TYBA-GEO-SEM-VI-PAPER-4-Environmental-Geography-munotes

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INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL
GEOGRAPHY
Unit Structures :
1.0. After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Subject discussion
1.4 Definition of Environmental Geography
1.5 Nature and Scope of Environmental Geography
1.6 Factors of Environment ment
1.6.1 Natural and
1.6.2 Man-made
1.7 Man-Environment relationship
1.8 Need & Importance of Environmental Geography
1.12 Summary
1.13 Check your Progress/Exercise
1.14 Answers to the self learning questions
1.15 Technical words and their meaning
1.16 Task
1.17 References for further study
1.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Understand the concept, definition, nature, scope and importance of
Environmental Geography
 Know about different Natural and Man -made factors of environment
 Understand the man -environment relationship munotes.in

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2  Know about the need & importance of Environmental Geography
 Learn Ecosystem, its meaning, components as well as function
 Study about Bio -geo-chemical cycles like Hydrological, Carbon and
Nitrogen
 Learn types of ecosystem such as Forest, Grassland, Desert, Fresh
water and Marine
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Environment is the source of life on the earth and determines the
existence, growth and develo pment of mankind and all its activities. At
present the word Environment is often used almost by everybody around
us. Television and newspapers are focusing different environment related
news regularly. Debate is on as how to protect our environment. Globa l
summits are held regularly to discuss the environmental issues. In this
Chapter we will study Environmental Geography its definition, nature,
scope and importance. We will also learn about different Natural and
Man-made factors of environment along with the man -environment
relationship. The need and importance of Environmental Geography will
also be studied. In the latter part of this unit Ecosystem, its meaning,
components as well as function will be learnt. After that we will study
about Bio -geo-chemic al cycles like Hydrological, Carbon and Nitrogen.
Different types of ecosystem such as Forest, Grassland, Desert, Fresh
water and Marine, an interesting part of the same has also been dealt in
this chapter. With the development of modern technology, there is always
a growing pressure on environment. This dynamic relation between man
and environment has become the primary concern for everyone for the
survival of the future generation.
1.3 SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
Down the ages humans have learnt to exist in a var iety of locations on the
earth. The interaction of humans with the environment (surroundings) in
these locations has often brought major changes in that environment.
Some changes were good, some were bad. Many times, the bad changes
were caused by humans m aking too much of a change in the environment,
by using or abusing the natural resources. Every location where people
have lived contained a community of plants, animals, insects, and other
natural resources. A community of organisms, other natural resourc es, and
their influence on each other is called an ecosystem. The plants and
animals existing in an ecosystem are those most adapted to that
environment.
A growing human population presents increasing environmental
challenges around the world. The study of Environment and Ecosystem
helps in understanding the dynamics of ecology, environmental science,
and conservation management of natural resources, wildlife and munotes.in

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Introduction to Environmental
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3 sustainable ecosystems and landscapes so that applicable solutions can be
sought for.
1.4 DEFIN ITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY
The environment is a complex of many variables which surrounds man as
well as all living organisms. This means environment includes things or
events surrounding us and their interaction. It is an interaction between
living beings (plants/ animals) and their environment, which includes
physical non -living components like air, river, ocean or land, mountain,
plateau etc. It also includes interaction among living beings. It is thus a
multi directional system of interaction. The system is made up of living
and non -living physical components of Earth.
Environmental geography, one of the branches of geography, comes in
parts of human geography and physical geography. Although
Environmental geography is basically the study of enviro nment it is not
termed as “geography of environment”. This is because the term of
Environmental geography puts more stress on man -environment
relationships. Some other disciplines only focus on one or few of aspects
of environment while environmental geogr aphy deals with the
environment in its totality and analyses the time -space relationship
between man and the environment. On the other hand it is the study of
systematic description of different components of environment and
interactions of human with thes e components.
A major part of environmental geography is the examination of landforms
and waterway patterns resulting from the actions of water and streams.
This is also referred to in geologic circles as geomorphology.
Environmental geography constituting important set of analytical tools is
capable of assessing the impact of human presence on the environment
and measure the result of human activity on natural landforms and cycles.
After analyzing different aspects, environmental geography may be
defined a s that branch of geography which studies the characteristics,
compositions and functions of different components of the natural
environmental system as well as mutual interdependence of different
components, various processes that link the components. More over the
interactions of different components with each other and among
themselves and consequent responses (environmental problems) in spatial
and temporal context in terms of ‘geoecosystem.’ as well as interactions of
technologically advanced ‘economic m an’ with different components of
natural ‘geoecosystem’ and resultant modifications and changes in the
natural geoecosystem leading to environmental degradation and pollution,
the techniques and strategies of pollution control measures and
management of ec ological resources are part of environmental geography.

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4 1.5 NATURE AND SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
GEOGRAPHY
The environment is very complex in nature. It is a mixture of living and
non-living components that are interrelated to each other yet are
indepen dent. The environment is comprehensive in nature; as it includes
everything surround us. The most important property of environment is its
potential to change or dynamism. Both biotic and abiotic components have
the potential to change. The other character of environment is it lies in his
system. The functioning of environment always follows a systematic
order. The hydrological cycle is the best example of a systematic
environment.
The scope of environment lies in the components of environment.
However, wit h alterations brought in the components, the scope has
widened to include their necessary protection and sense of proper
utilization. It thus enables man to accept his environmental
responsibilities.
The scope of Environmental Geography is immense. Environ mental
science and Environmental geography are interdisciplinary because in
both the subjects there is the pursuit of knowledge about the natural world
and scientists try to remain objective. The studies from environmental
geography help us to understand h ow the environment and human society
are interlaced. In the last few decades there has been a noticeable growth
in this area of geography as human induced environmental degradation
accelerated. Environmental geographers are well associated with the
functio ns of nature. They are also familiar with the idea that humans are a
dominant agent in bringing change in nature. They realized that it is not
possible to understand environmental problems without understanding the
physical processes as well as the demogra phic, cultural, and economic
processes that lead to increased resource consumption and waste.
Environmental geographers have spread out along a variety of academic
paths. These paths often cross, mingle, or converge with those of other
disciplines. By its very inherent features, Environmental geography seeks
to integrate and synthesize knowledge and this is its strength.
To study Environmental geography in a definite manner environmental
geographers ask a diverse set of questions such as:
 Can the global en vironment cope with anticipated population growth?
 What will be the extent and impact of global warming?
 Should we protect tropical forests and why are they being destroyed?
 What causes famine and why do people die from it?
With the growing interdependence of the nations around the world and
environment the role of environmental geography and employment
opportunities for geographers will continue to increase. The two areas that
are growing rapidly at present and creating plenty of new jobs are (a.) munotes.in

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Introduction to Environmental
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5 Geograph ic Information Systems and (b.) Environmental Studies. Maps
are the basic tools geographers use to present information. Computers
have revolutionized mapmaking and placed geography on the forefront of
research.
Catastrophes involve toxic waste, air and wa ter pollution, loss of
biodiversity and habitat as well as soil erosion. So, environmental
problems have become the concern of both the geographers and ordinary
citizens. Hence great care is taken to monitor the delicate balance between
nature and the huma n use of the earth. Specialists in both the social and
natural sciences are required to integrate the work of specialists in both the
social and natural sciences. As a result people who are expert and trained
in high -tech sub -fields such as computer assis ted cartography, remote
sensing and GIS have job huge opportunities.
Environmental geography gives special emphasis to how things interrelate
between humans natural environment.
Following are the branches of environmental geography:
1. Hazards
2. Energy and res ource geography
3. Political ecology
4. Environmental perception
5. Systems theory
6. Landscape studies
7. Marxian environmental geography
8. Sustainability
9. Environmental governance
10. Environmental justice
The scope of environmental geography may be grouped into nine major
subfields.
I. Geo-ecosystem or simply ecosystem as study unit
II. The functioning of ecosystem including circulation of energy and
matter and ecosystem productivity
III. Temporal changes in ecosystem
IV. Spatial ecological changes
V. Global environmental problems
VI. Environmental hazards disasters
VII. Man and environmental processes
VIII. Environmental degradation and pollution
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Environmental Geography
6 1.6 FACTORS OF ENVIRONMENT
Environment is a complex phenomenon of different factors which are the
product of the forces and processes of n ature. Environmental factors can
be anything that positively or negatively changes the environment and
they can be natural or caused by outside forces. It comprises of number of
factors that interact with each other in different ways to keep the planet
alive and support the life on the earth. Environmental factors influence the
living being in several ways. Organisms continuously take the things they
need from the environment and depend entirely on their environment for
their survival. Different living bein gs live in different habitats due to
differences in needs for survival.

Environment mainly consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere. But it can be roughly divided into two types such as
a. Micro environment
b. Macro environment.
It can also be divided into two other types like
A. Physical
B. Human or Anthropogenic
a. Micro environment refers to the immediate local surrounding of the
organism.
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7 b. Macro environment refers to all the physical and biotic conditions that
surround the organism externall y

 The factors of environment may broadly be classified as :
A. Natural or Physical
B. Human or Anthropogenic
 Physical environment comprises of atmosphere, lithosphere and
hydrosphere.
The components of the natural environment can be classified into two
broad gro ups:

1. Abiotic or Non -Living
a. Location
b. Topography
c. Climate
d. Size and Shape
e. Coastline
f. Minerals
g. Soil
2. Biotic Or Living (Natural Vegetation and Animals) - includes all
biotic factors or living forms like plants, animals, Micro -organisms.
a. Producers
b. Consumers
c. Decomp osers
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8 3. There is also a Human or Anthropogenic factor which is classified as
a. Social
b. Political
c. Economic
1.6.1 A) Natural or Physical
1.6.1.1 Abiotic or Non -Living Components
The abiotic or non -living components are all those physical and chemical
factors whi ch influence the life of the living beings. These are the
elements of a living ecosystem that affect the viability of the system to
grow or survive, but which themselves are not biological in nature and
include common conditions such as temperature, air fl ow, available light,
and the inorganic components of soil. More broad -based abiotic factors
that can influence organisms include the location, topography, climate,
size and shape, coastline, minerals and soil.
 The abiotic components are discussed below:
a. Location : Location is the main factor as it influences the human
activities. There are two types of location viz. Absolute location and
Relative location.
i. Absolute location is referred to the actual location on Earth’s surface
with respect to geographical co ordinates (in terms of latitudes and
longitudes).
ii. Relative location can be defined as the location with reference to a
reference point. The references may be natural or man -made.
b. Topographic or Physiographic factors :
i. Altitude
ii. Direction of mountain chains a nd valleys
iii. Steepness and exposure of slopes
c. Climate:
Climatic factors include humidity, sunlight and factors involving the
climate such as:
i. Light
ii. Temperature
iii. Water
iv. Rainfall
v. Humidity
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9 d. Size and Shape of Country : The countries var y in their shape and size.
Some of the countries are large like U.S.A, Canada, Russia and they
can enjoy the large amount of resources. Smaller countries like Japan,
Sri Lanka have limitation in resource utilization. Shapes of the
countries may be elongate d, fragmented or compact.
e. Coastline : The nature of the coastline also plays an important role as
trade is dependent on waterways. The development of ports and
harbours for international trade depends on the nature of coastline.
f. Mineral: A mineral is a nat urally occurring chemical compound and
abiogenic in origin. It is usually found in crystalline form.
g. Soil factors include soil and geography of the land. These deal with
formation of soil, its physical and chemical properties and details of
related aspect s. Soil can be defined as the organic and inorganic
materials on the surface of the Earth that provides the medium for plant
growth. Soil develops slowly over time and is composed of many
different materials.
1.6.1.2 Biotic factors
Biotic factors are all of the living things in an ecosystem, such as plants
and animals. These living things interact with one another in many ways.
They are sorted into three groups: producers or autotrophs, consumers or
heterotrophs, and decomposers or detritivores. These are discussed under.
a. Producers :
Producers or autotrophs convert energy into food, some using
photosynthesis. All plants, such as grass and trees, are producers. These
organisms absorb the sun’s energy and convert the energy into food for
themselves, allowing t hem to grow larger, make flowers and seeds, etc.
For example: Arctic willow, Avocado, Ball moss, Bamboo, Banana trees,
Cotton grass, Fruit trees like lemon, orange, apple, Hay, Indian rice grass
etc.
b. Consumers
Consumers, also called heterotrophs, rely upo n producers for food. These
organisms, mostly animals, eat producers and/or other animals. They may
also eat decomposers. Two examples of consumers are deer (eat plants)
and wolves (eat animals). Consumers that only eat plants (herbivores) are
often known as primary consumers.
c. Decomposers
Decomposers are also called detritivores, break down chemicals from
consumers and producers into simpler forms that are used again.
Decomposers break down dead material (such as a fallen tree) into soil
and return nutrien ts to the soil so they can be re -used by producers to
create food. An example of a decomposer is a mushroom. munotes.in

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10 1.6.2 Man -Made or Human or Anthropogenic Environment
Man can modify the surroundings according to his wants. They have
developed some environmenta l components using their intelligence,
knowledge, skill and power. These environments are as follows:
a. Social
A socio -cultural environment includes population with cultural norms,
demographic information and religious information. A variety of beliefs,
customs, practices and behavior existing within a population is considered
a part of it.
b. Political
The political environment includes the state, government and its
institutions and legislations and the public and private stakeholders who
operate and interact with or influence that system. The government plays a
significant role in economic development of country. Different
governmental systems are followed by the different countries.
c. Economic
Different economic environments like capitalism, socialism and many
others are followed in different countries.
1.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAN AND
ENVIRONMENT
Man and environment has an age old relationship as both of them are
interrelated. The environment influences the life of human beings and also
human beings modify the ir environment as a result of their growth,
dispersal, activities, death and decay etc. Thus all living beings including
man and their environment are mutually reactive affecting each other in a
number of ways. This has made possible a dynamic equilibrium between
human beings (society) and environment establishing their inter
dependence.
So human beings living in the realm of nature interact with it constantly.
Since inception, man has been dependent on the environment for his food,
clothing and shelter and other basic and luxurious needs. The nature
influences man in the form of the air he breathes, the water he drinks, the
food he eats, and the flow of energy and information he receives. Any
change in the environment will result in devastating effects. It may also
create a threat to the human race. His relationship with the environment
has shown dynamism. At times, he was and is friendly with nature and at
times not, but, he never destroyed the environment. Lately, with changing
nature of man’s activities and style of living, environment has undergone
certain negative changes. Thus, the relationship between man and
environment has become painful. Man started changing the natural
environment to suit his needs. So, he exploited, altered and modified his
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11 man to exploit his natural environment. This resulted in destruction,
degradation and damage to the natural environment giving rise to disaster.
The results are observed and experienced in t he form of ozone depletion,
global warming, threats to bio -diversity, acid rain, desertification,
pollution, flooding, etc. only education, awareness and conscience can
help restore the environment and stop further loss.
5th June of every year is observed as World Environment Day to
emphasize the importance of green environment in our lives and promote
the worldwide awareness of the environment.
1.8 NEED & IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
GEOGRAPHY
Study of Environmental Geography bridge the two concepts of huma n
behaviour and the natural world. It investigates the relationship between
them. It is very important because it enlightens us about the significance
of protection and conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution
into the environment. The prese nt world experiences innumerable
environmental issues which have grown in size and complexity. Hence
threatens the survival of mankind on earth. The need and importance of
Environmental Geography studies are as follows:
I. Environment issues have internation al importance. It has been well
recognised that environment issues like global warming and ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely
national issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with
international effor ts and cooperation.
II. Emergence of development has given birth to Urbanization, Industrial
Growth, Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. As a
result the natural resources has been rapidly utilised and a variety of
problems have cropped up. Hu man activities have increasingly
degraded our environment. So we need to protect the environment.
Study of Environmental geography prepares students for careers in
environmental planning, design, and restoration, as well as in
environmental assessment and monitoring, resource management,
natural areas preservation, and outdoor and environmental education.
III. Students studying of Environmental geography will develop
competencies in the natural and social sciences as well as
complementary analytical techniques.
IV. Although man lives in modern and manufactured world he has to rely
on the environment to a large extent for the ability to grow crops, the
capability to stock water, and the power to prevent natural disasters.
Thus the study of our environmental geography plays a vital role and
helps to understand the patterns of our planet. By this we may be able
to predict potential hazards and help to implement precautions in the
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12 to recognized soils he alth problems like deficiency of micronutrients
and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
V. Fieldwork is a key skill for geographers and Environmental
Geography is broadly experiential and often involves experience -
based learning. This includes practical work on a regular basis. So the
reading -load of a student is lessened and the student gets more of a
diverse learning experience. This subject as we know is the study of
the earth and mankind, so if a student wants to have a skill and s ound
knowledge to the students degree, learning Environmental Geography
will be of great help.
1.9 ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystems can be of different sizes consisting of a community of
organisms together with their physical environment. They can be marine,
aquatic , or terrestrial. Broad categories of terrestrial ecosystems are called
biomes. In ecosystems both matter and energy are conserved. Energy
flows through the system usually from light to heat. But matter is recycled.
Ecosystems with higher biodiversity tend to be more stable with greater
resistance and resilience in the face of disturbances, disruptive events. In
an ecosystem each organism plays its own role.
1.9.1 Meaning of Ecosystem:
According to Woodbury, “Ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants
and animals are considered as one interesting unit, the materials and
energy of one passing in and out of the others”. An ecosystem includes all
the living things such as plants, animals and organisms in a given area,
interacting with each other, and also with their non -living environments
like weather, earth, sun, soil and climate. Ecosystems are the foundations
of the biosphere and they determine the health of the entire earth system.
Although a complete self -sufficient ecosystem is rarely found in nature but
all the ecosystems of the earth are very well connected to each another
such as river ecosystem is connected with the ecosystem of ocean.
The term ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935, who defined it
as “the system resulting from the integrat ion of all the living and non -
living factors of the environment”
According to R. L. Lindeman (1942), the term ecosystem applies to “any
system composed of physical -chemical -biological processes within a
space -time unit of magnitude.”
According to Monkhouse and Small, “ecosystem is an organic community
of plants and animals viewed within its physical environment or habitat”.
From the above definitions of ecosystem, the following basic properties
emerge:
 Ecosystem of any given spatial - temporal unit represent s the sum of all
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13  It is a well -defined area.
 It is an open system characterized by continuous input and output of the
energy.
 It is mainly powered by solar energy.
 It is a functional unit.
 There is a complex intera ction between the biotic and abiotic
components.
 Ecosystems are natural system and well organized.
1.9.2 Components and Function of Ecosystem
1.9.2.1 Components of Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a functional and structural unit of Ecology. This implies
that eac h ecosystem has a definite structure and components where each
component part of the system has a definite role to play in the functioning
of the ecosystem. Ecosystems have two major components. The living or
biotic components like plants and animals; and the nonliving or abiotic
components like water, air, nutrients and solar energy. These two parts of
the ecosystem continuously interact with one another.
 From the structure point of view all ecosystems consist of the following
basic components:
1. Abiotic co mponents
2. Biotic components
1. Abiotic Components:
Abiotic component of ecosystem includes all the physical and chemical
factors that influence living organisms, like air, water, soil, rocks etc.
Thus, it is an assemblage of organic and inorganic substances pr esent in an
ecosystem. Basic inorganic elements and compounds are soil, water,
oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates and a variety of organic
compounds such as by -products of organic activities. The physical factors
and ingredients like moisture, wind cur rents and solar radiation are also
included in abiotic components. The various climatic factors that affect the
ecosystem functioning are also a part of this. Without sunlight, water, air
and minerals, life cannot exist. Hence the non -living components are
essential for the living world.
2. Biotic Components:
The biotic components include all living organisms present in the
environmental system. These can be classified as either producers or
consumers, depending on how they get their food. From nutrition poin t of
view, the biotic components can be grouped into two basic components: munotes.in

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14 a. Autotrophic components - The autotrophic components include all
green plants which with the help of the radiant energy of sun
manufacture food from inorganic substances.
b. Heterotrophi c components -The heterotrophic components include
non-green plants and all animals which take food from autotrophs.
 Thus biotic components of an ecosystem can be classified as under:
I. Producers (Autotrophic components)
II. Consumers
III. Decomposers or reducers and transformers
I. Producers (Autotrophic elements):
Producers can make the organic nutrients they need, using simple
inorganic compounds in their environment: for instance, the green plants
on land and the small algae in aquatic ecosystems produce their food by
the process of photosynthesis. For this the radiant energy of sun is used in
photosynthetic process whereby carbon dioxide is assimilated and the light
energy is converted into chemical energy. Oxygen is evolved as by -
product in the photosynthesis and use d in respiration by all living things.
II. Consumers:
Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized
by producers are called consumers. Consumers directly or indirectly
depend on food provided by producers. All kinds of animals that are found
in an ecosystem are called consumers. Depending on their food habits
consumers can be further classified into four types such as:
a. Consumers of the first order or primary consumers
b. Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers
c. Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers and Parasites,
scavengers and saprobes.
d. Decomposers and transformers
a. Primary consumers:
These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on
producers or green plants. In a food chain, herbivores are referred to as the
primary consumers. The herbivores serve as the chief food source for
carnivores. Insects, goat, cow, rabbit, deer, buffalo are some of the
common herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem, and small crustaceans,
molluscs, etc. in the aquat ic habitat.
b. Secondary consumers:
These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals
and they feed on herbivores (primary consumers). Examples of carnivores munotes.in

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15 are lions, tigers. Whereas the omnivores are the animals that eat both
plants and herbivores, e.g. pigs, rats, cockroaches and humans.
c. Tertiary consumers:
These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores
and herbivores. Lions, tigers, hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary
or top consumers.
Besides d ifferent classes of consumers, the parasites, scavengers and
saprobes are also included in the consumers. The parasitic plants and
animals utilize the living tissues of different plants and animals. The
scavengers and saprobes utilize dead remains of anima ls and plants as
their food.
d. Decomposers and transformers:
Decomposers digest the complex organic molecules in dead organic
matter (detritus) into simpler inorganic compounds. They absorb the
soluble nutrients as their food. Some examples are bacteria, fun gi, and
mites. The decomposers and transformers play very important role in
maintaining the dynamic nature of ecosystems.
The most important part of each ecosystem is that it will have certain
representative organisms playing each of the above mentioned ro les.
1.9.2.2 Function of Ecosystem
Functions of Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a functional and life sustaining environmental system.
The technical term 'Ecosystem function' is generally used to define the
biological, geochemical and physical processes and com ponents that take
place or occur within an ecosystem. In other words it relate to the
structural components of an ecosystem (e.g. vegetation, water, soil,
atmosphere and biota) and how they interact with each other, within
ecosystems and across ecosystems. Sometimes, ecosystem functions are
called ecological processes. An ecosystem is a functional and life
sustaining environmental system.
 In an ecosystem there are three functional components.
1. Inorganic constituents
2. Organism
3. Energy input
These three compone nts interact with each other to form an environmental
system. The primary producers convert inorganic constituents into organic
components by photosynthesis using the energy from the solar radiations.
The herbivores make use of the energy from the producer s and they
themselves serve as a food for the carnivores. Animals of different types
accumulate organic matter in their body which is taken as food. They are
known as secondary producers. The dead organic matters of plants and munotes.in

