TYBA-History-SEM-6-P-4-History-of-Medieval-India-ENG-munotes

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FOUNDATION, EXPANSION AND
DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL RULE -I
(a) India on the eve of Mughal Rule, Invasion of Babur
(b) Humayun, Shershah and Akbar
(c) Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
Unit Structure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 India on the Eve of Mughal Invasion
1.3 Babur (1483 – 1530)
1.4 Humayun (1530 – 1556)
1.5 Summary
1.6 Questions
1.7 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the foundation of the Mughal empire.
 To know the Babar ’s role as the founder of Mughal empire.
 To examine Humayun’s career as a Mughal emperor.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The invasion of Timur and the sack of Delhi in 1398 hastened the end of
the decadent Delhi sultanate. On its ashes grew up numerous
independent kingdoms. These were usually in perpetual warfare with each
other. There was no paramount power in the country and India was not in
a position to present a united front to any invader. According to Dr.
Ishwari Prasad India was “ a congeries of states at the beginning of the
sixteenth century and likely t o be the easy prey of an invader who had the
strength and will to attempt her conquest.”
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2 We may now study in brief the history of prominent kingdoms of the
eve of the invasion of Babur.
10.2 INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE MUGHAL INVASION
10.2.1 Political conditi ons:
(I) The kingdom of Delhi :- Timur’s nominee in the Punjab captured
Delhi and was proclaimed the new sultan the first of the Sayyid dynasty
which was to rule during the earlier half of the 15 th century. The sayyid
kept the machinery going untill Bahlo l Lodhi the governor of Lahore and
Sirhind saw the opportunity of ousting the sayyids and made himself the
Sultan of Delhi in 1451. The lodhis were pure Afghan origin. Thus, for the
first time in the history of india an Afghan ruler was seated on the thron e
of Delhi. Bahlol Lodhi ruled from I451 to I489 was succeeded by his son
Sikander Lodhi (I489 – I517). Sikander Lodhi during his life time
maintained order by his firm policy and held the turbulent Afghan nobles
on check but after his death in I517 when t he crown passed to a man who
was inferior to him in ability and character the forces which he had
controlled broke loose and undermined the foundation of the empire.
Sikander’s son Ibrahim Lodhi (I517 -I526) was Babur’s adversary on the
throne of Delhi. Wit h a view to securing strength he unwisely embarked
upon a policy of repression towards the powerful nobles of Lohani and
Lodhi tribes who constituted the official class of the state. By his stern
measures he alienated the sympathies of Afghan nobles and drove them to
disloyalty. He asserted absolute power of the sultan and did not consider
tribal feelings. His followers became restive and disloyal. Some grumbled
quietly others more openly. The result was disastrous. Not only did he
alienate the nobles upon whose support his power rested but drove them
into active opposition. There was general discontent and disaffection.
Various Chiefs revolted and the whole of the eastern part of Ibrahim’s
dominion ( Bihar ) threw of its obedience and formed a separate stat e
under Darya khan lohani. Tribal and clan rivalries were forgotten as the
opposition to Ibrahim grew culminating in the nobles inviting foreign
assistance to over throw him within the sultanate. Daulat Khan Lodhi the
governor of the Punjab ( part of the S ultanate of Delhi) and Alam Khan
Lodhi an uncle of Ibrahim and an old claimant to the throne of Delhi
appealed for help to Babur who was seeking his fortune in Afghanistan.
Thus the Afghan empire was not in a position to withstand a foreign
attack. Its sway did not extend beyond Delhi, Agra, the doab, Bayana and
Chanderi. The spirit of revolt had spread through the land. In these
circumstances the fall of the Lodhis was only a question of time.
(2) Jaunpur : - During the period of confusion following the invasio n of
Timur the kingdom of Jaunpur was established under the rule of Sharqui
dynasty. The Sharquis under Mehmud Shah ( I436 -I457) and Hussain shah
( I458 – I500) frequently planned to capture Delhi during some period but the
plans never materialised. The Lodhis were constantly being provoked by
Sharquis but finally the ruler of Jaunpur was defeated and Jaunpur was annexed
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3 (3) Bengal : - Bengal owed its independence to its remoteness from
Delhi. The ruling dynasty of Bengal was Hussaini dynasty and its first
ruler was Alauddin Hussain (I493 -I519). He annexed parts of Assam and
Orrisa. As he had given shelter to Hussain shah Sharqui of Jaunpur he
came into conflict with Sikander Lodhi of Delhi. He was obliged to make
peace and to agree to respect the eastern Frontier of Bihar (I495). Nusrat
Shah his son was the contemporary of Babur with whom he had to make
peace. As may be gathered from this brief survey Bengal was of small
importance as a factor in politics of Hindusta n. It interfered little with the
neighbours.
(4) Orrisa : - Orrisa was a small Hindu state situated for away from the
scene of national politics of the 16 th century. However, this state served
as a wedge between the Muslim state of Bengal and the Deccan and
exercised a check on the penetration of Muslim influence into the south
from the side of Bengal.
(5) Kashmir : - The kingdom of Kashmir remained independent of
sultanate. The most important ruler of Kashmir was Zain UI Abi din who
followed a policy of religious to leration. He has been called Akbar of
Kashmir. Kashmir suffered from political anarchy towards the close of
15th century. The valley was politically cut off from the rest of the country
and was not affected by political upheavals in Delhi.
(6) Sind : - Sind ret ained some degree of independence, the desert of thar
being a fairly effective barrier to frequent communications with Rajastan
and Delhi. The Arabs who conquered Sind in 8 th century after reverses
they met with appear to have lost interest in enlarging their indian
possessions. During the period of the sultanate Sind was ruled by
obscure tribes. In I520 Shah Beg Arghun the governor of Kandhar having
been driven out of Afghanistan by Babur migrated to Sing, conquered it
and laid the foundation of the Arghun dynesty, his son shah Hussain
consolidated his conquest by annexing Multan. At the time Babur’s
invasion the power was Arghuns was in Sind was at its height.
(7) Gujarat : - The Kingdom of Gujarat originated in I401 when its
Governor Zafar Khan revolted agains t Sultanate and asserted his
independence. He ascended the throne under the title of Muzaffar Shah.
The most remarkable ruler of this Dynasty was Mahmud Begarha (I458 –
I511) whose reign is remembered as a golden age. Not only did he maintain
good peace an d encourage trade. He succeeded in addition in opposing the
formidable Rajput confederacy extending his dominions by the conquest of
Junagarh and Champaner. His successor Muzaffar II (I511 – I526) was however,
less favoured by fortune. In attempting to pre vent Malwa from falling entirely
under Bahadur Hindu domination he became involved in a disastrous war with
Mewar. After his death in I526 his son Bahadur Shah ascended the throne.
(8) Malwa :- (Between the rivers Chambal and Narmada) . The kingdom
of Malwa be came independent under Dilawar Khan Ghori. But In 1435
the Ghori dynasty of Malwa was supplanted by the Khilji dynasty of
Malwa under Mahmud Khan who ascended the throne under the title of munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
4 Mahmud Khilji. The fourth rule of the dynasty was Mahmud II under
whom the kingdom became weak and the government fell under the
control of Medini Rai, a gallant Rajput Chief, when the puppet ruler
Mahmud II invoked the aid of king of Gujarat Medini Rai secured the
support of Rana Sanga of Chittor (Mewar). Rana Sanga defe ated the
Muslim army and took Mahmud captive to Chittor; Rana Sanga however
restored him his kingdom.
It is in the internal politics of Malwa that we see most clearly the working
of that growing Rajput predominance which is the leading factor in the
politi cal situation at the beginning of the 16 th century.
(9) Khandesh : - The kingdom of Khandesh was situated in the valley of
Tapti, its Governor Malik Raja declared his independence of the Delhi
sultanate and ruled his small realm wisely and well until his death in 1399.
From the very beginning the Sultanas of Gujarat were desirous of
establishing their supremacy over Khandesh. Hence the two kingdoms
were at war. Under the last notable monarch Adil Khan Farrukhi ( I457 -
I503) great progress was made in the country . For some time the little
kingdom lingered on as a political entity until at last Akbar’s reign saw its
close.
(10) Rajputana : - Mewar with its capital at Chittor was the most
extensive and powerful state in Rajesthan. Babur’s contemporary on the
throne was the famous Rana Sangram Singh popularly known as Rana
Sangha. He was a man of the great military powers and was a terror to the
Muslim states. Devoted to military activities all through his life his body
bore the signs of eighty wounds in addition to an eye blinded and a leg
crippled. He fought success fully against Gujarat and repulsed an invasion
of Mewar by Ibrahim Lodhi. It has already been noted how he helped
Medini Rai against Mahmud II of Malwa who was taken as captive to
Chittor. The economic resource s and the military forces of Mewar were
thoroughly organized and it was clear that any other power aiming at
supremacy in Hindustan would have to contest it with him.
In the Deccan that is beyond Vindhyas two formidable empires viz. the
Bahamani Kingdom (t he Muslim Kingdom) and the Vijyanagar Kingdom
(The Hindu Kingdom) had been founded during the rule of Mohammed
Bin Tughluq.
(I) The Bahamani Kingdom : - It was founded in 1347 as a result of a
successful revolt against the tyrannical rule of Muhammed Bin Tughluq.
The kingdom had a series of able rulers who engaged themselves in a
perpetual war against the powerful Hindu Kingdom of Vijaynagar which
was situated to the south of it. After the execution of the great minister
Mahmud Gawan in 1481 the Bahamani Kingdom began to disintegrate.
On its ruins sprang up five independent kingdoms namely Berar, Bidar,
Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkunda. In fact the break up of the
Bahamani kingdom greatly weakened the muslim cause in the peninsula
where Vijaynagar empire remained in full power and glory.
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5 (2) The Vijaynagar Kingdom :- This kingdom came into existence
almost simultaneously with Bahamani Kingdom in the south. It was
founded by two brothers Harihar and Bukka Rai in 1336. Beyond the
dividing river of Krishna the Hindu empire of Vijyanagar extended in the
main land of India upto Cuttack in the East, Salsette in the West and
reached the extreme border of Peninsula in the South while its sphere of
influence included many islands and coasts of the Indian ocean. Babur ’s
contemporary on the throne of Vijayanagar kingdom was Krishnadeva
Raya the greatest ruler of produced by Vijayanagar. He organised a
large army and waged several wars against the Muslim powers in the
South. The reign of Krishnadeva Raya which lasted fro m 1509 to 1530
AD is a glorious period in the annals of the empire of Vijayanagar.
Politically. Culturally and economically this kingdom was at its height at
the time of Babur’s invasion. Foreign travellers and diplomats were
dazzled by its wealth prosperi ty and power. Although it did not exert
much influence on the politics of north India it served the useful purpose
of checking the growth of Muslim power in the south by keeping the
attention and energies of the Bahmani sultanate engaged and also
indirectl y prevented its extension in the north. Such was India on the eve
of Babur’s invasion, a country without political unity and without
common suzerain.
1.2.2 Social and Cultural Conditions:
The Indian society in the beginning of 16th century was divided into two
distinct communities – Hindus and Muslims. But socially the country was
passing through a period of transition from conflict to co-operation
between Hindus and Muslim. The bitterness between the Hindus and
Muslims had gradually subsided. Islam had com e to stay in India and
Muslim culture had become a part of the Indian society. The Turks –
Afghan rulers and their followers were shedding their foreign ways and
were becoming Indianized.
The Muslims were the dominant class in the state enjoying considera ble
prestige. They followed the teachings of the Quran and Muslim traditions.
The holy men were consulted on important questions of religions and state
but their advice was not always followed.
The Hindus were divided into castes, the sudras being the lowe st in
society. Slavery was common and there was sale and purchase of slaves.
The life of Hindus was governed by the rules laid down in the smritis
and they led pure and dignified lives, restricted by the convention of their
caste. Sati was prevalent in certain parts of India. Foreign writers like Ibn
Batuta and Nicolo Conti testify to the practice of Sati in the state of Delhi
and Vijayanagar empire in the Deccan. The property right of women were
recognised and they were declared absolute owners of their stridhana
which they could dispose of without any interference from their husbands.
Caste distinctions were rigidly observed.
Although India was politically divided yet culturally she was becoming
one. It was during this period that the saints of the Bhakti movement munotes.in

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6 played a very important part in abridging the gulf between Hinduism and
Islam. The reformers of the Bhakti cult such as Ramanand, Chaitanya,
Namdev and particularly Kabir and Nanak stressed the need of Hindu
Muslim unity. The work of these saints was supplemented by the Sufi
mystics of the day. Close co - operation between Hindus and Muslims had
an interesting side effect; it led to the growth of vernacular languages
like Hindi Punjabi, Bengali, Marathi and Gujarati.
Economic conditions :- There are no two opinions about the material
wealth of India. The Indian economy so far as its agricultural and
material wealth was concerned was quite sound and there was general
prosperity. Agriculture was in flourishing condition. In normal times the
peasants produced so much corn that after satisfying the needs of the
country it was exported to foreign lands. However, on account of frequent
invasions villages were built and destroyed very often. India had brisk
inland and foreign trade. There was a lot of trade with Malaya, China,
Central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran and Tibet. Many kinds of industries like
textile industry sugar, mental and paper industries were found in most
parts of the country. People lived a life a of ease and comfort.
The common man though poor had few needs and did not suffer from
starvation.
Military conditions: - Militarily India was weak at the beginning of 16th
century. The Indian as well as the Muslim rulers no doubt maintained
huge armies but there was not much of discipline and training. T he
military organisation was based upon feudalism. The Indian rulers did not
have direct control over their troops. They depended upon feudal nobility
for the supply of most of the fighting men. Therefore these soldiers were
more loyal to their immediate masters than to the kings.
Moreover the training and the military skill differed from contingent to
contingent. There was no uniformity in their actions on the battle field.
The Indian rulers was also ignorant of the latest invasions in the field of
militar y science, including the use of artillery which had become quite
popular with the countries of Central Asia who had borrowed from the
West. The use of elephants in the advance guard, the lack of reserve force
and the absence of second -in-command in the bat tle fields were some of
other defects in the Indian Military organisation.
The Delhi army under the Lodhis was not a national force. It was
organized on clannish basis. The Lodhis had failed to himself in the
north western frontier which gave Babur a free hand to deal with the
Indian situation as he pleased.
Such were the political, social, economic and military conditions of India
on the eve of Babur’s invasion in 1526.

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7 1.2.3 Check Your Progress
1. Who was the ruler of Kashmir on the eve of Mughal invasion?
2. Comment on the economic conditions of India on the eve of
Mughal invasion.
1.3 BABUR ( 1483 – 1530)
1.3.1 Early career :-
Zahir ud Din Muhammad Babur, the founder of the Mughal rule in India
was born of February 14, 1483 at Farghana. He was a direct desc endent of
Timur who had invaded India in 1398 while through his mother he was
connected with the great Mongol conquerer Chingiz Khan. He inherited
from his father the small principality of Farghana when he was only
eleven years old. His early life was full of difficulties which however
proved to be blessing in disguise by training him adequately to fight in
future life. Samarqand the capital of Timur had great fascination for Babur
but his two attempts to take possession of himself in 1497 and 1503 ended
in failure. He even lost Farghana and had to spend his days as homeless
wanderer for about a year. Taking advantage of political chaos he
occupied it in 1504 AD. With the help of shah of Persia (Ismail Safavi)
Babur once again tried to occupy Samarqand in 1511 but failed. Being un-
successful in all his attempts in the North West he thought of himself to
prove his ambitions in the South East but he had to wait for 12 years
before he could find a proper opportunity to give effect to his scheme.
1.3.2 Conquest of India :-
Babur led his first expedition to India in January 1519. He besieged and
took the Indian town of Bajaur in the Frontier.
In September 1519 Babur again turned towards India, acquired control
over Peshawar and converted it into base camp for onwar d march.
In 1520 Babur undertook his third expedition to India and occupied
Sialkot without much difficulty. During the next two years he engaged
himself in an enterprise against Shah Beg Arghun and in 1522
succeeded in acquiring the fort of Kandhar. Babur now felt secure as the
Fort of Kandahar was in his possession.
At this time opportunity came to Babur when he was invited to India by
discontented party, Daulat Khan Lodhi the most powerful noble of the
Punjab and Alam Khan an uncle of Ibrahim Khan Lodhi sought Babur to
help to fight against Ibrahim Lodhi. India was then distracted by
ambitions, rivalries and dis -affection of nobles and the Delhi sultanate
existed only in name.
Babur, a man of adventurous spirit at once responded to the call which
presente d him an excellent opportunity for giving effect to his long
cherished ambition. This was his fourth expedition in which he occupied
Lahore in 1524 such occupation was not what Daulat Khan desired. He
had hoped that Babur would retire after a raid leaving the field clear for
him and so he turned against him. Alam Khan also joined hands with him.
Babur had to retire to Kabul to collect re-enforcements. munotes.in

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8 1.3.3 Fifth expedition (1525 -1526) :-
Determined to strike once more Babur issued fourth from Kabul in
Nove mber 1525 and soon re -occupied the Punjab. Daulat Khan Lodhi
submitted to Babur. The conquest of Delhi was however, a more difficult
task. Most of the soldiers and officers of Daulat Khan Lodhi joined the
ranks of Babur. Babur got rid of all the self-seeki ng Afghan nobles of
the Punjab. He received messages of support from disaffected and
opportunist nobles of Ibrahim’s court. About this time Rana Sangha of
Mewar is also said to have sent him an invitation for a joint invasion of
Delhi. Babur felt encourage d to receive such message. Ibrahim Lodhi was
also preparing himself to meet the challenge.
1.3.4 The Battle of Panipat :- (21 April,1526) :-
Babur marched upon Delhi via Sirhind and reached Panipat a village
near Delhi Where the fate of India has been thrice decided. He took up a
position which was strategically highly advantageous.
Sultan Ibrahim also reached Panipat at the head of a large army. Babur had
an army of 12000 men while the forces of Ibrahim were immensely
superior in number one lakh according to Babur’s estimate.
The two armies faced each other for eight days but neither side took the
offensive. At last Babur’s patience was tired out and he resolved on
prompt action. During the night of the 20 th April Babur sent out 4
to 5 thousand of his men to night attack on the Afghan camp which
failed in its object but provoked Ibrahim Lodhi.
He ordered his army to advance for an attack. On approaching close to
Babur’s lines he found the enemy entrenched, showing no sign of
movement. He suddenly grew nervo us and ordered his army to halt; this
created confusion in his ranks. Babur took advantage of the confusion
and took up the offensive. The battle was thus started on April 21st
1526. Ibrahim’s soldiers fought valiantly but stood no chance of success
in the face of Babur’s artillery and superior war tactics. Within a few
hours about 15 to 16 thousand soldiers lay dead along with their leader
Ibrahim Lodhi.
The results : - The first battle of Panipat occupies a place of great
importance in the history of medie val India. The military power of the
Lodhis was completely shattered. It led to the foundation of the Mughal
empire in India. As far as Babur was concerned Panipat marks the end of
the second stage of his project of the conquest of Northern India.
Though after his victory he became king of Delhi and Agra yet his real
work was to begin after Panipat. He had to encounter a few formidable
enemies before he could become king of Hindustan but Panipat gave him
a valid claim to its sovereignty.

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9 1.3.5 Causes of Babur’s success: -
Causes of Babur’s success in the battle are not far to seek. Babur was a
seasoned General whereas Ibrahim was a head strong, inexperienced
youth. As Babur remarks he was ‘an inexperienced man, careless in his
movements, who marched without order, halted or retired without
method and engaged without foresight.’
Babur was the master of a highly evolved system of warfare which was
the result of a scientific synthesis of the tactics of the several Central
Asian people. While Ibrahim fought acco rding to the old system then in
existence in the country.
Babur had a pack of artillery consisting of big guns and small muskets
while Ibrahim’s soldiers were absolutely innocent of its use.
Ibrahim did not get the backing of his people which weakened his power.
Moreover his army was organised on clannish basis. The troops lacked
the qualities of trained and skilful soldiers. Babur was right when he
recorded in his diary that the Indian soldiers knew how to die and not how
to fight. On the other hand Babur’ s army was well trained and disciplined
and shared the ambition of conquering rich Hindustan.
1.3.6 Post Panipat Problems :-
The victory at Panipat was quickly followed by Babur’s occupation
of Delhi and Agra. On 27th April 1526 Kutba was read in the name of
Babur in Delhi and alms were distributed to the poor and the needy.
Offerings were sent to the holy places in Mecca, Medina and Samarqand.
But Babur’s real task began after Panipat. Taking advantage of the
confusion that followed Ibrahim’s death many Afghan chiefs established
them selves independent. Moreover as Babur proceeded towards Agra the
people in the country side fled in fear and he could get provisions for his
men and fodder for his animals with great difficulty. The soldiers and
peasantry ran away in fear. Babur’s main task was to restore confidence
among the people. Some of his own followers began to desert him on
account of the hot climate of country. Babur showed his usual patience
and strength of character and made it clear to them that he was
determined to stay in India. With the result that most of them decided to
sink of swim with their leader. The determination of Babur to stay In India
was bound to bring him into conflict with the greatest Rajput ruler Rana
Sangha of Mewar.
1.3.7 Conflic t with the Rajputs :- The Battle of Kanwah (March
16, 1527) :-
The battle of Panipat had no doubt broken the back bone of the Afghan
power in India yet a large number of the Turk Afghan nobles were still at
large. Bihar had become the centre of their power. But nearer the capital
Babur had to face another threat to his newly conquered kingdom. This
threat was posed by the Rajputs under their gallant leader Rana Sangha.
He had once defeated the forces of Ibrahim Lodhi and was desirous of
establishin g Hindu rule in the country. On the eye of the battle of Panipat munotes.in

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10 he had sent greetings to Babur but Babur’s decision to settle down in
India dashed his hopes to ground and he began to prepare himself for a
contest with the Mughals.
Rana Sangha marched to B ayana. He was joined by some Muslim
supporters of the Lodhi dynasty. But all the Afghan chiefs could not
combine under the Rajputs and this made Babur’s task easy. The course of
history might have taken a different turn if he had to encounter the united
strength of the Hindus and the Muslims in India. Rana Sangha was
certainly a more formidable enemy than Ibrahim Lodhi. Babur as
Lanepoole points out “was now to meet warriors of a higher type than any
he had encountered. The Rajputs energetic, Chivalrous, fo nd of battle and
bloodshed, animated by strong national spirit were ready to meet face to
face boldest veterans of the camp and were at all times prepared to lay
down their lives for their honour ,”
Babur advanced to Sikri. The advance guard of Babur was defeated by the
Rajputs and Babur’s small army was struck with terror. But Babur was
indomitable and he at once infused fresh courage and enthusiasm into the
hearts of his soldiers. He broke his drinking cups, poured out all the
liquor that he had with him on the ground and promised to give up wine
for the rest of his life. He made a heroic appeal to them to fight together
with faith in victory and god. This had its desired effect. All the
officers swore by the Holy Quran to stand firm in this contest. The
decisive battle was fought at Kanwah a village near Agra on 16 th
March, 1527. Once again by the use of similar tactics as at Panipat Babur
won a decisive victory over the Rajputs. The Rana escaped but died
broken hearted after about two years.
1.3.8 Import ance of the Battle of Kanwah :-
This battle supplemented Babur’s work at Panipat and it was certainly
more decisive in its results. The defeat of the Rajputs deprived them of the
opportunity to regain political ascendancy in the country for ever and
facili tated Babur’s task in India and made possible the foundation of a new
foreign rule. Rushbrook William is right when he says that before the
battle Kanwah “the occupation of Hindustan might have looked upon as
mere episode in Babur’s career of adventure; bu t from henceforth it
becomes the keynote of his activities for the remainder of his life. His days
of wandering in search of fortune are now passed away; the fortune is his
and he has but to show himself worthy of it. And it is also significant of
Babur’s grasp of vital issues that from henceforth the centre of gravity of
his power is shifted from Kabul to Hindustan.”
Thus within a year Babur had struck two decisive blows which shattered
the powers of two great organised forces. The battle of Panipat had
utterly ruined the Afghan power in India, the battle of Kanawah crushed
the great Rajputs.
Medini Rai the Rajput chief of Chanderi and a close associate of Rana
Sangha had escaped from Kanwah. He took shelter in the fort of Chanderi
with a contingent of abou t 5 thousand Rajputs. Babur besieged the fort
and conquered it in January 1528. munotes.in

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11 1.3.9 The Battle Of Gogra, May 1529 :-
We have already noted that Babur had hurried to meet the Rajputs and
thus had left the task of thorough subjugation of the Afghans incomp lete.
Now he was free to settle his scores with them, the Afghans of Bihar
were led by Mahmud Lodhi, the younger brother of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi,
Babur met the Afghans in the battle of Gogra (near Patna) in May 1529
and won an easy victory.
Thus in these b attles Babur had reduced Norther India to submission and
became the ruler of a territory extending from Oxus to the Gogra and from
Himalayas to Gwalior.
But he was not destined to enjoy his hard -won empire for long. The strain
of continuous warfare, admini strative liabilities and excessive drinking till
the battle of Kanwah had bad effect on his health. He passed away on
26 th December,1530 at the age of 47.
His body was taken to Kabul and buried in one of his favorite gardens.
1.3.10 Estimate of Babur :-
Babur is one of the most interesting figures in the whole range of
medieval history. V. A. Smith called him “the most brilliant Asiatic prince
of his age and worthy of a high place among the sovereigns of any age or
country ................................ ................................ ...... ”
All his life he was struggling for glory and ultimately got the same. He
possessed an indomitable will. As Lanepoole observes “He is a link
between Central Asia and India, Between predatory hordes and imperial
Government between Timur and Akbar.” He was a born leader of men
and he enjoy ed love and confidence of his soldiers. He maintained strong
discipline in his ranks.
Babur was a great empire builder as well. He had won an extensive empire
by his own military prowess. His Indian possessions extended from the
Himalayas in the North to Gwalior in the south and from Khyber pass in
the North west to frontiers of Bengal in the East.
During the four years that Babur spent in India he was busy only in
conquest which alone are not sufficient to establish an empire.
Administrative measures are n ecessary for consolidation of empire. Babur
had hardly any time to enact new laws. Each kingdom, province, district
and village was governed by its peculiar customs. There was no regular
court of low for administration of justice. He accepted the existing
decaded system and divided the country into fiefs which he distributed
among the jagir-dars dependent upon himself. He could not build a sound
financial system. Rushbrook William has rightly remarked Babur “
bequeathed to his son a monarchy which in times of peace was weak,
structure less and invertebrate.”
Babur himself was conscious of this shortcoming and the recorded in his
Memoirs that he had no time to send proper persons to occupy and munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
12 protect the different parganas and stations. Therefore it is as co nqueror and
not as an administrator that Babur may be considered to have laid the
foundation of the Mughal empire in India. Lane Poole opines that Babur
was only “a soldier of fortune and no architect of empire he yet laid the
first stone of the splendid fabric which his grand son Akbar completed.”
Babur was also a great scholar. He could write with ease both in Persian
and Turki and like all cultured men of east practiced calligraphy. He has
immortalized himself in his celebrated Memoirs. His Memoirs are f irst
rate authority on his own career and history of his times. He would have
been remembered in the world of letters and biography even if he had
failed to conquer Hindustan.” Babur is “ as Lanepool observes,” perhaps
the most captivating personality in oriental history and the fact that he
is able to impart this charm to his own Memoirs is not the least of his
titles to fame……….his place in biography and in literature is determined
rather by his daring adventures and persevering efforts in his earliest days
and by the delightful Memoirs in which he has related them. In his
Memoirs he has made a delightful record of his activity which is full of
lifelike description of the countries he visited, their scenery, climate,
conditions of people and accounts of ev en birds, animals, followers and
fruits, Babur has been rightly called the prince of autobiographers. His
Memoirs which occupy a high place in the history of World’s literature
were translated into Persia during the reign of Akbar in 1590. It had been
translated into several European languages particularly French and
English.
1.3.11 Check Your Progress
1. Where did Babur come from in India?
2. What is the name of Babur’s autobiography?
1.4 HUMAYUN (1530 – 1556)
1.4.1 Early Life and Accession: -
Nasiruddin Mohammad Humayun was the eldest son of Babur and he had
three brothers – Kamran, Askari and Hindal. Humayun was born in Kabul
in 1508. His father made best arrangements for his education and training
in state -craft. He learnt Turki, Arabic and Persian. As a boy he was
associated by his father with civil and military administration. At the age
of 20 he was appointed the governor of Badakhshan. Humayun took part
in his father’s campaigns and battles; both in the battle of Panipat and
Kanwah he was among the chief com manders of the invading army. After
the battle of Kanwah he was sent back to take charge of Badakhshan but
he returned to India in 1529 without the permission of his father. Before
his death in December 1530 Babur nominated Humayun as his successor.
But so me of the nobles of Babur did not hold a good opinion of
Humayun because of his pleasure seeking and ease loving habits specially
his addiction to opium. Therefore a conspiracy was hatched against
Humayun. There was a plan to place Mahadi Khwaja who was Ba bur’s
brother -in-law on the throne, but the plan did not materialise. Humayun munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion and
Decline of t he Mughal Rule - I
13 thus ascended the throne at Agra on December 30, 1530 four days after the
death of Babur.
1.4.2 Humayun’s difficulties: -
The throne inherited by Humayun was not a bed of roses. Along with the
empire he inherited many difficulties which were further complicated by
the weaknesses in his own character. We may divide these difficulties
into three headings: -
1. Internal Difficulties: - Among the Muslims the law of primogeniture
was not fol lowed. Therefore after the death of the king there followed a
war of succession. Every prince asserted his claim to the throne. The
three brothers of Humayun also desired the throne.
Babur had not left behind him a well organised and consolidated empire.
During his four years in India he had been busy in conquests only. He
had neither time nor inclination to establish a new system of
administration. Also was empty.
The Mughal army also was not a national one. It was a mixed body of
adventures, viz Moguls, P ersians, Afghans, Indians, Turks and Uzbegs.
Such a army was not dependable.
Humayun’s court also was full of nobles who had plans for the
possession of the throne.
More dangerous than the nobles were the princes of the royal blood. His
three brothers cove ted the throne and added to the difficulties of
Humayun. Besides them Humayun’s cousin brothers Muhammed Zaman
Mirza and Muhamad Sultan Mirza also considered their claim to the
throne as good as those of the sons of Babur.
2. External Difficulties : - The newl y founded Mughal state in India was
threatened by numerous external enemies. The Afghans had been defeated
in the battle of Panipat and in the battle of Gogra but they were not
completely crushed. They refused to submit to the Mughal domination and
they proclaimed Mahmud Khan Lodhi, Brother of Ibrahim Lodhi as their
king.
Sher Khan Sur ( later known as Sher Shah Suri ) was the most ambitious
of the whole Afghan party. He had already entered upon a military career
and was making an effort to organise the Afghans into a nation. He was
soon to drive Humayun into exile and occupy the throne.
The Mughal authority was also threatened by the growing power of
Gujarat under Bahadur Shah. He was a young and ambitious prince of an
extremely rich kingdom. As he had plen ty of resources at his command he
aimed at the overlordship of India.
3. Personal Difficulties :- Thus when Humayun ascended the throne he
was faced with a number of internal and external enemies. The need of
the hour was a ruler possessed of military genius, political wisdom and munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
14 diplomatic skill. Unfortunately Humayun lacked all these qualities. He
wasted time and energy in pleasures. He lacked foresight and
determination. He could not take quick decisions. He was incapable
of sustained efforts and often left things half done. He failed to command
respect and confidence of his subjects and soldiers. As Lanepoole
remarks, “he was incapable of sustained effort and after a moment of triumph
would bury himself in his harem and dream away the precious hours in the
opium eater’s paradise whilst his enemies were thundering at the gate his name
means fortunate and never was an unlucky sovereign more miscalled. “ thus
Humayun proved to be his own worst enemy.
1.4.3 Wars of Humayun (1530 -1540) :-
From the beginning of his reign Humayun committed a series of mistakes
one after another which ultimate cost him his throne and forced him
into exile in 1540.
Soon after his accession to the throne he divided his empire among his
brothers. Kamran was given the governorship of Kabu l and Kandahar and
in addition was permitted to take the possession of the Punjab and North
Western frontier of India. This was a mistake on his part because this
created a barrier between him and the lands beyond the Afghan hills and
he could not draw tro ops from central Asia. Askari was given Sambhal
while Hindal was given Alwar. He also increased the jagir of every one
of his armies. Babur had set a bad precedent by allocating vast tracts of
land to his nobles as personal estates in return for the servic es rendered
by them to the throne. Humayun failed to appreciate the fatal
consequences of the policy of large scale distribution of territory among
military officials. This later on caused him endless worry.
Humayun instead of consolidating his position st arted with a policy of
aggressive warfare.
1. Expedition to Kalinjar (1531): - Within six months of his accession
Humayun undertook an expedition against Kalinjar whose Hindu raja was
suspected to be in sympathy with the Afghans. After a siege of about six
months the raja submitted. Humayun made peace with him and accepted
huge indemnity from him. The expedition exposed the weakness of the
Mughal army as the raja could not be beaten.
2. First siege of Chunar (1532): - Meanwhile the Afghans of Bihar under
Mahmud Lod hi were Marching on the Mughal province of Jaunpur.
Humayun met the Afghan forces and defeated them in the battle of Daurah
(or Dadrah) in August 1532. Then he besieged the fort of Chunar which
was held by the Afghan chief Sher Khan. The siege lasted for f our months
and like Kalinjar this fort also could not be conquered by the Mughal
army. Humayun abandoned the siege and accepted submission of Sher
Khan. He lost a splendid opportunity of crushing the Afghan power for
which he had to pay heavily later on.
After this he wasted a year and a half in enjoyment and merry making at
Agra. He wasted time and money on building a big citadel at Delhi which
he named Din Panah. munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion and
Decline of t he Mughal Rule - I
15 3. Wars with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat (1535 -1536): - By now Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat had consolidat ed his position. He had already conquered
Malwa (1531) and Raisen (1532) and had defeated the Sisodia chief of
Chittor (1533). He had openly given shelter and help to many Afghan
refuges and enemies of Humayun. Humayun therefore decided to
proceed against Bahadur Shah (end of 1534) who was at that time
conducting a siege of Chittor. Rani Karnavati of Mewar appealed to
Humayun for help against Bahadur Shah by sending him rakhi indicating
thereby that she considered him to be brother and it was now his duty to
save his sister. Humayun accepted the rakhi and even proceeded towards
Chittor, but later on changed his mind. Being more superstitious than
political he thought it sinful to attack Bahadur Shah while he was fighting
against non-muslims (Rajputs). Acco rding to Muslim tradition a Muslim
should refrain from an attack on a brother in faith engaged in a war with
a non -muslim. Humayun thus lost the splendid opportunity of winning
over the friendship of the Rajputs and also of crushing his enemy Bahadur
Shah.
He awaited till Chittor fell to Bahadur Shah (March, 1535). After its fall
Humayun started his operations against Bahadur shah who was besieged
in his camp. His supplies ran short and he was faced with starvation. He
fled and took shelter in, the fort of Mandu, Humayun besieged fort of
Mandu and captured it in April, 1535. Humayun chased him from Mandu
to Champaner and Ahmedabad and thence to combat till be was compelled
to seek refuge in the island of Diu (August 1535). The capture of Mandu
and Champaner were great achievements on the part of Humayun. He
appointed Askari as the governor of the newly conquered territories. Askari
failed to restore law and order. He was too weak to retain Gujarat and
internal dissensions broke out among the Mughals which enabled Bahadur
Shah to recover his position. The local Gujarati Chiefs who were dis-
satisfied with Mughal rule helped bahadur shah. The result was that
Gujarat was completely lost in 1536. Humayun found that it was
impossible to retain Malwa as well so he quit Mandu in May 1536. Thus
the entire province of Malwa was also lost “One year had seen the rapid
conquest of the two great provinces; the next saw them quickly lost,”
Humayun therefore failed to establish his authority in the west. Now he
turned his att ention to meet the organised strength of the Afghans under
Sher Khan.
4. Contest with Sher Khan (1537 -1540) : - While Humayun was busy
with Bahadur shah of Gujarat Sher Khan had strengthened his position
in Bihar and Bengal. He had already made himself the master of Bihar and had
twice defeated the King of Bengal in 1534 and 1537. The repeated successes of
the Afghan hero convinced Humayun who had been then spending his days
at Agra without any activity after his return from Mandu in August 1536, of the
Afghan danger in the east. He therefore decided to march against Sher Khan in
1537. He besieged the fort of Chunar for the second time in October 1537. A
strong garrison left by Sher Khan at Chunar heroically defended the fort for six
months though it was ultimat ely captured by Humayun in March, 1538. During
this period Sher Khan was busy in reducing Gaur (Bengal). Sher Khan also
captured the fortress of Rohtas (Bihar) and sent his family and wealth there. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
16 Humayun now turned his attention towards Bengal. For som e time he was
undecided for the move. Ultimately, he made up his mind to conquer Bengal.
The road to Gaur was locked by Jalal Khan, son of Sher Khan. There was
fighting and Jalal Khan retired. Humayun entered Gaur in 1538 and again
wasted about eight month s in merry making. Sher khan during this period tried to
compensate his loss of Bengal by occupying the Mughal possessions in Bihar,
Jaunpur and plundering the country as far west as Kanauj and cut off the
communication between Agra and Bengal. When Humayu n realized the
dangerous position in which he was placed he decided to return to Agra
immediately. Sher khan blocked the road to Agra and only a decisive victory
could help Humayun to reach Agra.
5. Battle of Chausa (June 26,1539) : - When Sher Shah heard of
Humayun’s retreat he collected his troops at Rohtas and decided to give
him battle. Humayun was advised by his generals to move along the
northern bank of river Ganges upto Jaunpur and then cross over to the
other side and then contact Sher Khan but Humayun ’s pride came in the
way and he transferred his entire army to the southern bank of Ganges in
order to put pressure on Sher Khan, and to make use of a better route, the
old grand trunk road to Agra. The road passed through a low lying area
which used to be flooded during the rainy season. Humayun learnt about
Sher Khan’s approach when he was near Chausa. The two armies faced
each other for about three months and none of them started the fighting.
The rainy season was approaching. When the rains started the Mughal
camp was flooded. Sher Khan was waiting for the opportunity to strike.
On 26 th june,1539 the battle of Chausa was fought. Thousands of Mughal
soldiers died and many of them drowned in the flood waters of the
Ganges. Humayun himself had a narrow esca pe. His life was saved by a
water carrier (Nizam) who offered him his mashak (the inflated skin) for
swimming across the river. It is said that on reaching Agra Humayun
rewarded the water carrier with the grant of kingship for half a day and
permitted him to sit on the throne and distributed rich presents to his
friends and relatives according to his desire.
6. The Battle of Kanuaj or Bilgram (17 May,1540): - By the victory at
Chausa Sher Khan’s ambition was immensely widened. The Afghan
nobles pressed Sher Kha n to assume full sovereignty. He assumed the title
of Sher Shah and prepared to March upon Delhi and Agra. The battle of
Chausa convinced Humayun of Sher Khan’s formidable power.
Humayun on reaching Agra in spite of his best efforts failed to secure the
co-operation of his brothers. Somehow Humayun managed to raise an
army to fight against Sher Khan. He could not delay his march
much longer because Sher Khan was steadily advancing towards the
capital. Humayun had to move towards Kanauj with his army in orde r to
check the advance of his adversary. He set up his military camp at Bhojpur
near Kanuaj in April 1540 while Sher Shah brought his forces to halt on
the southern bank of the Ganges. Humayun again committed the mistake
of ordering his army to cross over to the southern bank of the river without
taking into consideration the approaching monsoon. The two forces faced
each other for over a month. During this period Humayun’s army swelled
up to about two lacs although most of his men were poorly equipped and
were not trained. On May 15, 1540 there was a very heavy shower of munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion and
Decline of t he Mughal Rule - I
17 rain and the Mughal camp was flooded. As the Mughals were preparing
to shift to a higher place Sher Shah ordered his troops to launch the attack.
Thus on 17 May,1540 the battle of Kanunj wa s fought. The Mughal army
was severely defeated by the Afghans. Most of the Mughal soldiers fled
for their lives without fighting while a large number of them drowned in
the Ganges. Sher Shah’s victory was complete.
1.4.4 Humayun in Exile (1540 -1555) :-
After his defeat in the battle of Kanuaj, Humayun returned back to Agra
but he was chased by Sher Shah. Humayun fled to Lahore. Sher Shah
occupied Delhi and Agra. Even in this crisis his brothers were not
prepared to stand by him. Kamran sought Sher Shah’s g oodwill with a
view to retaining possession of the Punjab. Humayun had therefore to run
away as a fugitive to Sind. Kamran made futile attempt to come to an
understanding with Sher Shah as an independent ruler of Kabul and the
Punjab. Kamran fled to Kabul on the approach of the Afghan armies.
Thus all the Mughal territories in India upto Khyber Pass Fell into the
hands of Sher Shah. Askari also escaped to Afghanistan and was
appointed the Governor of Kandahar by Kamran. Hindal accompanied
Humayun to Sind.
In Sind as well fortune went against Humayun because of the hostility of
the ruler of Sind Shah Hussain and the scarcity of provisions among his
followers. It was during his wanderings in the deserts of Sind that he
married Hamida Banu Begum, a young girl of 14, the daughter of
Hindal’s spritual preceptor Mir Baba Dost alias Mir Ali Akbar Jami
(1541). About this time Humayun decided to accept the invitation from
Maldeva of Marwar who had promised him assistance about a year back
and started for Jodhpur. But in the changed political situation Rajput
prince was not prepared to offend Sher Shah by keeping the old promise
with Humayun. So Humayun retraced his steps back to Sind. It was
here in Sind that in 1542 Akbar was born at Amarkot in the house of
Hindu Chie f Rana Virsala. Unable to get any help from any quarter
Humayun decided to leave India for Good. He reached Persia. The
young ruler of Persia Shah Tahmasp offered to help Humayun on three
conditions (1) he should accept the Shia faith (ii) he should make Shiasm
the state religion in India and (iii)he should surrender Kandahar to the
Persians in case of success. Humayun accepted the conditions.
At this time Kamran was in possession of Kabul, Askari of Kandhar while
Hindal of Ghazni as by then he had changed over to the side of Kamran.
With the help of Shah of Persia Humayun occupied Kabul and Kandahar in
1545. Kandahar was given to the Persian but again re -occupied by
Humayun after the death of the Persian Shah. This later on led to
hostilities between the Mu ghals and the Persians. The occupation of Kabul
and Kandahar gave Humayun a footing in Afghanistan. However, his
brothers continued to give him trouble until they were finally liquidated.
Askari was taken prisoner and exiled to Mecca in 1551. Hindal was ki lled
in a night attack by an Afghan while Kamran was taken a prisoner,
blinded and sent to Mecca in 1553.
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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
18 1.4.5 Restoration of Humayun and Death (1555 –1556): -
Having got rid of his brother in the north west, Humayun marched on to
re-conquer Hindustan, as opportunity was favorable for him to attack India
and recover his lost kingdom.
Sher Shah after his victory in the battle of Kanuaj (1540) had founded the
Sur dynasty of which he himself was a wise and efficient ruler.
Unfortunately his reign was very shor t. He died in 1545. After his death,
his son Islam Shah ruled up to 1553. After Islam Shahs death the Afghan
empire started decaying. The country was thrown into confusion by the
civil war between the rival claimants to the throne. Humayun took
advantage o f the situation and with the help of his able lieutenant Bairam
Khan he occupied Lahore in February 1555. After defeating Sikander Sur
the rebel governor of the Punjab who had been proclaimed emperor by the
Afghans, in a battle near Sirhind he occupied Del hi and Agra In july 1555.
He became the emperor of India once again after an interval of 15 years.
Humayun was not destined to rule over his Indian dominion for long after
his restoration. On January 24, 1556 he met with an accidental fall while
descending down the stairs of his library at Delhi and died two days
later. Thus as Lanepoole writes,” if there was a possibility of falling
Humayun was not to miss it. He tumbled through life and tumbled out of
it.”
1.4.6 Estimate of Humayun :-
It is admitted by on e and all that Humayun was thorough gentlemen. He
was endowed with virtues of kindness and generosity. He forgave his
brothers again and again for which he had to pay heavily later in his life.
He was a true Muslim but not a fanatic. His chief queen Hamida Banu
Begum was a Shia so also his most faithful servant Bairam Khan. He did
not follow any systematic policy of repression of Hinduism.
Undoubtedly he was a good fighter. He was courageous in battle and often
risked his life on the field. But he was not a good general. Energetic
efforts were punctuated by waste of time, energy and money through his
addiction to pleasures. This is illustrated in his dealings with Bahadur
Shah and Sher Khan. He lacked the quality of concentration. He always
worked by fits an d starts, before anything was completely done his mind
passed on to something else leaving the first one half complete. He
possessed one track mind therefore he failed to provide for such situations
as might arise at the failure of his original plan. He co uld not adjust
himself to changed circumstances. He allowed himself to be tempted into
attempting at a stretch what should have been done step by step. His
political calculations were defective.
As a diplomat he was no match to Babur or Sher Shah. He lacke d the
ability to weave into a compact fabric, his rapid territorial acquisitions
which he made in a fit of absentmindedness. He failed to retain his grip
over them and their loss had disastrous reactions on his fortune and
empire. munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion and
Decline of t he Mughal Rule - I
19 He was not a great admini strator. It was a folly on his part not to have
done anything for the people of his empire. Soon after ascending the
throne in 1530 he started with a policy of aggressive warfare. He should
have consolidated his position and introduce administrative reform s
instead of fighting un-necessary wars. During ten years i. e. 1530 to 1540
he did nothing for the welfare of his people. He had no administrative
aptitude.
However, the most prominent trait of his character was perseverance and
this proved an inestimable blessing to him throughout his career. Without
this it would have been impossible for him to re conquer the kingdom of
Hindustan just before his death. But for his restoration and the subsequent
achievements of his brilliant son and successor Akbar the great Humayun
would have gone down in Indian history as a non-entity.
1.4.7 Check Your Progress
1. What were the personal difficulties of Humayun?
2. Make an estimate of Humayun.
1.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied about Babur and Humayun. The invasion of
Timur and the sack of Delhi in 1398 hastened the end of the decadent
Delhi sultanate. On its ashes grew up numerous independent kingdoms.
These were usually in perpetual warfare with each other. There was no
paramount power in the country and India was not in a position to present
a united front to any invader. According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad India was “
a congeries of states at the beginning of the sixteenth century and likely to
be the easy prey of an invader who had the strength and will to attempt her
conq uest.” Babur laid the foundation of Mughal Rule but it was
squandered by Humayun.
1.6 QUESTIONS
1. Describe the political conditions of India on the eve of Babur’s
invasion (1526)
2. Account for the success of Babur in India.
3. Form an estimate of Babur as a king, a general and scholar.
4. What were the difficulties faced by Humayun when he ascended the
throne? How did he tackle them ?
5. Give an account of the conflict between Humayun and Sher Shah.
6. Write notes on:-
a) Significance of the first Battle of Panipat.
b) Restorati on of Humayun. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
20 1.7 REFERENCES
1. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.

2. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses Medieval Indian Ideas and institutions, Pune,
1981.

3. Chitins K. N. - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.

4. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : From
the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education.

5. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.

6. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 1965.

7. Frazes R. W., 'Literary History of India, London 1898.

8. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.

9. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of India ,
Delhi, 1984



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21 2
FOUNDATION, EXPANSION AND
DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL RULE - II
(a) India on the eve of Mughal Rule, Invasion of Babur
(b) Humayun, Shershah and Akbar
(c) Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sher Shah Suri and His Administration
2.3 Summary
2.4 Questions
2.5 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the conquests of Sher Shah Suri.
 To analyse the administration of Sher Shah Suri.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan came to power of Delhi after defeating
Humayun and later driving him out of India in Persia. He was one of the
important benevolent rulers of Post –Sultanate and Pre-Akbar era. He was
one of the ideal rulers to be followed by Akbar in his administration.
2.2 SHER SHAH SURI (I540 –I545) AND HIS
ADMINISTRATION
2.2.1 Rise of Sher Shah :-
The original name of Sher Khan was Farid . His father Hasan was an
Afghan of the Sur clan. He was Jagirdar of the parganas of Sasaram,
Hajipur Tanda and Khwaspur In his boyhood Farid left his father’s Home
in Sasaram a nd went to Jaunpur which was then an important Centre of
Islamic learning. There he studied Arabic and Persian and was capable of
reproducing from memory the Gulistan, Bustan and Sikardar -namah.
Jamal Khan his father’s patron was impressed by this promisin g youth and
brought about a reconciliation between the father and the son. On his
advice Farid was appointed by Hasan Manger of his Jagir and this he did
successfully for full twenty -one years. The training received by him
during this period stood him in good stead. He acquired so much munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
22 knowledge of land and its management that he was able later on to utilise
all this as emperor of India.
Farid’s success as the manager of his father’s estate and his popularity
among peasants and Afghan soldiers aroused jealo usy. On the death of his
father Farid took possession of his paternal jagir on the strength of the
Royal farman which he had been able to procure at Agra and came back to
Sasaram in I520 to I52I as the full-fledged master of the State. Farid then
joined th e service of Bahar Khan Lohani (who was Titled as Muhammad
Shah), the independent ruler of Bihar. From Him Farid received the title
of Sher khan on having killed a tiger single handed. He rapidly rose to the
position of deputy governor of the province and also appointed the tutor of
Jalal Khan the Minor son of Bahar Khan.
The rapid rise of Sher Khan excited the jealousy of Lohani Afghans. They
succeeded in poisoning his master’s mind against him and he was once
more deprived of his father’s jagir. Disgusted With the bad conduct of his
Afghan community Sher Khan took shelter With Babur for some time
from April, I527 to June I528.He found it Difficult to pull on in the
Mughal service and returned back to Bihar to become deputy governor
and guardian of his form er pupil Jalal khan. Muhammad Shah expired
in I528 and the minor king remains as the nominal Ruler of Bihar while
Sher Khan become the virtual head of its government. He made best use
of this opportunity to consolidate his position and overhauled the civil and
military setup. He strengthened his position by acquiring the fortress of
Chunar through marriage with The widow of its former governor Taj
Khan and got hold of enormous wealth as well .By I530 Sher Khan’s
position in Bihar appeared to be un-assailabl e. Humayun besieged Chunar
in 1531 but Sher Khan saved his position by a timely submission to the
Mughal invader.
Humayun’s failure to capture the fort of Chunar and his subsequent
involvement in hostilities with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat Left Sher Khan
sufficient time to strengthen his position. But he had enemies in Bihar The
Lohanis were not prepared to tolerate Mahmud Shah the king of Bengal
(September I533) who also was eager to check the rise of Sher Khan.
Sher Khan inflicted a defeat on the Allied troops of the Bengal sultan and
the Lohanis at Surajgarh in I534. This battle proved a turning point in the
career of Sher Khan and made him the un -disputed ruler of Bihar in fact as
well as in name.
2.2.2 Conflict with Humayun: -
After the victory at Surajgarh Sher Khan invaded Bengal twice (I535 to
I537) threatened its capital Gaur and secured a large indemnity as also a
wide territory. These fresh acquisitions considerably enhanced his power
and prestige and alarmed Humayun . Mahmud Shah appeared to
Humayun for help who Responded to his call in July I537 but wasted
much of his valuable time In the second siege of Chunar form Ocrober
I537 to March I538. In the meantime the whole of Bengal lay at the feet of
Sher Khan as Mahmud Shah died of his wounds as a fugiti ve in the munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion and
Decline of t he Mughal Rule - II
23 imperial camp of Humayun . Humayun then marched towards Gaur in
order check Sher Khan. The subsequent events of the conflict which took
place Between Humayun and Sher Khan had been narrated in the previous
Lesson. Sher Khan successfully fought th e battle of Chausa against
Humayun in I539 and after the battle of Kanuj in I540 which Resulted in
the expulsion of Humayun from India and the close of the Struggle. Sher
Shah gave hot chase to Humayun and occupied Agra and Delhi. His
forces entered Lahore in November I540 and the whole of North Western
India upto the Khyber pass including Sind and Multan were brought under
the control by the end of I54I.
2.2.3 Sher Shah as Emperor of India :-
Sher Shah ascended the throne at the ripe age of 68 and could enjoy the
fruits of his Labours for a period of five years only (I 540 to I545) . He
was a man of political wisdom, maturity and experience and all these
Qualities are reflected in his conquests and the administrative Reforms
that he introduced.
2.2.4 Conques ts of Sher Shah
(1) Conquest of Ghakkar Country: -Sher Shah’s forces had successfully
driven away Humayun from Punjab but the threat of recurring invasions
continued to exist. Sher Shah in order to permanently safeguard the
frontiers himself proceeded to subdue the warlike Hill tribes of the
Ghakkar country. But he received the news of the rebellions of his
governor of Bengal so he left the work of subjugation of Ghakkars and
hastened towards Bengal to put down the rebellion,
(2) Bengal: - The governor of Bengal Khizr Khan had declared himself
independent. Sher Shah gave him a crushing defeat and threw him into
prison. The administration of the province was remodelled so as to avert
the danger of rebellion.
(3) Malwa: - Sher Shah attacked Malwa in I542 then ruled by Malu
Khan styled as Sultan Kadir Shah who submitted to Sher Shah and
himself Fled to Gujarat. After restoring civil administration in Malwa Sher
Shah Returned to Agra and on the way received submission from native
ruler of Ranthambhor as well.
(4) Raisin : - Having subjugated Malwa Sher Shah marched against Puran
Mal of Raisin in central India in I543. Puran Mal had increased his
power by capture of Chanderi and offended Muslim sentiment by
keeping muslim women as salves in his harem. Sher Shah personally laid
stage to Raisin. The Rajputs fought gallantly but when defeat stared them
in the Face they agreed to vacate the fort on the promise made by Sher
Shah that There lives and property would be safe guarded. After their
surrender the Promise was broken and the afghan s fell furiously on the
Rajputs when They were moving out of the fort. To save their wives and
children from Disgrace the Rajputs killed them with their own hands and
themselves died Fighting bravely against their foe in I543. Sher Shah’s
conduct against Puran Mal is the deepest blot on his memory. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
24 (5) Rajputana: - There remained only one more formidable enemy of
Sher Shah to be subdued. He was Maldev the Rajput ruler of Marwar. He
Was a capable general and an energetic ruler. He had annexed important
Places like Ajmer, Marta, Tonk, Nagor and Jalor. Sher Shah led and
expedition against Maldev in I543. His army consisted of about 80,000
cavalry besides elephants and artillery. He found the Rajputs equally well
equipped. Condequently he contrived a Stratagem. He got forged letters
dropped in Maldev’s camp which indicated A betrayal of Maldev’s
nobility. The Rathor ruler was dismayed and he fled without fighting The
remaining Rajputs fought bravely and at one stage Nearly won the battle.
Sher shah was impressed by th e Rajput valour, Sher Shah won a victory
though at great cost with the loss several thousand Afghan; on the battle
field and coming near to loosing his empire. Sher Shah Reduced to
submission the whole region from Ajmer to Abu. Ajmer, Jobhpur, Chittor
and Mount Abu were fortified and held by Afghan troops.
(6) Budelkhand: - Sher Shah led his last expedition against the Raja of
Kalinjar in Budelkhand. The fort of Kalinigar was besieged in November
I544. It was felt that it Was difficult to capture the fort even after a long
siege UItimately Sher Shah decided to blow up the walls of the Fort. On
May 22nd,I545 while directing. He operations of his artillery Sher Shah
seriously wounded by the sudden Outbreak of fire in the munitions. The
fort was taken But Sher Shah himself died in May I545.
2.2.5 Check Your Progress
1. What was the original name of Sher Shah?
2. Write on Sher Shah Suri and his struggle with Rajputana.
2.2.6 Administration of Sher Shah Suri.
1. Reforms of Sher shah: - Sher Shah was , according to all Estimates a
man of varied talents and extraordinary genius. He Was not only a great
conqueror but also showed greater qualities as an administrator. During
his brief reign of 5 years he introduced Wise and salutary changes in every
branch of administration Prof: Qanungo has described Sher Shah as “ the
greatest administrative and military genius among the Afghan,” Appearing
like a bright Comet in the sky of Indo -Moslem history for a very short
period he Brought with him wise and beneficent reforms which
influenced Many of the famous administrators of India in succeeding
ages.
Mr. Keane has affirmed that” No government – not even the British Has
shown so much wisdom as this pathan. “ It has been universally
Acknowledged that Sher Shah exhibited in Many respects the work of
Akber and has rightly been called the forerunner of Akbar as an Empire
builder and administrator.
However some scholars are of the opinion that Sher Shah was
Reformer not an innovator. According to them he did not create New
institutions, he only admi nistered the old institutions in a new spirit to munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion and
Decline of t he Mughal Rule - II
25 meet current needs. His administrative arrangements Included many
traditional features of old system, Hindu as well as Muslim.
2. Benevolent Despotism :- Sheh Shah was an enlightened despot Who
regarded adminis tration as a part of his duty and gave personal Attention
to every business concerning the administration of the Kingdom. He was
the first muslim sovereign of Delhi who placed Before him the ideal of
promoting public welfare without distinction Of caste or creed. He wanted
to build his greatness on the happiness And contentment of subjects and
not by oppressing them. Among the Muslim rulers of India “Sher Shah
was the first attempted to found An empire broadly based upon the
people’s will.”
3. Central Governme nt : - Sher Shah’s government was a highly
Centralised system, with real power concentrated in the hands of the
King. He laid down the general policy of all departments and his Ministers
carried out administrative duties according to his Directions and unde r
his personal supervision. He did not introduce Any reforms in the
constitution of the central government which Continued to be based on the
old Persian model as had been introduced in India by the early Muslim
rulers. Sher Shah had four ministries modele d on those of the Sultanate
period.
(1) Diwan -i-Wizarat :- This was the most important department whose
officer in charge was called the Wazir. He looked after the finance and
revenues of the state and exercised general supervision over other
ministers. But Sh er Shah probably did not confer the dignity of a wazir on
any body.
(2) Diwan -i-Ariz: - This department was under the charge of ariz -i-
mamalik who may be designated the army minister. He looked after the
recruitment, organisation and payment of the army but wa s not given the
authority to command the soldiers in the battelfield.
(3) Diwan -i-Rasalst: - The ministers in charge of this department dealt
with foreign affairs and diplomatic correspondence. The department kept
in touch with the ambassadors and envoys sent t o and received from
foreign states. The work of charity and endowments was also in the hands
of this department.
(4) Diwan -i-Insha: - The minister in charge of this department had to
draft royal proclamations and dispatches to the local officers. He also
mainta in-ed government records.
In addition to these departments there were also Diwan -i- Qaza And
Diwan -i-Barid. The first was under chief Qazi who supervised the
Administration of justice while the second was the intelligence
Department headed by Barid -i-Mamal ik. The department had a large
Number of news writers and spies who were scattered all over the
Country. The department also made arrangements for the posting of News
carriers at various places to carry the royal dak. There Seems to have been
a high offici al in charge of the royal house - Hold and various workshops
attached to it. He was styled as Diwan -i-saman. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
26 The classification of the central departments and the powers And
functions of each ministry do not seems to have been marked.
4. Provincial government: - There are two views with regard to the
provincial administration under Sher Shah. According to Dr. Qanngo
The highest division of the country was Sarkar and provinces did not Exist
as Sher Shah wanted to abolish provincial government altogether while
according to another view provinces did exist and it is wrong To say that
Sarkar was the highest division for the purposes of Administration.
However, both the views do not seem to be quite Correct, because
administrative division corresponding provinces Did exist during the
period of Sher Shah. There was no uniformity In their size. They were
known an Iqtas. Heads of the Iqtas were Known as faujdar, hakim or
amin. They had under them a contingent Of troops and were fully
responsible for maintaining the law and order. They carried on civil
administration an accordance with imperial Firmans.
Sher Shah has left an indelible mark on the civil administration Of the
lower ladder. The province was divided into sarkar while each Sarkar was
divided into number of parga nas and the parganas were composed of a
number of villages. villages were the lowest unit of Administration. The
division was as under: -
Province Under faujdar, hakim or amin Sarkar s under chief shiqdar &
Chief Muns if Parganes under Shiqdar & Munsif Villages under
Panchayats
Sarkar: - The provinces were divided in Sarkars or districts. Each Sarkar
had two important officers – Chief Shiqdar and Chief Munsif, also called
Shiqdar – I – Shiqdaran and Shiqdar -i-Munsif Respectively. The former
was the head of the Sarkar. He had a Small contingent under his contral in
order to maintain law and Order. He was also to supervise the work of the
Shiqdar of parganas In his district. The chief Munsif was incharge of
revenue collection And civil justice. He was primarily a judge. He also
supervised The work of the munsif of the parganas.
Parganas: - Each Sarkar comprised of a number of parganas. Each
Pargana had a Shiqdar, a MUnsif (Amin), a treasurer and Two clerks - one
to maintain records in hindi and the other in Persian.The Shiqdar
maintained some soldiers who were employed To maintain peace. The
Munsif supervised the land revenue administration And collection of
government dues. He also tried civil and Revenue cases and enjoyed same
statues as the Shiqdar .The Treasurer was the next important officer. All
collections were Deposited with him and he maintained an account of the
income and Expenditure of the Pargana. The two clerks were called
Karkuns. Persian was the language of the court therefore one clerk
maintained All records in Persian while the majority of the people had
no Knowledge of Persian therefore the other clerk maintained duplicate
Records in hindi. Sher Shah transferred the Shiqdars and Munsifs Every
two years or even earlier so that there was no possibility Of local
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Foundation, Expansion and
Decline of t he Mughal Rule - II
27 A special feature of the administration of Sarkars and Parganas Was that
Sher Shah introduced a dyrachy system of government as a preventive
against rebellions. Rebellions generally occurred Because control over
local army and finance were vested in the Same person therefore Shers
Shah appointed two persons of equal Ranks -one in charge of military
functions and the other finance. Both of them acted as a check on the
other.
5. Village: - A village was the lowest unit of admini stration. Sher Shah
initiated the policy of making the people of the locality responsible for
maintaining peace and security within their respective Area. He accepted
the time honored custom of recognizing the Autonomy of the villages
which were governed b y their own Panchayats. The panchayats were
incharge of maintaining law And order. He gave legal recognition to the
panchayats. Each Panchayat was composed of elders of the village who
looked after the interest of the people and administered justice. He ma in-
tained touch with the villages through the village officials namely patwari
and chowkidar.
6. Revenue System: - The most striking contribution of Sher Shah Was
his revenue reforms. His land revenue reforms were based on Wise and
humane principles and have unque importance in The administrative
history of India. The experience gained by him In his youth as the manger
of his father’s jagir had given him First hand knowledge of the land
revenue problems and the secrets Of prosperity and stability of state.
His land revenues reforms had three objectives – to increase Agricultural
production, to increase the revenue of the state and To improve the
conditions of the cultivators. The cultivable Land was measured according
to uniform system. All cultivable Land was divided into three classes –
good, middle and bad. Then annual produce per bigha (sixty by sixty
Square yards of Land) of land in case of each crop and each category was
determined. It was followed by the determination of average produce Per
bigha of land as a whole (including all the three catagories - Good, middle
and bad) in case of each crop. One third of the Produce was fixed as
the state’s share. The government revenue could be paid either in case or
in kind but the former was Preferred.
Each cultivato r received from the state a patta (title Deed) specifying the
state demand that is the revenue that the Was required to pay. In return he
was to sign a qabuliyat (deed of agreement) indicating his assent to pay
the amount of revenue mentioned. In addition to the land revenue each
cultivator had to pay two charges : jaribana(surveyor’s fee) and
mahasilana (tax collector’s fee). An additional cess of 2 12 per cent had to
be paid in kind. The grain thus collected was stored in state granaries and
sold at cheap prices in time of famine or natural calamity.
The most significant feature of his land revenue system was that he
eliminated intermediaries for the purpose of collection of revenue. The
government established direct contact with Cultivators. That is why hi s
land revenue system has been called ryotwari system or system of
cultivators or ryots. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
28 Sher Shah gave clear instructions that leniency was to be shown at the
time of assessment but not at the time of collection of revenue. He also
passed orders that while army was one the move
It was not to destroy the crops of the peasants. Loans were advanced To
the peasants in case of damage to the crop caused by the soldiers,
Drought and natural calamities.
Despite its merit Sher Shah’s revenue system was not free from defects.
The share of the government was fixed at one – third of the average
produce of the three kinds of land viz good, middle And bad. The result
was that the good land was under charged while the bad land was over
charged. It is possible that this inequality might have adjusted itself “by
variations in the crops grown”.
Secondly the state demand of one third of the produce together with fees
of surveyors and collectors and the additional fees of 212 per cent was
fairly high charge.
Thirdly the annual settlement caused inconvenience to the Cultivators and
also to state officials. The settlement of cash Value of the share of
government depended on correct information, Proper inquiry and
prompt report to and instruction from the Central government. Such a
procedure was not quite dependable. It Was likely to hold up the work of
collection and cause great inconvenience to the collectors and cultivators.
7. Army: - Sher Shah had a big and well equipped army. The Afghans
necessarily had predominance, while troops of other Nationalities also
were there. Sher Shah realised the importance Of an efficient army. He
therefore took personal interest in the Recruitment of troops and fixing the
salaries of individual Soldiers.
Sher Shah established a permanent standing army which was Paid partly
in cash from the royal treasury and partly by grant of jagir. He revived
Ala-ud-Din-khilji’s practice of branding Horses to prevent corruption in
cavalry. He also maintained the Descriptive roll of troopers so that no one
could sen d a proxy At the time of military review or fighting. Corruption
was checked to a great extent. He maintained strong discipline in the
army and inflicted harsh punishments on those who infringed the rules of
conduct. Promotion of the troops depended on their merit.
We know that the army of Sher Shah was principally organized under four
heads cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants. Cavalry (horsemen) was
the most important section of the army. The infantry (foot soldiers) was
armed with muskets. Most of his soldiers were also fine archers. He
possessed a large park of artillery At the capital Sher Shah had 50,000
cavalry, 25,000 infantry, 5,000 war elephants and a huge artillery.
Besides this there were contingents of troops posted at 47 important
strateg ic place all over the kingdom. Each of these called a fauj was in
the charge of a faujdar. The total strength of his army cannot be accurately
ascertained. Transport arrangements were made by the soldiers
themselves. Provisions were supplied to the soldier s by the Banjaras Or
roving grain merchants who moved along with the army. munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion and
Decline of t he Mughal Rule - II
29 Critics point out certain defects in Sher Shah’s army. The Army consisting
as it did predominantly of Afghans could not be Regarded as national
army. The Afghan contingent often con sisted Of members of single clan
or tribe. As a result their natural Loyalty to the tribal leader rather than
the sovereign. The Provincial contingent was not under proper control of
the center.
8. Administration of Justice: - Sher Shah was adorned with Jewel of
justice and he often times remarks,” Justice is the Most excellent of
religious right and it is approved both by the king of the infides and the
faithful" . He did not spare even his near relatives if they resorted to any
criminal deed. Like other med ieval rulers Sher Shah sometimes decided
cases In person. Village panchayat was empowered to administer justice In
the villages, in the parganas were the munsifs and in the Sarkars were the
chief munsifs. They administered civil and Revenue cases while the
shiqdar and his chief in the sarkar dealt with the criminal cases. In
addition there were courts of The Qezi and the mir -adl culminating in the
highest courts of The chief Qazi. All higher officers and courts had full
Authority to hear appeals against the decisions arrived at by their Junior
counterparts. Above all was situated the king’s court.
The criminal law of the time was very hard and punishments were Severe.
The object of punishment was not to reform but to set an Example so that
the others may not do the same.
9. Roads and Sarais: - For the purpose of imperial defense And for the
convenience of the people sher shah connected the Important places of his
kingdom by a chain of excellent roads. He caused to be built four
national highways : - (i) The Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon in Bengal
to Attock in the Punjab (ii) From Agra to Mandu (iii) from Agra to
Jodhpur and Chittor (iv) From Lahore to Multan. Along the roads were
constructed not less than I700 sarais for the convenience of the travellers.
Separat e it arrangements were made for the Hindu’s and Muslims. Shady
trees were planted on both sides of the roads. The sarais Provided suitable
accommodation, cooking facilities and drinking water for the travelers.
The sarais also served the purpose of Dak cho wkis for collections of news.
At each sarai were stationed Two horsemen to carry the royal mail in the
up and down direction.
10. Intelligence Department :- As mentioned above the sarais Served as
dak chowkis also. Sher Shah appointed an officer Known as Darog a –i-
Dak Chowki as the head of intelligence Department. News writers and news
carriers were employed by him To furnish important happenings in every part of
his empire. News Runners and spies were posted in all important towns to collect
and transmit to t he court important information. Much success of Sher Shah’s
administration was due to efficient spy system.
11. Currency and Tarrif: Reforms: - An outstanding achievement of
Sher Shah was in the Field of currency reforms. On his accessions He
found the currency system was practically broken. Coins of all Previous
reigns were allowed to circulate as legal tender. He sought To remove
this confusion by abolishing all old currency and by Issuing new coins, munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
30 gold, silver and copper of fixed standard. The silver rupee and the copper
dam had their subdivisions of halves, Quarters, eighths and sixteenths.
The ratio between the silver coins And various gold coins were fixed.
To encourage trade and commerce in his empire Sher Shah Abolished
many duties which were charged on goods at different points. He laid
down that only two duties should be charged on transport of Goods. The
first duty was charged when the goods brought into The country and the
second was charged when the goods were sold. The Object was to
facilitate trade in the country.
12. Religious policy: - There is a difference of opinion regarding The
religious policy followed by Sher Shah. According to Dr. Qanungo Sher
Shah followed a policy of religious toleration towards the Hindu but
Professor S.R. Sharma differs fro m this view. His Contention is that in his
religious views Sher Shah did not rise Above the Turk Afghan rulers of
Delhi. However, it is admitted by All that Sher Shah was an orthodox
Sunni Muslim. He prayed five Times a day, fasted during Ramzan and
follow ed various observances of his faith. He resorted to Jihad or holy
war against the Rajputs. That is his war against Puran Mal of Raisin was
officially called a Jihad, After his victory over Maldeo of Jodhpur he
demolished temples in the fort of Jodhpur and built a mosque on their
site therefore it will be far from truth to say that he was altogether free
from religious bias. But at the same time to place him in the category of
Sultans of the pre -Mughal period also would be wrong. He did not
humiliate the H indus, nor did he interfere in their Performance of
customary religious duties. A large section of his Infantry was composed
of Hindus. He did not mix religion with Politics. On the whole it may be
said that he was tolerant towards the religion of the vast majority of his
subjects.
13. Charity: - Another important sphere of state activity was Grant of
charities. This had been a customary practice in all Islamic governments.
Grants were made to scholars and holy men. Special grants were given to
Madrasas and Mosq ues. Stipends were given to teachers and students.
Free kitchens were established by The government at several places.
14. Buildings: - Sher Shah has left an indelible impress as A builder. The
Purana Qila at Delhi is said to have been built by him and is consi dered to
be “the most perfect of his buildings.” It is a good example of Indo -
Islamic architecture. The best example Of Sher Shah’s architecture is his
own mausoleum at Sasaram in Bihar. “The short lived and un-stable Sur
dynasty “ writes V.A.Smith ‘of wh ich Sher Shah was the most
distinguished member had such a hard fight for existence that is could not
have been expected to pay much attention to architecture. The mausoleum
of Sher Shah at Sasaram built on lofty plinth in the midst of a lake is one
of the Best designed and most beautiful buildings in India unequalled
among the early buildings in the Northern provinces for grandeur and
Dignity.” Percy Brown also lavishes praise on Sher Shah’s buildings for
their exquisite design excellent execution and artistic Decoration. munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion and
Decline of t he Mughal Rule - II
31 Sher Shah is indeed a striking personality in the history of Medieval India.
He applied his indefatigable industry to the Service of the state and his
reforms were well calculated to secure the interests of the people. In fact,
the real significance of his Reign lies in the fact that he embodied in
himself those very Qualities which are needed for building of the national
state in India and he prepared the ground for the glorious Akbar Regime
in more ways than one. He is therefore been righ tly called the forerunner
of Akbar. Unfortunately Sher Shah’s empire collapsed within a decade
after his death and the Mughal regime was restored by Humayun whom he
had forced to flee from India. This happened because the Afghans failed
to preserve what Sh er Shah left for them. Vincent Smith observes,” If Sher
Shah had been spared he would have established his dynasty and the
Great Mughals would not have appeared on the stage of history.”
2.2.7 Fall of the Sur Dynasty: - After the death of Sher Shah his son
Islam Shah came to the throne in I545. Though he did not inherit the
Qualities of his father yet he kept his heritage in tact for 8 years. After his
death in October, I553 the Sur dynasty began to disintegrate.
The Afghan empire was partitioned and was ru led by three independent
Nobles namely Ibrahim Khan Sur in Delhi and Agra, Muhammad Adil
Shah in the East and the Punjab under Sikander Shah. The various
provinces of Malwa, Rajputana, Bengal and Bundelkhand proclaimed
independence as stated in the previou s lesson. This political chaos
provided Humayun with the needful opportunity to stage a comeback in
India. He defeated Sikander Sur in a battle near Sirhind in I555 and
occupied Delhi and Agra.
The Second Afghan Empire like the first one once again fell to the tribal
concepts and political intrigues of the Afghan nobility. The field was left
to the Mughals and Akbar used every opportunity. to retrieve the Mughal
prestige and power.
2.2.8 Check Your Progress
1. What was the work of Diwan -i-ariz?
2. What was the charity work that Sher Shah undertook?
2.3 SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied about Sher Shah. Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan
came to power of Delhi after defeating Humayun and later driving him out
of India in Persia. He was one of the important benevolent r ulers of Post –
Sultanate and Pre -Akbar era. He was one of the ideal rulers to be followed
by Akbar in his administration. His name is immortalized because of his
excellent administration.


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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
32 2.4 QUESTIONS
1. Describe the adminstrative system of Sher Shah.
2. Form an estimate of Sher Shah as a conqueror and administrator.
3. Write short notes on:
a) Wars between Humayun and Sher Shah.
b) Revenue and Military Reforms of Sher Shah
2.5 REFERENCES
1. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.

2. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses Medieval Indian Ideas and institutions, Pune,
1981.

3. Chitins K. N. - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.

4. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : From
the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education.

5. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.

6. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 1965.

7. Frazes R. W., 'Literary History of India, London 18 98.

8. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.

9. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of India,
Delhi, 1984

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33 3
FOUNDATION, EXPANSION AND
DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL RULE - III
(a) India on the eve of Mughal Rule, Invasion of Babur
(b) Humayun, Shershah and Akbar
(c) Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
AKBAR THE GREAT (1556 – 1605)
Unit Structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Early conquests of Akbar
3.3 Conquest of Ranthambhor (1569)
3.4 Summary
3.5 Questions
3.6 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
 To examine the early conquests of Akbar.
 To understand the conquest of Ranthambhore.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Jalal-Ud-din Mohammad Akbar, son of Humayun was born at Amarkot
(in Sind) on 15 October, 1542 in the house of a Rajput chief. Akbar spent
his childhood under conditions of adversity and uncertainty as Humayun
was in exile. Arrangements for his formal education were made by
Hum ayun after his restoration to the throne of Kabul but Akbar was more
interested in sports and martial exercises than in studies. In 1551 Akbar
was made the governor of Ghazni and he remained its governor till
November 1554 when Humayun embarked on an exped ition for the
conquest of Hindustan. Akbar was given nominal command of the army of
Indian invasion and was given the credit of Humayun’s victory at Sirhind
in January 1555. After his occupation of Delhi Humayun declared Akbar
to be the heir apparent and a ssigned to him the governorship of the Punjab.
Humayun died in January 1556 as a result of the fall from the staircase of
his library. At that time Akbar was just a boy of 14. When the news of
his father’s death reached Akbar he was at Kalanaur 15 miles west of munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707CE)
34 Gurdaspur in the Punjab. His guardian Bairam Khan took immediate
steps to enthrone him on brick -platform and performed the ceremony
thereby proclaiming him the emperor on February 14, 1556.
3.2 EARLY CONQUESTS OF AKBAR
Though Humayun had recovered De lhi in June 1555 he had not been able
to consolidate his position in India therefore everything was in a chaos.
Akbar’s position was very shaky, he was only a nominal ruler of a small
part of the Punjab. India in 1556 presented a dark as well as a complex
picture. In the North west Mirza Muhamed Hakim, Akbar’s half-brother
governed Kabul independently. Kashmir, Sind, and Multan were also free
from imperial control after the death of Sher Shah. Orrisa, Malwa and
Gujarat were independent of the control of any overlord. In the eastern
provinces the Afghans were strong under their king Adil Shah. The
Rajputs also possessed considerable strength.
The important Rajput princes were those of Mewar. Jaisalmer and
Jodhpur. Gondwana was being ruled by Rani Durgavati in the name of her
minor son. Beyond the Vindhayas lay the extensive Vijayanagar empire
and the Muslim sultanates of Khandesh, Berar, Bidar, Ahmednagar,
Golkunda and Bijapur which felt no interest in northern politics. By this
time even the Portuguese had es tablished their influence on the western
coast of India and possessed Goa and Diu. Thus there was hardly any
territory which Akbar could call as his own at the time of his accession.
His heritage was of a precarious nature and his task of building up an
empire was indeed a very difficult one.
3.2.1 Second Battle of Panipat : (Nov 1556) :-
The greatest rival of Akbar at this time was Hemu the Hindu Prime
Minister of Muhammed Adil Shah who was bent upon expelling the
Mughals from India. On hearing the news of the d eath of Humayun, Hemu
marched towards Delhi and Agra and occupied the same by defeating
Tardi Beg the Mughal governor of Delhi. Hemu assumed the title of Raja
Vikramaditya. He thus became the first and the only Hindu to occupy the
throne of Delhi during th e medieval period of our history.
Hemu was a man of extraordinary personality, and one cannot fail to
admire his qualities of leadership and his prompt attempt to banish alien
rule from the country. In fact being a real native of the soil his claims to
the throne of Delhi were superior to that of the Mughals.
The Mughals were alammed at the fall of Delhi and Agra. Some advised
Akbar to retire to Kabul but Bairam Khan was in favour of recovering
Delhi and Agra and Akbar accepted his advice. By this time Hemu had
consolidated his position by winning over many Afghan officials and
soldiers and he was preparing himself to meet the Mughal advance. The
two armies viz the army of Hemu and of Akbar met on the historic battle
field of Panipat in November, 1556. The M ughals fought valiantly but
Hemu seemed to carry the day. However, he was struck by an arrow in the
eye and he became unconscious. This caused panic in his army as it munotes.in

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35 began to disperse in confusion. It marked a turning point in the battle.
Hemu was put to death and Mughal victory was complete.
The Second battle of Panipat was a decisive battle. It brought to a close
the Afghan -Mughal contest for supremacy in India by giving a verdict in
favour of the latter. If Hemu had been victorious the Mughals would have
been compelled to retreat to Kabul. His death doomed the Afghan cause
and allowed time to the restored Mughal sovereignty to take root.
The Mughals occupied Delhi and Agra. Sikander Sur also surrendered in
May 1557. Muhammed Adil died in 1557 as a result of his conflict with
the ruler of Bengal. Ibrahim Sur after wandering from place to place found
asylum in Orrisa. Thus there was no Sur rival left to contest Akbar’s claim
to the sovereignty of Hindustan.
3.2.2 Regency of Bairam Khan (1556 -1560) :-
After the de ath of Humayun, Bairam Khan was guardian of Akbar from
1556 to 1560. The most important achievement of Bairam Khan during
this period was the Mughal victory in the second battle of Panipat which
marked the real beginning of Mughal empire in India. After th e battle
Bairam Kahn by virtue of his wisdom, age and experience was able to
acquire a considerable influence over Akbar and became virtually the ruler
of the country. He also made arrangements for Akbar’s education and
appointed Abdul Latif as his tutor who was a distinguished scholar and
liberal in his religious views. Besides this Bairam Khan looked after the
administration and also conquered Gwalior and Jaunpur. Bairam Khan did
not remain in power for long. He was dismissed by a Akbar in 1560 as
Akbar was determined to take the reins of Government into his own
hands.
The removal of Bairam Khan did not at once enable Akbar to assume fully
the reins of Government into his own hands. For two more years from
1560 to 1562 his foster mother. Maham Anaga, her s on Adam Khan and
their relatives exercised great influence in the matters of the state. Akbar
was able to emancipate himself from the harem influence in 1562 and
became independent.
3.2.3 Imperial Policy Of Akbar :-
Akbar was a strong imperialist by instinct therefore soon after assuming
the reins of government in his hands he decided to extend the boundaries
of his kingdom. It was Akbar who first thought of founding an All-
India Empire. It was certainly inspired by a longing for fame and glory.
But according to Abul Fazal his imperialism was also inspired by a
philanthropic motive that is he desired to bring peace and prosperity to
people suffering under the selfish misrule of petty princes. He wanted to
establish a strong central government. Therefore the politi cal unification
of the country and the establishment of an all powerful Central
Government with a uniform system of administration throughout the land
became the ideals of his life. Akbar and later on his successors did not aim
at mere extension of territo ry nor did they base their authority on mere
force. Upto the time of Shah Jahan they wanted to broad -base their power munotes.in

