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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN
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Unit Structure :
1.0. After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Subject Discussion
1.4 Research in Geography - Concept & Meaning of Research
1.4.1 Types of R esearch
1.4.2. Stages Significance of Research
1.5. Research Methodology
1.5.1. Meaning and Concept
1.5.2. Types
1.6. Research Problems
1.7. Research design
1.8 Summary
1.9 Check Your Progress/Exercise
1.10 Answers to the Self Learning Questions
1.11 Technical Words and Their Meaning
1.12 Task
1.13 References for Further Study
1.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
Understand the meaning, objective, structure, significance,
motivation, utility of research
Discuss ethical cons ideration in research
Learn about plagiarism
Understand types of research
Discuss issues and problems in research munotes.in
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2 1.2 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will learn what is meant by research at first. Objective,
structure, significance, motivation, utility of re search all will be discussed
one by one. We will also evaluate the ethical consideration in research.
Next in queue, stands plagiarism. After that, in the latter part of this unit
types of research along with issues and problems in research will be
discuss ed.
1.3 SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
Research occupies a fundamental part in most professions and refers to a
search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic way of thinking and
search for relevant information on a specific topic. According to the
Advanced L earner’s Dictionary of Current English the meaning of
research is “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.” Research objectives describe
what we expect to achieve by a project. Researchers fi nd out cause and
effect relationship between variables and these hypotheses formulated by
researchers could be tested in another piece of research. Systematic
method of finding solution to problem is an important objective of
research. To discover the trut h and fact, to know old conclusions with new
data, to find new conclusion with old data, to reach more conclusions from
available data, to explain unexplained horizon of knowledge, to put
forward an entirely new theory, to study and resolve contradiction i n the
area of a study etc. are a few objectives of research. Furthermore
significance of research lies in gathering necessary information
particularly in field of one’s work. It is very difficult for the researchers to
explain the significance of their nov el work to others. It may turn out
equally tough as carrying out experimental studies. Hence researchers
require giving much attention to explain the significance of their work.
Research structure is basically an outline of the work and most research
projects share the same general structure. We may say that the design of
any research project must be made in such a way that considerable
attention is given on the research methods and the proposed data analysis.
1.4 CONCEPT MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in si mple words means search for knowledge. It is said research
is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. Some people
consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. Research is an academic
activity. Research is often referred to as ‘scientific inquiry’ into a specific
problem or situation because the search for facts needs to be undertaken
systemati cally and not arbitrarily.
William C. Emory in the book ‘Business Research Methods’ defines
“research is any organized inquiry designed and carried out to provide
information for solving a problem.” munotes.in
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3 The Webster’s Dictionary states “research is a careful c ritical inquiry or
examination in seeking facts or principles; diligent investigation in order
to ascertain something.”
V. Clover and H. Balsley define “research is the process of systematically
obtaining accurate answers to significant and pertinent quest ions by the
use of scientific method for gathering and interpreting information.”
James Black and Dean Champion state “scientific research consists of
obtaining information through empirical observation that can be used for
the systematic development of lo gically related propositions attempting to
establish causal relations among variables.”
Research is a systematic inquiry that investigates hypotheses, suggests
new interpretations of data or texts, and poses new questions for future
research to explore. Re search is conducted to develop and evaluate
concepts and theories. Basic research attempts to expand the limits of
knowledge. It does not spontaneously bring out solutions to a particular,
pragmatic problem, but it had been said that there is nothing as pr actical as
a good theory.
1.4.1 TYPES OF RESEARCH
There are a variety of research methods. This may be classified into
several categories according to the nature and purpose of the study and
other attributes. The researcher is expected to specify and disc uss the type
of his research according to the following classifications.
1. Descriptive Research: It is the fact finding investigation.
2. Analytical Research: It is concerned with testing hypothesis.
3. Applied Research or Action Research: It aims at solving spec ific
problems. It aims at establishing policy programs that will help to
improve social life.
4. Fundamental Research: It is also known as basic or pure research.
5. Quantitative Research: This research is based on statistical analysis.
6. Qualitative Research: This research aims at exploration of the social
world.
7. Conceptual Research: It is used by the philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concept.
8. Empirical Research: This research is a data based research which only
depends on experience and observation.
9. One time research: This research is carried on for a single time period.
10. Longitudinal research: This research is carried on over several time
periods.
11. Diagnostic Research: It is called clinical research this research aims at
identifying the cause of the pr oblem and finding a solution to it. munotes.in
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4 12. Experimental Research: It is commonly used in sciences like physics,
chemistry, biology and medicines.
13. Historical research: This research studies of the past records.
14. Exploratory Research: It aims at gaining information about an issue in
hand.
15. Basic Research: This research is carried on for the purpose of gaining
knowledge.
16. Cross section research: It involves the study of many cases at one
point.
17. Theory testing research: It aims at testing the validity of a theory.
18. Theory building research: It establishes and formulates theories
1.4.2 STAGES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
Scientific research is the application of the scientific method to investigate
any relationships amongst natural phenomena or to solve a technical or
medical problem. It is a process for experimentation that is used to explore
observations and answer questions. Scientific research involves a
systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a
multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a
conclusion. This process is used in all researches. Even though there are a
series of steps, the new information or thinking might cause a scientist to
back up and repeat steps at any point during the process. There are eight
stages in scientific research process.
Step 1: Identify the Problem
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research
question.
Step 2: Review the Literature
After identifying the problem, the researcher must learn more about th e
topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the
literature related to the research problem. For this purpose academic
journals, conference and Government reports and library must be studied.
This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The
review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have
been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the
conclusions in the problem area.
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is
too large or broad in scope. In step three of the process, the researcher
clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only be
done after the literature has been reviewed. The kn owledge gained through
the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing
the research project. It keeps researchers on the right track.
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5 Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the p urpose statement of
the study or the description of the study. These items need to be
specifically defined as they apply to the study. Terms or concepts often
have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To
minimize confusion about wha t the terms and phrases mean, the
researcher must specifically define them for the study.
Step 5: Define the Population
The purpose of the study is to assist the researcher in identifying the group
involved in the study. In research terminology, a researc h population is
generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is the main focus
of a scientific query. It is for the benefit of the population that researches
are done. Hence defining the population assists the researcher in several
ways. Fir stly, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large
population to one that is manageable. Secondly, the population identifies
the group that the researcher’s efforts will be focused on within the study.
Finally, by defining the population, the resear cher identifies the group on
whom the results may be applied after the conclusion of the study.
However, due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often cannot
test every individual in the population because it is too expensive and
time-consuming. This is the reason why researchers rely on sampling
techniques. These ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during
the study.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The
instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study,
specifying who will participate in the study and how, when, and where
data will be collected.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with
the co llection of data. Data Collection is an important aspect of any type
of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a
study and ultimately lead to invalid results. Thus the collection of data is a
critical step in providing the inf ormation needed to answer the research
question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data —
whether it is from the literature or from subjects —to answer the research
question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a
questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
It is observed that effort and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of
the research process culminate in this final step. We know that the purpose
of analyzing data is t o obtain usable and useful information. The
researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be munotes.in
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6 answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the
data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data acco rding to
the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in
a manner directly related to the research questions.
The term significance when related to research has a very specific role.
Significance refers to the level of certainty in the results of a study. In the
field of business the government has focused on the use of research in
solving operational problems. Research provides the basis for all
government policies. Decision making may not be a part of research, but
research cer tainly helps the policy makers in making decisions. Research
is necessary for allocation of nation’s resources. Research has a special
significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Research is very important fo r social scientists for
studying social relationship and also to find out answers of various social
problems. Thus we can say research is the fountain of knowledge and also
an important source of providing guide lines for solving different business,
govern mental and social problems.
1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.5.1. CONCEPT MEANING OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methodology is a way to solve the research problem
systematically. It is a study about how research is done scientifically. In
research methodology we follow various steps that are adopted by a
researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind
them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methods but also the methodology. In fact the scope of research
methodology i s much more than that of research methods.
1.5.2. TYPES (QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH)
Research undertaken to measure quantity or amount is called as
quantitative research. The objective of quantitative research is to develop
and employ mathemati cal models, theories and hypothesis. In social
science, quantitative research is widely used in psychology, economics,
demography, sociology, geography, community health, human
development, gender studies, political science and many more.
Specifically we c an say quantitative research includes generalization of
models, theories and hypothesis, development of instruments, experiments
and collection and analysis of data. Statistics plays a very important role in
quantitative research. For example research und ertaken to find out the
number of unemployed graduates or the number of unemployed in
general. On the other hand, research, which is undertaken to find out the
quality of a particular situation or phenomenon, is called as qualitative
research. For instance , a research undertaken to find out the reasons as to
why employees remain absent from work, or why people behave in certain
manner. The motivational research is an important type of qualitative
research. Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioral munotes.in
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7 sciences where the main aim is to find out the underlying motives of
human behavior.
1.6 RESEARCH PROBLEMS
There are several problems in research. The lack of scientific training in
the methodology of research is a major problem. Compete nt researches are
lacking and many a times research has become merely a cut and paste
activity. The systematic approach is lacking. There is very less
coordination between education and industries. There should be university
– industry interaction program s. Many a times the industrial and business
units do not have proper confidence on the materials supplied by the
researcher. Research studies are often overlapping which should be
avoided. There should be a proper code of conduct for researchers. Library
management new acts and rules of research should be available to the
researchers.
1.7. RESEARCH DESIGN
After defining the research problem the preparation of the design is known
as Research Design. It is a detailed outline of how an investigation will
take place. It is very important. Decisions regarding what, where, when,
how much, by what means constitute a research design. A research design
is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine the relevanc e to the research propose.
2.7.1 A research design looks in to the following points:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being done?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data are found?
6. What peri od of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What technique of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
2.7.2 Keeping in view the above stated design decision one may spl it
the overall research design into the following parts.
1. The sample design
2. The Observational design
3. The Statistical design
4. The operational design munotes.in
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8 A research design should be such in which the information can be easily
obtained and the objective of the pr oblem should be studied properly.