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16 animals are decomposed by bac teria and fungi which break the complex
molecules and liberate inorganic components. These are known as
decomposers. During this process some amount of energy is released in
the form of heat. The ecosystem of different habitats is interrelated with
one ano ther.
Maintaining ecosystem function is important to maintaining the capacity
of the region to supply ecosystem services. Those areas with high
ecosystem function have the potential to contribute to a wide range of
ecosystem services. But those areas showi ng few ecosystem functions are
also important as they may provide important contributions to specific
ecosystem services, or they may be important areas for rehabilitation.
1.10 BIO -GEO -CHEMICAL CYCLES
A biogeochemical cycle is defined as the movement of elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur through
organisms and the environment. It is a pathway by which a chemical
substance moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere) c ompartments of Earth.
The term biogeochemical is a contraction that refers to the consideration
of the biological, geological, and chemical aspects of each cycle. ‘Bio’,
the first part of the word 'biogeochemical', involves biological organisms,
like bact eria, plants, and animals. The next part of the word, ‘geo’,
involves geological processes, like weathering of rocks. The last part of
the word ‘chemical’, indicates chemical processes, such as the formation
of molecules.
In other words biogeochemical cycl e is the way in which an element or
compound such as water moves between its various living and nonliving
forms and locations in the biosphere. For example water is always
recycled through the water cycle. The water undergoes evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation, falling back to Earth. The other important
cycles are the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, oxygen cycle, phosphorus
cycle, sulphur cycle etc.
1.10.1 Hydrological Cycle
The natural water cycle of the Earth is known as the hydrologic cycle.
This describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below
the surface of the Earth. Water always changes its states between liquid,
vapour and ice.
The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the
surface of the ocean. It gets eva porated due to heat energy provided by
solar radiation and forms water vapour. As water vapour is lifted to higher
altitudes it cools and condenses to form clouds and precipitate in any form
like rain, hail, snow, sleet. After the water reaches the ground some of the
water evaporates back into the atmosphere or the water penetrates the
surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either seeps its way to into
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17 through transpiration. The w ater remains on the earth's surface as runoff
and empties into lakes, rivers and streams. This is carried back to the
oceans. From the oceans the water cycle begins again.
Fig of Water Cycle
1.10.1 Carbon Cycle
Carbon is present throughout the natural env ironment in a fixed amount.
Carbon is a part of the ocean, air, and rocks. In the atmosphere, carbon is
attached to some oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide. All living things
are made of carbon. Hence it is an essential element in the bodies of living
organisms.
Carbon takes many forms and moves through the environment via the
carbon cycle. Thus the carbon cycle is the circulation and transformation
of carbon back and forth between living things and the environment. The
carbon cycle is the biogeochemica l cycle by which carbon is exchanged
among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere of the Earth.
Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food and grow.
The carbon becomes part of the plant. Plants that die and are buried may
turn into fossil fuels made of carbon like coal and oil over millions of
years. When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon quickly enters
the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphe re.
Without it and other greenhouse gases, Earth would be a frozen world.
Fig of Carbon Cycle
1.10.3 Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is essential for the formation of amino acids in proteins. 78% of
the air in our atmosphere is made of nitrogen. The nitrogen cyc le is the
biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformations of nitrogen and
nitrogen -containing compounds in nature by which nitrogen is converted
into various chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere,
terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. Even though all animals need nitrogen
to produce proteins necessary for life, animals cannot use the nitrogen in
the “free” form from the atmosphere. They must consume nitrogen by
eating nitrogen compounds. Four processes involved in the Nitrogen Cycle
are stated under:
a. Nitrogen Fixation
b. Digestion
c. Decomposition
d. Waste production
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18 a. Nitrogen Fixation :
The nitrogen cycle shows how the free nitrogen in the air is turned into
nitrogen compounds and put into the soil by “nitrogen fixing bacteria”.
This pro cess is known as Nitrogen Fixation.
Bacteria play the most important part of the cycle. When nitrogen is
absorbed by the soil, different bacteria help it to change states so it can be
absorbed by plants. Animals then get their nitrogen from the plants. For
example, plants that soak up the nitrogen compounds in the soil are called
legumes such as Oats, Peas, Beans and starchy vegetables like Corn.
b. Digestion
Animals eat the legumes to get the nitrogen compounds they need to
produce protein.
c. Decomposit ion
When animals die, bacteria called decomposers break down the organic
matter (plants, animals) chemically into all the simple elements that they
are made of and these elements return back to the environment.
For example: When an animal dies all the car bon, oxygen, nitrogen,
water, calcium etc. return to the soil and air during decomposition.
d. Waste Production
The bowel movement of an animal is the waste that is loaded with
nitrogen. This nitrogen returns to the soil. Nitrogen is a significant
fertilizer.
Fig of Carbon Cycle
1.11 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
There are many types of ecosystems and it is not possible to classify all of
them. There are essentially two kinds of ecosystems; Aquatic and
Terrestrial. Any other sub -ecosystem falls under one of these two
headings.
1.11.1 Forest Ecosystem
Large group of trees shrubs, the leaf mulch on the floor and the plants that
live in tandem with the trees belong to the forest ecosystem. It also
includes the animals that live in the forest. For example, birds nest in the
trees of a forest, members of the fungus kingdom grow on the forest floor,
and a variety of insects and mammals also take up their homes in a forest.
Thus a forest ecosystem is a community of organisms that lives within a
forest. Forest ecosystems are very important as they are the lungs of the
world. The forests release oxygen. Forest ecosystems are very rich and
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19 There are various types of forest ecosystem throughout the world. Types
of forest ecosystem are as follows:
i. Rainforests :
Rain forests is one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet.
Rainforests are often based around rivers. Amazon is an important
example. The north -eastern part of India is rich in rainforests.
ii. Mangroves :
Mangroves are a unique mix of trees and tidal sw amps.
iii. Inland forests :
Innumerable mainland animals and birds like foxes and owls are found in
Inland forests which may be vast and ancient, or smaller like copses.
iv. The Taiga :
The taiga is the name for the sparse forest right towards the polar regions
of the world.
v. Lakeside forests:
Lakeside forest ecosystems are very humid. Water birds and other water
wildlife can be found here.
vi. Mountain forests:
The forests that grow on mountains like mountain pines create Mountain
forests ecosystems like the Himalay an mountain forests in India.
 Characteristics of forest ecosystem are discussed below.
a. Seasonality : In countries that have seasonal climates, forest ecosystems
will change with the seasons.
b. Deciduous or evergreen : A forest may be deciduous or evergreen, o r it
may be a mix of both deciduous and evergreen trees.
c. Different levels : Some forest ecosystems feature several distinct levels
– such as the forest floor, the lower canopy, the upper canopy and the
tree tops, such as rain forests.
d. Attractive to birds an d insects : as they make their homes in forests.
e. Homes for humans .
f. Protect the Earth from desertification by providing a shield against
winds.
1.11.2 Grassland ecosystems
The grassland ecosystems are composed largely of wide swathes of grass
rather than tr ees or shrubs. A grassland ecosystem is a community of
creatures such as various types of grasses, insects, and animals, etc. living
together within a grassy space. Grassland ecosystems are extremely bio -
diverse and are home to thriving communities of plan ts, animals, insects
and mammals. Grassland ecosystems are present in every single continent
on this planet with the sole exception of Antarctica, which is too cold to
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20  Grassland ecosystems can be found throughout the world, f or example:
a. In the tropics near to the equator.
b. In the temperate zones of the earth, between the equator and the polar
Regions.
Grassland ecosystems are found in many shapes and sizes. However,
climate change, intensive farming and urban sprawl are all thr eatening our
beautiful grassland ecosystems.
1.11.3 Desert ecosystem
A desert is a place that is difficult to inhabit. A desert ecosystem is a
community of organisms that live together in an environment that seems
to be deserted wasteland. Desert ecosyst ems can be hot as found in the
sandy Sahara or cold as on the peaks of mountains. Both in hot and cold
deserts it is difficult for organisms to inhabit. A desert ecosystem
generally witnesses little rainfall, resulting in less vegetation.
 In a desert eco system following things may be observed.
i. Numerous insects living in communities.
ii. An abundance of plant life.
iii. Mammals and birds.
iv. Micro organisms such as bacteria are also present in this ecosystem.
 There are so many different types of desert ecosystems. Typ es of desert
ecosystems are stated under.
1. Hot deserts:
Hot deserts, for example Sahara, are found close to the equator. The plants
and animals that live here have evolved in order to adapt to very hot
conditions present over there.
2. Cold deserts:
When d esertification exists at high altitudes the desert will be cold. A cold
desert may be sandy or rocky. Here organisms have adapted the harsh
environment to survive.
3. Ice deserts:
Ice deserts are another type of cold desert. This is an uninhabited region
that is composed of ice. Ice deserts can be found towards the north and
south poles of the planet.
1.11.4. Freshwater Ecosystems
Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They
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21  Freshwater ecosystems include:
a. sluggish waters of lakes and ponds
b. moving waters of rivers and streams
c. Wetlands which are the areas of land periodically covered by water.
a. Ponds and Lakes Ecosystems – Lakes are large bodies of freshwater
surround ed by land, while ponds are smaller bodies of water surrounded
by land. Lake Baikal is the biggest lake on Earth and contains about one
fifth of the Earth’s freshwater. Most of the time they include various types
of plants, amphibians and insects and fishe s.
b. River Ecosystems – Rivers always link to the sea so they are more
likely to contain fish alongside the usual plants, amphibians and insects.
These sorts of ecosystems can also include birds because birds often hunt
in and around water for small fish or insects.
 There are 3 main groups of organisms in the freshwater ecosystem:
i. Plankton - organisms that float near the surface of the water
ii. Nekton – free-swimming organisms
iii. Benthos – bottom -dwelling organisms
Freshwater ecosystems are the smallest of the t hree major classes of
ecosystems, accounting for just 1.8% of the total of the Earth’s surface.
The smallest living part of the food web of these sorts of ecosystems is
plankton, a small organism that is often eaten by fish and other small
creatures.
1.11. 5 Marine Ecosystem
Earth’s largest aquatic ecosystems are the Marine ecosystems. Salt
marshes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs, the
deep sea, and the sea floor are included in the Marine ecosystems. They
can be contrasted wi th freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt
content. Marine waters cover two -thirds of the surface of the Earth and it
is the complex of living organisms in the ocean environment. Moreover
such places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the
animal life and vice versa. Marine organisms are not distributed evenly
throughout the oceans. The availability of light, water depth, proximity to
land, and topographic complexity all affect marine habitats.
1.12 SUMMARY
Environment is the s ource of life on the earth and determines the
existence, growth and development of mankind and all its activities. The
interaction of humans with the environment (surroundings) in these
locations has often brought major changes in that environment. Some
changes were good, some were bad. The environment is a complex of
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22 environment is complex, dynamic and systematic in nature. The biotic
components and abiotic components together make up the environments.
There exists man made environment that is helping man to lead a smooth
life.
Environmental geography is broadly experiential so students have more of
a diverse learning experience. It will also help the students to understand
human behav iour and the extent to which this behaviour differs in regards
to the environment. Thus they will develop cultural awareness. No matter
how modern and manufactured world we live in mankind will forever rely
on the environment.
The term ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935, who defined it
as “the system resulting from the integration of all the living and non -
living factors of the environment”. Ecosystems maintain themselves by
cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources. There are
different trophic levels that exist in an ecosystem. The ecosystem of
different habitats is interrelated with one another. Important differences
among the various components that make up an ecosystem like of Forest,
Grassland, Desert, Fresh water and Marine tells us that ecosystems are not
just habitats for animals. Many human communities live in there all over
the world.
1.13 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. The scope of environment lies in the components of environment.
b. Micro environment refers to all the physical and biotic conditions that
surround the organism externally.
c. Relative location is referred to the actual location on Earth’s surface
with respect to geographical coordinates (in terms of latitudes and
longitudes).
d. Lake Baikal is the big gest lake on Earth and contains about one fifth of
the Earth’s freshwater.
e. Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food and
grow.

2. Fill in the blanks
a. The _______________ cycle is the best example of a systematic
environment.
b. ____________ ______ environment refers to the immediate local
surrounding of the organism.
c. Physical environment comprises of ______________, __________ and
hydrosphere.
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23 e. When nitrogen is absorbed by the soil, d ifferent ______________ help
it to change states so it can be absorbed by plants.
3. Multiple choice question
a. Environmental geography, one of the branches of geography,
i. comes in parts of medical geography and physical geography.
ii. comes in parts of human ge ography and physical geography
iii. comes in parts of human geography and economic geography

b. Relative location can be defined
i. as the location with reference to a reference point.
ii. as the actual location on Earth’s surface with respect to geographical
coord inates
iii. as a particular place or position usually on the outskirts of a town or
city.
c. Abiotic component of ecosystem includes
i. all the physical and chemical factors that influence only soil
ii. all the physical and chemical factors that influence living orga nisms,
like air, water, soil, rocks etc
iii. all political factors that influence living organisms, like air, water,
soil, rocks etc.
d. The autotrophic components include
i. all green plants
ii. non-green plants and all animals
iii. all animals
e. All kinds of animals that are found in an ecosystem are called
i. reducers
ii. producers
iii. consumers

4. Answer the Following Questions
1. Define Environmental Geography and state its nature and scope.
2. What are the different Factors of environment?
3. Write a short note on Man -Environment relationship.
4. Define Biotic factors. Elaborate your answer with suitable examples.
5. What do you understand by the term ‘Ecosystem’? State the
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24 6. Define Bio -geo-chemical cycles. Elaborate your answer with examples.
7. Write sh ort notes on:
a. Hydrological cycle
b. Carbon cycle
c. Forest ecosystem
d. Grassland ecosystem
e. Physiographic factors of environment

1.14 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING
QUESTIONS
1.a. True
1.b. False, Macro
1.c. False, Absolute
1.d. True
1.e. True
2.a. Hydrological
2.b. Micro
2.c. atmosphere, lithosphere
2.d. nitrogen
2.e. bacteria
3.a.ii.
3.b.i.
3.c.ii.
3.d.i.
3.e.iii.
1.15 TECHNICAL WORDS
 Environment : The environment is the sum total of all conditions,
agencies and influences which affect the development, growth, lif e and
death of an organism, species or race.
 Ecosystem -Ecosystem is an organic community of plants and animals
viewed within its physical environment or habitat.
 Biogeochemical cycles - Biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a
chemical substance moves t hrough both biotic and abiotic
compartments of Earth.
 Geosphere -any of the almost spherical concentric regions of the earth
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25  Biosphere -the regions of the surface and atmosphere of the earth or
another planet oc cupied by living organisms
 Pedosphere - It is derived from the Greek word ‘pedon’, meaning "soil"
or "earth" and ‘sphaira’ meaning, "sphere". It is the outermost layer of
the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation
processes.
 Hydrospher e-all the waters on the earth's surface, such as lakes and
seas, and sometimes including water over the earth's surface, such as
clouds
 Atmosphere -the envelope of gases surrounding the earth or another
planet
 Bacterium/Bacteria(plural) -a member of a large group of unicellular
microorganisms which have cell walls but lack organelles and an
organized nucleus, including some which can cause disease.
 Nitrogen fixing -The conversion of nitrogen in the atmosphere (N2) to
a reduced form (e.g., amino groups of amino acids) that can be used as
a nitrogen source by organisms.
 Primary producers - Organisms that produce organic compounds from
atmospheric or aquatic carbon dioxide, principally through the process
of photosynthesis. All life on earth is directly or indirec tly reliant on
primary production.
 Trophic level -A feeding level within a food web.
1.16 TASK
 Put some useful information and support your chart with a map of the
location of the marine ecosystem.
 Put some useful information and support your chart with a map of the
location of the forest ecosystem.
1.17 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Environmental Studies, Bagad Anjali
 Sustainable Urban Environments: An Ecosystem Approach, Beuren,
Allan et. Al.
 The Sage Handbook of Environment and Society, Ward, Hugh eds.
 Environment and Sustainable Development, Sundar, I.

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26 2
ECOSYSTEM
Unit Structures :
2.0 After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Subject discussion
2.4 Ecosystem
2.4.1 Meaning
2.4.2 Components and Function
2.4.3. Ecological Pyramids and Productivity of Ecosystem
2.4.4. Functions of Ecosystem: Food Chain & Web, Energy
Transfer,
2.5 Bio-geo-chemical cycles:
2.5.1 Hydrological cycle
2.5.2 Carbon cycle
2.5.3 Nitrogen cycle
2.6 Types of ecosystem:
2.6.1 Forest
2.6.2 Grassland
2.6.3 Desert
2.6.4 Fresh water
2.6.5 Marine
2.7 Summary
2.8 Check your Progress/Exercise
2.9 Answers to the self learning questions
2.10 Technical words and their meaning
2.11 Task
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27 2.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Understand the concept, definition, of ecosystem.
 Know about different factors of eosystem
 Understand the bigeochemical cycle of ecosystem
 Learn Ecosystem, its meaning, componen ts as well as function
 Study about Bio -geo-chemical cycles like Hydrological, Carbon and
Nitrogen
 Learn types of ecosystem such as Forest, Grassland, Desert, Fresh
water and Marine
2.2 INTRODUCTION
Environment is the source of life on the earth and deter mines the
existence, growth and development of mankind and all its activities. At
present the word Environment is often used almost by everybody around
us. Television and newspapers are focusing different environment related
news regularly. Debate is on as how to protect our environment. Global
summits are held regularly to discuss the environmental issues. In this
Chapter we will study Environmental Geography its definition, nature,
scope and importance. We will also learn about different Natural and
Man-made factors of environment along with the man -environment
relationship. The need and importance of Environmental Geography will
also be studied. In the latter part of this unit Ecosystem, its meaning,
components as well as function will be learnt. After t hat we will study
about Bio -geo-chemical cycles like Hydrological, Carbon and Nitrogen.
Different types of ecosystem such as Forest, Grassland, Desert, Fresh
water and Marine, an interesting part of the same has also been dealt in
this chapter. With the d evelopment of modern technology, there is always
a growing pressure on environment. This dynamic relation between man
and environment has become the primary concern for everyone for the
survival of the future generation.
2.3 SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
Down the age s humans have learnt to exist in a variety of locations on the
earth. The interaction of humans with the environment (surroundings) in
these locations has often brought major changes in that environment.
Some changes were good, some were bad. Many times, t he bad changes
were caused by humans making too much of a change in the environment,
by using or abusing the natural resources. Every location where people
have lived contained a community of plants, animals, insects, and other
natural resources. A communi ty of organisms, other natural resources, and
their influence on each other is called an ecosystem. The plants and munotes.in

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28 animals existing in an ecosystem are those most adapted to that
environment.
A growing human population presents increasing environmental
challenges around the world. The study of Environment and Ecosystem
helps in understanding the dynamics of ecology, environmental science,
and conservation management of natural resources, wildlife and
sustainable ecosystems and landscapes so that applicable solutions can be
sought for.
2.4 ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystems can be of different sizes consisting of a community of
organisms together with their physical environment. They can be marine,
aquatic, or terrestrial. Broad categories of terrestrial ecosystems are c alled
biomes. In ecosystems both matter and energy are conserved. Energy
flows through the system usually from light to heat. But matter is recycled.
Ecosystems with higher biodiversity tend to be more stable with greater
resistance and resilience in the f ace of disturbances, disruptive events. In
an ecosystem each organism plays its own role.
2.4.1 Meaning of Ecosystem:
According to Woodbury, “Ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants
and animals are considered as one interesting unit, the materials and
energy of one passing in and out of the others”. An ecosystem includes all
the living things such as plants, animals and organisms in a given area,
interacting with each other, and also with their non -living environments
like weather, earth, sun, soil and climate. Ecosystems are the foundations
of the biosphere and they determine the health of the entire earth system.
Although a complete self -sufficient ecosystem is rarely found in nature but
all the ecosystems of the earth are very well connected to ea ch another
such as river ecosystem is connected with the ecosystem of ocean.
The term ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935, who defined it
as “the system resulting from the integration of all the living and non -
living factors of the environment”
According to R. L. Lindeman (1942), the term ecosystem applies to “any
system composed of physical -chemical -biological processes within a
space -time unit of magnitude.”
According to Monkhouse and Small, “ecosystem is an organic community
of plants and anima ls viewed within its physical environment or habitat”.
From the above definitions of ecosystem, the following basic properties
emerge:
 Ecosystem of any given spatial - temporal unit represents the sum of all
living organisms and physical environment.
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29  It is an open system characterized by continuous input and output of the
energy.
 It is mainly powered by solar energy.
 It is a functional unit.
 There is a complex interaction between the biotic and abiotic
components.
 Ecosystems are na tural system and well organized.
2.4.2 Components and Function of Ecosystem
2.4.2.1 Components of Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a functional and structural unit of Ecology. This implies
that each ecosystem has a definite structure and components where each
component part of the system has a definite role to play in the functioning
of the ecosystem. Ecosystems have two major components. The living or
biotic components like plants and animals; and the nonliving or abiotic
components like water, air, nutrients and solar energy. These two parts of
the ecosystem continuously interact with one another.
 From the structure point of view all ecosystems consist of the following
basic components:
1. Abiotic components
2. Biotic components
1. Abiotic Components:
Abiotic component o f ecosystem includes all the physical and chemical
factors that influence living organisms, like air, water, soil, rocks etc.
Thus, it is an assemblage of organic and inorganic substances present in an
ecosystem. Basic inorganic elements and compounds are soil, water,
oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates and a variety of organic
compounds such as by -products of organic activities. The physical factors
and ingredients like moisture, wind currents and solar radiation are also
included in abiotic components. The various climatic factors that affect the
ecosystem functioning are also a part of this. Without sunlight, water, air
and minerals, life cannot exist. Hence the non -living components are
essential for the living world.
2. Biotic Components:
The biotic co mponents include all living organisms present in the
environmental system. These can be classified as either producers or
consumers, depending on how they get their food. From nutrition point of
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30 a. Autotrophic components - The autotrophic components include all
green plants which with the help of the radiant energy of sun
manufacture food from inorganic substances.
b. Heterotrophic components -The heterotrophic components include
non-green plants and all animals which take food from autotrophs.
 Thus biotic components of an ecosystem can be classified as under:
I. Producers (Autotrophic components)
II. Consumers
III. Decomposers or reducers and transformers

I. Producers (Autotrophic elements):
Producers can make the organic nutrients they need, using simple
inorganic compounds in their environment: for instance, the green plants
on land and the small algae in aquatic ecosystems produce their food by
the process of photosynthesis. For this the radiant energy of su n is used in
photosynthetic process whereby carbon dioxide is assimilated and the light
energy is converted into chemical energy. Oxygen is evolved as by -
product in the photosynthesis and used in respiration by all living things.
II. Consumers:
Those living m embers of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized
by producers are called consumers. Consumers directly or indirectly
depend on food provided by producers. All kinds of animals that are found
in an ecosystem are called consumers. Depending on their fo od habits
consumers can be further classified into four types such as:
a. Consumers of the first order or primary consumers
b. Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers
c. Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers and Parasites,
scavengers and s aprobes.
d. Decomposers and transformers
a. Primary consumers:
These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on
producers or green plants. In a food chain, herbivores are referred to as the
primary consumers. The herbivores serve as the chief food source for
carnivores. Insects, goat, cow, rabbit, deer, buffalo are some of the
common herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem, and small crustaceans,
molluscs, etc. in the aquatic habitat.

