Sociology-of-Social-Movements-munotes

Page 1

1 MODULE - I
1
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: DEFINITION,
CONCEPTS & OTHER ISSUES
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History
1.3 Key Processes
1.4 Social Movements Framework
1.5 Favorable Pre -conditions
1.6 Individual Inducements
1.7 The Ingredients of Micro -Mobiliza tion
1.8 Movement Maintenance
1.9 Identification of Supporters
1.10 Summary
1.11 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES  To study the rise of social movement s.
 To explore the impact of social movements.
1.1 INTRODUCTION Social movements are a type of group acti on. They are large informal
groupings of individuals and/or organizations focused on specific political
or social issues, in other words, on carrying out, resisting or undoing a
social change.
Modern Western social movements became possible through educati on
(the wider dissemination of literature), and increased mobility of labour
due to the industrializ ation and urbanization of 19th century societies. It is
sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative
economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture is
responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various
contemporary social movements. However, others point out that ma ny of
the major social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the
Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism.
Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theorie s and
empirical research on socia l movements. For example, some research in munotes.in

Page 2

2 Sociology of Social Movements political science highlights the relation between popular movements and
the formation of new political parties as well as discussing the function of
social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics.
Modern movements have utilized technology and the internet to mobilize
people globally. Adapting to commun ication trends is a common theme
among successful movements.
1.2 HISTORY The term "social movements" was introduced in 1850 by the German
Sociologist Lorenz von Stein in his book "History of the French Social
Movement from 1789 to the Present" (1850). Char les Tilly claims that the
"social movement" did not ex ist before the late eighteenth century:
although such elements as campaigns, social movement repertoire and
WUNG displays has a long history, only recently had they been combined
together into a proper social movement. The "social movement" was
invented in England and North America during the first decades of
the nineteenth century and has since then spread across the globe. [Tilly,
2004]
Tilly argues that the early growth of social movements was connected to
broad economic and political changes inclu ding parliamentarization,
market capitalization, and proletarianization. [Tilly, 2004] Political
movements that evolved in late 18th century, like tho se connected to
the French Revolutio n and the Pol ish Constitution of May 3, 1791 are
among the first documented social movements, alt hough Tilly notes that
the British abolitionist movement has "some claim" to be the first social
movement (becoming one between the sugar boycott of 1791 and the
secon d great petition drive of 1806). The labor movement and socialist
movement of the late 19th century are seen as the prototypical social
movements, leading to the formation of communist and social democratic
parties and organisations. From 1815, Britain after victory in the
Napoleonic Wars entered a period of social upheaval. Similar tendencies
were seen in other countries as pressure for reform continued, for example
in Russia with the Russian Revolution of 1905 and of 1917, resulti ng in
the collaps e of the Russian State around the end of the First World War.
In 1945, Britain after victory in the Second World War entered a period of
radical reform and change. I n the post -war period, women's rights, gay
rights, peace, civil rights, an ti-nuclear and en vironmental movements
emerged, often dubbed the New Social Movements. They led inter alia to
the formation of green parties and organisations influence d by the new
left. Some find in the end of the 1990s the emergence of a new global
social movement, the anti-globalization movement. Some social
movement scholars posit that with the rapid pace of globalization, t he
potential for the emergence of new type of social movement is latent --
they make the analogy to national movements of the p ast to describe w hat
has been termed a global citizens movement.
munotes.in

Page 3

3 Social Movements: Definition, Concepts & Other Issues 1.3 KEY PROCESSES Several key processes lie behind the history of social m ovements. The
process of urbanization, which created large cities, facilitated social
interaction between scores of people. It was i n cities, where people of
similar goals could find each other, gather and organize, that those early
social movements first appeared. Similarly, the process of industrialization
which gathered large masses of workers in the same region was
responsible for the fact that many of those early social movements
addressed matters important to that soc ial class. Many other social
movements were created at universitie s, where the process of mass
education brought many people together. With the development of
commu nication technologies , creation and activities of social movements
became easier - from printed pamphlets circulating in the 18th century
coffeehouses to newspapers and Internet, all those tools became important
factors in the growt h of the social moveme nts. Finally, the spread of
democracy and political rights like the freedom of speech made the
creation and functioning of social movements much easier.
Social movements have been and continued to be closely connected with
democratic polit ical systems. Occasionally social movements have been
involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flou rished
after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a
popular and glob al expression of dissent. [Tilly, 2004]
1.4 SOCIAL MOVEME NTS FRAMEWORK The ODSC (Organization Development for Social Change) model
emerged through the work of a group of consultants convened by the
Movement Strategy Cente r in US over the course of three years. It
explores organizational and movement -building t ensions in order to
unearth potential places of unity and develop a more holistic framework
for change. This framework contains four approaches to transformation
that we believe are vital components to social change, and that are
frequentl y at odds with each other within organizations. They are:
Community Organizing (CO), Power Analysis (PA), Organization
Development (OD), and Spirit I Sustainable Practice (SP) .
The elements of collective action, political analysis, organizational
structure, and indiv idual reflection are critically important to building a
social movement that on one hand embodies sustainable practices, and on
the other is politically shrewd and powerful enough to contend with
oppressive forces. At the same time, each element presents a different
approach to change that surfaces contentious questions about the value of
internal work (both personal and organizational), the centrality of
power -based analysis, and the primacy of action above all else.
Differences of opinion in each of these areas crystallize sharp t ensions and
can impede even the most concerted efforts to work together.
What affects the success of social movements? What do the civil liberties,
feminist, environmental, gay rights, anti -nuke, gun con trol, don't drink and munotes.in

Page 4

4 Sociology of Social Movements drive, and living wage movements have in common? Since the 1960's a
small number of sociologists has been conducting research, trying to
answer this question.
Research -based theory on soc ial movements complements the limited ,
often personal, perspect ive of ac tivists and organizers because it looks at
larger numbers of people, longer periods of time, and major shifts in
popular attitudes. At the time of this writing, little of this work has made
its way out of universities. The follo wing is an attemp t to present in simple
language the resource mobilization perspective of social movements. It
summarizes and updates Doug McAdam's, John D. McCarthy's, and
Mayer Zald's detailed review article, Social Movements, published in the
Handbook of Sociology, ed ited by Neil Smelser. Their empirical approach
is distinct from the heavily theoretical approach to social movements
linked to European intellectuals like Jurgen Habermas, which focuses on
symbolic production and cultural conflict.
The authors identify three factors critical to social movements: political
opportunity, organizational capacity, and framing ability. They look at
social movements as politics by other means, often the only means open to
relatively powerless challenging groups . They argue for t he constancy of
discontent and emphasize the variability of resources in accounting for
the emergence and development of insurgency. A reliable model of social
change, they say, must be able to account for b oth micro and macro
phenomen a, and be able to explain not only the emergence but the
maintenance and development of social movement organizations. In
more detail, here is what works for social movements.
1.5 FAVORABLE PRE -CONDITIONS Individual psychology not so important:
Early work on social mov ements assumed that activism could be
explained by examining the psychological motivations of individuals. A
popular theory was that activism came from a perceived gap between what
a person felt he or she was entitled to and what he or s he actually recei ved.
Research shows that individual predispositions are at best insufficient to
account for participation in collective action.
Prosperity:
Prosperity affords the resources necessary for social movements. Other
things being equal the most deprived seem unable to sustain more than
momentary insurgency. Money also makes a difference to local, short term
initiatives. Wealthy neighborhoods are much better than poor
neighborhoods at getting concessions and services from local government.
Phys ical concentratio n:
Bringing people into close proximity in cities, factories, and university
campuses increases the potential for social movement activity. The civil
rights movement followed the mass migration of blacks from dispersed munotes.in

Page 5

5 Social Movements: Definition, Concepts & Other Issues rural settlements t o concentrated urban centres in the US South. Short -
lived examples of physical concentration also foment social change.
Conferences, for instance, often energize participants to pursue
progressive change. Sports events, carnivals and rallies have less
predictable outcom es.
Level of pri or grassroots organization:
Already existing church groups, clubs, special interest organizations,
teams and recreational groups, community groups, PTAs, veterans and
educational organizations support the development of social movemen ts.
The early stages of mobilization are difficult if most people lead purely
private lives, and grassroots groups have few members. Robert Putnam's
work in Italy shows how broad public participation and a healthy
collection of grassroots groups cou ld exp edite regional government
initiatives.
The absence of cross -cutting solidarities:
It is easier for a movement to grow in a population that is isolated or has
weak ties to other groups in society. The feminist movement initially
encountere d a good deal of resistance from married women in the US,
women who had a wide variety of social and economic ties to men.
Suddenly imposed grievances, dramatic spotlighting:
Dramatic, highly publicized, unexpected events can lead to public outrage
and ma jor shifts in pub lic attitudes. Huge oil spills, nuclear accidents,
revelations of serious government misconduct, official violence against
dissenters, or the sudden loss of employment serve to foment social
movement.
Solidarity instead of free -riding:
Many sociologist s have argued that social movements are hampered by the
tendency for peop le to do a quick cost -benefit analysis of their
participation. The rational person will conclude the easiest course is to
become a free rider since they will obtain t he benefits of so cial action
whether they participate or not. To address free rider absenteeism, smart
activists emphasize solidarity, personal relationships, and the importance
of individual commitment for success. Es tablished organizations with paid
organizers are much b etter equipped to address the free -rider issue.
1.6 INDIVIDUAL INDUCEMENTS Prior contact with a movement member:
Research shows the strongest inducement to activism is prior contact with
a movement member. For instance, new recruits to pe ace movements are
typically people who are already associated with members of peace
groups.
munotes.in

Page 6

6 Sociology of Social Movements Membership in many organizations:
Another correlate of individual activism is the number of organizations a
person belongs to. Because of the difficulty of recr uiting isolated
individuals most organizers do focus their attention on organizations.
Prior activism:
People who have been previously invol ved in some form of collective
action in their past are more likely to be involved collective action in the
future . Havin g learned the role of activist, it’s easier to adopt the ro le
again. The longer one spends in the role of activist, the more integral it
becomes to one's identity.
Emotional tension:
People are more likely to act collectively when responding to st rong
emotions. Co mmunity organizers typically try to identify an emotional
issue that will motivate people to participate. The Chinese students who
drove the democracy movement in China were spurred by a roller coaster
of strong emotions. It started with grief, and an ger over the murder of Hu
Yaobang, the sympathetic general secretary of the Communist Party;
continued with a heroic hunger strike accompanied by vows of self-
sacrifice; and ended with fear and hopeful exhilaration brought on by the
risky defiance of marti al law, and the blockading of entrances to the city.
Moving music:
Music that is often central to a social movement also relies on emotion.
Music speaks to the emotions better than pictures or words. It stirs people
up. Historians freque ntly mention the importance of Tom Paine's
pamphlets to the American Revolution, too often overlooking his
reworking of popular folk tunes.
Availability:
Life circumstances permit or constrain participation by affecting
availability.
People with full time jobs, marriage and family responsibilities are less
likely to participate in social movement activity. Autonomous individuals
with few personal responsibilities such as college students and single
professionals are much more likely participants.
1.7 THE INGREDIENTS OF MICRO -MOBILIZATION Kindling in small groups:
The basic building block of social movements is the small informal
group connected to a loose network. Sometimes this "micro -mobilization
context" is a group of friends, sometimes a group of coworkers, some times
a subgroup within a larger group like a church or a union. A well -known munotes.in

Page 7

7 Social Movements: Definition, Concepts & Other Issues example is the four Greensboro A & T students who precipitated the 60's
black sit in movement after "bull -sessions" in one another's dorm rooms.
Margaret Mead was quite right: "Never doubt that a small group of
thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it's the only
thing that ever has."
Familiar members:
Micro -mobilization contexts act as the staging ground for movements.
Three resources affe ct the emergence of a movement: members, leaders,
and an existing communications network. Research shows that new
members appear along established lines of interaction. New members tend
to know people who are already members. The more a person is inte grated
into an a ctivist community, the more readily he or she will be willing to
take part in protest activities.
A co -optable communications network:
The pattern, speed and spread of a movement depends on an existing
cooptable communications network. T he women's liberation movement
was able to make rapid progress in the 1960's (when it had previously
failed to do so) because of the prior arrival of just such a network. Overall,
the greater the number a nd diversity of people actively participating in an
network the more likely it will support a mobilization effort. The network
may be informal and invisible, like those described in detail in Emanuel
Rosen's book, The Anatomy of Buzz. Rosen sees networks as useful
for flogging products; activists see them as useful for spreading ideas.
Activists could learn something from books on social networks, viral
marketing, and the spread of epidemics. Because social movements seem
to spread like other innovations, activists might also learn something fr om
the literature on technical and cultural diffusion, and the role of early
adopters.
Capable leaders:
Smart, honest, committed leaders are invaluable to a social movement.
The literature on activism emphasizes the importance of le aders in
generating a mo vement, and the importance of creating new leaders to
keep it rolling. Particularly important is the articulate and charismatic
leader who can elegantly a rticulate everyone's concerns, and inspire an
emoti onal response.
A Mobilizing frame:
Corporations a nd elites, aided by corporate media, preserve the status quo
by linking problems to individual shortcomings. They blame the victim,
promoting the demobilizing view that lung cancer results f rom consumer
choice, unemployment from laziness, and family breaku p from
selfishne ss. A movement can build quickly inside a homogenous, highly
interactive group when people question the blame -the-victim frame, and
begin to see a problem deriving from not flawed individuals, but from
flawed public policy. Erving Goffman origina ted the term "fra me" to refer munotes.in