Some research design are flexible where as some are rigid. In some
research design random sampling can be done and in some other
purposive sampling is required. In some research design unstructured
instruments are used for collection of data. In short we can conclude that
there are several research designs and the researcher must decide in
advance about the type of design which he will find it most appropriate for
his research project.
2.7.3 Steps in Research Design
1. Formula tion of research problem
The initial stages of research are the formulation of a research problem
and the selection of the type of study.
2. Survey of literature
A thorough and analytical review of previous studies related to the
problem may be done along wi th the stating and defining of the research
problem.
3. The conceptual framework
It is the process of giving clear and precise meaning and accepted
definition to various concepts and variables used in the area of research
undertaken.
4. Formulation of researc h issues/questions
Once a research problem is formulated, the researcher has to raise a series
of research questions or statements to suit the problem which form the
basis of further analytical investigation.
5. Transformation of research questions to specif ic objectives
By the term research objective(s) is meant the specific proposition that is
the subject of investigation. The research questions or statements arrived
at may be converted as important objectives of the study. For each
research issue a corre sponding objective can be framed.
6. Transformation of objectives into research hypotheses
The work “hypo” means under or below and ‘thesis’ means a reasoned
theory. Hence, hypothesis denotes a theory which is not fully reasoned. It
is a proposition which c an be put to test its validity. Hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent
variable. Hypothesis guides the line of investigation and aids to single out
pertinent facts and keeps the researcher on the right trac k. Without a
hypothesis much useless data will be collected. In the absence of
hypotheses are drawn either from theories or from findings of other
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9 7. Coverage
The scope and coverage of the study is to be clearly determined. It
includes the area of st udy, the period of study, the number of observations,
etc. The researcher must also decide which cases (people) are to be
included as subjects in the study i.e., a sampling plan.
8. Data requirement and data source
The different type of data required for the analysis and its sources to be
clearly specified. The sources of information are wide, i.e., documentary
and or field source. They are also very wide. The selection of the
appropriate data depends on the type of information required which again
is base d on the nature, scope and object of enquiry
9. Analytical framework and tools of analysis
The statistical techniques used for establishing the relationships between
the data and the unknowns and methods used to evaluate the accuracy of
results i.e., the an alytical tools of research are very important for scientific
analysis of the problem. The design of the methodology and its aptness in
the context of the particular research study are the most important parts of
a scientific and systematic research.
10. Statement of the limitations of the study
The time allowed for a study and a series of restrictions that may crop up
during the course of the investigation impose reasonable limitations on
each study. A clear statement of the limitations of the study is also a proof
of scholarly writing. The research problem under study should also be
limited concentrating on important information and essential details.
11. The chapter outline
The preparation of a chapter outline is a useful step in preparation of a
draft outlin e of the thesis. It stands as a guide or planning the thesis. There
is no set or standardized model though most of the researchers follow a
standard format. The introductory chapter is followed by a survey of
literature. The chapters dealing with the body of the thesis vary according
to the purpose and the problem of the study. The empirical study deals
with analytical framework including procedures, techniques, hypotheses,
samples, tests, etc. In the case of analytic search the chapter division is
based on chronological development. The final chapters are devoted for
‘implications and conclusions’, ‘recommendations’, and summary. There
will be appendices (both technical and nontechnical) and bibliography.
12. The budgeting and cost estimation
Since the research design is the planned sequence of entire process the
task will be over only by time budgeting and cost estimation. The research
purpose can be achieved with minimum expenditure of money, time and
energy through proper time schedule. munotes.in
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10
13. Significance Of Resea rch Design
Research design offers the investigator an opportunity to carry out
different research operations efficiently. This makes research as valuable
as possible producing maximum information with minimum effort, time
and money. Researcher needs to con sider all necessary precautions when
preparing the design, as any error may upset the whole project. The
reliability of result, which a researcher is looking, is proportional with a
good design that constitutes a firm foundation of entire body of research
work. Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of
results attained. It provides a solid base for the whole research. It is
needed due to the fact that it allows for the smooth working of the many
research operations. Research desig n stands for advance planning of the
methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques
to be used in their analysis.
1.8 SUMMARY
Finally, we have come to a conclusion of our unit of familiarizing you
with the meaning of research. R esearch is a movement from known to
unknown. Commonly speaking it refers to the search for knowledge.
Research is actually an act of studying something carefully and
extensively in order to attain deep knowledge in the same. The objective
of research is to find out answers to innumerable query or discover the
hidden truth through the application of scientific procedures. Nevertheless
each research study has its own specific purpose. There are many types of
research also. This may be classified into several categories according to
the nature and purpose of the study and other attributes. Descriptive
Research, Analytical Research, Applied Research and Fundamental
Research are a few of them. Increased amount of research makes progress
of a country possible. If a researcher wants his researches to be a
successful one he should be careful about his investigation. To qualify as
research, the process must have certain characteristics such as, it must, as
far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid an d verifiable,
empirical and critical.
In recent years the prevalence of plagiarism has been increasing. It may be
attributed to internet facility. Hence many ideas and works of others
mingle easily into someone else’s own research work.
1.9 CHECK YOUR PRO GRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True False
a. Research refers to a search for knowledge.
b. Research provides the basis for all government policies.
c. Research is unable to solve any operational and planning problems of
business and industry. munotes.in
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11 d. In the research design the researcher should mention the method of
obtaining information and amount of money only required.
e. For analysis of data the researcher need to carry on coding, tabulation
and use statistical techniques.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. Research is often referred to as ‘___________ _ inquiry’.
b. Testing a _____________ is known as hypothesis testing research.
c. ________________ of a research refers to the level of certainty in the
results of a study.
d. __________ Research means a data based research which only
depends on experience and obs ervation.
e. Historical research the _____ records.
3. Multiple choice question
a. Research is conducted
i. to develop and evaluate concepts of determinism.
ii. to monitor the progress of tourism.
iii. to develop and evaluate concepts and theories.
b. Explorat ory or formulative research is
i. gaining familiarity with a phenomenon to achieve new ideas.
ii. testing a hypothesis.
iii. finding out the frequency with which something occurs.
c. Research is necessary for allocation
i. of nation’s resources.
ii. of chocolates for children.
iii. of hospitality.
d. The role of the hypothesis is to
i. guides the teachers and keeps them busy.
ii. guide the researcher and keep him on the right track.
iii. guide the hotelier and teach him how to cook.
e. In the case o f survey the data can be collected in the following ways:
i. by observation, through chi – square test, t – test, f –test.
ii. by coding, tabulation and statistical techniques
iii. by observation, through personal interview, through telephonic
interview
4. Answers the f ollowing Questions
1. What do you understand by the term research?
2. What are the objectives of research?
3. What is the significance of research? munotes.in
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12 4. Write a short note on:
a. structure of research.
b. types of research
c. plagiarism
5. State the motivat ion of research.
6. Describe utility of research.
7. What is meant by ethical consideration in research?
8. Are there issues and problems in research? Justify your answer.
1.10 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1. a.true
2. b. true
1. c. false, Res earch has a special significance in solving various
operational and planning problems of business and industry.
1. d. false, In the research design the researcher should mention the
method of obtaining information, amount of man power required
and defin itely the time and the cost.
1.e.true
2.a. scientific
2.b. hypothesis
2.c. Significance
2.d. Empirical
2.e. past
3.a.iii.
3.b.i
3.c.i.
3.d.ii
3.e.iii
1.11 TECHNICAL WORDS
1. Research - the systematic investigation into and study of materials
and sources in o rder to establish facts and reach new conclusions
2. Hypothesis - a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis
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13 3. Chi–Square Test - a statistical method assessing the goodness of fit
betw een a set of observed values and those expected theoretically.
4. T-Test- it is an analysis of two populations means through the use of
statistical examination
5. F-Test- it is any statistical test in which the test statistic has an F -
distribution under the null hypothesis
1.12 TASK
1. In a chart draw a column and compare different type of research.
1.13 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. Research Methodology Practice – P. Philominathan – Shri A.V.V.M.
Pushpam College – Poondi –Thanjavar
2. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques 2 ed, Kothari C. R.
–Vishwa Prakashan – New Delhi 1990.
3. An Introduction to Research Procedure in Social Sciences – Gopal M.
A. – Asia Publishing House - Bombay
4. Ackoff, Russell L., The Design of Social Research, Chicago:
University of Chicago Pre ss, 1961.
5. Ackoff, Russell L., Scientific Method, New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1962.
6. Allen, T. Harrell, New Methods in Social Science Research, New
York: Praeger Publishers, 1978.
7. Anderson, H.H., and Anderson, G.L., An Introduction to Projective
Techniques and Other Devices for
8. Understanding the Dynamics of Human Behaviour, New York:
Prentice Hall, 1951.
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14 2
DATA COLLECTION AND DATA
PROCESSING
Unit Structure :
2.0 After going through this chapter you will be able to
understand the following features:
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Subject discussion
2.4 Sample design, meas urements, scaling Data collection in geography
- Types and sources of data
2.5 Types of Data
2.6 Sources of Primary Data
i. Observation
ii. Questionnaire survey
iii. Schedule
iv. Interview
2.7 Sources of Secondary Data
2.8 Data processing
i. Editing
ii. Coding
iii. Classification
iv. Tabulation,
2.9 Summary
2.10 Check your progress/exercise
2.11 Answers to the self learning questions
2.12 Technical words and their meaning
2.13 Task
2.14 References for further study munotes.in
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Data Collection and Data Analysis
15 2.1 OBJECTIVE
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
Understand the types and sources of Primary and Secondary data
Discuss and Learn Stages in data processing by Editing,
Coding, Classification, and Tabulation
Understand Data analysis with statistical package by the help of
Excel and SPSS
Learn Diagrammatic representat ion
Understand Interpretation of data
2.2 INTRODUC TION
In the first unit we have learnt what is meant by research, its objective,
structure, significance, motivation, and utility, evaluation of the ethical
consideration in research and plagiarism. In the second unit the
mean ing of research methodo logy is studied along with stages in scientific
research processes and the identification, selection and formulation of
research problems. This was followed by the discussion on Review of
literature, Hypotheses, Research design and Sample design and an
elaborate discussion on Qualitative research and Quantitative research.