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36 on the consent of the governed. They tried to evoke loyalty and respect
rather than fear and awe. Aurangzeb adopted a comparatively narrow
outlook and he reaped its fruit in ruin and disintegration.
Akbar’s career of military exploits which started with the expedition to
Malwa in 1560 and culminated in the conquest of Asir Garh in 1601 forms
a glorious chapter in the military history of India. Vincent Smith rightly
describes him as a 'strong and stout annexationist before whose sun the
modest star of Lord Dalhousie pales'.
The important conquests of Akbar leading to the gradual expansion of his
empire may be studied under the following heads :
1. The conquests of Northern India.
2. The conquest of the North Western region.
3. The conquest of the Deccan.
3.2.4 The conquests of Northern Indian: -
1. MALWA (1561): - This was the first conquest of Akbar after the exit
of Bairam Khan. The ruler of Malwa, Baz Bahadur was indifferent to
politics and war as he was interested in music and pleasures. Rupmati was
his famous mistress. The administration of Malwa was naturally weak.
Adam Khan son of Maham Anaga accompanied by Pir Mohammad led the
expedition against Malwa Baz B ahadur was defeated and he fled leaving
the kingdom in the possession of the Mughals. Huge treasure and booty
fell into the hands of the victors. Both Adam Khan and Pir Mohammad
inflicted terrible misery on the people. The former was recalled by
Akbar, the latter was drowned by crossing the river Narmada. Baz
Bahadur returned to Malwa and reoccupied but his success was short
lived. He was soon driven out by the Mughals. Baz Bahadur remained
in exile and finally submitted to Akbar who enrolled as a mansabdar in
the imperial court.
2. Jaunpur and Chunar : - The Afghans of the Eastern provinces under
the leadership of Sher Khan son of the Late Muhmmad Adil Shah
collected a large army and made a bid to recover their lost power. But
their attack on Jaunpur failed. At the same time the Mughals got the
peaceful surrender of Chunar from the hands of the Afghans. The strong
fortress of chunar thus became an important outpost of the empire in the
East.
3. Gondwana (1564) :- In 1564 Akbar sent Asaf Khan the Governor of
Kara to subdue Gondwana (in M.P.). The reigning king of this tract, Bir
Narayan was a minor but it was ably governed by his mother Rani Durga
vati a Rajput lady of superb beauty and great valour. The Mughal army
consisted of 50,000 soliders while Rani commanded 20,000 soldiers and
I,000 elephants. She checked the advance of the invaders and fought
bravely till she was fatally wounded. She stabed herself to death to
save her honour. The Mughals stormed Chauragarh the capital of the
kingdom which was heroically defe nded by the young ruler Bir Narayan
who also fell fighting. The battles of chauragarh decided the fate of
Gondwana. It was annexed to Mughal dominion. The victors acquired munotes.in

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37 huge booty consisting of gold, silver, jewels and elephants. Akbar’s
attack on Gondw ana was an act of pure imperialist aggression. As Smith
remarks, Akbar’s attack on a princess of a character so noble was mere
aggression, wholly un - provoked and devoid of all justification other than
lust for conquest and plunder.
4. Uzbeg rebellion (1564 -1567): - The conquest of Gondwana
synchronized with three important rebellion in Hindustan which were
effectively suppressed. The first was led by Abdulla Khan Uzbeg (who
had superseded Pir Mohammad ) rebelled in Malwa but was defeated and
driven to Gujarat. The second rebellion was headed by Khan Zaman
another Uzbeg leader of Jaunpur. Akbar himself marched to East and
drove towards Patna. The Uzbeg suspected that Akbar hated their entire
race and was bent upon reducing them to a subordinate position.
More se rious than these was the revolt of Akbar’s brother Mirza Hakim in
the Punjab who was also encouraged by the Uzbegs. Akbar marched
towards the Punjab which frightened Hakim and he retreated across the
Indus. Akbar returned to Agra in May 1567 and dealt with the rebellion
Uzbegs Khan Zaman was killed while other Uzbegs were severally
punished.
3.2.5 Akbar and the Rajputs : -
The battle of Kanwah Fought by Babur against the Rajputs did not result
in the total eclipse of Rajput influence in North. Gifted with the true
insight of a statesman. Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation with
the Rajputs.
3.2.6 Causes for such a policy : -
Akbar realized that there could be no effective political conquest of India
without political subjugation of Rajpute. He could not see any s tate
refusing to do away with the paramount power like his.
More over Akbar had realized at an early age that his Muslim officials and
followers could not be absolutely depended upon. The rebellion of the
Uzbeg and the revolt of his brother Mirza Hakim had convinced Akbar
that the only way to perpetuate his power and dynasty was to seek the
support of the important political elements in the population of the
country.
No victory of arms could secure him the active support of the proud and
sensitive Rajputs. Any political subjugation would have to be tempered
by extending due respect and a treatment based on diplomatic equality.
Akbar had realized the value of Rajput alliance in his task of building up
an empire in India. He was impressed by their character and qualities.
They were the some of the soil and were known for their bravery and
faithfulness to their word. They could safely be depended upon. Their
mental qualities were superior even to their military excellence. Their co-
operation could help him to sh ake off the foreign nature of his munotes.in

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38 monarchy and converted into a national one which in turn could win him
popular support and strengthen the roots of his dynasty.
Thus he tried to secure and ensure the active co -operation of Rajputs in
almost all the activi ties. By his wise and liberal policy he won the hearts
of most of them to such an extent that they rendered valuable services to
his empire and even shed their blood for it. The empire of Akbar was in
fact the outcome of the co- ordination of Mughal prowes s and diplomacy
and Rajput valour and service.
Against this background Akbar adopted two fold policy towards the
Rajputs.
(a) To win them over as allies by establishing matrimonial alliance
(b) Where the above policy proved un-workable as in the case of
Chittor to indulge in warfare and ensure submission.
In 1562 Akbar made his first pilgrimage to the shrine of Khwaja Shaikh
Muin Ud Din Chishti at Ajmer. On the way he was received by Raja
Bihari Mal of Amber (Jaipur) who offered him submission to Akbar and
also proposed his eldest daughter’s marriage with the emperor which took
place at Sambar. The Rajput princess became the mother of Jahangir and
exerted great influence on Akbar and his policy. Raja Bihari Mal with his
son Bhagwan Das and grand son Man Singh proceed ed to Agra. He
was given a command of 5,000 and his son and grandson were also
admitted to high ranking the army. Thus was opened the way through
which the Mughal emperor was able to secure for four generations the
services of some of the greatest Captains and diplomats that medieval
India produce.”
The strong fortress of Merta in Marwar was captured by the Mughals after
a brief siege in 1562.
3.2.7 The siege and capture of Chittor (1567 -1568): -
Rana Uday Singh of Mewar was the greatest prince in Rajputana. He wa s
the younger son of Sangram Singh and was not prepared to submit to
Akbar. Akbar rightly felt that if he could bring about the reduction of
Chittor then other Rajput states in Rajstan would submit without fighting.
Also Mewar was important as it lay on the route to Gujarat which
could not be conquered and the line of communication between
Ahmednagar and Delhi could not be a safe without conquering Chittor.
The Rana also had publically denounced the Mughals as un -clean
foreigners and looked down upon the ma trimonial alliance between Raja
Bihari Mal of Ambar and Akbar. Akbar had therefore reasons to conquer
Mewar.
Akbar made huge preparations for the conquest of Mewar and personally
commanded a huge army for its invasion. The fort of Chittor was besieged
in October 1567. Uday Singh sought safety in the Aravalli hills leaving
the defense of the fort to two gallant chiefs – Jai Mal and Patta who munotes.in

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39 heroically defended the post for about four months repulsing all the
attacks of the Mughals. But in February 1568 the g reat fort fell. Jai Mal
was killed by a musket shot fired by Akbar himself. Patta also fell dead
later. The worriers perished fighting, the ladies committed jauhar. Akbar
entered the fort the next day and ordered general massacre in which
30,000 persons lost their memory. Uday Singh retained his
independence though he lost his ancestral capital. He continued his
struggle against the Mughals till his death in 1572.
3.2.8 Check Your Progress
1. Write on the regency period of Bairam Khan towards Akbar.
2. What were the causes of Akbar’s Rajput policy?
3.3 CONQUEST OF RANTHAMBHOR (1569)
The fall of Chittor struck terror in the hearts of other Rajput Chiefs. In
1569 Akbar besieged the fort of Ranthambhor held by Rai Surjan Hara
who was a vassal of a Mewar. Realising that the Mughal army was
superior and further resistance was futile Rai Surjan Hara agreed to open
negotiations with Akbar and surrendered to the Mughals. He handed over
the keys of the fort to Akbar and entered the Mughal service.
3.3.1 Submission of Kalinjar, Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer (1569 -
70):-
The fall of Chittor and Ranthambhor in quick succession added to the
prestige of the emperor. He now decided to attack the historic fort of
Kalinjar in Bundelkhand. It was held by Raja Ram Chandra of Rewa. The
Mughal army b esieged the fort in August 1569 and after a mild resistance
the Raja offered submission. In November 1570 Rajput ruler Raja
Chandra Sen of Jodhpur also Sumitted while in the same year the ruler of
Bikaner kalyan Mal and Jaisalmer’s ruler Rawal Rai not only submitted to
Akbar but also gave their daughters in marriage to him. Thus by the end
of 1570 the whole of Rajputana with the exception of Mewar came
into the fold of the Mughal empire.
3.3.2 Battle of Haldighati (June 1576): -
Although Chittor the capital of Mew ar had been occupied by the Mughals
in February 1568 a major portion of the kingdom still remained
independent under Rana Uday Singh. After his death in 1572 Mewar
found a true patriot in Raja Pratap son of Rana Uday Singh. The ideal
before Pratap was to secure the freedom of Mewar and re -occupy Chittor.
Soon after securing the reins of office, he started strengthening his
military resources. The magnitude of his task can be well understood
when we know that without a capital and with only limited resourc es
he had to oppose the organised strength of the Mughal emperor. His other
Rajput chiefs had allied themselves with Akbar. But Pratap did not
recognise any obstacle. On his part Akbar also was determined to conquer
entire Mewar. And a furious battle was f ought at the pass of haldighat. munotes.in

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40 Pratap was defeated and barely escaped with his life which was saved by
the selfless devotion of the chief of jhala who drew upon himself the
attack of the imperialists by declaring himself to be the Rana. But it was a
barre n victory for the Mughals. The Rana was not killed or captured
and Mewar not subjugated. For some time after his defeat Rana had to
suffer innumerable difficulties but did not give up. He re -conquered a
large part of his territory except Chittor and Mandal garh. After his death
in 1597 his son Amar Singh continued the struggle against the Mughals
even in the reign of Jahangir it is to be noted that in his fight against
Mewar Akbar was helped by Mansingh and other Rajput princes and
generals.
3.3.3 Conquest of Guja rat (1572 – 1573) :-
After subduing Rajputana Akbar headed towards Gujarat. A number of
factors led to its subjugation. It was large and fertile province and its
possession was essential if the country was to be unified under Akbar.
Under Humayun Gujarat h ad once formed a part of the Mughal empire
hence he felt obliged to retrieve lost dominion. Gujarat was important
from commercial point of view as trade between India, Turkey, Syria,
Persia and countries of Europe was carried on through its ports – Surat a nd
Cambay. From Gujarat Ports the Haj Pilgrims proceeded to Mecca and
other holy places. Akbar desired to check the Portuguese who in the recent
past had increasingly mis -appropriated the custom revenue and harassed
the Haj pilgrims.
The immediate cause ho wever was provided by the internal anarchy
prevalent in Gujarat. After the death of its able ruler Bahadur shah
Gujarat had no Sultan of marked ability. In 1572 Gujarat was divided into
seven warring principalities under the nominal king Muzaffar Shah III. In
this distracted kingdom some anti-Mughal elements -the Uzbegs and
Mirzas had found shelter. One of the nobles of Gujarat Itimad Khan
appealed to Akbar for intervention who personally led an expedition to
Gujarat and reached Ahmedabad in November 1572. Muzaffar Shah did
not offer any resistance and submitted. After making arrangements for the
administration of the new province he went to Cambay. There he had the
first sight of the sea and come into contact with Portuguese, Turkish,
Arabian, Persian and Central Asian merchants. Meanwhile the Mirzas
seized a considerable part of Gujarat. From Cambay Akbar set out
against them defeated them in a battle and liberated the towns of Baroda,
Champaner and Surat and after making arrangements for the civil
adminis tration of Gujarat he returned to Fatehpur Sikri in March 1573.
Within six months of Akbar’s return from Gujarat a fresh rebellion broke
out there. Akbar marched to Gujarat at hurricane speed covering the
distance of 600 miles in 11 days. After gaining complete victory and
restoring law and order in Gujarat he returned to Fatehpur Sikri. The
whole campaign took forty -three days. It has been described as the
quickest campaign on record.
3.3.4 Conquest of Bihar and Bengal (1574 -1576): -
Sulaiman Karani an Afghan had established an independent kingdom munotes.in

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41 comprising of Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa. He acknowledged the suzerainty
of Akbar. After his death in 1572 his son Daud incurred the emperors’’
resentment by proclaiming his independence and by attaching the Mughal
fort of Zamaniya ( U.P.). in 1574 Akbar personally marched against him
and secured the occupation of Bihar. He returned to Fatehpur Sikri leaving
Munim Khan in charge of Bengal campaign. Daud retreated to Orissa and
was defeated by the Mughals in battle in March 1575 but the battle had no
decisive results owing to the leniency of Munim Khan towards Daud who
consequently was able to strike once more to recover Bengal in October
1575, He was however, finally defeated and killed in a battle near
Rajmahal in July, 157 6. Bengal henceforth become the part of Mughal
empire. Man Singh of Ambar who as Subedar of Bihar conquered Orrisa
in 1592 was rewarded for his success by being appointed subahdar of
Bengal also.
3.3.5 The conquest of North Western Region: -
The region between Afghanistan and India is known as North West
Frontier Province. This region has all along Occupied a very important
position. Firstly, this region had strategic importance. Since early history
all invaders of northern India had come by the passes on the North
Western Frontier. Hence for the security of India it was necessary to
safeguard the entrances of these passes by strong fortifications.
Secondly Kandahar which lay in this region was important from economic
point of view. It was a great centre of trade w here merchants from
different parts of Asia flocked together and exchanged their commodities.
Thirdly there were a number of Afghan tribes inhabiting this region. They
were turbulent and freedom loving people and used to loot and plunder the
settled human Habitations in the region. These tribes such as Uzbegs and
the Yusufzais were far from friendly in their attitude towards the Mughal
Empire. Akbar was the first monarch in the medieval times who made a
serious attempt to curb their unruly habits.
Akbar formulated a policy which comprised of (a) direct control over the
civil and military administration of Kabul (b) suppression of the Afghan
tribes (c) annexation of Kashmir (d) conquest of Sind and Baluchistan (e)
an attempt to conquer Kandahar,
(a) Reduction of Kabul: - the year 1581 has been regarded as the most
critical time in the reign of Akbar. He had to face a critical situation due
to the sinister motives of Mirza Hakim his half-brother who was in
charge of the province of Kabul. In conspiracy with some nob les he
cherished to seize the throne of Hindustan for himself. The plan was to
replace the heterodox Akbar on the throne by the orthodox Hakim. In
1581 Hakim invaded the Punjab. Considering it inadvisable to ignore
his movements Akbar marched from his capi tal in February 1581 to wards
Afghanistan at the head of a large army. Mirza hakim on hearing of the
advance fled to Kabul without offering any opposition. Akbar entered
Kabul. Terrified Mirza Hakim offered submission and was pardoned by
Akbar who reinstat ed him in the government of the province. The victory munotes.in

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42 at Kabul brought immense relief to Akbar and may be regarded as the
climax of his career. Kabul was incorporated in the empire after the
death of Mirza Hakim in 1586.
(b) Suppression of the Afghan Tribes :- Akbar was able to suppress the
risings of the Uzbegs and their leader Abdulla Khan was obliged to remain
friendly with the Mughal emperor. The Yusufzais were also crushingly
defeated by the Mughal army commanded by Raja Todar Mal and Prince
Murad.
(c) Annexat ion of Kashmir :- Yusuf Khan was the ruler of Kashmir and
though he had sent his son to wait on Akbar he had evaded appearing in
person. An expedition was sent against him led by Raja Bhagwan Das
Who Forced Yusuf Khan to surrender and Make peace. A treaty was made
recognising him the vassal ruler of Kashmir. Akbar rejected this
arrangement and sent another expedition Kashmir was annexed to empire
in 1586 and became a sarkar of the province of Kabul.
(d) Conquest of Sind and Baluchistan: - Akbar now coveted Sind. He
wanted to use Sind as a base of operations against Kandahar then in
possession of the Persians. In 1590 Akbar appointed Abdur Rahim for the
conquest of Sind. After two battles in defense of his country Mirza Jani
Beg the ruler of Sind was defeated and forced to surrender in 1591. He
entered into imperial service. In 1595 Akbar deputed Mir Masum to
conquer Baluchistan then held by Afghans.
The fortress was attacked and the Afghans were forced to deliver whole
of Baluchistan including Makran.
(e) Acquisition of Kandahar : - the road to Kandahar had now been
opened. It was with the Persians. The Persian Shah had appointed
Muzaffar Hussain Mirzas its Governor. Fortunately for the Mughals
Muzaffar Hussain Mirza was not on good terms with the authorities at
Tehran . He negotiated with the Mughals and peacefully delivered the
fortress into the hands of Shah Beg who was deputed by Akbar to take
charge of the fort in 1595. The acquisition of Kandahar completed
Akbar’s conquest of Northern India. As a result of Akbar’s policy in the
North west important territories were added to his empire, its position was
made secure on that frontier and its prestige was immensely enhanced.
3.3.6 The conquest of the Deccan :-
At the beginning of the 16th Century there were seven principal states in
the Deccan Khandesh , Berar, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkunda, Bidar, and
Vijaynagar. Among these Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Vijaynagar were
relatively more powerful while among these Vijaynagar was the strongest
and most prosperous. But within ten years of Akbar’s accession vijaynagar
suffered a terrible defeat in the battle of Talikota (1565) and could never
regain its former glory. Later Berar was seized by ahmednagar while
Bidar by Bijapur. Thus at the time of Akbar’s invation of the Deccan there
were only four states each ruled by a muslim dynasty. munotes.in

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43 Having secured his conquest in the north it was but logical for Akbar to
attempt conquest of the Deccan. He had some definite objects in view.
Firstly with the ideal of an all India Empire he naturally soug ht to bring
the Deccan sultanates under his rule. Secondly as a shrewd statesman he
wanted to utilize his control over the deccan as a means pushing back the
Portuguese to the sea. At the close of the 15th century a fresh
complication arose in the politics of the region on account of the
establishment of the Portuguese on the western coast of India and their
mastery over the Arabian sea. They harassed the Muslim pilgrims to
Arabia. They were alternately at war and peace with the Deccan
Kingdoms. Though Akba r himself was having good relations with the
Portuguese he did not think it wise to allow them to interfere in the politics
of Deccan and enjoy its economic resources as well. His Deccan policy
was purely imperialistic in origin and outlook and was not inf luenced by
religious considerations as was the case with Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
In 1591 Akbar dispatched four diplomatic missions to Khandesh,
Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkonda calling upon their rulers to recognise
his suzerainty and pay him tributes. Raja Ali khan the ruler of khandesh
whose territory lay immediately South of Akbar’s empire offered to
acknowledge his authority but the rulers of the other three states sent
diplomatic replies politely rejecting the offer. The failure of the diplomatic
missions led him to resort to arms.
3.3.7 Ahmednagar :-
Ahmednagar ruled by Nizam Shahi dynasty was situated to the South of
Khandesh and North of Bijapur. The ruler of Ahmednagar Burhan -ul-
Mulk died in 1594 and there followed disputes about succession. Chand
Bibi daughter of the former Sultan and widow of the Sultan of Bijapur
acquired Political control over Ahmednagar and supported the cause of the
lawful heir to the throne Bahadur who was an infant but a group of
nobles imprisoned him and raised another candidate to the throne. These
dissessions offered Akbar an excellent opportunity for the conquest of
Ahmednagar. Accordingly in 1593 he sent two armies to subjugate
Ahmednagar by force one was led by Abdur Rahim Khan -I-khana and the
other by prince Murad. The Mugh al expedition was paralysed by
dissensions between the two generals from the very beginning, however,
Ahmednagar was besieged in 1595. Chand Bibi defended the city with
splendid courage and made the surrender of the fort difficult if not
impossible ultimat ely a peace treaty was signed in 1596 according to
which Berar was ceded to the Mughals, though reluctantly, and the Nizam
Shah is recognised the Mughal suzerainty.
Soon after the departure of the Mughals the treaty was violated by the
Ahmednagar governmen t and war with the Mughals renewed, in 1597.
Ahmednagar was besieged and once again the Mughals suffered badly on
account of the dissensions between Murad and Abdur Rahim. Akbar
recalled both of them and appointed Abul Fazal in their place and
prepared him self to march to the Deccan in 1599. Daulatabad fell
before his arrival in 1599 and Ahmednagar was captured in August 1600. munotes.in

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44 Chand Bibi who advised peace with the Mughals was Murdered by a
faction which was opposed to her policy. The minor sultan Bahadur wa s
sent Gwalior as a prisoner. The Mughals placed the capital city and the
adjoining territories under their administrative control but a large part of
the kingdom remained in the possession of the Nizam Shahi nobles.
Ahmednagar Continued to resist the Mugh al arms and the entire kingdom
was not annexed to the empire till the reign of Shah Jahan.
3.3.8 Khandesh :-
Raja Ali Khan of khandesh had acknowledged the authority of Akbar but
after his death his son Mian Bahadur shah repudiated the Mughal
authority and prepa red to defend himself in his strong fortress of
Asirgarh. Akbar took Burhanpur its capital and laid siege to the mighty
fort of Asirgarh which was well provided with artillery and war like
stores and provisions (1600). The siege continued for a long time a nd
Akbar was unwilling to prolong it as his son salim had rebelled against
him. Akbar resorted to bribery and conceit for the fulfilment of his object.
He called Main Bahadur Shah into his camp and forced him to write a
letter to the garrison with instruct ions to surrender the fort. The garrison
still held out. Akbar then seduced the Khandesh officers by lavish
distribution of money and the gates of Asirgarh were opened by golden
keys in January 1601. Khandesh was annexed to the empire. Mian
Bahadur was taken Prisoner to Gwalior.
The capture of Asirgarh was an event of great significance. This was the
last conquest of Akbar. Prince Daniyal was appointed viceroy of the
Deccan. Akbar in view of Salim’s rebellion at Allahabad had to give up
his intention of sta ying and conquering other states in the Deccan. He left
for Agra and arrived at Fatehpur Sikri and ordered the erecting of the
famous Buland Darwaza as a memorial of his victory over Asirgarh.
The result of Akbar’s policy in the Deccan was that he conquere d
Khandesh, Berar and part of Ahmednagar. He also acquired a number of
valuable forts and further expansion of the empire by his successors was
facilitated. He set the ball rolling for the interference in the Deccan and
henceforth the Mughals became increa singly involved in the Deccan
politics.
Thus in a career of conquests spread over forty years beginning with the
expedition to Malwa in 1560 to the conquest of Asirgarh in 1601 Akbar
successfully brought the whole of North - Western including Kabul,
Kandaha r and Kashmir ) Eastern and central and parts of southern India
within his empire. The victories, in sheer magnitude were far more
extensive than any of his predecessors or successors could venture forth .
3.3.9 Check Your Progress
1. Describe the battle of Haldigha ti.
2. Who defended the fort of Ahmednagar?
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45 3.4 SUMARRY
Jalal-Ud-din Mohammad Akbar, son of Humayun was born at Amarkot
(in Sind) on 15 October, 1542 in the house of a Rajput chief. Akbar spent
his childhood under conditions of adversity and uncertainty as H umayun
was in exile. Arrangements for his formal education were made by
Humayun after his restoration to the throne of Kabul but Akbar was more
interested in sports and martial exercises than in studies. In 1551 Akbar
was made the governor of Ghazni and he remained its governor till
November 1554 when Humayun embarked on an expedition for the
conquest of Hindustan. Akbar was given nominal command of the army of
Indian invasion and was given the credit of Humayun’s victory at Sirhind
in January 1555. In this unit we have seen the rise of Akbar and his great
success as an imperialist.
3.5 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss Akbar’s Rajput Policy and its impact on the establishment of
the Mughal Empire.
2. Account for the expansion of Munghal Empire under Akbar.
3. Write notes on:
a) Second battle of Panipat (1556)
b) Bairam Khan.
c) Akbar’s Deccan Policy.
3.6 REFERENCES
1. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
2. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses Medieval Indian Ideas and institutions, Pune,
1981.
3. Chitins K. N. - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.
4. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : From
the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education.
5. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
6. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 1965.
7. Frazes R. W., 'Literary History of India, London 1898.
8. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.
9. Raychoudhary R. C., So cial, Cultural and Economic History of India,
Delhi, 1984


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46 4
FOUNDATION, EXPANSION AND
DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL RULE -IV
(a) India on the eve of Mughal Rule, Invasion of Babur
(b) Humayun, Shershah and Akbar
(c) Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
Unit Structure:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Early career of jahangir (1605 – 1627)
4.3 Rebellion of prince khusrav (1606)
4.4 Jahangir and the deccan
4.5 Shah Jahan’s Rebellions (1623 -1625)
4.6 Mahabat khan’s rebellions (1626)
4.7 Shah Jahan (1627 – 1658)
4.8 Suppession of the portuguese (1631 – 1632)
4.9 Aurang zeb’s first viceroylty (1636 -1644)
4.10 Summary
4.11 Questions
4.12 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
 To study Jahangir’s Deccan policy.
 To understand Shah Jahan’s policy of conquests.
 To know Auran gzeb’s period of Viceroyalty.
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The reign of Jeh angir saw the fruition of the empire which Akbar has so
gloriously re -built out of the slender resources left to him by his ill -fated
father. During the reign of Akbar the empire has been established on such
secure foundations which were not to be shaken at least for a hundred
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47 4.2 EARLY CAREER OF JAHANGIR (1605 – 1627)
(1569 –1605): - Salim (Jahangir) was born on August 30, 1569. His
mother was the Rajput princess of Amber whom Akbar married in
1562. Akbar who lost all children in his early youth desired a heir who
should live to inherit his vast empire. With the blessings of Sheikh
Chishti, a son was born to him who was thus called Muhammed Sultan
Salim. The other two sons born later - Prince Murad and Prince Daniyal
died in prime youth owing to excessive drinking.
Akbar made arrangements for the education of Salim and a series of able
tutors were appointed to teach the prince Persian, Turki, Arabic and Hindi.
The most notable was Abdur Rahim Khan son of Bairam Khan who
influenced the prince the most.
Accord ing to the custom of the dynasty Salim was associated with the
work of military administration at an early age. In 1585 he was elevated
to the rank of 12000 in the imperial service and in the same year was
married to his cousin Man Bai Daughter of Raja Bhagwandas of Amber.
In addition to this he had a number of wives. Inspite of all the care which
his father took Prince Salim acquired all the evils of his age. He was a man
of very loose morals and was too much addicted to wine.
4.2.1 Salim’s Revolt 1599 -1604: -
Salim was anxious to grasp sovereign power and rose in revolt against his
father in 1599 when Akbar was away in the Deccan. He made an
unsuccessful attempt to seize Agra and set up an independent Government
at Allahabad. Akbar was obliged to conclude the siege of Asirgarh and
hasten to the north by the middle of 1601 but took a lenient view and
offered the rebel prince the governorship of Bengal and Orissa but failed
to win him. Salim further annoyed his father by securing the murder of
Adul Fazal a trusted counselor of Akbar. But Akbar still refrained from
taking military action against him as he was the only surviving son of
Akbar and was entitled to succeed him to the throne. A conspiracy was
hatched by Raja Man Singh and others to deprive Salim of his legitimate
right of succession by preferring the claim of the latter’s own son prince
Khusrav to the throne. For some time even Akbar rallied round this
thought but then gave up. The fear of being superceded by his own son
brought Salim to his senses. He hastened to Agra and sought forgiveness
from his father. Meanwhile Akbar’s health began to fail. There were
two parties at the court. One supporting Salim and the other his son
Khusrav. A few days before Akbar’s death Salim was nominated heir-
apparent to the throne. Salim ascended the throne in October 1605 after
the death of Akbar and assumed the title of Jahangir.
4.2.2 Early Measures : -
Soon after his accession to the throne Jahangir tried to win the hearts of
all the people by various measures. He released prisoners and struck
coins in his name. He issued 12 ordinances to be uniformly implemented
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48 I. Prohibition of cesses.
II. Regulations about highway robbery and theft
III. Free inheritance of property of deceased person
IV. Prohibition of sale of wine and of all kinds of intoxicating liquor
V. Abolition of inhuman corporal punishments
VI. Prohibition of forcible seizure of property
VII. Building of hospitals and appointment of physicians to attend the
sick
VIII. Prohibition of slaughter of animals on certain days
IX. Respec t pay to Sunday
X. General confirmation of mansabs and jagirs
XI. Confirmation of aima lands i.e., lands devoted to the purposes of
prayer and praise (of God)
XII. Amnesty to all prisoners in forts and prisons of all kinds.
He also set up a famous chain of justic e between the Shah Burj in the fort
of Agra and a stone pillar fixed on the banks of Jamuna to enable the
people to approach him without any servant Jahangir lost no time in
acquiring firm hold over the entire State machinery. He pardoned his
political opponents and accorded generous treatment to them. The few
changes that Jahangir effected in the offices of the state were intended to
secure him a band of supporters. He rewarded Bir Singh Bundela the
murderer of Abul Fazal with the dignity of Commander of three thousand
horses while Abdur Rahman was assigned the mansab of 2000. Mirza
Ghiyas Beg a Persian immigrant father of Noor Jahan received the office
of the imperial Dewan with the title of Itimad - Ud-Dula.
4.3 REBELLION OF PRINCE KHUSRAV (1606)
The prospects of a reign so well begun were marred by the rebellion of the
emperor’s eldest son prince Khusrav. He was a tall. handsome youth of
sharp intellect, refined tastes and blameless character. He was loved by the
courtiers and was popular even with the citizen s of the capital. Because of
these qualities he had become a serious candidate for sucession to the
throne after Akbar and had posed threat to his father Salim now the
emperor. He had been kept confined in the Agra fort by Jahangir. He
could not tolerate such humiliation. He still was lured by prospect of
sitting on the throne. In desperation he sought liberation from his father’s
confinement and planned to set himself free and make a bid for the throne.
He escaped from Agra and marched towards Lahore and rose in rebellion.
At Taran Taran the prince received the blessing and gift of Rs. 5000/ -
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49 same. Lahore was defended by Dilawar Khan hence could not be taken.
Jahangir himself marched to Lahore without delay with a large Army.
The prince’s troops were completedy defeated by the imperial forces near
Jullander. Khusrav fled towards Kabul but was captured. The prince and
his followers were brought before Jahangir. Cruel punishments were
inflict ed on his followers while Khusrav was blinded and imprisoned. He
died in confinement in 1622. Jahangir now turned to Guru Arjandev who
had blessed prince Khusrav and had given him monetary help. Jahangir
imposed a fine of Rs. 200,000/ - which the Guru refus ed to pay. He was
consequently put to death and his property was confiscated. The
execution of the sikh Guru was an impolitic step on the part of Jahangir
as it estranged the Sikhs till then a peace loving community and turned
them into foes of the empire.
4.3.1 War and Peace with Mewar : -
Mewar had always defied the power of the Mughals. During Akbar’s reign
Rana Pratap had carried on a heroic struggle with the empire. With all the
efforts Akbar could not conquer the whole of Mewar while Pratap was
able to recov er a considerable portion of lost territory before his death in
1597.His son Rana Amar Singh continued the policy of resistance to the
Mughals aggression.
Immediately after his accession to the throne Jahangir paid serious
attention to the subjugation of Mewar. Its conquest became a matter of
prestige with him. He ordered the dispatch of a military expedition to
Mewar under the command of his son Parvez. Amar Singh bravely
defended his territory and fought a tough battle which proved to be
indecisive. The Mughals armies were recalled by Jahangir from Mewar on
the sudden outbreak of Khusrav’s rebellion. Two years later Jahangir
again turned his attention towards Mewar. From 1607 to 1615 he sent as
many as four expeditions for its subjugation 1608, 1609, I6II and finally in
1613 Jahangir made up his mind to launch a ceaseless military campaign
against Mewar under his personal supervision. Prince Khurram was given
the exclusive command of the army of invasion. He was resisted by some
of the ablest military offic ers’ towns. He cut off his supplies in order to
starve the enemy. In constant struggle both sides suffered heavily but
Rajputs suffered greater losses on account of famine and pestilence. The
resources of Mewar were exhausted and it was impossible to prolo ng the
struggle. Amer Singh opened negotiations with prince Khurram. A treaty
of peace was concluded between the Rana and the emperor in 1615. Rana
recognized emperor’s suzerainty and promised to supply a contingent for
imperial service. The entire territo ry seized by the Mughals since the days
of Akbar was restored to him but the fort of Chittor was not to be
strengthened or repaired. The Rana was not obliged to attend the imperial
darbar in person, he would be represented by his son who would become a
mansabdar of 5000. The Rana would not be required to enter matrimonial
alliance with the mughals.
No wonder the treaty of peace with Mewar was a great landmark in the
history of the Mughal rule in India. The Rajput policy of Jahangir was munotes.in

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50 crowned with success. Jahangir and prince Khurram deserve the credit for
declaring extremely lenient terms to their foes who had fought against
them and their ancestors Akbar and Babur for over three quarters of a
century. Mewar enjoyed complete autonomy during the reign of Jahangir
and Shahjahan and professed loyalty to the Mughal throne till
Aurangzeb’s fanaticism and suspicions forced them into open rebellion.
4.3.2 Check Your Progress
1. What were the early measures of Jahangir?
2. Why did Prince Khusrav rebel against Jahangir?
4.4 JAHANGI R AND THE DECCAN
It will be remembered that Akbar had conquered the whole of
Khandesh and a part of Ahmednagar and had hastily concluded his Decan
campaign with the siege of Asirgrah in 1601 on account of Salim’s
rebellion. It was now Jahangir’s task to attempt the conquest and
annexation of rest of Ahmednagar and if possible of the remaining states
of Bijapur and Golkunda.
4.4.1 Ahmednagar :-
Akbar had conquered only a part of the Nizamshahi kingdom of
Ahmednagar including the capital town while the major portio n of the
state remained with the Nizamsahi nobles. The main obstacle in the way
was Malik Amber the Abyssinian minister and general of the
Nizamshahi kingdom. He is one of the greatest statesman that medieval
India produced. After the death of Akbar he took up arms against the
Mughals and took away the territories including the historic fort of the
Ahmednagar from the Mughals. It was a blow to the Mughal
prestige.Malik Amber was not a man of ordinary talents. He had both
military and administrative talents. He had remodeled the revenue system
of his state on the principles of Raja Todarmal. He was a master of the
military tactics of the Marathas and had trained the Marathas in the
Ahmednagar army in guerilla war fare. He developed a system of fighting
well s uited to the hilly regions of the Maratha country. He also
strengthened his position by organizing an anti -Mughal coalition with
the neighbouring sultanates of Bijapur and Golkunda forces. His tolerance
won for him the support of the Hindus also to Fight with such a
formidable enemy was no easy task.
Jahangir’s Deccan policy was the continuation of his father’s Policy. From
1608 onwards large Mughal armies led successfully by Abdur Rahim
Khan –i- Khanna, prince Parvez and Khan Jahan Lodhi failed to produce
the desired result. The Mughal offensive dashed vainly against guerilla
tactics of Malik Amber’s and Maratha troops who avoided pitched
battles. The repeated failures of the Mughal before Malik Amber affected
the Mughal prestige. On the advice of Noor Jaha n Jahangir decided to
place prince Khurram the incharge of the Deccan.He reached Burhanpur
the Mughal headquarter in the south in march 1617 and immediately munotes.in

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51 opened negotiation with Malik Amber. Overawed by superior force Malik
Amber accepted the terms of treaty with prince Khurram according to
which he ceded Ahmednagar and some other strong holds to the Mughals
and the Nizamshahi ruler acknowledged Jahangir as his suzerain. The
treaty was hailed at the Mughal court. For this victory Prince Khurram
also hono ured by the emperor of with the Title of Shahjahan. But he
merely gathered the political fruits of previous campaigns.
The Mughal victory however, was not of permanent nature.Within two
years Malik Amber again raised his head. He occupied much of the lost
territory and in 1620 laid siege to the fort of Ahmedagar with the
assistance of the troops of Bijapur and Golkunda. Shahajahan took the
command of the Deccan campaign for the second time. The same results
followed. On the arrival of the imperial troops Ma lik Amber raised the
siege of Ahmednagar and concluded peace. Shahajahan was anxious to
bring the Deccan campaign to a speedy conculsion. Owing to Noor
Jahan’s changed attitude towards him he hurriedly concluded peace with
Malik Amber and his allies in 1621. Malik Amber promised to restore
the territories occupied by him from the Mughals during the previous two
years. Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkunda agreed to pay Fifty laks rupees
as tribute.
Thereafter Malik Amber took advantage of the revolt of Shah Jahan
(1623) to consolidate his position. He did not allow respite to the Mughal
armies in occupation of the territories of Ahmednagar till his death in
1626. The Deccan problem remained as unsolved as ever. The victory of
the Mughal over Ahmednagar was more apparent than real.It has been
justly remarked by Dr.Beni Prasad “Nothing could conceal the stern
reality that the expenditures of millions of rupees and thousands of lives
had not advanced the Mughal frontiers a single line beyond the limits of
1605.”
4.4.2 Loss of Kandhar :- On account of its situations and importance
both commercial and strategic was Kandhar was a constant source of
friction between the Mughals and the Persians. It has been noted
elsewhere that it was acquired by Akbar in 1595 and it remained a part of
the mughal empire until the death of Akbar. The Persians never forgot the
loss of Khandhar. Jahangir’s contemporary on the throne of Persia was
Shah Abbas. The revolt of prince Khusrav at the beginning of the
Jahangir’s reign gave the Persians an opportunity to attack Kandhar but it
was gallantly repelled by Shahbeg Khan.
Shah Abbas who was a skilled diplomat expressed his disapproval of the
conduct of his subjects and informed Jahangir that he had a knowledge of
the affair, Jahangir accepted his explanation.The Persians, however did
not give up all hopes of regaining Kandhar.Shah Abbas having failed to
win the place by open war employed diplomacy to further his end. He sent
four diplomatic missions to the Mughal court In 1611, 1615, 1616 and
1620 w ith rich presents to please the Mughal Monarch and thereby putting
him of his guard. Taking advantage of the internal disorder in the empire
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52 Jahan the Persians besieged Kandhar in 1621 and finally took it in 1622.
Jahangir thought of elaborate preparations of war which he hoped to carry
right to the Persian capital but his plans were frustrated by Shah Jahan
who refused to lead the expendition as he knew that during his absence
from the capital Nur Jahan would do her best to ensure his exclusion
from the throne and push the claims of Shahryar her soninlaw. Thus
Kandhar was lost to the Mugals. Shah Abbas sent ambassador doz to
Jahangir saying that the Persian king had a rightful claim to Khandar but
expressed the hope that the two empire would remain friendly. Jahangir
accused the Shah of treachery. He ordered prince Parvez to recover the
fortress But this could not be done owing to Shah Jahan’s rebellions.
4.4.3 Nur-Jahan :-
Now we come to the most interesting part of Jahangir’s story. All the
remaining events as well as some of those already narrated are to be
connected with the advent of Nur Jahan Jahangir’s marriage with Nur
Jahan is one of the most important events in history of world. For f ull I5
years she stood forth as the most striking and most powerful personality in
the Mughal empire. She exercised tremendous influence on personal life
of Jahangir and also played significant role in shaping the events of his
regin.
Nur Jahan’s original name was Mehr -Un-Nisa. She was the daughter of a
Persian noble Mirza Ghiyas Beg who with his family.Migrated to India
during the reign of Akbar. She was born on the way to India at Kandhar
Mirza Ghiyas Beg was introduced to Akbar by a Merchant and Akbar
immediately admitted him into imperial service.He steadily rose in rank
and influence by virtue of his character and Scholarship.
Mehr -us-nisa grew up to be a charming girl and at the age of 17 was
married to Ali Quli Istajlu, a Persian adventurer better known as Sher
Afghan. After his marriage he was taken into imperial service and was
on the personal staff of prince Salim, On his accession to the throne
Jahangir appointed Sher Afghar faujdar of Bardwan (Bengal) and granted
him a Jagir there. Susoected of treasonable designs he was summoned by
the Governor of Bengal. At an interview there was scuffle and both were
killed in 1607. Mehr -un-Nisa the widow of Sher Afghan alongwith her
young daughter Ladli Begum was brought to the capital, Akber’s
Widow. In march 1611 that is four years after the death of her husband
Jahangir saw Mehr -ua-Nisa at the Navroz Festival was charmed by her
Beautiful appearance. He married her in May 1611 and made her his chief
queen giving her the little of Nur Jahan (light of the world) .