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31 b. Secondary consumers:
These are carnivores and omni vores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals
and they feed on herbivores (primary consumers). Examples of carnivores
are lions, tigers. Whereas the omnivores are the animals that eat both
plants and herbivores, e.g. pigs, rats, cockroaches and humans.
c. Terti ary consumers:
These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores
and herbivores. Lions, tigers, hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary
or top consumers.
Besides different classes of consumers, the parasites, scavengers and
saprobes are also included in the consumers. The parasitic plants and
animals utilize the living tissues of different plants and animals. The
scavengers and saprobes utilize dead remains of animals and plants as
their food.
d. Decomposers and transformers:
Deco mposers digest the complex organic molecules in dead organic
matter (detritus) into simpler inorganic compounds. They absorb the
soluble nutrients as their food. Some examples are bacteria, fungi, and
mites. The decomposers and transformers play very impor tant role in
maintaining the dynamic nature of ecosystems.
The most important part of each ecosystem is that it will have certain
representative organisms playing each of the above mentioned roles.
2.4.2.2 Function of Ecosystem
Functions of Ecosystem
An e cosystem is a functional and life sustaining environmental system.
The technical term 'Ecosystem function' is generally used to define the
biological, geochemical and physical processes and components that take
place or occur within an ecosystem. In other words it relate to the
structural components of an ecosystem (e.g. vegetation, water, soil,
atmosphere and biota) and how they interact with each other, within
ecosystems and across ecosystems. Sometimes, ecosystem functions are
called ecological processes . An ecosystem is a functional and life
sustaining environmental system.
 In an ecosystem there are three functional components.
1. Inorganic constituents
2. Organism
3. Energy input
These three components interact with each other to form an environmental
system. T he primary producers convert inorganic constituents into organic
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32 The herbivores make use of the energy from the producers and they
themselves serve as a food for the carnivores. Anima ls of different types
accumulate organic matter in their body which is taken as food. They are
known as secondary producers. The dead organic matters of plants and
animals are decomposed by bacteria and fungi which break the complex
molecules and liberate inorganic components. These are known as
decomposers. During this process some amount of energy is released in
the form of heat. The ecosystem of different habitats is interrelated with
one another.
Maintaining ecosystem function is important to maintainin g the capacity
of the region to supply ecosystem services. Those areas with high
ecosystem function have the potential to contribute to a wide range of
ecosystem services. But those areas showing few ecosystem functions are
also important as they may provi de important contributions to specific
ecosystem services, or they may be important areas for rehabilitation.
2.4.3. Ecological Pyramids and Productivity of E cosystem
Ecological Pyramid Definition
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of th e relationship
between different organisms in an ecosystem. Each of the bars that make
up the pyramid represents a different trophic level, and their order, which
is based on who eats whom, represents the flow of energy. Energy moves
up the pyramid, starti ng with the primary producers, or autotrophs, such as
plants and algae at the very bottom, followed by the primary consumers,
which feed on these plants, then secondary consumers, which feed on the
primary consumers, and so on. The height of the bars shoul d all be the
same, but the width of each bar is based on the quantity of the aspect being
measured.
Types of Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid of numbers
This shows the number of organisms in each trophic level without any
consideration for their size. This type of pyramid can be convenient, as
counting is often a simple task and can be done over the years to observe
the changes in a particular ecosystem. However, some types of organisms
are difficult to count, especially when it comes to some juvenile forms.
Unit: number of organisms.
Pyramid of biomass
This indicates the total mass of organisms at each trophic level. Usually,
this type of pyramid is largest at the bottom and gets smaller going up, but
exceptions do exist. The biomass of one trophic level is calc ulated by
multiplying the number of individuals in the trophic level by the average
mass of one individual in a particular area. This type of ecological
pyramid solves some problems of the pyramid of numbers, as it shows a
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33 trophic level, but it has its own limitations. For example, the time of year
when the data are gathered is very important, since different species have
different breeding seasons. Also, since it’s usually impossible to measure
the mass of every single organism, only a sample is taken, possibly
leading to inaccuracies. Unit: g m -2 or Kg m -2.
Pyramid of productivity
The pyramid of productivity looks at the total amount of energy present at
each trophic level, as well as t he loss of energy between trophic levels.
Since this type of representation takes into account the fact that the
majority of the energy present at one trophic level will not be available for
the next one, it is more accurate than the other two pyramids. Th is idea is
based on Lindeman’s Ten Percent Law, which states that only about 10%
of the energy in a trophic level will go towards creating biomass. In other
words, only about 10% of the energy will go into making tissue, such as
stems, leaves, muscles, etc . in the next trophic level. The rest is used in
respiration, hunting, and other activities, or is lost to the surroundings as
heat. What’s interesting, however, is that toxins are passed up the pyramid
very efficiently, which means that as we go up the ec ological pyramid, the
amount of harmful chemicals is more and more concentrated in the
organisms’ bodies. This is what we call biomagnification.
The pyramid of productivity is the most widely used type of ecological
pyramid, and, unlike the two other types , can never be largest at the apex
and smallest at the bottom. It’s an important type of ecological pyramid
because it examines the flow of energy in an ecosystem over time. Unit: J
m-2 yr-1, where Joule is the unit for energy, which can be interchanged by
other units of energy such as Kilojoule, Kilocalorie, and calorie.
While a productivity pyramid always takes an upright pyramid shape,
number pyramids are sometimes inverted, or don’t take the shape of an
actual pyramid at all. To demonstrate, let’s take an oak tree, which can
feed millions of oakworms. If we consider this ecosystem as our focus,
then the producers’ level (one tree) will end up much smaller than the
primary consumers’ level (millions of insects). This is less likely to occur
in biomass pyr amids, but is not impossible. The pyramids below show the
different types of pyramids and the shapes they can have in different
ecosystems.

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34 Ecological Pyramid Examples
The diagram below is an example of a productivity pyramid, otherwise
called an energy pyramid. The sun has been included in this diagram, as
it’s the main source of all energy, as well the decomposers, like bacteria
and fungi, which can acquire nutrients and energy from all trophic levels
by breaking down dead or decaying organisms. As shown, the nutrients
then go back into the soil and are take n up by plants.

The loss of energy to the surroundings i s also shown in this diagram, and
the total energy transfer has been calculated. We start off with the total
amount of energy that the primary producers contain, which is indicated
by 100%. As we go up one level, 90% of that energy is used in ways other
than to create flesh. What the primary consumers end up with is just 10%
of the starting energy, and, 10% of that 10% is lost in the transfer to the
next level. That’s 1%, and so on. The predators at the apex, then, will only
receive 0.01% of the starting en ergy! This inefficiency in the system is the
reason why productivity pyramids are always upright.
2.4.5. Function of Ecosystem: Food Chain & Web, Energy Transfer
Food Chains
All living organisms (plants and animals) must eat some type of food for
survival . Plants make their own food through a process called
photosynthesis. Using the energy from the sun, water and carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and nutrients, they chemically make their own food.
Since they make or produce their own food they are called producers.
Organisms which do not create their own food must eat either plants or
animals. They are called consumers. Some animals get their energy from
eating plants while other animals get energy indirectly from plants by
eating other animals that alread y ate the plants. Animals that eat only
plants are called herbivores. Animals that eat both plants and other
animals are called omnivores. Animals that eat only other animals are
called carnivores. Some animals eat only dead or decaying materials and
are c alled decomposers. In the marine food web, special producers are
found. They are tiny microscopic plants called phytoplankton. Since the
water is the home for these special tiny plants; it is also the home for tiny
microscopic animals called zooplankton. A nd of course, zooplankton eat
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35 collectively referred to as plankton. Food chains show the relationships
between producers, consumers, and decomposers, showing who eats
whom with arrows. The arrows s how the movement of energy through the
food chain. For example, in the food chain shown below, the small fish
(silverside) gets its energy by eating the plankton and the large fish
(bluefish) gets its energy by eating the small fish. Finally, the bacteria eats
the fish after it dies, getting its energy from the large fish. The bacteria
also returns nutrients back to the environment for use by the
phytoplankton.

Thus the food chain becomes a complete circle. Animals may eat more
than one type of food. Th ey may eat many different types of plants or
many different animals. This makes everything more complicated and the
food chain becomes a food web.
Food Webs
A food web is made up of interconnected food chains. Most communities
include various populations of producer organisms which are eaten by any
number of consumer populations. The green crab, for example, is a
consumer as well as a decomposer. The crab will eat dead things or living
things if it can catch them. A secondary consumer may also eat any
numb er of primary consumers or producers. This non -linear set of
interactions which shows the complex flow of energy in nature is more
easily visualized in the following diagram. In a food web nutrients are
recycled in the end by decomposers. Animals like shri mp and crabs can
break the materials down to detritus. Then bacteria reduce the detritus to
nutrients. Decomposers work at every level, setting free nutrients that
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36

ENERGY LOSS IN THE FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB
In a food chain, energy is lost in each step of the chain in two forms: first
by the organism producing heat and doing work, and second, by the food
that is not completely digested or absorbed. Therefore, the food web
depends on a constant supply of energ y from producers and nutrients that
are recycled by the decomposition of organisms. As food is passed along
the food chain, only about 10% of the energy is transferred to the next
level. For example, 10% of the energy phytoplankton received from the
sun ca n be used by zooplankton at the next level. From one level to the
next about 90% of the energy used by the previous level is lost. This
means that there has to be a lot more organisms at the lower levels than at
the upper levels. The number of organisms at each level makes a pyramid
shape and is called a food pyramid. To better understand this energy loss,
it is helpful to look at a food pyramid.
Energy Transfer
Energy is transferred between organisms in food webs from producers to
consumers. The energy is used by organisms to carry out complex tasks.
The vast majority of energy that exists in food webs originates from the
sun and is converted (transformed) into chemical energy by the process of
photosynthesis in plants.
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37 2.5 BIO-GEO -CHEMICAL CYCLES
A bioge ochemical cycle is defined as the movement of elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur through
organisms and the environment. It is a pathway by which a chemical
substance moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth.
The term biogeochemical is a contraction that refers to the consideration
of the biological, geological, and chemical aspects of each cycle. ‘Bio’,
the first part of the word 'biogeochemic al', involves biological organisms,
like bacteria, plants, and animals. The next part of the word, ‘geo’,
involves geological processes, like weathering of rocks. The last part of
the word ‘chemical’, indicates chemical processes, such as the formation
of molecules.
In other words biogeochemical cycle is the way in which an element or
compound such as water moves between its various living and nonliving
forms and locations in the biosphere. For example water is always
recycled through the water cycle. The w ater undergoes evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation, falling back to Earth. The other important
cycles are the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, oxygen cycle, phosphorus
cycle, sulphur cycle etc.
2.10.1 Hydrological Cycle
The natural water cycle of th e Earth is known as the hydrologic cycle.
This describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below
the surface of the Earth. Water always changes its states between liquid,
vapour and ice.
The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of wat er from the
surface of the ocean. It gets evaporated due to heat energy provided by
solar radiation and forms water vapour. As water vapour is lifted to higher
altitudes it cools and condenses to form clouds and precipitate in any form
like rain, hail, sno w, sleet. After the water reaches the ground some of the
water evaporates back into the atmosphere or the water penetrates the
surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either seeps its way to into
the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back int o the atmosphere
through transpiration. The water remains on the earth's surface as runoff
and empties into lakes, rivers and streams. This is carried back to the
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38

Fig of Water Cycle
2.10.1 Carbon Cycle
Carbon is present throughout the natural environment in a fixed amount.
Carbon is a part of the ocean, air, and rocks. In the atmosphere, carbon is
attached to some oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide. All living things
are made of carbon. Hence it is an essential element in the bodies of living
organisms.
Carbon takes many forms and moves through the environment via the
carbon cycle. Thus the carbon cycle is the circulation and transformation
of carbon ba ck and forth between living things and the environment. The
carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged
among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere of the Earth.
Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight t o make their own food and grow.
The carbon becomes part of the plant. Plants that die and are buried may
turn into fossil fuels made of carbon like coal and oil over millions of
years. When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon quickly enters
the at mosphere as carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphere.
Without it and other greenhouse gases, Earth would be a frozen world.

2.10.3 Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is essential for the formation of amino acids in prot eins. 78% of
the air in our atmosphere is made of nitrogen. The nitrogen cycle is the
biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformations of nitrogen and
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39 into various chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere,
terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. Even though all animals need nitrogen
to produce proteins necessary for life, animals cannot use the nitrogen in
the “free” form from the atmosphere. They must consume nitrogen by
eating nitrogen compounds. Four processes involved in the Nitrogen Cycle
are stated under:
a. Nitrogen Fixation
b. Digestion
c. Decomposition
d. Waste production
a. Nitrogen Fixation :
The nitrogen cycle shows how the free nitrogen in the air is turned into
nitrog en compounds and put into the soil by “nitrogen fixing bacteria”.
This process is known as Nitrogen Fixation.
Bacteria play the most important part of the cycle. When nitrogen is
absorbed by the soil, different bacteria help it to change states so it can be
absorbed by plants. Animals then get their nitrogen from the plants. For
example, plants that soak up the nitrogen compounds in the soil are called
legumes such as Oats, Peas, Beans and starchy vegetables like Corn.
b. Digestion
Animals eat the legumes to get the nitrogen compounds they need to
produce protein.
c. Decomposition
When animals die, bacteria called decomposers break down the organic
matter (plants, animals) chemically into all the simple elements that they
are made of and these elements re turn back to the environment.
For example: When an animal dies all the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
water, calcium etc. return to the soil and air during decomposition.
d. Waste Production
The bowel movement of an animal is the waste that is loaded with
nitrogen. This nitrogen returns to the soil. Nitrogen is a significant
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40

Fig of Carbon Cycle
2.11 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
There are many types of ecosystems and it is not possible to classify all of
them. There are essentially two kinds of eco systems; Aquatic and
Terrestrial. Any other sub -ecosystem falls under one of these two
headings.
2.11.1 Forest Ecosystem
Large group of trees shrubs, the leaf mulch on the floor and the plants that
live in tandem with the trees belong to the forest ecosys tem. It also
includes the animals that live in the forest. For example, birds nest in the
trees of a forest, members of the fungus kingdom grow on the forest floor,
and a variety of insects and mammals also take up their homes in a forest.
Thus a forest e cosystem is a community of organisms that lives within a
forest. Forest ecosystems are very important as they are the lungs of the
world. The forests release oxygen. Forest ecosystems are very rich and
diverse.
There are various types of forest ecosystem throughout the world. Types
of forest ecosystem are as follows:
i. Rainforests :
Rainforests is one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet.
Rainforests are often based around rivers. Amazon is an important
example. The north -eastern part of India is rich in rainforests.
ii. Mangroves :
Mangroves are a unique mix of trees and tidal swamps.
iii. Inland forests :
Innumerable mainland animals and birds like foxes and owls are found in
Inland forests which may be vast and ancient, or smaller like copses.
iv. The Tai ga:
The taiga is the name for the sparse forest right towards the polar regions
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41 v. Lakeside forests:
Lakeside forest ecosystems are very humid. Water birds and other water
wildlife can be found here.
vi. Mountain forests:
The forests that grow o n mountains like mountain pines create Mountain
forests ecosystems like the Himalayan mountain forests in India.
 Characteristics of forest ecosystem are discussed below.
a. Seasonality : In countries that have seasonal climates, forest ecosystems
will change with the seasons.
b. Deciduous or evergreen : A forest may be deciduous or evergreen, or it
may be a mix of both deciduous and evergreen trees.
c. Different levels : Some forest ecosystems feature several distinct levels
– such as the forest floor, the lower canop y, the upper canopy and the
tree tops, such as rain forests.
d. Attractive to birds and insects : as they make their homes in forests.
e. Homes for humans .
f. Protect the Earth from desertification by providing a shield against
winds.
2.11.2 Grassland ecosystems
The grassland ecosystems are composed largely of wide swathes of grass
rather than trees or shrubs. A grassland ecosystem is a community of
creatures such as various types of grasses, insects, and animals, etc. living
together within a grassy space. Grasslan d ecosystems are extremely bio -
diverse and are home to thriving communities of plants, animals, insects
and mammals. Grassland ecosystems are present in every single continent
on this planet with the sole exception of Antarctica, which is too cold to
susta in a grassland ecosystem.
 Grassland ecosystems can be found throughout the world, for example:
a. In the tropics near to the equator.
b. In the temperate zones of the earth, between the equator and the polar
Regions.
Grassland ecosystems are found in many shapes and sizes. However,
climate change, intensive farming and urban sprawl are all threatening our
beautiful grassland ecosystems.
2.11.3 Desert ecosystem
A desert is a place that is difficult to inhabit. A desert ecosystem is a
community of organisms that live together in an environment that seems
to be deserted wasteland. Desert ecosystems can be hot as found in the
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42 deserts it is difficult for organisms to inhabit. A desert ecosystem
generally witnesses little rainfall, resulting in less vegetation.
 In a desert ecosystem following things may be observed.
i. Numerous insects living in communities.
ii. An abundance of plant life.
iii. Mammals and birds.
iv. Micro organisms such as bacteria are also pre sent in this ecosystem.
 There are so many different types of desert ecosystems. Types of desert
ecosystems are stated under.
1. Hot deserts:
Hot deserts, for example Sahara, are found close to the equator. The plants
and animals that live here have evolved in order to adapt to very hot
conditions present over there.
2. Cold deserts:
When desertification exists at high altitudes the desert will be cold. A cold
desert may be sandy or rocky. Here organisms have adapted the harsh
environment to survive.
3. Ice d eserts:
Ice deserts are another type of cold desert. This is an uninhabited region
that is composed of ice. Ice deserts can be found towards the north and
south poles of the planet.
2.11.4. Freshwater Ecosystems
Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth' s aquatic ecosystems. They
include lakes and ponds, rivers, streams, springs, and wetlands .
 Freshwater ecosystems include:
a. sluggish waters of lakes and ponds
b. moving waters of rivers and streams
c. Wetlands which are the areas of land periodically covered by w ater.

a. Ponds and Lakes Ecosystems – Lakes are large bodies of freshwater
surrounded by land, while ponds are smaller bodies of water surrounded
by land. Lake Baikal is the biggest lake on Earth and contains about one
fifth of the Earth’s freshwater. Mos t of the time they include various types
of plants, amphibians and insects and fishes.
b. River Ecosystems – Rivers always link to the sea so they are more
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43 These sorts of ecosystems can also include birds because birds often hunt
in and around water for small fish or insects.
 There are 3 main groups of organisms in the freshwater ecosystem:
i. Plankton - organisms that float near the surface of the water
ii. Nekton – free-swimming organisms
iii. Benthos – bottom -dwelling organisms
Freshwater ecosystems are the smallest of the three major classes of
ecosystems, accounting for just 2.8% of the total of the Earth’s surface.
The smallest living part of the food web of these sorts of ecosystems is
plankton, a small organism that is often eaten by fish and other small
creatures.
2.11.5 Marine Ecosystem
Earth’s largest aquatic ecosystems are the Marine ecosystems. Salt
marshes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs, the
deep sea , and the sea floor are included in the Marine ecosystems. They
can be contrasted with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt
content. Marine waters cover two -thirds of the surface of the Earth and it
is the complex of living organisms in the ocean environment. Moreover
such places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the
animal life and vice versa. Marine organisms are not distributed evenly
throughout the oceans. The availability of light, water depth, proximity to
land, and t opographic complexity all affect marine habitats.
2.12 SUMMARY
Environment is the source of life on the earth and determines the
existence, growth and development of mankind and all its activities. The
interaction of humans with the environment (surroundi ngs) in these
locations has often brought major changes in that environment. Some
changes were good, some were bad. The environment is a complex of
many variables which surrounds man as well as all living organisms. The
environment is complex, dynamic and systematic in nature. The biotic
components and abiotic components together make up the environments.
There exists man made environment that is helping man to lead a smooth
life.
Environmental geography is broadly experiential so students have more of
a diverse learning experience. It will also help the students to understand
human behaviour and the extent to which this behaviour differs in regards
to the environment. Thus they will develop cultural awareness. No matter
how modern and manufactured world we live in mankind will forever rely
on the environment.
The term ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935, who defined it
as “the system resulting from the integration of all the living and non -
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44 cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources. There are
different trophic levels that exist in an ecosystem. The ecosystem of
different habitats is interrelated with one another. Important differences
among the various components that make up an ecosystem like of Forest,
Grassland, Desert, Fresh water and Marine tells us that ecosystems are not
just habitats for animals. Many human communities live in there all over
the world.
2.13 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. The s cope of environment lies in the components of environment.
b. Micro environment refers to all the physical and biotic conditions that
surround the organism externally.
c. Relative location is referred to the actual location on Earth’s surface
with respect to geo graphical coordinates (in terms of latitudes and
longitudes).
d. Lake Baikal is the biggest lake on Earth and contains about one fifth of
the Earth’s freshwater.
e. Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food and
grow.