In the present unit we are going to study the definition of data and
different types and sources of Primary and Secondary data at first. The
Advantages and Disadvantag es of these will also be learnt. Next in
the discussion come the Sources of Primary and Seconda ry Data.
Furthermore Stages in data processing by Editing, Coding, Classification,
and Tabulation, Data analysis with statistical package by the help of
Excel and SPSS, Diagrammatic representation and Interpretation of data
will be the topic of discussion in the latter part of this unit.
2.3 SUBJECT-DISCUSS ION
21st century students know to read and understand research literature
critically. The students learn statistical concepts, interpret statistical
results, and write critical analyses of journal articles. Several research
studies are undertaken and accomplished year after year. Data is short
hand for “information” and researchers turn to data because they have a
problem to solve. Most of them start with a question, and then look to
data for answers. In a service setting, questions might include, “who is
receiving services?” and “who does best in treatment ?” Sometimes the
results tell a different story than the ones we set out to tell. So, it is
important to be open to unexpected patterns, explanations, and
unusual results whenever we look at data.
Data is used to describe things by assigning a value to them. The values
are then organized, processed, and presented within a given context so
that it becomes useful. Data is analyzed using statistics and
freque ncies tell us how many times the answer or value has occurred. munotes.in
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16 A point must be noted that many factors can affect statistical significance,
including sample size. Small sample sizes can affect data analysis and
interpretation, particularly when using percentages. Data analysis refers to
a variety of specific procedures and methods and involves goals;
relationships; decision making; and ideas, in addition to working with the
actual data itself. There are many different ways of conceptualizing the
data analysis process.
2.4 SAMPLE DESIGN
A sample design is a precise plan determined before actual collection of
any data to obtain a sample from a given population. It is very popular in
research work. Sample designs can be either probability or non -
probability . Here a small group is selected as representative of the whole
universe. Its objective is to obtain accurate and reliable information and
make exhaustive and intensive study about the universe involving
minimum cost, time, money, material and energy. Popu lation or universe
means, the entire mass of observations, which is the parent group from
which a sample is to be formed. In Research Methodology population
means characteristics of a specific group. Secondary school teachers who
have some specific feature s like teaching experience, teaching attitudes
may be taken as an example. By observing the characteristics of the
sample, one can make certain inferences about characteristics of the
population from which it is drawn.
2.4.1 Following are the Need of Samplin g:
a. Economy of time
b. Economy of money
c. True detailed knowledge
d. Utility in experimental study
2.4.2 Advantages of Sampling:
a. It has a greater adaptability.
b. It is an economical technique.
c. It has high speed for generalization.
d. According to W.G. Cocharan, “I t has greater precision and accuracy
in the observation”.
e. This technique has great accuracy.
f. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
g. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
h. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.
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17 2.4.3 Disadvantages of Sampling:
a. Scope of biasness.(Less accuracy)
b. Problem of representative sample -Difficulty in selecting a truly
representative sample.
c. Need of eligible researchers.
d. Instability of sample subjects or changeability of units i.e. in
heterog eneous population.
e. There are certain situations where sampling is possible.
DATA COLLECTION IN GEOGRAPHY ( TYPES AND SOURCES
OF DATA)
Scientists attempt to answer questions using rigorous methods and
attentive observations. These observations are a collection of field notes,
surveys, and experiments. They are called data and form the backbone of
a statistical investigation. The researcher collects information about
various types of data available in library databases. He then selects
which databases he can use to locate a certain type of data.
2.5 TYPES OF DATA
Definition of Data
Data are values of qualitative or quantitative variables, belonging to a set
of items. Data is analyzed to create information suitable for making
decisions. Data collection is most important stage in a research. Best
research design fails without suitable data. Data collection needs
planning, hard work and patients.
2.5.1 Data is broadly classified into following types
1. Primary data
2. Secondary data
1. Primary Data:
This is the first hand information collected, compiled and published
by individual or organization. This data is the o riginal and have not
unde rgone any sought of statistical treatment. It is collected from the
field.
2. Secondary Data:
This is the second hand information, which is already collected by
someone for some other purpose. This data is not pure in character and
have undergone some treatment at least once.
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18 2.5.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Primary Data
Advantages of Primary Data
a. Most reliable
b. Direct interaction
c. Most unbiased
d. Possible to get back ground information
e. Possible to collect as per requirement
Disadvantages of Primary Data
a. Usually expensive
b. Takes more time
c. Will create false result if not collected properly.
d. Skill and expertise of researchers matters a lot.
e. Comprehension potential of the respondents is a major issue.
2.5.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data
Advantage of Secondary Data
a. It is economical
b. It saves efforts
c. It is time saving
d. It helps makes primary data more specified
e. It helps to improve the unde rstanding of the problem
f. It provides the basis for comparison for the data that is collected by
the researcher.
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
a. The data collected earlier is of no use to you.
b. Accuracy of seconda ry data is not known.
c. Data may be out dated.
2.6 SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA
2.6.1 Observation
Observation is a complex research method. The observer puts himself
in the actual situation and records the activities and behaviour of the
sample population. Sometimes the observer becomes the member of the
community being studied. On the basis of his knowledge, skills and
experience he collects the data without contacting the responde nts. The
results of observation entirely depe nd on the talents of the researcher. This munotes.in
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19 meth od can be used only by expert persons in the research. Observation
methods have been developed with the objective of observing people
in their natural setting - as they go about their everyday lives.
2.6.2 Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a set of questions which is prepared to ask a nu mber
of questions and collect answers from respondents relating to the
research topic. The questions are usually in printed or electronic form is
to be answered by the individuals. The forms often have blank spaces in
which the answers can be written. Sets of such forms are distributed to
the groups and the answers are collected relating to research topic. When
properly constructed and responsibly administered, questionnaires become
a vital instrument by which statements can be made about specific
groups or people or entire populations.
Questionnaires can be administered in many ways: by post, via e-mails,
face-to-face, or by telephon e. Nevertheless, each one of these methods
has got its shortcomings. For instance, posted and e -mailed
questionna ires might not receive replies, or the provided answers
might be poor because of the lack of interaction between the
questionnaire giver and taker. Moreover, face-to-face or telephone
questionnaires are time consuming and sometimes costly. It is thus
up to the researcher to decide for the method according to his/her
means and capabilities. Either way, while distributing questionnaires, it is
crucial that one always introduces him/herself, presents the goal of the
questionnaire, provides any contact details and is ready to answer any
possible queries about it.
2.6.2.1 The main merits of this method are
a. It is low cost even when the universe is large and is widespread
geog raphically.
b. It is free from bias of interviewer as answers are respondent ’s own
words.
c. Respondents, who are not ea sily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
d. Moreover, responden ts are given enough time to give well
thought answers.
2.6.2.2 The main demerits of this method are:
a. Low rate of return of the duly filled questionna ires.
b. It can be used only when the respondents are educated and
cooperative.
c. The control of the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
d. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
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20 2.6.3 Schedule
Here the questionnaires are sent through the enume rators to collect
information. Enumerators are persons appointed by the investigator for
the purpose. They directly meet the informants with the questionnaire.
They explain the scope and objective of the enquiry to the informants and
solicit their cooperation. The enume rators ask the questions to the
informants and record their answers in the questionnaire and compile
them. The success of this method depends on the sincerity and efficiency
of the enume rators. So the enumerator should be sweet-tempered, good-
natured, trained and well-behaved. Schedule method is widely used in
extensive studies. It gives fairly correct result as the enumerators directly
collect the information. The accuracy of the information depe nds upon
the honesty of the enumerators. They should be unbiased. This
meth od is relatively more costly and time- consuming than the
mailed questionnaire method.
2.6.4 Interview
Here the researcher asks questions to an individual or to a group of
persons. There are different types of interview. In personal interview, the
researcher asks questions in a face to face contact. In telephonic
interviews, the researcher contacts the samples on telephones. Another
method is the focus group, which allows for interviewing groups together
and observing the interaction between them as well. Interviews can be
done formally (structured), semi- structured, or informally. The
questions should be focused and clear. Interviews are mainly qualitative
in nature.
2.7 SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA
Following are the sources of secondary data.
a. Focused internet sources.
b. Government published data.
c. Competitor information.
d. Multi-client reports
e. Industry trade media
f. Industry reports
g. Media and personal sources
h. Previous research
i. Official statistics
j. Diaries
k. Letters
l. Historical data and information
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21 2.8 STAGES IN DATA PROCESS ING
Data processing is simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful
information through a process. Data is manipulated to produce results
that lead to a resolution of a problem or improvement of an
existing situation. Similar to a production process, it follows a cycle
where inputs (raw data) are fed toprocess (computer systems,
software, etc.) to produce output (information and insights).
1. Editing
Editing is the first step in data processing. Editing is the process of
examining the data collected in questionnaires/ schedules to detect
errors and omissions and to see that they are corrected and the schedules
are ready for tabulation.
2. Coding
Coding is necessary for eff icient analysis and through it several replies
may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the critical
information required for analysis. Coding decisions should usually
be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire. This makes it
possible to pre-code the questionnaire choices and which in turn is helpful
for computer tabulation as one can straight forward key punch from the
original questionnaires. But in case of hand coding some standa rd method
may be used. One such standard method is to code in the margin
with a colored pencil. The other method can be used to transcribe the
data from the questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatever method is
adopted, one should see that coding errors are altogether eliminated or
reduced to the minimum level.
2. Classification of Data
Classification or categorization is the process of grouping the statistical
data under various understandable homogeneous groups for the purpose
of convenient interpretation. A uniformity of attributes is the basic
criterion for classification; and the grouping of data is made according to
similarity. A good classification should have the characteristics of clarity,
homogeneity, equa lity of scale, purposefulness and accuracy.