At the time of her marriage with Jahangir Nur Jahan was in her 35 th year
but she still possessed the beauty of her early youth. She proved to be an
intellectual with a political bent of mind. She took her keen interest in the
formulation of state policy .She could understand the intricate problem of
the state politics in an instant. Jahangir was so much impressed by her that munotes.in

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53 he made her a partner in the administrative of the state. He granted Nur
Jahan rights of soverignity and government. Coins were struck in her
name. On all the farmans also the name of Nur Jahan was jointly attached
along with the imperial signature. At last her authority reached such a pass
that the king was only in name.
Jahangir’s period of rule from I6II to his death in 1627 was marked by the
ascendancy of Nur Jahan in state affairs. This period of Nur Jahan’s
ascendancy can be divided into two parts.During the first part i.e. from
1611 to 1622 when Jahangir was at the helm of affairs, although he was
guided and influenced by Nur Jahan and her party called Nurjahan
Junta. While during the second part from I622 to I627 Nur Jahan was
completely dominating the imperial court.
During the first phase of her influence from 1611 to 1622 she secured high
positions for her father who got the t itle of Itimad -ud- Dula and was
given the mansab of 7000. Her brother As a Khan was promoted to the
rank of prime minister of the empire. In 1612 Asif Khan’s daughter
Arjuman Banu Begum better know as Mumtaz Mahal was married to
prince Khurram, the third s on of Jahangir and since then the prince
became a favourite of Nurjahan and rapidly rose into prominence at the
court as the prospective successor of Jahangir . For ten years this clique of
four supremely capable persons. (the queen, her father, brother and prince
Khurrum), practically ruled the empire and constituted the Nur Jahan
Junta. It was due to her influence that prince Khurrum was appointed to
command the Mewar and Deccan campaigns and was given the title Shah
Jahan. Gradually the influence of Nur Jahan over Jahangir increased so
much that he leaned more and more to ease and left administration
exclusively in her hands. To the good fortune of the people Nur Jahan
governed the country successfully with the able Assistance of the Nur
Jahan Junta.
The second phase of Nur Jahan’s ascendancy is from 1622 to 1627 which
is marked by complete authority in her hands. Jahangir’s health had begun
to fail. Unfortunately Nur Jahan’s mother Asmat begum who acted as her
counselor died in I62I and her husband Itimad -ud-Daula who was the
strongest pillar of the Nur Jahan Junta followed her in I622. Both these
deaths led to the breakup of the Nur Jahan Junta. Nur Jahan’s relations
with her brother Asaf Khan and his Son-in-law Shah Jahan were also
strained because in I6 2I she gave her daughter Ladli Begum (By Sher
Afghan) in marriage to prince Shahryar the youngest son of Jahangir and
now she began to back up her son-in-law for succession to the throne. The
queen and the prime minister did not see eye to eye with each other,
however, for the time being she was in a advantageous position because
the emperor fell virtually under her exclusive influence.
Nur Jahan’s excessive interference in the state affairs did have some bad
effects during this period. It will be remembere d that the Persians
captured Khandar in 1622 and Jahangir had ordered Shah Jahan to lead the
expedition for its recovery but Shah Jahan refused to move as he doubted
that his absence from the capital might be utilized by Nur Jahan who munotes.in

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54 prejudiced his claims to the throne and to strengthen those of her son -in-
law Shahryar. To a great extent Nur Jahan was responsible for the loss of
Kandhar in 1622. She was also responsible for two more rebellions during
this period. The first is Shah Jahan’s rebellion (1623 -1625) and the second
is Mahabat Khan’s rebellions in 1626.
4.4.4 Check Your Progress
1. Who was Malik Amber?
2. What is the meaning of Nur-Jahan?
4.5 SHAH JAHAN’S REBELLIONS (1623 -1625)
The estrangement between Nur Jahan and Shah Jahan had been growing
from 1620 onwards. Nur Jahan wanted to retains her political ascendancy
after Jahangir’s death through the installation of prince Shahryar as
emperor. At the same time Shah Jahan was ambitions to succeed his
father. Nur Jahan knew that Shah Jahan was a man of strong personal ity
and was not likely to share power with Nur Jahan if he succeeded in
securing the throne. Thus the issue of succession made them direct
opponents. Also Nur Jahan was liberal Shia and tolerant towards other
faiths.
Shah Jahan was a staunch Sunni. Increas ing Persian supremacy at the
court was not liked by him. Nur Jahan tried to disgrace Shah Jahan in the
eyes of Jahangir which compelled him to revolt against his father in
1623. At first he intended to march to Agra but an imperial army under the
command o f Mahabat Khan completely defeated him. He first proceeded
to the Deccan and was then driven to Bengal but unable to maintain his
control he returned to Deccan and for a few years wandered about
seeking the alliance of Malik Amber and others but finding th at with his
exhausted resources Further resistance was not possible. He made
submission to the emperor in 1625. Shah Jahan’s rebellion which lasted
for three years convulsed empire with a civil war causing tremendous loss
to the royal treasury and creating serious law and order problems for the
government. This happened primarily because of Nur Jahan’s excessive
indulgence in power politics.
4.6 MAHABAT KHAN’S REBELLIONS (1626)
Mahabat Khan had been responsible for many imperial victories. During
Shah Jahan’s rebellions his prestige had increased considerably. His
growing fame and power was not liked by Nur Jahan. She could not
tolerate the existence of an indomitable personality like Mahabat Khan.
On the other hand Mahabat Khan was equally ambitious and did not like
to take orders from any one except his real sovereign Jahangir. Moreover
Mahabat Khan supported the claim of prince Parvez the eldest son of
Jahangir to the throne. Nur Jahan began to hatch a plot to bring about the
fall of Mahabat Khan. She framed c harge of disloyalty against him Which
forced Mahabat Khan to rebel. By a bold coup he made Jahangir a munotes.in

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55 prisoner on the bank of river Jhelum while the emperor was on his way to
Kabul. Nur Jahan manged to escape but all her attempts to rescue her
husband by f orce having failed. She joined him in confinement.She and
her husband were finally able to effect their escape to Rohtas. Mahabat
Khan was forgiven by the emperor and was ordered to proceed to Thatta
where Shah Jahan was again on war path. He obeyed the or der but instead
of fighting made peace with Shah Jahan.
By this time Jahangir’s health was completely shattered. He went to
Kashmir in March 1627 but even Kashmir failed to help the restoration of
health so he returned to Lahore. While he was the way, he w as taken ill
and he died on 28 October, 1627. He was buried in a beautiful garden at
Shahdara near Lahore.
Jahangir is one of the most interesting figures in Mughal History.All
accounts agree that he was intelligent, shrewd and capable of under
Standing th e most complex problems of the state without any difficulty he
was a capable general who could plan and lead military campaign. He was
stern in administering justice. Law and order were not neglected and he
proved to be a fairly successful ruler and procur e the murder of Abul
Fazal and also pity the royal elephant because they shivered in winter then
they sprinkled themselves with cold water.
Jahangir was highly educated and cultured prince. He had mastered
Persian and Turki language. His memoirs entitled T uzk-i- Jahangiri is an
excellent example of his literary attainment. He was fond of beauties of
nature. His intimate knowledge of the flora and fauna of Kashmir and
other parts of Hindustan will cause surprise to a naturalist in these days.
Mughal painting and music reached high standard under his patronage.
He took delight in laying out fine gardens. Some of the gardens in
Kashmir and Lahore were laid out at his orders. He fully encouraged the
growth of Persian literature.
These noble qualities of Jahangir were to some extent neutralized by his
habit of drinking. As he advanced in years his appetite for liquor grew. He
frankly relates in his memories that he took twenty cups of liquor every
day. Such an addiction completely undermined his health.
Another weakness of his character was his willingness to allow himself to
be controlled by others. At first he was controlled by the Nur Janta and
subsequently by the ambitious queen which marred his honest efforts to
maintain the principles and dominoes of his grea t father, The declines of
physical and mental vigour was the chief cause of the two formidable
rebellions of his reign.
In conclusion it may be said that like most rulers Jahangir had his virtues
and faults. To quote Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “No doubt there is much in his
character that deserves to be condemned but there is a great deal that
entitles him to be placed among the most fascinating personalities of
Indian history”.
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56 4.7 SHAH JAHAN (1627 – 1658)
4.7.1 Early life and Accession:
Jahangir had four sons- Khusrau, Parvez, Khurram, and Shahryar. Prince
Khurram later styled as Shah Jahan was born of a Rajput princess Jagat
Gosain on January 5 I592 at Lahore. While young he was a favourite of
his Grandfather Akbar. The prince was given best education and military
training. He was very intelligent and smart. He possessed a strong will
and character. He enjoyed a reputation for being a total abstainer from
alcohol. Early during his father’s reign prince Khurram was marked out
for the throne. In 1607 he was appointed a mansabdar of 8,000 zat and
5,000 sawar. In 1608 the jagir of Hissar Firoza was conferred on him. In
1612 he was married to Arjumand Banu Begum better known as Mumtaz
Mahal who was the daughter of Asif Khan brother of Nur Jahan. It was at
this time that Nur Jahan was fast raising into prominence. As mentioned
in the last lesson Prince Khurram become a prominent member of the
Nur Jahan Junta.He was looked upon as the future ruler of the country and
his Mansab was raised to 30,000 zat and 20,000 sawar.
He took part in a number of important expeditions during his Father’s
reign. His success against Mewar and the way he had succeeded in
dictating terms to Malik Amber in the Deccan convinced Jahangir that the
prince had an aptitude for military generalship. He bestowed upon him the
title of Shan Jahan to mark his pleasure.
But there was a sudden fall in the fortune of prince Khurram after the
marriage of prince Shahryar with Ladli Begum daughter of Nur Jahan in
1620. Nur Jahan now backed the claims of Shahryar which forced Shah
Jahan to revolt in 1623. Eventually he submitted to his father in 1626.
Prince Khusrau who had revolted against Jahangir in 1606 was put to death
by prince Khurram in 1622. Parvez died in 1626 therefore when Jahangir
died in 1628 Nur Jahan made a final bid at that time was in the Deccan.
Fortunately for him his father -in-Law Asaf Khan won over nobles to his
side and proclaimed Dawar Bakash son of Khusrau as king so that the
throne was not left vacant. Shah Jahan hurried to Delhi from the Deccan.
Shahryar proclaimed himself emperor at Lahore. The rival forces of
Shahryar and Asif Khan met near Lahore. Shahryar was defeated, blinded
and imprisoned. Shah Jahan marched to Agra and ascended the throne in
February 1628. All his possible rivals including Dawar Baksh and
Shahryar were killed. Truly Shah Jahan waded the throne through the
blood of his own kinsmen which is an indelible stain on his memory. Nur
Jahan was pensioned off to live in retirement in Lahore where she built
her husband’s mausol eum, carried on the works of charity and died in
1645.There were two great rebellions at the commencement of Shah
Jahan’s reign.
4.7.2 Bundela rebellion (I625 AD): -
In the first year of his accession to the throne Shah Jahan had to face the
rebellion of Jujhar S ingh son of Bir Singh Bundela who had slain Abul munotes.in

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57 Fazal At the instigation of prince Salim. The Bundelas had been
committing Many cruelties against their neighbours. They had increased
their power and riches by blackmailing the neighbours. Jujhar Singh
show ed signs of rebellion therefore Shah Jahan lost no time in making
preparations to deal with the rebellion. Mahabat Khan was ordered to put
down the rebellion in Bundelkhand. The Bundela territory Was ordered to
be surrounded from three different directions .Jujhar Singh who never
imagined the Mughal attack on such a vast scale was taken aback. In the
battle that ensued his fort was captured and nearly two to three thousand
of his men were slain. At last, he offered submission. He was required to
pay I,000 gold mohars, 40 elephants and 15 lakhs as fine. He surrendered
a part of his jagir and was ordered to keep in readiness 2,000 cavalry and
2,000 infantry to aid the Deccan expedition of the Mughals.A few years
after his first revolt Jhujir Singh rebelled agai n in 1635. An imperial force
under the command of prince Aurangzeb crushed the rebellion. Jhujar
Singh was killed by the Gonds in a chance skirmish in 1635.
4.7.3 Rebellion of Khan Jahan Lodhi (1629) :-
Much more serious than the rebellion of Jujhur Singh was that of Khan
Jahan Lodhi. He was one of the premier Mughal Officers and Governor of
the Deccan. He had been associated with prince Pervez there. But like
many other Afghans under Mughal dominance he cherished dreams of
Independence. He entered into an allian ce with the rule of Ahmednagar
and revolted. Shah Jahan realized the gravity of the situation because if
Khan Jahan Lodhi could win over all the rules of Deccan to his side and
lead their combined troops of the Mughal empire. In 1629 Shah Jahan
marched personally to Deccan and organized a comprehensive plan of
action against the rebels. Chased from place to place, deserted by his allies
and having lost his friends and relations in battle the Afghan chief fought
desperately against the imperialists for three years but was ultimately
defeated at Tal Sehonda near Kalinjar.
4.8 SUPPES SION OF THE PORTUGUESE (1631 – 1632)
The Portuguese were long settled in the Eastern part of Bengal. Hugli was
the most Important centre of Portugese trade. They often captured orphan
Children of Hindus and Mohammadans and forcibly converted them to
Christianity. Slave trade and piracy were important sources of their
income. Two slave girls of Queen Mumtaz Mahal were also abducted by
them. Hugli Kasim Khan the Governor of Bengal to puni sh the Portugese
besieged Hugli by a large Mughal army. After a stiff resistance the
Portuguese surrendered. Many of them were killed and a large number of
them Were taken as prisoners to Agra where they were given a choice
between conversion to Islam and imprisonment. Some of them became
Muslims and other died suffering.
4.8.1 North West Frontier Policy of Shah Jahan :-
Kandhar was lost of the Mughals in 1622 in the reign of Jahangir.
However, Khandar was recognized to be an indispensable part of the munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707 CE)
58 Mughal empi re and Shah Jahan very much realized that the strategic and
commercial importance of khandar required that it should be won back
from the Persians.It was put under the supervision of Sayyad Khan the
Mughal Governor of Kabul who was asked to establish secre t contacts
with Ali Mardan Khan the Persian governor of Khandar and tempt him to
surrender Khandar. Fortunately for the Mughals there was a
misunderstanding between Ali Mardan Khan and Shah Abbas the Shah of
Persia and agreed to surrender the fort to the M ughals in 1638.Ali Mardan
Khan was paid a lakh of rupees as compensation and later appointed the
Governor of Kashmir and the Punjab.
Though in 1638 the Mughal emperor got possession over Kandhar but the
Persians had never left the idea to recapture it. Shah Abbas II who had
came to the throne in 1642 made vigorous efforts to recapture Kandhar
which was a valuable possession from commercial and strategic point of
view. The courtiers of Shah Jahan unwisely advised him to postpone the
work of opposing the Persians till the season was over. The result was that
the persian forces of Shah occupied the fort in February 1649 owing
largly to the weakness of the incapable Mughal commander of Kandhar
Daulat Khan. Thus Kandhar was recovered by the Persians after eleven
years. Shah Jahan made great attempts to recover kandhar and sent three
expeditions for this purpose in 1649, 1652 and 1653 but his efforts bore
no fruit.
The first expedition was sent in 1649 and the command was given to
prince Aurangzeb and Sadullah Khan . Khandar was attacked in May 1649
but the attempt failed before the superior military preparations and the
skill of the Persians. The Mughals suffered heavy losses. Shah Jahan was
not ready to abandon his design of recapturing kandhar and after three
years second expedition was sent to lay siege to kandhar, Once again
under Prince Aurangzeb and Sadullah Khan in May 1652. The Persians
had a powerful park of artillery while the Mughal artillery failed them set
a crtical moment. The Mughals also found it difficult for the fear of the
persian guerillas to move out in the country side in search of provisions.
Therefore theywere compelled to raise the siege.Though prince
Aurangzeb tried to persuade him to give him a little more time the
emperor was wiser not to d o so. Auranzeb was blamed for the failure of
the expedition.
The third and the last expedition for the recovery of kandhar was led by
prince Dara in 1653. This time thorough preparations were made for the
siege of kandhar. Dara led a huge army of 70,000 ca valry 5,000 infantry
and 10,000 artillary men. Two crore of rupees were sanctioned by Shah
Jahan for meeting the expenses of the campaign.The Mughals attacked
the fort four times but each time they were confidently resisted by the
Persians. Shortage of munitious and supplies crippled the Mughals. They
were compelled to raise the siege. Kandhar was lost to the Mughals for
good.
The three futile sieges ruined Mughal prestige in the eyes of all Asia. The
belief regarding the invincibility of the imperial Mugha ls armies was
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59 crores of rupees that is more than half of the Annual incomplete of the
state.
The flow of trade as also the security of the Frontiers of Baluchistan and
Kabul remained exposed to the Persian threat. This kept the rulers of
Delhi in a state of serious anxiety and suspense.
4.8.2 Central Asian Policy of Shah Jahan :-
The Mughal emperors also cherished the desire of conquering and
occupying Trans -Oxiana, their ancestral home land in Central Asia. Babur
it will be remembered made many un- successful attempts to conquer
Samarqand the capital of Timur. Humayun’s efforts also proved futile.
Akbar and Jahangir had not been in a position to establish the Mughal rule
in that region. While Shah Jahan ever since the beginning of his reign had
set his heart upon the conquest of Balkh and Badakshan.It was very
diffcuilt to lead large army through the lofty ranges of the Hindukush.
But Shah Jahan did not consider any obstacle. He found an oppor tunity to
launch the Central Asian campaign in 1646 when there was a civil war
going on in the ruling house of that region. Prince Murad the youngest
son of Shah Jahan an Ali Mardan Khan were sent with a large army
who occupied Balkh and Badakeshan in 1646 . A man of ease loving habits
prince Murad could not bear the hardships of camp life and was sick of
the un -congenial climate of Balkh. Without the permission of shah Jahan
he left Balkh and came back to India leaving the army leader less. Shah
Jahan then sent Sadullah Khan to Balkh to set things right and in the next
year Prince Aurangzeb was dispatched to Balkh with a large army. One
great difficulty of the Mughals was that they were outnumbered by the
enemy. Food and water were scarce. Harsh central Asian climate put too
much strain on the eas -loving Mughal in the face of which Auranzeb
inspite of his sincere and earnest efforts could achieve nothing and had to
retreat to India after suffering terrible hardships.
It cannot be denied that the Central Asian policy of Shah Jahan failed
miserably. As Sir J.N. Sarkar remarks, “thus ended Shah Jahan’s fatuous
war in Balkh – a war in which the Indian treasury spent four crores of
rupees in two years and realized from the conquered country the revenue
of two and half lakhs only.Not an inch of territory was annexed, no
dynasty changed and no enemy replaced by an ally on the throne of
Balkh. The grain stored in Balkh fort worth five lakhs and the provisions
in Other forts as well were all abandoned……………….five hundred
soldiers fell in the battle and ten times that number were slain by cold
and snow on the mountains. Such is the terrible price that aggressive
imperialism makes India pay for wars across the north Western Frontier,
“There was no practical reason for under taking such an adventure because
even if conquered the administration and defence of the two provinces
would have been difficult and costly. The prestige of the Mughal Empire
received serious setback. The Persians took advantage of this situation and
captu red Kandhar in 1649.

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60 4.8.3 Deccan Policy of Shah Jahan :-
Shah Jahan Deccan policy was a continuation of the traditional policy of
expansion followed Akbar and Jahangir. When Shah Jahan ascended the
Throne the Mughals had only whole of Khandesh and a part of
Ahmednagar under them, Jahangir’s attempts to conquer Ahmednagar
were checked by Malik Amber. Bijapur and Golkunda continued to enjoy
independence.
It may be mentioned here that while Akbar and Jahangir were actuated by
purely political motives in their agg ressive policy against the Shia
Sultanates Shah Jahan’s were against Shia States were outcome of his
religious zeal mixed with Political prejudice.
Shah Jahan was more successful in his object than his predecessors firstly
because he was more acquainted with the affairs of the Deccan and
secondly Malik Ambar who had been the main obstacle in the way was no
more alive.
4.8.4 Annexation of Ahmednagar :-
The Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmednagar because of its proximity to the
Mughal Frontier in the south was the first t o be reckoned with. After the
death of Malik Ambar his son Fateh khan had strained relations with the
Sultan of Ahmednagar. Fateh Khan opened negotiations with the Mughals
and under the instruction of the Mughal emperor captured the Sultan and
put him in p rison and ultimately got him murdered. His son was raised to
the throne of Ahmednagar.Though he acknowledged formal Mughal
suzerainty, Fateh Khan was not loyal to the Mughals also. When the
Mughals besieged the fortress of Daulatabad in 1631 he at first turned
against the Mughals but was soon won over by them with a bribe of ten
lakhs of rupees and surrendered the fortress. The minor Sultan Hussain
Shah was sent to Gwalior as prisoner. The Nizamshahi dynasty came to an
and in 1633. Fateh Khan entered the im perial service and was granted a
liberal salary.
The kingdom of Ahmednagar ceased to exist but there was still no peace
because its western districts remained for someyears under the control of
Maratha chief named Shahaji Bhonsle father of Shivaji. He plac ed another
boy of the Royal family on the throne and initiated a fight on his behalf.
However, even he had to surrender to Shah Jahan in 1636. This finally
ended the war with Ahmednagar and its territory was shared by
Shahjahan and the Sultan of Bijapur.
4.8.5 Bijapur and Golkunda :-
The end of Ahmednagar was the prelude to the submission of Bijapur
and Golkanda. These two sultanates now became main targets of the
Mughal imperialist. The rulers of these two states had secretly helped
Shahji who made an attempt to set up a Nizamsha boy as Sultan of the
now defunct kingdom of Ahmednagar. This enraged Shah Jahan and he
asked both the states to acknowledge his suzerainty and to send regular munotes.in

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61 tributes. Shah jahan personally marched to the Deccan and reached
daulatabad i n 1636 in order to press these demands. The two states were
informed that if they refused to accept the demands their territories would
be attacked.
The ruler of Golkanda Abdulah Qutb Shah submitted without resistance
and agreed to pay tributes, to read khutba in the name of Shah Jahan
and to strike coins in his name. He also agreed to assist the Mughal army
in its campaign against Bijapur Acceptance of this treaty put and end to
the sovereignty of Kutab Shah and enhanced the prestige of the Mughal
sovereig n.
The Sultan of Bijapur Mohammad Adil Shah refuse to submit.his
kingdom was attacked by Mughal armies from three sides the sultan was
forced to sue for peace in May 1636. He acknowledged the suzerainty,
agreed to pay an indemnity of 20 lakhs of Rupees, promised not to attack
Golkanda which was under imperial protection. He further promised not
to assist Shahji Bhonsle.”Thus after 40 years of strife” (1595 to 1636)
writes Sir J.N. Sarkar”the affairs of the Deccan were at last settled. The
position of the em peror was asserted beyond challenge, his boundries
defined and his suzerainty over the Sultan Kingdom formally established.
Prince Aurangzeb was appointed the victory of Deccan in 1636 and he
occupied the post for 8 years (1636 -1644). Khirki the new Nizams hahi
capital was rechristened Aurangabad and made the headquarter of the
Viceroy. Aurangzeb was again appointed Viceroy in 1653 and he held this
office till his departure for Northern India in 1658.
4.8.6 Check Your Progress
1. Describe the early life of Shah Jahan .
2. Comment on the Central Asian Policy of Shah Jahan.
4.9 AURANGZEB’S FIRST VICEROYLTY (1636 -1644)
During these years the young Viceroy was engaged in suppressing the
enemies of the empire. His most noteworthy exploit was the conquest of
Baglana a small region lying between Maharashtra and Gujarat and
compelled Shahji to submit to him and surrender certain forts.
Aurangzeb resigned in 1644 after which he was appointed governor of
Gujarat in 1645 and then sent on expedition to Balkh, Bedakahan and
Kandhar which we have noted ended in Failure.
4.9.1 Aurangzeb’s Second Viceroyalty (1653 -1658): -
In 1653 Aurangzeb was again appointed Viceroy of the Deccan. After his
resignation in 1644 the administration of the Deccan had fallen into
confusion and the economic condition had become worst. This was
because of the neglect of Govermental affairs by corrupt officers therefore
his first concern was to improve the finances of the Deccan. Oppression
and misrule had led to neglect of agriculture so that there were many tracts
lying f allow. Aurangzeb was fortunate to receive valuable help from an munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707 CE)
62 able Persian revenue officer Murshid Quli Khan who was a man of great
administrative ability and financial genius. He Introduced the same
revenue system in the Deccan as was done by Todarmal i n the North.
Advances were given to the agriculturists to buy implements and seeds.
Efficient and honest persons were appointed as administrators and
consequently the tone of administration improved.
After organizing the internal administration Aurangzeb t urned his
attention towards destroying the independence of the rich Shia states of
Bijapur and Golkunda. He wanted the extension of imperial territory and
the wealth and resources of these rich kingdom.
4.9.2 Golkonda :-
It was not difficult to find an excuse for an attack on Golkunda. The state
had failed to pay the annual tributes as agreed by the treaty of 1636.
Moreover, Sultan’s powerful minister Mir Jumla who was not on good
terms with his master secured the Mughal protection. Mir Jumla’s family
had been arrested by the Sultan. This gave Aurangzeb an opportunity to
attack Golkunda and he marched upon Golkunda and besieged it in
February 1656. Hyderabad one of the richest cities of India was
plundered. Aurangzeb’s ambition was nothing short of complete
annexa tion of the kingdom. His eyes were also on the entire treasure. But
the intervention of Shah Jahan prevented it and Aurangzeb raised the siege
and made peace in March 1646.The Sultan paid war indemnity and
arrears of tribute amounting to one crore of rupee s. If Shah Jahan nad not
intervened the Qutubshahi dynasty might well have been ended just then.
Mir Jumla entered the Mughal service and became the prime minister of
the empire.
4.9.3 Bijapur :-
Aurangzeb next turned to Bijapur. The death of its able ruler Moha mmed
Adil Shah in 1656 had caused confusion in the state. Aurangzeb took
advantage of this situation and obtained the permission of Shah Jahan to
invade Bijapur under the pretext that the new ruler of Bijapur was not the
son of the Sultan. Bijapur was an independent ally of the Mughals and
the Mughal emperor had no right to interfere in its internal matters.
Therefore war against Bijapur was ‘wholly untighteous.’Mir Jumla joined
Aurangzeb and the kingdom of Bijapur was invaded in January 1657. The
forts of Bidar and Kalyani fell to the Mughals by August 1657. The
Adil Shah troops fought bravely in defence of their master and their
guerillas greatly harassed the invaders but they had steadily to yield
ground and the end of the kingdom itself seemed imminent. But
fortunately for them an Adil Shahi envoy at the Mughal Court secured
Shah Jahan’s intervention. The emperor ordered aurangzeb to make
peace. The Sultan had to cede the forts of Bidar, Klyani and Parenda to
the Mughals and had to pay a sum of one crore rupees as war indemnity.
The timely conclusion of peace with Bijapur and Golkunda proved helpful
to Aurangzeb in fighting the war of succession which broke out between
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63 Shah Jahan is blamed for having lost what Aura ngzeb had nearly secured
for the Mughal empire. But Shah Jahan seems to have been opposed to the
policy of annexation. Like Ala -ud-din- khilji he wanted the Mughal flag
to fly dominant all over India.He tolerated the existence of the tributary
vassal states and while anxious to impose his supremacy over them he
abstained from interfering in their internal affairs. He did not want any
responsibility that direct annexation would involve.
4.9.4 War of Succession :-
Shah Jahan had four sons Dara the governor of the P unjab, Murad of
Gujarat, Aurangzeb of the Deccan and Shuja of Bengal. Shah Jahan had
given clear indications that he wished to leave the crown to Dara. When
Shah Jahan fell sick in September 1657 the struggle for throne began. In
November 1657 Shuja crowne d himself in Bengal and began to
advance towards Agra at the head of an army but he was defeated by an
army to Dara and was forced to retire to Bengal. In December 1657 Murad
crowned himself in Gujarat and then formed an alliance with
Aurangzeb.They entere d into an agreement to partition the empire. The
combined troops of Aurangzeb and Murad marchad towards the North and
fought two battles against the imperial armies of Dara. The battle of
Dharmat (April 1658) and battle of Samugarh (May, 1658) in which tha t
were victorious. The fort of Agra was occupied by them and Shah Jahan
was made a prisoner. One by one Aurangzeb managed to dispose of all
his brothers including Murad and ascended the throne in July, 1658.
The reign of Shah Jahan is usually considered to have been the golden age
of Mughal rule in India. The 30 years of Shah Jahan’s rule found the
empire at its zenith in terms of prosperity though not in extent. On the
whole they were years of peace. There was no external threat to India.
India’s export trade with Western Asia and Europe led to economic
properity of the state. It was marked by pomp and splendour which were
amply attested by brilliant productions in architecture like the magnificent
Taj Mahal, Pearl Mosque, Diwan -e-Khan ,Diwan -I-am and the celebrated
Peacock Throne.There was progress in literature also, yet his rule is not
without contrast. It was an epoch of grandeur not altogether un-mixed
with symptoms of decay. The signs of military in efficiency of the
Mughal empire had appeared in Shah Jahan’s reign behind the apparent
prosperity of the empire there were serious maladies in the economic
syatem. The burden of taxation was too heavy for the agriculturists and the
manufactures. The misrule of the provincial Governors often deprived
the peasants and artisans of their necessities of life. In short the reign of
Shah Jahan in many respects resembles the reign of Louis XIV of
France.
4.9.5 Check Your Progress
1. Who introduced the revenue system in the Deccan?
2. Comment on the war of succession among Aurang zeb and his
brothers.
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Medieval India ( 1526CE -1707 CE)
64 4.10 SUMMARY
The reign of Jehangir saw the fruition of the empire which Akbar has so
gloriously re -built out of the slender resources left to him by his ill -fated
father. During the reign of Akbar the empire has been established on such
secure foundations which were not to be shaken at least for a hundred
years. Later his son Shahjahan carried for the great task and Aurangzeb
also ruled for quite a long time.

4.11 QUESTIONS
1. How far was Nur Jahan responsible for the political unrest during the
reign of Jehangir?
2. Review the North -West Frontier and Central Asian policies of
Shah Jahan.
3. Write notes on:
a) Jahangir.
b) Nur Jahan
c) Deccan policy of Shah Jahan.
4.12 REFERENCE S
1. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.

2. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses Medieval Indian Ideas and institutions, Pune,
1981.

3. Chitins K. N. - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.

4. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : From
the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education.

5. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.

6. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 1965.

7. Frazes R. W., 'Literary History of India, London 1 898.

8. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.

9. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of India,
Delhi, 1984
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65 5
FOUNDATION, EXPANSION AND
DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL RULE - V

(a) India on the eve of Mughal Rule, Invasion of Babur
(b) Humayun, Shershah and Akbar
(c) Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
Unit Structure:
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Early Life And Accession of Aurangzeb
5.3 War on the Eastern Front (1661 to 1666)
5.4 Aurangzeb and the Deccan
5.5 Conquest of Golkunda
5.6 Maratha
5.7 Summary
5.8 Questions
5.9 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
 To elaborate Aurangzeb’s war of Eastern front.
 To Explain Deccan policy of Aurangzeb.
 To study Mughal Maratha relations.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Aurangzeb son of Shah Jahan was the last great Mughal emperor of India.
He ruled for 50 years. His reign can be divided into two parts Of about
25 years each. During the first 25years, i.e. from I658 To I68I he lived in
the North and his attention wad concentrated In the affairs of Northern
India while South figured as negligible and far off factor. While during the
second half i.e. from I68I to I707. He lived in south India concentrating all
his energies in the affairs of the Deccan thereby neglecting the
administration of the North and Consequently plunging the whole of it
into disorder, and anarchy. In this lesson we shall study the important
developments in the first 25 years of his reign and in the next lesson the
study of the second half of his reign would be made. munotes.in

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66 5.2 EARLY LIFE AND ACCESSION OF AURANGZEB
After winning the war of succession to which a reference has been made
in last lesson, Aurangzeb ascended The throne in July I658 immediat ely
after occupying Agra but his formal accession took place in June, I659.
The coronation was celebrated with pomp and magnificence. He assumed
the title of Alamgir The Nobility and the army at the capital and in the
provinces accepted his authority witho ut protest, Aurangzed fought two
frontier Wars – in the North East and in the North West.
5.3 WAR ON THE EASTERN FRONT (I66I TO I666)
On the North Eastern border since I639 there had been no disorder as
riven Bar Nadi had been recognised as the boundary betwee n the Mughal
and Ahom territories The Ahoms were a people of Mongoloid origin and
had established their Rule in Eastern and Central Assam since thirteenth
century. They Had adopted hindu religion and customs. Taking
advantage of the war Of succession among the Mughal princes the Ahoms
occupied Gauhati. After freeing himself from the civil war at home,
Aurangzeb ordered Mir Jumla the Governor of Bengal to lauch a
campaign for the Conquest of Assam. He started at the head of a powerful
army in November I66I. His early operations were successful. He
conquered both Coach Bihar and Assam and reached Garhgaon the
capital of the Ahom kingdom in March, I662. The Ahoms offered little
resistance and left their capital and property to the mercy of the
imperialists who got enormous spoils. But the Mughals failed to maintain
their hold over Assam for during the rainy season the country was flooded
and the communications were cut off. A large number of Mughal Soldiers
died of starvation. The Ahoms took the offensive and be gan to harass the
Mughals whose sufferings increased owing to the outbreak of pestilence in
their camp. After the rains Mir Jumla resumed the offensive. He himself
was attacked by fever but still he pressed on. At last the Anoms sued for
peace and a treaty was made with them in December,I662. According to
the treaty the Ahoms king offered to pay a large indemnity. The mughals
were to occupy more than half the Province of Darrang, rich in elephants.
This success had caused great hardships to the Mughals and loss of many
lives including that of Mir Jumla one of Aurangzeb’s best general who
died on 30 March on his way back to Dacca. However, a few years latter
the Ahoms recovered their lost provinces including Gauhati. Eamrupa
ceased to be a part of the Mughal empire. The only outcome of this long
warfare was that the ruler of Cooch Bihar acknowledged the nominal
suzerainty of the Mughal empire as a price for the maintenance of Peace
along his borders.
After Mir Jumla’s death, Shaista Khan was appointed as the Governor of
Bengal. He drove away the Portugues pirates who were growing bold day
by day, annexed the island of Sondip in the Bay of Bengal and conquered
Chittagong in I666 from the king of Arakan.
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67 5.3.1 War with the Frontier tribes: -
Aurangzeb followed a forwar d policy on the North West Frontier. The
Afghans (Pathans) such as Afridis, Yusufzais, Khattaks, were a constant
source of anxiety to the MUghal empire. These tribes’ men indulged in
highway robbery And plundered the rich towns of the North Western
Punjab. Aurangzeb tried to win them over by payments of money so as to
keep the North Western passes safe to traffic and trade. But the hardy
tribesmen were not content. In I667 the Yusufzais rose in rebellion but
were successfully suppressed.
In I672 the Afridis rose in arms under their leader Akmal Khan who
summoned all the Pathans to organise themselves in national war against
the Mughals. He inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mghals. The victory
enhanced their prestige and soon the whole Pathan land from attac k to
Kandhar rose in arms. The Khattaks joined the Afridies under their
leader Khushal Khan. By I674 the situation become so menacing that
Aurangzeb was obliged to proceed in person to direct the operations he
reached Hasan Abdul near Peshawar and stayed t here for a year and many
clans were won over by means of pension, jagirs, and presents and
commands in the Mughal army. With the appointment of Amir Khan as
the Governer of Kabul (I677 -I698) a period of peace followed who by
tact and diplomacy kept friendl y relations with the Afghans. A fear of
their uprising was always there which forced the Mughals to leave a
precious part of their troops to maintain border security.
5.3.2 Aurangzeb’s religious policy: -
Aurangzeb has been regarded as fanatic muslim who in his zeal to spread
Islam adopted numerous measures against his non - muslim subjects of
which persecution of Hindus formed the most glaring feature. Aurangzeb
was convinced that his ancestors on the throne of Delhi had committed
grave error in disregarding the Quranic law and in attempting to conduct
the administration on secular lines. He restored Islam to its former
position as the state religion. The chief aim of his life was to put down
polytheism and to carry on jihad ( holy war ) for transforming India into
the realm of Islam by converting the people to Islam.
The religious policy of Aurangzeb unfolded itself gradually. His initial
step was to abolish some of the un -Islamic practices at the Mughal court.
He abolished the celebration of the Persian New Year’s Day discontinued
the practice of Jharokha Darshan (a practice by which emperor appeared
every morning at a balcony on the wall of t he place to receive the salute
of the people assembled on the ground in front). Forbade music at the
court and dismissed the old musicians and singers. The old practice of
stamping the Kalima (muslim confession of faith) on the coins was
abolished lest the holy words be defiled by the touch of unbelievers. The
ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and silver was given up
and royal astrologers were dismissed. The cultivation and sale of bhang
was prohibited. All public women and dancing girls were ordered to get
married or leave the realm. He appointed Censers of public Morals to
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68 The emperor, however, was not satisfied with these regulations only. He
issued Farmans which marked the inauguration of a new policy in
regard to the important sections of the people. In I669 he issued orders to
the Governo rs of all the provinces to demolish the schools and temples of
the infidels. Among the famous temples thus destroyed included the
temples of Somnath (Gujarat), Vishwanath (Benaras) and Keshavdev
(Mathura), So large was the number of official temple breaker s that a
daroga had to be placed over them to guide them. In April, I679 he re -
imposed Jizya Which Akbar had abolished in I564. While re - imposing
Jizya on the hindus Aurangzeb deprived them of their right of citizenship
of the Mughal empire. This was done to pressurise the hindus into
embracing Islam. The effect of this step was highly injurious on the
Hindus.Many of them who could not pay Jizya become muhamadens in
order to obtain relief from the insults of the collectors. He even re -
imposed pilgrims’ tax on hindus. The hindus, except for the Rajputs were
prohibited from wearing arms, fine dresses and riding horses.
Aurangzeb’s concept of public welfare was confined to the happiness and
welfare of the orthodox Muslims only. He did his utmost to harm the
economic interest of the Hindus. He abolished the custom duty in the case
of muslim traders while hindus had to pay it at the old rate of 5 percent.
Another method of putting economic pressure on hindus was the grant of
rewards and public services to the con verts. Aurangzeb never liked to
grant high mansabs to the hindus although some of the Rajput chiefs had
to be promoted by him as a matter of political expediency. He announced
that those hindus who embraced Islam would be granted stipends and free
gifts. He prohibited the celebration of hindu religious fairs and festivals.
The new regulation must have produced a deep impression on the people
and added much to the difficulties with which the imperial Government
had to deal. Aurangzeb threw political wisdom to the wind and made
propagation of Islam the chief. His zeal made him oblivious of the fact
that the country over which destiny had placed him to rule was not
inhabited by a homogeneous population but included various elements
rich in their religious tradi tions and ideals, which needed tactful and
sympathetic understanding His religious policy lost him active loyalty of
his hindu subject. His policy generated feeling of discontent among certain
sections of people which by distracting his energies during the remainder
of his reign proved to be one of the most potent causes for the decline
and fall of the Mughal empire.
5.3.3 Reaction against Aurangzeb’s Religious policy: - Auranagzeb’s
policy of religious intolerance led to organised opposition from the non-
muslims in the country.
1. The Jats: - The first organised rebellion occurred among the Jats of
Mathura. In the sixties the most important feature of Aurangzeb’s policy of
persecution was the destruction of hindu temples. Abdur Nabi the faujdar
of Mathura faithfully c arried out his master’s policy of temple destruction
and image bresking and built a mosque on the ruins of hindu temple. munotes.in

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69 Consequently in I669 the Jats under their leader Gokul revolted and killed
the Faujdar. The rebellion soon spread other districts. The rebellion was
suppressed by a strong imperial force. Gokul was taken prisoner alongwith
his family and brought to Agra. He was tertured to death while his family
forcibly converted to Islam. But this did not crush the Jats permanently.
They again rose in revolt under their now leader Rajaram in I636 who
also fell fighting against the Mughals in I688. The leadership of the Jats
was new taken up by his native Churaman who welded the disorganised
Jats into strong military power and organised armed resistance against
the Mughals after Aurangzeb’s death.
2. The Satnamis: - The satnamis were a religious sect of the hindus
who inhabited the territory Narnaul and Mewat. They believed in the unity
of God. They were industrious and honest, dressed like fakirs but most of
them followed agriculture. They were popularly called mundiyas because
they shaved off their head and face including the eye brows. Firmly
united and militant they never hesitated to use arms to aid the harassed
members. When a Satnami peasant was killed b y a muslim foot soldier the
whole tribe rosein rebellion. They look upon it as a holy war against the
destroyer of hinduism. They occupied Narnaul. Aurangzeb was forced to
send a large army equipped with artillery. The un-trained Satnami
peasants were over powered by a large imperial force. Over a thousand
Satnamis were slained. A few escaped while the rest were terrorised into
submission and that tract of country was cleared of them.
3. The Bundelas :- The Bundelas protest was led by prince Chhatrasal.
His fat her Champatral had committed suicide in I66I to escape capture by
the Mughal for his rebellious activities. Chhatrasal had served the emperor
in the Deccan. He was inspired by Shivaji and dreamt of taking to a life
of adventure and independence. Aurangzeb’ s policy of temple destruction
proveked the hindus of Bundelkhand and Malwa and this gave him an
opportunity to take up arms in defence of religion. In I67I he was elected
as the king of all the Budelas and collected troops. He gained several
victories over the mughals and succeeded in carving out an independent
principality in Eastern Malwa. He died in I73I.
4. The Sikhs :- Aurangzeb’s policy of religious persecution roused the
skihs who broke into a rebellion which become an important cause of the
down fall o f the Mughal empire. The sikh sect was founded by Guru Nank
in the sixteenth century who believed in universal brotherhood, unity of
God and spiritual liberation by means of prayer, self restraint and good
actions. Under the next three Gurus the community remained peaceful.
Guru Ramdas the fourth Guru for whom Akbar had great respect was
granted a peace of land at Amritsar containing a pool which was enlarged
and improved and on the side of which was constructed the famous
Golden Temple. The fifth Guru Arju ndev proved a more dynamic and
zealous organised the Sikhs into a compact community. Guru Arjandev
blessed the rebellious prince Khusrav in I606 for which Jahangir ordered
his execution. This act greatly embittered the Sikhs against the Mughals
and compell ed the peace loving Sikhs to take up arms for their self
defence under the guidance of the sixth Guru Hargovind. He declared munotes.in