Page 8

8 Sociology of Social Movements to an interpretive scheme that people use to simplify and make sense of
some aspect of the world. When a mobilizing frame becomes widely
shared, the chances of collective action increase markedly.
Frame alignme nt:
Frame ali gnment describes what happens in small informal groups that
promote social change. Movement supporters attempt to recruit by standers
by providing examples and rationales that support a mobilizing frame
and legitimize the movement . If the examples and rationale are
convincing, bystanders will adjust their view of issues and events to fit the
new mobilizing frame. Most frame alignment comes from social
movement organizations as they try to bring in new people and fend off
counter -movement attacks. Frame alignment comes in varieties --
sociologists have named -- frame bridging, frame amplification, frame
extension and frame transformation.
According to David Snow and others, frame extension occurs when a
social movement o rganization extends "the boundaries of its primary
framework so as to encompass interests , or points of view that are
incidental to its primary objectives but of considerable salience to
potential adherents. In effect, the movemen t is attempting to enlarge its
adherent po ol by portraying its objectives or activities as attending to and
being congruent with the values and interests of potential adherents."
Optimistic expectations:
Any given individual is more likely to participate in a project if he or she:
Expects a large number of peopl e to participate Expects his/her
participation will contribute to success Expects success if many people
participate.
The relentless enthusiasm of a good organizer will inspire enthusiasm
and optimism in others, even in the worst circumst ances.
1.8 MOVEM ENT MAINTENANCE The need for social movement organizations:
Micro -mobilization spurs collective action, but informal groups of friends,
ad-hoc committees, or loose associations of activists are not sufficient to
develop or maintain a movement. This requires what are called social
movement organizations or SMOs. Typically these "command posts of the
movement" have an office, staff, volunteers and a board of directors.
Role of the SMC: A social movement organization needs to carve out a
niche for it self in the larger environment of other organizations pursuing
similar objectives. As well, it must develop productive relationships with
media, funders, the media a nd government. Most important, each SMO
must figure out a way to routinize a flow of people a nd money to support
the" cause". SMOs that demand the least from members will be the
most successf ul in obtaining members and money. One common munotes.in

Page 9

9 Social Movements: Definition, Concepts & Other Issues variation -the professional SMO -purports to speak for a large constituency,
but consis ts of a small pa id staff connected through direct mail to a
membership of people who are little more than donors.
Radical Flank Effects:
Research on SMOs pursuing relatively similar goals shows the presence of
extremist groups leads to greater support for moderate groups. Funders
increase their support to moderate groups as a way of undercutting
radical groups. Moreover the presence of more extreme groups alters the
definition of middle, making former radicals seem merely progressive. To
secure their place, the new moderates have to denounce the actions of their
extremist counterparts as irresponsible, immoral, and counterproductive.
The mos t astute will quietly encourage "responsible extremism" at the
same time.
Government control through regulatio n, intimidation and cooptation:
The modern state usually defends elite interests and resists social
movements. It does so through tax policies; laws affecting boycott, strikes
and blockades; strategic withholding of funds; denial of non-profit
charity status; police intimidation; and various forms of cooptation. The
use of force is a dicey issue for government. In the short run systematic,
sustained, moderat e force works. But if it goes on too long or becomes
extreme, the use of force ca n generate a backlash against government and
a bo ost for the movement. Because a violent response to a peaceful
protest generates great sympathy fr om the media and the general
public, peaceful provocation has become a standard tactic of activists.
But prote st organizers always face the problem of trying to control a
small number of violent participants. If they fail, the media will portrait
this minority as representative of all protesters, making a violent response
seem justified.
In modern democr acies, governmen t control often amounts to cooptation
or absorption. This can take the form of providing funds to potentially
problematic groups, and hiring activist leaders or appointing them to
boards. It can also take the form of what is called "symboli c reassurance"
whereby governments set up a special hearing, commissions, or agencies
to address a particular concern or grievance.
1.9 IDENTIFICATION OF SUPPORTERS A difficulty for scholarship of movements is that for most of them, neither
insiders to a movement nor outsiders apply consistent labels or even
descriptive phrases. Unless there is a single leader who does that, or a
formal system of membership agreements, activists will typically use
diverse labels and descriptive phrases that requ ire scholars to discern when
they are referring to the same or similar ideas, declare similar goals, adopt
similar programs of action, and use similar methods. There can be great
differences in the way that is done, to recognize who is and who is not a
member or an allie d group: munotes.in

Page 10

10 Sociology of Social Movements Insiders:
Often exaggerate the level of support by considering people supporters
whose level of activity or support is weak, but also reject those that
outsiders might consider supporters because they discredit the cause, or
are even seen as a dversaries.
Outsiders:
Those not supporters who may tend to either underestimate or
overestimate the level or support or activity of elements of a movement,
by including or excluding those that insiders would exclude or include.
It is often outsid ers rather than insiders that apply the identifying labels
for a movement, which the insiders then may or may not adopt and
use to self -identify. For example, the label for the levellers political
movement in 17th century Engl and was applied to them by their
antagonists, as a term of disparagement. Yet admirers of the movement
and its aims later came to use the term, and it is the term by which they are
known to history.
Caution must always be exercised in any discussion of a morphous
phenome na such as mov ements to distinguish between the views of
insiders and outsiders, supporters and antagonists, each of whom may
have their own purposes and agendas in characterization or
mischaracterization of it.
1.10 SUMMARY Social movement s are a type of group action. Political science and
sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical researc h on
social movements. Modern movements have utilized technology and the
internet to mobilize people globally. The term "social movem ents" was
intro duced in 1850 by the German Sociologist Lorenz von Stein in his
book "History of the French Social Movement from 1789 to the Present"
(1850).
Charles Tilly claims that the "social movement" did not exist before the
late eighteenth century: althou gh such elements as campaigns, social
movement repertoire have a long history, only recently had they been
combined together into a proper social movement. The labor movement
and socialist movement of the late 19th century are seen as the prototypical
social movements, leading to the formation of communist and social
democratic parties and organisations. In the post -war period, women's
rights, gay rights, peace, civil rights, anti-nuclear and environmental
movements emerged, often dubbed the New Social Movements. Some
find in the end of the 1990s the emergence of a new global social
movement, the anti -globalization movement. Some social movement
scholars po sit that with the rapid pace of globalization, t he potential for
the emer gence of new typ e of social movement is l atent -- they make the
analogy to national movements of the past to describe what has been
termed a global citizens movement. munotes.in

Page 11

11 Social Movements: Definition, Concepts & Other Issues Several key processes lie behind the history of social movements . Many
other social movem ents were create d at universities, where the process of
mass education brought many people together. Social movements have
been and continued to be closely connected with democratic political
systems.
What affects the success of social movements? The autho rs identify three
factors critical to social movements: political opportunity, organizational
capacity, and framing ability. In more detail, here is what works for social
movements.
Prosperity:
Prosperity affords the resources necessary for social move ments.
Level of prior grassroots organization:
Already existing church groups, clubs, special interest organizations,
teams and recreational groups, community groups, PTAs, veterans and
educational organizations support the development of social move ments.
Prior con tact with a movement member :
Research shows the strongest inducement to activism is prior con tact with
a movement member. People with full time jobs, marriage and family
respon sibilities are less likely to participate in social movement ac tivity.
Kindling in small groups:
The basic building block of social movements is the small informal
group connected to a loose network.
Capable leaders:
Smart, honest, committed leaders are invaluable to a social movement.
Movement supporters attemp t to recruit by standers by providing
examples and rationales that suppo rt a mobilizing frame and legitimize the
movement. Most frame alignment comes from social movement
organizations as they try to bring in new people and fend off counter -
movement att acks.
1.11 REFER ENCES  Aberle, David F. 1966. The Peyote Religion among the
Navaho.Chicago: Aldine.
 Graph based on Blumer, Herbert G. 19 69. "Collective Behavior." In
Alfred McClung Lee, ed., Prin ciples of Sociology. Third
Edition. New York: B arnes and No ble Book s, pp. 65 -121;
Mauss, Armand L. 1975. Social Problemsas Social Movements.
Philadelphia: Lippincott; and Tilly, Charles. 1978. From
Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, Ma ssachusetts: Addison -
Wesley, 1978. munotes.in

Page 12

12 Sociology of Social Movements  Anth ony Giddens. 198 5. The Nation -State and Violence. Cambridge,
England: Polity Press. ISBN 0520060393
 J. Craig Jenkins and Charles Perrow. 1977. Insurgency of the
PowerlessFarm Worker Movements (1946 -1972). American
Sociological Review. 42(2):249 -268.
 Dian a Kendall, Socio logy In Our Times, Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
ISBN 0 -534-64629 -8
 William Kornhauser. 1959. The Politics of Mass Society. New
York: Free Press. ISBN 0029176204
 Donna Maurer. 2002. Vegetarianism: Movement or Moment?
Philadelphia: Temp le University Press. ISBN 156639936X
 Armand L. Mauss. 1975. Social Problems of Social Movements.
Philadelphia: Lippincott.
 Denton E. Morrison. 1978. "Some Notes toward Theory on
Relative Deprivation, Social Movements, and Social Cha nge." In
Louis E. Genevie , ed., Collective Behavior and Social
Movements. Itasca, Ill.: Peacock. pp. 202 -209.
 Immanuel Ness, ed. Encyclopedia of American Social Movements,
2004. ISBN 0 -7656 -8045 -9
 David Snow, Sarah A. Soule and Hanspeter Kriesi, ed. Blackwell
Companio n to Social Movements, Blackwell, 2004.
 Charlotte Ryan and William W. Gamson, The Art of Reframing
Political Debates. Contexts. 2006; 5(1 ):13 -18.
 Smelser, Neil J. 1962. Theory of Collective Behavior. New York:
Free Press.
 Tilly, Char les. 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading,
Massachusetts: Addison -Wesley, 1978.
 Suzanne St aggenborg, Social Movements, Oxford University
Press, 2008.
***** munotes.in

Page 13

13 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL
MOVEMENT
Unit Structure
2.1 Characteristics of Social Movement s
A. Social Movements are related to social change
B. Voluntary Membership
C. Ideology
D. Semi -Formal Nature
E. Fanaticism
A social movement is a loosely structured but persistent campaign in
favour of a social cause, usually the enactment of or opposition to a
change in the social ord er or values. Social movements are all basically
collective even though their sizes vary. This means that they arise from the
more or less accidental meeting of individuals whose ties are not
established by rules and processes but who just share a similar perspective
on society. Crowds, panics, and simple forms (milling, etc.) of collective
behaviour are episodic or of short duration, and they are generally driven
by impulse. A social movement occurs when transient urges give way to
long-term goals and when continuous affiliation replaces temporary social
clusters.
2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Since a crowd lacks organizational and motivating elements that can keep
members engaged during periods of immobility and waiting, a movement
is not simply a prolonged crowd. Furthermore, communication and
activity coordination over a large area, such as a country or continent,
cannot be accomplished via crowd processes. A movement combines
planning with unpredictability. The movement typically has one or mor e
organizations that provide coordination, leadership, and identification, but
the organization ’s borders never coincide with the movements . For
instance, while though groups like California's Sierra Club have a
significant impact on the campaign to prote ct the environment, everyone
who works for the cause and engages in communication with other people
who share this goal is a member of the conservationist movement. Even
though organizational leaders were hesitant to acknowledge him, the
legendary John Bro wn became a leader and a symbol for the movement
despite not belonging to any significant abolitionist organizations .
A. Social Movements are related to social change :
The idea that social movements are inextricably linked to social
transformation is refle cted in all definitions of social movements. They munotes.in