4. Tabulation of Data
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in
compact form for further analysis. Therefore, preparing tables is a
very important step. Tabulation may be by hand, mechanical, or
electronic. The choice is made largely on the basis of the size and type
of study, alternative costs, time pressures, and the availability of
computers, and computer programmes. If the number of que stionnaire is
small, and their length short, hand tabulation is quite satisfactory.
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22 Table may be divided into:
a. Freque ncy tables,
b. Response tables,
c. Contingen cy tables,
d. Uni-variate tables,
e. Bi-variate tables,
f. Statistical table
g. Time series tables.
Generally a research table has the following parts:
a. Table number
b. Title of the table
c. Caption
d. Stub (row heading)
e. Body
f. Head note
g. Foot note
2.9 SUMMARY
Finally, we have come to the end of this unit. We have learnt the
definition of data and types and sources of primary and seconda ry data.
Data is raw or unorganized information like symbols, numbers, or
alphabets that refers to, or represents, conditions, ideas, or objects.
Primary Data is the first hand information collected while Seconda ry Data
is the second hand information, which is already collected by someone for
some other purpose. Both of these have some advantages and
disadvantages. Researchers need to consider the sources of data on
which they can base and confirm their research and findings. They
have a choice between primary data and secondary sources and the use
of both. Observation, questionnaire survey, schedule and interview are the
common sources of primary data. Seconda ry sources are data that already
exists in previous research, official statistics, government reports, web
information, and historical data. Next come data processing which is
simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful information through a
process. There is a wide range of approaches, tools and techniques to
process data, and it is important to start with the most basic
understanding of it. Editing is the first step in data processing followed
by coding, classification ofData and Tabulation of Data. Data Analysis
is done with statistical packages like Microsoft Excel and SP SS. The
software Microsoft Excel is developed and manufactured by Microsoft
Corporation. It allows users to organize, format, and calculate data with munotes.in
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Data Collection and Data Analysis
23 formulas using a spreadsheet system. This spreadsheet is broken up
by rows and columns. SPSS or Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
is a computer application that supports statistical analysis of data. It
allows for comprehensive data access and preparation. It is one of the
most popular statistical packages which can perform highly complex data
manipulation and analysis with simple instructions. Furthermore da ta is
more effectively presented with the help of diagrams such as charts and
graphs. Last but not the least; data interpretation is part of daily life for
most people. Interpretation is the process of making sense of numerical
data that has been collected, analyzed, and presented. However we should
remember that presentation of the findings should not overstate the
evidence.
2.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXE RCISE
1. True False
a. Observation forms the backbone of a statistical investigation. b. No
planning is needed for Data collection.
b. Primary Data the second hand information.
c. Primary Data is most reliable, most unbiased and possible to
collect as per requirement.
d. Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of
the questionnaire.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. ________ data is not pure in character and have unde rgone
some treatment at least once.
b. __________ data is usually expensive and takes more time.
c. Accuracy of ___________ data is not known.
d. _____________ can be administered by post, via e-mails, face-to-
face, or by telephone.
e. SPSS is a ___________ based program that can be used toperform
data entry and analysis and to create ___________ graphs.
f. Excel belongs to the group of computer applications known as
___________ .
g. Editing is the first step in ______________ __________.
h. One standard method is to code in the margin with a
________ pencil.
i. __________ is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in
compa ct form for further analysis.
j. _________ of the Data enables the researcher to have an in–depth
knowledge about the abstract principle behind his own findings.
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24 2. Multiple choice question
a. Data are
i. values of independent variable or quantitative variables,
belonging to a set of items.
ii. values of qualitative or quantitative variables, belonging to a set of
items.
iii. values of qualitative or dependent variables, belonging to a set of
items.
b. Data is broadly classified into
i. Secondary data and tertiary data
ii. Primary data and tertiary data
iii. Primary data and Secondary data
c. Secondary Data is
i. economical, saves efforts, time saving and makes primary data more
specified.
ii. collected earlier, thus very useful and accuracy is well known.
iii. original and have not undergone any sought of statistical
treatment.
d. Disadvantages of Primary Data
i. skill and expertise of researchers matters a lot.
ii. data may be out dated.
iii. possible to collect as per requirement.
e. A graph gives relationship between
i. multiple variables by means of a curve.
ii. two variables by means of either a square or a straight line.
iii. two variables by means of either a curve or a straight line.
4. Answers the following Questions
1. Define data. Classify data.
2. Make a comparative study between advantages and disadvantages
of primary data and secondary data.
3. State the sources of Primary Data.
4. What are the merits and de merits of Questionnaire?
5. What are the sources of Secondary Data?
6. Describe the stages in data processing.
7. What do you unde rstand by interpretation of data? “In Research
Methodology interpretation of the data has a very important role”-
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25 8. Write short notes on:
a. SPSS
b. Tabulation of Data
c. Interview
d. Observation
e. Interpretation of Data
2.11 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1.a. false, Data
1.b. false, Data collection needs planning, hard work and patients.
1.c. false, Secondary Data is the second hand information.
1.d.true
1.e.true
2.a. Seconda ry data
2.b. Primary data
2.c. seconda ry
2.d. Questionnaires
2.e. Windows, tables
2.f. spread sheets
2.g. data processing
2.h. coloured
2.i. Tabulation
2.j. Interpretation
2.a.ii.
2.b.iii.
2.c.i.
2.d.i.
2.e.iii.
2.12 TECH NICAL WORDS
1. Coding-the process of assigning a code to something for classification
or identification.
2. Graph-Two-dimensional drawing showing a relationship, usually
between two set of numbers, by means of a line, curve, a series
of bars
3. Interpretation- is the act of explaining, reframing, or otherwise
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26 4. Questionnaire-a set of printed or written questions with a choice
of answers, used for the purposes of a survey or statistical study
5. Tabulating-is a way of processing information or data by putting it in
a table or chart, with rows and columns.
2.13 TASK
1. In a chart draw a column and compare between the merits and
demerits of Questionnaire.
2. In a chart write down the advantages and disadvantages of
primary data using bullets.
2.14 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. Research Methodology Practice – P. Philominathan – Shri
A.V.V.M. Pushpam College – Poondi –Thanjavar
2. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques 2 ed, Kothari C.
R. –Vishwa Prakashan – New Delhi 1990.
3. An Introduction to Research Procedure in Social Sciences –
Gopal M. A. – Asia Publishing House - Bom bay
4. Ackoff, Russell L., The Design of Social Research, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1961.
5. Ackoff, Russell L., Scientific Method, New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1962.
6. Allen, T. Harrell, New Methods in Social Science Research,
New York: Praeger Publishers, 1978.
7. Ande rson, H.H., and Anderson, G.L., An Introduction to
Projective Techniques and Other Devices for Understanding the
Dynamics of Human Behaviour, New York: Prentice Hall, 1951.
8. “An Introduction to the Finite Element Meth od” by J. N. Reddy
9. How to Lie with Statistics, by Darrell Huff, Published September 1st
1982 by W. W. Norton & Company
10. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, by Edward R.
Tufte, Published January 1st 2001 by Graphics Press
11. Data Just Right: Introduction to Large-Scale Data & Analytics by
Michael Manoochehri
12. Marketing Analytics: Data-Driven Techniques with Microsoft
Excel by Wayne Winston.
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27 3
DATA ANALYSIS
Unit Structure :
3.0 After going through this chapter you will be able to
understand the following features:
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Data analysis- meaning, types of significance
3.4 Data Analysis With Statistical
3.5 Hypothesis
3.6 Summary
3.7 Technical words and their meaning
3.8 Task
3.9 References for further study
3.1 OBJECTIVE
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
Understand the data analysis process
Discuss and Learn Stages in data processing by Editing,
Coding, Classification, and Tabulation
Understand Data analysis with the statistical package by the help of
Excel and SPSS
Learn Diagrammatic representat ion
Understand Interpretation of data
3.2 INTRODUC TION
In the first unit we have learnt what is meant by research, its objective,
structure, significance, motivation, and utility, evaluation of the ethical
consideration in research and plagiarism. In the second unit the
mean ing of research methodo logy is studied along with stages in scientific
research processes and the identification, selection and formulation of
research problems. This was followed by the discussion on Review of
literature, Hypotheses, Research design and Sample design and an munotes.in
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28 elaborate discussion on Qualitative research and Quantitative research.
In the present unit we are going to study the definition of data and
different types and sources of Primary and Secondary data at first. The
Advantages and Disadvantag es of these will also be learnt. Next in
the discussion come the Sources of Primary and Seconda ry Data.
Furthermore Stages in data processing by Editing, Coding, Classification,
and Tabulation, Data analysis with statistical package by the help of
Excel and SPSS, Diagrammatic representation and Interpretation of data
will be the topic of discussion in the latter part of this unit.
SUBJECT-DISCUSS ION
21st century students know to read and understand research literature
critically. The students learn statistical concepts, interpret statistical
results, and write critical analyses of journal articles. Several research
studies are undertaken and accomplished year after year. Data is short
hand for “information” and researchers turn to data because they have a
problem to solve. Most of them start with a question, and then look to
data for answers. In a service setting, questions might include, “who is
receiving services?” and “who does best in treatment ?” Sometimes the
results tell a different story than the ones we set out to tell. So, it is
important to be open to unexpected patterns, explanations, and unusual
results whenever we look at data.
Data is used to describe things by assigning a value to them. The values
are then organized, processed, and presented within a given context so
that it becomes useful. Data is analyzed using statistics and
freque ncies tell us how many times the answer or value has occurred.
A point must be noted that many factors can affect statistical significance,
including sample size. Small sample sizes can affect data analysis and
interpretation, particularly when using percentages. Data analysis refers to
a variety of specific procedures and methods and involves goals;
relationships; decision making; and ideas, in addition to working with the
actual data itself. There are many different ways of conceptualizing the
data analysis process.
3.3 DATA ANALYSIS – MEANING TYPES ,
SGNIFICANCE
WHAT IS THE DATA ANALYSIS?
