
Soring & Interpretation (WEMWBS) :
The total score on WEMWBS is scored by summing the responses to each
of the 14 test items on a 1 to 5 likert scale (1 = None of the time to 5 = All
of the time). All questions are equally weighted. Scores can range from a
minimum of 14 to a maximum of 70 points. Higher scores are associated
with higher levels of mental wellbeing
Appendix B :

The Satisfaction with Life Sca le
By Ed Diener, Ph.D.
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
SWLS
DIRECTIONS: Below are five statements with which you may agree or
disagree. Using the 1 -7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each
item by placing the appropriate number in the line preceding that item.
Please be open and honest in your responding .
1 = Strongly Disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Slightly Disagree
4 = Neither Agree or Disagree
5 = Slightly Agree
6 = Agree
7 = Strongly Agree
1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal.
2. The conditions of my life are excellent.
3. I am satisfied with life.
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61 Psychological Test 5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing .
Soring and interpretation:
The SWLS is a 7 -point Likert style response scale. The total score is
obtained by summing the responses to each item. The possible range of
scores is 5 -35. Scores between 5 -9 indicate the respondent is extremely
dissatisfied with life, whereas scores between 31 -35 indicate the
respondent is extremely satisfied.
30 – 35 Very high score; highly satisfied Respondents who score in this
range love their lives and feel that things are going very well. Their lives
are not perfect, but they feel that things are about as good as lives get.
Furthermore, just because the person is satisfied does not mean she or he
is complacent. In fact, growth and challenge might be part of the reason
the respondent is satisfied. For most people in this high -scoring range, life
is enjoyable, and the major domains of life are going well – work or
school, family, friends, leisure, and personal development. 25 - 29 High
score Individuals who score in this r ange like their lives and feel that
things are going well. Of course their lives are not perfect, but they feel
that things are mostly good. Furthermore, just because the person is
satisfied does not mean she or he is complacent. In fact, growth and
challe nge might be part of the reason the respondent is satisfied. For most
people in this high -scoring range, life is enjoyable, and the major domains
of life are going well – work or school, family, friends, leisure, and
personal development. The person may dr aw motivation from the areas of
dissatisfaction.
20 – 24 Average score The average of life satisfaction in economically
developed nations is in this range – the majority of people are generally
satisfied, but have some areas where they very much would lik e some
improvement. Some individuals score in this range because they are
mostly satisfied with most areas of their lives but see the need for some
improvement in each area. Other respondents score in this range because
they are satisfied with most domains of their lives, but have one or two
areas where they would like to see large improvements. A person scoring
in this range is normal in that they have areas of their lives that need
improvement. However, an individual in this range would usually like to
move to a higher level by making some life changes.
15 – 19 Slightly below average in life satisfaction People who score in this
range usually have small but significant problems in several areas of their
lives, or have many areas that are doing fine but on e area that represents a
substantial problem for them. If a person has moved temporarily into this
level of life satisfaction from a higher level because of some recent event,
things will usually improve over time and satisfaction will generally move
back up. On the other hand, if a person is chronically slightly dissatisfied
with many areas of life, some changes might be in order. Sometimes the
person is simply expecting too much, and sometimes life changes are
needed. Thus, although temporary dissatisfact ion is common and normal,
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62 Practicals in Cognitive Processes and Psychological Testing
62 reflection. Some people can gain motivation from a small level of
dissatisfaction, but often dissatisfaction across a number of life domains is
a distra ction, and unpleasant as well.
10 – 14 Dissatisfied People who score in this range are substantially
dissatisfied with their lives. People in this range may have a number of
domains that are not going well, or one or two domains that are going very
badly. If life dissatisfaction is a response to a recent event su ch as
bereavement, divorce, or a significant problem at work, the person will
probably return over time to his or her former level of higher satisfaction.
However, if low levels of life satisfaction have been chronic for the
person, some changes are in ord er – both in attitudes and patterns of
thinking, and probably in life activities as well. Low levels of life
satisfaction in this range, if they persist, can indicate that things are going
badly and life alterations are needed. Furthermore, a person with l ow life
satisfaction in this range is sometimes not functioning well because their
unhappiness serves as a distraction. Talking to a friend, member of the
clergy, counselor, or other specialist can often help the person get moving
in the right direction, a lthough positive change will be up the person.
5 – 9 Extremely Dissatisfied Individuals who score in this range are
usually extremely unhappy with their current life. In some cases, this is in
reaction to some recent bad event such as widowhood or unemplo yment.
In other cases, it is a response to a chronic problem such as alcoholism or
addiction. In yet other cases the extreme dissatisfaction is a reaction due to
something bad in life such as recently having lost a loved one. However,
dissatisfaction at th is level is often due to dissatisfaction in multiple areas
of life. Whatever the reason for the low level of life satisfaction, it may be
that the help of others are needed – a friend or family member, counseling
with a member of the clergy, or help from a psychologist or other
counselor. If the dissatisfaction is chronic, the person needs to change, and
often others can help.

*****
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