Page 14

14 Sociology of Social Movements don't include what people do when they're part of established social
groupings with unchanging structures, rules, and values. The actions of
social movement participants do not align with the belief that th e social
order will fundamentally remain unchanged. Instead, it embodies the
belief that if enough individuals work together, they can influence social
change for the better or worse. These objectives may appear to
uncommitted spectators to be illusions, b ut to the members they represent
hopes that are very real and achievable. Members of a social movement
would not respond, "I do this because it has always been done" or "It's just
the custom," when asked about their actions. They are conscious that the
movement's objective —to change how things have "always" been done or,
occasionally, to stop such a change from occurring —influences their
behaviour.
B. Voluntary Membership:
Social movements are not the quixotic endeavours of daring, creative
people. A socia l movement is a collaborative action or endeavour.
Individual members feel a sense of belonging to a group of individuals
who share their discontent with the current situation and their hope for a
better world. A social movement is a collective with a comm on objective
and similar values to a group. The feeling of belonging implies that people
are subject to rules and regulations. An organization has norms in addition
to shared principles. These standards outline conduct that will serve as a
symbol of the me mbers' fidelity to the social movement, bolster their
dedication to it, and distinguish them from nonmembers. The standards
forbid conduct that could put the movement in a bad light or give
adversaries cover to strike. Participating in group activities wit h other
members and doing individual or group acts that publicly identify the
participants as committed members both improve commitment.
C. Ideology:
A social movement also lays out expectations for members' mentality.
These kinds of norms serve as what ca n be called a "party line" —a
statement of the "proper" stance that members should have about
particular subjects. Even in the lack of personal awareness of the
supporting evidence, there is subliminal pressure on people to support this
viewpoint. It is unr ealistic to expect every member to understand the
ideology that underpinned the movement and its principles. They have a
ready -made, allegedly reliable set of arguments thanks to ideology.
A social movement is distinguished by its relative longevity; membe rship
activity is sustained over a period of weeks, months, or even years as
opposed to spiking for a short period of time and then waning away. A
social movement typically has a huge size, yet size is relative, just like
duration. Numerous social movement s that persist for decades may
include hundreds of thousands of participants. Some movements only have
a few scores or a few hundred people and are contained inside the confines
of a particular secondary group, such as a religious organization or a local
community. munotes.in

Page 15

15 Characteristics of Social Movement D. Semi -Formal Nature:
Since membership is not legally defined, it is impossible to estimate the
precise size of a social movement. The semiformal nature of a social
movement's organization is, in fact, one of its key traits. It is not as
formali sed or fully formed as a stable association like a club, corporation,
or political party. Members are not formally inducted, and the leaders do
not have authority in the sense of legitimated power. Members' trust and
loyalty are valued highly because of th e informal, noncontractual nature of
membership and the lack of formal decision -making processes. Although
not all members exhibit these characteristics, ideal members devote their
entire, selfless commitment to the movement.
E. Fanaticism:
A member's devo tion to the movement and its principles becomes one of
the most crucial sources of control because there is no legal duty to follow
the organization's rules or to stay a member. Outsiders may view deeply
devoted members as fanatics if they accept without q uestion the judgments
and directives communicated by the leaders, sacrificing themselves, their
families, and friends if necessary. The fanaticism of devoted members
may be caused by personal psychopathological states, according to some
social movement sch olars, particularly those whose analysis has a
psychoanalytic perspective. A different theory is that the social movement
develops into a reference group that offers devoted members a fresh and
erroneous perspective on social reality. Their fundamental pre sumptions
about the nature of society diverge to the point where "regular" members
of society cannot understand their logic or conclusions.

*****

munotes.in

Page 16

16 3
TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 What are social movements and why are they important?
3.3 Nature of Social Movements
3.4 Classification of Social Movement
3.5 What are the various types of social movemen ts?
3.5.1 Reform Movement
3.5.2 Revolutionary Movement
3.5.3 Reactionary Movement
3.5.4 Self -help movements and Religious movements
3.5.5 Resistance Movement
3.5.6 Utopian Movement
3.5.7 Expressive Movements
3.6 Conclusion
3.7 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES  List the major types of social movements.
 Explain the micro and macro factors that lead to the rise of social
movements.
 To distinguish between different types of social movements
 To give a classification of social movement for better comprehension
3.1 INTR ODUCTION A social movement is a vast group of individuals acting collectively, either
through protest or activity. Structured social media campaigns, the use of
hashtags, and online petitions are typically used.
Social movements are frequently classified a ccording to their goals or
ideologies. An ecological movement, for example, may rely more on
public protests and rallies to apply pressure on policymakers, whereas
another may focus on legislative measures or corporate activities.
In addition to being a ge neral term for a type of activity, the word "social
movement" is also used specifically to describe a collective group of
people who share a common political or social agenda and use coordinated
action to bring about social change. munotes.in

Page 17

17 Types of Social Movements 3.2 WHAT ARE SOCIAL MOVE MENTS AND WHY ARE THEY IMPORTANT? Social movements have become increasingly prominent in the modern era.
These social movements cover all segments of society, including political,
economic, social, and cultural context. They are significant because they
have the capacity to influence consciousness and bring about significant
social change.
3.3 NATURE OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Let us now discuss some of the implicitly mentioned ideas of social
movement analysis in greater detail.
(1) A social conflict, or clearl y identified opponents, is always present in
social movements. Actors frequently experience their own actions as a
disruption with dominant cultural ideals or institutional regulations.
This contradiction between institution and mobility was emphasised
by Alberoni (F. Alberoni, Movimento eistituzione (Bologna: II
Mulino, 1977). However, many revolts or uprisings can be nothing
more than signals of a social system's internal crisis and reformation.
A social movement cannot be defined by its intensity, emotio ns, or
"volcanic" force, which are images that better match to disruptions
that can be studied from a functionalist perspective.
(2) The most debatable argument defended here is that there is only one
central pair of contradictory social movements in a gi ven society type.
This theory appears to be quite similar to Marx's concept of class
struggle, but it is constantly challenged by observers who describe a
wide range of conflicts that cannot be termed "fronts" of a larger
battle. The ideological or even es chatological meaning of such a
position, which appears to represent a religious conviction in the end
of mankind's prehistory, is rejected by these observers.
(3) Since social movements are associated with opposition or "popular"
movements that undermine "social order," many people are naturally
convinced of the plurality of conflicts. A popular social movement, on
the other hand, cannot be divorced from a "ruling class" social
movement, and only their clash can be deemed important. Instead of
being linke d with basic cultural values and social norms, holders of
economic or political power must be examined as a social movement.
Social movements' centrality does not imply hegemony or the ability
to identify with social order, modernity, or rationality. Even a "ruling
class" cannot achieve such identification; only an absolute State,
which kills both powerful and helpless social actors, can.
(4) We are still impacted by a historical tradition that identifies social
movements and political activity, that is, o rganised action aimed at
controlling State authority, which is why we are sometimes
uncomfortable with the idea of a central social movement. This munotes.in

Page 18

18 Sociology of Social Movements misunderstanding has been particularly prevalent in European
thought, where the labour movement has been conf lated with
socialism in both Communist and social democratic circles. While
Europeans and Latin Americans have traditionally spoken only of
revolutions or state -led reforms, American intellectual culture has
proven to be better capable of comprehending the concept of social
movement. Structure and change, "social" and "historical" movements
are not separated in evolutionist social philosophy. Western society
was defined by classical sociology as both a system and a
modernization process. Durkheim emphasized one part more than
Weber, while Parsons went to the extreme of identifying modernity as
a rationalization and secularization process based on principles of
unity and integration in modern Western nations. Similarly,
sociological analysis is still associat ed with the study of the
establishment of a national state in Latin America and other regions of
the world today. The concept of social movement thus is innovative in
that it challenges this form of social thought and action.
(5) There are three types of social movements to consider. In a strict
sense, social movements are competing attempts to govern cultural
patterns (knowledge, investment, and ethics) in a specific society
type. Historical movements are concerted efforts to direct the
transition from on e society type to another. Actors are no longer
defined solely by their social relationships, but rather by their
interactions with the State, which is the driving force behind such
historical shifts. However, as previously said, historical movements
and s ocial movements are not wholly independent because they
integrate a class component with a national and modernizing
dimension, as shown in Communist movements and national -popular
regimes. There is a correlation between social movements and state
transitio ns. Cultural movements are complex in the same way. They
cannot be reduced to cultural innovations, which are characterized in
strictly cultural terms as a conflict between ancients and moderns, in
order to refer to a period in French literature's history. A cultural
movement, on the other hand, is a type of social movement in which
the changing of cultural values is a primary theme, yet social conflict
emerges as a result of this process. The women's movement is a good
modern example. It is centrally defin ed by a critique and
transformation of women's status and image, as well as the emergence
of new ethical values more broadly, but it is constantly divided by a
social conflict that opposes two ways of interpreting women's protest:
a liberal action aimed at achieving equality of rights and opportunities
between men and women, and a more radical tendency that rejects an
equality that appears to be imitative of the dominant male model and
asserts the suffrage of women. This internal battle, which has been
particularly obvious in the United States and France, distinguishes
cultural invention from cultural mobility.
munotes.in

Page 19

19 Types of Social Movements 3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT Some of the classifications to differentiate between various types of social
movements are as follows:
i. Scope: A movement can be classified as reform or radical. A reform
movement seeks to change specific norms or laws, but a radical
movement seeks to fundamentally alter value systems. A reform
movement could be a trade union that seeks to improve workers'
rights, whereas the American Civil Rights Movement was a radical
movement.
ii. Change Type: A movement may pursue either innovative or
conservative change. A conservative movement strives to conserve
existing norms and values whereas an innovative movement s eeks to
establish or change them.
iii. Goals: Group -focused movements aim to influence specific groups or
society as a whole, such as changing the political system from
monarchy to democracy. Individuals are the focus of an individual -
focused movement.
iv. Work Methods: Nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience are two
strategies used by peaceful movements. When violent movements
seek social change, they turn to violence.
v. Range: Global movements like Communism in the early twentieth
century had int ernational goals. Local movements aim to achieve
specific local or regional goals, such as preserving a historic structure
or maintaining a natural habitat.
3.5 WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS? Social movements are a definite type of collect ive action in which large
informal groups of individuals or organizations work for or against change
in specific political or social issues. It is difficult to classify social
movements because they can have a mixed nature or be of different types
at diffe rent stages of their development.
There is no unique, universal typology of social movement. Different
classification schemes evolve when different researchers focus on
different features of movements. As a result, any social movement can be
defined in mu ltiple dimensions.
Many attempts to classify the movement focus on the movement's goal.
One basis for defining social movements as political, religious, economic,
educational, and so on is the social institution through or through which
social change is to be achieved. It may be asserted that all movements are munotes.in

Page 20

20 Sociology of Social Movements political or religious in nature, depending on whether their objective is to
change political systems or individual moral principles.
The distinction between "reform" and "revolutionary" movements is a
widely used but very subjective one. This distinction implies that a reform
movement argues for a change that preserves existing values while
improving their implementation. On the other side, the revolutionary
movement is seen to advocate for the replac ement of existing ideals.
Members of a so -called revolutionary movement, on the other hand,
almost always assert that it is them who love the genuine values of society,
while opponents label the movement as revolutionary and destructive of
core, convention al values.
The desired direction and pace of change are used in some attempts to
characterise movements. For this aim, adjectives like radical, reactionary,
moderate, liberal, and conservative are frequently utilised. The terms
"revolutionary" and "reform" are frequently used in this context in a
slightly different sense from that stated above, with the suggestion that a
revolutionary movement favours quick, drastic change while a reform
movement favours gradual, evolutionary progress.
Another typology prop osed by American sociologist Lewis M. Killian was
based on the direction of the change promoted or opposed. A reactionary
movement seeks to return society to its previous state, whereas a
progressive movement advocates for a new social order. Conservatives
oppose changes advocated by other movements or those that appear to
emerge from cultural drift, and urge for the preservation of existing values
and customs.
Killian and American psychologist Ralph H. Turner believed that
categorizing social movements bas ed on its public definition, the nature of
the opposition produced, and the movement's means of activity can be
useful at times. This method is intended to eliminate the subjective
assessment of aims that is inherent in reformist and revolutionary
categori es. Respectable movement is one that does not appear to harm the
values or interests of any significant part of society. It is also non -factional
if there is no competing movement promoting the same goal. The
respectable non -factional movement must deal wi th issues such as apathy
and token support, but it also has valid means of advancing its values. A
viable factional movement must compete with other groups pursuing the
same broad goal, but it also has acceptable ways to expand its influence. A
movement th at looks to threaten the ideals of powerful and influential
interest groups in society is labelled revolutionary and is met with violent
repression. As a result, it is unable to use legal measures to promote its
programme. Another sort of movement is class ified as neither respectable
nor hazardous, but rather peculiar; this type, which is perceived as odd but
harmless, is mocked and has limited access to legal tools.
Social movements can also be classified according to the overall nature of
their strategy a nd methods, such as whether they are legitimate or illegal.
This categorisation is reflected in the popular difference between radical munotes.in

Page 21

21 Types of Social Movements and moderate movements. The use of violent versus peaceful tactics is a
clear distinction between sorts of movements. How ever, a nonviolent
movement might be classified as revolutionary or radical if it embraces
civil disobedience as a main strategy rather than legal or parliamentary
tactics. It's worth noting that the distinction between violent and
nonviolent movements is a relative one, since a movement can quickly
shift from one to the other as it grows.
David F. Aberle, a cultural anthropologist, defined four kinds of social
movements based on two essential questions:
(1) Who is it that the movement is aiming to transfo rm?
(2) What level of change is advocated?
Social movements can aim for individual change, such as Alcoholics
Anonymous, a support group for recovering alcoholics, or broader group
or even social change, such as anti -globalization. Minor changes, such as
stronger regulations on drunk driving (see MADD), or dramatic changes,
such as prohibition, might be advocated for by social movements. Based
on who the movement seeks to change and how much change the
movement seeks to bring about, the figure below shows how a social
movement might be alternative, redemptive, reformative, or revolutionary.
Aberle's Four Social Movement Types: Aberle identified four categories
of social movements based on who they are seeking to change and how
much change they are advocatin g: redemptive, reformative, revolutionary,
and alternative.