2. Fill in the blanks
a. The _______________ cycle is the best example of a systematic
environment.
b. __________________ environment refers to the immediate local
surrounding of the organism.
c. Physical environment comprises of ______________, __________ and
hydrosphere.
d. 78% of the air in our atmosphere is made of_____________.
e. When nitrogen is absorbed by the soil, different ______________ help
it to change states so it can be absorbed by plants.
3. Multiple choice question
a. Environmental geography, one of the branches of geography,
i. comes in parts of medical geography and physical geography.
ii. comes in parts of human geography and physical geography
iii. comes in parts of human geography and economic geography


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45 b. Relative location can be defined
i. as the location with reference to a referenc e point.
ii. as the actual location on Earth’s surface with respect to geographical
coordinates
iii. as a particular place or position usually on the outskirts of a town or
city.
c. Abiotic component of ecosystem includes
i. all the physical and chemical factors tha t influence only soil
ii. all the physical and chemical factors that influence living organisms,
like air, water, soil, rocks etc
iii. all political factors that influence living organisms, like air, water,
soil, rocks etc.
d. The autotrophic components include
i. all green plants
ii. non-green plants and all animals
iii. all animals
iv.
e. All kinds of animals that are found in an ecosystem are called
i. reducers
ii. producers
iii. consumers
4. Answer the Following Questions
1. Define Environmental Geography and state its nature and scope.
2. What are the different Factors of environment?
3. Write a short note on Man -Environment relationship.
4. Define Biotic factors. Elaborate your answer with suitable examples.
5. What do you understand by the term ‘Ecosystem’? State the
Components and Function of ec osystem.
6. Define Bio -geo-chemical cycles. Elaborate your answer with examples.
7. Write short notes on:
a. Hydrological cycle
b. Carbon cycle
c. Forest ecosystem
d. Grassland ecosystem
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46 2.14 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING
QUESTIONS
2.a. True
2.b. False, Macro
2.c. False, Absolute
2.d. True
2.e. True
2.a. Hydrological
2.b. Micro
2.c. atmosphere, lithosphere
2.d. nitrogen
2.e. bacteria
3.a.ii.
3.b.i.
3.c.ii.
3.d.i.
3.e.iii.
2.15 TECHNICAL WORDS
 Environment : The environment is the sum total of all conditions,
agencies and influences which affect the development, growth, life and
death of an organism, species or race.
 Ecosystem -Ecosystem is an organic community of plants and animals
viewed within its physical environment or habitat.
 Biogeoche mical cycles - Biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a
chemical substance moves through both biotic and abiotic
compartments of Earth.
 Geosphere -any of the almost spherical concentric regions of the earth
and its atmosphere, especially the lithosphere
 Biosphere -the regions of the surface and atmosphere of the earth or
another planet occupied by living organisms
 Pedosphere - It is derived from the Greek word ‘pedon’, meaning "soil"
or "earth" and ‘sphaira’ meaning, "sphere". It is the outermost layer of
the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation
processes.
 Hydrosphere -all the waters on the earth's surface, such as lakes and
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47  Atmosphere -the envelope of gases su rrounding the earth or another
planet
 Bacterium/Bacteria(plural) -a member of a large group of unicellular
microorganisms which have cell walls but lack organelles and an
organized nucleus, including some which can cause disease.
 Nitrogen fixing -The convers ion of nitrogen in the atmosphere (N2) to
a reduced form (e.g., amino groups of amino acids) that can be used as
a nitrogen source by organisms.
 Primary producers - Organisms that produce organic compounds from
atmospheric or aquatic carbon dioxide, princi pally through the process
of photosynthesis. All life on earth is directly or indirectly reliant on
primary production.
 Trophic level -A feeding level within a food web.
2.16 TASK
 Put some useful information and support your chart with a map of the
locati on of the marine ecosystem.
 Put some useful information and support your chart with a map of the
location of the forest ecosystem.
2.17 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Environmental Studies, Bagad Anjali
 Sustainable Urban Environments: An Ecosystem Approach, Beuren,
Allan et. Al.
 The Sage Handbook of Environment and Society, Ward, Hugh eds.
 Environment and Sustainable Development, Sundar, I.

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48 3

BIO-DIVERSITY
Unit Structure :
3.0 After going through this chapter you will be able to
understand the following features :
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Subject discussion
3.4 Bio-diversity
3.4.1 Concept
3.4.2 Types
3.4.3 Hotspots of Bio-diversity
3.4.4 Biodiversity in India with emphasis on Western Ghat
3.4.5. Threat to Biodiversity: Caus es
3.4.6. Conservation of Biodiversity and Management of Biological
Reserves
3.5 Summary
3.6 Check your Progress/Exercise
3.7 Answers to the self learning questions
3.8 Technical words and their meaning
3.9 Task
3.10 References for further study
3.1 OBJECTIVE
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Understand Bio-diversity its Concept and Types
 Learn Hotspots of Bio-diversity and Biodiversity in India with
emphasis on Western Ghat
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49 3.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter we have learnt the definition of Environmental
Geography along with its Nature and Scope.
Factors of environment and the relationship between Man - Environment
have also been learnt. We have discussed Ecosystem its meaning,
components and function. Various types of Bio -geo- chemical cycle s and
ecosystem were also studied in the previous chapter. In this chapter we
will study the concept of resources at first followed by the classification
of resources and Environmental problems associated with Forest. Next we
will learn conservation and su stainable use of resources like water,
minerals. In the latter part of this second unit bio -diversity , its concept and
types along with hotspots of bio -diversity and biodiversity in India with
emphasis on Western Ghat will be studied.
3.3 SUBJECT DISCUSSIO N
The well -being of our society depends on the resources provided by the
earth. Typically, resources are materials, energy, services, staff,
knowledge, or other assets that are transformed to produce benefit or
satisfaction of human beings. This is a neutr al stuff until some technical
skills are found to extract it from nature. Therefore in order to becom e a
resource, the thing or substance must possess two properties i.e.
functionality and utility. The exploitation of nature and natural
resources can be da ted back to the advent of mankind and the very start
of civilization. But the present increase in population along with
industrial growth has given rise to the unlimited use of resources. Thus
disrupting ecosystems and exhausting resources.
Due to deforest ation the world loses more than 23 million acres of
forest area every year. Thus we should try utmost to reverse
deforestation and protect the world’s remaining forests intact. The
plants and animals in the bits of forest that remain become increasingly
vulnerable, sometimes even committed, to extinction. Water
resources are playing considerable roles in the socio -economic
development of any region. Water issues affect us all as it is estimated
that below 900 million people lack reliable access of safe wate r
worldwide. A thriving ecosystem depends on water immensely.
Release of mining wastes can also affec t habitats. Therefore we
should take a conscious effort for the conservation and sustainable use
of resources. From a human perspective proper utilization of natural
resources will lead to the increase of wealth and meet our needs. From
a broader biologica l or ecological perspective, a resource satisfies the
needs of a living organism.

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50 3.4 BIO DIVERSITY
Concept of biodiversity :
Our ecosystems provide us with food, medicine, clean air and water,
recreation, and spiritual and aesthetical inspiration. Hence t he human
species cannot exist without its surrounding ecosystems. Biodiversity is
the sum of all the different species of animals, plants, fungi and microb ial
organisms living on Earth and the variety of habitats in which they live.
3.4.1 Concept
Biodiver sity is the contracted form of biological diversity that means the
variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems. This also includes the
ecological complexes of which they are a part as well as diversity within
species, between species and of ecosystems. Scientists estimate that more
than 10 million different species inhabit Earth.
Biodiversity being a broad term may be measured at a number of
organizational levels. Traditionally, ecologists have measured biodiversity
by taking into account both the number of species and the number of
individuals of each species. This is known as re lative abundance. On the
other hand, biologists use different measures of biodiversity that includes
genetic diversity to preserve the biologically and technologically
important elements of biodiversity.
Biodiversity loss refers to the reduction of biodive rsity due to
displacement or extinction of species. The loss of a particular individual
species, especially if it is not a charismatic species like the Bengal tiger,
may appear as unimportant to some people. However, the current
accelerated extinction rate means the loss of tens of thousands of species
within our lifetimes.
Scientists have discovered and named only 1.75 million species which is
actually less than 20 percent of those estimated to exist. This estimation
states that the greatest value of biodi versity is yet to be known. Most
biologists agree that much of Earth’s great biodiversity such as spe cies of
plants, animals, fungi and microscopic organisms such as bacteria is
rapidly disappearing. So scientists are putting stress on their researches
and studying global biodiversity aiming at better understanding and
slow the rate of loss.
Benefits of biodiversity
The following are some of the benefits of biodiversity:
 Provisioning services such as food, clean water, timber, fibre and
genetic resources
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51  Cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic and spiritual benefits
 Supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling
3.4.2 Types of biodiversity
 Biodive rsity includes three main types:
i. diversity within species or genetic diversity
ii. between species or species diversity and
iii. between ecosystems or ecosystem diversity
Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity means the total number of genetic characteristics in the
genetic makeup of a species. Every species on Earth is related to every
other species through genetic connections. Each individual species
possesses genes which are the source of its own unique features.
Therefore the more closely related any two species ar e, the more genetic
information they will share, and the more similar they will appear. For
example i n human beings the huge variety of people's faces reflects each
person's genetic individuality. While all species have descended from a
single, common ance stor, species diverge and develop their own peculiar
attributes with time, thus making their own cont ribution to biodiversity.
 The two reasons for differences between individual organisms are:
a. the variation in the gene which all organisms possess and is pa ssed
from one to its offspring’s
b. the influence of environment on each individual organism.
Species Diversity
The diversity of creatures roaming in our Earth is absolutely astonishing.
Species diversity is defined as the number of species and abundance of
each species living within a particular habitat or a region. Species are the
basic units of biological classification. Hence are the normal measures of
biological diversity. The number of different species in a given area is
called species richness. So when we measure the species richness of a
forest, we will find 20 bird species, 50 plant species, and 10 mammal
species. Species endemism is another term that is used to measure
biodiversity by way of assessing the magnitude of differences between
species.
Abundance is the number of individuals of each species. Species diversity
may be of small scale such as a forest or of a large scale such as the total
diversity of species living on Earth
Ecological Diversity
Ecological diversity refers to the number of speci es in a community of
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52 in the ecosystems found in a region or the variation in ecosystems over
the whole planet. An ecosystem consists of organisms from many
different species living toget her in
a region and their connections through the flow of energy, nutrients and
matter. Those connect ions occur as the organisms of different species
interact with one another. Measuring ecological diversity is difficult
because each of Earth’s ecosystems merges into the ecosystems around it.
3.4.3 Hotspots of Bio-diversity
There are places on Earth that are biologically rich but deeply
threatened, so we must take some effort to protect them. Hotspots of bio -
diversity are large regions that contain excepti onal concentrations of plant
endemism and experience high rates of habitat loss. By the method
Biodiv ersity hotspots those regions of the world are identified where
attention is needed to address biodiversity loss. It also guides investments
in conservatio n. The idea was first developed by Norman Myers in 1988
to identify tropical forest ‘hotspots’ charac terized both by exceptional
levels of plant endemism and serious habitat loss. To trunk this crisis, we
must protect those places where biodiversity lives. It is observed that
species are unevenly distributed around the planet. Certain areas have
large num bers of endemic species which are not found anywhere else.
Many of these are heavily threatened by habitat loss and other human
activities. These areas are the biodiversity hotspots. Currently, 35
biodiversity hotspots have been identified. Most of them oc cur in tropical
forests and represent just 3.3% of Earth's land surface. Among them they
contain around 50% of the world's endemic plant species and 42% of all
terrestrial vertebrates.
3.4.4 Biodiversity in India with emphasis on Western Ghat
India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity centres of the world.
The country is divided into 10 biogeographic regions such as:
1. Trans Himalayas
2. Himalayan
3. Indian desert
4. Semi-arid zone
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan peninsula
7. Gangetic plains
8. North -East India
9. islands
10. coasts
The hill c hain of the Western Ghats constitutes the Malabar province. It
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53 Ghats represents 4% of India’s land region that experiences high torrential
rainfall as well as monsoon and tropical cli mate and high variation in wind
speed. All these features have marked this region as one of the ten bio -
geographic zones in India.
The Western Ghats is con sidered to be one among the hotspots in the
world. This bioregion is highly species rich. But it is c onstantly facing
severe threats because nearly 40% of the total number of species is
endemic. In a in a 17,000 sq. km strip of forest along the seaward sid e of
the Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala there are 15,000 plant s pecies with 5,000 endemics (33%),
4,050 plants with 1,600 endemics (40%) .
The rain forests of the Western Ghats exist in an environment where
there is con siderable seasonality in distribution of the rainfall. The high
altitudinal zone also gives rise to a kind of forest which has primarily
Lauraceous vegetation. Moreover the parent rocks in these areas have
given rise to soils which are rich in nutrients an d have a very high
moisture holding capacity. All these elements have given rise to the
tropical rain forests of the Western Ghats which has diversity in vegetation
types.
Vegetation types such as Wet evergreen, Dry evergreen, Moist deciduous
and Dry decid uous are classified based on mean annual rainfall. Forest
tracts up to 500 m in elevation are mostly evergreen. This comprises one
fifth of the entire forest expanse of the Western Ghats. The forest regions
in the 500 -1500 m range are semi -evergreen. Where as, low, medium and
high elevation wet evergreen forest types are distinguished by low
minimum temper ature with increasing altitude. Among these there are two
major centres of diversity, the Agasthyamalai Hills and the Silent Valley
or New Amarambalam Rese rve basin.
Flora and Fauna of the Western Ghats
The area has an estimated 3,00,000 hectare (37%) unde r forest cover and
is characterised by a rich diversity of flora and fauna.
 Flowering plants : 7402 species of flowering plants are known
from the Western Ghats. Recent studies have suggested that there
could be 2300 species of flowering plants endemic to t he Western
Ghats.
 Amphibians : Over 117 species belonging to 21 genera are recorded in
the forests and coastal areas of this region, of which 76% are endemi c
to the region.
 Invertebrates : A large variety of insects including some of the
spectacular butterfl ies and moths occur in the dense evergreen highland
and lowland forests. It is estimated that India has over 1,400 species of
which the Western Ghats harbo ur nearly 320 species including 37
endemics and 23 others shared with Sri Lanka. The area is host to a
large variety of fresh water mollusca, some of which are specific to the
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54  Fish: There is a wide variety of fish available from fresh water
montane , lowland river streams and water bodies as well as coastal
lagoons and backwaters. Around 218 specie s of primary and
secondary freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats are found. About
53% of all fish species (116 species in 51 genera) in the Western Ghats
are endemic. Sixteen out of 20species of Caecilians known in India
occur in the Western Ghats; all 16 being endemic.
 Reptiles : 157 species of reptiles are found in the Western Ghats.
Majority of the reptile species are snakes. Dense forests of the region
are the home of the King Cobra and Rock Python apart from other
smaller reptiles. In all 97 species, representing 36 genera (2 genera
of turtle/tortoise, 20 snakes, 14 lizards) are endemic. Among the
tortoises the endemic cane turtle, and terrapin are found in the Western
Ghats. The marsh crocodile or mugger was once widely distributed in
swamps and larger water bodies of the forested areas.
 Birds : About 508 species of birds occur in the Western Ghats (590 if
sub-species are included). Among them 144 are aqu atic or coastal
birds. Nineteen species are considered to be endemic to the Western
Ghats. Many endem ic birds are exclusive to evergreen and Shola
forests.
 Mammals : 120 species of mammals are reported from the Western
Ghats of which, 14 are considered to b e endemic to the Western Ghats.
The forests of the area have large herbivores such as gaur, spotted d eer,
sambar, barking deer, elephant, etc. Carnivores are represented by
tiger, leopard, jungle cat, leopard cat, fishing cat, Malabar civet,
brown palm civ et, small Indian civet, two species of mongoose and
wild dog.
With rapid developmental activities, a gricultural expansion and
uncontrolled human population explosion, there have been significant
declining trend in the diversity of both flora and fauna in the Western
Ghats. As per recent records, 496 plant species, 91 amphibians, 41
mammals, 22 birds, 8 f ishes, 6 reptiles 300 and 3 insect species are
considered as threatened, as per IUCN Red Data List, in the Western
Ghats. Further, 51 species are criticall y endangered, 125 are
endangered and 127 are in vulnerable category.
3.4.5 Threat to Biodiversity - Causes
Some of the main threats to biodiversity are:
1. Human Activities and Loss of Habitat,
3. Deforestation,
3. Desertification,
4. Ma rine Environment,
5. Increasing Wildlife Trade and
6. Climate Change.
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55 1. Human Activities and Loss of Habitat:
Hum an activities are causing a loss of biological diversity among
animals and plants globally estimated at 50 to 100 times the average
rate of s pecies loss in the absence of human activities. Two most
popular species in rich biomes are tropical forests and co ral reefs.
Tropical forests are under threat largely from conversion to other land -
uses, while coral reefs are experiencing increasing level s of over
exploitation and pollution. If current rate of loss of tropical forests
continues for the next 30 years ( about 1 percent per year), the projected
number of species that the remaining forests could support would be
reduced by 5 to 10 percent relat ive to the forest in the absence of
human disturbance.
The rate of decline would represent 1000 to 10,000 times the expected
rate of extinction without deforestation by humans. Some studies
suggest that, globally, as many as one half of all mammal and bird
species may become extinct within 200 to 300 years.
Biodiversity loss can result from a number of activities, including:
(a) Habitat conversion and destruction;
(b) Over -exploitation of species;
(c) Disconnected patches of original vegetation; and
(d) Air and water pollution.
Over the coming decades, human -inducted climate change increasingly
become another major factor in reducing biological/biodiversity. These
pressures on biodiversity are, to a large extent, driven by economic
development and related demands including the increasing demand for
biological resources.
Activities that reduce biod iversity, jeopardize economic development
and human health through losses of useful materials, genetic stocks,
and the services of intact ecosystems. Material losses include food,
wood, and medicines, as well as resources important for recreation and
touri sm. Losing genetic d iversity, like losing species diversity, makes it
even more likely that further environmental disturbance will result in
serious reductions in goods and services that ecosystems can provide.
3. Deforestation:
Forest ecosystems contain as much as 80 percent of the world’s
terrestrial biodiversity and provide wood fiber and biomass energy as
well as critical com ponents of the global cycles of water, energy and
nutrient. Forest ecosystems are being cleared and degraded in many
parts of the world.
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56 3. Desertific ation:
Desertification and deforestation are the main causes of biodiversity
loss. Both processes are decisively influenced by the extension of
agriculture. The direct cost of deforestation is reflected in the loss of
valuable plants and animal species. De sertification process is the result
of p oor land management which can be aggravated by climatic
variations. Converting wild lands to agriculture often involves
ploughing the soils which leads in temperate regions to an average
decline in soil organic matte r between 25 and 40 per cent over twenty
five years.
4. Marine Environment:
Oceans play a vital role in the global environment. Covering 70 per
cent of the earth’s surface, they influence global climate, food
production and economic activities. Despite these roles, coastal and
marine environment are being rapidly degraded in many parts of the
globe.
5. Increasing Wildlife Trade:
According to Nick Barnes, “Trade is another cause of biodiversity
depletion that gives rise to conflict between North and South.” Global
trade in wildlife is estimated to be over US $ 20 billion annually.
Global trade includes at least 40,000 primates, ivo ry from at least
90,000 African elephants, 1 million orchids, 4 million live birds, 10
million reptile skins, 15 million furs and over 350 million tropical fish.
6. Climate Change:
As climate warms, species will migrate towards higher latitudes and
altitu des in both hemisphere. The increase in the amount of CO2 in the
air affects the physiological functioning of plant and species
composition. Moreover, aquatic ecosystems, particularly coral reefs,
mangrove swamps, and coastal wetlands, are vulnerable to ch anges in
climate.
In principle, coral reefs, the most biologically diverse marine systems,
are potentially vulnerable to changes i n both sea level and ocean
temperature. While most coral systems should be able to grow at a
sufficient pace to survive a 15 to 95 centimeter sea -level rise over the
next century, a sustained increase of several degrees centigrade would
threaten the long -term viability of many of these systems.
3.4.6 Biodiversity - Conservation
Definition of Biodiversity Conservation
“Protection, restoration, and management of biodiversity in order to
derive sustainable be nefits for present and future generations.”. Or, it
can also be defined as, “the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems in
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57 Conservation of Biodiversity
Biodiversity conservation refers to the protection, preservation, and
management of ecosystems and natural habitats and ensuring that t hey are
healthy and functional.
 The three main objectives of Biodiversity Conservation are as follows -
 To protect and preserve species diversity.
 To ensure sustainable management of the species and ecosystems.
 Prevention and restoration of ecological pro cesses and life support
systems.
Biodiversity Conservation Methods
Two types of methods are employed to conserve biodiversity. They are -
In situ conservation and
Ex-situ conservation.
Following are some of the ways through which Biodiversity can be
conse rved:
 In-situ Conservation
 Ex-situ Conservation
In Situ Conserv ation
In Situ Conservation refers to the preservation and protection of the
species in their natural habitat. It means the conservation of genetic
resources in natural populations of plant or a nimal species. In situ
conservation involves the management of biodiversity in the same area
where it is found.
 In situ, biodiversity conservation has many advantages
 It preserves species as well as their natural habitat.
 It ensures protection to a large n umber of populations.
 It is economic and a convenient meth od of conservation
 It doesn’t require species to adjust to a new habitat.
Different methods of In -situ conservation include biosphere reserves,
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biodiversity hot spots, gene sanctuary,
and sacred groves.
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58  In-situ conservation possesses numerous advantages. Some of the
important advant ages of in -situ conservation are as follow s:
 It is a cost -effective and convenient way of biodiversity
conservation.
 Various living organisms can be conserved at the same time.
 They can evolve better and can easily get adapted to various
environmental cond itions.
 In-situ conservation occurs in places like national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.
Biosphere Reserves
These are national governments nominated sites, large areas (often up to
5000 square km) of an ecosystem where the tradition al lifestyle and
natural habitat of the inhabitants of that ecosystem are protected. They are
mostly open to tourists and researchers.
Example - Sundarban, Nanda Devi, Nokrek, and Manas in India.
National Parks
These are limited reserves maintained by the g overnment for the
conservation of wildlife as well as the environment. Human activities are
prohibited in national parks and they are solely dedicated to the protection
of natural fauna of the area. They mostly occupy an area of 100 -500
square km. There ar e a total of 104 national parks in India, right now. The
national parks may even be within a biosphere reserve. These are small
reserves that are protected and maintained by the government. Its
boundaries are well protected, where human activities such as grazing,
forestry, habitat, and cultivation are restricted.
Example - Kanha National Park, Gir National Park, Kaziranga National
Park, and so on.
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Wildlife Sanctuaries are protected areas meant only for the conservation of
wild animals. A few human activities such as cultivation, wood collection,
and other forest product collection are allowed here, but they must not
interfere with the conservation o f the animals. Tourist visits are also
allowed in these areas. There are a total of 551 w ildlife sanctuaries in
India. These are the places where only wild animals can be found. Certain
human activities like timber harvesting, cultivation, collection of wo ods,
and other forest products are permitted unless they interfere with the
conservation project. Recreation tourism is also permitted.