Data analysis is a process for obtaining raw data, and subsequently
converting it into information useful for decision -making by users. Data is
collected and analyzed to answer que stions, test hypotheses, or disprove
theories.
Types of Data Analysis: munotes.in
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Data Analysis
29 Descriptive analysis
Descriptive analysis tells us what happened. This type of analysis helps
describe or summarize quantitative data by presenting statistics. For
example, descriptive statistical analysis could show the distribution of
sales across a group of employees and the average sales figure per
employee.
Descriptive analysis answers the question, “what happened?”
Diagnostic analysis
If the descriptive analysis determines the “wh at,” diagnostic analysis
determines the “why.” Let’s say a descriptive analysis shows an unusual
influx of patients in a hospital. Drilling into the data further might reveal
that many of these patients shared symptoms of a particular virus. This
diagnosti c analysis can help you determine that an infectious agent —the
“why” —led to the influx of patients.
Diagnostic analysis answers the question, “why did it happen?”
Predictive analysis
So far, we’ve looked at types of analysis that examine and draw
conclusio ns about the past. Predictive analytics uses data to form
projections about the future. Using predictive analysis, you might notice
that a given product has had its best sales during the months of September
and October each year, leading you to predict a s imilar high point during
the upcoming year.
Predictive analysis answers the question, “what might happen in the
future?”
Prescriptive analysis
Prescriptive analysis takes all the insights gathered from the first three
types of analysis and uses them to for m recommendations for how a
company should act. Using our previous example, this type of analysis
might suggest a market plan to build on the success of the high sales
months and harness new growth opportunities in the slower months.
Prescriptive analysis answers the question, “what should we do about it?”
This last type is where the concept of data -driven decision -making comes
into play.
Significance of data analysis:
• Better Customer Targeting: You don’t want to waste your
business’s precious time, re sources, and money putting together
advertising campaigns targeted at demographic groups that have little to
no interest in the goods and services you offer. Data analysis helps you
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30 • You Will Know Your Target Customers Better: Data analysis tracks
how well your products and campaigns are performing within your target
demographic. Through data analysis, your business can get a better idea
of your target audience’s spending habits, disp osable income, and most
likely areas of interest. This data helps businesses set prices, determine
the length of ad campaigns, and even help project the number of goods
needed.
• Reduce Operational Costs: Data analysis shows you which areas in
your busines s need more resources and money, and which areas are not
producing and thus should be scaled back or eliminated outright.
• Better Problem -Solving Methods: Informed decisions are more
likely to be successful decisions. Data provides businesses with
informa tion. You can see where this progression is leading. Data analysis
helps businesses make the right choices and avoid costly pitfalls.
• You Get More Accurate Data: If you want to make informed
decisions, you need data, but there’s more to it. The data in q uestion must
be accurate. Data analysis helps businesses acquire relevant, accurate
information, suitable for developing future marketing strategies, and
business plans, and realigning the company’s vision or mission.
3.4 DATA ANALYSIS WITH STATISTICAL
a. Microsoft Excel
Excel belongs to the group of computer applications known as spread
sheets. Microsoft Excel helps to p resent the data in almost any way
the researcher chooses. Excel can also be used as a sophisticated
calculator. It is capable of utilizing complex mathemat ical formulas. It can
also be diary, a scheduler, and many more.
Excel facilities the use of colour, border and different fonts to represent
data. A variety of charts are available, which can be selected to represent
the data.
b. SPSS
SPSS is a Windows based program that can be used to perform data
entry and analysis and to create tables and graphs. SPSS is capable of
handling large amounts of data and can perform all the analyses
covered in the test and much more. SPSS is commonly used in the Social
Sciences and in the business world.
SPSS is updated often. The software was released in its first version
in 1968 as the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).It is also
used by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies,
government, education researchers, marketing organizations, data miners,
and others.
6. Data Diagrams munotes.in
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31 Diagrams are charts and graphs used to present data. These help
presenting data more effectively. Creative presentation of data is
possible. The data diagrams classified into:
Charts: A chart is a diagrammatic form of data presentation. Bar
charts, rectangles, squares and circles can be used to present data. B ar
charts are uni-dimensional, while rectangular, squares and circles are
two-dimensional.
Graphs: The method of presenting numerical data in visual form is
called graph. A graph gives relationship between two variables by means
of either a curve or a straight line. Graphs may be divided into two
catego ries. (1) Graphs of Time Series and (2) Graphs of Freque ncy
Distribution. In graphs of time series one of the factors is time and other
or others is / are the study factors. Graphs on frequency show the
distribution of by income, age, etc. of executives and so on.
7. Interpretation of Data
After collection of d ata from survey results, experimental findings,
observations or narrative reports it is analysed by the researchers. This
step enables the researcher to interpret the results. Thus Data
analysis and interpretation is the p rocess of assigning meaning to the
collected information and determining the conclusions, significance, and
implications of the findings. The purpose of analysis and interpretation
of data is to obtain usable and useful information. The analysis,
irrespective of whether the data is qualitative or quant itative, may
describe the data and identify relationships between variables. It may
also compa re variables; identify the difference between variables and
forecast outcomes. Experimental scientists base their interpretations
largely on objective data and statistical calculations. Social scientists
interpret the results of written reports that are rich in descriptive
detail but may be devoid of mathematical calculations. In Research
Methodology Interpretation of the Data has a very important role.
The following factors describe why this is considered as an
essential process:
1. It enab les the researcher to have in–depth knowledge about the
abstract principle behind his own findings.
2. The researcher is able to understand his findings and the
reasons behind their existence.
3. More understanding and knowledge can be obtained with the help
of the further research.
4. It provides a very good guidance in the studies relating to the
research work.
5. Sometimes may result in the formation of the hypothe sis.
By far it has been known that Data interpretation is the most important
key to prove or disprove one’s hypothesis. Hence it is important to select munotes.in
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32 the proper statistical tool to ma ke useful interpretation of one’s data. If an
improper data analysis method is taken, the results may lack credibility.
3.5 HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction. It is the proposed
assumption which needs to be proved or disapproved. Hypothesis
generally is tested by scientific methods. If hypothesis is proved the
solution can be formed. In traditional practice two hypotheses are set. If
one hypothesis is rejected then the other hypothesis is accepted.
Hypothesi s should be clearly stated.
2.5.1 The two hypotheses are -
1. Null Hypothesis - The null hypothesis (H 0) is a hypothesis which the
researcher tries to disprove, reject or nullify. A null hypothesis is the
hypothesis where there is no relationship between two o r more
variables, symbolized as H 0.
2. Alternative Hypothesis - The alternate, or research, hypothesis
proposes a relationship between two or more variables, symbolized as
H1.
2.5.2 Procedure of Testing Hypothesis:
The procedure of testing hypothesis is br iefly described below:
1. Set up a Hypothesis
The first thing in hypothesis testing is to set up a hypothesis about a
population parameter. Then we collect sample data, produce sample
statistics and use this information to decide how likely it is that our
hypothesized population parameter is correct.
2. Set up a Suitable Significance Level
Having set up, the hypothesis, the next step is to test the validity of H 1,
against that of H a at a certain level of significance. The confidence with
which as experimenter rejects – or retains – a null hypothesis depends
upon the significance level adopted.
3. Setting a Test Criterion
The third step in hypothesis testing procedure is to construct a test
criterion. This involves selecting an appropriate probability distribution
for the particular test, test is, a probability distribution which can properly
be applied. Some probability distributions that are commonly used in
testing procedures are T, F, and X2. Test criteria must employ an
appropriate probability distribution; fo r example, if only small sample
information is available, the use of the normal distribution would be
inappropriate.
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33 4. Doing Computations
Having taken the first three steps, we have completely designed a
statistical test. We now proceed to the fourth step – performance of
various computations –from a random sample to size n, necessary for the
test. These calculations include the testing statistic and the standard error
of the testing statistic.
5. Making Decisions
Finally, as a fifth step, we may draw statisti cal conclusions and take
decisions. A statistical decision is a decision either to reject or to accept
the null hypothesis.
2.5.3 There are 2 types of errors to be noted here
1. Type (I) that means rejecting the Null hypothesis that is true.
2. Type (II) erro r when it is not possible to reject a false Null hypothesis.
Some researchers believe that it is not essential to develop a hypothesis.
But it has been proved that hypothesis brings clarity in research. However,
hypothesis should always be simple, specific and clear. For example, the
hypothesis is “The age of the male students in this class is higher than that
of the female students.” This hypothesis is clear and specific and is easy to
test. Thus, we can say hypothesis are important for bringing clarity an d
focus to a research study.
3.6 SUMMARY
Finally, we have come to the end of this unit. We have learnt the
definition of data and types and sources of primary and seconda ry data.
Data is raw or unorganized information like symbols, numbers, or
alphabets that refers to, or represents, conditions, ideas, or objects.
Primary Data is the first hand information collected while Seconda ry Data
is the second hand information, which is already collected by someone for
some other purpose. Both of these have some advantages and
disadvantages. Researchers need to consider the sources of data on
which they can base and confirm their research and findings. They
have a choice between primary data and secondary sources and the use
of both. Observation, questionnaire survey, schedule and interview are the
common sources of primary data. Seconda ry sources are data that already
exists in previous research, official statistics, government reports, web
information, and historical data. Next come data processing which is
simply the conversion of raw data to meaningful information through a
process. There is a wide range of approaches, tools and techniques to
process data, and it is important to start with the most basic
understanding of it. Editing is the first step in data processing followed
by coding, classification of
Data and Tabulation of Data. Data Analysis is done with statistical
packages like Microsoft Excel and SP SS. The software Microsoft Excel is munotes.in
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34 developed and manufactured by Microsoft Corporation. It allows users to
organize, format, and calculate data with formulas using a spreadsheet
system. This spreadsheet is broken up by rows and columns. SPSS or
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences is a computer application that
supports statistical analysis of data. It allows for comprehensive data
access and preparation. It is one of the most popular statistical packages
which can perform highly complex data manipulation and analysis with
simple instructions. Furthermore da ta is more effectively presented
with the help of diagrams such as charts and graphs. Last but not the least;
data interpretation is part of daily life for most people. Interpretation is the
process of making sense of numerical data that has been collected,
analyzed, and presented. However we should remember that presentation
of the findings should not overstate the evidence.