Aberle's Four Social Movement Types: Aberle identified four categories
of social movements based on who they are seeking to change and how
much change they are advocating: redemptive, reformativ e, revolutionary,
and alternative. munotes.in

Page 22

22 Sociology of Social Movements Sociologists classify social movements into numerous categories based on
the nature and scope of the change they seek. This typology enables us in
distinguishing between the various types of social movements that have
existed in the past and continue to exist today (Snow & Soule, 2009). The
different types of social movements include:
 Reform Movement
 Revolutionary Movement
 Reactionary Movement
 Self-help Movement
 Religious Movement
 Resistance Movement
 Utopian Movement
 Expre ssive Movement
3.5.1 Reform Movement :
Reform movements are organized to carry out reforms in some specific
areas. The reform movement is one of the most prevalent and important
types of social movements, aiming for minor but significant changes in a
countr y's political, economic, or social systems. The reform movement
aims to change only some aspects of society without entirely changing it.
It does not seek to overthrow the current administration, but rather aims to
better the current regime's conditions. Reform movements have been at the
heart of some of the most significant social movements in American
history. The reformers endeavor to change elements of the system for
better. The abolitionist movement before the Civil War, the women's
suffrage movement after the Civil War, the labour movement, the
Southern civil rights movement, the antiwar movement during the
Vietnam era, the contemporary women's movement, the gay rights
movement, and the environmental movement are among them.
Reform movements can only succeed in a democratic society where
citizens are free to criticize current institutions and demand reforms.
Reform movements include movements to eradicate untouchability, the
dowry system, the preservation of natural life, and population control. J. P.
Narayan's entire revolution movement was a reform movement. Arya
Samaj Movement, Brahmo Samaj Movement, J. P. Narayan's reform
movement was a reform movement.
3.5.2 Revolutionary Movement :
A revolutionary movement goes further than a reform movement in tha t
it seeks to abolish the current government and replace it with a new one,
as well as a new way of life. The revolutionary movements contest the
system's viability. These movements are enraged by the current social munotes.in

Page 23

23 Types of Social Movements order and seek drastic change. They prop ose that the entire present
structure be replaced. The re -organization of society in conformity with
their own ideological design is their goal. A reform movement seeks to
correct flaws in the present social structure, whereas a revolutionary
movement seek s to overthrow the entire system. Revolutionary
movements thrive when reform is thwarted, leaving revolution as the
people's only option for escaping their current plight. Revolutionary
movements were widespread in the past, and they were responsible for
many of the world's biggest revolutions, including those in Russia, China,
and other countries. In Soviet Russia, the communist revolution toppled
the Czarist regime and replaced it with a communist production and
distribution system. As a revolution progr esses, it is common for it to
become violent. Because the reforms they seek are political in character,
reform and revolutionary movements are frequently referred to as political
movements.
"We may term it a revolution" when a political system is overthrow n by
force in order to impose a new form of government or a government that
declares a new policy on a critical topic, according to MacIver. 'The
assassination of a king, President, or Premier would not constitute a
revolution if it was motivated by person al objectives or carried out by a
tiny group of desperate people who couldn't hope to build an alternative
administration,' he continues.
A revolution entails a major rift within the state. It reveals an individual's
diseased condition, whereas the physica l nature of political authority is
revealed. Revolutions thrive when reform is thwarted, leaving revolution
as the only viable option for the people. Despite the fact that it is
accompanied by violence, large -scale killings, the employment of
underground means, and incalculable miseries, many resort to it because
they see no other option.
3.5.3 Reactionary Movement :
Another sort of political movement is the reactionary movement , which
aims to halt or reverse societal change that has already occurred. Thes e are
intended to counteract social change. Traditional values, philosophies, and
institutional arrangements are emphasized as important and wonderful.
They are harsh critics of the present's rapid developments. The anti -
abortion movement is a modern examp le of a reactionary movement, as it
developed after the United States Supreme Court legalized most abortions
in Roe v. Wade (1973), and wants to limit or abolish abortion's legality.
3.5.4 Self -help movements and Religious movements :
Self-help and religio us movements are two more types of movements.
Self-help movements, as its name implies, involve people attempting to
improve areas of their personal life; self -help groups include Alcoholics
Anonymous and Weight Watchers, for example. Religious movements
seek to strengthen religious convictions among their followers while also
attempting to convert others. Early Christianity was undoubtedly a
significant religious movement, and the different religious cults addressed munotes.in

Page 24

24 Sociology of Social Movements in Chapter 17 ."Religion" are examples of today's religious movements.
Because some self -help groups promote religious faith as a vehicle for
human transformation, it can be difficult to distinguish between self -help
and religious movements.
3.5.5 Resistance Movement:
The resistance movement is an attempt to halt or reverse a proposed
change. These movements are formed to resist a change that is already
taking place in society. These can be directed against social and cultural
changes which are already happening in the country. People are
dissatis fied with the slow pace of social development, whereas people
believe social change to be too fast. The resistance movement led by D.
M. K. against Hindi can be described as such.
3.5.6 Utopian Movement:
A utopian movement is one that strives to construct a flawless social
structure or civilization that exists only in man's vision and not in reality.
Robert Owen and Charles Fourier were two Utopian socialists who lived
in the nineteenth century. These are attempts to bring society or a part of it
closer to perfection. These are loosely structured collectives that anticipate
a drastically different and joyful state, either on a big scale in the future or
on a lesser scale now. Although the utopian goal and its means are
frequently ambiguous, many utopian move ments have very precise social
transformation programmes. The Hare Krishna Movement of the 1970s,
the movement to establish Ram Rajya and the Sangh Parivar, the
Communists and Socialists' declaration of a classless, casteless society
free of all forms of e xploitation, and so on. These movements are
predicated on the idea that man is inherently good, cooperative, and
benevolent. Sarvodaya might be classified as a utopian movement.
3.5.7 Expressive Movements:
When people are confronted with a social system t hey can't escape and
feel powerless to change, an expressive social movement emerges. An
individual in an expressive social movement comes to terms with an
unpleasant external reality by changing his reactions to it. He makes life
bearable in some way. He attempts to ignore the gloomy present and set
his gaze on the bright future. Hippie culture is a kind of social expression.
3.6 CONCLUSION Thus, the most common form of social movement includes Reform
movements, revolutionary movements, reactionary movement s, self -help
movements, and religious movements. The emergence and growth of
social movements is influenced by both micro and macro factors. Social
attachment is an important micro element, as social movement participants
often have companionships and orga nizational ties that "pull" them into
movements and encourage them to stay involved. Macro variables include
social, economic, and political conditions in the greater social context that
encourage people to join a movement and/or diminish the government's
ability to deal with one. munotes.in

Page 25

25 Types of Social Movements 3.7 REFERENCES  Della Porta, D., Diani, M (2006). Social Movements: An Introduction
(2nd Edition).
 Malden, MA: Blackwell. Foweraker J., (1995). Theorizing Social
Movements, London, Pluto Press.
 Diani, M. (1992), The concept of Soc ial Movement, Sociological
Review, 40 (1). 1 -25
 https://open.lib.umn.edu/sociology/chapter/21 -3-social -
movements/#:~:text=The%20major%20types%20of%20social%20mo
vements%20are%20reform%20movements%2C%20revolutionary,hel
p%20movements%2C%20and%20religious%20movements
 https://www.britannica.com/topic/social -movement/Progressive -
changes -in-leadership -and-membership
 https://www.sociologyguide.com/social -change/social -movements -
type.php

*****

munotes.in

Page 26

26 4
THEORY OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT
Sociologis ts have developed several theories related to social movements
[Kendall, 2005]. Some of the better -known approaches are outlined below.
Unit Structur e
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Social Movement Theory
4.2 Collective Behavior
4.3 Relative De privation
4.4 Resource Mobilization
4.5 Politica l Opportunity / Political Process
4.6 New Social Movements
4.7 Emerging Cultural Perspective
4.8 Theory of Social Change
4.9 Stages of Social Movements
4.10 Summary
4.11 Questions
4.12 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES  To introduce se veral theo ries related to social movements.
 To help the learner to analyse contemporary social movements.
4.1 SOCIAL MOVEMENT THEORY Social movement t heory is an interdisciplinary study within the social
sciences that generally s eeks to explain why social mobilization occurs,
the forms under which it manifests, as well as potential social, cultural,
and political consequences. More recently, the study o f social movements
has been subsumed under the study of contentious politics.
4.2 COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR Sociologists during the early and mid -1900s thought that movements were
random occurrences of individuals who were trying to emotionally react to
situati ons outside their control. Or, as the “mass society ” hypothesis
suggested, move ment participants were those who were not fully
integrated into society. These psychologically -based theories have largely
been rejected by present -day sociologists and politica l scientists, although
many still make a case for the importance (although not centrality) of
emotions. munotes.in

Page 27

27 Theory of Social Movement 4.3 RELATIVE DEPRIVATION People are driven into movements out of a sense of deprivation or
inequality, particularly (1) in relation to others or (2) in relation to their
expectations. In the first view, participants see others who have more
power, economic resources, or status, and thus try to acquire these same
things for themselves. In the second view, people are most likely to rebel
when a consistently improving situation (especially an improving
economy) stops and makes a turn f or the worse. At this point, people will
join movements because their expectations will have outgrown their actual
material situation (also called the “J-Curve theory ”).
Individuals are rational actors who strategically weigh the costs and
benefits of alte rnative courses of action and choose that course of action
which is most likely to mazmize their utility. The primary research
problem from this perspective is the collective action dilemma, or why
rational individuals would choose to join in collective ac tion if they
benefit from its acquisition even if they do not participate.
4.4 RESOURCE MOBILIZATION Social movements need organizations first and foremost. Organizations
can acquire and then deploy resources to achieve their well -defined goals.
Some versi ons of this theory see movements operate similar to a capitalist
enterprise that make efficient use of available resources. Scholars have
suggested a typolo gy of five types of resources:
1. Material (money and physical capital);
2. Moral (solidarity, suppo rt for the movement's goals);
3. Social - Organizational (organizational strategies, social
networks, bloc recruitment);
4. Human (volunteers, staff, leader s);
5. Cultural (prior activist experience, understanding of the issues,
collective action know -how)
Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of resources in
social movement development and success. Resources are understood here
to include: k nowledge, money, media, labor, solidarity, legitimacy, and
internal and external support from power elite. The theory argues that
social movements develop when individuals with grievances are able to
mobilize sufficient resources to take action. The emphas is on resources
offers an explanation why some discontented/deprived individuals are able
to organiz e while others are not.
Some of the assumptions of the theory include:
 there will always be grounds for protest in modern, politically
pluralistic societies because there is constant discontent (i.e., munotes.in

Page 28

28 Sociology of Social Movements grievances or deprivation); this de -emphasizes the impo rtance of these
factors as it makes them ubiquitous
 actors are rational; they weigh the costs and benefits from movement
participation
 members are recruited through networks; commitment is maintained
by building a collective identity and continuing to nurt ure
interpersonal relationships
 movement organization is contingent upon the aggregation of
resources
 social movement organizations require resources and co ntinuity of
leadership
 social movement entrepreneurs and protest organizations are the
catalysts whi ch transform collective discontent into social
movements; social movement organizations form the backbone of
social movements
 the form of the resources shap es the activities of the movement (e.g.,
access to a TV station will result in the extensive use TV media)
 movements develop in contingent opportunity structures that
influence their efforts to mobilize; as each movement's response to the
opportunity struc tures depends on the movement's organization and
resources, there is no clear pattern of movement de velopment nor are
specific movement techniques or methods universal Critics of this
theory argue that there is too much of an emphasize on resources,
especi ally financial resources. Some movements are effective without
an influx of money and are more depen dent upon the movement
members for time and labor.
4.5 POLITICAL OPPORTUNITY / POLITICAL PROCESS Certain political contexts should be conducive (or represen tative) for
potential social movement activity. These climates may [dis] favor
specific social movem ents or general social movement activity; the
climate may be signaled to potential activists and/or structurally allowing
for the possibility of social move ment activity (matters of legality); and
the political opportunities may be realized through politic al concessions,
social movement participation, or social movement organizational
founding. Opportunities may include:
1. Increased access to political decis ion-making power
2. Instability in the alignment of ruling elites (or conflict between elites)
3. Access to elite allies (who can then help a movement in its struggle)
4. Declining capacity and propensity of the state to repress dissent munotes.in