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70 himself to be a spiritual and temperal head of the Sikhs. He collected a
small army round him and sikh devotees were transformed in to soldier
saints. This brought him into clash with the Mughals. He died in I645 and
was succeeded by Guru Harrai after whose death Guru Harkishan become
the eight Guru. Then came Guru Teg Bahadur. Mean while Aurangzeb
who had become the emperor began his policy of religious persecution.
Guru Teg Bahadur publically condemned Aurangzeb’s anti hindu
measures. He encouraged the Brahins of Kashmir to resist these.
Aurangzeb grew suspicious of Guru’s motives and summoned him to
Delhi where he was offered the choice between death and conversion to
Islam. On his refusal to embrace Islam, the Guru was tortured to death in
NovemberI675. At the place where he was executed now stands
Gurdawara Sisganj in Delhi.
The death of Guru Tag Bahadur inspired the Sikhs with the feeling of
revenge against the Mughal Empire and made an open war inevitable.
His son and successor Guru Gobind swore to avenge his father’s death
and transformed the Sikhs into a military community, In I699 on the
Baisakhi day Guru Govind Singh created the Khalsa. A strict code of
conduct was prescribed for the Khalsa. They were to put on distinct
dress and were required to keep on their person five things beginning with
letter ‘K’ viz Kes (long hair), Kanga (comb) , Kripan (sword), Kachcha
(short drawers) and Kara (steel bracelet). Under him the Khalsa pursued
the policy of ‘fight muslim fanaticism with sikh fanaticism’.
Aurangzeb who was at this time engaged in struggle against the
Marathas in the south could not tolerate the emergence of the Sikhs as an
armed community. He ordered the chastise the Sikhs. They were however
defeated by the Sikhs in the first battle of Anandpur inI70I. In the second
battle of Anandpur fought in I704 the combined armies laid siege to the
fort of Anandpur which was herica lly defended by the Sikhs but they were
forced to surrender. Guru Govind Singh escaped to the Deccan. Two of his
sons died fighting against the Mughals while the remaining two were
captured by the Mughals and brought to Sirhind where they were asked to
embrace Islam and on their refusal to do so were bricked alive. The Guru
returned to Northern India. After the death of Aurangzeb in I707 it is
said that he assisted his son Bahadur Shah in his contest for the throne and
subsequently processed with him to the Deccan, An afghan fanatic stabed
him to death in I708.
5. Aurangzeb and the Rajputs :- The minor anti -imperial risings were
suppressed by Aurangzeb but the more formidable revolts rising against
his religious policy produced disastrous consequences for the Mughal
empire. The worst of them was his wars against the Rajputs which
continued for nearly 30 years and ended only after his death.
Aurangzeb no doubt dreaded the Rajputs and because of the fear of the
powerful Rajput chiefs he had not dared to disclose his real designs
against the hindus for over two decades.
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71 Aurangzeb was intereseted in the conquest of Marwar. The state occupied
a position of strategic importance as controlling certain military and
commercial routes from the Mughal capital to the rich ci ties and ports of
Western India. Its position as a strong military state in Northen India could
not be tolerated by Aurangzeb but he suspected that Raja Jaswant Singh
the chief of Marwar might stand forth as the leader of opposition to his
policy.
.Raja Ja swant Singh Died in I678 without leaving a male heir. His death
was a signal for war. Aurangzeb took immediate steps to seize his
kingdom and placed it under direct Mughal rule. He appointed his
muslim officers in the state. He issued orders for the demoli tion of temples
and revival of jizya. He himself left for Ajmer to personally supervise the
operation. Large Mughal contingent poured into Marwar.
And there was no opposition from the Rathore because the state was in
utter confusion after the death of its chief.
Meanwhile in February 1679 two of the widow queens of Raja Jaswnt
Singh gave birth to two sons, one of whom died and the other Ajit Singh
survived and was taken to Delhi. The Rathers submitted a potition to
Aurangeb requesting him to recognise Ajit Singh as the rightful successer
to the deceased Raja but Aurangzeb put forth the condition of his
conversion to Islam if he wanted the throne of Jodhpur. He ordered
them to be detained at the Mughal court. This extraordinary proposal of
the emperor hurt the feelings of the Rajputs. Aurangzeb failed to realise
the dangerous implications of his decision. The Rathors determind to fight
to the last man in defence of the honour of their ruling house turned to
Durgadas for help in this crisis. Through a strategy the valiant Rather chief
managed to carry away the infant and his mother to Jodhpur in July I679.
Aurangzeb ordered an invasion of Marwar and he himself proceeded to
Ajmer. The imperial armies were led by prince Akbar son of Aurangzeb.
After a prolenged warfare the imperialists succeeded in occupying Marwar
which was divided into district each under Mughal faujdar. Aurangzeb
launched a policy of ruthless destruction of temples & towns. The Rathors
launched a policy of guerrilla warfare from their shelter in the hills and
in the deserts. Jodhpur was captured by the Mughals in I679.
The annenation of Marwar was considered dangerous by the Sisodias of
Mewar Maharana Raj Singh of Mewar was asked by Aurangzeb to pay
jazya for his entire state. Raj Singh realised that the a im of Aurangzeb
was to blot out the Rajput states from existence. He realised that co-
operation whit the Rathors was urgently needed if Mewar and Maewar
were to be saved. More over the Rani of Marwar was the princess of
Mewar and she appealed to Raj Singh for help. Through the Rathor -
sisodia alliance the Rajput war assumed the aspect of a national rising in
defence of liberty.
Raj Singh made preparation for war. Aurangzeb left for Mewar with a
huge army. Un -able to face the Mughal artillery Raj Singh abandoned
Udaipur his capital and retired to he hills. Chittor and Udaipur were munotes.in

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72 occupied by the Mughals where they destroyed 236 temples. Raj Singh
was pursued and defeated in February, I680.
Aurangzeb left Chitter under the charge of prince Akbar and himself
returned to Ajmer.
The Rajputs continued a successful guerrilla warfare and reduced prince
Akbar’s army to starvation. Aurangzeb held prince Akbar responsible for
it and an a punishment sent him to Marwar. The command of Chittor was
given to anoth er son Azam. Considering this as a disgrace and realising the
futility of his father’s reactionary policy prince Akbar entred into
negotiations with the Rajputs who promised him military aid and point out
to him how his father’s policy was destroying the s tability of the empire.
Prince Akbar who now dreamt of wresting the crown of Delhi from his
father in alliance with the Rajputs rebelled in January,I681. With an army
of about 70,000 men prince Akbar’s arrived near Ajmer. Aurangzeb was
shocked at the news of prince Akbar’s rebellion but at the same time he
had made speedy arrangements for the defernce of Ajmer. The crafty
monarch was too much of a match for the prince.Through an act of
winning diplomacy he frustrated Akbar’s plans. He wrote a letter to
prince Akbar and manged that it should reach the Rajputs. He
congratulated the prince on having befooled the Rajputs in accordance
with his instructions and bringing them within the easy reach of the
emperor. The trick proved successful as the Rajputs suspecti ng foul play
on the part of Akbar plundered his camp and deserted him,Soon the fraud
played by Aurangzeb was discovered. The Rajputs gallantly saved the
prince from his father’s anger and safely escorted him to Shambhaji son
of Shivaji in the deccan.
Princ e Akbar’s junction with Sambhaji caused much anxiety to the
emperor as it posed a threat to his very throne Aurangzeb hurriedly
concluded peace with Rana of Mewar in June I68I and himself left for the
Deccan at the head of a large army never to return to N orth India again,
The terms agreed upon between Mewar and the Mughals were that the
Maharana had to cede a few districts in lieu of jizya. The MUghals were
to withdraw from Mewar. Maharana Jaisingh (son of Raj Singh) was
recognized as the Rana holding the rank of 5000.
Marwar continued the war, for the Rathors there could be no peace until
Ajit Singh was restored to the throne of his ancestors. During Aurangzeb’s
absence in the Decan Marwar continued to be in rebellion.
Three definite stages may be marked o ut for the Rathor war of liberation.
From I681 – I687, it was a peoples’ war as Ajit Singh was a child and the
famous Rathor hero Durgadas was absent in the Deccan protecting
prince Akbar. The Rajputs resorted to guerrilla tactics inflicted heavy
losses on the imperialists.
From I687 to I70I the Rathor command was in the hands of Durgadas who
had returned from the Deccan. Despite some successes won by the
Rajpute the Mughal’s hold on Marwar was maintained. During this period
by the subedar of Gujarat Shujat Khan. munotes.in

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73 The third stage of the struggle was from I70I to I707. After the death of
Shujat Khan in I701, Azam Khan was appointed the Governor of Jodhpur
and he provoked the Rajputs, Both Durgadas and Ajit Singh set up the
standard of rebellion but were again made to submit. The final opposition
came on the eve of Aurangzeb’s death. The twin fighters again rose in
revolt when the welcome news of the emperor’s death reached their ears
in I707. Ajit Singh marched towards Jodhpur, occupied it and was
crowned in Ma rch 1707. The new emperor Bahadur Shah led an
expedition against Marwar but towards the close of I708 he recognised
Ajit Singh’s title to his father’s throne.
The Rajput wars of Aurangzeb produced disastrous consequences for his
empire. The imperial presti ge was damaged and its material consequences
were still worse. It was an act of political un-wisdom on the part of
Aurangzeb to provoke Rajput hostility and thus forfeit the devoted service
of gallant chief and soldiers so long friends of the empire.
5.3.4 Check Your Progress
1. What were Aurangzeb’s Frontier wars?
2. Comment on the Auranzeb and the Sikh relations.
5.4 AURANGZEB AND THE DECCAN
After his accession to the throne, Aurangzeb did not pursue a vigourous
policy in the Deccan during the first half of his reign. With the end of the
Rajputwar in I68I he turned his attention to the Deccan and spent the last
twentyfive years of his life (I682 -I707) in the Deccan. The object of his
Deccan wars was to conquer the states of Bijapur and Golkunda and to
crush the power of the Marathas.
Aurangzeb’s attitude towards the Shia states of Bijapur and Golkunda
since the days of his princely career had been very aggressive. It was
influence partly by his imperialist instincts and partly by religious bigotry.
The very existence of the Shia rule was an eye sore to him.He also felt
that the existence of these states enabled he Marathas to enrich
themselves. The Marathas got military and administrative experience and
also reveiced lot of money, They also befriended the Qutb Shahi and
Adil shahi Sultans whenever it was convenient to co-operate with them
against the mughals. The continuation of the Maratha raids convinced
Aurangzeb that only a complete subjugation of the region could provide
the permanent solution.
5.4.1 Annexation of Bijap ur :-
First Aurangzeb preferred to raise arms against Bijapur. The death of Adil
Shah II, the able Sultan of Bijpur in I672 marked the beginning of the
decline of Bijpapur. His son Sikandar who was a boy of four years was
placed on the throne. A civil war broke out among the nobles, followed by
independence of the provincial Governors and paralysis of the central
administration. The state consequently degenerated into worst anarchy and
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74 Taking advantage of this Aurangzeb sent Diler Khan in I679 to carry the
siege of Bijapur but he failed to capture it. During the next four years
nothing decisive was done against Bijapur by the Mughals, because their
primary interest was to resist Shambhaji who ha d given protection and
promised aid to prince Akbar. In I683 Aurangzeb sent an ultimatum to
Bijapur making following demands: - (I) To supply the provisions to the
Mughal army. (2) To stop helping Shambhaji. (3) To render five thousand
Bijapur troops agains t the Marathas. The mughal offer was turned down
by Bijapur. This convinced Aurangzeb to extinguish Bijapur and
Golkunda. He was fully convinced now that it was impossible to destroy
the Marathas with out first subjugating Bijapur and Golkunda which
were d irectly or indirectly sending assistance to the Maratha king. He
therefore ordered a full fledged invasion of both the states by two
imperial armies.Bjapur government under the ministership of Sharza Khan
had grown very weak. Sultan Sikandar who knew that an invasion was
imminent began with preparations. Bijapur was invaded by the imperial
army led by prince Azam in April I685. Mughals over ran many parts of
the state and laid siege to the stronghold of Bijapur. The siege continued
for fifteen months. Suppl ies and reinforcements continued coming from
Shambhaji and the Sultan of Golkunda while the imperialists suffered
from want of supplies. Aurangzeb himself proceeded to the scene of action
in July, I686 and conducted the siege under his personal supervision . His
determination shook the nerves of Bijapuris and the shortage of
provisions decided the issue. They capitulated in September I686 and
Sikandar Adil Shah surrendered the fort of Bijapur.
The state of Bijapur was annexed to the Mughal empire and the Adil Shahi
dynasty came to an end. Sultan Sikandar was enrolled a Manasbdar in
the Mughal service with the title of Khan and was given and annual
pension of rupees on lakh. Aurangzeb ordered the removal of all the Shia
symbols including pictures, inscripti ons and architectural designs on the
walls of the palace. The muslim aristocracy had to shed Shia practices and
conform to Sunni principles in order to secure the imperial favour.
The city was ruined. The loss of independence spelled also the ruin of her
culture for the provincial vicroy whom Aurangzeb appointed simply
squeezed money from the people and remitted it to the imperial
headquarters.
5.5 CONQUEST OF GOLKONDA
The annexation of Bijapur was soon followed by the annexation of
Golkunda. During the reig n of Abdulla Qutub Shah Sultan of Golkunda (
I626 –I672 ) anarchy and misrule had spreed in the country. The state was
hastening towards dissolution. Adbulla died in I672 without a male
issue. Therefore the nobles of the Golkunda put up his son -in-law Abul
Hasan on the throne. He was a pleasure loving man hence during his
regime the nobles got the upper hand. Anarchy and operation had set in
ever since Abdulla’s neglect public business.
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75 A Brahmin family acquired ascendancy during the reign of Abul Hasan.
Madanna Pundit become the prime minister in I673 while his brother
Akkanna become the commander -in-schief of the army. The
predominance of hindu influence at Golkunda and the latter’s alliance with
the Maratha king Shambhaji were particularly offensive to Aurangzeb.
Moreover their offer of help to Bijapur provided the Mughals ready
pretext to invade the country.
From Aurangzeb’s point of view there was ample justification for war.
The kingdom possessed great natural resources, its rich mines of diamonds
and iron and its flourishing ports added to her wealth. As indicated above
Aurangzeb had come to the Deccan in I682 determined to crush the
Marathas and he wanted his muslim vassals of Bijapur and Golkunda to
help him in their task but when he discovered that their sympathies lay
with the enemy he decided to finish them first as a preliminary to the
destruction of the Marathas. This was the chief cause for the invasion of
Golkunda in I685. While the siege of Bijapur was going on a force under
prince Maazzam sty led Shah Alam was sent to Golkunda to prevent the
junction of the Qutb Shahi forces with the Bijapuris. The progress of the
Mughals was much hampered by the jealousy of the imperial officers but
the army finally reached Hyderabad and occupied it while Abul Hasan
sought shelter in the fort of Golkunda and made peace. He promised to
pay a large sum as war indemnity in addition to an annual tribute as he
used to pay previously. He also agreed to dismiss his two Brahmin
ministers Madamna and Akkanna from servic e and to cede some places
which Mughal forces had already occupied (October, I 685 ). In March
I686 Madanna and Akanaa were murdered by the muslim nobles. This
caused general disorder and panic in the kingdom. The Mughals were,
however, satisfied and evacu ted the Golkunda territory.
In Aurangzeb’s scheme of things and independent Golkunda was an
offence. Therefore soon after the fall Bijapur (September - I686) he again
turned his attention to Golkunda. He himself proceeded to Golkunda in
January I687 and ord ered a siege of the town. The siege went on but the
Mughals suffered from famine and enemy inflicted heavy losses upon
them. An outbreak of epidemic further added to their sufferings and
destroyed men and beasts by hundreds. The fort on the other hand had
large stocks of essential supplies and munitions but the iron will
Aurangzeb refused to bend before any obstacle. On failure of valour and
arms Aurangzeb following the example of Akbar before Asirgarh made
use of “the golden key” to capture Golkunda. Abdul la pani one of the
inmate officers of the Golkunda fort was bribed into opening the gates in
the morning of 21, September,I687. Qutb Shah nobles and their Sultan
Abul Hasan surrendered without fight, but one faithful noble Abdur
Razzaq Lari fought the Mugh als at the risk of his life. Throughout the
siege he had rejected with scorn all the bribes of Aurangzeb including a
command of 6000 cavalry in the Mughal army. He fought single handed
till he fell with seventy wounds on his body, The fate of Qutb Shah
dynasty was finally sealed not by force of sword and spear but the
treachery of its own officers. Golkunda was declared annexed to the
Mughal empire in I687. Abul Hassan the last sultan of Qutab Shahi munotes.in

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76 dynasty was sent to Dulaltabad as prisoner and was granted a pension of
Rs. 50,000/ - a year. Enormous booty was seized amounting Rs.7 crores of
rupees in cash besides gold, silver, Jewels and other articles of value.
5.4.1 Check Your Progress
1. Who was the head for Bijapur campaign of Auranzeb?
2. When was Golkonda finally conquered by Auranzeb?
5.6 URANGZEB AND MARATHAS
Having achieved the one of the two objects of his Deccan policy i.e.
annexation of the decadent sultanas of the Deccan Aurangzeb turned
towards the other that is the suppression of the Maratha power.
The rise of the Maratha power introduced and important factor in Indian
polities during the second half of the seventeenth century. Their rise was a
sort of challenge to the Mughal empire complicated the political situation
in the Deccan, The full significance of which Aurangzeb could not
realise at first. During the first half of his reign ( I657 – I68I ) his
victory’s in the Deccan achieved no definite success against the Marathas.
Mirza Raja Jalsingh, the Mughals vicroy of Deccan from I658 to I666
humbled the pride of Shivaji and compelled him to sign the treaty of
Purandhar in I665.
In 1666 Shivaji visited the imperial court at Agra but was put under
confinement by Aurangzeb. On his return to the South Shivaji not only
recovered his lost territoties but also extended their boundaries and
celebrated his coronation as sovereign ruler in 1674. Before his death in
1680 the Maratha kingdom had become the most powerful state in the
south Shivaji died in I680. He was succeded by his son Shambaji (I680 -
I689). In I68I occurred the revolt of Prince Akbar and his flight to the
court of Maratha king Shambhji. This obliged Aurangzb to come the
South where he was destined to spend the remaining 27 years of his life.
He arrived at Burhanpur in November, I681. His mind must ha ve been full
of high hopes and he could not foresee that destiny was dragging him to
the South to dig the graves of himself and his empire. The first four years
were spent in unsuccessful attempts to seize Prince Akbar and in fruitless
campaigns against the Maratha. After the annexation of Bijapur and
Golkunda (I686 & I687) Aurangzeb was free to deal with the Maraths.
Sambhji proved to be an incapable ruler and a poor diplomat. He failed to
protect even his own person and was taken prisoner by Aurangzeb and
tortured to death in I689. After his death Rajaram Shivaji’s son from
another wife was proclaimed the new Chhatrapati. He remained in
power from I689 to I700. The Mughals laid siege to the Maratha capital
Raigad but Rajaram sliped out and reached Jinji wh ich become the
Maratha headquarters out side Maharashtra. The Mughals now captured a
number of Maratha force and created disorder in the whole of their
kingdom.
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77 By the end of I689, Aurangzeb had reched the peak of his glory. Bijapur
and Golkunda were anne xed; the legacy of Shivaji was on the verge of
liquidation. Three decades of strenuous efforts
had made Aurangzeb the unrivalled lord paramount of the Northern Indian
and the Deccan alike.” All seemed to have been gained by Aurangzeb
now, but in reality al l was lost, It was the beginning of his end. The
sadest and the most hopeless chapter of his life was now opened. “
Sambhaji’s brutal murder provoked the maratha wrath to seek revenge
and the Marathas joined Rajaram at Jinji determined to retrieve their lost
territority and prestige. It now become people’s war and Aurangzeb could
not end it. Zulfikar Khan was sent by Aurangzeb to besiege Jinji and
capture Rajaram. The siege lasted for eight years but before its fall in 1698
Rajaramescaped to Maharashtra. He died prematurely in I700 at the age
of 30.
After him his gallant wife Tarabai (I700 -I707) made her son aged four
years successor to his father (Shivaji III). And took the reins of the
government into her own hands. Under her superb guidance and inspiratio n
the Marathas liberated major part of their territories and led successful
raids into all the Mughal provinces of central and south India including
Malwa and Gujarat. They even laid night attacks on the imperial Mughal
camp and maintained pressure on Aura ngzeb wherever he went, Thus by
this time the Marathas with their resources enormously increased
practically because masters of the Situations in Deccan and also in certain
parts of Central India. All the attempts of Aurangzeb to crush the
Marathas proved futile. Brokendown by age and frustration he returned to
Ahmednagar in January, I706 and died there a year later. Maratha
nationalism survived as triumphant force which his feeble successors
failed to resist.
5.6.1 Effects of Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy: -
Aurangze b has been criticised for his Deccan policy for politically brought
it about the ruin of the Mughal Empire. No wonder V.A. Smith remarks
that the Deccan was not only the grave of his body but also of his empire.
According to some historians it was a mistak e on the part of Aurangzeb to
have conquered the states of Bijapur and Golkunda. They hold that “it
freed the Maratha chiefs from any fear of local rivalry.” It should have
been anticipated that the removal of these two muslim powers in the
Deccan would of fer a clear field to the Marathas. The new administrative
responsibilities incurred through annexation should have been kept in
view. It was a great strain on a system which was already showing signs
of weakness and inefficiency. The destruction of Bijapur and Golkunda
indirectly led to great anarchy in the South which proved beneficial to the
Marathas in their war of independence. However, Sir J.N. Sirkar takes a
different view. He says that an alliance between the Mughals and the
Shia rulers of the Deccan was impossible. Since the days of Akbar the
Mughals had aimed at the annexation of these kingdoms. He also
points out that it would have been impossible for the decadent Sultanates munotes.in

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78 to cheak the Marathas effectively as they had already organised into a
national state.
The Deccan wars of Aurangzeb proved very expensive and wasteful The
incessant warfare in the Deccan emptied the state treasury. The empire
was brought on the verge of bankruptcy. Hundreds of Soldiers and several
officers fell into arrears for three years. Sir J.N.Sarkar writers that “the
men starving from lack of pay and the exhaustion of their credit with the
local grocers some times created scenes in the emperor’s court, some
times abused andhustled their general’s Manager -some driven to
desperation, best to death the paymaster of their contingent.” To meet the
situation, Aurangzeb revived the system of allocation of land or jagirs to
the imperial officers in lieu of their services but such grants remained only
on papers. Aurangzeb spent huge amounts on bribing the Maratha
officers in charge of hill forts. He ordered the accumulated treasures of his
anncestors to be taken out of the vaults of Agra and Delhi forts and sent to
him in Deccan but even these last reserves were exhausted. It had grea t
effect on provincial governments as public buildings, educational
institutions, irrigational works and other public utility services could not
be carried out because of lack of funds,
Aurangzeb’s long absence from the capital for twenty five years put the
entire administrative machinery out of gear. By draining away the
revenues and manpower to fight the incessant war in the Deccan and by
placing the North Indian provinces in the charge of second rate officers
with small contingent of troops and limited r esources he caused disorder
and mis rule in the country. The administration grew slack and corrupt.
The provincial governors and faijadars defied the central authority and
there was nothing to curb them. Such conditions gave an opportunity to
the disaffect ed elements in Northern India to raise their heads in rebellion.
It was during this period that the Jats and the Sikhs got an opportunity
to strengthen their hands.
The spirit of the mughal army in the Deccan was utterly broken. The army
was in wretched co ndition. Soldiers grew sick of the endless and futil
wars. The continuous Maratha raids dampened their morale. Many
manabdars were prepared to come to terms with them instead of engaging
in fights with them. The Mughal soldiers on March destroyed the crops on
the way and government did nothing to compensate the peasants for their
losses. The roads were flooded and transport difficulties eronmous. The
Marathas were dominant throughout the Deccan. They acquired much
wealth by plunder and rendered highways uns afe. The country was
completely desolated and there was no trace of crops of any kind, The
total deforestation injured agriculture. In the Deccan there was no rain
from I702 to I704. Plague and famine added to the horrors of war. Trade
almost ceased in the Deccan during this period.
The Mughals also under estimated the Maratha might. It is true that the
Mughals were more in numbers and resources and they could defeat the
Maraths in pitched battles but the Marathas followed guerrilla tactics and
refused to be drawn into pitched battles. The inability of the Mughals to munotes.in

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79 appreciate and master the guerrilla tact continued to baffle the Muhals and
proved a major handicap to them. Sir.J.N.Sarkar makes the following
observation with regard to the Deccan wars,” the old emperor in the far off
Deccan lost all control over his officers in Hindustan …….. In the
province of Agra in particular there was disorder. Art and learning decade
at the withdrawal of imperial patronage, not a single edifice finely written
manuscript or exquisite picture commemorates Aurangzeb’s reign. The
endless war in the Deccan exhausted his treasury, the government turned
bankrupt, the soldiers starving from arrears of pay mutinied and during
the closing years of his reign the revenue of Bengal se nt by the able
Deawan Murshid Quli Khan was the sole support of emperor’s house -
hold or his army and its arrival was eagerly looked forward to. Napoleon I
used to say,’ It was the Spanish ulcer which ruined me,’ The Deccan ulcer
ruined Aurangzeb,”
5.6.2 Causes of Aurangzeb’s Failure: -
Aurangzeb’s administration was highly centralised despotism with all
powers concentrated in his hands. He had a passion for seeing everything
carried to the highest perfection according to his own ideas of it which
urged him to supe rvise every minute detail of administration and war -fare
personally. He loved over centralisation and crushed initiative and sense
of responsibility of his subordinates who become “lifeless puppets
moved to action by the master pulling their strings from the capital.” Such
system of administration was entirely unsuitable for the vast and
heterogeneous empire over which he ruled.
Aurangzeb failed to train his sons and to share with them the burden of
administering the vast empire. Due to the fear of rebellio n of his sons he
always kept them at arms length. He was a man of suspicious
temperament and as such did not trust even his own sons. He surrounded
them with spies who reported every detail of their activities to him. The
result was that the imperial princ es failed to develop initiative and sense of
responsibility. They often acted against him.
Aurangzeb was obsessed by his narrow ideal of duty and was ignorant of
the real limitations of his character. A zinda pir or a living saint as he
was called by the muslims, he never deviated from the tenets of Islam.
He lacked generosity, catholicity and political wisdom. He alienated the
sympathy and support of non - muslims by committing all kinds of
atrocities on them. He reversed Akbar’s wise policy towards the hin dus
and struck at the foundation of the empire which derived its stability and
prosperity from the loyalty of composite population. His religious policy
brought discontent among all classes of his Hindu subjects. As a result the
jats rose in rebellion Agra , the satnmis in Doab, the Sikhs become a
problem in the Punjab and the Marathas consumed all his energies for 27
long years in the South. Aurangzeb found it impossible to keep peace in
any part of the country. His fault lay in going away from the path Akb ar
had shown. (Auangzeb’s religious policy and its effects have already been
discussed in detail in the previous lesson).
Aurangzeb commited the mistake of alienating the sympathies of the munotes.in

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80 Rajputs and converted them into the enemies at a time when the empi re
needed their assistance the most. Akbar had made the Rajputs the
staunchest supporters of his dunesty and empire by a policy of friendship
and religious tolerance. Auarangzeb unwise policy towards them turned
them into enemies and compelled the Sisdias, Rathors and some other
Rajput clans to remain in rebellion till the emperor’s death in I707. The
Rajput wars proved to be a great handicap for him when he was busy in
the Deccan wars. Instead of depending upon the support of the Rajputs he
had to get a a part of Mughal forces to meet any possible trouble from
their side. The Rajputs who had been the pillars of the Mughal Empire for
more than a century become hostile and the Mughal army lost its finest
and most loyal recruits during its desperate struggle against the Marathas
in the Deccan.
Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy which aimed at the destruction of the
Marathas and the extinction of the Shia Kingdom was a great blunder. His
engagement in t he Deccan wars for 26 years led to the dis organisation
of central Government, law and order deteriorated, resources of the state
were sapped, state treasury was empty, morale of army was seriously
impared and it lost its discipline and efficiency.
Aurnagzeb wrongly imagined that the successful rule implied only the
conduc t political, military and religious and religious administration of a
country and he sadly neglected the economic and cultural progress.
Music, painting and other fine arts were a neglected. He did nothing to
improve architecture.
There was moral degenerat ion of the Mughal aristocracy. Too much
wealth, luxury and leisure softened their character. Their harems become
full. They got wine in plenty. They went in palanquins in battle field.
Such nobles were not fit to fight against the Marathas, the Rajputs and
the Sukhs, There was no good education, no practical training of the sons
of the Mughal nobility. Their moral declined was rapid. Most of them
and even sons of Aurangzeb like Shah Alam and Kam Buksh were beyond
correction.
Thus by the time of Aurangzeb’s death the weakness of the Mughal army
economic bankruptcy, breakdown of administration coupled with the wide
spread discontent of the majority of its subjects had rendered the grand
edifice of Mughal empire hollow from within & was reduced to a house of
cards, ready to crumble down at the blow of wind or touch of human
hand.
5.6.3 Check Your Progress
1. Who were the contemporary Maratha rulers during Aurangzeb’s
period?
2. Why did the deccan policy of Aurangzeb fail?
5.7 SUMMARY
Aurangzeb son of Shah Jahan was the last great Mughal emperor of India.
He ruled for 50 years. His reign can be divided into two parts o f about 25
years each. During the first 25years, i.e. from I658 To I68I he lived in the munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion and
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81 North and his attention wad concentrated In the affairs of Northern India
while South figured as negligible and far off factor. While during the
second half i.e. from I68I to I707, he lived in south India concentrating all
his energies in the affairs of the Deccan thereby neglecting the
administration of the North and Conseque ntly plunging the whole of it
into disorder, and anarchy.
5.8 QUESTIONS
1. Examine Aurangzeb' `s religious policy and its effects on the Mughal
Empire .
2. Discuss Aurangzeb’s policy towards the Deccan. What was its
impact on the Mughal Empire?
3. Write notes on:-
a) Aurangzeb and Rajputs.
b) Aurangzeb’s conquest of Bijapur and Golkunda.
c) Causes of Aurangzeb’s failure.
5.9 REFERENCES
1. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.

2. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses Medieval Indian Ideas and institutio ns, Pune,
1981.

3. Chitins K. N. - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.

4. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : From
the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education.

5. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.

6. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 1965.

7. Frazes R. W., 'Literary History of India, London 1898.

8. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.

9. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of India,
Delhi, 1984


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82 Module -2
6
ADMINISTRA TIVE STRUCTURE OF
THE MUGHALS
(A) Central and Provincial Administration
(B) Mansabdari System
(C) Revenue and Judicial Administration
Unit Structure:
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Central Administration
6.3 Provincial Admi nistration
6.4 Summary
6.5 Questions
6.6 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand the Central Administration of the Mughals.
To Know the provincial Administration of the Mughals.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The establishment of the Mughal Empire in India did not imme diately
change the system of administration, which prevailed under the sultans of
Delhi. Babur had neither time nor opportunity and Humayun neither
inclination nor ability to evolve a system of civil government. Thus, the
establishment of Mughal administra tion on ideas and principles different
from those of the Delhi Sultanate was mainly the work of Akbar.
However, in certain respects, Akbar was indebted to Sher Shah for his
elaborate administrative set up. According to Jadunath Sarkar, the Mughal
system of administration was “a combination of Indian and extra -Indian
elements.” In other words it was a Perso -Arabic system in Indian
setting. Administration of the Mughals was essentially military in nature,
as every officer of the Mughal state had to be enrolle d in the army.

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83 6.2 CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
6.2.1 THEORY OF KINGSHIP:
Rulers of early medieval India did not style themselves fully sovereign.
The sultans of Delhi and local Muslim rulers regarded the Caliph as
their legal sovereign and usually used his name on the coins issued by
them and read the Qutba in their name. However, during the Mughal
Empire the position of the monarch underwent a drastic change. Babur,
the founder of the Mughal Empire, took the title of padshah, meaning
emperor, and asserted his constitu tional supremacy. His successors
continued to retain that title, till the dynasty came to an end. The Mughal
rulers refused to recognize the nominal sovereignty of the Caliphs and
regarded themselves as fully sovereign. They regarded themselves as
God’s representatives on earth. The Mughal ruler was also known as the
Amir -ul-Mominin (ruler of the Muslims). He was responsible to his jamait
(Muslim public) for his acts of omission and commission.
6.2.2 AKBAR’S CONCEPT OF KINGSHIP:
Akbar changed this concept of king ship when he became the Emperor of
Hindustan. Akbar asserted that the monarchy was a divine gift. Abul Fazal
observes, “Kingship is a gift of god and is not bestowed till many
thousand good qualities have been gathered together in an individual.
Thus, the Emperor, the ‘Shadow of God on Earth’ was the fountainhead
of the administration, the center of all civil and military authority and the
highest court of appeal in all judicial and executive matters.”
After conquering the whole of North India by 1576 by a combination of
diplomatic skill, military strength and religious toleration, Akbar read the
Qutba in his own name (1577). He initiated the practice of sijda
(prostration) and zaminbos (kissing the ground in front of the monarch).
Through these practices, A kbar proclaimed his absolute sovereignty. He
did not make distinction between his subjects on grounds of religion. He
regarded himself as the king and benefactor of all his subjects. From Abul
Fazal’s Akbarnama we know Akbar’s views on kingship. He said, “King
cannot be fit for this (kingly) lofty office, if he does not inaugurate
univer•sal peace (toleration) and if he does not regard all classes of men
and all sects of religions with a single eye for favour.” Akbar claimed to
be both the spiritual and pol itical head of all his subjects, both believers
and kafirs (non-believers or infi•dels). Akbar’s ideal of kingship was
indeed lofty and noble. The Mughal Emperors including Akbar tried to
conform to the Quranic laws and did not do anything contrary to it.
6.2.3 ROYAL DESPOTISM:
Royal despotism was a common feature during medieval period. In this
respect the Mughal Emperor was an absolute monarch enjoying unlimited
powers. The Mughal state was a centralized autarchy (autocratic
monarchy). There was no institutions or office, which could check his
supreme power. He was the supreme authority in the state. He was the
head of the state and government, the supreme commander of the state munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
84 forces, the fountainhead of justice and chief legislator. In the absence of
a clear law of succession, there used to be plots and counter plots by the
contenders to the throne. The principle of survival of the fittest
operated. The contender with a superior military force was able to
establish his power.
6.2.4 ROYAL PREROGATIVES:
To strengthen his de jure and de facto position in the eyes of the people,
Akbar vested certain special prerogatives in the monarchy. These
prerogatives were intended to enhance the power and prestige of the
monarchy. Some of the important prerogatives included: (a) Jha rokha
Darshan, a practice by which the emperor used to appear in a special
balcony to receive the salutation of his subjects. The jharokha darshan
signified that all was well with the emperor. Only when the king was away
on an expedition or sick, he was not able to give darshan. However,
Aurangzeb discontinued this practice. (b) When the emperor held the court
or went out, a powerful kettledrum (naqara) was beaten to the
accompaniment of many other musical instruments. (c) The emperor
alone could confer titles on his subordinates. (d) The emperor only had
the privilege to affix his special seal (mohar) and in special cases a
vermilion print of his palm (panja) on the farmans issued by him. (e)
Capital punishment such as death could be awarded by the emperor only.
(f) The emperor alone could organize elephant fights. (g) Akbar adopted
the practice of weighing the emperor on his birthday against gold and
other precious metals, which were later dispersed in charity.
6.2.5 THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS:
Just as the ancient Hindu polity had advocated a council of ministers to
advice the king on state matters, the Islamic polity also had accepted the
necessity of a council of ministers. As heads of different departments of
the government they assisted the emperor in governing the state. Akbar
was the first Mughal Emperor, who clearly defined the powers and
responsibilities of the various ministers. The following were the important
ministers in the Central Government of the Mughals:
1. Wazir or Diwan:
The wazir was the highest offi cer of the revenue department. The wazir
decided all questions relating to the assessment and collection of revenue.
He received all revenue papers, returns and dispatches from different parts
of the empire. Gradually the wazir acquired control over other
departments and served as a link between the emperor and the
administration. When the kings were weak or ineffective the office of the
wazir became very powerful. Control over finance made his position
strong. In his capacity as the head of the revenue dep artment he was
known as diwan. If need arose he was expected to lead the army also. All
major payments were made through his department. All matters relating to
revenue collection were referred to him. He made decisions after
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Administration of the
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85 2. Mir Bakshi:
He was the minister in charge of the military establishment. The duties
and powers of the mir bakshi were similar to those of the Ariz-i-Mumalik
under the Delhi Sultanate. After the introduction of the mansabdari
system, most of the government employ ees were placed on the military
payroll. Theoreti•cally the civil officers also belonged to the military
depart•ment. Thus, the mir bakshi became the paymaster general of the
empire. His department passed all orders of appointment to mansabs of all
ranks. All high officers from the provinces visiting the capital and
ambassadors from other countries were presented to the emperor by him.
He maintained a register of all these officials, giving information about the
officer, the number of horses he kept and mai ntenance of the force. He
made rules regarding recruitment, training, discipline and salaries of
soldiers of different categories. He was the member of the secret council
and was consulted on almost all secret and important matters.
3. Sadr -us-Sadur:
He was t he head of the ecclesiastical department. In this capacity he was
also in charge of endowment of land and the charity departments. He was
also known as the Sadr-i-Kul and Sadr-i-Jahan. The chief sadr advised the
emperor on religious matters. On his advice the emperor used to make
grant of land to learned and pious men, to scholars and monks. The sadr
used to scrutinize all applications for grants. His office offered him
endless opportunities to amass wealth for himself. On the
recommendation of the chief sadr the emperor appointed a sadr in every
province. He had to furnish the chief sadr with a list of recipients of rent -
free lands and their daily allowances and the copies of the emperor’s rules.
He had to act in accordance with the imperial instructions. O n some
occasions the chief qazi was also the chief sadr, but Akbar gave
independent charge to two officials.
4. Muhtasib:
The muhtasib acted under the direction and control of the chief sadr. The
emperor was also responsible for looking after the morals of hi s subjects.
The Islamic law stated that one of the duties of the king was to appoint
inspectors or censors of public morals. Officials known as muhtasibs
were appointed to regulate the lives of the people according to moral and
spiritu•al values. He had to check that the prophet’s commands were
obeyed and that the people did not indulge in gambling, drinking and
certain kinds of sexual immorality. In some cases the muhtasibs regulated
prices, weights and measures in the market. He saw to it that the Muslims
observed and followed the Islamic way of life.
5. Chief Qazi:
Though the emperor was the highest judge in the empire, he was assisted
by the chief qazi at the capital. The qazi tried all cases in matters of
religious disputes according to the Islamic law. On his recom•mendations,
the emperor appointed qazis at the provincial and district level. Similarly munotes.in

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86 large towns and cities had their own qazis. The mufti assisted the qazi. He
was an authority on the Quranic law and advised the qazi. The qazi
pronounced the sentence after due consultation. The chief qazi was
known as the qazi-ul-quzat.
6. Khan -i-Saman:
He was the lord high-steward. He was the head of the imperial household.
According to Manucci, khan -i-saman “had charge of the whole
expenditure of the royal hou sehold in reference to both great and small
things.” He supervised the imperial household, royal kitchen, royal
buildings, roads, gardens, stores, karkhanas and purchases. As minister in
charge of the royal household, the Khan -i-saman was responsible for
supplying all the needs of the royal family ranging from jewels to swords
and canons. He was assisted in his duties by the diwan -i-buyutat who
organized the financial section of the department and was permitted to
deal directly with the financial department . The Khan -i- saman used to
accompany the king on journeys and military campaigns. He was close to
the king. Officers of trust were appointed to this responsible position.
Sometimes the khan -i- saman was appointed as wazir also.
Besides these important min isters, there were other officials in charge of
several departments. These included -daroga -i- dakchowki, the head of the
intelligence department; waqa -i-navis, news reporters; darogha -i-topkhana
or mir atish, in a charge of the ordnance department and mir bahr, in
charge of the naval department.
6.2.6 JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION:
The Islamic law was the basis of the government and society. The
em•peror was required to administer the Islamic law. The subjects were
divid•ed into believers and non-believers or zimmis. Emperor Akbar
somewhat restricted the scope of Islamic law in his reign. He gave more
importance to law of the land and applied it to most of the cases. He
appointed Hindu judges to try cases where Hindus were involved.
The emperor was the fountain of just ice. It was his duty to try cases
personally in open court. There are references in both indigenous and
foreign account about the way in which the king dispensed with justice. In
the diwan -i-khas the emperor settled disputes along with the chief qazi,
mir adl, mufti and ulema.
However, it was not possible for the emperor to look into each case.
Under the Mughal Emperors three separate judicial agencies func•tioned,
sometimes simultaneously and sometimes independent of each of other.
These were: (a) Courts o f religious laws where the qazi administrated the
shariat. He had to look after charity and religious endowments or waqf, the
estates of orphans and others. He also prepared legal contracts of marriage
for women without male relatives. In the court of the qazi the evidence
of zimmi was not valid. (b) The judges who dealt with secular cases. They
were the provin•cial governors, faujdar, kotwal, the caste panchayat or
the village elders. They administered the unwritten and the customary munotes.in