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59 Example - Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary, Mudumalai
Wildlife Sanctuary, etc.
Biodiversity Hotspots
A biodiversity hotspot are the areas of conservation where there is strictly
a minimum of 15 00 species of vascular plants and a habitat that has lost its
70% cover. These are protected areas for various purposes where the
wildlife, inhabitant lifestyle, and domesticated plants and animals are
conserved. Tourist and research activities are allowed .
Example - The Himalayas, The Western Ghats, The North East, and The
Nicobar Islands.
Gene Sanctuary
Gene sanctuary is a conservation area reserved only for plan ts. India has
its only gene sanctuary set up in Garo Hills of Meghalaya for the
conservation of wild species of Citrus. Plans to open more such
sanctuaries are underway.
Sacred Groves
Sacred Groves are conserved areas for wildlife protected by communiti es
due to religious beliefs. It is mostly a part of the forest where its wildlife is
given comple te protection.
Ex Situ Conservation
Ex Situ Conservation means conservation of life outside their natural
habitat or place of occurrence. It is the method in which part of the
population or the entire endangered species is taken from its natural
habitat wh ich is threatened and breeding and maintaining of these species
take place in artificial ecosystems. These artificial ecosystems could be
zoos, nurseries, bo tanical gardens, etc. The living environments are altered
in these conservation sites, so there are fewer survival struggles like
scarcity of food, water, or space. Ex -situ conservation of biodiversity
consists of breeding and maintenance of endangered spe cies using
artificial environments like zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks,
etc. The co mpetition for food, water, and space among the organisms is
low.
Advantages of Ex Situ Conservation Include
Essential life -sustaining conditions like climate, food availability,
veterinary care can be altered and are under human control.
Artificial breedin g methods can be introduced leading to successful
breeding and creating many more offspring of the species.
The species can be protected from poaching and population management
can be efficiently done.
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60 Gene techniques can be applied to increase the popula tion of the species
and they can again be reintroduced into the wild.
Biodiversity Conservation Strategi es
Conservation of Ecosystems - The intent of the conservation of
biodiversity is to provide long term viability to the ecosystems. It is to
make sure th at ecological integrity is intact. The landscapes of the region
which have undergone historical or evolu tionary deterioration can be
reinstated. The threats can be removed and the ecosystems should be able
to continue with ecological processes.
Reverse th e decline of species - According to this strategy, the aim of
conservation is to restore the population of declined species in a particular
ecosystem.
Conservation of all biological aspects - This strategy aims at giving cover
and conserving food, livestock , microbial population, agricultural stock
including plants and animals.
Efficient utilization of nat ural resources.
Strict laws on deforestation and preventions of deforestation by every
means.
Poaching and killing animals in the wild should be prevented.
Creating public awareness about conservation of biodiversity and its
importance.
Longer time an d breeding activity of the animals are provided.
The breeding of species in captivity is reintroduced in the wild.
Genetic techniques are used to preserve enda ngered species.
3.5 SUMMARY
We use a variety of materials derived from the environment. Nature has
given us abundant resources in form of water, air, soil, wild animals,
metals, fossils, fuels etc. and m an by his technical skill and knowledge
using resour ce from the dawn of civilization. Resource is the ability to
perform the work of satisfying the needs or wants of human being.
Resource can be classified on the basis of their nature, durability,
ownershi p and distribution pattern. All the resources are de rived from the
environment. Many natural resources are essential for human survival,
while others are used for satisfying human desire. Conservation is the
protection, improvement, and wise use of natural resource to provide the
greatest social and economi c value for the present and the future.
“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs”. On Sept ember 25th 2015, countries adopted a set of
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61 part of a new sustainable development agenda. Each goal has specific
targets to be achieved over the next 15 years. For the goals to be
reached, everyone needs to do their part: governments , the private sector,
civil society and people.
3.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. In order to become a resource, the thing or substance must possess
two properties: functionality and utilit y.
b. Resources form the backbone of the economy of a nation.
c. Ancient man knew the use of resources is related to the
development of science and technology.
d. Abiotic Resources are composed of non -living things, e.g., rocks and
metals.
e. When an area is deforeste d, no animals or insects lose their
habitats.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. Mining contaminates forest ecosystems with _________ and
_____________.
b. Wild fires results from ___________ weather.
c. ____________ resources are found everywhere, e.g., sunshine, air
water, e tc.
d. Rainwater can be collected from __________ or __ _________.
e. Water systems in the sphere of ______________ development not only
include the use of water, but also the systems where the use of water
has traditionally been required.
3. Multiple choice questi on
a. Zimmerman defines resources as,
i. “features of the environment which is considered to be capable
of serving man's needs."
ii. "natural resources may be defined as those resources which are
provided by nature and which are useful to man."
iii. "anything that can be used to satisfy a need or desire."
b. Selective loggin g is the practice of
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62 ii. removing certain trees for tourism purpose.
iii. removing certain trees while preserving the balance of the
woodland.
c. Commercial felling of trees is one of the main reasons of
i. afforestation
ii. forest fire
iii. deforestation
d. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water
i. as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.
ii. as a coolant by mines and industrial manufacturers.
iii. as a coolant by plantation.
e. Water efficiency means thinking about
i. the way we use mineral.
ii. the way we use water.
iii. the way we use forest.
4. Answer the Following Questions
1. Define Resource. State the classification of resources.
2. What are the different environmental problems associ ated with forest?
3. State different methods associated with the conservation of forest.
4. What do you understand by the term‘Sustainable use of Forest’?
5. What are the differences between Conservation of Water and
Sustainable use of water?
6. State the problems En vironment problem related with minerals
7. How will you conserv e minerals?
8. Write short notes on
a. Environmental problems associated with Water
b. Sustainable use of Minerals


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63 3.7 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1. a. true
1. b. true
1. c. false, Ancient man did not know how to use resources.
1. d. true
1. e. false , When an area is deforested, many animals and insects lose
their habitats.
2. a. pollution and runoff
3. b. warmer
3. c. Ubiquitous
3. d. rivers or roofs
3. e. sustainable
3. a. i.
3.b.iii.
3.c.iii.
3. d. i.
3.e.ii.
3.8 TECHNICAL WORDS
 Resources : a stock or s upply of money, materials, staff, and other
assets that can be drawn on by a person or organization in order to
function effectively.
 Conservation : Conservation is the preservation or efficient using of
resources in an efficient or ethical manner.
 Exploita tion: The action of making use of and benefiting from
resources, over use
 Beneficiation : the treatment of raw material (such as iron ore) to
improve physical or chemical properties especially in preparati on for
smelting.
 Logging -the activity or business of felling trees and cutting and
preparing the timber
 Ecological diversity – It is a type of biodiversity. It is the variation in
the ecosystems found in a region or the variation in ecosystems over
the who le planet. Ecological diversity includes the variati on in both
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
 IUCN : The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is
a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil
society organisations.
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64 3.9 TASK
 Spread awareness about minimum resou rce use and conservation of the
resources
3.10 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Choudhari, S.R.: Paryavaran Aani Arthik Kriya, Himalaya
Publishing House, Mumbai.
 Magar Jaikumar: Arthik Bhugol, Vidya Prakashan, Pune.
 Savadi & Kolekar (2007): Manvi Prayogic Bhugol, Nirali
Publications, Pune.
 Savdi, Hardikar and Kolekar (1986): Arthik Bhogol, Tilak
Prakashan, Mumbai.
 Tawade and Sawant: Arthik Karyacha bhugol, phadke prakashan, pune.
 Arunachalam, B: Economic and Comm ercial Geography, A.R. Sheth
and Co. Mumbai.
 Economi c Geography –Jones and Darkenwald
 Economic Geography –Wheeler, J.O.
 Hartshorne and Alexander: Economic Geography, Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi.
 Nimbalkar, Chaudhari: Commercial Geography, Himalaya Publishing
House. New Delhi.
 Natural Resource Managem ent, Pandey, B ed.
 The Exploitation of Natural Resources and the Consequences, Sarsby,
R. eds.
 A New Century for Natural Resources Management, Knight. et. al. eds.


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65 4
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN
INDIA

Unit Structure :

4.0 After going through this chapter you will be able to
understand the following features:
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Subject discussion
4.4 Concept of Pollution
4.5 Types of Pollutio n
4.6 Causes of Pollutio n
4.7 Air pollution
4.7.1 Concept
4.7.2 Types
4.7.3 Causes
4.7.4 Impacts
4.7.5 Measures
4.8 Water pollution
4.8.1 Concept
4.8.2 Types
4.8.3 Causes
4.8.4 Impacts
4.8.5 Measures
4.9 Land pollution
4.9.1 Conce pt
4.9.2 Types
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66 4.9.4 Impacts
4.9.5 Measures
4.10 Noise pollution
4.10.1 Concept
4.10.2 Types
4.10.3 Causes
4.10.4 Impacts
4.10.5 Measures
Environmental Issues Related to High/large Dams
Major environmental Moveme nts in India
4.11 Summary
4.12 Check your Progress/Exercise
4.13 Answers to the self learning questions
4.14 Technical words and their meaning
4.15 Task
4.16 References for further study
4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Understand the concept of pollution
 Learn the types of pollution
 Know about the causes of pollution
 Understand the concept, ty pes, causes, impacts and measures of air
pollution
 Study about the concept, types, causes, impacts and measures of water
pollution
 Learn about the concept, types, causes, impacts and measures of land
pollution and
 Know the concept, types, causes, impacts and measures of noise
pollution
4.2 INTRODUCTION
In the first unit we have learnt the definition of Environmental Geography
along with its Nature and Scope. Factors of environment and the
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67 discussed Ecosystem also. In the previous chapter we have studied the
concept of resources, classification of resources and Environme ntal
problems associated with forest, water and minerals. Bio -diversity, its
concept and types along with hotspots of bio -diversity and biodiversity in
India with emphasis on Western Ghat have also been studied. In this
chapter we are going to study pollut ion in details. Concept of
pollution, types of pollution, and causes of pollution will be studied in the
first part of this unit. In the latter part of this third unit we will study
impacts and measures of air, water, land and noise pollution.
4.3 SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
The term ‘pollution’ is widely used and sometimes misunderstood.
Pollution is anything that makes the earth dirty and unhealthy. Land, air,
and water are all affected by pollution. Trucks, cars, buses and other
vehicles leak smoky exhaust from t heir engines and fill the air we breathe
with pollutants. Water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers
and groundwat er get polluted with cleaners, paints, and chemicals that
are directly or indirectly discharged into them. Pollutants dumped into th e
ocean can hurt sea creatures also. Human beings are affected too. They get
sick when they eat the poisoned fish. Moreover all polluted water must
be cleaned before we drink it. There are three kinds of pollution namely
water pollution, land pollution and air pollution. Modern society is also
concerned about specific types of pollutants, such as noise pollution, light
pollutio n, and even plastic pollution. With the advent of time and
introduction of modern technology pollution have grown. But ways to
comba t it have grown too. For example people use solar energy and wind
energy as alternative ways to power their homes. When thes e alternative
forms of energy are used less carbon dioxide is released into the
environment.
4.4 CONCEPT OF POLLUTION
Definition of pollution
Innumerable definitions of the term pollution have been examined and
alternatives suggested. Pollution is the addi tion of any substance to the
environment in excess to what is normally present thereby making the
environment impure. The introducti on of contaminants into the natural
environment has harmful or poisonous effects. It causes adverse change
and is known as p ollution. Therefore any change in the physical, chemical,
or biological characteristics of the air, water, or soil that affects the health,
survival or activities of humans or other forms of life in an undesirable
way is pollution. Pollution is often calle d environmental pollution. The
addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy
(such as heat, sound, or radi oactivity) to the environment at a rate faster
than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in some
harmless form leads to pollution. Pollution can take the form of chemical
substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutan ts, the
components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or
naturally occurring contaminants. The major ki nds of pollution are air munotes.in

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68 pollution, water pollution, and land pollution. Modern society is also
concerned about specific types of po llutants, such as noise pollution, light
pollution, and even plastic pollution.
Sources of Pollution:
Direct or indirect human activities lead to environmental pollution.
 There are six major sources of environmental pollution:
i. Industrial sources
ii. Agricultur al sources
iii. Biogenic sources
iv. Anthropogenic sources
v. Unnatural sources
vi. Extra -terrestrial sources.
4.4.2. Nature of Pollutants:
The pollutants occurring in the environment are usually chemical,
biological and physical in their nature.
 Chemical pollutants inclu de:
a. Gaseous pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
b. toxic metals
c. pesticides
d. herbicides
e. hydrocarbons
f. toxins
g. acidic substances
h. carcinogens
 Biological pollutants include:
a. Pathogenic organisms
b. products of biological origin
 Physical pollutants include:
a. Heat, thermal
b. Sound
c. Odours
d. Radiation and
e. Radioactive substances
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69 4.5 TYPES OF POLLUTION
Pollution is of many kinds, but the commonly known are air, land and
water pollution. There are various other types of pollution too which are
listed below.
a. Water Pollution.
b. Air Pollution.
c. Soil Pollution.
d. Thermal Pollution.
e. Radioactive Pollution.
f. Noise Pollution.
g. Light Pollution.
4.6 CAU SES OF POLLUTION
There are numerous causes of pollution and the number of which is
growing day by day. They impair the quality and b eauty of the
environment. Some of them directly hit the environment while some
others have negative impact on the balance of eco system. All of them
deprive us from taking breath in fresh air, drinking pure water and walking
on clean land.
The three main c auses of pollution are effluents, wastes and emissions.
They can be further divided into several sub -causes pointed. Here ar e they:
i. Effluents
 Industrial effluent
 Civic wastewater
 Fuel affluent
 Agricultural wastewater
ii. Wastes
 Civic waste
 Hospital waste
 Indus trial waste
 Nuclear waste
iii. Emissions
 Vehicular emissions
 Industrial emissions
 Dust emissions

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70 i. Effluents
All types of liquids t hat affect the chemical composition of water or soil
are called effluents. It pollutes the water in one way or the other. This is
one of the lethal causes of pollution. For example whatever spills over
from factories and flows untreated into the river, sea or any other water
body is called industrial effluent.
ii. Wastes
Many types of solid wastes are dumped instead of proper disposal. Th ese
affect the features of land and soil. The waste may be from houses,
industries, offices, hospitals or even dangerous was te of nuclear plants. It
is one of the main causes of pollution on land.
iii. Emissions
The chimney of factory and the silencer of vehic le are the two pipes
which are considered as the main sources of emissions. They pollute the
air by emitting poisonous gases beyond the limits set by various
environmentalists. Thus make it too bad for breathing.
4.7 AIR POLLUTION
4.7.1 Concept of air pollution
Air Pollution : Air pollution can be defined as the presence of toxic
chemicals or compounds (including those of biolog ical origin) in the air, at
levels that pose a health risk.
4.7.2 Types of Pollutants :
In order to understand the causes of Air poll ution, several divisions can be
made. Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or
secondary sources. The po llutants that are a direct result of the process can
be called primary pollutants. A classic example of a primary pollutant
would be the sulphur -dioxide emitted from factories. Secondary
pollutants are the ones that are
caused by the inter mingling and rea ctions of primary pollutants. Smog
created by the interactions of several primary pollutants is known to be as
secondary pollutant.
4.7.3 Causes of Air pollution :
 There are two types of sources that we will take a look at:
Natural sources :
Natural sources of pollution include dust carried by the wind from
locations with very little or no green cover, gases released from the
body proces ses of living beings. For example Carbon dioxide is released
from humans during respiration, Methane is released from cattle during
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71 Smoke from the combustion of various inflammable objects , volcanic
eruptions etc along with the emission of polluted gases also make it to the
list of natural sources of pollution.
Man -made sources :
While looking at the man -made contributions towards air pollution, smoke
again features as a prominent component. The smoke emits from various
forms of combustion like in bio mass, factories, vehicles, furnaces etc.
Wastes used to create landfills generate methane that is harmful in several
ways. The reactions of certain gases and chemicals also form harmful
fumes th at can be dangerous to the well -being of living creatures.
 Following are the man-made sources of air pollution:
i. Burning of Fossil Fuels :
Sulphur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum and other factory combustibles is one the major cause of air
pollution. Pollution emitting from vehicles including trucks, jeeps, cars,
trains, airplanes cause im mense amount of pollution. We rely on them to
fulfil our daily basic needs of transportation. But, there overuse is killing
our envi ronment as dangerous gases are polluting the environment.
Carbon Mono oxide caused by improper or incomplete combustion and
generally emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with
Nitrogen Oxides, which is produced from both natural and manma de
processes.
ii. Agricultural activities :
Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture related activities
and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities has grown
quite a lot. They emit harmful chemicals into the air and can also cause
water pollution.
iii. Exhaust from factories and industrie s:
Manufacturing industries release large amount of carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air the reby
depleting the quality of air. Manufacturing industries can be found at
every corner of the earth and there is no area t hat has not been affected by
it. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and various other
chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.
iv. Mining operations :
Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using
large equipment. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the
air causing massive air pollution. This is one of the reasons which are
responsible for the deteriorating health conditions of workers and nearby
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72 v. Indoor air pollution :
Househ old cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic chemicals in the
air and cause air pollution. Have you ever noticed that once yo u paint
walls of your house, it creates some sort of smell which makes it literally
impossible for you to breathe. Suspended particulate matter popular by its
acronym SPM, is another cause of pollution. Referring to the particles
afloat in the air, SPM is usually caused by dust, combustion etc.
4.7.4 Impacts of Air pollution
I. Respiratory and heart problems :
The effects of Air po llution are alarming. They are known to create
several respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among other
threats to the body. Several millions are known to have died due to
direct or indirect effects of Air pollution. Children in areas expose d to air
pollutants are said to commonly suffer from pneumonia and asthma.
II. Global warming :
Another direct effect is the immediate al terations that the world is
witnessing due to Global warming. With increased temperatures
worldwide, increase in sea levels and melting of ice from colder regions
and icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat have already signalled an
impending disaster i f actions for preservation and normalization aren’t
undertaken soon.
III. Acid Rain :
Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulph ur oxides are released into
the atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water
droplets combines with these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then
falls on the ground in the form of acid rain. Acid rain can cause great
damage to h uman, animals and crops.
IV. Eutrophication :
Eutrophication is a condition where high amount of nitrogen present in
some pollutants gets developed on sea’s surface and turns itself into algae
and adversely affects fish, plants and animal species. The green col oured
algae that are present on lakes and ponds are due to presence of this
chemical only.
V. Effect on Wildlife :
Just like humans, animals also face some devastating effects of air
pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to
move to new place and change their habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit
over the surface of the water and can also affect sea animal s.