Page 29

29 Theory of Social Movement Political process t heory is similar to resource mobilization in many
regards, but tends to emphasize a different compon ent of social structure
that is important for social movement development: political
opportunities. Political process theory argues that there are three vit al
components for movement formation: insurgent consciousness,
organizational strength, and politica l opportunities. Insurgent
consciousness refers back to the ideas of deprivation and grievances. The
idea is that certain members of society feel like they are being mistreated
or that somehow the system is unjust. The insurgent consciousness is the
collec tive sense of injustice that movement members (or potential
movement members) feel and serves as the motivation for movement
organization.
Organizational st rength falls in line with resource -mobilization theory,
arguing that in order for a social movement to organize it must have strong
leadership and sufficient resources. Political opportunity refers to the
receptivity or vulnerability of the existing politi cal system to challenge.
This vulnerability can be the result of any of the following (or a
combinat ion thereof):
 Growth of political pluralism
 decline in effectiveness of repression
 Elite disunity; the leading factions are internally fragmented
 A broadeni ng of access to institutional participation in political
processes
 Support of organized opposition b y elites
One of the advantages of the political process theory is that it addresses
the issue of timing or emergence of social movements. Some groups may
have the insurgent consciousness and resources to mobilize, but because
political opportunities are cl osed, they will not have any success. The
theory, then, argues that all three of these components are important.
Critics of the Theory:
Critics of the poli tical process theory and resource -mobilization theory
point out that neither theory discusses moveme nt culture to any great
degree. This has presented culture theorists an opportunity to expound on
the importance of culture.
Political process theory argues that there are three vital components for
movement formation: insurgent consciousness, organization al strength,
and political opportunities.
 Insurgent consciousness refers back to the ideas of deprivation and
grievances. The idea is that certain members o f society feel like they
are being mistreated or that somehow the system is unjust. The
insurgent co nsciousness is the collective sense of injustice that
movement members (or potential movement members) feel and serves
as the motivation for movement organi zation. munotes.in

Page 30

30 Sociology of Social Movements  Organizational strength falls in line with resource mobilization theory,
arguing that in ord er for a social movement to organize it must have
strong leadership and sufficient resources. Political opportunity refers
to the receptivity or vulnerabili ty of the existing political system to
challenge.
 Political opportunity theory argues that the actio ns of the activists are
dependent on a broader context (in other words, on the existence - or
lack of - of a specific political opportunity). There are vari ous
definitions of political opportunity, but Meyer (2004) stresses that of
Tarrow (1989): "consiste nt—but not necessarily formal or
permanent —dimensions of the political struggle that encourage
people to engage in contentious politics".
Compared to relate d resource mobilization theorists, writers on political
opportunity theory stress mobilization of re sources external to the
movement. Movement activists do not choose their goals at random, it's
the political contexts which stresses certain grievances, and around those,
movements organize. This argument ties into the structure and agency
debate: actions of activists (agents) can only be understood when seen in
the broader context of political opportunities (structure).
The term structure has often been used to characterize political
opportunities. However, Tarrow - who has used this term in his earlier
publications - now argues it is misleading, as most opportunities need to
be perceived, and are situational, not structural. A political opportunity
structure has been defined as the circumstances surrounding a political
landscape. Political opportunity stru ctures are fluid and can alter in days or
decades. Factors such as demographics, social and economic issues within
a population all count to creating a specific “structure” which actor within
the landscape can find themselves gaining or benefiting from.
Meyer (2004) credits Eisinger (1973) with first use of the political
opportunity theory framed in such a way (traces of which, of course, go
further back). Ei singer asked why in 1960s some places in USA witnessed
more riots about race and poverty then others ; and notes that cities without
visible openings for participation of repressed or discouraged dissident
made riots more likely. Thus, the lack of openings for legal airing of
grievances was the political opportunity which led to organization and
mobilizat ion of movements expressing their grievances by rioting.
Meyer (2004) in his overview of political opportunity theory noted that
this broader context can af fect:
 “Mobilizing ”,
 “Advancing particular claims rather than others ”,
 “Cultivating some alliances ra ther than others ”,
 “Employing particular political strategies and tactics rather than
others ”, and “affecting mainstream institutional politics and policy ”. munotes.in

Page 31

31 Theory of Social Movement One of the advantages of the political process theory is that it addresses
the issue of timing or e mergence of social movements. Some groups may
have the insurgent consciousness and resources to mobilize, but because
political opportunities are closed, th ey will not have any success. The
theory, then, argues that all three of these components are import ant.
Critics of the political process theory and resource mobilization theory
point out that neither theory discusses movement culture to any great
degree. This has presented culture theorists an opportunity to expound on
the importance of culture. In resp onse to these criticisms, Doug McAdam,
Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly proposed the Dynamics of Contention
research program, which focuses on identifying me chanisms to explain
political opportunities, rather than relying on an abstract structure.
One advan ce on the political process theory is the political mediation
model, which outlines the way in which the political context facing
movement actors intersects with the strategic choices that movements
make. An additional strength of this model is that it can look at the
outcomes of social movements not only in terms of success or failure but
also in terms of consequences (whether intentional or unintentional,
positive or negative) and in terms of collective benefits
4.6 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Instead of labor m ovements engaged in class conflict, present -day
movements (such as anti -war, environmental, civil rights, feminist, etc.)
are engaged in social and political conflict (see Al ain Touraine). The
motivations for movement participants is a form of post -materia l politics
and newly -created identities, particularly those from the “new middle
class ”. (Also, see the work of Ronald Inglehart, Jurgen Habermas, Alberto
Melucci, and Steve Buechler.) This line of research has stimulated an
enduring emphasis on identity e ven among prominent American scholars
like Charles Tilly.
4.7 EMERGING CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE Taking up some of the achievements of new social movement theorists, a
number of scholars have developed a powerful critique of the currently
dominant political opp ortunity approach. This emergencing cultural
perspective argues that:
 Politics and power should be defined more broadly to include "all
collective challenges to constituted authority."
 Structures not only constrain actors but constitute actors (no
dichotom y between culture and structure)
 Contention is as much a contest over meaning as it is a struggle over
resources munotes.in

Page 32

32 Sociology of Social Movements  The rational actor model is problematic, whether applied to
collectives or individuals
 Opportunities are made as often as they are recognized
More recent strains of theory understand social movements through their
cultures - collectively shared beliefs, ideologies, values and other
meanings about the world. These i nclude explorations into the “collective
identities ” and “collective action frames ” of movements and movement
organizations.
Culture theory builds upon both the political process and resource -
mobilization theories but extends them in two ways. First, it em phasizes
the importance of movement culture. Second, it attempts to address the
free-rider problem.
Both resource -mobilization theory and political process theory include a
sense of injustice in their approaches. Culture theory brings this sense of
injusti ce to the forefront of movement creation by arguing that, in order
for social movem ents to successfully mobilize individuals, they must
develop an injustice frame. An injustice frame is a collection of ideas and
symbols that illustrate both how significant the problem is as well as what
the movement can do to alleviate it.
“Like a pictur e frame, an issue frame marks off some part of the world.
Like a building frame, it holds things together. It provides coherence to an
array of symbols, images, and argument s, linking them through an
underlying organizing idea that suggests what is essenti al - what
consequences and values are at stake. We do not see the frame directly,
but infer its presence by its characteristic expressions and language. Each
frame gives the advantage to certain ways of talking and thinking, while it
places others out of t he picture. ” (Ryan and Gamson 2006:14)
A few things we know about injustice frames (from Ryan and Gamson
2006):
 Facts take on their meaning by being embedded in frames, whic h
render them relevant and significant or irrelevant and trivial.
 People carry arou nd multiple frames in their heads.
 Successful reframing involves the ability to enter into the worldview
of our adversaries.
 All frames contain implicit or explicit appeals to moral principles.
In emphasizing the injustice frame, culture theory also addres ses the free -
rider problem. The free -rider problem refers to the idea that people will
not be motivated to participate in a social movement that will use up their
personal r esources (e.g., time, money, etc.) if they can still receive the
benefits without p articipating. In other words, if person X knows that
movement Y is working to improve environmental conditions in his
neighborhood, he is presented with a choice: join or no t join the munotes.in

Page 33

33 Theory of Social Movement movement. If he believes the movement will succeed without him, he can
avoid participation in the movement, save his resources, and still reap the
benefits - this is free -riding. A significant problem for social movement
theory has been to expla in why people join movements if they believe the
movement can/will succeed without their contribution. Culture theory
argues that, in conjunction with social networks being an important
contact tool, the injustice frame will provide the motivation for peop le to
contribute to the movement.
Framing processes includes three separate compone nts:
 Diagnostic frame: the movement organization frames what is the
problem or what they are critiquing
 Prognostic frame: the movement organization frames what is the
desira ble solution to the problem
 Motivational frame: the movement organization frames a “call to
arms ” by suggesting and encouraging that people take action to solve
the problem
4.8 THEORY OF SOCIAL CHANGE The Organization Development for Social Change (ODSC) Framework: A
group of six OD consultants who work with social justice organizations
spent many months developing this model. They delve deeply into the
historical origins, central values, theories of change, and practices of each
quadrant to identify both the gifts and the limitations of each approach.
They found that each realm contribut es something valuable to individuals,
groups, and organizations working for social justice. What follows is a
synthesis of what each quadrant has to offer to the process of movement -
building and social change.
 Community Organizing (CO) translates community concerns into
collective action. This realm offers community members the power
and satisfaction of acting boldly on their beliefs, and presents a unique
opportunity to be in direct relationship with others who share their
values. It holds a distinct under standing of systemic injustice and the
transformative power of righteous indignation.
Community Organizing values action, believes that building the
collective power of tho se most directly impacted by the problem will
create change, and utilizes confrontat ional power -based practices in
the public sphere (i.e., direct action), and more collective power -
sharing practices in the community sphere (i.e., one -on-ones,
leadership d evelopment).
 Power Analysis (PA) provides organizers with a framework for
understand ing the broader context in which we all live through the
lens of power. It analyzes the social, economic, and political systems
that shape our material, personal, cultural, and even spiritual realities.
This framework creates a collective analysis of struc tural inequalities, munotes.in

Page 34

34 Sociology of Social Movements and how they play out in our lives, with the desire to motivate more
strategic, collective action.
PA values theory and analysis, believes that change w ill come about
when organizers and impacted communities understand exactly how
struc tures of power and dynamic forces work to oppress them, and
utilizes the practices of grassroots political education and anti -
oppression training.
 Organization Development (OD) examines systemic change on the
organizational level, and provides tools and fr ameworks to improve
an organization's ability to meet its goals. It aims to help the group
understand itself better and looks at the relationship of the individual
to the g roup. OD offers the potential to create organizational
communities in the present th at reflect our values, aspirations and
visions for the future. This approach can help groups align their
vision, values, structure, and purpose, and enact democratic princi ples
of power sharing. Ultimately, OD honors both the inherent worth of
each individ ual and the power of collective process to achieve its
highest aspirations.
OD values the interpersonal realm and group process (i.e. believes
that how work gets done is as important as what work gets done),
believes that change occurs mainly by increasing a group's awareness
of and capacity to change their internal process and patterns, and
practices organizational assessment, visioning, planning, and group
development.
 Spirit / Sustainable Practice (SP) views self -knowledge, healing and
cultural grounding as key to transformation, and offers tools to build
authentic connection with oneself, others, and the outer world. In the
context of spirit and healing, one's full humani ty is recognized -
emotions, intuition, creativity, motivations, desires, and strugg les.
This framework offers powerful practices and methods for addressing
core wounds and trauma in an organizational context.
SP values deep reflection and connection with the heart, believes that
change happens from the inside out and includes recognition of one's
own humanity and the humanity of others. Sustainable practices
include self -reflection, collective healing, and spiritual awareness.
While each of these approache s values different things, there is a
natural affinity between them that makes them more powerful
together than on their own.
For example, Community Organizing values action and OD values
process, yet CO does not claim that action on its own without attent ion to
creating democratic group process (OD) or a clear analysis (PA) is
enough. Si milarly, Power Analysis relies on the collective action of CO to
motivate people to engage a developed political analysis, and believes in
the inherent ability of individua ls to reflect, learn, and change (SP) their
own relationship to power and privilege in order to create larger systems
change. In practice, however, activists often inhabit one quadrant more munotes.in