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87 law and not the qurani c law. In such cases, the judges did not work under
the qazi. In these cases the Zimmis could depose in the court. (c)
Judgments made according to the exigencies of the time. The provincial
governor and not the qazi dealt with cases like rebel•lions, theft , and
debasement of coinage. The qazi did not interfere with these cases.
Next to the emperor in the judicial set up was the chief qazi entitled qazi -
ul-quzat and also as chief sadr assisted by a mufti. The mufti expounded
and applied the law to cases and the qazi decided the cases. Under the
chief qazi there were qazis posted in the provinces, sarkars and paraganas.
There were qazis in important towns also. The qazi attached with the
army was known as the qazi -i-lashkar. The emperor, the provincial
governo rs diwan, faujdar, amil, shiqdar and the kotwal and the panchayat
at their respective levels dealt political and secular cases.
For crime against the state, like rebellion or non payment of revenue, the
punishment was left to the discretion of the emperor. He alone had the
right to inflict capital punishment. This punishment was awarded in case
of robbery, murder, adultery, apostasy, heresy and insult to the Prophet.
Usually some time had to elapse before the guilty was put to death.
Qazis were expected to deliberate and then come to a conclusion.
In case of offence against the individual, the two parties in•volved could
come together and settle their dispute or the guilty person could be
imprisoned.
The judicial department was the most neglected of all depa rtments of the
empire. There was no distinction between civil law and religious law. It
was quite likely that in an Islamic state non-Muslim population would not
expect to get justice. Corruption and bribery were widespread. In the
absence of written laws, the judge could be a victim of pecuniary
temptation and religious biases. The three judicial systems worked at
the same time but were independent of each other. The chief qazi did not
have any control over the court of the provincial governors or the caste
panchayat. There was no regular gradation of court. A complainant could
directly file his case in the court of the chief qazi. Akbar tried to
introduce some reforms but there was no uniform machinery of judicial
administration and no common set of laws f or the entire population.
According to J.N. Sarkar, “The main defect of the department of law and
justice was that there was no system, no organization of the law courts in a
regular gradation from the highest to the lowest, nor any proper
distribution of courts in proportion to the area to be served by them”.
6.2.7 MILITARY ORGANIZATION:
The military was the most important department of the state as the
Mughal state was a military state. The Mughal Emperor was the supreme
commander of the armed forces. The milit ary department of the empire
was under the charge of the offic•er known as the mir bakshi.
The different branches of the Mughal army were the infantry, cavalry,
artillery, elephants and war -boats. The infantry was not a well-organized munotes.in

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88 force though its nume rical strength was large. The cavalry formed an
important branch of the army. It consisted of two classes - the bargir who
were paid and equipped by the state and the silahdars, the troopers who
brought their own horses and equipments. Their salary was much higher
than that of the bargirs as they had to look after the horses and that they
would have to replace horses more often.
The artillery was under the charge of daroga -i-topkhana or the mir atish.
The Mughals tried to enlist the services of Europeans who had superior
skills in handling artillery. An officer called the hazari commanded a unit
of artillery of thousand men. The artillery was divided into two wings -
heavy and light pieces. Heavy guns were used to defend or assault a fort.
Light guns were mob ile and moved with the em•peror. Artillery or swivel
guns were mounted on elephants and camels. Babur began the use of
artillery on a large scale in India. His suc•cessors continued the practice
with success.
Elephants were widely used by the Mughals. Thes e were useful in
breaking the enemies’ military formations. They were used to opening
gates of palaces or forts and for transporting goods. As artillery was more
commonly used, there was greater possibility of elephants running amuck
and injuring their own side. The elephants were used more as beasts of
burden.
The navy of the Mughals was more useful for river warfare. In lower
Bengal there was a flotilla of war boats carrying artillery up and down the
river. On the western coast naval defense was in the hands of the
Abyssinian immigrants, the Siddis of Janjira. Foreigners were employed
in the Mughal navy. Agra and Allahabad were important river ports.
There was an officer called the mir bahr at important river ports. He had
to supply the emperor with boats or make a bridge across the river for the
army to cross over.
6.2.8 Check Your Progress
1. What was theory of kingship during the Mughal period?
2. Who was the daroga -i-topkhana?
6.3 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
For administrative convenience, the Mughal Empire was divided i nto a
number of provinces (subahs). The administration of the Mughal province
was a replica of that of the central administration. The number of subahs
varied as the size of the empire increased. During Akbar’s rule the
number was fifteen. By the time of Aurangzeb the number had increased
to twenty -one. The provincial capital was the centre of all activity. The
governor of the province was known as nizam, sipahsalar or subahdar. He
was assisted by the provincial diwan, the provincial bakshi, the Fauzdar,
the kotwal, the provincial sadr, the provincial qazi, the amil and other
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89 6.3.1 The Subahdar:
The head of the provincial administration was the subahdar. The chief
functions of the subahdar were to maintain law and order in the subah; to
collect the revenue in the province and remit a certain amount to the
imperial treasury and to implement the imperial farmans or decrees. The
subahdar was expected to suppress rebellions and punish the rebels,
recommend names of meritorious offic ers for promotion, send two
dispatches to the imperial court through the dakchowki, encourage
farmers to cultivate land and grant all possible help them. The subahdar
was expected to work in co-operation with other officials of his province.
He also had to col•lect revenue from the various vassal princes. The
subahdar had to see that the provincial army was in good shape and he
sent military help to the emperor. Usually members of the royal family
were appointed to this high post.
6.3.2 The Provincial Diwan:
The provincial diwan was the next important official of the state. He was
appointed by and was directly responsible to the imperial diwan. The
subahdar and the diwan acted as a check on each other. The prin•ciple of
checks and balances operated in the province so that neither the subahdar
nor the diwan became too powerful. The diwan was expected to encourage
cultivation and appoint honest men to the post of amin. He had to appoint
kroris and tahsildars for the collection of revenue. They were advised to
look af ter the interests of the farmers and not harass them at the time
collection of revenue. He had to check that the amins did not charge extra
cess or abwabs. He was advised to advance loans (taqavi) to the needy
peasants and collect them in easy installments . The provincial diwan had
to send reports to the imperial diwan twice a month regarding the
developments in the province and the cash balance maintained by him.
6.3.3 The Provincial Bakshi:
The provincial bakshi was the representative of the imperial bakshi. Th e
bakshi in the province had similar duties, which the mir bakshi had at the
centre. His responsibility was to look after the provincial army. He had to
supervise the recruitment, disci•pline, training, and equipment etc. of the
soldiers.
6.3.4 The Waqa -i-Navis:
The waqa -i-navis was in a charge of the espionage department. He sent
reports of all affairs and also functioning of all officers including those of
the subahdar and the diwan.
6.3.5 The Sadr and the Qazi:
The sadr and the qazi in the province enjoyed significa nt powers. Usually
the same person was appointed to both the posts. He was appointed on the
recommenda•tion of the chief qazi. In the capacity of the sadr he
supervised the implementation of the Islamic laws and as a qazi he munotes.in

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90 dispensed with justice. There w as also the muhtasib who supervised over
public morals.
6.3.6 The Kotwal:
The kotwal was the head of the city police. He was entrusted with the task
of maintaining public order within the city. His chief duties included the
following: keeping watch at night and patrolling the city; keeping a
register of houses and frequented roads; employing spies from among the
obscure residents and keeping a watch on the income and expenditure
of various classes; finding out and arresting thieves and other criminals;
examining weights and measures; making a list of property of those who
had no heirs and of the dead and missing persons. The kotwal was a
military officer and maintained sufficient soldiers with him.
6.3.7 Local Administration:
The provinces were further sub -divided into districts called sarkars. The
important official in the sarkar were the faujdar. He was the military
officer of the district. His main duty was the maintenance of law order in
his area of jurisdic•tion. He was subordinate to the subahdar. He
commanded a contin•gent of troops with whose help he maintained
discipline and also executed royal farmans and regulations. He had to
guard roads and make them safe for the travellers. He gave protection to
the revenue collectors and saw that the excess taxes were not c ollected.
The functions of the faujdar are described thus by Sir J.N. Sarkar, “In
short, the faujdar as his name means, was only the commander of a
military force stationed in the country to put down smaller rebellions,
disperse or arrest robber gangs, mak e demonstration of force to overawe
opposition to the revenue authorities or the criminal judge or the censor”.
The amal guzar was the officer in charge of finance. He was to report to
the diwan all matters relating to finance. The khazan•dar was the
treas urer of the district. The bitikchi and the qanungo helped the amal
guzar in revenue administration. There was a qazi in every sarkar who
interpreted the Islamic law and settled religious disputes.
The sarkar was further divided into several paraganas. The import•ant
officers of the paragana were the shiqdar, who was the head of the
paragana and performed the two major functions of maintaining law and
order and collecting revenue; the amil, who was in direct contact with the
farmers as he was the revenue collector; the fotahdar, who was the
treasurer; the qanungo, who prepared papers regarding agriculture and
revenue collec•tion and the karkuns, the clerks who helped in maintenance
of records and official papers.
The village was the basic unit of administrati on. The village enjoyed
considerable autonomy. The village council or the panchayat settled
disputes. There were also caste panchayats to decide tax or disputes
within the caste. The responsible people in the village administration
were the headman, the wa tchman and the patwari or accountant. The
village panchayat looked after the routine work of the vil•lage. Usually
the state officials did not interfere with the working of the village. munotes.in

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91 6.3.8 Check Your Progress
1. What were the duties of waqa -i-navis?
2. What were the functions of kotwal?
6.4 SUMMARY
The establishment of the Mughal Empire in India did not immediately
change the system of administration, which prevailed under the sultans of
Delhi. Babur had neither time nor opportunity and Humayun neither
inclina tion nor ability to evolve a system of civil government. Thus, the
establishment of Mughal administration on ideas and principles different
from those of the Delhi Sultanate was mainly the work of Akbar.
However, in certain respects, Akbar was indebted to Sher Shah for his
elaborate administrative set up. According to Jadunath Sarkar, the Mughal
system of administration was “a combination of Indian and extra -Indian
elements.” In other words it was a Perso -Arabic system in Indian setting.
Administration of t he Mughals was essentially military in nature, as every
officer of the Mughal state had to be enrolled in the army.

6.5 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the organization of the central administration under the
Mughals.
2. Discuss the provincial administration during the Mughal period.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Theory of kingship during the Mughal period
(b) Administration of justice under the Mughals
(c) Military organization of the Mughals
(d) Local administration under the Mughals
6.6 REFERENCES
1. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses M edieval Indian Ideas and institutions, Pune,
1981.
2. Chitins K. N. - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.
3. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : From
the Stone Age to the 1 2th Century, Pearson Education.
4. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
5. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 1965. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
92 6. Frazes R. W., 'Literary History of India, London 1898.
7. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mu ghal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.
8. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of India,
Delhi, 1984

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93 7
ADMINISTRA TIVE STRUCTURE OF
THE MUGHALS -II
(A) Central and Provincial Administration
(B) Mansabdari System
(C) Revenue and Judicial Administration
Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Mansabdari System
7.3 Revenue Administratio n
7.4 Judicial System under the Mughals
7.5 Summary
7.6 Questions
7.7 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the mansabdari system during Mughal period.
 To analyse revenue system of Mughal period.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The Mughal administration was run by a bureaucracy consisting of
different grades of military officers known as mansabdars. When Akbar
ascended the throne, the condition of the Mughal army was far from
satisfactory. The empire was divided into jagirs . The amirs who held them
were required to mai ntain certain number of horsemen and were required
to serve the empire in times of need. The soldiers maintained by the
amirs were mostly inefficient and absolutely unfit for service. Whenever,
there was a muster for review, the amirs gathered together, as Badauni
says,”lots of tradesmen, weavers, cotton cleaners, carpenters, grocers, both
Hindu and Muslim would be mustered for review and then they would
disappear. They lacked discipline and equipment.”
7.2 THE MANSABDARI SYSTEM
Akbar’s attention was drawn to the necessity of military reforms. In 1571,
when Shahabaz Khan was appointed to the office of Mir Bakshi, the
emperor drew up a scheme of military reforms. The entire military munotes.in

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94 establishment was reorganized on the basis of the mansabdari system.
According to Dr. Satish Chandra, “The mansabdari system, as it
developed under the Mughals, was a distinctive and unique system which
did not have any parallel outside India”.
7.2.1 Meaning of Mansabdari:
The word mansab means rank, dignity or office. Irwin, who has made a
close study of the military system of the Mughals, writes that the object
of the mansabdari system was to settle precedence and gradation of pay. It
implied that the holder of the mansab was bound to render military or civil
service when he was called upon to do so.
7.2.2 Ranks in the Mansabdari System:
The mansabdari system existed during the sultanate period. However,
Akbar seems to have perfected it. Abul Fazal, in his Ain-i- Akbari
maintains that there were sixty -six grades or mansabs, but it appears that
there were not more than thirty -three grades in actual existence. The army
was organized on decimal basis, the lowest unit of command was ten
and the highest was ten thousand or more whose commander was
designated as the khan . The rank of 5,000 and above was reserved for
members of the royal family. During the rule of the later Mughals this
highest rank went up to 50,000.
7.2.3 Appointment and Promotion:
The appointment, promotion, suspension or dismissal of the mansabdars
rested entirely with the emperor. No portio n of the mansabdars dignity
was hereditary. The sons of the mansabdar , as the custom was, had to
begin life anew after their fathers’ death. A mansabdar did not always
begin with the lowest grade. If he happened to be a favourite of the
emperor or a person whom the emperor was delighted to honour, he
could be appointed to any rank open to him. This shows that a person
could get the highest mansab without having to pass through the various
grades by long and faithful service. Raja Biharimal was appointed to the
rank of 5,000 right in the beginning. This mansab was usually reserved for
members of the royal family. Akbar depended on his judgment of people
in making appointments. During Akbar’s reign, his Hindu subjects could
aspire for the higher ranks as he re cognized merit. Raja Todarmal and
Raja Birbal held high mansabs . The mansab was a way of fixing salaries
and status of imperial officials.
7.2.4 The Zat and the Sawar Ranks:
During later years of his reign, Akbar introduced the rank of zat and sawar
in the mansa bdari system. There is a distinction between the zat and sawar
rank. The zat rank was the personal rank of the mansabdar. It indicated
the number of cavalrymen a mansabdar was expected to maintain to
render service to the state. To this rank was added a nu mber of extra
horsemen for which the mansabdar was allowed to draw extra allowances.
This was called his sawar rank. For every additional horseman the
mansabdar received extra salary. He got an increase of two rupees in his munotes.in

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95 zat salary for every sawar he maintained. Individual sawars received
payment according to their nationality; for example, a Muslim sawar
received more salary than a Rajput or an Indian Muslim sawar . For a
force of ten men the mansabdar was expected to keep twenty or twenty -
two horses, so that replacement of horses during warfare was possible.
On the basis of this distinction, the mansabdars except those who held
mansabs of 5000 or above were classified into three categories: A
mansabdar belonged to the first category if his rank in zat and sawar were
equal; second category if his sawar rank was half of his zat rank, and
third category if his sawar was less than half of his zat rank or there were
no sawars at all. Blochman, who had made a deeper study into the military
system of the Mughals , is of the view that the zat rank indicated the
number of soldiers the mansabdars was expected to maintain and the
sawar rank indicated the number of soldiers actually maintained by the
mansabdar . However, this view does not seem to be correct. Akbar
introduced the sawar rank later during his reign, sometime during his
Deccan campaigns and rebellion of Salim.
The Mughals preferred to have mixed contingent of Irani, Turani, Indians,
Afghans, Rajputs and Mughal soldiers to break the monopoly of any one
particular group. During the reign of Akbar and his successors a
commander was expected to furnish 1/3 of his sawar rank in Northern
India, 1/4 of his sawar rank in the Deccan and 1/5 for service outside
India.
7.2.5 Pay and Jagirs:
The mansabdar had to meet his pers onal expenditure out of his salary. He
also had to maintain certain number of horses, ele•phants, camels, mules
and carts. The mansabdar was paid hand•somely. A mandabdar of the
rank of 5,000 could get a salary of Rs. 7,000 a year. Roughly the
mansabdar spent quarter income of his salary in maintaining his force.
The Mughal mansabdar was said to be the highest paid official in the
world then. In certain cases the mansabdars were assigned a jagirs and not
paid in cash. The mansabdars also preferred this, as normally there used
to be a delay in payment of cash from the treasury. Receiving a jagir or
land in lieu of a salary also added to the social prestige of the noble. The
department of revenue kept a register, which showed the jama or the
assessed income of the various areas. The account was kept in dams, forty
dams were equivalents to a rupee . This docu•ment was known as jama -
dami or assessed incomes based on dams.
7.2.6 Check on the Mansabdars:
Every mansabdar kept a descriptive roll or chehra of his troop•ers. Every
horse had two brands, the imperial sign and the first word of the name
of his commander. The emperor used to review his contingent once a
year. If the dag system worked badly the state used to suffer. The
mansabdari system was indeed a complex one. T here was one imperial
service for both military and civilian officers. An officer could be
transferred at a short notice to an entirely new appointment. Birbal the munotes.in

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96 famous wit of Akbar’s court had spent many years at the imperial court,
but he was given a military assignment on the north -west frontier, where
he died fighting. Abul Fazal, a literary luminary and Akbar’s biographer
conducted military operations in the Deccan. Under Akbar mansabdari
system was not hereditary. He appointed only men of merit. As time
passed the system tended to become hereditary and worked to the
disadvantage of the empire.
7.2.7 Dakhils and Ahadis:
Besides the mansabdars, there were certain other soldiers called dakhils
and ahadis . The dakhils were those soldiers who were recruited on behalf
of the emperor but were put under the charge of his mansabdars. The
ahadis were the soldiers of the emperor. They were looked after the diwan
and the bakshi. They were recruited, trained, disciplined and maintained
on behalf of the emperor. They were paid well.
The mansabdari system worked effectively as long as the emperor was
powerful and served by highly competent wazirs . The nobility remained
loyal when their services were rewarded and recognized. When merit was
recognized the system functioned w ell as the right men were chosen for
the right job. It was with the help of the mansabdars that the Mughal
Emperors built and administered their vast empire. But the military
system was not without its limita•tions. The troops were more loyal to
their imme diate master, the mansabdar , than to the king. The
mansabdar recruited and paid them. If the mansabdar happened to raise
his banner of revolt against the emperor his troops were likely to follow
him. There was no uniformity in training or equipping the soldiers. They
were not properly disciplined. They were not organized in any special
regiments. It was left to the mansabdar to organize them. Nothing much
was done to upgrade the infantry.
According to K.N. Chitnis, “The Mughal nobility constituted the bed -rock
of the Mughal administration. It formed the steel -frame of Mughal
bureaucracy and military system. It was the army, peerage and civil
service all rolled into one. All the nobles were brought under the
mansabdari system”.
7.2.8 Check Your Progress
1. What was Mansabdari System?
2. Who were the dakhils?
7.3 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
In an agricultural country like India, land revenue has always formed an
important source of state income. Though the Mughal government had
other sources of income such as customs, mint, inheritance, plunder,
tribute, monopolies etc., land revenue was the main source of income.
Sher Shah was the first ruler of Hindustan who introduced far-reaching
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97 people. Akbar based his reven ue organization on the principles laid down
by Sher Shah and introduced certain innovations to improved on that
system.
7.3.1 Evolution of Akbar’s Revenue Policy:
Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari describes in detail the revenue administration of
Akbar. On his accession Akbar had followed Sher Sha’s system by which
the cultivated area was measured and a central schedule was drawn up. It
fixed crop wise due of the peasant on the basis of the productivity of the
land. On the basis of this schedule a central schedule of pri ces was drawn
up. Akbar discovered that this fixing of a central schedule had some
limitation. One was that it resulted in delay and also it caused hardship to
the farmer. The farmer ended parting with more produce because the
prices fixed were generally p revailing in the imperial court, which were
higher than in the countryside.
Akbar introduced several experiments in revenue administration. He was
interested in maintaining direct relations with the cultivator. It was
difficult to introduce uniform system throughout the empire due to
practical problems such as nature of crops and fertility of land. Akbar
revised Sher Shah’s system. In 1560, Akbar made the first experiment by
appointing Khwaja Abdul Majid Khan as wazir for improving revenue
administration. He decided to collect revenue in cash and fixed a higher
amount, which the farmers were not able to pay, and were dissatis•fied.
In 1563, Akbar appointed Itimad Khan as diwan in charge of khalisa
lands. He separated khalisa land from jagir lands. He divided khalisa
lands in revenue divisions, each giving a revenue of one crore of dams
annually. The officer of each division came to be known as the krori .
1564, Muzaffar Khan was appointed diwan -i-kul. Along with Raja Todar
Mal he introduced revenue reforms. Qanungos in various areas were
asked to send revenue statistics of their respective area to the wizarat
where revenue rates would be fixed based on the statis•tics supplied to it.
In 1569, he introduced the annual assessment. As the quanungo was
familiar with local conditions, he was ordered to report on the actual
produce, local prices, sale and the condition of cultiva•tion. The annual
assessment had its own defect as it resulted in hardship for both the
peasant and the state.
7.3.2 Raja Todar Mal’s Bondobast:
After the conquest of Gujarat (1573), Akbar chose Raja Todar Mal to
introduce revenue reforms in that province. Todar Mal undertook regular
survey of land and assessment was made with the reference to the area
and quality of land. The jagirs were converted into crown land. The whole
of the empire as it then existed was divided into 182 paragnas . The yield
of each paragana was one crore dam (equivalent to two and a half lakh of
rupees a year). The officers appointed to collect this revenue were called
Kroris.
To put into effect the revenue reforms, Akbar appointed Todar Mal as
the diwan and Khwaja Shah Mansur as his deputy. Todar Mal laid down munotes.in

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98 the basis of land revenue administra•tion for the empire. The three major
steps taken by Todar Mal were: (a) Measuremen t of land by which a
systematic survey of land was undertak•en. Earlier land was measured
with hempen rope, which used to contract or expands according to the
amount of moisture in the air. The hempen rope was replaced by jarib or
bamboos joined together by iron rings which remained at constant
length. (b) After the measurement the land was classified. This was done
on the basis of the continuity of cultiva•tion. Land was thus, classified
into four categories - (i) Polaj, land-cultivated continuously, never left
fallow and it yielded revenue every year. (ii) Parauti - land that was left
fallow for year or two so that it may recover it strength. (iii) Chachar -
land left fallow for three to four years. (iv) Banjar - land not culti•vated
for more than five yea rs. The polaj and parauti lands were further
classified into good, middling and bad. The average of the three was taken
and then assessment was fixed. Cultivation of banjar land was
encouraged. (c) Only the areas under actual cultivation were measured and
assessed. The state share was one third of the average produce, but it
varied according to the productivity of land and method of assessment.
Different rates existed for different crops.
Under Todar Mal’s bando•bast system the government and the farmer
were spared lot of suspense. The farmer knew how much he would pay.
On payment the farmer got a receipt. A record of all collections, holdings
and liabilities was kept. Each cultivator was given a patta or a title deed
and was required to sign a kabuliyat or agreement. These documents
contained specification of plots of land in the possession of the cultivator,
area of plots and the revenue he had to pay. The collector sent a record
of collections to the treasury. Accounts were kept in Persian.
7.3.3 Systems of Reve nue Collection:
1. The Dashala System:
The revenue system was thoroughly re-organized when Todar Mal was
appointed as Diwan -i-Ashraf (Minister in charge of Agricultural
Department). The increased size of the empire made the revenue reforms
inevitable. Accordi ng to an earlier practice, the assessment was fixed
every year on the basis of the yield and price, which made the state
demand variable from year to year. To avoid the difficulty and
inconvenience caused by annual settlement, Todar Mal laid down certain
principles. Accordingly a ten-year settlement known as the Dashala
system was introduced. Under this system the average produce of
different crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last ten
years were calculated. One-thirds of the average produce was collected as
state’s share.
The cultivators were asked to pay the revenue in cash. For this purpose,
the prices of each cereal were fixed in different localities on the basis of
local prices. According to Dr. A.L. Srivastava, Akbar divided his entire
empire into a number of dasturs . All the regions within the dastur were
supposed to have uniform prices for each kind of crop. An average of last
ten years’ prices in respect of each kind of crop was ascertained
separately for each dastur. The average was taken as the current price of munotes.in

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99 the crop for the year of assessment. There were separate schedules of
prices of different kinds of crops and the schedules differed from dastur to
dastur. The Dashala system was introduced in the provinces of Bihar,
Allah abad, Malwa, Awadh, Agra, Delhi, Lahore and part of Multan.
2. The Zabti System:
Another system of land revenue collection was known as the Zabti system.
When the season of cultivation arrived, a staff of officers toured the
villages to ascertain the exact ar ea of land under cultivation with a view to
prepare the crop -statement. The area of each crop in each holding having
been found out, the revenue official, Bitikchi applied the prescribed rates
and calculated the revenue due from the cultivator. The Zabti system
prevailed in the subahs of Bihar, Allahabad, Multan, Awadh, Agra,
Malwa, Delhi, Lahore and in certain parts of Gujarat and Ajmer.
3. The Ghallabaksha System:
This was perhaps the oldest and most common system of revenue
collection. Under this system, th e agricultural produce was divided
between the state and the cultivator in fixed proportions. The crop
was divided when it was standing in the field or when it had been
harvested or when it was threshed. This system was also known as the
Bantai system. This system remained in force in Qandahar, Kashmir and
parts of Sindh and Multan.
4. The Nasaq or Kankut System:
Another system was the kankut or the nasaq system, which was also
widely prevalent. There is difference of opinion regarding its exact nature
of this system of revenue collection. Nasaq meant valuation of crop by
estimate. Skilful appraisers made a rough estimate of the produce of a
field on the basis of an actual inspection on the spot. One third of the
estimated produce was fixed as state share. Some time an average of the
land revenue paid by the cultivator for all his land during the last ten
years was taken. Aurangzeb is said to have favoured the nasaq sys•tem.
During the reign of Aurangzeb the sate demand had been increased to
one half of the produ ce. The nasaq system of revenue collection prevailed
in Bengal, Gujarat and Kathiawar.
5. Revenue Officials:
Akbar’s revenue system was ryotwari . The actual cultivators of the land
were made responsible for the annual payment of the fixed revenue.
Patwaris and muqaddams were not state officers, but the state
recognized their services, assessed and collected revenue and also
maintained records with their help. In return, they were paid a part of
revenue. The amil was the revenue collector . He was assisted by th e
bitikchi, the potahdar and the qanungo. During later part of Akbar’s reign,
qanungos were accepted as state officials and were paid salaries by the
state. Over amils were amalgujars, who in turn worked under provincial
diwans, who themselves functioned under the central diwan (wazir).
Akbar was deeply interested in the improvement and extension of
cultivation. He directed the amil to act like father to the peasants. He was munotes.in

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100 asked to advance money to the peasants by way of loans for purchasing
seeds, implem ents, animals etc. in times of need and to recover them in
easy installments.
During the reign of Akbar, the peasants were not burdened with heavy
taxes. Akbar collected the traditional one -thirds of the produce as land
revenue from the peasants. Under the dashala system, the peasants had
to pay fixed revenue for ten years. If they could produce more by their
efforts they were free to get its advantages. Besides, all jagirdari land was
also under the control of state officials. Thus, there were no middlemen
like jagirdars or landlords to exploit the peasants. Therefore the revenue
system under Akbar was beneficial for both the state and the peasant. It
led to the increased production and that helped in the growth of trade and
industry. Because of this reason , though Akbar engaged himself
constantly in aggressive warfare, his treasury remained full. Vincent Smith
considered Akbar’s revenue system admirable one.
6. Other Sources of Revenue:
Besides regular land revenue, other taxes and fees known as abwabs
were le vied on the peasants in order to increase the income of the state.
These taxes included; duties on the sale of produce; fees on the sale of
immovable property; perquisites taken by the officers for their own sake
and fees or commissions taken for the state; licence -tax for carrying on
certain trades; forced subscriptions; imposts on the Hindus, such as tax on
bathing in the Ganges and for carrying the bones of the dead Hindus for
immersing in the Ganges. Aurangzeb abolished many abwabs , but added
some other to increase the income of the state. He revived zizya, the poll
tax to be paid by the non -Muslims, which had been abolished by Akbar
previously
7. The Zamindars:
The zamindars also played an important role in revenue adminis•tration
during the Mughal rule. T hey were responsible for maintaining law and
order in their areas. They were not government officers like the
amalguzars . The zamindars were petty landholders in the village. Many
of them were descend•ants of old ruling families who held on to their
ancest ral land. Others were ruling chiefs like Rajput princes. The
zamindars cultivated lands, which they owned. They also enjoyed the
hereditary right of collection of land revenue from a number of villages.
The zamindar did not own all the land that came under his zamindari . The
peasant who actually cultivated the land could not be evicted as long as
he paid his land revenue. In Bengal the zamindar paid a fixed amount of
revenue to the state. Whatever was left after paying to the state was
his income. In some r egions the amount the peasant had to pay to the
state was fixed. So the zamindar imposed a separate cess for his own
benefit. The harassment of the peasants by the zamindars made them the
‘exploiting classes. The zamindars maintained their own troops as we ll.
They lived in forts or garhis , which became their status symbol. So long
as they remitted revenue regularly to the imperial treasury, they were left
free to manage their affairs. The zamindars had considerable local
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101 8. The Jagirdars:
Akbar used to pay cash salary to the government officials, especially the
mansabdars . However, this system was modified by the successors of
Akbar. The Mughal officials in the imperial service received thei r salary
not in cash, but in revenue yielding land assigned to them. The
assignment was known as jagir and the assignee as jagirdar . A
mansabdar received a jagir according to his status and rank. He obtained
his income from his jagir . The wizarat made the evaluation of the
assignments. As state officials the jagirdars were liable to be transferred
every few years so that they should not develop vested interests in a
particular region. These jagirdars did not do much for the welfare of the
people living on their jagir . There was no regular control of the imperial
administration over the jagir . During the rule of the later Mughals
jagirdari system became hereditary. A crisis in the jagirdari system was
one of the factors that were responsible for the disintegr ation of Mughal
Empire.
9. Decline of Agriculture and Revenue:
In the reign of Jahangir there was a gradual decline in agricul•ture as well
as revenue. The jagirdars had freedom in the manage•ment of their lands.
Usually these jagirdars oppressed the peasantr y. Revenue from khalisa
lands also declined progressively. Shah Jahan tried to better the condition
of his peasants. He attempted to bring more land under cultivation. System
of granting jagirs to mansabdars in lieu of cash salary continued. In the
reign o f Aurangzeb crisis in agriculture became worse. The state could not
evict peasants and had to keep them busy in cultiva•tion. Officers and
jagirdars tyrannized the peasants. During the reign of the later Mughals
revenue administration began to de•cline, this affected revenue collection
and the imperial finances were in a deteriorating condition.
7.3.4 Check Your Progress
1. What do tou mean by dahshala system?
2. What was jagir?
7.4 JUDICIAL SYSTEM UNDER THE MUGHALS
Following the collapse of the Sultanate of Delhi in India in 1526 C.E.
Mughal rule emerged in India. Babur, who was also the first emperor of
the Mughal Empire, founded the Mughal rule in India. His son Humayun,
who conquered many other parts of India, succeeded him. It is believed
that the Mug hal emperors were very fond of justice and were considered
the ‘fountain of justice.’ The emperor set up a separate justice department
called Mahakuma -e Adalat to govern and then see the proper
administration of justice within the empire. The laws were bas ed largely
on the Holy book of Islam - Quran. This was similar to the sultanate of
Delhi, as the sultanate’s laws were also based on the Quran. Sovereignty
resides in Allah (God) and according to the Quran, and the King is his
faithful servant in carrying out his will on earth. The ruler was considered
to be the judge, the appointed representative of the Almighty who was sent
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102 Classification of the court during the Mughal empire
At the capital seat in prov inces, districts, parganahs, and villages, a
systematic classification and gradation of the courts existed. The
significant courts that operated during this period were as follows:
Court systems at capital
India’s capital city Delhi had its courts divided into three. They were as
follows:
The Emperor’s Court
The Emperor’s court, which was controlled by the emperor, was the court
of the empire’s highest order. The said court has jurisdiction over the case
civil as well as criminal cases. The Emperor was supp orted by Daroga -e-
Adalat, Mir Adil & Mufti when hearing the cases as a court of first
instance. The Emperor presided over a bench consisting of the Chief
Justice (Qazi -ul-Quzat) and other chief justice court Qazis while hearing
the appeal.
The Chief Justic e’s Court
It was the capital’s second significant courtroom. The said court was
controlled over by the Chief Justice which was supported by two highly
essential Qazies who were appointed as judges who were working in this
court. It had jurisdiction and the discretion to hear civil, original as well as
criminal cases and hear provincial court appeals as well. These also had
supervisory authority over the operation of the Provincial tribunals.
The Chief Revenue Court
It was the third relevant court of appeal to entertain those cases involving
revenue. The four officials, namely Daroga -e-Adalat, Mir Adil, Mufti and
Muhtasib have also supported this court. In addition to these three
important courts, Delhi already had two courts. Qazi -e-Askar court was a
court t hat was especially where military matters were determined. The
court travelled with troops from place to place.
Provincial Courts
The provinces that were present in the Mughal period were divided into
smaller units called Subahs. Each Subah had its own co urt. These courts in
the subahs were divided into three types:
The Governor’s Court (Adaalat -e-Nasim -e-Subah)
The Governor or Nazim control and handle this court and presides over all
the cases which deal in matters relating to Province, which is known as his
original jurisdiction. This court also had the authority to hear lower court
appeals. Further appeal from this court rested with the court of the
Emperor. At this court were attached one Mufti and a Daroga -e-adalat.
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103 The Provincial Chief Appeal Court (Qazi -i-Subah’s court)
This tribunal heard appeals from the district Qazis’ decisions. Qazi -i-
Subah ‘s forces coexisted with those of the Governors. This court also had
original jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. Mufti, Muhtasib,
Daroga -e- Adalat -e-Subah, Mir Adil, Pandit, Sawaneh Nawis and Waque
Nigar were the officers attached to this court.
Provincial Chief Revenue Court
At the imperial capital, this court was taken over by the Diwan -e-Subah
who possessed original as well as appellate jurisdict ion. Peshker, Daroga,
Treasurer and Cashier were four officers annexed to this court.
District Court
The districts in the Mughal Period were known as Sarkars. These Sarkars
were divided into four courts. The courts were as follows:
District Qazi Court
Qazi -e-Sarkar presided over the district’s chief civil and criminal court.
This court had the authority to try both civil and criminal cases. The Qazi -
e-Sarkar ‘s appeal from this court was the district’s chief judicial officer.
Daroga -e-Adalat, Mufti, Mir Adi l, Muhtasib, Pandit, and Vakil -e-
Sharayat were appointed to this court with six officers.
Faujdaar Adalat
This particular court was usually presided over by a Faujdar who had the
authority to prosecute riot and state security cases. From this court’s
rulin gs, an appeal lay before the court of the governor.
Kotwali trial
A Kotwal -e-Shahar presided over this court ruled on all minor criminal
cases. That court’s appeals lay with the Qazi -e-Sarkar.
Amalguzari Kachari
This court was chaired by an Amalguzar who d ecided revenue items. An
appeal by this court lay with the Adalat of Diwan -e-Subah.
References
Shivali Srivastava, Judicial system during the time of Mughals in India
accessed in https://blog.ipleaders.in/judicial -system -time-mughals -india/
7.5 SUMMARY
The Mughal administration was run by a bureaucracy consisting of
different grades of military officers known as mansabdars. When Akbar
ascended the throne, the condition of the Mughal army was far from
satisfactory. The empire was divided into jagirs. The ami rs who held them munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
104 were required to maintain certain number of horsemen and were required
to serve the empire in times of need. The soldiers maintained by the amirs
were mostly inefficient and absolutely unfit for service. Whenever, there
was a muster for re view, the amirs gathered together, as Badauni
says,”lots of tradesmen, weavers, cotton cleaners, carpenters, grocers, both
Hindu and Muslim would be mustered for review and then they would
disappear. They lacked discipline and equipment.” The Mansabdari
system was an excellent system perfected by Akbar.

7.6 QUESTIONS
1. Write a detailed note on the Mansabdari system.
2. Give an account of the revenue administration during the Mughal
period.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Mansabdari system
(b) Raja Todarmal’ s bondobast
(c) Systems of revenue collection

7.7 REFERENCES
1. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses Medieval Indian Ideas and institutions, Pune,
1981.
2. Chitins K. N. - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.
3. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India : From
the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education.
4. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
5. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 196 5.
6. Frazes R. W., 'Literary History of India, London 1898.
7. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.
8. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of India,
Delhi, 1984


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105 Module -3
8
RISE OF THE MARATHA POWER -I
(a) Shivaji and Foundation of Swarajya
(b) Administration of Shivaji
(c) Sambhaji, Rajaram and Tarabai
Unit Structure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Campaigns of Shivaji Maharaja
8.3 Shaista Khan and Shivaji Maharaja (1663)
8.4 Administration of Shivaji Maharaja
8.5 Summary
8.6 Questions
8.7 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES
 To know various campaigns of Shivaji Maharaja.
 To understand the administrative system of Shivaji Maharaja.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The rise of the Maratha powe r introduced an important factor in the
Indian politics during the second half of the 17 th century. Before the rise
of Shivaji the maratha were scattered like atoms in South India. The 17 th
century saw them organized into a national state for which ground was
prepared by many factors.
The geography of Maharashtra exercised strong influence in making the
character and history of the people. Enclosed on two sides by mountain
ranges like Sahyadri running from north to south and the Satpura and
Vindhyas running from east to west protected by the Narmada and Tapi
rivers and provided with number of easily defensible hill forts, the
Maratha country could not be annexed or conquered easily by an enemy.
The geographical features also provided conditions to master guerilla art
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106 The Marathi religious reformers like Eknath, Tukaram, Jnaneshwar and
Ramdas led socio -religious reform movement in Maharashtra. The
doctrine of devotion to god and equality of all men before him without
any distinction of caste had br ought about self-awakening among the
people. The marathi language and literature provided another bond of
union among the Marathas.
The Marathas had also acquired some political and military experience
through their employment in the sultanate of Deccan. Shahaji the father of
Shivaji began his career as a trooper in the army of the sultan of
Ahmednagar. Thus observes JN Sarkar, “A remarkable community of
language, creed & life was attained in Maharashtra in the 17th century
even before political unity was conferred by Shivaji.”
8.2 CAMPAIGNS OF SHIVAJI MAHARAJA AND THE
SWARAJYA
8.2.1 Early Life of Shivaji Maharaja:
Shivaji was born in the fort of Shivneri near Junnar on 10th april 1627
Recent sources assert that he was born on 19th February 1630. Shahaji,
father of Shivaji went to his new jagir leaving Shivaji under his mother
Jijabai’s guardianship. Neglected by her husband Jijabai, a lady of
dauntless spirit of adventure and extra ordinary intellect infused in her
child’s mind high and inspiring ideas by reciting stories of heroism
spirituality from Ramayana and Mahabharat. This encouraged Shivaji to
make effort to avenge the wrong committed by the Muslim invaders.
Another powerful factor in Shivaji’s training was his guardian Dadaji
Kondadev. The training he impa rted in the practical business of
government and the meticulous care he bestowed upon Shivaji’s general
well being were in great measure responsible for Shivaji’s future
achievements. He organized from among local mavals a well-organized
force who proved to be Shivaji’s most trusted followers. The influence of
Dadahi Kondadev combined to make him bold and enterprising.
8.2.2 Founding of Swarajya:
It was now time for Shivaji to choose a career. He chose for himself a
career of independence and he attempted to libe rate the maratha race and
found an independat kingdom.
The growing weakness of the Deccan Sultantes & the prolonged
campaigns of the imperialists in the north, greatly favoured the rise of the
Maratha power.
The public career of Shivaji may be said to have begun with the
occupation of the fort of Torna in 1646 which brought him arms and
ammunitions. Five miles east of this fort he built the fort of Rajgad Shivaji
gradually acquired forts from their hereditary owners or local officers of
Bijapur by force, br ibe or trickery and also built new ones. munotes.in

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Rise of the Maratha Power -I
107 A landmark in his political career was the occupation of Javali in 1656
from Chandrarao More. It opened door for the conquests secondly it
greatly increased the strength of his military establishment as it made him
the master of the Maral region a fine recruiting ground for his troops and
thirdly he acquired a huge treasure at Javali.
8.2.3 Shivaji Maharaja’s first clash with the Mughals:
Shivaji came into clash with the Mughals for the first time in 1657 when
Aurangzeb invaded Bijapur . Shivaji with his army raided. Ahmednager
& Junnar and carried away three lakhs of rupees along with horses &
jewellery. Aurangzeb promptly sent his forces and Shivaji was forced to
surrender the Mughal army destroyed Maratha villages and captured
chakan in 1657.
8.2.4 Afzal Khan incident:
The sultan of Bijapur decided to destroy the power of Shivaji because
Shivaji had raided the Karnataka region of Bijapur. Thus Afzal Khan was
selected to undertake campaign against Shivaji and “to bring back the
rebel dead or alive.” Afzal Khan set out from Bijapur in 1659 and reached
Pandarpur &desecrated the image of God. At the same time he sent a
message to Shivaji inviting him for a meeting at Wai. Shivaji knew there
was some mischief behind all this. Moreove r his spy had already informed
him about the intentions of the Khan. Shivaji went to the conference
with concealed weapons and clad in armour when Afzal Khan tried to
thrust a dagger into the body of Shivaji while embracing each other
Shivaji quickly attac ked Afzal Khan with the dagger and waghnakh &
thus killed him. He then defeated the rest of the troops and plundered their
camp. Some historians question the morality of the act of Shivaji but it
was for his self-defence.
Shivaji acquired huge booty. He fo llowed up this victory by sending
troops into south Konkon and Kolhapur districts. By 1660 he
victoriously returned back to Raigad.
8.3 SHAISTA KHAN AND SHIVAJI MAHARAJA (1663)
Aurangzeb appointed his maternal uncle Shaista Khan as governor of
Deccan with spec ial order to destroy Shivaji’s kingdom and suppress his
activities. After about two years of fighting Shivaji decided to make night
attack on Shahista Khan when he had taken his residence in Lal Mahal
where Shivaji had spent his childhood. With four hundre d selected troops,
Shivaji reached Poona by midnight of 15th April 1663. They knock open
the back door, entered Shahista Khan’s bedroom and attacked him in the
dark. In this attack Shahista Khan lost his son, six wives and many
servants. However Shahista Khan escaped in the darkness, Shivaji’s
prestige soared up high while Shahista Khan felt humiliated.