3.7 TECH NICAL WORDS
1. Coding-the process of assigning a code to something for classification
or identification.
2. Graph-Two-dimensional drawing showing a relationship, usually
between two set of numbers, by means of a line, curve, a series
of bars
3. Interpretation- is the act of explaining, reframing, or otherwise
showing one’s own understanding of something.
4. Questionnaire-a set of printed or written questions with a choice
of answers, used for the purposes of a survey or statistical study
5. Tabulating-is a way of processing information or data by putting it in
a table or chart, with rows and columns.
3.8 TASK
1. In a chart draw a column and compare between the merits and
demerits of Questionnaire.
2. In a chart write down the advantages and disadvantages of
primary data using bullets.
3.9 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. Research Methodology Practice – P. Philominathan – Shri
A.V.V.M. Pushpam College – Poondi –Thanjavar
2. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques 2 ed, Kothari C.
R. –Vishwa Prakashan – New Delhi 1990.
3. An Introduction to Research Procedure in Social Sciences –
Gopal M. A. – Asia Publishing House - Bom bay
4. Ackoff, Russell L., The Design of Social Research, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1961.
5. Ackoff, Russell L., Scientific Method, New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1962. munotes.in
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35 6. Allen, T. Harrell, New Methods in Social Science Research,
New York: Praeger Publishers, 1978.
7. Ande rson, H.H., and Anderson, G.L., An Introduction to
Projective Techniques and Other Devices for Understanding the
Dynamics of Human Behaviour, New York: Prentice Hall, 1951.
8. “An Introduction to the Finite Element Meth od” by J. N. Reddy
9. How to Lie with Statistics, by Darrell Huff, Published September 1st
1982 by W. W. Norton & Company
10. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, by Edward R.
Tufte, Published January 1st 2001 by Graphics Press
11. Data Just Right: Introduction to Large-Scale Data & Analytics by
Michael Manoochehri
12. Marketing Analytics: Data-Driven Techniques with Microsoft
Excel by Wayne Winston.
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36 4
RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
Unit Structure :
4.0. After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Subject discussion
4.4 Structure of scientific reports
4.5 Types of report
4.6 Different steps in the preparation
4.7 Layout, structure of typical reports
4.8 Language of typical reports
4.9 Illustrations and tables
4.10 Bibliography,
4.11 Referencing and footnotes
4.12. Plagiarism
4.13 Summary
4.14 Check your progress/exercise
4.15 Answers to the self learning questions
4.16 Technical words and their meaning
4.17 Task
4.18 References for further study
4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
Understand the meaning and structure of scientific reports
Discuss diff erent types of report
Learn different steps in the preparation of scientific reports munotes.in
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37 Evaluate the layout, structure of typical reports
Learn the language of typical reports
Know about the illustrations and tables
Understand bibliography
Know referencing and footnotes
4.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units we have studied about the meaning of research, its
objective, structure, significance, etc. We have learnt about the research
methodology also. This was followed by the discussion on Review of
literatur e, Hypotheses, Research design and Sample and many other
related topics. In the last unit we discussed about the definition of data and
different types and sources of Primary and Secondary data, Data analysis
with statistical package by the help of Excel a nd SPSS etc. In the present
chapter we will be studying the meaning and structure of scientific reports
and its different types. Different steps in the preparation of scientific
reports will also be learnt along with the layout, structure and the language
of typical reports. The illustrations, tables, bibliography and referencing
and footnotes will be discussed in the latter part of this unit.
4.3 SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
Till now we have learnt about research methodology and various stages in
scientific resear ch processes. Down the ages through these processes
researchers have done innumerable scientific experiments which are quite
demanding. But to have an impact of these exciting endeavors the results
and conclusions must be communicated to others. A scientif ic report is a
method of communication. It is a written and published report describing
original research results. Unlike an essay, this report has a definite
structure or shape. Moreover a scientific paper must have a valid
publication that is published in the right place, usually in a primary
journal. An excellently prepared research report loses its validity if
published in the wrong place. Every scientific paper must have a self -
explanatory title so that the reader has a clear idea about the work being
reported by reading the title only. In the introduction the reader will find
enough information about the investigated problem. In this part of the
scientific paper the reader has the scope to appreciate the researcher’s
specific objectives within a large r theoretical framework. There are
various types of research report containing key aspects of research project.
Scientists may consult these during the course of their work. Although
research reports vary greatly in length and type there is no one best for mat
for all reports. Format of research report depends on several relevant
variables.
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38 4.4 STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REPORT
4.4.1 Definition of report
A report is a statement of facts and figures, prepared for the purpose of
information and action. The Oxford Dictionary defines a report as “a
record of ascertained facts”. A report is a formal statement of the result of
an investigation of any matter on which definite information is required,
made by some person or body, instructed to do so.
American Marketing Society states that the purpose of report is “to convey
to the interested persons the whole result of the study in sufficient detail
and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and
determine for himself the validity of conclusions.”
Report can be in writing or oral. Reports are usually in writing. This is
because, they acts as a reference for future. Oral reports are justified,
especially when the matter is of urgent nature or where secrecy needs to
be maintained.
4.4.2 Structure of a s cientific report must contain
Title: Make your title specific enough to describe the contents of the
paper, the title usually describes the subject matter of the article,
sometimes a title that summarizes the results is more effective.
Authors : The person who did the work and wrote the paper is
generally listed as the first author of a research paper.
Abstract : An abstract, or summary, is published together with a
research article, giving the reader a "preview" of what's to come. Such
abstracts may also b e published separately in bibliographical sources.
They allow other scientists to quickly scan the large scientific literature,
and decide which articles they want to read in depth. The abstract
should be a little less technical than the article itself.
Introduction: What question did you ask in your experiment? Why is
it interesting? The introduction summarizes the relevant literature so
that the reader will understand why you were interested in the question
you asked.
Materials and methods: There should be enough information here to
allow another scientist to repeat your experiment., it may helpful to
include a diagram, table or flowchart to explain the methods you used,
include preliminary results that were used to design the main
experiment that you are reporting on.
Results: Researcher presents the outcome. Use graphs and tables if
appropriate, but also summarize main findings in the text. munotes.in
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39 Tables and Graphs: Tables should be used with proper title and
graphs should indicate X and Y axis. If you can sum marize the
information in one sentence, then a table or graph is not necessary.
Discussion: Highlight the most significant results, but don't just repeat.
Acknowledgement: This section is optional. Researcher can thank
those who either helped with the expe riments, or made other important
contributions.
References: In the References section list citations in alphabetical
order.
4.5 TYPE OF REPORT
There are various types of research report. The types of research report are
as follows.
Technical Report: This i s a comprehensive report of a technical
research. It is primarily meant for academic of professional community
such as scientists, engineers, doctors, research scholars, etc.
This report covers all aspects of research such as:
a. Statements of research prob lem.
b. Time frame of the research.
c. Area of research.
d. Resources used for conducting research.
e. Techniques of data collection and analysis, etc.
This report consists of several parts or elements such as:
a. Introduction to the research problem.
b. Methodology used t o conduct research.
c. Findings of research.
d. Limitations of research, if any.
e. Conclusions and Recommendations, etc.
The technical report is written in technical language. It follows a specified
pattern and consists of several sections with proper headings and
paragraphs.
Popular Report: It is designed for executives and other non - technical
users. The reader is more interested in knowing:
a. Findings of the research. munotes.in
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40 b. Conclusions.
c. Recommendations.
While writing this report, certain essentials must be followed:
a. Concise and clarity
b. Accuracy of data
c. Reliability of data
d. Objectivity and not biased.
e. Logical arrangement of different parts of report, etc.
This type of report is meant for commercial and social research because
it is meant for non -technical people, especiall y executives in a
commercial organization.
Interim Report: When there is long time gap between data collection
and presentation of final report, the study may lose its importance.
Therefore, the sponsor may also lose interest in the research and /or
resear ch report. Therefore in such situation, the researcher may present
interim report. The interim report may contain the first analysis of the
problem and the final analysis of certain aspects that have been
completely analyzed. This type of report enables th e sponsoring
authority to take decisions without waiting for the full report.
Summary Report: It is generally prepared for the use of general
public. This report is desirable for any study whose findings are of
general interest. It is written in non -techni cal and simple language. It
contains a brief reference to the objectives of the research, findings and
conclusions. It is a short report of two or three pages. For instance, a
study may be conducted to find out the impact of globalization on
employment. Th e study may be based on professionals and executives.
The study may indicate that professionals and executives work for
longer hours in a week - 60 to 70 hours – to meet deadlines. This results
in burnout which causes stress related problems.
Research Abstr act: This is a summary of technical report. Technical
students like engineering, medicine, etc., usually prepare it on the eve
of submitting their thesis. Its copies are sent to the university, which in
turn provides a gist to the examiners or referees inv ited to evaluate the
thesis.
The research abstract contains:
a. Statement of the research problem
b. Objective of the study
c. Methodology used munotes.in
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41 d. Overview of the research
e. Summary of the results of the study.
The research abstract enables the examiner or referee to co nduct viva -
voce and award the M .Phil/ PhD degree.
Research Article: This is designed for publication in a professional
journal. If a study has two or more important aspects that can be
discussed independently, it is advisable to write two articles rather than
to include in a single article.
A research articles must be clearly written in concise and clear
language. It must be logically arranged as follows:
a. Statement of the research problem
b. Objectives of research
c. Methodology used to conduct research
d. Finding s
e. Conclusion
f. Recommendations.