Page 35

35 Theory of Social Movement fully than the others, and push each other into polarized position s that
obscure these natural overlaps.
4.9 STAGES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS Social moveme nts are not eternal. They have a life cycle: they are created,
they grow, they achieve successes or failures and eventually, they dissolve
and cease to exist.
They are more l ikely to evolve in the time and place which is friendly to
the social movements: h ence their evident symbiosis with the 19th century
proliferation of ideas like individual rights, freedom of speech and civil
disobedience. Social movements occur in liberal and authoritarian
societies but in different forms. But there must always be polar izing
differences between groups of people: in case of 'old movements', they
were the poverty and wealth gaps. In case of the 'new movements', they
are more likely to be the differences in customs, ethics and values.
Finally, the birth of a social movement needs what sociologist Neil
Smelser calls an initiating event: a particular, individual event that will
begin a chain reaction of events in the given society leading to the creation
of a social movement. For example, American Civil Rights movement
grew on the reaction to black woman, Rosa Parks, riding in the whites -
only section of the bus (although it is important to note that Rosa Parks
was not acting alone or spontaneously -- typically activist leaders lay the
groundwork behind the scenes of interventio ns designed to spark a
movement). The Polish Solidarity movement, which eventually toppled
the communist regimes of Eastern Europe, developed after trade union
activist Anna Walentynowicz was fired from work.
The South African shack dwellers' movement Abah lali base Mjondolo
grew out of a road blockade in response to the sudden selling off of a
small piece of land promised for housing to a developer. Such an event is
also descr ibed as a volcanic model - a social movement is often created
after a large number of people realize that there are others sharing the
same value and desire for a particular social change. Thus, one of the main
difficulties facing the emerging social movem ent is spreading the very
knowledge that it exists. Second is overcoming the free rider problem -
convincing people to join it, instead of following the mentality 'why
should I trouble myself when others can do it and I can just reap the
benefits after thei r hard work'.
Many social movements are created around some charismatic leader, i. e.
one possessing charismatic authority. After the social movement is
created, there are two likely phases of recruitment. The first phase will
gather the people deeply inter ested in the primary goal and ideal of the
movement. The second phase, which will usually come after the given
movement had some successes and is trendy; it would look good on a
résumé. People who join in this second phase will likely be the first to
leave when the movement suffers any setbacks and failures. munotes.in

Page 36

36 Sociology of Social Movements Eventually, the social crisi s can be encouraged by outside elements, like
opposition from government or other movements. However, many
movements had survived a failure crisis, being revived by some hard core
activists even after several decades.
4.10 SUMMARY Social movements need orga nizations: Moral (solidarity, support for the
movement's goals); Social -Organizational (organizational strategies, social
networks, bloc recruitment). Certain political conte xts should be
conducive (or representative) for potential social movement activity .
These climates may favor specific social movements or general social
movement activity; the climate may be signaled to potential activists
and/or structurally allowi ng for the possibility of social movement activity
(matters of legality); and the politic al opportunities may be realized
through political concessions, social movement participation, or social
movement organizational founding.
Sociologists distinguish bet ween several types of social movement: reform
movements - movements dedicated to changing some norms, usually legal
ones. Radical movement - movements dedicated to changing value
systems. Innovation movement -movements which want to enable
particular norms , values, etc. conservative movement - movements which
want to preserve existing norms, v alues, etc. Individual -focused
movements -focused on affecting individuals. Peaceful movements, which
are seen to stand in contrast to 'violent' movements. New movemen ts -
movements which became dominant from the second half of the 20th
century - like the f eminist movement, pro -choice movement, civil rights
movement, environmental movement, free software movement, gay rights
movement, peace movement, anti -nuclear movemen t, alter -globalization
movement, etc. Sometimes they are known as new social movements.
Global movements - social movements with global objectives and goals.
Local movements - most of the social movements have a local scope.
Social movements are not eterna l.
Sociologists have developed several theories related to social movements
[Kendall, 200 5]. collective behavior/collective action theories (1950s);
frame analysis theory (1980s) (closely related to social constructionist
theory); new social movement theor y (1980s); political process theory
(1980s); Deprivation theory; Mass society theory; Str uctural strain theory;
Structural strain theory proposes six factors that encourage social
movement development (Smelser 1962); Resource mobilization theory.
Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of resources in
social movement development and success. Movement organization is
contingent upon the aggregation of resources. Social movement
organizations require resources and continuity of leadership. Soci al
movement entrepreneurs and protest organizations are the catalysts which
transform col lective discontent into social movements; social movement
organizations form the backbone of social movements. munotes.in

Page 37

37 Theory of Social Movement Movements develop in contingent opportunity structures t hat influence
their efforts to mobilize; as each movement's response to the opportunity
structures depends on the movement's organization and resources, there is
no clear pattern of movement development nor are specific movement
techniques or methods unive rsal.
Political process theory argues that there are three vital components for
movement formation: insurgent consciousness, organizational strength,
and political opportunities. The insurgent consciousness is the collective
sense of injustice that movemen t members (or potential movement
members) feel and serves as the motivation for movement organization.
Critics of the political process theory and resource -mobilization theory
point out that neither theory discusses movement culture to any great
degree. Po litical process theory argues that there are three vital
components for movement formatio n: insurgent consciousness,
organizational strength, and political opportunities. The insurgent
consciousness is the collective sense of injustice that movement member s
(or potential movement members) feel and serves as the motivation for
movement organiza tion.
Culture theory emphasizes the importance of movement culture. A
significant problem for social movement theory has been to explain why
people join movements if t hey believe the movement can/will succeed
without their contribution.
Social movements as a series of contentious performances, displays and
campaigns by which ordinary people made collective claims on others
[Tilly, 2004]. For Tilly, social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary
people's participation in public politics. He argues that th ere are three
major elements to a social movement:
1. Campaigns: a sustained, organized public effort making collective
claims on target authorities;
2. Repertoire: employment of combinations from among the following
forms of political action: creation of special -purpose associations and
coalitions, public meetings, solemn processions, vigils, rallies,
demonstrations, petition drives, statements to and in public media, and
pamphleteering; and
3. WUNC displays: participants concerted public representation of
worthiness, unity, numbers, and commitments on the part of
themselves and/or their constituencies.
4.11 QUESTIONS 1. Explain Resource Mobilization Theory/ New Social Move ments
Theory .
2. Elaborate on the stages of Socia l Movements . munotes.in

Page 38

38 Sociology of Social Movements 4.12 REFERENCES  Marco G . Giugni, How Social Movements Matter, Univ ersity of
Minnesota Press, 1999, ISBN 0 -8166 -2914 -5
 Rod Bantjes, Social Movements in a Global Context, CSPI, 2007,
ISBN 978 -1-55130 -324-6
 Michael Barker, Conform or Reform? Social Movements and the
Mass Media, Fif th-Estate -Online - International Journal of Radical
Mass Media Criticism. February 2007. [1]
 David S. Meyer, Protest and Political Opportunities, Annual Review
of Sociology, Vol. 30: 125 -145 (Volume publication date August
2004), (doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.3 0.012703.110545) [1]
 Tarrow S. 1998. Power in Movement. New York : Cambridge Univ.
Press . 2nd ed.
 Jereon Gunning, Hamas, democracy, religion and violence
 Eisinger P. 1973. The conditions of protest behavior in American
cities. Am. Polit. Sci. Rev. 81 : 11 — 28
 McAdam D, Tarrow S, Tilly C. 2001. Dy namics of Contention.
Cambridge University Press
 Charles Tilly, Social Movements, 1768 -2004, Boulder, CO, Paradigm
Publishers, 2004 262 pp. ISBN 1 -59451 -042-3 (hardback) / ISBN 1 -
59451 -043-1 (paperback)
 Sidney Tar row, Power in Movement: Collective Action, Social
Movements and Politics, Cambridge University Press, 1994. ISBN 0 -
521-42271 -x
 David F. Aberle 1966. The Peyote Religion among the Navaho.
Chicago: Aldine. ISBN 0806123826
 James Alfred Aho. 1990. Politics of Righteousness: Idaho Christian
Patriotism. Washington: University of Washington Press. ISBN
0295969970
 Herbert G. Blumer 1969. "Collective Behavior." In Alfred McClung
Lee, ed., Principles of Sociology. Third Edition. New York: Barnes
and Noble Books, pp. 65-121.
 Mark Chaves. 1997. Ordaining Women: Culture and Conflict in
Religious Organizations. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN
0674641469
 Graeme Chesters, & Ian Welsh. Complexity and Social Movements:
Multitudes at the Edge of Chaos Routledge 2006. ISBN 0 -4154 -3974 -
4 munotes.in

Page 39

39 Theory of Social Movement  Susan Eckstei, ed. Powe r and Popular Protest: Latin American Social
Movements, Updated Edition, University of California Press 2001.
ISBN 0 -520-22705 -0
 Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Collective Action, Social
Movements and Politics, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
*****
munotes.in

Page 40

40 MODULE - II
5
PEASANT / FARMER’S MOVEMENTS
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Peasant Movements in British India
5.3 Farmers’ Movements in Independent India
5.4 Demands, Protests and Struggles
5.5 Some Prominent Movements of 20th Cent ury
5.6 Questions
5.7 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the various peasants’ movements in India
 To familiarize students with important issues of the peasants/farmers
struggles
5.1 INTRODUCTION Peasant or farmers’ movements have one of the most si gnificant social
movements in India. Peasant movements in India have a long history
going back to the colonial period which belies commonly held doubts
regarding the revolutionary potential of Indian peasantry. Agriculture in
India has never been smooth sa iling, as it is always confronted with one or
the other problems. The life of the peasants being largely dependent upon
agriculture has never been easy as his livelihood is determined by several
social and environmental factors. Further, a dualistic kind o f development
model, and ineffective implementation of the government policies and
programmes have deepened the miseries of the peasants and widened the
gap between rich, middle, small and marginal peasants, and landless
peasants.
Peasants have widely bee n described economically, as small producers,
subsistence cultivators, landless agricultural laborers, sharecroppers,
tenants, and part -time rural artisans who have been attached to land to eke
out a living; culturally as unsystematic, unreflective, unsoph isticated, and
illiterate; socially as collectivities with predominantly primordial relations
based on clan, caste, and ethnicity; and politically as underdogs deprived
of knowledge for organized collective action who have historically borne
the brunt of e xtreme forms of subordination and oppression in society.
Ghanshyam Shah (2004) finds the term ‘peasant’, misleading and an
inadequate translation of the term Kisan or Khedut normally used for munotes.in

Page 41

41 Peasant / Farmer’s Movements cultivators of land in local parlance. Rural people are differen tiated in
terms of their relationship to land. The English referent ‘peasant' attempts
to be of an encompassing nature not quite revealing the differentiations
within such as agriculturist of a supervisory nature, owner - cultivator,
small peasant, share cr oppers, tenant cultivator and landless labourers.
Peasant movements have been studied and classified in different ways in
social movement literature. Classification and formation of typologies has
been understood as a way of making sense of the enormous d iversity that
prevails in society.
Scholars who have studied peasant movements in India have classified
these movements along several lines. According to Ghanshyam Shah
(2004) peasant movements have been grouped according to those in the
pre-British, Brit ish or colonial period and in the post -independence period.
Peasant movements in the post -independence period again, have been
classified as pre -Naxalbari and post Naxalbari or pre -green revolution and
post green revolution. The latter has been further sub divided into
movements occurring in the pre and post Emergency period. Movements
occurring in the post green revolution period are termed as farmer's
movements, as they mainly dealt with the issues and demands of the
middle and big farmers who emerged more strongly in the post -green
revolution period.
A. R Desai (1979) in his study classified the struggles in the colonial
period as 'peasant struggles' and those in the post independent period
'agrarian struggles'. The usage of the term agrarian struggles ind icates the
presence of a broad coalition consisting of peasants and other classes in
these struggles. Desai further sub -divides struggles in the post -
independence period into two categories - 'the movements launched by the
newly emerged proprietary classes comprising of rich farmers, viable
sections of the middle peasant proprietors and the landlords and the
movements launched by various sections of the agrarian poor in which
agrarian proletariat have been acquiring central importance'.
However, often topol ogizing becomes difficult, because of the significant
overlaps between social movements which makes construction of pure
categories difficult.
5.2 PEASANT MOVEMENTS IN BRITISH INDIA Peasant Movements are a part of social movements against British
atrociti es in the 18th and 19th centuries of the British Colonial Period.
These movements had the sole purpose of restoring the earlier forms of
rule and social relations. There were various reasons related to agrarian
restructuring for peasants to revolt. The rea sons are given below:
 Peasants were evicted from their lands
 The rent that the peasants had to pay for their lands was increased
 Atrocities by the Moneylenders munotes.in