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108 8.3.1 Sack of Surat - (1664):
Shivaji planned to sack Surat, the richest port in the west. He suddenly left
his capital and marched towards Surat. That g overner of Surat was
frightened and sent his agents to enquire about Shivaji’s intentions. But
the agent was also captured. Hearing of Shivaji’s arrival the people of
Surat deserted the city Shivaji looted the city for 4 days the plunder
amounted to more t han crores of rupees. He also sent messages to British
and Dutch merchants to pay his ransom but they did not respond. He
sacked Surat for money and to take revenge from Aurangzeb. He
suddenly left Surat hearing the arrival of Mughal army.
8.3.2 Jaisingh and Shivaji Maharaja (1665):
The repeated reverses of the Mughals greatly affected their prestige in the
Deccan. Aurangzeb now decided to Send Raja Jaisingh an able and
courageous commander who was known for his foresight and calculated
policy. He crossed the Narmada reached Poona on 13 th March 1665. He
made through plan of his campaign and asked sultan of Bijapur and Siddis
of Janjira to attack Shivaji. He bribed Maratha officers and zamindars
to join him.
Jai Singh besieged the fort of Purandhar, which forced Sh ivaji to
surrender unconditionally. Treaty of Purandhar was signed in 1665 by
which: -
(1) Shivaji surrendered 23 of his forts
(2) Shivaji was exempted from personal attendance at the Mughal court
but his son Sambhaji was to saw the emperor with 5,000 horses. He
also provided the emperor that he will help them in the Deccan.
(3) Shivaji was permitted to compensate for his losses by collecting
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in some districts of Bijapur.
8.3.3 Shivaji Maharaja’s visit to Agra -(1666):
Shivaji was invited to visit Agra . Jaisingh had pledged word of safety to
Shivaji Jijabai was made Regent in his absence Shivaji was accompanied
by his son Sambhaji on reaching Agra Shivaji was presented to the
emperor and was made to stand in the rank holders of 5,000 maasabdars.
This hu rt his sense of pride and in anger he left the court. Both Shivaji
and his son sambhaji were made prisoners Shivaji however escaped in the
baskets of sweetmeats. The guards were shocked and surprised. The
mughal army was sent to follow them but Shivaji had escaped safely &
reached Raigad. After this for about 3 years Shivaji remained at peace
with the mughals and utilized this time in organizing his internal
administration.
The peace with the Mughal was a mere truce as Shivaji’s object was to
take time and prove his ability. He began attacking mughal territories and
recovered several forts, which he had lost by the treaty of Purandar.
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Rise of the Maratha Power -I
109 the second time in Oct 1670. The plunder lasted for 3 days of he got 66
lakhs of rupees.
Shivaji followed up his success by sudden attack on Berar and Khandesh.
He demanded chauth from the Mughal territories saying that they
belonged to him and not Mughals Aurangzeb was alarmed by their
activities of Shivaji . Mahabat Khan was appointed as the mughal governor
to deal with Shivaji. He was provided with 40,000 strong force to destroy
Shivaji. However the mughals were completely routed. Shivaji acquired
huge booly of 6000 horses, 125 elephant’s treasures & jewels when the
mughal army surrendered. Aurangzeb called back Mohabat Khan and
appointed Bahadur Khan as the new governor but he also failed Shivaji’s
army raided territories of Golkunda and Bijapur.
Encouraged by his suc cess Shivaji decided to crown himself as
Chattrapati in 1674. Although Shivaji had extensive kingdom and he ruled
it as an independent king yet he was looked upon as a noble. He could not
claim equality of political status therefore it was necessary to assume the
title of king. After many month s of preparations and establishing his
kshatriya status with the approval of Ganga Bhat the foremost Hindu
theologian, on 6 June 1674 Shivaji was coronated as Chattrapati at Raigad.
The coronation of Shivaji was one of the most significant events of the
17th century as it announced the birth of an independent Maratha state.
About 50 lakhs of rupees were spent on the ceremony.
8.3.4 Check Your Progress
1. Where was Shivaji born?
2. Comment on the sack of Surat,1664.
8.3.5 Shivaji Maharaja’s Karnataka Campaign (1677 -78):
In January 1677 Shivaji launched the greatest expedition of his life
invasion of Eastern Karnatak. The Mughals prevented Shivaji from
further expansion towards north. He thought of expanding towards the
South and choge Karnatak which was fertile rich in agricu lture produce
and had brisk trade through the ports. He found an excuse for the
expedition as his step brother Vyankoji had seized Tanjore, which was
under Bijapur. Vyankoji had quarreled with his minister Raghunath Pant
Hanumante and dismissed him. The mi nister visited the prime minister
Madanna of Golkanda and discussed the project of joint expedition of
Karnatak. He also met Shivaji and encouraged him to join the attack to
which Shivaji agreed. Shivaji reached Golkanda and a pact was entered
for joint in vasion of Karnatak. The terms of the pact between Shivaji and
the Sultan of Golkanda were as follows: -
(1) The Sultan would pay 4½ lakhs per month for the expenses of
Maratha army.
(2) He would give 5000 troops for the expedition
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110 (4) The parties would jointly resist the Mughals or Bijapur advance
against either of them.
(5) Shivaji would send an agent to reside permanently at Hydrabad.
(6) Shivaji agreed to pay an annual tribute of 1 lakh to the sultan.
His main object was to conquer jinji which belonged to Bijapur with
5,000 army Jinji was besieqed and the guard. Ahmed Khan surrendered.
Shivaji made Jinji his seat of government in Karnatak. Next he besieged
Vellore, as the fort was not easily to be surrendered he left it unde r his
commanders. He then marched to meet Sher Khan, a Pathan noble who
ruled over Southern half of Bijapuri Karnatak. He was defeated and he
surrendered most of his territories.
At the end of July Vellore also surrendered. The entire coastal territories
of Karnatak from river Tugabhadha to Kaveri passed into Shivaji’s
possession. He quickly consolidated the conques by organizing
administration.
8.3.6 Settlement with Vyankoji :-
Vyankoji held Mysore and Eastern Karnatak Shivaji demanded that he
should be given ha lf. This resulted in a fiction between the two. Shivaji
seized the territory and placed his governor in change. On Shivaji’s return
to Maharashtra Vyankoji attacked his governer but was defeated. At last
a friendly settlement was conducted between the two by which Shivaji
returned back all the territories, which he had conquered, from Vyankoji.
But Shivaji was accepted by his stepbrother as his overlord.
8.3.7 Shivaji and the Siddis of Janjira :-
Shivaji’s ambition was to extend the western frontier of his kingdo m to
the sea and have a strong navy for protection. In 1675 he seized the naval
bases of Ponda and Karwar south of Goa from Bijapur, Chawl and Janjira
he wished to take from foreign hands.
The rocky island of Janjira 45 miles South of Bombay was with
Abhys sinian family Siddis first under Ahmednagar Sultan later under
the Bijapur. They had powerful fleet Clashes were inevitable because
without possession of Janjira Shivaji’s Konkan would not be safe and for
siddis Janjira was source of income and supplies. Siddis had their head
quarter at Danda Raja puri, which was taken by Shivaji. He then planned
at attack on Janjira in 1669. The siddig were on the point of surrendering
to Shivaji when the Mughals appeared on scene to help them. After this
Shivaji made seve ral attempts to conquer Janjira but failed.
8.3.8 Sambhaji’s Desertion :-
Shivaji’s son Sambhaji though carefully brought up and trained to be good
soldier became addicted to wine and women. He turned over to the side of
Mughals and planned joint attack on Bijap ur. Later he repented for his
conduct and secretly escaped from the Mughal camp and returned back
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111 Shivaji was anxious about the future of his kingdom. Sambhaji was unfit
for the throne while Rajaram his younger son was too small for the
enormous resp onsibilities. Thus his last days were full of anxiety. On
28th March 1680 he suffered from mild fever and after a week the great
Chattrapati died at Raigad on 3rd April 1680.
8.3.9 Check Your Progress
1. What were the terms of pact between Shivaji Maharaja and the
Sultan of Golkonda?
2. Why did Sambhaji desert Shivaji Maharaja?
8.4 ADMINISTRATION OF SHIVAJI MAHARAJA:
Shivaji’s daring exploits only precent one side of the working of his
mastermind but we cannot forget that he had other and stonger claims
upon our attention as a civil ruler. “Like the first napoleon” writes Ranade
“Shivaji in his time was a great organizer and a builder of civil
institutions” His system like the muslim rullers of India was an autocracy
of which he himself was the supreme head. His administrat ion prineiples
included the welfare of his subjects and the seanily of the swarajya.
Shivaji’s swarajya included out the cerently except the Portuguese
possessions from Ramnagan in the North to Karwar in the South In the
East it included Baglana in the nor th, half of narik and Poona districts, the
whole of Satara and Kolhapur district in addition to the above he had
conquered western Karnata extending from Belgaum to the bank of
Tungabhadra right upto Bellary district.
8.4.1 Central Administration and Ashta Pradh an Mandal:
As was the practice in medieval times Shivaji was an absolute ruler with
all powers concentrated in his hands but he stood for the warfare of the
people and thus he was a benevolent despot.
In the actual discharge of state business Shivaji was h elped by a Council
of Eight ministers called Ashtapradhan Mandal. The ministers were
appointed by Shivaji and they had no power to dictate his policy. Their
function was purely advisory. The eight ministers were
(1) Peshwa or the Prime Minister whose duty was to look after the welfare
of the state in general, to represent the king in his absence and to
promote harmony in the administration. All royal letter and charters
had to bear his seal below the king’s.
(2) Amatiya or the Auditor who checked all the accounts o f public income
and expenditure and reperted them to the king. He countersigned all
the statements of account both of the kingdom in general and of the
particular districts.
(3) Mantri or Record keeper whose duty was to compile a daily record of
the king’s doings and court incidents. He had to watch the invitation
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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
112 (4) Sachiv or incharge of Royal Secretariat who looked after royal
correspondence.
(5) Sumant or foreign secretary who was king’s advisor on relatio ns with
foreign states, was and peace. He had to receive and entertain
envoys from other states.
(6) Senapati or commander -in-chief was in charge of discipline,
recruitment and organization of army.
(7) Pandit Rao or in charge of Religious affairs whose main duty was the
fix dates for religious ceremonies, to honor and reward learned
Brahmans on behalf of the king.
(8) Nyayadhish or Chief Justice who tried civil and criminal cases
according to Hindu law. All minister excepting Nyayadhisha and
Pandit Rao were required t o command armies and lead expeditions.
8.4.2 Military Administration :-
The organization of army by Shivaji on a new model is a brilliant proof of
his military genius. The Maratha fighting force consisted mostly of
cavalry who had been in the habit of working half the year upon their
fields and engaged themselves during the dry season in active services.
Shivaji introduced regular standing army. His soldiers had to be always
ready for duty and were provided with quarters during the rainy season.
The army was divided to infantry and cavalry. There was regular
gradation of officers in both. The cavalry had 2 branches the bargis or
soldiers provided with pay and equipment by the state and the siledars
who equipped themselves at their own cost and supplied the pay and
equipment of the soldiers whom they brought to the service of the State
but were paid stipulated sum by the State to defray the expenses of service
in the field.
In cavalry 25 troopers formed a unit, over 25 men was placed a havaldar,
over 5 havaldars one Jumladar, over 10 Jamladars one Hazari. Higher
ranks over Hazari were Panch Hazari and Sarnobat or supreme command
of cavalry. In infantry 9 paiks formed the lowest unit under a naik. Over 5
naiks there was one havaldar, over 2 or 3 havaldars one Jumladar and our
and over 10 Jamaldars one Hazari. Still higher rank was Seven Hazari
under the command of Sarnobat of the infantry. The army was under
Senapati who was a member of the Council of ministers.
Though regular and generous in making payments and giving rewards to
the soldiers Shivaji did not forget to enforce strict discipline on them. He
drew up a set of regulations for their conduct. Women of children or any
other means of entertainment were not allowed to accompany the army.
8.4.3 Navy: -
Shivaji was the first medieval Indian ruler of the time who realized the
importance of building navy for the purpose of trade and defence against munotes.in

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Rise of the Maratha Power -I
113 the Europeans. He did not build big ships. His fleet consisted of around
500 small vessels. The siddis Portuguese and the Britis h faced the wrath of
Shivaji’s navy.
8.4.4 Forts: -
The forts occupied an important position in the Swarajya Shivaji had
Havaldar for its administration, assisted by a subedar and a Karkhanis.
Each of them officers belonged to different castes a Maratha, a Brahmi n
and a Prabhu respectively. The havaldar had change of looking after the
military, the subedar performed civil and revenue duties and Karkhanis
looked after the grain and foddin stock in fort. The strategic location of
the forts, the lines of defense and Shivaji’s sound administration made the
Swarajya almost impregnable.
8.4.5 Revenue Administration: -
For the purpose of revenue collection and administration Shivaji’s
kingdom was divided into number of Provinces, further divided into
Parganas and villages formed the lowest unit. The revenue settlement was
based on measurement of land. He abandoned the existing practice of
farming out the land revenue and substituted for it direct collection from
ryots through state officials who had no right to exercise power of a
political superior or harass the ryots. The assessment was made after
careful survey of land. The state dues were fixed at 30% of the expected
produce the cultivators knew definitely how much they had to pay. They
could pay in cash or in kind. Instructio ns were issued to provide all
facilities such as cattle, seed and interest free loans known as “tagai” to
be repaid in easy instalments to the needy cultivators. Besides land
revenue Shivaji imposed various other taxes, which included taxes on
profession, trade, social and religious functions. As the hilly region of
Maharashtra did not yield much in land revenue Shivaji often levied
chauth and Sardeshmukhi on neighboring tracts. Which were completely
at his mercy and also on Mughal provinces as well as some districts of
Bijapur kingdom. Before raiding the territory Shivaji asked for the
payment of Chouth as tribute. If Chauth was paid The territory had
acknowledged the suzrainily of Shivaji. if the payment was denied it was
regarded as a challenge to Shivaji ’s authority. The region that refused
the payment was then raided by the Marathas.
Sardeshmukhi was an additional tax which Shivaji demanded on the basis
of his claim as the hereditary Sardeshmukhi of Maharashtra.
8.4.6 Judical Administration :-
The judical sys tem was simple. No regular courts were set up and no
regular procedure was laid down. In villages the panchayats settled the
disputes. Besides there were other bodies also for dispensing justice for
members of different castes. Punishments were not very harsh. The
Peshwa took personal interest in dispensing justice. Murder and treason
were punished with fines, confiscation of property and imprisonment.
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114 8.4.7 Shivaji’s religious policy: -
Though an orthodox Hi ndu, Shivaji was respectful and tolerant to all
religious. He respected the Quran He respected Muslim women and never
allowed his soldiers to dishonor them. The historian Khafi Khan who was
by no means friendly to Shivaji praised him for his tolerance to M uslim
religion and for honorable treatment he meted out to Muslim women and
children Shivaji set a part a large sum of money for the encouragement of
learned Brahmins.
Both as a ruler and a man Shivaji occupies a distinguished place in the
history of India . The most brilliant achievement of Shivaji was the
welding of together of the Maratha race scattered like atoms in many
Deccan kingdoms into a mighty nation. Shivaji's great practical ability
shown by him in his civil and military administration deserves praise. As
has been remarked by J. N. Sarkar “Shivaji was not only the maker of
the Maratha nation but also the greatest constructive genius of medieval
India.”
8.4.8 Check Your Progress
1. What was the responsibility of Peshwa/Pradhan?
2. How was judicial administrat ion of Shivaji Maharaja?
8.5 SUMMARY
The rise of the Maratha power introduced an important factor in the Indian
politics during the second half of the 17th century. Before the rise of
Shivaji the maratha were scattered like atoms in South India. The 17th
century saw them organized into a national state for which ground was
prepared by many factors. The geography of Maharashtra exercised strong
influence in making the character and history of the people. Enclosed on
two sides by mountain ranges like Sahyadri running from north to south
and the Satpura and Vindhyas running from east to west protected by the
Narmada and Tapi rivers and provided with number of easily defensible
hill forts, the Maratha country could not be annexed or conquered easily
by an enemy. The geographical features also provided conditions to
master guerilla art of warfare. In this unit we have studied about
Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Both as a ruler and a man Shivaji occupies a
distinguished place in the history of India. The most brilli ant achievement
of Shivaji was the welding of together of the Maratha race scattered like
atoms in many Deccan kingdoms into a mighty nation

8.6 QUESTIONS
1. Assess the factors responsible for the rise of Marathas under
Shivaji and part played by him in establishing Swarajya.
2. Justify the claims of Shivaji as a born military commander and an
administrator of undoubted genius. munotes.in

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Rise of the Maratha Power -I
115 3. Write notes on: -
a) Afzal Khan Episode.
b) Shivaji and the Moghuls.
c) Karnatak expedition of Shivaji.
d) Military and Revenue administration of Shivaji.
8.7 REFERENCES
1. Bakshi, S. R. & Sharma, Sri Kant, The Great Marathas: The
Administrative System, Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2000.
2. Chitnis, K. N., Glimpses of Maratha Socio - Economic History,
Atlantic Publishers &Distributors, Ne w Delhi, 1994.
3. Chitnis, K. N., Glimpses of Medieval Indian Ideas & Institutions, 2nd
edition, Mrs. R K Chitnis, Pune, 1981.
4. Deshmukh, R.G., History of Marathas, Nimesh Agencies, Bombay,
1993.
5. Duff, James Grant, History of Mahrattas, Vol. I and Vol. II, R.
Cambray& Co., Calcutta, 1912.
6. Fukazawa, Hiroshi, The Medieval Deccan – Peasants, Social Systems
and States – Sixteenth to
7. Eighteenth Centuries, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1991.
8. Gordon, Stewart, Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in
Eighteen th Century India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1994.
9. Gordon, Stewart, The New Cambridge History of India, The
Marathas, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi, 1998.
10. Gune, Vithal Trimbak, The Judicial System of the Marathas, Deccan
College, Pune, 1953.
11. Kotani, Hiroyuki, Western India in Historical Transition –
Seventeenth to Early Twentieth Centuries, Manohar Publishers &
Distributors, New Delhi, 2002.
12. Kulkarni, A. R., Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji, Deshmukh & Co.,
Poona, 1969.
13. Kulkarni, A. R., Mahara shtra: Society and Culture, Books and Books,
New Delhi, 2000.
14. Kumar, Raj (ed.), Maratha Military Systems, Commonwealth
Publishers, New Delhi, 2004.
15. Mahajan, T. T., Aspects of Agrarian and Urban History of The
Marathas, Commonwealth
16. Mate, M. S., Maratha Ar chitecture (1650 A.D. to 1850 A.D.),
University of Poona, Poona, 1959.
17. Nadkarni, R.V., The Rise and Fall of the Maratha Empire, Popular
Prakashan, Poona, 1966.
18. Pagadi, SetuMadhavrao, Chhatrapati Shivaji, Continental Prakashan,
Pune, 1974.
19. Ranade, M.G., Ris e of the Maratha Power, University of Bombay,
1961. munotes.in

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116 20. Sardesai, G.S., The Main Currents of Maratha History, Phoenix
Publications, Bombay, 1959.
21. Sardesai, G.S., The New History of the Marathas, Vol I: Shivaji and
his Times, Phoenix Publications, Bombay, 1971.
22. Sarkar, Jadunath, House of Shivaji, Orient Longman, Bombay, 1978.
23. Sarkar, Jadunath, Shivaji and His Times, 6th edition, Sarkar & sons,
1973



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117 9
RISE OF THE MARATHA POWER - II

(a) Shivaji and Foundation of Swarajya
(b) Administration of Shivaji
(c) Sambhaji, Rajaram and Tarabai

Unit Structure:
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Chattrapati Sambhaji
9.3 Chattrapati Rajaram (1689 -1700)
9.4 Reign of Tarabai (1700 -1707)
9.5 Summary
9.6 Questions
9.7 References
9.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand the rule of Chhatrapati Sambhaji.
To explain Rajaram and his period of rule.
To study the reign of Tarabai.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Early Life:
Sambhaji was born on 14 th May 1 657. He lost his mother Saibai when he
was just two years old. He was handsome with fine manly features and
thus looked more commanding than Shivaji. He was brought up under the
kind and loving care of his grandmother Jijabai. When he was just nine
years old, he accompanied his father Shivaji to Agra. He was given
traditional education in reading, writing accounts and sportsman ship. He
was also well versed in Sanskrit. As early as 1671 he was first appointed
for administrative duties as a part of political training to the young
Sambhaji. At the time of Shivaji’s coronation Sambhaji was nominated
Yuvraj or heir apparent. However soon Shivaji began to receive complaint
against his civil habits like addiction to wine. Thus Shivaji kept him at
Srinaganrpur and then under Guru Ramdas care for 2 years (1677 -78)
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118 On 18th December 1678 Sambhaji quickly escaped from Panhala along
with his wife Yesubai and proceeded to Mughal camp at Bahadurgarh.
The Mughal commander Diler Khan welcomed him and both of them
planned a joint attack on Sultan of Bijapur. But soon there was a fight
between Sambhaji and Diler Khan and Sambhaji escaped from the
Mughal camp and returned to Panhala where he was kept in confinement.
Shivaji was overta ken by serious illness and he died in April 1680 at
Raigad.
Shivaji’s death had been kept a secret but Sambhaji got wind of the sad
news. He took prompt and vigorous measures to assert his authority. The
garrison of Panhala joined him; even Hambir Rao Mohi te the
commander -in-chief advanced and parts his respects. One by one the
Maratha armies under different commanders came over to Sambhaji’s side
with an army of 20,000 he entered Raigarh on 18th June 1680 without any
opposition.
9.2 CHATTRAPATI SAMBHAJI
The u nexpected vigor of his early conduct created favorable impression on
the minds of the Marathas. He awakened the high hopes of a strong
government. The energy, which he showed on this occasion, would have
wiped out all recollection of his early faults. But the inherent violence of
his temper soon got the better of his wise policy. He committed barbaric
cruelties to his opponents, which lost him sympathies of his subjects.
He soon put his stepmother to a painful and lingering death, put Rajaram
into confineme nt and threw Annaji Datto into Prison after confiscating his
properly. He also beheaded other officers who belonged to his stepmother
Soyra bai’s party. Sambhaji became distrustful of everyone around him.
He came under the influence of Kavi kalash, a Brahm in from kanauj who
gradually controlled all the powers of the state. The formal ceremony of
Sambhaji’s coronation was performed in January 1681
9.2.1 Prince Akbar’s flight to the Deccan: -
Prince Akbar the son of Aurangzeb was entrusted to command the Mughal
armies to fight against the Rajputs in Rajputana. But the war proved
disastrous for which Aurangzeb blamed the prince. The prince entered into
alliance with the Rajputs and revolted against his father Aurangzeb who
was angry with his son followed him to punis h him. Prince Akbar fled to
the Deccan to seek Sambhajis help against his father. However Sambhaji
and Prince Akbar could not cooperate with each other. Sambhaji of his
own internal difficulties could not spare time and money to undertake an
expedition aga inst Aurangzeb. After staying for six years without fulfilling
his dream Prince Akbar went to Iran in 1687 where he took a Shelter.
Akbar’s rebellion proved a serious threat to the Mughal Empire
Aurangzeb therefore decided to come personally to the Deccan to put
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119 He reached Burhanpur in November 1681 and took up residence at
Aurangabad. He sowed dissensions among the followers and friends of
Sambhaji and Akbar with the help of bribes and rewards he won over
many of their supporters. The Mughals blocked the path of Prince
Akbar. They captured many Maratha forts near Nasik. Sambhaji could
not take bold undertaking. Moreover Aurangzeb was convinced that it was
impossible to suppress the Maratha without putting an end to the
Kingdoms of Bijapur and Golkanda. Therefore he decided to first
concentrate on annexing these two kingdoms. The pressure on Sambhaji
was thus relaxed and he concentrated on suppression of Siddis and the
Portuguese.
9.2.2 Sambhaji invades Janjira: -
Sambhaji undertook a grand expedition against the Siddis of Janjira.
Shivaji had been unable to conquer Janjira. The siddis had raided Maratha
territories right upto the foot of Raigarh towards the end of 1681.
Sambhaji who had the courage and might of Shivaj i replied the siddis
attack in a strong manner. After collecting strong army he ordered the
slege of the fort of Janjira, which was surrounded by his army and havy.
His army inflicted terrible losses on the Siddis. But unfortunately at this
critical time Aurangzeb invaded North konkan, which forced Sambhaji to
return to Raigarh, and he was obliged to raise the siege of the fort of
Janjira in 1683. The Siddis continued to be a menace to the Maratha
kingdom.
9.2.3 Sambhaji and the Portuguese: -
The Portuguese had d rawn the wrath of Sambhaji by their recent alliance
with the Mughals. Sambhaji therefore adopted an aggresse policy towards
them. In 1683 he besieged the Portuguese port of Chaul. The Portuguese
on their part tried to check Sambhaji by attacking the fort o f Phonda. The
Marathas were successful in pushing back the Portuguese.
Their victory greatly encouraged Sambhaji to advance towards Goa but he
could not go ahead owing to high tide. Meanwhile the Mughals came to
assist the Portuguese. This forced Sambhaji to retreat, as the Marathas
would have been trapped by the Portuguese fleet and the Mughals.
Sambhaji started peace negotiations to gain time for withdrawal. However
the efforts failed and hostilities continued. The portugues instigated many
of the Desais from Konkan to revolt against Sambhaji. They recaptured
much of the Portuguese territory captured by Sambhaji.
9.2.4 Defeat and capture of Sambhaji: -
When Aurangabad was busy against Bijapur and Golkanda, the Marathas
got an opportunity to plunder the mughal te rritory. Prince Akbar wanted
Sambhaji to lead an army to the North but after 1682 that possibility was
ruled out. In disgust Akbar left for Persia in 1687. The condition of the
Maratha state slowly deteriorated. Over years Sambhaji had not won
confidence o f all seetions of Maratha people. Consequently it became easy
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120 On his way to Raigad, Sambhaji stopped at Sangameshwar where he was
captured by Muqurrab Khan a Mughal officer on 1st Februa ry 1689. he
along with Kavi Kalash were taken prisoners. They were publicly
humiliated and subjected to torture. Aurangzeb sent message to Sambhaji
offering to spare his life if :-
(1) He surrendered all his forts
(2) Disclosed the names of the Mughal officers who were in league
with him.
(3) Reveal his hidden treasure
(4) Embrace Islam.
Sambhaji rejected the offer. He scornfully replied that he would make
friends with him if the emperor gave him his daughter in marriage. This
angered Aurangzeb very much and he ordered his immediate execution.
Sambhaji and Kavi Kalash were put death on 11 th March 1689.
The courageous manner in which Sambhaji faced his death won him
praise of the Marathas. They forgave his drawbacks. He indirectly
influenced the people of Maharashtra to fi ght the Mughals unitedly. His
martyrdom raised the religious hatred and indignation of the whole
nation against the Mughals. His death united the Maratha nation to fight
for their independence.
9.2.5 Check Your Progress
1. What were the relations between Prince Akbar and Chhtrapati
Sambhaji?
2. What were the offers made by Aurangzeb to Sambhaji?
9.3 CHATTRAPATI RAJARAM (1689 -1700)
Rajaram was the younger son of Shivaji. On the death of Shivaji,
Rajaram was just 10 years old. His mother Soyra Bai was put into
confinement an d then cruelly put to death by the order of Sambhaji.
Rajaram was also imprisoned by Sambhaji. Thus he acquired no military
and political training after the death of Shivaji.
The news of Sambhaji’s capture did not take long to reach the capital
Raigarh. Rajaram was in confinement in the fort of Raigad. The major
Maratha leaders assembled and decided to continue the struggle with the
Mughals. It was unanimously decided to declare Rajaram as Chattrapati.
Yesu bai, widow of Sambhaji advised that she and her so n Shahu would
remain in Raigad while Rajaram & his family should move out of
Raigarh. The Mughal army under Zulfiquar Khan had laid siege to
Raigarh on 25 th March 1689 in order to capture the new king and the
fall of the fort was only a question of time. The advise of Yesubai was
taken and Rajaram slipped out of Raigarh which was captured by the munotes.in

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Rise of the Maratha Power -II
121 Mughals on 3 rd November 1689 Yesubai, Shahu, son of Sambhaji and
many others of the royal family were captured and taken to the camp of
Aurangzeb.
Rajaram’s positio n at Panhala became difficult and he decided that he
with his few followers should go to Jinji. Thus he secretly escaped to Jinji
and established his residence there. Even his ministers and commanders
joined him at the new capital. Jinji became the center of Maratha activity
where the whole court was assembled. He received suppor from the chiefs
of Karnataka and even some Muslim chiefs supported him. Rajaram’s
shelter at Jinji was a wise strategy to compel the enemy to divide their
forces. Jinji was a very large fort built on three hills. Heavy artillery and
sufficient quantities of ammunition were required to breach the walls of
the fort. It was not easy for the Mughals to take this fort.
9.3.1 Maratha Strategy: -
Aurangzeb was bent upon curshing the Marathas so he began a virtual
reign of terror in the Deccan. He started mass massacres and forced
conversion. He distributed jagir lands and employed other methods to win
over to his side as many Marathas as he could. For Marathas it was war of
Independence. At this point there was also a change in the policy of the
Marathas. They initiated the system of granting lands to the Maratha
generals in lieu of cash. This was a deliberate move to wean a way
Maratha sardars who had accepted grant of land from Aurangzeb.
Every man of some importance encouraged by their grants equipped
troops at his own expenses. Thus a large army to fight the Mughals
without any financial liability to the state became available.
During the period Danaji Jadhav and Santaji Ghorpade played very
important role. By their enterprising campaigns they attacked and
destroyed the mughals forces. They undertook the responsibility of
raiding Mughal territories, harassing Mughal generals by cutting off their
supplies and looting their treasures. Santaji Ghor pade was a perfect master
of guerilla warfare. At this points the Marathas had become so bold that
they even made an attack on the imperial tent. Aurangzeb escaped death,
as he was not in the tent at that moment.
9.3.2 Siege of Jinji: -
In their kind of state of affairs Aurangzeb dispatched Zulfiquar Khan to
take Jinji. The siege of Jinji began in Aprial 1690 and continued for eight
long years. The successful besiege of Jinji was mainly due to the part
played by Santaji Ghorpade. The Mughals had supplies, cash, m an power
and energy but Zulfiquer Khan was constantly harrased by the roving
Maratha bands led by Santaji Ghorpade who stopped the supply of gains
to the Mughal camp from outside and many a time Zulfiquer Khan had to
raise the siege. The condition of the Mughal force became pitiable. The
besieging force was in turn besieged by the Marathas who cut off all
supplies and lines of communication with the emperor. The spirit Maratha
army was very high. It was now a people’s war against the Mughals. munotes.in

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122 At this point there was a great setback to the Maratha position. The
relations between Santaji and Rajaram became strained and he was
dismissed from the post of Senapati Danaji Jadhav was made the new
Senapati which led to a conflict between the two generals. Santaji wa s
defeated and killed in June 1697. The right arm of Maratha resistence was
broken for ever. It made Maratha position weak and gave an opportunity
to the Mughals to occupy the fort of Jinji which was ultimately captured
by the Mughals on 7 in February 1698 . By that time Rajaram had escaped
from the fort and come back to Maharashtra where he made Satara his
capital.
In order to establish contact with the local chiefs, so as to raise the spirit of
the Marathas by his personal presence, Rajaram made an extensi ve tour of
his country during 1698 -99. This proved very strenuous and his health
deteriorated and he died on 2nd March 1700.
9.3.3 Check Your Progress
1. How Jinji was made as a capital of Maratha kingdom?
2. Who was Santaji Ghorpade?
9.4 REIGN OF TARABAI (1700 -1707)
The untimely death of Rajaram greatly shattered the Marathas. But under
the leadership of Tarabai, widow of Rajaram the Maratha resistance
became more aggressive. Tarabai was the daughter of Hambir rao Mohite
and was married to Rajaram in 1683. Her son Shivaji III was accepted
as Chattrapati on the death of his father and Tarabai was made the Regent.
She was highly intelligent and capable lady and had earned a reputation
for her knowledge of civil and military matters. She had worked with
Ramchandrapant Amatya and had got lot of experience. Tarabai led
the Marathas in these critical years of the Maratha struggle against the
Mughals. She took all the powers in the hands. She personally planned
raids into the Mughal territory. She infused courage into the heart of the
Marathas. Her ability was even praised by the Muslim writers like Khafi
Khan.
When Rajaram suddenly fell ill the Mughals had already besieged Satara
and when the garrison heard of the death of Rajaram, they were so
depressed that the fort was surrende red to the Mughals and Tarabai made
Panhala her seat. Aurangzeb decided to conduct the war against the
Marathas personally. The Mughals were able to capture chief forts of
Marathas within a few years by means of bribe. Panhala, Vishalgad,
Sinhagad, Puranda r, and Rajgad all were captured by the Mughals. As the
Mughals had vast resources and large army, the fall of forts was a question
of time.
The Marathas adopted the strategy of holding the forts as long as possible
and then surrendering on payment of huge sum of money. As soon as
Aurangzeb turned his back the Marathas easily captured them and the
time and energy spent over their capture was wasted. The Marathas munotes.in

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Rise of the Maratha Power -II
123 were able to capture Satara, Raigad and Sinhagad. They also entered
Berar, Khandesh and Malwa which were Mughal territories. The
Mughals suffered heavy losses and to add to their misery a famine broke
out in 1703 -04. Repeated defeats adversely affected the morale of the
Mughal army while the Marathas became more and more confident.
Aurangzeb thought o f coming to terms with the Marathas who had
their own conditions and terms. They demanded
(1) Shahu should be recognized as Chattrapati and he should be allowed
to take Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the six subas of the Deccan.
(2) Shahu should enjoy the states of a vassal prince and Danaji Jadhav
would act as his regent.
(3) The Marathas would maintain law and order in the six subas of the
Deccan. Aurangzeb agreed to these terms but he became suspicious
and broke the negotiations. In 1706 another attempt was made
which also failed. But this time Aurangzeb was a highly frustated
man. In the midst of all this Aurangzeb died on 20th February 1707.
9.4.1 Release of Shahu: -
The death of Aurangzeb triggered off a war of succession among his sons.
The Mughal general Zulfiquar Khan suggested to Azam Shah the
successor of Aurangzeb that in order to weaken the position of the
Marathas Shahu should be immediately released and allowed to return to
the Deccan to reclaim the Maratha throne from Tarabai. This will lead to a
civil war in Mah arashtra between Shahu and Tarabai, which will ease the
tension for the Mughals. This plan was accepted by Azam shah and terms
of Shahu’s relase were as follows:
(1) Shahu was to rule the swaraj.
(2) He will serve the Mughal emperor whenever called upon to do so
with his contingent of troops.
(3) He will be permitted to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from six
Mughal provinces of the Deccan (Aurangabad, Berar, Khandesh,
Bidar, Golkanda and Bijapur).
The actual release of Shahu was postponed for one reason or another.
Shahu was advised not to wait for the formal orders and leave for
Maharashtra.
9.4.2 Civil war: -
Entry of Shahu in Maharashtra was a signal for civil war. He spent two
months at Khandesh collecting troops and strengthening his position. He
received message from Tarabai. That she was not ready to recognize the
claim of shahu to the throne of Satara. She argued that the Kingdom which
Shivaji had established had been lost by Sambhaji. The present kingdom
was fresh acquisition made by her husband Rajaram. Therefore h er son
Shivaji III had every right to be the heir. Moreover according to her when munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
124 Shivaji died to never wanted Sambhaji to succeed him as he was unflit
to rule but he was given to throne because he was elder son and Rajaram
was too small at that time. Shah u took this as a challenge and the plan,
which had been conceived by Zulfiquer Khan, became a reality. Shahu
proceeded from Khandesh to Ahmednagar. The entire area was inhabited
by the Muslims As a gesture of goodwill towards the Mughals he visited
the tomb of Aurangzeb at Khuldabad and paid homage to the dead
emperor. This gesture of shahu won him the supprt of the Muslims.
While in Ahmednagar shahu heard that Tarabai’s troops were marching
against him. He moved from there towards Poona and stopped at Khed .
Tarabai’s army was stationed on the opposite bank of the river Bhima
ready to attack him.
Tarabai’s position was very strong. Her army was commanded by
Senapati Danaji Jadhav whereas Shahu had no capable general to lead his
army. Shahu decided to be dipl omatic and he was helped by Balaji
Vishwanath the Diwan of Danaji Jadhav. At a secret meeting between
Shahu and Danaji Jadhav arranged by Balaji Vishwanath, Shahu was
successful in winning him over to his side Balaji Vishwanath impressed
upon Danaji Jadhav the superior claim of Shahu to the Maratha throne and
he agreed to support Shahu’s cause.
In the battle of Khed fought in October 1707 between Shahu and Tarabai,
Danaji Jadhav sided with Sahu. Thus the battle was won by Shahu and the
gates of Swarajya were opened to him.
Shahu tried to appease Tarabai and offered her very liberal terms. But
Tarabai was not ready to settle the dispute amicably and prepared to carry
on the struggle and made Kolhapur as her seat of power.
9.4.3 Check Your Progress
1. What were the conditions of Marathas before Aurangzeb?
2. Describe Civil War among the Marathas.
9.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied about ChattrapatiSambhaji, Rajaram and Tarabai.
The unexpected vigor of Sambhaji’s early conduct created favorable impression
on the minds of the Marathas. He awakened the high hopes of a strong
government. The energy, which he showed on this occasion, would have wiped
out all recollection of his early faults.Rajaram was the younger son of Shivaji. On
the death of Shivaji, Rajaram was just 1 0 years old. His mother Soyra Bai was
put into confinement and then cruelly put to death by the order of Sambhaji.
Rajaram was also imprisoned by Sambhaji. Thus he acquired no military and
political training after the death of Shivaji.The untimely death of Rajaram greatly
shattered the Marathas. But under the leadership of Tarabai, widow of Rajaram
the Maratha resistance became more aggressive. Tarabai was the daughter of
Hambirrao Mohite and was married to Rajaram in 1683. Her son Shivaji III was
accepted as Chattrapati on the death of his father and Tarabai was made the
Regent. She was highly intelligent and capable lady and had earned a reputation
for her knowledge of civil and military matters. munotes.in

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Rise of the Maratha Power -II
125 9.6 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the causes, course and results of the Mara tha War of
Independence (1689 -1707).
2. Write notes on: -
(a) Sambhaji.
(b) Rajaram.
(c) Tarabai.
(d) Shahu and the Civil War.
9.7 REFERENCES
1. Bakshi, S. R. & Sharma, Sri Kant, The Great Marathas: The
Administrative System, Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2000 .
2. Chitnis, K. N., Glimpses of Maratha Socio - Economic History,
Atlantic Publishers &Distributors, New Delhi, 1994.
3. Chitnis, K. N., Glimpses of Medieval Indian Ideas & Institutions, 2nd
edition, Mrs. R K Chitnis, Pune, 1981.
4. Deshmukh, R.G., History of Marat has, Nimesh Agencies, Bombay,
1993.
5. Duff, James Grant, History of Mahrattas, Vol. I and Vol. II, R.
Cambray& Co., Calcutta, 1912.
6. Fukazawa, Hiroshi, The Medieval Deccan – Peasants, Social Systems
and States – Sixteenth to
7. Eighteenth Centuries, Oxford Univ ersity Press, New Delhi, 1991.
8. Gordon, Stewart, Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in
Eighteenth Century India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1994.
9. Gordon, Stewart, The New Cambridge History of India, The
Marathas, Cambridge University Press, New D elhi, 1998.
10. Gune, Vithal Trimbak, The Judicial System of the Marathas, Deccan
College, Pune, 1953.
11. Kotani, Hiroyuki, Western India in Historical Transition –
Seventeenth to Early Twentieth Centuries, Manohar Publishers &
Distributors, New Delhi, 2002.
12. Kulk arni, A. R., Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji, Deshmukh & Co.,
Poona, 1969.
13. Kulkarni, A. R., Maharashtra: Society and Culture, Books and Books,
New Delhi, 2000.
14. Kumar, Raj (ed.), Maratha Military Systems, Commonwealth
Publishers, New Delhi, 2004.
15. Mahajan, T. T., Aspects of Agrarian and Urban History of The
Marathas, Commonwealth
16. Mate, M. S., Maratha Architecture (1650 A.D. to 1850 A.D.),
University of Poona, Poona, 1959. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
126 17. Nadkarni, R.V., The Rise and Fall of the Maratha Empire, Popular
Prakashan, Poona, 19 66.
18. Pagadi, SetuMadhavrao, Chhatrapati Shivaji, Continental Prakashan,
Pune, 1974.
19. Ranade, M.G., Rise of the Maratha Power, University of Bombay,
1961.
20. Sardesai, G.S., The Main Currents of Maratha History, Phoenix
Publications, Bombay, 1959.
21. Sardesai, G.S. , The New History of the Marathas, Vol I: Shivaji and
his Times, Phoenix Publications, Bombay, 1971.
22. Sarkar, Jadunath, House of Shivaji, Orient Longman, Bombay, 1978.
23. Sarkar, Jadunath, Shivaji and His Times, 6th edition, Sarkar & sons,
1973