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73 VI. Depletion of Ozone layer :
Ozone exists in earth’s stratosphere and is responsible for protecting
humans from harmful ultr aviolet (UV) rays. Earth’s ozone layer is
depleting due to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro
chlorofluorocarbons in the atm osphere. As ozone layer will go thin, it
will emit harmful rays back on earth and can cause skin and eye related
problems. U V rays also have the capability to affect crops.
4.7.5 Measures of Air Pollution
a. Use public mode of transportation :
Encourage peop le to use more and more public modes of transportation to
reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of car pooling. If you and your
colleagues come from the same locality and have same timings you can
explore this option to save energy and money.
b. Conserve energy:
Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. Large amount of fossil
fuels are burnt to produce electricity. You can save the environment from
degradation by reducing the amount of fossil fuels to be burned.
c. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle:
Do not throw away items that are of no use to you. In -fact reuses them for
some other purpose. For e.g. you can use old jars to store cereals or
pulses.
d. Emphasis on clean energy resources :
Clean energy technologies like solar, wind and geot hermal are on high
these days. Governments of various countries have been providing grants
to consumers who are interested i n installing solar panels for their home.
This will go a long way to curb air pollution.
e. Use energy efficient devices :
CFL lights co nsume less electricity as against their counterparts. They live
longer, consume less electricity, lower electricity bills an d also help you to
reduce pollution by consuming less energy.
Several attempts are being made worldwide on personal, industrial and
governmental levels to curb the intensity at which Air Pollution is rising
and regain a balance as far as the proportions of the foundation gases are
concerned. This is a direct attempt at slacking Global warming. We are
seeing a series of innovations and experiments aimed at alternate and
unconventional options to reduce pollutants. Air Pollution is one of the
larger mirrors o f man’s follies, and a challenge we need to overcome to
see a tomorrow.
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74 4.8 WATER POLLUTION
4.8.1 Concept of water pollution
Water p ollution is the act of contaminating water bodies such as rivers,
oceans, lakes, streams, aquifers, and groundwater. It occu rs when foreign
harmful materials like chemicals, waste matter, or contaminated
substances are directly or indirectly discharged int o water bodies. The
presence of these harmful materials in sufficient quantity in water
measurably degrades water quality. T herefore any alterations in the
chemical, physical, or biological water properties qualify as water
pollution.
4.8.2 Types of water pollution :
Water resources like huge oceans, lakes, and rivers are called surface
waters. The most obvious type of water pol lution affects surface waters.
For example, a spill from an oil tanker creates an oil slick that can affect
a vast area of the ocean . Not all of Earth's water sits on its surface,
however. A great deal of water is held in underground rock structures
known as aquifers, which we cannot see and seldom think about. Water
stored underground in aquifers is known as groundwater. Aquifers feed
our rivers and supply much of our drinking water. Surface waters and
groundwater are the two types of water resources that pollution affects.
There are also two different ways in which pollution can occur. If
pollution comes from a single location, such a s a discharge pipe attached
to a factory, it is known as point -source pollution. Other examples of
point source pollution in clude an oil spill from a tanker, a discharge from a
smoke stack (factory chimney), or someone pouring oil from their car
down a dra in. A great deal of water pollution happens not from one single
source but from many different scattered sources. This is ca lled non point -
source pollution.
4.8.3 Causes of water pollution
i. Sewage :
With billions of people on the planet, disposing of sewage waste is a major
problem. According to 2015 and 2016 figures from the World Health
Organization, some 663 million people (9 percent of the world's
population) don't have access to safe drinking water, while 2.4 billion (40
percent of the world's population ) don't have proper sanitation (hygienic
toilet facilities); although there have been great improvements in
securing access to clean water, relatively little progress has been made
on improving global sanitation in the last decade. Sewage disposal affects
people's immediate environments and leads to water -related illnesses such
as diarrhea that kills 525,000 children under five each year. In developed
countries, most people have flush toilets that take sewage waste quickly
and hygienically away from their h omes. Yet the problem of sewage
disposal does not end there. When you flush the toilet, the waste has to
go somewhere and, e ven after it leaves the sewage treatment works, there
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75 into the sea. In theory, sewage is a completely natural substance that
should be broken down harmlessly in the environment: 90 pe rcent of
sewage is water. In practice, sewage contains all kinds of other chemicals,
from the pharmaceutical drugs people take to the paper, plastic, and
other wastes they flush down their toilets. When people are sick with
viruses, the sewage they produce carries those viruses into the
environment. It is possible to catch illnesses such as hepatitis, typhoid, and
cholera from river an d sea water.
ii. Nutrients/ Agricultural runoff:
Suitably treated and used in moderate quantities, sewage can be a
fertilizer: it returns important nutrients to the environment, such as
nitrogen and phosphorus, which plants and animals need for growth. The
trouble is, sewage is often released in much greater quantities than the
natural environment can cope with. Chemical fertilize rs used by farmers
also add nutrients to the soil, which drain into rivers and seas and add to
the fertilizing effect of the sewage. Together, sewage and fertilizers can
cause a massive increase in the growth of algae or plankton that
overwhelms huge areas of oceans, lakes, or rivers. This is known as a
harmful algal bloom (also known as an HAB or red tide, because it can
turn the wate r red). It is harmful because it removes oxygen from the
water that kills other forms of life, leading to what is known as a dead
zone. The Gulf of Mexico has one of the world's most spectacular dead
zones. Each summer, according to studies by theNOAA, it grows to an
area of around 5500 –6000 square miles (14,000 –15,500 square
kilometers), which is about the same size as the sta te of Connecticut.
iii. Industrial Effluents :
A few statistics illustrate the scale of the problem that waste water
(chemicals washed down drains and discharged from factories) can
cause. Around half of all ocean pollution is caused by sewage and waste
water. Each year, the world generates perhaps 5 –10 billion tons of
industrial waste, much of which is pumped untreated into rivers, oceans,
and other waterways. Factories are point sources of water pollution.
iv. Domestic waste :
Lot of water is polluted by or dinary people from non point sources; this is
how ordinary water becomes waste water in the first place. Virtually
everyone pours ch emicals of one sort or another down their drains or
toilets. Even detergents used in washing machines and dishwashers
eventu ally end up in our rivers and oceans.
v. Highway runoff :
A lot of toxic pollution also enters waste water from highway runoff.
Highways are typically covered with a cocktail of toxic chemicals —
everything from spilled fuel and brake fluids to bits of worn tire s
(themselves made from chemical additives) and exhaust emissions. When
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76 heavy summer rainstorms to wash toxic chemicals into rivers in such
concentrations that they kill large num bers of fish overnight. It has been
estimated that, in one year, the highway runoff from a single large city
leaks as much oil into our water environment as a typical tanker spill.
Some highway runoff runs away into drains; others can pollute
groundwater o r accumulate in the land next to a road, making it
increasingly toxic as the years go by.
vi. Chemical waste :
Detergents are relatively mild substances. At the opposite end of the
spectrum are highly toxic chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs). T hey were once widely used to manufacture electronic circuit
boards, but their harmful effects have now been recognized and their use
is highly restricted in many countries. Nevertheless, an estimated half
million tons of PCBs were discharged into the envir onment during the
20th century. In a classic example of trans boundary pollution, traces of
PCBs have even been found in birds and f ish in the Arctic. They were
carried there through the oceans, thousands of miles from where they
originally entered the env ironment. Although PCBs are widely banned,
their effects will be felt for many decades because they
last a long time in the environm ent without breaking down. Another kind
of toxic pollution comes from heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, and
mercury. Lead was once commonly used in gasoline (petrol), though its
use is now restricted in some countries. Mercury and cadmium are still
used in batteries (though some brands now use other metals instead). Until
recently, a highly toxic chemical called tributyltin (TBT) was used in
paints to protect boats from the ravaging effects of the oceans. Ironically,
however, TBT was gradually recognized as a pollutant: boats painted
with it were doing as much damage to the oceans as the oceans were
doing to the boats. The be st known example of heavy metal pollution in
the oceans took place in 1938 when a Japanese factory discharged a
significant amount o f mercury metal into Minamata Bay, contaminating
the fish stocks there. It took a decade for the problem to come to light.
By that time, many local people had eaten the fish and around 2000 were
poisoned. Hundreds of people were left dead or disabled.
vii. Radi oactive waste :
People view radioactive waste with great alarm and for good reason. At
high enough concentrations, it can kil l; in lower concentrations, it can
cause cancers and other illnesses.
viii. Oil pollution :
When we think of ocean pollution, huge black oi l slicks often spring to
mind, yet these spectacular accidents represent only a tiny fraction of
all the pollution entering our oceans. Even considering oil by itself, tanker
spills are not as significant as they might seem: only 12 percent of the
oil that enters the oceans comes from tanker accidents; over 70 percent
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77 pour down drains on land. However, what makes tanker spills so
destructive is the sheer quantity of oil they release at once. The
concentration of oil they produce in one much localized part of the marine
environment. The biggest oil spill in recent years (and the biggest ever
spill in US waters) occurred when the tanker Exxon Valdez broke up in
Prince William Sound in Alaska in 1989. Around 12 million gallons (44
million liters) of oil were released into the pristine wilderness. Estimates
of the marine animals killed in the spill vary from approximately 1000 sea
otters and 34,000 birds to as many as 2800 sea otters and 250,000 sea
birds. Several billion salmon and herring eggs are also believed to have
been destroyed.
ix. Plastics :
Plastic is on e of the most common materials, used for making virtually
every kind of manufactured object from clothing to automobile parts;
plast ic is light and floats easily so it can travel enormous distances across
the oceans; most plastics are not biodegradable (th ey do not break down
naturally in the environment), which means that things like plastic bottle
tops can survive in the marine envir onment for a long time. (A plastic
bottle can survive an estimated 450 years in the ocean and plastic fishing
line can last up to 600 years.)While plastics are not toxic in quite the
same way as poisonous chemicals, they nevertheless present a major
hazard to seabirds, fish, and other marine creatures. For example, plastic
fishing lines and other debris can strangle or choke fi sh. (This is
sometimes called ghost fishing.) About half of the entire world's seabird
species are known to have eaten plastic resid ues.
4.8.4 Impacts of water pollution
a. Health Aspects of Water Quality :
Water pollution adversely affects the health and life of man, animals and
plants alike. Polluted water is also harmful for agriculture as it adversely
affects the crops and the soil fer tility. Pollution of sea water damages the
oceanic life. Consumption of polluted water is a major cause of ill health
in Ind ia. Polluted water causes some of the deadly diseases like cholera,
dysentery, diarrhea, tuberculosis, jaundice, etc. About 80 per c ent of
stomach diseases in India are caused by polluted water.
b. Effect of Organic Pollution on Water Quality :
All organic mat erials can be broken down or decomposed by microbial
and other biological activity (biodegradation). Organic and some of the
inorgan ic compounds exhibit a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
because oxygen is used in the degradation process. Oxygen is a basic
requirement of almost all aquatic life. Aquatic life is adversely affected if
sufficient oxygen is not available in the water. Typic al sources of organic
pollution are sewage from domestic and animal sources, industrial wastes
from food processing, paper m ills, tanneries, distilleries, sugar and other
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78 c. Effect of Nutrients on Water Quality :
Water supports aquatic l ife because of the presence of nutrients in it.
Here the primary focus is on fertilizing chemicals such as nitrates and
phos phates. Although these are important for plant growth, too much of
nutrients encourage the overabundance of plant life and can resul t in
environmental damage called ‘entrophication’. This can occur at both
microscopic level in the form of algae and macrosc opic level in the form
of aquatic weeds. Nitrates and phosphates are contributed by sewage,
agricultural run-off and run -off from un -sewered residential areas.
d. Effect of High Dissolved Solids (TDS) in Water Quality :
Water is the best solvent and can dissol ve a large variety of substances
which come in its contact. The amount of dissolved solid is a very
important consideration in deter mining its suitability for drinking,
irrigation and industrial uses. In general, waters with total dissolved solids
of less than 500 mg/litre are most suitable for drinking purposes. Higher
quantity of dissolved solids may lead to impairment of physiologic al
processes in human body. Dissolved solid is a very important criterion for
irrigation. This is due to the fact dissolved solid accumulates on the
ground resulting in salinization of soil. In this way, it renders the
agricultural land non -productive. Dis solved solids are harmful for
industries also because they form scales, create foaming in boilers,
accelerate corrosion and interfere with the colour and taste of many
finished products.
e. Effect of Toxic Pollutants on Water Quality :
Toxic pollutants mainly consist of heavy metals, pesticides and other
individual xenobiotic pollutants. The ability of a water body to support
aqua tic life, as well as its suitability for other uses depends on many trace
elements. Some metals e.g., Mn, Zn and Cu present in trace quantity are
important for life as they help and regulate many physiological functions
of the body. Some metals, however, c ause severe toxicological effects on
human health and the aquatic ecosystem.
4.8.5 Measures of water pollution
a. Practice Responsible Use of Fertilizer, Herbicides & Pesticides
b. Minimize Storm water Runoff
c. Filter Runoff
d. Contain Spills
e. Protect Curb Inlets and Drains
f. Capture and Dispose of Floating Pollution in Waterway
g. Capture and Filter Sediment Laden Water in Waterways
We can take indivi dual action to help reduce water pollution by using
environmentally friendly detergents, not pouring oil down drains, reduci ng
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79 on beach cleans or litter picks to keep our rivers and se as that little bit
cleaner. And we can take action as countries and continents to pass laws
that will make pollution harder and the world less polluted. Working
together, we can make pollution less of a problem —and the world a better
place.
4.9 LAND POLLU TION
4.9.1 Concept of Land pollution
Land is being polluted and abused constantly but we are unable to
calculate the damages incurred. We must collectively battle land
Pollution. Land pollution means degradation or destruction of earth’s
surface and soil, directly or indirectly as a result of human activities.
When solid or liquid waste materials are deposited on land or underg round
in such a manner that it contaminates the soil and threats public health is
known as land pollution. Usually it occurs when wa ste is not disposed of
properly. Moreover when humans throw chemicals onto the soil in the
form of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers during agricultural practices
they pollute the land. Exploitation of minerals through mining has
contribution to the destruction of the earth’s surface. Anthropogenic
activities that are conducted for development affects the land drasticall y.
In other words the degradation of land is land pollution. We survive on
land and it is the base of our ecosystem so we should tak e interest in
nurturing our land in proper way.
4.9.2 Types of land pollution
There are different types of land pollution. F ollowing are the four main
types:
I. Solid Waste
All the different kinds of rubbish produced at home, school, hospitals,
market and workplaces make solid waste. Things like
paper, plastic containers, bottles, cans, food and even used cars and
broken electroni c goods, broken furniture and hospital waste are all
examples of solid waste. Some of these, such as food droppings, paper
products as well as vegetation like grass and twigs, are biodegradable
while others are not and they include plastics, metals and alu minium cans,
broken computer, car parts etc.
II. Environmental pollution and land pollution
Landfills stay for thousands of years. These bring great harm to the land
and people around it.
III. Pesticides and Fertilizers
Many farming activities apply fertilizers, pe sticides and insecticides for
higher crop yield. No doubt that it increases the yield but sometimes
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80 animals are also harmed. Moreover when the chemicals are washed down
when it rains the y end up in the water table below. Hence causes water
pollution.
IV. Chemicals
Chemical and nuclear power plants produce waste material s that have to
be stored somewhere. Fertilizer, insecticides, pesticides, pharmaceuticals
manufacturers also produce lots of solid and liquid waste. In many cases,
they are stored in an environmentally safe way, but there are some that
find their way into landfills and other less safe storage facilities.
Sometimes they also find their way into leaking pipes and gutters. They
end up polluting soils and making crops harmful to our health.
V. Deforestation
Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the air and enrich the a ir with Oxygen,
provide wood for humans and a habitat to many land animals, insects and
birds. Trees replenish soils and hel p retain nutrients being washed away.
We have cut down trees for wood, construction, farming and mining
purposes without planting a new tree back. This is a type of land pollution.
4.9.3 Causes of Land Pollution
Land pollution is caused by both natural fac tors and human activities.
Below are the sources of land pollution:
A. Natural factors:
The natural factors that cause soil erosion inc lude volcanic eruptions,
changes in rainfall pattern, earthquakes, topographic changes, wind and
glacier movements. Natural factors of soil erosion (like rainfall, wind,
topography, etc.) are further increased by human activities.
B. Human activities:
Soil po llution is further increased by human -activities. Some of the
human activities that cause land or soil pollution include the following:
a. Deforestation and soil erosion :
The main factors of land pollution are increasing rate of soil erosion
caused due to def orestation. Deforestation carried out to create dry lands is
one of the major sources of land pollution. Even if various mea sures to
redeem a Land, that has been converted into a dry or barren land once is
taken, it can never be made fertile again. This ha mpers the land
immensely. Also there is a constant waste of land. Unused available land
over the years turns barren; this la nd then cannot be used. So in search of
more land, potent land is hunted and its indigenous state is compromised
with.

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81 b. Faulty agricu ltural practices :
In most of the developing countries increasing rate of soil erosion is due to
deforestation and faulty agr icultural practices. This has degraded land to a
large scale because the fertile top soil is washed out. Furthermore with
growing hu man population, demand for food has increased considerably.
Farmers often use highly toxic fertilizers and pesticides to get rid of
insects, fungi and bacteria from their crops. The overuse of these
chemicals results in contamination and poisoning of soil.
c. Mining activities:
During extraction and mining activities, several land spaces are created
beneath the surface.
d. Overcrowde d landfill s:
Each household produces tonnes of garbage like aluminium, plastic,
paper, cloth, wood etc. each year. These are collect ed and sent to the
local recycling unit. But items that cannot be recycled become a part of
the landfills. This causes land pollution.
e. Land pollution by biological agents :
The excreta of birds, animals and humans are source of land pollution by
biological agents. Sewage used as manure causes land pollution.
f. Acid rains :
Acid rains increase the acidity of soils that is injuriou s to plant growth.
g. Industrialization:
Due to increase in demand for food, shelter and house, more goods are
produced. This resulted in creation of more waste that needs to be
disposed of. To meet the demand of the growing population, more
industries were d eveloped which led to deforestation. Research and
development paved the way for modern fertilizers and chemicals that
were highly to xic and led to soil contamination. The toxic chemicals in
the form of solid and liquid wastes that are disposed by industrie s and
factories are the major source for soil pollution.
h. Nuclear waste :
The nuclear power plants are responsible for producing radio active wastes.
Nuclear plants when produce huge amount of energy through nuclear
fission and fusion the leftover is radioact ive material. This material
contains harmful and toxic chemicals that can affect human health. They
are dumped beneath the earth to avoid any casualty. These are harmful for
the soil.

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82 i. Construction activities:
Due to urbanization, large amount of constructi on activities are taking
place which has resulted in large waste articles like wood, metal,
bricks, plastic that can be seen by nake d eyes outside any building or
office which is under construction.
j. Sewage treatment:
Large amount of solid waste is leftov er once the sewage has been treated.
The leftover material is sent to landfill site which end up in polluting the
environment.
4.9.4 Effects of Land Pollution
I. Soil pollution :
Soil pollution is another form of land pollution in which the upper layer of
the soil is damaged. This is caused by the overuse of chemical fertilizers
along with various other pest control measures and running wa ter. As a
result there is loss of fertile land for agriculture. Forest cover is also lost.
Fodder patches for grazing are af fected too.
II. Change in climate patterns:
The effects of land pollution are very hazardous and can lead to the
loss of ecosystems.
III. Environmental Impact:
Due to deforestation there is loss of tree cover. This leads to a steep
imbalance in the rain cycle. A di sturbed rain cycle affects a lot such as
reduction in green cover. This again leads to problems like Global
warming, green house eff ect and imbalances like irregular rainfall and
flash floods. All these have their share of effects on human health. The
land when contaminated with toxic chemicals and pesticides lead to
problem of skin cancer and human respiratory system. The toxic
chemic als can reach our body through foods and vegetables that we eat as
they are grown in polluted soil.
IV. Cause Air pollution:
As a result of rapid urbanisation landfills throughout the city keep on
growing. This leads to the increase of waste which becomes home for
rodents, mice etc. These in turn transmit diseases. The waste is later
burnt and leads to air pollution. Tourists are d istracted because landfills
do not attract them. It leads to loss of revenue for the state government.
V. Effect on wildlife:
The anima l kingdom comes across with serious threats when there is
loss of habitat and natural environment. Continuous human activity on
land leave it polluted and force several species to move further away from
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83 trying to adjust. Several species are pushed to the verge of extinction, due
to loss of their homeland.
VI. Other issues:
Other issues like increased temperature, unseasonal weather activity,
acid rains etc. also have adverse effects. The di scharge of chemicals on
land makes it dangerous for the ecosystem. These chemicals are consumed
by the animals and plants and thereby make their way in the ecosystem.
This process is called bio magnification and is a serious threat to the
ecology.
4.9.5 Measures for Land Pollution
Disrupting the harmony of the land is disrupting the habitat of several
creatures that survive und er the land. Hence several creatures have
reached the endangered status. The Gilbert’s Potoroo in Australia is an
example. Following are measures which may lessen land pollution.
a. We should make people aware about the concept of Reduce,
Recycle and Reuse.
b. We must reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in
agricultural activities.
c. All of us should avoid buying packaged items. These will end up their
journey in garbage as well as in landfill sites.
d. We must also ensure that we do not litter on the ground i nstead do
proper disposal of garbage.
e. We should consciously buy biodegradable products.
f. Doing organic gardening without the use of pesticides and eating
organic food will definitely reduce the use of pesticides.
g. Our dumping ground must be created away from residential areas.
4.10 NOISE POLLUTION
4.10.1 Concept of Noise Pollution
Noise Pollution is harmful levels of noise. It is actuall y a form and level of
environmental sound that generally annoys, distracts or even harms other
people. As noise is a physica l form of pollution it is not directly harmful
to the life supporting systems such as air, soil and water. It affects more
directly on the receiver i.e. man.
This unwanted sound, released into the environment, disturbs human
being and cause an adverse effe ct on the mental and psychological well
being of them. The noise which is more than
115 dB (decibel) is tolerant. According to the w orld health organization
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84 pollution is the result of mod ern industrialized urban life and congestion
due to over population.
The most common source of noise pollution by far, the one that affects the
most people on the planet is motor vehicles. Aircraft and industrial
machinery are also major sources. Additiona l noise pollution is
contributed by office machines, sirens, power tools, and other equipment.
4.10.2 Types of noise pollution
When we think about noise pollution, we usually think of environmental
sources of noise:
 Traffic noise (cars, buses, trucks)
 Planes
 Lawn mowers, leaf blowers, snow blowers
 Construction noise
4.10.3 Causes of Noise Pollution :
 Major causes of noise pollution are as follows:
I. Industrial Sources:
With the advancement in technology and industrialization noise has
polluted our environment. Textile mills, printing presses, engineering
establishments and metal works etc. contribute heavily towards noise
pollution. Indust rial cities like Kolkata, Ludhiana, Kanpur etc., experience
the bad effects of noise pollution. This is mostly because often the
industrial zones are not separated from the residential zones of the city.
Especially the small scale industries are found oper ating from workshops
situated on the ground floors of the residential areas and the noise that is
inevitably produced cause annoyance, discomfort and irritation to the
residents who are exposed to it. The circumstance is quite better in modern
planned citi es like Chandigarh because here the industrial area is kept
away from the residential areas. Moreover both the zones are sep arated
from each other by adequate wide green belt.
II. Transport Vehicles :
Transportation causes of noise pollution predominantly encom pass noise
from traffic, rails, and aircraft. Automobile revolution in urban settings
has proved to be a big source of noise pollution. So the increased numbers
of automobiles on the roads has given rise to traffic jams in congested
areas where the repeate d hooting of horns by impatient drivers further
exacerbated the problem of transport noise. Noise intensity in most
resident ial places neighbouring towns is always high because of
widespread vehicular noise pollution. Heavy trucks, buses trains, jet
planes , motorcycles, scooters, mopeds, jeeps etc.are the source of noise
pollution. In big cities like Delhi and Mumbai where airp ort is situated in
the vicinity of population centres the air planes pass over residential areas.
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85 III. Household:
In residential areas, an acceptable level of household noise for one p erson
may be unacceptable to another. This acceptance also depends on the time
of the day and the nature of the noise. Gadgets like food mixer, grinder,
vacuum cleaner, washing machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners can
be very noisy and injurious to health. Others indoor noises include loud
speakers of sound systems and TVs, iPods and ear phones, banging of
doors, noise of playin g children, crying of infants, moving of furniture,
loud conversation of the inhabitants etc. Another example may be one of
the neighbour’s dogs barking all night every day.
IV. Public Address System:
In India use loud speakers for religious function, birth, d eath, marriage,
elections, demonstration or may be just for commercial advertising.
Hence public system plays a significant role its own way towards noise
pollution.
V. Agricultural Machines :
With the introduction of tractors, thrashers, harvesters, tube well s,
powered tillers etc. agriculture has become highly mechanical but
simultaneously extremely noisy. Noise level 90 dB to 98 dB due to
running of farm machines have been recorded in the state of Punjab.
VI. Defence Equipment:
A lot of noise pollution is added to the atmosphere by artillery, tanks,
launching of rockets, explosions, exercising of military airplanes and
shooting pract ices. Screams of jet engines and sonic booms have a
deafening impact on the ears and in extreme cases have been known to
shatter the window panes and old dilapidated buildings.
VII. Miscellaneous Sources:
Construction works, blasting, stone crushing, bulldozing , welding,
automobile repair activities, quarrying and so on are other sources of noise
pollution. The residents of areas usually co mplain of unpleasant and
intense noise.
4.10.4 Impacts of noise pollution
Noise has negative consequences on human health an d behaviour.
Unwanted sounds can damage physiological and psychological health. In a
study, it was found that construction workers s uffer from hearing
deficiencies caused by noise, which is one of the most important
occupational diseases.