Page 42

42 Sociology of Social Movements  Peasants’ traditional handicrafts were ruined
 The ownership of land was taken away from peasants during
Zamindari rule
 Massive Debt
 Colonial Economic Policies
 Land Revenue System was not favouring the peasants
As a result of these revolts, there was some significant impact of the
movements, such as:
 Hough these revolts were not aimed at uprooting th e British rule from
India, they created awareness among the Indians.
 The peasants developed a strong awareness of their legal rights and
asserted them in and outside the courts.
 Peasants emerged as the main force in agrarian movements, fighting
directly fo r their own demands.
 Various Kisan Sabhas were formed to organise and agitate for
peasant’s demands during Non -Cooperation Movement.
 These movements eroded the power of the landed class, thus adding
to the transformation of the agrarian structure.
 Peasants felt a need to organise and fight against exploitation and
oppression.
 These rebellious movements prepared the ground for various other
uprisings across the country.
Some of the prominent peasant struggles that took place then include
Indigo Revolt (1859 -60), Rangpur Dhing (1783), Kol Rebellion (1832),
Mappila Rebellion in Malabar (1841 -1920), Santhal Rebellion (1855),
Deccan Uprising (1875), Tebhaga Movement (1946 –47).
Check Your Progress:
1. Why did the peasants revolt during the colonial rule?
_________ ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5.3 FARMERS’ MOVEMENTS I N INDEPENDENT INDIA Independent India inherited an extremely stratified agrarian society from
the British, characterised by an exploitative intermediary system of land
tenure in many parts of the country, subinfeudation in landholding, munotes.in

Page 43

43 Peasant / Farmer’s Movements tenurial insecurity, rack renting, extra economic coercion of poor peasants,
tenants and the sharecroppers, lack of mobility, unemployment and
poverty among millions. On the eve of the independence, organised
peasant movements had surfaced in many parts of the country.
Howev er, due to the unquestioned domination of the landed class, lack of
political will of the state, lack of awareness and organisation of the rural
poor except for the abolition of the zamindari, etc., system, land reforms
were not sincerely implemented. The radical peasant movements again
surfaced in late 1960s in many parts of the country. The government of
India again formulated a national guideline for land reform in 1971 to
radicalize the land reform programme. However, the process of
implementation of la nd reforms has not been the same yet all over India.
In recent years, overt collective mobilization of the peasantry has been
characterized by their frequent participation in meeting, processions,
strikes, demonstrations, voting and voting campaigns, etc. During Tebhaga
in West Bengal (1946 -47), Telangana (1946 -52) in Andhra Pradesh and
the Naxalite Movement in West Bengal (1967 -71) the peasantry
participated in the forceful occupation of land, cutting of the standing
paddy, harvesting of paddy in their ow n courtyard against the will of the
landowners, developing barricades against the police, standing in the
forefront of the battle in attacking police, landowners and the
administration with traditional weapons, taking part in the guerrilla
warfare, treatin g and sheltering the injured activists, developing self -
defense techniques against the police and maintaining a channel of
communication with the underground activists.
Check Your Progress:
1. Elaborate on post -independent agrarian struggles.
____________ ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5.4 DEMANDS, PROTESTS AND S TRUGGLES Historically, the peasants have come together over myriad issues, though
these issues and concerns have changed over time, since the colonial
period. Sometimes these movements have even gone beyond the
immediate concerns of the peasants. In the co lonial period, for example,
peasants rose in protest changes in the property relations and in the land
tenure system which evicted and dispossessed them of their rights over
land. The peasant economy before the British came to India was based on
subsistenc e economy, oriented towards the satisfaction of basic needs.
The British transformed Indian agriculture by creating property rights in
land, drawing Indian agriculture into the larger world capitalist system,
created land markets, encouraged commercialisa tion of land, and changed
the nature of productive relations in land to one of contract. As new munotes.in

Page 44

44 Sociology of Social Movements classes came into being, profit motive became the most important interest
to be sustained for the government as well as the class of zamindars and
rentiers that they created. This conflicted with the interests of the peasant
cultivators and led to their mobilisation.
Rise in prices of inferior foodgrains consumed by the tenants and
agricultural labourers led to several agrarian unrests in North India in
between 1918 -22. Famine was a recurrent feature of rural life in the
colonial period during 18th and 19th centuries, though a section of social
scientists feel that no effective mass protest was witnessed during famine
despite the extreme suffering which the peopl e endured. Eviction of tenant
cultivators by money lenders, landlords and government officials was one
of the causes for widespread disturbances which involved peasants. In
some cases, religious issues got implicated with economic issues as in the
case of the Moplah Rebellion in Malabar where conflict between Moplahs
(Muslim peasants) and upper caste Hindu landlords in the late 19th -early
20th century and in the cases of Wahabi Faraizi uprisings in Bengal in the
1930s.
In the post -independence period, some of the issues and problems of the
peasants continued to be raised in the peasant movements though the
nature of these movements underwent a change. The nature of the peasant
questions in the post -independence phase was characterised by a dramatic
shift. T he post independent period saw a change in agrarian classes and
interests resulting from the state policies. Accordingly, two categories of
rural struggles could be identified by A. R Desai a) the movement
launched by newly emergent proprietary class compr ising of rich farmers
and middle peasant proprietors, and b) movements launched by various
sections of the agrarian proletariat. The rural poor consisting of the poor
peasants, women, a rapidly rising agrarian proletariat belonging to the
lower castes and from a varied ethnic, linguistic, and religious faiths
wanted to establish a radically different and qualitatively new type of
society where a decent, dignified existence could be ensured.
The peasant movements in independent India have become more
interna lly differentiated. The class interests of the rich peasants and
landowners have diverged from those of the small cultivators,
sharecroppers, and landless labourers. Post 1970s also saw a change in
peasant struggles, which led to the forging of peasant -workers alliance
initially during the Naxalbari movement and later on in political groups
like Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathana which calls itself a non -party
people’s movement of the landless and rural poor striving for issues like
the redistribution of land, and minimum wages.
The forms of protests adopted by the movements also vary according to
the different phases. For example, as one witnesses in Dhanagare’s
account of the Telengana movement (1946 -51) that in the first and the
second phase the peasant ins urrection had a reformist orientation, but in
the last phase when the peasant leadership deserted the movement, the
poor tenants started to seize lands. Lands seized forcibly were distributed
among the agricultural labourers and evicted tenants. munotes.in

Page 45

45 Peasant / Farmer’s Movements Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the reasons for their struggles in the pre -independence period.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________ __________
____________________________________________________________
5.5 SOME PROMINENT MOVEMENTS OF 20TH CENTURY Tebhaga movement, India (1946 –1947) :
The British colonial land policy in India created a class of intermediary
landowners with a dominant mi nority having social and economic
command and a hapless majority suffering poverty, unemployment, and
insecurity as agricultural laborers, sharecroppers, and tenants at the bottom
of the agrarian hierarchy. In 1946, on the eve of independence, the
undivide d Bengal experienced a vehement outburst of peasant unrest
known as Tebhaga Andolan, under the leadership of the left -dominated
Bengal Kisan Sabha. Through this movement, poor peasants, who were
mostly from a tribal and lower caste background, demanded “la nd to the
tiller” and a two -thirds share of the produce for the sharecroppers instead
of a half.
Telangana movement, India (1946 –1952) :
Through armed struggle in 1946 –1952, the peasantry of the Telangana
region of Andhra Pradesh engaged in a prolonged mov ement against the
feudal land tenure system and its exploitative practices, such as land
grabbing, illegal taxing, forced and bonded labor, extra economic
coercion, rack -renting, debt, and daily humiliation. Under the leadership
of the communist -dominated Andhra Maha Sabha, the peasantry took part
in a guerrilla struggle to overthrow the Nizam (the princely ruler) of
Hyderabad.
Naxalite movement (1967 –1971) :
Immediately after independence, the Government of India introduced an
elaborate land reform program me with a view to minimize agrarian
inequality, putting it on the path of progress and accelerated development.
However, all over India a gap surfaced between the land reform laws and
their implementation that led to downward mobility of peasants. The left -
wing political parties in West Bengal had been mobilizing peasantry for
the implementation of land reforms, and in 1967 a left -supported United
Front Government came into power in this province with the promise of
land reform. However, once in power it sh owed reluctance to implement
the promise. The peasants of Naxalbari, under the leadership of the
Communist Party of India’s Darjeeling District Committee of West
Bengal, began taking possession of surplus lands forcibly, arming
themselves with conventional weapons like bows and arrows and spears, munotes.in

Page 46

46 Sociology of Social Movements and set up a parallel administration to look after villages. They also
declared some “liberated areas.” This movement continues to reappear in
rural India, as more than a dozen of Naxalite groups are active in
contemporary India under different names, covering more than one -third
of the territory, mostly in deprived areas.
Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the Naxalbari movement.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________ ________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5.6 QUESTIONS 1. What has been the nature of agrarian struggles in India?
2. What are the main highli ghts of Telangana movement?
3. Elaborate on the categorization of agrarian struggles by different
scholars.
4. Differentiate between pre - and post -independence agrarian struggles.
5.7 REFERENCES  Desai, A. R. (1979). Peasant Struggles in India: Oxford Un iversity
Press.
 Desai, A.R. (Ed.).1990: Changing Profile of Rural India and Human
Rights of Agrarian Poor. Chandigarh, CRRID Publication. |
 Deshpande, R, & Prabhu, N. 2005: Farmer’s Distress: Proof Beyond
Question. Economic and Political Weekly, 40:44, P.4 5.
 Patil, R. B. (2014). Agrarian Crises in Contemporary India: Some
Sociological Reflections. PARIPEX - INDIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH, 3(2), 14 -18.
 Shah, G. (2004). Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature:
SAGE Publications.
 Vishwanath, L. S. (1988 ). Peasant Movements in Colonial India : An
Examination of Some conceptual Frameworks. Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress, 49, 524 –531.

***** munotes.in

Page 47

47 6
LABOUR MOVEMENT
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Labour Movement
6.1.2 Features of the Labour Force
6.2 Labour Movement in the Pre -independence Period
6.3 Labour Movement in the Post -independence Era
6.4 Challenges of the New Economic Policy
6.5 Weaknesses of Indian Labour Movement
6.6 Conclusion
6.7 Summary
6.8 Questions
6.9 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES  To examine the evolution of the labour union movement in India.
 To study the challenges of the trade unions in the context of structural
adjustment and globalization.
6.1 INTRODUCTION The history of Indian labour class can be traced through the colonial
period. The modern working class arose in India with the introduction of
capitalism in the nineteenth century under the colonial dispensa tion. It has
been difficult to organize Indian labour class due to different structural
and social factors. It has taken efforts from various quarters; from
philanthropic personalities to the Trade Unions with diverse political
ideologies to awaken the la bour class in India and get them organized.
The evolution of the trade union movement is associated with the growth
of industrialization. Trade unions form a critical component of the
modern industrial system of a country. These operate under respective
constitutional mechanisms, and adhere to the globally accepted principles
laid down by organizations such as the ILO.
This section introduces the learner to the definition and characteristics of
labour movement and deals with the social basis, leadership , ideology,
political orientation and historical understanding of the Indian labour
movement.
munotes.in

Page 48

48 Sociology of Social Movements 6.1.1 Labour Movement :
The labour movement is a broad, multidimensional social formation which
emerges from the social structures of work and industry in a socie ty. It
may exist in any one of the following formats: 1) it consists of legally
recognized and formally sanctioned institutions such as trade unions,
political parties or worker councils, 2) It may also consist of less formal
groups of workers such as or ganizations of strike supporters, workers
centers, cultural forms, etc. Labour movements operate at the intersecting
points of economic practice, civil society, and the State. They are firmly
institutionalized or are an integral part of any given society in any given
historical period. Thus, labour movements can be analyzed at two levels:
1) the social and organizational composition of a labour movement, 2) the
extent to which the practices are institutionalized.
6.1.2 Features of the Labour Force :
One w ay of distinguishing the organized sector from the unorganized
sector of the labour force is on the basis of labour market and legal rights
of the workers. The unorganized sector is largely unstructured and
unregulated and hardly offers any protection to its workers. On the other
hand, the organized sector is more structured and regulated, which
translates into more protection due to operation of laws, social security,
better wages and working and living conditions for the workers. The
services of organi zed labour cannot be terminated as per the desires of
their employers. According to some scholars, around 60 percent of the
workforce in organized sector is employed in the public sector and the
government.
6.2 LABOUR MOVEMENT IN THE PRE -INDEPENDENCE PER IOD Labour historians have observed that the labour movement has evolved
through several phases. However, it would be necessary to understand the
labour movement in the pre -independence period. This was also the era of
the emergence of labour consciousne ss.
Early phase of Labour Associations from 1850s till 1918 :
The real foundations of modern industries like tea plantations, railway,
petroleum and other mega industries were established in India in the early
and middle part of the 19th century. The labou r movement in India also
emerged around this time. In its earliest format the working -class
movement lacked organization and effectiveness and was sporadic in
nature. Only in the late 19th century in Madras, and the second decade of
the twentieth century in Bombay, serious efforts were made to form
associations which could organize meaningful protests. In the 1880s,
much before the formation of the labour associations, some social
reformers and philanthropists endeavoured to improve the working
conditions of the labour class. For example, some philanthropists under
the leadership of Mr. Sorabji Shahaporji Bengalee initiated an agitation to munotes.in