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127 Module - 4
Society and Economy, Religion and Culture of
the Mughal Rule
10
SOCIETY AND ECONOMY
Unit Structure:
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Social Structure during the Mughal period
10.3 Village Communities under Akbar
10.4 Economy under the M ughals
10.5 Summary
10.6 Questions
10.7 References
10.0 OBJECTIVES
 To introduce students to Society of the Mughal Rule.
 To understand the Economy of the Mughal Rule.
 To know about the Religion of the Mughal Rule.
 To make readers acquainted with the cult ure of the Mughal Rule.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The variation in the social structures of the Indian society was more
prominent during Medieval period. This period witnessed the rise and fall
of several kingdoms and empires. Many historians had put special
emph asis on an analytical study of the Delhi sultanate, the Vijaynagara
Empire and the Bahamani kingdom, which dominated the history of early
Medieval India. The rise of the Mughals and the Marathas has been also
traced in an in -depth manner by many. Though th e fortunes of the various
powers defined the impact of their rule on the social, cultural and
economic life of the country has been more lasting, it is observed that
comparatively less studied.
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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
128 10.2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE DURING MUGHAL PERIOD
URBAN SOCIETY
The Social economic, political and cultural life of the medieval period was
in general dominated by the village communities however, there were
political centres usually capitals, head quarters of important officials like
subhedars, the citadels of Jagirdars and Mansabdars were hubs of great
activities. Likewise the trading centres and port -towns on the west coast
and the pilgrim places were centres of large populations. During medieval
period many cities and towns were prospered due to increase in land and
foreign and local trade while numerous villages continued to care on their
self sufficient village economy. The most important cities of the empire
were located in north India and some of them were Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur,
Sikri, Ajmer, Multan, Benaras, Jaunpu r,Allahabad, Patna, Hoogly, Dacca
and Chitagong. These cities were very prosperous and very wealthy
traders and nobles lived in these cities. Even the artisan class in these
cities was economically well off while the working class in general was
not in a b ad condition.
RURAL SOCIETY
The rural India showed innate strength to survive the floods of foreign
invasions. The life continued with a quiet confidence in the village.
During medieval period the varied political conditions in India had
overstrained the g overnmental machinery at higher level but the village
administration went on smoothly. The village communities were allowed
to administer their own affairs under the supervision of government
officers. In the rural areas of India, villages continued their self sufficient
economic structures but they showed some signs of progress owing to
Akbar's better deal to the people in the villages and growth of numerous
bazars in their vicinity. In south India the villages continued their self
sufficient economic stru cture and those near temples received considerable
prosperity.
India can be seen only in villages, as an overwhelming majority of people
live in village communities. The village communities during medieval
period were little republics. The social, economic and cultural life of the
village was regulated by the village panchayat. The Panchayats were
highly respected and in fact, were regarded as next only to God. There
were two types of panchayats, namely caste panchayat and village
panchayat. The head of a v illage was known as 'Patil' in Maharashtra,
'Patel' in Gujrat and 'Pradhan' or 'Mukhia' or 'Bhojaka' in North India. He
enjoyed certain additional rights and obligations. He was the chief
spokesman of the villagers. At the same time, while dealing with the
villagers, he acted as a spokesman of the government.
Each village community, constituted a basic unit of existing administration
and was a centre of socio -economic and religious life. The village
accountant maintained the land records and kept the land r evenue account
of the village. He was known by different names in different parts of the munotes.in

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Society and Economy

129 country, such as Patwari, Shanbag, Menon etc. The basic feature of
Medieval Indian society was the self -sufficiency of village communities.
The self -sufficient village , as the basic economic unit, had existed for
centuries in India. Mountstuart Elphistone is full of praise for the village
communities. He says, these communities contain, in miniatures, all the
materials of a state within themselves and are almost suffici ent to protect
their members, if all other governments were withdrawn'. It is heartening
to note that when most of the urban medieval India was distracted by
selfish wars and court intrigues, the small villages in India not only furnish
us with instance of republican institution but also give evidence of
existences of democratic principles to a great extent.
The rural society might be classified into three categories namely
peasants, artisans and craftsmen and a class of manuals.
a) Peasants - From ages ag riculture is the main source of income for
India. Hence the village population was mainly composed of peasants. The
farmers produced crops for the need of the village. Except a share of
agricultural produce, which the village community had to surrender to the
representative of the ruler the entire agricultural produce was meant for
local consumption by the peasant and non -peasant village population.
b) Artisans and Craftsman - They rendered their services in return for a
share of grain every year. The vill age artisans and craftsmen secured
locally the raw materials such as wood, clay and hide required for their
craft. These artisans and craftsmen such as a carpenter, a potter, a cobbler,
a weaver, a goldsmith, an oilman, a barber and others worked almost
exclusively for the satisfaction of the needs of the village population
c) A Class of Menials - A very important category of people in a village
was a class of menials, the outcastes or chandals. They did the work of
scavenging, disposing of dead bodies of animals and such other menial
types of work. They rendered their services to the villages and sometime
in returns they got their share of grain.
Thus rural societies were completely cut off from the rest of the world and
remained totally unaffected by any political earthquakes, religious
upheavals and foreign invasions. Kingdomsrose and collapsed, revolutions
were followed by counter revolutions but the village communities
remained essentially the same. As village communities were self -
sufficient, isolat ed and unaffected by changes they naturally became self
centred and narrow minded. They were primitive, ignorant and
superstitious. Hence they made very little progress.
Check your progress:
1] Describe the rural and urban society structure in Mughal India .
10.3 VILLAGE COMMUNITIES UNDER AKBAR
The village communities were an ancient system of village selfrule or
village government in India which continued to exist undisturbed by munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
130 changing dynasties. Sher shah Sur tried to streamline the village
communities b y some closer contacts with their traditional officers. Akbar
went a step further in this direction by making the village panchayat a
legalised court of justice and thereby added to its prestige without
interfering with village life and village administrat ion. The ancient
division of village panchayat had been into six committees like Annual
Committee, Tank Committee, Gold Committee, Committee of Justice and
Panchvara Committee. These committees continued during Akbar's reign
too. Early village community ha d a council consisting of head of the
families in the village and council was responsible for the administration
of the village, this administration being generally the management of civic
affairs including dispensation of justice regarding minor cases, ci vil and
criminals. Besides, there were caste panchayats to decide caste and family
disputes. The functionaries of the village community were one or two
watchmen, a priest, a school masters, an astrologer, a carpenter, a
blacksmith, a potter, a washerman, a barber, a physician and a patwari.
Check your progress:
1] Analyse the Village communities under Akbar .
10.4 ECONOMY UNDER THE MUGHALS
The Medieval India had a large self -supporting economy. The Muslim
conquests did not much affect the industry, trade an d commerce of the
country. No large -scale industries were developed during this period. We
find that most of the industries were localised. Some of the important
village industries that had flourished during the medieval period are as
follows – cotton proc essing, spinning and weaving, sugar and gur
manufacturing, extraction of oil from oil -seeds, manufacture of indigo,
pottery and leather -work, production of agricultural implements, war
weapons, utensils, bronze, silver and copper statues of gods and goddes ses
and the smith’s craft in gold, silver, bronze, copper as well as many alloys
and so on.
1. Textiles Industry :
Textiles was the largest and also the most popular industry in medieval
India. Moreover, it was spread all over the country. The cotton texti les
were manufactured in both cottage industries and large -scale industries.
The main centres of the cotton textile industry were Bengal, Gujarat,
Orissa and Malwa. Surat, Cambay, Patna, Burhanpur, Delhi, Agra,
Sonargaon, Benaras, Devgiri, Lahore, Thatta a nd Multan were some of the
towns and cities that were famous for the varieties of clothes. The cotton
cloth was of such fine quality that they were in great demand in foreign
countries. Besides, there were much finer varieties of cloth that were
woven but those were specially for the royalty and the aristocratic class.
Bengal and Gujarat occupied a prime position when it came to the
manufacture and the export of textile goods. The reasons for this include –
availability of cotton in the neighbourhood, seaco ast with the harbour
facility as well as the traditional commercial relations with the foreign munotes.in

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131 countries. Gujarat’s contribution can be best understood from the
statements made regarding Cambay. Cambay contributed about half of the
total textile exports of India. It had a number of skilled craftsmen. Also,
the Cambay cloth had rich and extensive market in Western Europe, South
Africa and South Asia.
Travellers of this period give vivid descriptions of the textiles woven in
the country. For instance, Amir Kh usro describes the muslin as the
‘Bengal cloth’ with an extremely fine texture; the Chinese traveller Ma
Huan found several varieties of cloths in Bengal and mentions about the
existence of mulberry trees and silkworms in Bengal; etc. The cotton
weaving in dustryalso supported certain subsidiary industries such as
dyeing, calico printing in some areas and a variety of cloth -printing
technique known as bandhani(a speciality of Rajasthan).
Abul Fazal, in his Ain -i-Akbari talks about the cotton fabrics of Khand esh.
During Akbar’s rule, fine cloth of great varieties was produced at places
like Varanasi, Agra, Malwa and Gujarat. There were four industrial belts
of the manufacture of cotton which were near the outlets to the sea. These
industrial belts were: 1. The Indus plain 2. The coastal region along the
Gulf of Cambay as far south as Dabhol 3. The Coromandel Coast 4.
Bengal.
2. Woollen Industry :
The woollen industry had been confined to a small belt of territory that
included Rajasthan, Lahore, Kabul, Kashmir, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri,
Amritsar, Patna, Jaunpur and Burhanpur. Different types of blankets,
shawls and other woollen garments were manufactured in Kashmir. The
shawls of Kashmir known for their softness and their warmth. These
shawls were woven from the mou ntain goats’ fleece imported from
Ladakh and Tibet. Fatehpur Sikri was famous for its fine carpets. The
Carpet weaving industry flourished at Agra and Lahore.
3. Metal -work Industry :
Brass and copper were among the large -scale industries. These metals
were used for manufacturing utensils, ornaments of lower -class people,
manufacturing guns and cannonsas well as minting coins. Benaras had
been famous for the manufacture of both copper and brass metalwares.
Besides, Delhi and Lucknow were also known for thei r copper and brass
metal works. Ornaments made of gold and silver were in wide use
especially among the richer classes. Bronze ornaments were also in vogue.
Ornaments were also decorated with excellent inlay work. Benaras, Delhi,
Gujarat and Agra were famo us for their beautiful inlaid ornaments. This
industry acquired great height during the reigns of Akbar and Shah Jahan.
4. Paper Industry :
Amir Khusro refers to the manufacture of paper called shamior Syrian
paper in plain and silk varieties. Ma Huan, The Chinese traveller who had
visited Bengal, made a reference of the manufacture of white glossy paper munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
132 from the bark of a tree. Nicolo Conti refers to the use of paper in Gujarat.
The various manuscripts and other documents which have come down
from the medi eval period confirm the existence of paper industry during
the medieval period. Under the Mughals, the paper industry made further
progress. It was concentrated in Sialkot, Kashmir, Delhi, Gaya,
Ahmedabad, Rajgir, Patna and other places. Special quality of paper was
manufactured at Shahzadpur near Allahabad.
5. The Shipbuilding Industry :
The Shipbuilding industry was well -developed during the Mughal period.
Large sea -going ships were built on an extensive scale both on the eastern
and western coasts. Surat was an important centre od ship industry as good
type of timber was available in its vicinity. A large number of boats
operated by the Mallah caste were constructed throughout the country.
The Indian shipbuilding industry was so much advanced that the
Portuguese had some of their best ships built in India. The heaviest
passenger ships of that period, that is 1000 – 1500 tons were used for Haj
traffic in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
6. Leather Industry :
Talking about the leather industry of thi s period, it also saw considerable
development. There was general demand for various types of leather
goods, for example, saddles, scabbards for swords, book -covers, shoes or
water containers. In Bengal, sugar was packed in leather parcels for
export. In G ujarat, gold and silver embroidered leather mats of such
beauty were manufactured that they won admiration of the Italian
traveller, Marco Polo.
Check your Progress :
1) Describe the various industries during medieval period.
10.5 SUMMARY
The variation in the social structures of the Indian society was more
prominent during Medieval period. This period witnessed the rise and fall
of several kingdoms and empires. Many historians had put special
emphasis on an analytical study of the Delhi sultanate, the Vija ynagara
Empire and the Bahamani kingdom, which dominated the history of early
Medieval India. The rise of the Mughals and the Marathas has been also
traced in an in -depth manner by many. Though the fortunes of the various
powers defined the impact of their rule on the social, cultural and
economic life of the country has been more lasting, it is observed that
comparatively less studied.
The Medieval India had a large self -supporting economy. The Muslim
conquests did not much affect the industry, trade and commerce of the
country. No large -scale industries were developed during this period. We
find that most of the industries were localised. Some of the important
village industries that had flourished during the medieval period are as munotes.in

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Society and Economy

133 follows – cotton proces sing, spinning and weaving, sugar and gur
manufacturing, extraction of oil from oil -seeds, manufacture of indigo,
pottery and leather -work, production of agricultural implements, war
weapons, utensils, bronze, silver and copper statues of gods and goddesse s
and the smith’s craft in gold, silver, bronze, copper as well as many alloys
and so on.
10.6 QUESTIONS
1. Describe the rural and urban social structure in Mughal India.
2) Analyse the Village communities under Akbar.
3) Describe the various industries du ring medieval period..
10.7 REFERENCES
1. Ghurye G. S. - Caste and class in India, Popular Publication Ltd,
Mumbai.
2. B. N. Luniya - Life and culture, in Medieval India, Indore, Kamal
Prakashan 1978.
3. J. L. Mehta Advance History of Medieval India vol I & II, New
Delhi, Sterling, 1983.
4. K. S. Lai - Studies in Medieval Indian History, Delhi, 1966.
5. A. B. Pande - Society and Government in Medieval India, Central
Book Depot, 1965.
6. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses Medieval Indian Ideas and institutions,
Pune, 1981.
7. Chitins K. N . - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.
8. Mohomad Yasin – Asocial History of Islamic India 1605 - 1748,
Munshi Ram, New Delhi, 1974
9. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India :
From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education.
10. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
11. Jafar S. M., Education in Muslim India' Peshawar, 1936.
12. Law N. N., 'Promotion of Learning during Muhammedan Rule',
London, 1916
13. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 1965.
14. Frazes R. W., 'Literary History of India, London 1898. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
134 15. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.
16. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic Hi story of
India, Delhi, 1984.
17. https://www.insightsonindia.com/medieval -indian -history/mughal -
empire -including -later-mughals /literature -during -mughals/
18. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.
19. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of
India, Delhi, 1984
20. https://byjusexamprep.com/upsc -exam/mughal -architecture
21. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
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135 11
RELIGION, EDUCATION AND
LITERATURE
Unit Structure:
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Bhakti Movement
11.3 Sufi Movement
11.4 Education under the Mughals
11.5 Summary
11.6 Questions
11.7 References
11.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To introduce students to Soci ety of the Mughal Rule.
 To understand the Educationof the Mughal Rule.
 To know about the Religion of the Mughal Rule.
 To make readers acquainted with the literature of the Mughal Rule.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In this section we will be studying about the Religi on, Education and
literature under the Mughal period. Bhakti movement in India became a
powerful movement in the medieval period. In the medieval age some
great reformers of India started in various parts of India a religious
movement known as Bhakti Movem ent.The most interesting aspect of
Islam in its medieval Indian environment is sufism. The medieval period
witnessed the rise and development of a large number of Muslim religious
movement, mystic organisation, religious cult and attitudes. The Islamic
mysticism was known as sufism. As a matter of fact both Hindus and
Muslims had mutual admiration for each others culture, since the early
days of the advent of Islam into India. The Mughal period witnessed
almost a renaissance in the fields of ancient and med ieval learning the
scholars of all races, religious communities and linguistic groups were
given royal patronage without discrimination. The imperial Mughals were
highly educated and cultural princes of their times who extended liberal
patronage to educati on. Their appreciation for educational and cultural munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
136 values and the policy of religious tolerance was highly conducive to the
advancement of education and learning.
11. 2 BHAKTI MOVEMENT
Bhakti movement in India became a powerful movement in the medieval
period. In the medieval age some great reformers of India started in
various parts of India a religious movement known as Bhakti Movement.
The Upanishad, Philosophy and the shadadarshanas' or six systems of
Philosophy were beyond the understanding of common man. The object of
the movement was to reform Hinduism which at time was suffering from
many serious ills. The reformers strongly denounced the evils in Hinduism
including superstitious practices, formalism and caste system etc. As their
chief emphasis wa s upon Bhakti i.e. true devotion to God, the movement
began to be known as bhakti Movement and its advocates Bhakts i.e.
devotter. According to R. G. Bhandarkar, this movement was first known
as 'Advaita Dharma' for its emphasis on the worship of the one G od with
singular devotion. These reformers did not at all try to expound a new
religion but what they wanted was that our existing evils should be wiped
out from our society. The chief advocates of the movement were Ramanuj,
Namdev, Jaidev, Chaitanya, Rama nand, Kabir and Nanak.
The Bhakti cult became the dominant feature of Hinduism in fourteen and
fifteenth centuries, but it was not a medieval contribution to religious
thoughts. The devotional workship of God with the ultimate object of
attaining moksha or salvation is called 'bhakti'. The cult of bhakti is as old
as the Indian religious traditions going back to the pre -historic times of the
Indus valley civil lization and culture. The latter provides us with the
earliest evidences of workship of Shiva Pash upatis eated in the Vedas,
Upanishadas, the Epics and the puranas. Its origin also has been traced to
vedic literature, it is recognized in the Mahabharata, in the Gita as also in
the Vishnu Purana.
The relationship between soul and God is like the one whi ch exists
between a part and the whole, between a drop of water and the ocean. Man
is mortal but the soul is immortal, being a part and parcel of God, its
ultimate object is to seek reunion with the latter and become one to God.
This is what is meant by sa lvation variously termed as mukti, moksha or
nirvana or liberation from the cycle of births and rebirths. The vedanta
suggests three ways for the attainment of salvation, referred to as
gyanmarg, karma -marg, and bhakti -marg respectively. The gyanmarg
stress on the acquisition of True knowledge or Enlightenment as a means
to the attainment of mukti. The karmamang, as recommended by Lord
Krishna to his disciple Arjuna in the Bhagwatgita, calls for selfless or
disinterested action for this purpose, whereas, th e bhakti marg suggests the
devotional of God to be the earliest method to win. His favours and seek
reunion with him after his death. It is recommended by Ramanuja
(eleventh century). It was propagated in the twelfth, thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries in south India by great Vaishnava teachers like
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137 Check your progress:
1] Explain the origin of Bhakti Movement in medieval period.
11.3 SUFI MOVEMENT
The most interesting aspect of Islam in its medieval I ndian environment is
sufism. The medieval period witnessed the rise and development of a large
number of Muslim religious movement, mystic organisation, religious cult
and attitudes. The Islamic mysticism was known as sufism. As a matter of
fact both Hindu s and Muslims had mutual admiration for each others
culture, since the early days of the advent of Islam into India. Famous
Muslim scholars and saints lived and laboured in India during the
medieval period. They helped the dissemination of the ideas of Isl amic
philosophy and mysticism in India. The early sufis traced their ideas to
some verses of the Quran and Tradition of the prophet. However they gave
a mystic interpretation that they differed from the orthodox Muslims who
insisted upon a literal interpre tation. They lived as ascetics, wearing
gasments of coarse wool (suf) as a badge of poverty. From sufi derived the
name sufi.
The sufis were men of deep religious feelings. They led ascetic lives and
laid emphasis on the practices of self discipline. They sought personal
communion with God through self -surrender, meditation and total
dedication to the service of mankind. The sufis did not form an organized
sect. They neither had a Prophet, nor a sacred book, nor a uniform code of
religious doctrines. They a ccepted Muhammad as their prophet and the
Quran as their sacred book According to an observation, the orthodox
Muslims depend upon external conduct while the sufis seek inner purity.
The orthodox believe in blind obedience to, or observance of religious
rituals while the Sufis consider love to be the only means of reaching God.
The sufis used singing and dancing, forbidden by the orthodox as means
of inducing a state of ecstasy which brought a sufi nearer to his goal of
union with God.
There are different o pinion about the term 'sufi' derived from. According
to some, the term sufi was derived from 'safa' (pure) because of the purity
of their thoughts and the nobility of their action. Other derive the term
from saff (line, queue) and hold that the sufis were so called because they
were in the forefront of the line or queue before God. According to a third
definition, the sufi has been derived from the word suffa (a bench) as the
virtous character and qualities of there saints were similar to those of
'Ashab al suff- or 'People of the Bench' who were attached to the prophet.
They were called his companions (sahaba). The term sufi also bears
resemblance with the word suf or coarse wool, suggesting thereby that the
sufis might have been so called because of their habit of wearing a
woollen blanket purpose sheet of cloth.
Most of the sufi saints belongs to the liberal school of thought. Their
popularity in India was due to their understanding of the Indian conditions
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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
138 adopted many Hindu customs and ceremonics in the initial stages of the
development of their silsilas in India. They laid much emphasis on the
service to mankind. The monistic philosophy of sufism was based on the
theory of wandat ul w ajud or 'the unity of Being' according to which the
creator (Haq) and the created (Khalq) were identical. Means God was the
Unity behind all plurality and the Reality behind all phenomenal
appearance. Sheikh Muhiuddin I bnul Arabi, the author of the theory ,
explain it in these words, 'There is nothing but God, nothing in existence
other than He, there is not even a there', where the essence of all things is
one.'
Check your progress:
1] Describe the teachings of Sufism.
11.4 EDUCATION UNDER THE MUGHALS
The Mughal period witnessed almost a renaissance in the fields of ancient
and medieval learning the scholars of all races, religious communities and
linguistic groups were given royal patronage without discrimination. The
imperial Mughals were highly educated and cultural princes of their times
who extended liberal patronage to education. Their appreciation for
educational and cultural values and the policy of religious tolerance was
highly conducive to the advancement of education and learning.
1. HINDU SYSTE M OFEDUCATION
The Hindu system of education continued as it from sultanate period with
few changes. Primary education was imparted at Pathshalas from their
Brahmin guru or teachers. The pathshalas were attached to the temples.
The Higher education was impa rted through gurukul system where the
pupil stayed with the guru. The Guru imparted instructions in sanskrit and
the student in return rendered all kinds of service to his teacher. Along
with studies in religion, subjects like astronomy logic, mathmaties w ere
also taught. The development of regional languages got boost up due to
Bhakti movement. Centers of higher learning for the Hindus were
Benaras, Nadia, Mathura, Tirhut, Paithan, Kashad, Thatta, Multan and
Sirhind. In 1680 at Nadia in Bengal there were 4 000 students and 600
teachers. Mithila continued to be an important centre of learning. Thatta
was famous for study of theology, philosophy and political. Multan was a
centre of study of astronomy, astrology, medicine and mathematics. Hindu
population in g eneral were more interested in the study of grammar, logic,
philosophy, mathematics, science any medicine.
2. MUSLIM SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
Modern education as we see today, is highly organised system and it is
mostly run by the government itself. During Mugh al period, it was
controlled and run by theologians, Muslims and Hindus. Rich families
made special arrangements for their kids and middle class use to send their
wards either to mosques. Muslim boys use to start their education after
Muktab ceremony. The muslim students received the primary education in munotes.in

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Religion, Education and
Literature
139 the maktab attached to the mosque. For higher education in the madarsas
sufi saints established khanqahs in different places. Instructions were free
sacred scriptures were taught. Student could read the Qur an. Education
was mainly religious oriented. Along with Arabic and Persian languages
subjects like medicine, astronomy and public administration were also
introduced. The Ani -i-Akbari mentions the change in educational
curricularn and instructions. Akbar e ncourged the Hindus to join the
madrasas and study persian. Akbar patronised Hindu institutions as well.
3. EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT UNDER MUGHAL
EMPERORS
However, during mughal period, primary and secondary education was
not ignored. Free grants of land w ere made in favours of mosques,
monastries. All sorts of encouragement was given to teachers to take
delightful interest in the work of advancing the cause of learning and
culture. Practically all mosques maintained maktabas where primary
education was imp arted. Most of the mughals gave financial assistance
both to pathshalas and maktabs. The mughal emperors greatly patronised
the cultural activities. Humayun was greatly devoted to learning and
education and was specially interested in Geography and Astrono my. He
possessed a rich library of his own. He established Madarsa at Delhi and
Purana -Qila was converted into a library.
Akbar started a new era in the art of imparting sound education. A number
of colleges were established at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. He wished to
reform the Muslim system of education and introduced several changes of
far reaching importance in its curriculum. Muslim scholars were
encouraged to study Sanskrit and Hindi. He had a translation department
where works of Sanskrit were translate d into Persian and Arabic. Delhi,
Agra Fatehpur Sikri were centres of learning. Akbar had a magnificent
library at Agra containing 24,000 book. Akbar encouraged the study of
rational sciences and promoted technical education. Mir Fathullah Shiraz,
a Persia n scholar and scientists was invited to take the office of chief Sadr.
Akbar used to have a fruitful discussions with him on varied subjects
ranging from weapon of war, artillery and researches in sciences.
Jahangir himself was the master in Persian and T urkey languages. He
ordered that money realized from the operation of the law of escheat
should be utilized in the building of a Madrasa and other places, where
education was imparted. Thus he devoted his time and attention for the
spread and encouragement of education.
During the reign of Shah Jahan the property of heirless Hindus wasto be
handed over to the madrasa. He also encourged education by
givinghandsome rewards and scholarships to students and men of real
learning.His son Dara Shiko was a great sc holar. He had mastered
languages likeArabic, Persian and Sanskrit. He translated Upanishads,
Bhagwat Gita,Ramayana and Yoga Vasishta.
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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
140 Literature during Mughals
Persian, Sanskrit and regional languages developed during the Mughal
rule. Persian was the lang uage of administration in Mughal Empire. The
greatest contribution in the field of literature during the Mughal rule was
the development of Urdu as a common language of communication for
people speaking different dialects. Babur wrote his autobiography, Tu zuk-
i-Baburi in Turki language. This autobiography gives details of flora and
fauna in India.Babarnama(translation of tuzuk I baburi) was written in
Persian by Abdul Rahim Khan.
Abdul Fazl has written Akbarnama (history of Akbar) and Ain -i-
Akbari(administr ation book).
Jahangir has written his autobiography as Tuzuk -i-jahangiri. Mutamid
khan has written biography of Jahangir as Iqbalnamah -i-Jahangir.
Shahjahan’s biography Padshanamah was written by two authors. They
were Abdul Hamid lahori and Inayat Khan. I nayat khan wrote Shahjahan
Namah. Persian literature was enriched by translations of Sanskrit works.
The Mahabharata was translated under the supervision of Abul Faizi,
brother of Abul Fazal and a court poet of Akbar.
Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gi ta and Upanishads into the Persian
language. His most famous work was Majma -ul-Bahrain. Badauni was
bitter critic of Akbar. He translated Mahabharata into Persian as
Razanamah. Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and
Gujarathi had also de veloped during this period. From the time of Akbar,
Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court. The most influential Hindi
poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the
Ramcharitmanas. Jaganath Pandithraya, court poet of Shahjahan has
written two Sanskrit books Ganga Lahari and Rasagangadharam.
Check your Progress :
1) Write a note on education system in Mughal period.
11.5 SUMMARY
Bhakti movement in India became a powerful movement in the medieval
period. In the medieval age some g reat reformers of India started in
various parts of India a religious movement known as Bhakti Movement.
The most interesting aspect of Islam in its medieval Indian environment is
sufism. The medieval period witnessed the rise and development of a large
number of Muslim religious movement, mystic organisation, religious cult
and attitudes. The Islamic mysticism was known as sufism. As a matter of
fact both Hindus and Muslims had mutual admiration for each others
culture, since the early days of the advent o f Islam into India. The Mughal
period witnessed almost a renaissance in the fields of ancient and
medieval learning the scholars of all races, religious communities and
linguistic groups were given royal patronage without discrimination. The
imperial Mugha ls were highly educated and cultural princes of their times
who extended liberal patronage to education. Their appreciation for munotes.in

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Religion, Education and
Literature
141 educational and cultural values and the policy of religious tolerance was
highly conducive to the advancement of education and l earning.
11.6 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the origin of Bhakti Movement in medieval period.
2) Describe the teachings of Sufism.
3) Write a note on education system in Mughal period.
11.7. REFERENCES
1. Ghurye G. S. - Caste and class in India, Popular Publication Lt d,
Mumbai.
2. B. N. Luniya - Life and culture, in Medieval India, Indore, Kamal
Prakashan 1978.
3. J. L. Mehta Advance History of Medieval India vol I & II, New
Delhi, Sterling, 1983.
4. K. S. Lai - Studies in Medieval Indian History, Delhi, 1966.
5. A. B. Pande - Society and Government in Medieval India, Central
Book Depot, 1965.
6. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses Medieval Indian Ideas and institutions,
Pune, 1981.
7. Chitins K. N. - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.
8. Mohomad Yasin – Asocial History of Islamic India 1605 - 1748,
Munshi Ram, New Delhi, 1974
9. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India :
From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education.
10. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
11. Jafar S. M., Education in Muslim India' Peshawar, 1936.
12. Law N. N., 'Promotion of Learning during Muhammedan Rule',
London, 1916
13. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 1965.
14. Frazes R. W., 'Literary Histo ry of India, London 1898.
15. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
142 16. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of
India, Delhi, 1984.
17. https://www.insightsonindia.com/medieval -indian -history/mughal -
empire -including -later-mughals/literature -during -mughals/
18. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 197 4.
19. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of
India, Delhi, 1984
20. https://byjusexamprep.com/upsc -exam/mughal -architecture
21. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803 , Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
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143 12
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Unit Structure:
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Paintings under Mughal period
12.3 Mughal Architecture
12.4 Summary
12.5 Questions
12.6 References
12.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To introduce students to Society of the Mughal Rule.
 To un derstand the Artof the Mughal Rule.
 To know about the Architecture of the Mughal Rule.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The distinctive Mughal art and architecture flourished on the Indian
subcontinent during the Mughal dynasty. The Mughal dynasty was
established after t he battle of Panipat in 1526. And after Babur, every
emperor took a great considerable interest in the field of Mughal
architecture. The Mughals were staunch supporters of their art and
architecture.
The Mughal architecture developed Indo -Islamic architect ure in the Indian
subcontinent . They developed or improved the style of earlier dynasties
like Lodhi’s, and it was a combination of Islamic, Persian, Turkish, and
Indian Architecture. During this reign, architecture touched its zenith, and
many new buildin gs and tombs were built with great artistic vision and
inspiration.
12.2 PAINTINGS UNDER MUGHAL PERIOD
Like Mughal architecture, its art combines Islamic, Persian, and Indian
design elements. The renowned Mughal paintings were created by the
Persian arti sts Mir Sayyid Ali and Abu us Samad during the reign of
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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
144 Their work was gradually impacted by regional aesthetics to produce
Indian Mughal art and architecture. The Tutinama painting is the first
instance of Mughal art (tales of a parrot).
Battles, court scenes, hunting scenes, nature, portraits, etc., were common
themes in Mughal paintings. Akbar is regarded as the father of Mughal
miniature art. Paintings in the Mughal architecture style under the tutelage
of Persian artists saw significant growth during Akbar’s reign. The
Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and Persian epics served as inspiration for
paintings. The Hamza -Nama was ordered by him (adventures of Amir
Hamza).
Under Jahangir, the use of softer, more muted hues and increasingly
refined brushstro kes were seen. The main topics shown in the paintings of
Mughal architecture included depictions of nature, scenes from durbars,
the king’s own life as it is shown in Jahangirnama, and portraits. He urged
his painters to incorporate elements of the Europea n aesthetic into their
own works. Jahangir’s court had many well -known artists, including Abul
Hasan, Balchand, Mansur, Aqa Riza, Bishan Das, Goverdhan, Mukhlis,
Manohar, Bhim, Daulat, and Inayat.
Although paintings also flourished, Shah Jahan placed a gre ater emphasis
on Mughal architecture. During this time, paintings lost their natural
simplicity and turned to be very to be rich and grand.Only a few paintings
from his court have survived to provide a record of the evolution of art
under Aurangzeb’s reign because he did not support the culture of the
paintings.
The Rajput miniature painting style was heavily influenced by the Mughal
masterpieces. Awadh, Rajputana, Sikh, and Deccan regions also
developed new court cultures as a result of the court artists’ expansion
throughout the declining Mughal Empire.
Check your progress:
1] Explain the paintings that developed during the Mughal period.
12.3 MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
The Mughal period (1526 -1857) witnessed the development of Indo -
Islamic architecture at a mass ive scale, dominating the landscape in the
northern part of the Indian subcontinent viz Delhi, Agra, and Lahore
region. Mughal architecture flourished in the 16th, 17th, and 18th
centuries.
By the 15th century, India had already seen monumental constructio ns
depicting the beautiful blend of the Indian and Turkish architectural styles
under the Delhi Sultanate.

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145 Features of Mughal Architecture
Under the patronage of the Mughals, the art and architecture of
the Mughal Empire became more impressive while reta ining its
elegance. Mughal art and architecture is a distinctive Indo -Islamic
architectural style that combines the characteristics of the Persian,
Turkish, and Indian styles .Marvellous cities like Fatehpur Sikri and
Shahjahanabad were established during t heir reign, along with several
majestic forts, mosques, and mausoleums throughout their kingdom.
Mughal architecture is a mix of architectural styles from Turkey, Iran, and
India.Imposing gateways, forts, palaces, mosques, sarais, and other
structures are only a few of the many types of structures that exist.The two
main materials used were red sandstone and white marble.
Under the influence of their rulers, Mughal architecture flourished in
northern and central India from the middle of the 16th until the e nd of the
17th century. Some of the famous structures, like the Taj Mahal and Agra
Fort, were constructed underneath them.
Contribution of Babur to Mughal Architecture
Babur was only in power from 1526 to 1530, and the majority of that time
was spent fight ing. Therefore he was only able to leave behind two
notable buildings: the mosque at Kabuli Bagh in Panipat and the Jama
Masjid in Sambhal, close to Delhi. In Agra, he also constructed Ram
Bagh, the earliest Mughal Garden in India (completed in 1528), in t he
Charbagh Style.
Mughal Art and Architecture during Humayun’s Era
He succeeded Babur, although Sher Shah Suri was a continuous rival for
his whole rule. He started building the city of Dinpanah but was unable to
complete it. The Humayun’s Tomb, which was constructed by his widow
Hamida Begum and designed by the Persian architect Mirak Mirza
Ghiyas, was the first significant piece of Mughal architecture. It is also
referred to as the forerunner of the Taj Mahal.
Sher Shah Suri (Sur Dynasty)
He also constru cted the renowned Grand Trunk Road, the Rohtas Fort in
Pakistan, the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna, and the Quila -e-Quanah
mosque of the Old Fort in Delhi. During his reign, the style of Mughal art
and architecture replaced the Lodhi style.
Contribution o f Akbar to Mughal Architecture
Massive advancements in Mughal architecture occurred under the reign
of Akbar (1556 -1605). Shah made Fatehpur Sikri the Mughals’ first
planned city. The BulandDarwaza (1576), which was constructed to mark
Akbar’s triumph over the Gujarati rulers, the Jama Masjid, the Diwan -i-
aam and Diwan -i-khaas, Birbal’s residence, and the Tomb of Saint Salim
Chisti are a few of the significant structures in Fatehpur Sikri. munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
146 Mughal Architecture during Jahangir (1605 -1627)
The paintings of Mug hal architecture held a special fascination for the
prince. He completed Akbar’s mausoleum at Sikandra and created Itimad -
ud-(his Daula’s wife Nur Jahan’s) tomb, which features some of the best
Pietra -dura works in the entire world. Additionally, he constr ucted Moti
Masjid in Lahore and Srinagar’s renowned Shalimar Bagh.
Contribution of Shah Jahan to Mughal Architecture
As he constructed the Taj Mahal in honour of his late wife, Mumtaz
Mahal, Shah Jahan immortalized himself. He is aptly referred to as “the
prince of builders” since it was during his rule that Mughal architecture
reached its pinnacle. He constructed Shahjahanabad, Delhi’s seventh city,
which is currently referred to as Old Delhi.
In contrast to his predecessors in Mughal art and architecture, who
favoured red sandstone, he used white marble extensively. He also
skillfully employed pietra dura and intricate mirror work to build the Jama
Masjid in Delhi, the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort, and the Sheesh Mahal
in the Lahore Fort.
Aurangzeb’s Contr ibution to Mughal Architecture
Aurangzeb preferred modesty to splendour. More mosques were repaired
than were erected. Numerous Hindu temples are also claimed to have been
demolished by Aurangzeb. A few famous examples during his lengthy
rule include the B ibi kaMaqbara in Aurangabad for his wife Rabbia -ud-
dauraare and a stunning pearl mosque in the Red Fort, Delhi. As a result,
the Mughal architectural style generally suffered under Aurangzeb’s rule .
Under the Mughal architecture, the arches, chhatri, and n umerous forms of
domes gained enormous popularity in Indo -Islamic architecture. The Indo -
Saracenic style of colonial architecture displays these characteristics
further because it was so widely used, particularly in north India.
Styles of Mughal Architectu re
During this period of Mughal Architecture, two other architectural styles
developed in the Punjab and Rajasthan regions, known as the Sikh and
Rajput styles, respectively. These styles of the Mughal period are
discussed below.
Sikh Style:
The Mughal arc hitecture had an impact on the style as it emerged in the
Punjab region. The chhatris and arches were noticeable. The domes
evolved to become a significant component of Sikh architecture. The
Golden Temple, which Arjan Dev finished in 1604, is the pinnacle of Sikh
construction.

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Art Andarchitecture

147 Rajput Style:
It combines Islamic and regional styles. They constructed magnificent
palaces and forts. The Rajput style of Mughal architecture made great use
of arches, cornices, and hanging balconies.
Check your progress:
1] Descr ibe the architecture during the Mughal period.
12.4 SUMMARY
The distinctive Mughal art and architecture flourished on the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal dynasty. The Mughal dynasty was established after the battle of Panipat in 1526. And after Babur, every emperor took a great considerable interest in the field of Mughal architecture. The Mughals were staunch supporters of their art and architecture.
The Mughal architecture developed Indo -Islamic architecture in the Indian subcontinent. They developed or improved the style of earlier dynasties like Lodhi’s, and it was a combination of Islamic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian Architecture. During this reign, architecture touched its zenith, and many new buildings and tombs were built with great artistic vision and inspiration.
12.5 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the paintings that developed during the Mughal period..
2) Describe the architecture during the Mughal period..
12.6. REFERENCES
1. Ghurye G. S. - Caste and class in Indi a, Popular Publication Ltd,
Mumbai.
2. B. N. Luniya - Life and culture, in Medieval India, Indore, Kamal
Prakashan 1978.
3. J. L. Mehta Advance History of Medieval India vol I & II, New
Delhi, Sterling, 1983.
4. K. S. Lai - Studies in Medieval Indian History, Delhi , 1966.
5. A. B. Pande - Society and Government in Medieval India, Central
Book Depot, 1965.
6. Chitnis K. N. - Glimpses Medieval Indian Ideas and institutions,
Pune, 1981.
7. Chitins K. N. - Socio - Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
publishers and Distr ibutors, New Delhi, 1990.
8. Mohomad Yasin – Asocial History of Islamic India 1605 - 1748,
Munshi Ram, New Delhi, 1974 munotes.in

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Medieval India ( 1526 CE -1707CE)
148 9. Singh, Upinder A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India :
From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education.
10. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
11. Jafar S. M., Education in Muslim India' Peshawar, 1936.
12. Law N. N., 'Promotion of Learning during Muhammedan Rule',
London, 1916
13. Pande A. B., 'Society and Government in medieval India, 1965.
14. Frazes R. W., 'Literary History of India, London 1898.
15. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.
16. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of
India, Delhi, 1984.
17. https://www.insightsonindia.com/medieval -indian -history/mughal -
empire -including -later-mughals/literature -during -mughals/
18. Majumdar R. C. (ed), 'The Mughal Empire', Bhavan 's Volume - 7,
Bombay 1974.
19. Raychoudhary R. C., Social, Cultural and Economic History of
India, Delhi, 1984
20. https://byjusexamprep.com/upsc -exam/mughal -architecture
21. A. L. Shrivastav - The Mughal Empire 1526 -1803, Shivlal Agrawal,
Agra, 1972.
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