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86 Adverse Effect s of Noise Pollution are as follows:
i. It interferes with speech .
Rising levels of noise in Indian cities has been affecting people’s hearing
capability, which is deeply disturbing as the ability to hear sounds is
closely linked to mental development. In the presence of noise we may
not able to follow, what the other person is saying. It is because the
development of vocal skills is depe ndent on normal hearing. Of late, the
problem of deafening noise pollution is on the increase worldwide.
ii. Noise is a problem especially for patients who need rest.
Prolonged exposure to noise results in several adverse effects like sleep
disturbance, irrita bility, stress, tension, distraction, risk of heart disease,
influence on quality of life, interference with communication, health and
well-being outcomes, behavioural and mental health effects and
diminished performance.
iii. Noise leads to emotional and behav ioral stress .
A person may feel disturbed in the presence of loud noise such as
produced by heating of drums.
iv. Noise may perm anently damage hearing.
A sudden loud noise can cause severe damage to the eardrum. Unwanted
noise may also lead to tinnitus that is the hearing of sound when no
external sound is present.
v. Other diseases.
 Noise increases the chances of occurrence of diseas es such as
headache, blood pressure, heart failure, etc.
 Noise leads to increased heart beat, constriction of blood vessels
and dila tion of pupil
 Noise may cause damage to liver, brain and heart.
 Unwanted noise leads to annoyance, aggression, hypertension, high
stress levels and sleep disturbances.
vi. Problems faced by marine animals form noise pollution.
Many marine animals face problem s due to excessive noises used by oil
drills, submarines and other vessels on and inside the ocean. Whales use
hearing to fi nd food, communicate, defend and survive in the sea.
Excessive noises cause many injuries and deaths to whales.
vii. Wildlife also faces many problems form noise pollution.
Wildlife also faces many problems form noise pollution since they are
more dependent on sound. Animals develop a better sense of hearing
than the human beings since their survival depends on it. Domestic
animals react mo re aggressively in households where there is the constant
noise.
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87 4.10.5 Measures of noise pollution
Noise pollution can be effectively controlled by taking the following
measures:
1. Control at Receiver's End
People engaged in installing noisy equipments mus t be provided with ear -
protection aids like ear -plugs, ear -muffs, noise helmets, headphones to
reduce occupational exposure.
2. Suppression of Noise at Source :
This is achievable only if working methods are improved.
These methods are stated under:
a. Designing, fabricating and using of quieter machines replacing the
noisy ones is an important method.
b. Proper lubrication and better ma intenance of machines will reduce
noise.
c. Installation of noisy machines in sound proof chambers is another
significant way to reduce noise pollution.
d. Industries must take measures by covering noise -producing machine
parts with sound -absorbing materials to check noise production.
Measures taken in industry are as follows:
 Personal Protective Equipment: earmuffs, earplugs, and other simi lar
devices can be physically placed on the ears to reduce overall exposure
to noise pollution.
 Engineering Control: Workers can be isolated from the noise hazard by
working to control an automated noisy machine from an insulated room
nearby.
 Administrativ e Control: Sometimes a worker may have their schedule
adjusted or modified as a way to limit noise exposure from a particula r
activity.
e. Reducing the noise produced from a vibrating machine by vibration
damping i.e. making a layer of damping material (rubbe r, neoprene,
cork or plas -tic) beneath the machine.
f. Using silencers to control noise from automobiles, ducts, exhausts etc.
and convey systems with ends opening into the atmosphere.
g. Using glass wool or mineral wool covered with a sheet of perforated
metal for the purpose of mechanical protection.
3. Acoustic Zoning:
Distance between source and receiver must be increased by zoning of
noisy industrial areas, bus terminals and railway stations, aerodromes etc.
away from the residential areas. By this noise pollut ion may be
minimised. There should be silence zones near the residential areas,
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88 4. Sound Insulation at Construction Stages :
 Sound travels through the cracks that are present between the door and
the wall. So during construction if any gap is left between them that
space must be packed with sound absorbing material to reduce noise.
 Sound insulation can be done by constructing windows with double or
triple panes of glass and filling the gaps with sound absorbing
mater ials.
 Acoustical tiles, hair felt, perforated plywood etc. can be fixed on
walls, ceil -ings, floors etc. to reduce noise (es pecially for sound proof
recording rooms etc.)
5. Planting of Trees:
Planting green trees and shrubs along roads, hospitals, educationa l
institutions etc. help in noise reduction to a considerable extent.
6. Legislative Measures:
Enforcement of strict legislativ e measures will curb the danger of noise
pollution. Some of these measures could be:
 Minimum use of loudspeakers and amplifiers especially near silence
zones.
 Banning pressure horns in automobiles.
 Framing a separate Noise Pollution Act.
7. Turn off Appliance s at Home and offices appliances
Home and office appliances such as TV, games, computers create
unnecessary stress on ears. So when not in use they should be turned off.
ENV IRONMENT ISSUES RELATED TO HIGH/
LARGE DAMS
Development projects are essential for the development o e society but at
the same time there are many severe consequences of these projects on the
environmen t and the local people. Large scale development projects
include.
1) Construction of huge dams .
2) Establishment of MNC in the underdeveloped / developing
countries.
3) Construction of new planned city / Amusement Park etc.
Let us consider two major displacement events in India.
1) Displacement of People due to Tehri Dam Project:
Tehri da m is in the Tehri district of Uttarakhand. It is a river Ganga below
the confluence of its two head streams - the Bhagirathi & the Bhilangana.
It is the highest rock - fill dam in India Ht. 260 m). The capacity of this
dam is 245 million cubic meters. An a rea of 465 sq. kilometers is
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89 About 125,000 people from 172 villages are displaced due to this dam.
These poor people are familiar with th e hilly & forest environment. When
they are shifted to the plain areas - which are unknown to them - they will
find it difficult to survive as their lifestyle will change. This will create
many socio -economic problems. It will deprive them from fuel wood,
forest products, drinking & irrigation water etc.
This dam project will cause severe environmental problems - ecological
destruction, submergence o f valley ecosystem, siltation of the reservoir
etc.
The Himalayan region is geologically unstable & so cons truction of this
dam is very dangerous. In case of failure of Their Dam the flood water can
reach up to Rishikesh and Hardwar, Kanpur, Patna & Allah abad. It can
also affect Narora Atomic power station.
2) Sardar Sarovar Project (Gujarat):
It is the world’ s biggest river valley project. It started in 1961. River
Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh. It flows to the
west through Maha rashtra & Gujarat & joins Arabian Sea. The length of
R. Narmada is 1312 kms. & the basin area is about 98,79 6 sq. kms.
The Sardar Sarovar Project has an installed power generation capacity of
about 1400 M.W. & it will provide irrigation facilities to abou t 1.8 million
hectares of land.
Environmentalists and activists have raised objections against the project.
Ms. Medha Patkar - Post Graduate social worker from TISS played
leading role to protect the rights of the people displaced by this project.
Sardar Sarovar Project has displaced about 90,000 people from 237
villages of M.P, Gujarat & Maharashtra. Gujarat Govt. provided proper
benefits to these people in Gujarat. But such benefits were not provided
properly by the M.P. & Maharashtra govt. hence many d isplaced people
became environmental refugee who migrated to the nearby towns to seek
daily wage labour.
The Sardar Sarovar Project has submerged about 42,000 hectares of land
under forest leading to the massive extinction of native species of wildlife.
The problem of sanitation will develop in the coastal districts of Gujarat
due to water logging from canal ir rigation.
ENV IRONMENT AL MOVMENTS IN INDIA

1) Chipko Movement - (1973):
This environmental movement started in Garhwal Himalayas which was
led by Chandni Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna.
It was people’s revolt against reckless deforestation by the co ntractors by
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90 2) Save silent valley movement (1978):
Govt. of Kerala decided to construct dam and hydro -electric project to
provide electricity to the many villages in Kerala.
The silent valley hydroele ctric project was to dam the Kunthipuzha River
in Kerala.
The silent valley has an evergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of
Keral a. This forest is about four million years old. To stop submerging the
entire biosphere reserve ‘save silent vall ey movement’ started in 197 4.
In 1980 the M.G.K. Menon Committee set up to review the project, came
out with a recommendation to scrap it.
3) Jungle Bachao Andolan (1982):
It began in Bihar & later spread to states like Jharkhand & Orissa.
Govt. of Bih ar, decided to replace natural ‘sal’ forests with highly priced
teak. This was considered as a move that was termed as a ‘Greed Game
and politi cal populism.
The tribals of Singhbhum district of Bihar started Jungle Bachao Andolan
to oppose this activity.
4) Navdanya Movement for Earth Democracy:
‘Navdanya’ is a movement for Earth Democracy based on the philosophy
of Vasudhair Kutumbakam (The E arth as one family).
• This organisation protect India’s biodiversity based food heritage
through
1) Bija Swara j
2) Anna Swaraj
3) Bhu Swaraj
4) Gyan Swaraj
1) Bija Swaraj: They have created 122 community seed banks in 18 states
of India & Bhutan. These seeds are distributed to disaster affected
people.
2) Anna Swaraj: They promote organic farming & supply prod uct to
urban areas - connecting seed to cooked fo od.
3) Bhu Swaraj: They protect living soil, our mother earth which is the
basis of our life & our livelihoods.
4) Gyan Swaraj: They promote knowledge, democracy scientific research
and agro -ecology. Dr. V andana Shiva founded Navdanya in 1982.
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91 5) Narmad a Bachao Andolan (1985): Narmada Bachao Andolan is a
social movement consisting of environmentalists, adivasis, farmers,
and human right activists against the number of large dams being built
across the rive r Narmada.
Sardar Sarovar Project on river Narma da has displaced about 90,000
people from 237 villages of M.P., Gujarat & Maharashtra. Many of them
are jobless & have migrated to the cities for getting jobs.
Ms. Medha Patkar has played leading role in Na rmada Bachao Andolan.
6) Development Alternat ives (1983):
Labeled the Green Doer
Ashok Khosla empowered people by creating jobs, through Development
alternatives an NGO that he formed in 198 4.
He began working towards financial, social & environmental
sustainability at the grass root level.
Over t he years his 15 environmentally sound & commercially viable
technologies have generated more than 3 lakh jobs across India.
7) Tarun Bharat Sangh (1985) :
Rajinder Singh - Founder of Tarun Bharat Sangh & winne r of the 2001
Ramon Magsaysay Award.
He broug ht water to about 850 parched villages in Rajasthan & motivated
villagers to harvest rainwater.
He advocated small ponds & check dams but did not oppose big dams or
canal network blindly.
8) Saving the Wester n Ghats :
Western Ghat - Home to sanctuaries l ike Bandipur & agarhole - having
rich biodiversity was struck by an epidemic - deforestation in the 1980’s.
The Govt. Forest Dept. estimated that within the last 3 decodes 4.5 million
hectares of forests (an a rea the size of Tamil Nadu) has vanished.
The Kailash Malhotra led save the Western Ghat March, a100 day
padayatra across the hills succeeded in importing the message of
environmental degradation & human rights.
9) Pani Adva, Pani Jirva :
(Obstruct flow ing water to increase percolation of water)
Shri Anna Hajare (Shri Kisan Baburao Hajare) born on 15 June 1937,
promoted this environmental movement. He was in Indian Army. After his
retirement he developed his village Ralegansiddhi. He implemented
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92 Pani Adva, Pani Jirva means instead of building big dams obstruct water
flowing along the slopes so that more water will percolate in the ground.
This groundwater reserve of water becomes sufficient to provide wate r to
the wells throughout the year. Shri Anna Hajare also promoted following
social movements.
1) Indian Anti - corruption movement.
2) Right to Information
He received prestigious Padma Shri (1990) and Padma Bhusan (1992)
awards.

10) Save Taj Mo vement :
Taj Mahal is located on the banks of river Yamuna in Agra, U.P. It was
constructed in the period 1635 -1653 and is one of the Seven Wonders of
the World. I n 1983 UNESCO has declared it as world Heritage site. About
14,00,000 tourists visit this pla ce every year.
Agra has been identified as a ‘Pollution intensive zone’ by WHO. Mathura
oil refinery is at a distance of 50 kms. There are more than 2000 factorie s
in this zone which contribute to pollution.
About 95,000 vehicles pass through this zone e very day.
Population of this area is 5.5 million & tourist population is 14,00,000
annually.
About 50,000 diesel generators are used in this area. Poor local peo ple use
Kerosene stoves, coal & wood for cooking hence & smoke contribute to
pollution.
Prof. Dave of JNU was first to express his views about this problem of
white marble of Taj Mahal is becoming yellow due to pollution.
Govt. has declared an area of about 10,400 sq. kms. around Taj as
protected area.
11) Target Soft Drinks (2003) :
Sunita N arain - Director, Centre for Science & Environment (CSE) threw
two cola giants - Coca Cola & Pepsico in the line of fire as 12 major
brands of soft drinks in Delhi showed 15 to 87 times more levels of deadly
pesticides known to cause cancer & other disease s.
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93 12. Environmental Movements in Maharashtra:
1) Narmada Bachao Andolan
2) Save Western Ghat
3) Pani Adva, Pani Jirva
4.11 SUMMARY
Life is ultimately about choices and so is pollution. Our environment is a
complex, variable and extensive system. Hence protecting the
environment is a hard and enduring task. Much is being done to control,
monitor and rectify damage done by pollutants. The problems are diverse
and some are only being recognised. So it is very important to keep a close
control over pollutan ts so that we can maintain the environment in an
acceptable condition for future generations. We can live with sewage -
strewn beaches, dead rivers, and fish that are too poisonous to eat. Or we
can work togeth er to keep the environment clean so the plants, animals,
and people who depend on it remain healthy. By educating the citizens
and making them aware in environmental protection, consumption
motives and commuting habit we may hope to breathe fresh air, tast e
clean drinking water and experience a comforta ble natural environment.
4.12 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
9. True and false
a. Trees absorb Oxygen from the air and enrich the air with carbon
dioxide.
b. The three main causes of pollution are effluents, wastes and
emissions.
c. A classic example of a primary pollu tant would be the sulphur -
dioxide emitted from factories.
d. Oxygen is released from cattle during digestion and Methane is
released from plants during Photosynthesis.
e. Sewage disposal affects people's immediate environments and leads to
water -related illness es such as pneumonia.
10. Fill in the blanks
a. ___________of land is land pollution.
b. Overabundance of plant life can result in environmental damage called
'______________'.
c. Waters with total dissolved solids of less than __________ per litre are
most suitable for drinking purpose.
d. Fodd droppings, paper products as well as vegatation like grass and
twings, are __________ while others are not and they include plastics,
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94 e. In most of the developing cou ntries increasing rate of soil erosion is
due to ____________ and ____________ agricultural practices.
11. Multiple choice question
a. Water pollution is the act of contaminating
i. water bodies such as rivers, oceans, lakes, streams, aquifers, and
groundwater.
ii. vehicles that carry drinking water from one place to another.
iii. water stored in the tanks in a township.
b. Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides are
released into the atmosphere during
i. the burning of paper
ii. the burning of fossil fuels
iii. the burning of cooking gas
c. The major kinds of pollution are
i. food pollution, water pollution, and land pollution.
ii. air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution
iii. air pollution, food pollution, and light pollution
d. Following are some of the major sources of environm ental
pollution:
i. sound sources, agricultural sources, biogenic source
ii. pesticides, odours and biogenic sources
iii. industrial sources, agricultural sources, biogenic sources
e. One of the reasons responsible for the deteriorating health
conditions of workers in a mine is
i. during mining dust and chemicals are released in the air causing
massive air pollution.
ii. during mining polluted water is released from the mine causing
massive land pollution.
iii. during mining chemicals a re released in the water causing water
pollution .
12. Answer the Following Questions
1. What is pollution? Elaborate your answer classifying pollution.
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95 3. What do you understand by the term pollutants? State its
nature.
4. State the major causes of pollution.
5. What is air pollution? How does burning of fossil fuels affect air
pollution?
6. What are the impacts of air pollution?
7. State different types of water pollution. What are factors that
cause water pollution?
8. What are the impacts of water pollution?
9. What are the measures of noise pollution?
10. Write short notes on:
a. Effect of toxic pollutants on water quality
b. Causes of Noise Pollution
c. Industrial waste
d. Dust emissions
e. Indoor air pollution
4.13 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS .
1. a. fal se, Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the air and enrich the air
with Oxygen
1. b. true
1. c. true
1. d. false, Methane is released from cattle during digestion and Oxygen is
released from plants during Photosynthesis.
1. e. false, Sewage disposal affects people's i mmediate environments and
leads to water -related illnesses such as diarrhoea.
2. a. Degradation
2. b. entrophication
2. c. 500 mg
2. d. biodegradable
2. e. deforestation, faulty
4.a.i.
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96 4.c.ii.
4.d.iii.
4.e.i.
4.14 TECHNICAL WORDS:
 Pollution -the presence in or introduction into the environment of a
substance which has harmful or poisonous effects.
 Air pollution -the presence in or introduction into the air of a
substance which has harmful or poisonous effects.
 Land pollution -is degradation or destru ction of earth's surface and
soil, directly or i ndirectly as a result of human activities
 Noise pollution -harmful or annoying levels of noise.
 Landfill -the disposal of waste material by burying it, especially as a
method of filling in and reclaiming excava ted pits.
 Trophic level -A feeding level within a food web
 Sewage -waste water and excrement conveyed in sewers.
4.15 TASK
 In a chart draw a table and define pollution and state its
classification with examples.
4.16 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Concepts of Environmental Science Paperback – 2017 by
Sugand ha Mishra and Dhirendra Kumar
 Textbook of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
Paperback – by Erach Bharucha
 Encyclopaedia of Teaching Environmental Sciences by A. K. Singh





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97 5
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure :
5.0 After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Subject discussion
5.4 Concept and Need of Sustainable Development
5.5 Environmenta l Issues and Sustainable Development
5.6 Sustainable Agriculture
5.7 Energy crisis
5.8 Eco­friendly life style
5.9. Biosphere Reserves and Wildlife Management in India
5.10. Environmental Impact Ass essment
5.11 Summar y
5.12 Check your Progress/Exercise
5.13 Answers to the self learning questions
5.14 Technical words and their meaning
5.15 Task
5.16 References for further study
5.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to
 Understand the concept and need of sustainable development
 Learn the environmental issues and sustainable development
 Know about sustainable agriculture
 Understand the energy crisis
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98 5.2 INTRODUCTION
In the first unit we have learnt the definit ion of Environmental Geography
along with its Nature and Scope. We have discussed ecosystem also. In the
second unit we have studi ed the concept of resources, classification of
resources and environmental problems associated with forest, water and
minerals . Bio ­diversity, its concept and types along with hotspots of bio ­
diversity and biodiversity in India with emphasis on Western Gha t have
also been studied. In the third unit we studied air, water, land and noise
pollution in details. In the present unit we are going to study the concept
and need of sustainable development along with environmental issues and
sustainable development. W e will also learn sustainable agriculture. In the
latter part of this third unit we will study energy crisis and eco ­friendly life
style.
5.3 SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
In our common home earth, survival and development are not possible
without the environment. O ur environmental resources are limited. With
technological discoveries and industrialisation an increasing trend in
human nee ds is noted. A new approach to living is called for because old
models of consumption and industrialization are not going to supp ort the
world’s increasing population. Moreover we should make our
development activities enable in such a way that it can con tinue in the
long term. If we wish the water, materials and natural resources to thrive,
new ways to deal with this situation must be sorted out. In that way we
will leave what we have got for the generation to come. So we must use
the resources wisely, ca refully and responsibly to let the future generation
live the comfort we lived. This is called sustainable development.
Sustainabi lity is a balancing act. The United Nation’s 1987 Report of the
World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common
Future noted that sustainable development meets the needs of the present
without compromising the well ­being of future generations. To achieve
these lofty goals, humans will have to re ­examine their policies on:
 Environmental protection.
 Social responsibilit y.
 Economic practice.
5.4 CONCEPT AND NEED OF SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Our Earth was formed about 4600 million years ago. All form s of life like
Plants, Animals, Fish, Birds, and Insects etc. appeared on the earth much
before the emergence of man. Man appe ared on the earth about 2 million
years ago.
In the initial stage of development man was dominated by the nature. Man
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99 secrets behind the environmental forces; through the develop ment of
science and technology. Now he has started dominating on the
environmental. He is using environmental resources for his ow n benefit.
His activities have become harmful to the nature.


In the initial stages of development man was living in the ca ves. Today he
has modern home with many amenities. Hence we say that modern man is
more developed than the man in the past.