4.6 DIFFERENT STEPS IN PREPARATION OF
RESEARCH REPORT
The report must be effectively drafted. The researcher must follow the
general guidelines for drafting a good report. The following are the steps
in writing a research report:
Planning for Writing Research Report: The researcher must plan for
writing the research report. Planning involves the following aspects.
a. Length or number of pages of the report.
b. Format of drafting the report
c. Drafting style, preferably impersonal s tyle.
d. Objectives of Research report.
e. Language of the research report.
f. Quality of paper used for report.
g. Colours – Only black / White, or coloured printing.
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42 Definition of Target Audience: The researcher must define the target
readers. Target readers can be:
a. In the case of academic research – the guide and the referee, and also
general readers.
b. In commercial research – top management.
c. In social research – sponsoring authority and the general public.
The researcher should understand the nature of target reader s, whether
they understand the technical language, whether they have enough time
to go through a detailed report, etc.
Proper Format: The report must be written in a suitable format. The
report must be divided into paragraphs, preferably numbered and be
given a suitable heading for each paragraph. The report must also
contain a suitable title.
Local Arrangement: The report must be written in a systematic
manner. The ideas or views or findings must be arranged in a logical
sequence to ensure coherence. Relat ed paragraphs or ideas must be
written in successive paragraphs. The different parts of the report must
be arranged in the following order. First the title of the report, followed
by a brief introduction, then the procedure adopted in collecting data,
then the findings and recommendations and finally the data and
signature of the reporter of chairman of the reporting committee.
Proper Drafting: The report must be drafted in an impersonal style.
The report should be written in third person such as “The commi ttee
recommends.” However, certain reports can be written in the first
person, such as “I recommend…”
Approval: Incase of academic research, the report may require
approval from the guide. If required, the guide may ask for changes or
modifications. Theref ore, it is always better to show a rough draft to the
guide rather than the final draft. This can save a lot of time, money and
effort with special reference to printing and binding. In the case of
social research, the report needs to be approved by the sp onsoring
authority, and in the case of commercial research, the report needs to be
approved by the top management.
Redrafting: The researcher may redraft the report as per the directions
of the guide in the case of academic research. In case of commercial
and social research, the researcher on his own may make correction,
wherever required or on the basis of advice give by some experts.
Printing and Binding: The report must be properly printed and bound.
Wherever required, charts, tables must be shown in di fferent formats as
colours. The research report must be of appropriate size or length.
Normally, the research report is printed on A -4 size paper.
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43 Submission of Report: The report must be submitted within a certain
deadline. For instance, certain reports m ust be submitted within a
particular time limit, especially in the case of commercial research
activity. If the research reports are delayed, then the management may
not be able to take the right decisions, and the situation may become
worse than before.
The research report must be submitted to the appropriate authority:
a. Commercial research – to the top management.
b. Academic research – to the university/ referee.
c. Social research – to the sponsoring authority.
Feedback: The researcher must obtain feedback to find out whether the
report is accepted or not. If accepted then he must know whether the
decisions have solved the problem or generated benefits. Proper
feedback is vital so as to ensure proper research activity in future.
4.7 LAYOUT /STRUCTURE OF RESEARC H REPORT
The report must contain proper structure or outline. The structure
indicates the various parts of research report. The various parts of
research report are as follows:
Title of the Report: The research report must clearly state the title of
resear ch project. For example, in the case of commercial research
undertaken to study the causes of decline in sales of a particular brand
in 2014, then the title will be: “Research Report on Decline in Sales
of Brand AAA in 2016”.
The title page must also in clude:
a. The person or the agency, on behalf of whom the research is conducted.
b. The person or the agency that conducted the research project.
c. Submission date of the research report.
Letter of Authorization : The research report must contain the letter of
authorization. This letter indicates the official or the authority that has
authorized or sponsored the research work. Letter of authorization
gives authenticity to the research report.
Letter of Transmittal : The research report may also contain Letter of
Tran smittal. It indicates the name of the person or the authority to
whom the report is transmitted or addressed.
Table of Contents (Index) : Research report must contain table of
contents for the benefit of the reader. The table of contents should
indicate:
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44 a. Main parts or sections of the report.
b. Chapters heading with page numbers.
c. Statistical tables, charts, etc., with the page numbers.
Introduction : The introduction part gives the genesis of the report. It
indicates:
a. Statement of the research problem.
b. Object ives of research.
c. Formulation of hypothesis, if any.
d. Scope of the study.
e. Brief review of previous studies on the same problem/topic.
Methodology : The report should describe the methodology used in
conducting the research:
a. If the data is collected from only secondary sources, reason must be
given for the same.
b. If the data is collected only from primary sources, then the reason must
be given.
c. If a sample survey is conducted, then the details of sampling must be
given with respect to universe, elements, sample size, sampling
method. Findings: This is an important element of research report. Normally,
the findings constitute the large section of the report. The researcher
should provide findings in logical sequence . At times, the researcher
must provide major findings, and the minor findings may be deleted,
because it may confuse the reader. The tables, charts or pictures
relating to the findings may be given near the matter.
Limitations: The report may contain limitations of the research work.
For instance, there may be limitation relating to time, money, or the
problem of getting information on certain aspects may be due to lack of
cooperation on the part of the respondents, or the problem of sampling.
The limitation will help the reader to frame his own opinion regarding
the reliability of the report. The limitations are also useful to other
researchers who may research on similar topics.
Conclusions: The research report may con tain a summary the report
and conclusions. The conclusions are drawn for the findings. The
conclusions must give references to the pages tables or paragraphs of
the findings on the basis of which they are drawn.
Recommendations: The report may contain reco mmendations,
especially in the case of commercial or social research. The munotes.in
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45 recommendations must be very clear and supported by footnotes, if
any. Footnotes are generally used as reference guide or short
explanation to certain complicated terms/ matter.
Appe ndix: The research report must contain appendix. It consists of
addition to the report. It provides supplementary information and
supports findings. The appendix includes copies of:
a. Questionnaire used to collect data.
b. Large and complex statistical tables.
c. Glossary/key terms.
d. Any other additional matter.
Bibliography: In case of academic and social research bibliography is
a must. It indicates:
a. Titles of the books/articles/magazines/reports referred for the research
work.
b. Name of the authors/publishers.
c. Year of publication.
d. Page number of the matter used in the research work.
e. The bibliography must be arranged in an alphabetical order.
Signature and Date: The researcher report must be signed by the
concerned person. For instance, a research report prepared b y a
committee, the report needs to be signed by the chairman of the
committee and by members. In case an academic research report, the
report needs to be signed by the person who has conducted the research
as well as that of the guide. The research must be dated. The date is
very important, especially if the reports are submitted to legal
authorities.
4.8 LANGUAGE OF RESEARCH REPORT
Different types of writing require different levels of formality. A report is
generally an analysis, evaluation or description based on research. Reports
are generally written in a formal style. Scientific papers should be written
with correct grammar, spelling and punctuation.
4.9 ILLUSTRATION AND TABLES IN RESEARCH
REPORT
Tables, figures and illustrations must be identified wi th the word "Table",
"Figure", or other appropriate descriptor, and include a title and/or
caption. Must use a consistent format for titles and captions of tables,
figures and illustrations throughout the thesis. munotes.in
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46 4.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
List of works cited shoul d begin at the end of the paper on a new page
with the centered title, References. Alphabetize the entries in your list by
the author's last name, using the letter -by-letter system (ignore spaces and
other punctuation.) Only the initials of the first and m iddle names are
given. If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring
any A, An, or The.
4.11 REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES
Footnotes or endnotes acknowledge which parts of their paper reference
particular sources. Generally, you want to pr ovide the author's name,
publication title, publication information, date of publication, and page
number(s) if it is the first time the source is being used.
4.12 PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is considered as the most unacceptable behaviour in the field of
resea rch. Plagiarism is the appropriation of another’s work, ideas,
methods, results or words without having official permission or approval.
Here acknowledgement of the source and original author is found absent.
In recent years the prevalence of plagiarism ha s been increasing. The rich
information that could be accessed at our fingertips through the internet
facility may be considered as one of the finer reasons behind this. When
the researchers are in the rat race to increase the number of publications as
a credit of their own, this easy access has made the copy and paste
Research technique to become more widely used. As a result many ideas,
words and works of others mingle easily into one’s own research work.
There are various types of plagiarism. The most w ell known and the most
common type of plagiarism is “copying” If someone copies some ones
work and puts it in his/her name that means it is plagiarism. There is
another concept known as “Patch work Plagiarism” this occurs when only
some phrases from the or iginal source are out and puts in his/her name. the
third type is “Paraphrasing plagiarism” here another’s work is summarized
without citing the source in this type the words are changed a little but the
authors thoughts are retained. The fourth type of pl agiarism is called
“Unintentional plagiarism” it occurs when the writer incorrectly quotes or
incorrectly cites a source.
Avoiding plagiarism is very simple we need to be honest and give credit to
others. We should always acknowledge the author of the orig inal work one
should use own work as far as possible.
4.13 SUMMARY
At last we have come to the end of this unit and let’s recapitulate briefly
what has been discussed. We know that report is a self -explanatory
statement of facts. It is a summary of findin gs and recommendations about
a particular problem and provides information for decision making and munotes.in
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47 follow up actions. On the other hand a scientific Research report is the
presentation of the research and its results in a rigorously formatted
document that follows a conventional structure. Research reports contain a
standard set of elements that include front matter, body, and end matter.
The structure of a scientific report must contain a title to describe the
contents of the paper. It must include the Au thors also. The structure of a
scientific report must have an abstract, or summary, so that other scientists
may quickly scan the large scientific literature, and decide which articles
they want to read in depth. Introduction, materials and methods used,
results, tables and graphs are also included in the structure of a scientific
report. The discussion part in the structure of these reports highlights the
most significant results. Acknowledgement section is optional. In the
references section list comes i n alphabetical order. There are various types
of research report such as Technical Report, Popular Report, Interim
Report, Summary Report, Research Abstract and Research Article. While
writing a Research Report different steps are followed in its preparati on
and the report must be effectively drafted following the general guidelines.