The development of man depends on the environmental resources which
are exploited by man on very large scale. So it will be diffi cult to continue
similar type of development in the future without the environmental
resources.
Hence we require sustainable deve lopment that means our development
should continue for a longer period of time. If is possible we must
understand this concept and control our greed of exploiting environment.
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100 Sustainable Development is a balance between environmental
conservation and d evelopment. G.H. Harlem (1987) has defined
sustainable development as follows. Sustainable development means to
meet the needs and aspiration of the present without compromising the
ability to meet those of future.
According to W.E. Cunningham and M.A. Cu nningham (2000) ­
Sustainable development means progress in human well being that we can
extend or prolong over many generatio ns rather than just few years. The
benefits of sustainable development must be available to all humans & not
just to a privileged group.

There is an urgent need to implement the concept of sustainable
development immediately at all levels of the society , otherwise our future
generations may face severe problems, which may affect their survival. To
achieve this we can conserve our environmental resources.
5.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
5.5.1 Environmental Issues:
1) Depletion of Ozon e layer
2) Global warming ­ Greenhouse effect
3) Acid rain
4) Desertification
5) Deforestation
6) Conservation of Bio diversity
7) Uncontrolled use of resources
1) Depletion of Ozone layer:
Ozone layer is found at the height of 25 to 30 kms from the Earth’s
surface. Th is layer obstructs U.V. radiation coming from the sun. Hence
the amount of U.V. radiation reaching earth’s surface is controlled. This
layer of Ozone is depleting due to manmade gases like CFC. One
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101 hole has formed over Antarctica, which is enlarging due to depletion of
Ozone.

CFC is used in refrigeration and diff erent types of sprays e.g. body sprays
etc. We can avoid using such products in which CFC is used. We cannot
stop using refrig eration because it is essential but at least we can avoid
using body sprays.
2) Global warming - Green House Effect:
Earth receiv es solar radiation. Earth surface is heated & it emits radiation.
Hence the balance is maintained between incoming & outgoing radiation ­
heat. So for many centuries temperature of the earth was constant.
Due to intensive human activities, increase in pop ulation, development in
science & technology different Green House gases like Methane, CFC,
CO 2 etc. were released into atmosp here o a large scale. These gases absorb
outgoing radiation & thus are responsible for increasing temperature of the
earth. Though the increase in the temperature of the earth is very gradual,
it can have very hazardous effects.
 Some of the evidences of G lobal Warming are as follows:
1) Melting of the glaciers.
2) Records of temperature
3) Rise in the sea level
4) Warming of ocea n waters
5) Upward shifting of snowline in tropical & sub ­tropical areas
6) Changes in the climatic conditions ­ variations i n the rainfall.
7) Spread of tropical diseases in the temperate & polar areas
Deforestation has reduced capacity of the atmospher e to absorb CO 2 so we
should plant more trees to restore capacity of atmosphere to absorb CO 2.
We should use bicycles instead of motorcycles & cars to reduce pollution
& emission of CO & CO 2 into atmosphere.
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102 3) Acid Rain:
Industrial pollutants like Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides are dissolved in
rain water a nd the rain water becomes acidic (sulphuric acid). The acid
rain is hazardous for the aquatic life in the ponds, fish population h as
decreased tremendously. It is also harmful to plants, crops and human
beings.
Acid rain is a global problem and hence we c an spread awareness about
this problem and help environmentalist to reduce the level of pollution and
hazardous gases from the ind ustries.
4) Desertification:
The term desertification refers to the conversion of natural fertile
landscape into arid ­ deser t like landscape due to human activities.

According to U. N. estimate about 40% non desert land of Africa, 33% of
Asia & 20% of South America is likely to be converted into desert.
Desertification can be controlled by reducing over grazing, over croppi ng,
deforestation and over irrigation.
5) Deforestation - Cutting of trees / forest on a large scale:


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103

Deforestation is a s erious problem in Brazil & India.
We should reduce the use of wood in our daily life. We can use other
substitutes like plast ic. At the same time we should plant more trees to
compensate loss done by the deforestation.
6) Conservation of Biodiversity:
We find variation w.r.t. relief, climate vegetation, and animal life in
different parts of the world. Flora & fauna found in a p articular region are
unique in character & hence it is our duty to conserve Biodiversity (Plants,
animals, insets etc) of the regi on.
The major cause of the loss of biodiversity is expansion of human
activities. We should control our greed of superimposin g cultural
landscape. Many species of plans & animals have already become extinct.
This loss is irreversible. Many plants are unkn own to use they have
wonderful properties and can help in various problems related to man.
Hence we should conserve our divers ity of plants & animals by protecting
them and spreading awareness about this issue in the society.
7) Uncontrolled use of resour ces:
The root cause of all environmental problems is the human greed & his
uncontrolled use of resources. Human wants are unli mited. They are never
satisfied. As Mahatma Gandhi said, ‘Our Earth has sufficient resources to
fulfill the needs of everyone but not the greed of anyone.’
Charity begins at home & so we should start reducing our requirements,
unwanted purchases & our gree d. We can spread awareness about this
issue in the society.
5.6 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Sustainable agriculture means the product ion of food, animal products,
fiber etc. using farming techniques that protect the environment, public
health, human communiti es and animal welfare.
5.6.1 Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals -
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Sustainable agriculture
5.6.2 There are many techniques used by the people working in the
field of sustainable agriculture. They are as follows:
1) Promote soil health by using organic fertilizers.
2) Restrict use of water b y using minimum amount of water which is
essential for the crops
3) Reduce Pollution level by using Organic fertilizers & pest icides.
Sustainability means the principle that we must meet the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs. Hence stewardship of both natural & human resources is
very important. Stewardship of n atural resources means maintaining &
enhancing the vital resource base for the long term. Stewardship of human
resources means con sideration of social responsibilities such as working &
living conditions of labourers, the needs of rural communities & consu mer
health & safety both in the present & the future.
Everyone of use can play a crucial role in creating a sustainable food
system. → Food Production → Processing → Distribution → Marketing
→ Consumption → Waste recovery. Etc.
Sustainable agriculture nor mally requires a series of small and realistic
steps.
5.7 ENERGY CRISIS
In the initial stages of development man was living in th e cave. He was
using fire for his energy needs. With the development in science and
technology man developed many alternative sources of energy. At the
same time he developed many modern types of equipment which require
different forms of energy.
Each sou rce of energy has some advantages and some drawbacks. Many
of these energy sources are localized in a particular area. Their d istribution
is not same everywhere.
With increase in population and poverty the distribution of energy has
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105 countries have less problem of energy but the poor people in the
underdevelo ped countries face the problem of energy crisis.
An energy crisis is defined as any significant battlement in the supply of
energ y resources to an economy.
Over population, unequal distribution of existing energy and wastage of
energy are the major cause s of energy crisis.
In order to avoid energy crisis in the future we should control our growing
population, find out ways for equ al distribution of energy and reduce
wastage of energy.
Coal & Oil resources are termed as fund resources. These are limited in
supply. Hence we must use these resources carefully. At the same time we
should give more emphasis on renewable sources of ener gy as solar
energy, wind energy, tidal energy & geothermal sources of energy.
We should use energy only when it is essential. We can switch off the fan
& lights when not required ­ at homes, offices, railway etc. We can also
develop equipments which consu me less energy. e.g. instead of ordinary
bulbs we can use CFL bulbs.
5.8 ECO -FRIENDLY LIFESTYLE
Eco­friendly lifestyle means all actions of all individuals which are useful
for the environment. e.g. It also includes using alternative energies as solar
energy, wind energy, or hydro electricity instead of using energy from
crude oil or coal.
We can reduce our requirements, recycl e & reuse our resources.
5.8.1 Some simple solutions for adopting eco ­friendly lifestyle are stated
under:
1) Grow your own food i f possible.
2) Eat less meat, consume more vegetables.
3) Avoid processed food.
4) Open windows for fresh air.
5) Use maximum day ligh t.
6) Use energy efficient appliances and electronics.
7) Take short showers ­ avoid tub ­ baths.
8) Dry clothes using natural sunlight.
9) Use waste water of bathroom & kitchen for plants in the garden.
10) Switch off fans & lights when not in use.
11) Close water tap while brushing your teeth or shaving.
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106 13) Use public transportation instead of pri vate car.
14) Use bicycle.
15) Avoid chemical cleaners, use natural materials.
16) Use less photocopies.
17) Avoid use of wooden furnitur e.
18) Recycle newspapers, bottles, cans etc.
19) Use cotton bags for grocery items.
20) Avoid food wastage.
21) Practice composting waste food .
22) Plant more trees.
23) Opt for paperless billing & other processes.
24) Go cashless ­ use card for payments.
25) Avoid leakage of wat er.
26) Use old clothes for cleaning floor.
27) Read newspapers, books online.
28) Avoid disposable products (one time use)
29) Give your old c lothes & other items to the poor needy persons.
30) Spread awareness about the eco ­friendly lifestyle in the society.
5.9 BIOSPHERE RESERVE IN INDIA AND
MANAGEMENT
In india 18 Biosphere Reserves in India. A Biosphe re Reserve is an area
of land and/or sea designated by UNESCO as being of outstanding
universal value because of its ecological features. The article expla ins that
these re serves are important for the conservation of biological diversity
and the sustainabl e use of natural resources. Firstly, there are 18 Biosphere
Reserves in India, among which 12 Biosphere reserves in India find their
place in UNESCO’s List of Man & Biosphe re Reserves Programme. This
article contains the Map of all the Biosphere reserves in India. The table
below shows the exact details of every Biosphere Reserve in India, its year
of formation, and the biosphere reserve area.
What is Biosph ere?
The Biospher e includes all the living components of the Earth. It consists
of all plants and animals, including all the micro Organisms that live on
Earth and their interactions with the surrounding environment.
Most of the organisms exist in the lith osphere, the hydr osphere, and the
atmosphere. Many organisms move freely from one realm to the other. All
these together constitute the Biosphere.
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107 What is Biosphere Conservation?
Since 1986, the Government of India has been implementing a programme
known as Bi osphere Rese rve, which provides financial assistance in the
proportions of 90:10 to the Northeastern Region States and three
Himalayan states and 60:40 to other states for the upkeep, improvement,
and advancement of certain components. The Central MAB Comm ittee
review s and approves the Management Action Plan drafted by the State
Government.
Zoning Schemes of Biosphere :
The zonation of each biosphere reserve in India or any other Biosphere
reserve should include:

Core area
Human interference in the core area is restricted.
The core area of Biosphere Reserves generally consists of national parks
and sanctuaries protected under the wildlife protection act 1 972.
Core areas of the biosphere reserve are securely protected sites for
conserving biological diversity. Monitoring these minimally disturbed
ecosystems and undertaking non ­destructive research and other low ­
impact uses such as education .
In addition to its conservation function, the core area of the reserves
contributes to a range of ecosystem services, e.g. carbon sequestration,
supply of clean water and air, soil stabilization.
Buffer zone
Buffer zone generally surrounds or adjoins th e core regions an d can be
used for activities compatible with sound environmental practices, such
asenvironmental education, recreation, Ecotourism applied and basic
research.
The buffer zone of the biosphere reserve also has a critical connectivity
function in a large r spatial context as they connect biodiversity
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108 Buffer zones also have intrinsic functions of maintaining anthropogenic ,
biological, and cultural diversity in the biosphere reserv es.
Transition ar ea
It is the outermost area of the Biosphere Reserves.
Transition Area plays a central function in sustainable development.
Transition Areas may contain a variety of agricultural activities,
settlements, and other uses.
Local communities , management agen cies, scientists, NGOs, cultural
groups, and other stakeholders work together to manage and sustainably
develop the area’s resources.
5.10. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESMENT
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool used to assess the
significant effect s of a project or development proposal on the
environment.
EIAs make sure that project decision makers think about the likely effects
on the environment at the earliest possible time and aim to avoid, reduce
or offset those effects. This e nsures that propo sals are understood properly
before decisions are made.
Stages of the EIA process
EIA has 5 main stages. If an EIA is required, an Environmental
Assessment Impact Report will be written and submitted with the
application for development co nsent. The public will have the chance to
comment . This makes sure you're given a chance to be involved in
decision making .
The following points highlight the ten main stages of environmental
impact assessment. The stages are:
1. Identification
2. Screen ing
3. Scoping a nd Consideration of Alternatives
5. Impact Prediction
5. Mitigation
6. Reporting To Decision ­Making Body
7. Publi c Hearing 8. Review (EIA Report)
9. Decision ­Making
10. Post Project Monitoring & Environment Clearance Condition.
Stag e # 1. Identifica tion:
The first step is to define a project and study all the likely activities
involved in its process so as to unders tand the range and reach of the
project. This helps in deciding the possible zones of environmental
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109 Stage # 2. Screening:
Scree ning is done to see whether a project requires environmental
clearance as per the statutory notificat ions.
Screening criteria are based upon:
(i) Scales of investment
(ii) Types of development
(iii) Location of development
A project w ill have several ramifications biophysical or environmental,
economic and social. Hence, it requires some degree of public
participation. The law for EIA varies from country to country. If screening
shows that a project necessitates EIA, it move s to the ne xt stage. Some
projects may not require EIA. It is genera lly determined by the size of the
project and is sometimes based on the site ­specific information.
The output of the screening process is a document known as “Initial
Environmental Examination or Ev aluation (IEE)”, based on which the
decision is taken whe ther an EIA is needed and if so, to what extent .
Stage # 3. Scoping and Consideration of Alternatives:
Scoping is the procedure of identifying the key environmental issues and
is po ssibly the most im portant step in a n EIA. Scoping means the scope or
range of the EIA report.
It undertakes the project’s effect on the air, water, soil, noise level, air
quality and physical impact.
Stage # 5. Impact Prediction:
Impact Prediction is a way of ‘mapping’ the environmental con sequences
of the signifi­cant aspects of the project and its alternatives.
There are two steps in impact analysis:
(i) Identification:
Identification of the impacts would have been initiated in the scoping
stage itself. These initial iden tifications may be confirmed and new ones
are added as and when the investigations reveal.
(ii) Prediction of Impacts:
Predication of impacts is both qualitative and quantitative. The scale and
severity of an impact is determined by whether it is reversibl e or
irreversible. If the impact is reversible, then it may be taken as low impact.
If the adverse impact cannot be rev ersed then the impact is said to be high.
Stage # 5. Mitigation:
This stage includes recommended actions that can offset the adverse
impa cts of the project . This is done with the idea of lessening the negative
effects and improving the scope for project benefits.

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110 Stage # 6. Reporting To Decision -Making Body:
The project authorities have to furnish the following documents for
environmental appraisal of a deve lopment project.
(i) Detailed project report (DPR)
(ii) Filled in questionnaire
(iii) Environmental impact statement (EIS): EIS should provide the
possible impact (positive and negative) of the project.
Stage # 7. Public Hearing:
After the completion of EI A report the law requires that the public must be
informed and consulted on a proposed development after the completion
of EIA report.
Any one likely to be affected by the proposed project is entitled to have
access to the executive su mma ry of the EIA.
Stage # 8. Review (EIA Report):
Once the final report is prepared, it may be reviewed based on the
comments and inputs of stakeholders.
Stage # 9. Decision -Making:
The final decision is based on the EIA to approve or reject the project.
This is open to admin istrative or judicial review based on procedural
aspects.
Stage # 10. Post Project Monitoring & Environment Clearance
Condition:
Once a project is approved, then it should function as per the conditions
stipulated based on environmental clearance. These c onditions have to be
strictly monitored and implemented.
Monitoring should be done during both construction and operation phases
of a project. This is not only to ensure that the commitments made are
complied with, but als o to observe whe ther the predictio ns made in the
EIA reports were correct or not.
5.11 SUMMARY
The concept of sustainable development is new. The environmentalists
have become worried knowing about the excessive utilization of the
natural resources. Due to destruction of n atural resources i n the recent
times they started to advocate for better exploitation of nature. However,
the term was first used in 1980 by the World Conservation Strategy which
explained sustainable devel opment as a path to human progress that has
the ca pacity to continue in the long term. As a result of expansion of
human activities there have been great losses of biodiversity. Many
species of plans & animals have already become extinct. This loss is
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111 After going through this unit we have le arnt that the need and importance
of sustainable development are to balance our economic, environmental
and social needs, allowing well ­being for present and future generations.
5.12 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EX ERCISE
1. True and false
a. Our Earth was formed about 4 600 million years ago.
b. The development of man depends on the environmental resources
which are exploited by man on very small scale.
c. Oxygen layer is found at the height of 25 to 30 kms from the Earth’s
surface.
d. Deforestation has reduced capacity of the atm osphere to absorb CO2 so
we should plant more trees to restore capacity of atmosphere to absorb
CO2.
e. Desertification can be controlled by increasing grazing, cropping and
deforestation.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. Sustainable Development is a balance between env ironmental
_______ ___and development.
b. One molecule of CFC can destroy more than _______________ of
Ozone.
c. We should use ___________ instead of motorcycles & cars to reduce
pollution & emission of CO & CO2 i nto atmosphere.
d. The term _________________ refers to the conversion of natural fertile
landscape into arid ­ desert like landscape due to human activities.
e. Over population, unequal distribution of existing energy and wastage of
energy are the major causes of ________________.
3. Multiple choice question
a. Some of the evidences of Global Warming are as follows:
i. Melting of the glaciers, Records of temperature, Rise in the sea level
ii. Spread of polar diseases in the temperate and tropical areas, cooling
of ocean wa ters, Rise in the sea level
iii. No changes in the clim atic conditions, f all of temperature, Rise in the
sea level
b. Due to intensive human activities, increase in population, development
in science and technology different Green House gases like
i. Oxygen, CFC, CO 2 etc. were released into atmosphere o a large sca le
ii. Nitrogen, CFC, oxygen etc. were released into atmosphere o a large
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Environmental Geography
112 iii. Methane, CFC, CO2 etc. were released into atmosphere o a large
scale
c. There are many techniques used by the people working in the f ield of
sustainable agriculture. They are as follo ws:
i. Promote soil h ealth by using chemical fertilizers, use maximum
amount of water which is essential for the crops, large scale use of
organic fertilizers and pesticides.
ii. Promote soil health by using orga nic fertilizers, minimise the use of
water by usin g ice which is ess ential for the crops, lessen Pollution
level by using chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
iii. Promote soil health by using organic fertilizers, Restrict use of water
by using minimum amount of water which is essential for the crops,
Reduce Pollution level by using Organic fertilizers and pesticides.
d. Some simple solutions for adopting eco ­friendly lifestyle are
i. Grow your own food if possible, eat less green vegetables, consume
more meat, avo id processed food, and open windows only during
rainy season, use en ergy efficient appliances and electronics.
ii. Grow your own food if possible, eat less meat, consume more
vegetables, avoid processed food, open windows for fresh air, use
maximum day light, use energy efficient appliances and electronics.
iii. Buy your own food from shops, eat more meat, consume less
vegetables, eat processed food, do not open windows at home, use
minimum day light, use energy efficient appliances and electronics.
e. Ozone hole fo rmed over Antarctica
i. is decreasing due to depleti on of Ozone layer.
ii. is enlarging due to depletion of Ozone layer.
iii. is enlarging due to depletion of Thermosphere.
4. Answer the Following Questions
1. What do you understand by the term Sustainable Development?
Elaborate your answer with suitable examples.
2. State t he need of Sustain able Development,
3. How are the Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development
related?
4. Write a short note on:
a. Sustainable Agriculture
b. Energy crisis
c. Eco­friendly life style

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Sustainable Development
and Environmental Management
113 5.13 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING
QUESTIONS
1.a. true
1.b. false, The devel opment of man depends on the environmental
resources which are exploited by man on very large scale.
1.c. false, Ozone layer is found at the height of 25 to 30 kms from the
Earth’s surface .
1.d. true
1.e. false, Desertification can be con trolled by reducin g over grazing, over
cropping, deforestation and over irrigation.
2.a. conservation
2.b. 1000 molecules
2.c. bicycles
2.d. desertification
2.e. energy crisis.
3.a.i.
3.b.iii.
3.c.iii.
3.d. ii.
3.e.ii.
5.14 TECHNICAL WORDS:
 Sustainable d evelopment ­economi c development that is conducted
without depletion of natural resources
 Acid Rain: The precipitation of dilute solutions of strong mineral
acids, formed by the mixing in the atmosphere of v arious industrial
pollutants (primarily sulphur di oxide and nitrogen oxides) with
naturally occurring oxygen and water vapour.
 Biodegradable: Used to describe the properties of items that will
naturally decompose if left in exposed outdoor environments.
 Biodiversity : The propensity in ecosystems (when unt ouched) to have
a vast variety of plant, animal and other living species. Biodiversity
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114  Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Stable, artificiall y created chemical
compounds containing carbon, ch lorine, fluorine a nd sometimes
hydrogen.
 Emissions : Emissions are particles and gases released into the air as
byproducts.
 Fossil Fuel : Used to define a wide range of fuels derived from geologic
extraction. Oil, Coal, Oil Shale, Natural Gas, etc.
 Global Wa rming : Refers to t he increase in average temperatures the
earth has experienced since the mid ­twentieth century.
5.15 TASK
 In a chart draw a table and write down the simple solutions for adopting
eco­frien dly lifestyle.
5.16 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 “Environmental Ecol ogy, biodiversity And Climate Change: Towards
Sustainable Development” by H.M. Saxena
 “Sustainable Development: Linking Economy, Society, Environment”
by Tracey Strange and Anne Bayley
 “Ecology And Sustainable Development” by P S Ramakris hnan
 “Management o f Resources for Sustainable Development” by Sushma
Goel
 “Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development: Issues and
Policies” by S. Ramaswamy and Sathis G. Kumar



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QUESTION PAPER PATTERN


Time: 3hours Marks;100 N.B. 1.All questions are compulsory and carry equal marks.
2. Use of Map Stencils is permitted.
3. Draw sketches and diagrams wherever necessary.
Q.1 Long answer question on Unit -I 20Marks
OR
Long answer question on unit –I for 20 Marks or
Two short answer questions each 10Marks 20Marks

Q.2 Long answer question on Unit-II 20Marks
OR
Long answer question on unit –II for 20 Marks
or
Two short answer questions each 10Marks 20Marks

Q.3 Long answer question on Unit -III 20Marks
OR
Long answer question on unit –III for 20 Marks
or
Two short answer questions each 10Marks 20Marks

Q.4 Long answer question on Unit -IV 20Marks
OR
Long answer question on unit –IV for 20 Marks
or
Two short answer questions each 10Marks 20Marks

Q.5 Long answer question on Unit -V 20Marks
OR
Long answer question on unit –V for 20 Marksor
Two short answer questions each 10Marks 20Marks
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