The researcher must plan for writing the research report and define the
target readers. It must be written in a suitable format, in a systematic
manner with an impersonal style of drafting. Sometimes, especially in case
of academic research, the report may require approval from the guide.
Hence to save time, energy and money it is suggested always to show a
rough draft to the guide rather than the final draft. Regarding submissi on
of report it may be said that it should be properly printed and bound with
appropriate size or length and must be submitted within a given deadline.
Feedback is important for a researcher to find out whether the report is
accepted or not. As far as the language of research report is concerned we
can say that scientific papers should be written with correct grammar,
spelling and punctuation. A report must have a consistent format for titles
and captions of tables, figures and illustrations throughout the thesis. Last
but not the least a report must have Bibliography, References and
Footnotes. To conclude it may be said that knowledge of the rules and
principles involved in writing a research report will help the researcher to
write better thesis.
4.14 CHEC K YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True False
a. Reports are usually presented in writing because they act as a
reference for future.
b. References section allows other scientists to quickly scan the large
scientific literature, and decide which articles they want to r ead in
depth.
c. In the case of academic research target readers can be top
management.
d. The research report can be of any size or length according to the
researcher’s wish. munotes.in
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48 e. The limitation of a report will help the reader as well as other
researchers who want to research on similar topics to frame his own
opinion regarding the reliability of the report.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. The person who did the work and wrote the paper is generally listed as
the first _________ of a research paper.
b. ______________ Report desig ned for executives and other non -
technical users.
c. Summary Report generally prepared for the use of __________
____________.
d. The report must be divided into paragraphs, preferably ____________
and be given a suitable _____________ for each paragraph.
e. The r eport must be submitted within a certain ______________.
3. Multiple choice question
a. Planning for writing Research Report involves the following aspects
i. Objectives of research, methodology used to conduct research,
findings.
ii. Length or number of pages of th e report, format of drafting the report,
drafting style, preferably impersonal style, objectives of Research
report etc.
iii. Objectives of research, Formulation of hypothesis, if any, Scope of the
study etc.
b. Bibliography indicates:
i. Titles of the books/art icles/magazines/reports referred for the research
work, Name of the authors/publishers, Year of publication, Page
number of the matter used in the research work.
ii. Questionnaire used to collect data, Large and complex statistical
tables, Glossary/key terms, any other additional matter.
iii. Objectives of Research report, Language of the research report,
Quality of paper used for report.
c. Oral reports are justified :
i. especially when the matter acts as a reference for future.
ii. especially when the matter in the sci entific paper does not have a self -
explanatory title.
iii. especially when the matter is of urgent nature or where secrecy needs
to be maintained. munotes.in
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49 d. The technical report is written in technical language and covers all
aspects of research such as:
i. preliminary results, accuracy of data, reliability of data.
ii. statements of research problem, time frame of the research and area of
research.
iii. short report of two or three pages.
e. The research abstract enables the examiner or referee to conduct
viva- voce and award the
i. M .Phil/ PhD degree.
ii. M.A./M.Sc. degree
iii. B.A./B.Sc. degree
4. Answers the following Questions
1. Define Research Report. Describe the structure of Scientific Report.
2. Name the various types of research report? Elaborate any three of them.
3. State the different steps in preparation of Research Report.
4. What does a structure of a Scientific Report indicate? What are the
various parts of research report?
5. What do you understand by Language of Research Report?
6. Write short notes on:
a. Illustration and Tables in Research Report
b. Bibliography
c. References and Footnotes
d. Appendix
e. Methodology
f. Limitations
g. Interim Report
h. Research Abstract
i. Target Audience
j. Proper Format
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50 4.15 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1.a. true
1.b. false, Abstracts allow other scientists to quickly scan the large
scientific literature, and decide which articles they want to read in
depth
1.c. false, In the case of academic research target readers can be the guide
and the referee, and also general readers.
1.d. false, The research report must be of app ropriate size or length.
1.e.true
2.a. author
2.b. popular
2.c. general public.
2.d. numbered, heading
2.e. deadline
3.a.ii
3.b.i
3.c.iii.
3.d.ii.
3.e.i.
4.16 TECHNICAL WORDS
Abstract - a summary of the contents of a book, article, or speech
Bibliography - is a list of works, such as books and articles, written on a
particular subject or by a particular author.
Research -careful or diligent search and organized study or gathering of
information about a specific topic
Report - an oral or written account of some thing that one has observed or
investigated
Structure - gives a pattern
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Research Report Writing
51 4.17 TASK
1. In a chart draw a column and compare between any two types of
scientific reports.
2. In a chart write down the Layout /Structure Of Research Report using
bullets and colours.
4.18 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. Research Methodology Practice – P. Philominathan – Shri A.V.V.M.
Pushpam College – Poondi –Thanjavar
2. Research Methodology – Methods & Techniques 2 ed, Kothari C. R. –
Vishwa Prakashan – New Delhi 1990.
3. An Introduction to Rese arch Procedure in Social Sciences – Gopal M.
A. – Asia Publishing House - Bombay
4. Ackoff, Russell L., The Design of Social Research, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1961.
5. Ackoff, Russell L., Scientific Method, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1962.
6. Allen, T. Harrell, New Methods in Social Science Research, New
York: Praeger Publishers, 1978.
7. Anderson, H.H., and Anderson, G.L., An Introduction to Projective
Techniques and Other Devices for Understanding the Dynamics of
Human Behaviour, New York: Prentice Ha ll, 1951.
8. “An Introduction to the Finite Element Method” by J. N. Reddy
9. How to Lie with Statistics, by Darrell Huff, Published September 1st
1982 by W. W. Norton & Company
10. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, by Edward R. Tufte,
Published Januar y 1st 2001 by Graphics Press
11. Data Just Right: Introduction to Large -Scale Data & Analytics by
Michael Manoochehri
12. Marketing Analytics: Data -Driven Techniques with Microsoft Excel
by Wayne Winston
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52 5
PREPARATION RESEARCH REPORT
Unit Structure :
5.0 After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Report Format
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A research report is a document prepared on the basis of stati stical and
observational analysis by an analyst or a researcher. In other words it can
be said that Research report is a written document containing key aspects
of research project.
Mostly, research work is presented in a written form. The practical utilit y
of research study depends heavily on the way it is presented to those who
are expected to apply the findings of the research in the relevant cases.
Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant
people. It is also a good source of preservation of research work for the
future reference. Many times, research findings are not followed because
of improper presentation. Preparation of research report is not an easy
task. It is an art. It requires a good deal of knowledge, imagination,
experience, and expertise. It demands a considerable time and money.
5.2 REPORT FORMAT
There is no predefined format for research reports. The format depends on
several relevant variables. Therefore, one must employ a suitable format to
create a desirable i mpression with clarity. Report must be attractive. It
should be written systematically and bound carefully. A report must use
the format (often called structure) that best fit the needs and wants of its
readers. Normally, following format is suggested as a basic outline, which
has sufficient flexibility to meet most of the situations:
A research report is divided into three parts:
I. First Part (Formality Part):
Cover page : this includes the educational, professional and research
related details of the rese archer/s
Title page : this gives the title and a subtitle. The title must be written in
the centre of the page in bold.
Certificate or statement: this includes a certificate in the form of a
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Preparation Research
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53 the work presented in the present report is original and is not presented
anywhere else. It may include the certificate of compliance or approval
of the project issued by the concerned authority.
Index (brief contents): this is a record of the contents of the project in
short - only titles
Table of contents (detailed index): this is a detailed index which
clearly states the location of each component like the tables, figures,
maps, photographs, etc.
Acknowledgement: this is a note to thank all the people , organizations,
bodies, etc. who has helped the researcher to complete his work and
compile the report.
Preface/forwarding/introduction: this includes a brief introduction
about the research work presented in the report. It introduces the topic
with refe rence to the targeted readers and sets a start for the readers.
Summary report: it is the short form of the long research report. It
gives an introduction to all the components of the report.
II. Main Report (Central Part of Report):
Statement of objecti ves: it describes the objectives of the research in
detail. This helps the researcher to follow the research without
deviating from the goal. It also helps the readers to understand the flow
of research designed by the researcher.
Review of Literature: this is the study of the topic undertaken from
the already existing literature published or undertaken by other
researchers, writers, journalists, etc.
Area of Study: this give detailed information about the geographical
area covered by the researcher for th e present work.
Methodology and research design: it is a systematic step by step
procedure of conducting the research. It includes the following points:
Types of data and its sources: this is the detailed information about
the types of data used for the research. It further gives a detailed
account of the sources of each data used by the researcher.
Sampling decisions: this includes a brief description of the sampling
technique used while collecting primary data.
Data collection methods: the data can be c ollected through several
ways from primary as well as secondary sources. This describes all the
methods employed by the researcher in detail.
Data collection tools: this describes the mediums used for collecting
each type of data.
Fieldwork: this gives a detailed account of the field work including the
dates, days, time and location chosen by the researcher.
Analysis and interpretation: analysis is the statistical output of the
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54 the an alysis which the researcher writes on the basis of his personal
knowledge, literature review and observations during survey
Findings: these are the major statistical and observational facts drawn
out of the research.
Limitations: every work is incomplet e as it has certain limitations like
insufficient sample, lack of time, small size of the area and so on. It is
the researcher’s ethical duty to enlist the possible limitations so that the
readers understand that the researcher realizes the reality and tha t there
is a further scope to expand the work.
Conclusions and recommendations: this is the main part of the
research report as it helps to understand the level of fulfilment of the set
objectives. It includes suggestions which may be practically applicabl e
so that an improvement may be brought in the study area.
III. Appendix (Additional Details):
Tables not included in findings
A copy of the questionnaire
Bibliography – list of books, magazines, journals, and other reports
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QUESTION PAPER PATTERN
Paper –IX:RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
IN GEOGRAPHY
Q.1 Unit–I 18
Q.2 Unit–II 18
Q.3 Unit–III 18
Q.4 Unit–IV 18
Q.5 Unit–V(Research Report) 18
Q.7 JournalandViva 10
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