Page 49

49 Labour Movement bring attention of the British government to the miserable conditions of
workers working in factories in 1875. This led to the British introducing
legislations for the wellbeing of the workers, especially the Factories Act,
1881. S.S. Bengalee in Bombay, Sasipada Banerjee in Bengal and
Narayan Lokhande in Maharashtra were some of the key figures
representing the cause o f the workers.
Mr. Sorabji Shahporji Bengalee could be called as the founding father of
Indian Trade Union Movement. However, Narayan Lokhande, who
emerged from the working class, can be considered as the labour leader
who represented the grievances of the workers to the factor commission in
1884. He made efforts to successfully declare a weekly holiday for
workers. Another organization namely The Bombay Mills Hands
Association came into existence in 1980 with Mr. Lokhande as its
president. The associ ation also published a journal called ‘Dinabandhu’.
This phase was marked by strikes in every factory, however the strikes
were sporadic, spontaneous, localized, and for a short term. The factors
responsible for the strikes were reduction in wages, imposi tion of fines,
dismissal or reprimanding a worker.
Workers Movement in the early 20th century :
With the arrival of the 20th century the Indian Trade Union Movement
attained maturity to a great extent. There was consciousness among the
workers which resul ted in direct action carried out by the labourers
themselves. For instance, various agitations registered in different parts of
the country like strike by the workers of the Government Press, Madras
(1903), agitations carried out by Postal Union, Bombay ( 1907), Indian
Telegraph Association (1908). However, in most cases these agitations
were local in nature, were pre -mature in character due to their longevity,
as a result ineffective.
The period between two world wars and more specifically the post -
Bolshe vik revolution of Russia brought about tremendous positive impact
to the Indian Trade Union movement. The historic November revolution
of Russia infused the notion of class consciousness and class solidarity
among the workers. This inspired the working -class section of
contemporary India to organize labour protest in contemporary cities like
Bombay, Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Madras, Calcutta, etc. The workers of the
Ahmedabad mills agitated in December, 1917 and demanded for better
labour welfare facilities and to celebrate May Day, a day dedicated for the
working -class section of the society. These efforts led to the formation of
the Madras Labour Union in 1918 under the leadership of B.P. Wadia.
This can be considered as the First Systematic Trade Union of th e country.
This period also marks the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi as a leader in
the greater arena of Indian trade union movement. Under the leadership of
Gandhi, the Champaran satyagraha assumed the proportion of mass
movement which forced the British go vernment to enact the Champaran
Agricultural Bill (1917). Three leaders who played an important role in
mobilizing textile mill workers of Ahamdabad were Sardar Vallabhai munotes.in

Page 50

50 Sociology of Social Movements Patel, Shankarlal Bank and Khandubhai Desai. Three decades later these
leaders were instrumental in formation of Indian National Trade Union
Congress (INTUC).
The formation of the International Labour Organization (ILO) was
considered as a milestone in the history of trade union movements across
the world. M.M. Joshi was nominated as th e representative of Indian
working class to the ILO in 1919. At this time however, there was a felt
need to establish a central level trade union in the post -World War -I
period. This fact led to the formation of the All India Trade Union
Congress (AITUC) with Lala Lajpat Rai as its Founding President. The
labour movement carried out by AITUC and the nationalist movement
carried out by INC went hand in hand under the leadership of C.R. Das,
Pt. Motilal Nehru, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, and Netaji Subhash Chand ra
Bose.
In the second decade of the twentieth century, the Congress felt the need
to mobilize the working class for two specific reasons: Firstly, the
Congress realized that the working class needs to be brought within their
fold, or else the country co uld face a people’s revolution. Secondly, the
Congress understood that all sections of Indian society had to be
mobilized so that a strong resistance against imperialism could be built up.
The Congress appointed a committee to into issues related to labo ur in
1936.
In the early 1920s, AITUC came under the influence of the communist
ideology. The Communists were not to be left behind; so they took keen
interest in the working class issues. In the 1920s they sought to mobilize
the working class through the Workers and Peasant Parties (WPPs).
Taking on a radical approach, the WPPs were able to organize working
class strikes in 1928 in Bombay and other cities of India.
Eventually AITUC witnessed its ideological split in to two folds: one from
the old gua rds of the Indian National Congress and the moderates; second
was from the Communists. This split led to the emergence of the National
Trade Union’s Federation (NTUF) and thrived under the guidance of B.T.
Randive and S.V. Deshpande who were committed com munists. Later on,
All India Red Trade Union Congress and NTUF merged with AITUC in
1935 and 1940 respectively. The efforts of all these Labour unions
created enough pressure on the government which led to the enactment of
several labour welfare and pro -labour legislations such as Workmen’s
Compensation Act, 1923, Trade Union Act, 1926 and Industrial Disputes
Act, 1929.
6.3 LABOUR MOVEMENT IN THE POST -INDEPENDENCE ERA One of the major differences in the trade union movement before and after
independence is that in the pre -independence there was a tendency
towards unity while the post -independence period was marred by major
splits and fragmentation of trade unions. The AITUC was the first munotes.in

Page 51

51 Labour Movement national federation of trade unions which represented the working -class
form across all political spectrums underwent two major splits due to
ideological reasons. The split in the AITUC in 1947 paved the way for
further splits based on narrow party lines with the result it almost became
mandatory for every political part y to have its trade union front. When a
political party splits its trade union front also splits, thereby fragmenting
the working -class movement further. Similarly, a new political party
invariably floats its own trade union.
In 1952, the Bharatiya Jan Sangh was formed and in 1955 it initiated
another trade union centre known as Bharatiya Mazdur Sangh. The
Samyukta Socialist Party was established in 1965. However, till the early
1970s, the INTUC, AITUC and HMS were the most important trade union
centre s in the country. The split in the communist movement, in the wake
of the Chinese aggression in 1962, led to the formation of another
communist party, viz. the Communist Party of India (Marxist) in 1964.
As the working class was divided on political parti es at the national level,
regional parties too started forming their own trade union centres since the
late 1960s. Both the DMK (Dravida Munetra Kazhagham, 1977) and
AIADMK (All India Anna Dravida Munetra Kazhagham, 1977) were
formed as rival centres of e ach other. The year 1967 saw the birth of Shiv
Sena in Mumbai, which represented the interests of Maharashtrians and
Marathi speaking people in Mumbai. Its own labour wing was the
Bharatiya Kamgar Sena.
Thus, it is clear that the trade union movement, which was based on fair
principles and stood united during the colonial rule, were divided in the
post-independence era. This gave a serious blow to the working class
movement and rendered it toothless in terms of challenging capital and the
state. Schola rs have often observed that the inter -union rivalries are much
stronger than the conflict between management and labour.
6.4 CHALLENGES OF THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY The New Economic Policy of the 1990s introduced liberalization,
privatization and globaliza tion which put forth challenges to the organized
working -class movement in the state. Liberalization in the economy due
to globalization has boosted the putting -out system (domestic
manufacturing), because the focus is now on producing cheap for the
world market. Large industries often complain the policy of over
protection of the organized sector workers is the biggest obstacle in the
path of increase in productivity.
Such a move has led to adverse impacts on the socio -political structure of
our country including the trade union movement. Liberalization reduced
the government control over the private sector; as a result, weakened the
bargaining position of the workers. The policy of privatization facilitated
the public sector units to be sold to privat e players; which opened up new
challenges for the workers and the trade unions in the country. Under this
policy there would be no statutory minimum wages for labour, no munotes.in

Page 52

52 Sociology of Social Movements obstructions to retrenchment and removal of various welfare benefits.
This meant giv ing employers the absolute right to hire and fire.
The growth and proliferation of MNCs have given a big blow to the trade
unions which find it difficult to resist encroachment of capital and its
workers. Emergence of sophisticated and innovative techno logy has
hampered the bargaining power of labour. Thousands of small and
medium units have been forced to shut down their operations. With the
introduction of the new industrial policy (1991), all the associations of the
employers started pressing for an exit policy through which it would be
easier to shut down industries. Due to opposition from trade unions, the
government was hesitant to introduce this policy. The introduction of
Voluntary Retirement Scheme (VRS) and the mass retrenchment and
terminatio n of services of labour has resulted in social unrest and
discontentment. This policy has allowed the private sectors to replace
permanent workers by temporary, contract or casual labour. This policy
lead to the new trend of subcontracting work from larg er industries to the
smaller manufacturing units which are run on low capital, few workers.
The ‘casualization of labour’ has created inequalities within the working
class. All the above factors have led to the declining strength of the trade
unions whic h has impacted labour solidarity of the country to a significant
extent.
6.5 WEAKNESSES OF INDIAN LABOUR MOVEMENT The working class has some weaknesses. The changes taking place in the
economy through the policies of liberalization have posed a challenge to
the labour movement in India. This has led to job losses in the organized
sector, as a result of which the base of unprotected, unorganized sector is
ever increasing. A large section of the workforce, especially in the
unorganized sector remains outs ide the fold of trade unions. These
workers are poor and vulnerable to exploitation than workers in the
organized sector.
The second challenge is that of fragmentation and multiplicity of trade
unions. Scholars argue that the multiplicity of political pa rties may be an
accepted norm in a democracy. However, multiplicity of unions is
damaging to the capitalist system as this keeps the working class
fragmented and vulnerable to all forms of pressures. In this context, the
workers are helpless in counteracti ng the negative effects of globalization
and liberalization of the economy. A robust, cohesive trade union
movement has the potential to challenge the anti -labour policies, but has
not been able to do so because it is divided.
There is a strong link bet ween trade unions and politics. Scholars observe
that the politic al role of the trade unions has overshadowe d its
commitment to the workers interests. At the same time political role of the
trade union mov ement cannot be underestimated. Trade unions are
required to protect the interests of the workers. Though trade unions are
expected to counteract the power of the employers at the ground level, this
cannot be effective without challenging the power of the State. munotes.in

Page 53

53 Labour Movement It would be incorrect to say that the politic al parties are solely responsible
for the fragmentation of the trade unions. The state has played a very
important role in this process. It has been seen that the legal framework for
industrial relations on the one hand provides grounds for multiple unions ,
while on the other hand makes the unions more dependent on the
government agencies in ti mes of settlement of disputes. The state provides
opportunities for disintegration within the working cl ass. This situation is
capitalized by the political parties an d vested interests for their own
personal gains.
6.6 CONCLUSION The changes in the economy as a result of the policy of liberalization have
posed major challenges to the labour movement in India. This has
resulted to loss of jobs in the organized sector, while at the same time it
has expanded the base of the unprotected sector. The labour class in India
is a highly fragmented entity, which organized itself during the colonial
rule. The divisions among the working class have rendered them helpless
and th erefore the workers are not equipped to counteract the adverse
effects of globalization and the consequent liberalization of the economy.
The trade union movement had the potential to counteract the anti -labour
policies, but has failed because of the fragm entation. A united trade union
movement is perhaps the most pressing need in the present situation. The
Indian trade union movement has not only been influenced by different
developments over a period of time, but also shaped the Indian political
scene t o a significant extent.
The role of trade unions cannot be understated or underestimated while
discussing the problems of the labour. No other institution, whether it is
the bureaucracy, or political party, or an NGO can ever replace trade
unions. Trade unions by their very nature are the only means of protecting
the interests of the working class. Thus, strengthening the trade union
movement is the only way to strengthening the labour movement.
6.7 SUMMARY The labour movement is a broad, multidimensiona l social formation which
emerges from the social structures of work and industry in a society.
The real foundations of modern industries like tea plantations, railway,
petroleum and other mega industries were established in India in the early
and middle part of the 19th century.
With the arrival of the 20th century the Indian Trade Union Movement
attained maturity to a great extent. There was consciousness among the
workers which resulted in direct action carried out by the labourers
themselves.
One of the major differences in the trade union movement before and after
independence is that in the pre -independence there was a tendency munotes.in

Page 54

54 Sociology of Social Movements towards unity while the post -independence period was marred by major
splits and fragmentation of trade unions.
The New Eco nomic Policy of the 1990s introduced liberalization,
privatization and globalization which put forth challenges to the organized
working -class movement in the state.
The working class has some weaknesses. The changes taking place in the
economy through the policies of liberalization have posed a challenge to
the labour movement in India.
The role of trade unions cannot be understated or replaced while
discussing the problems of the labour. No other institution, whether it is
the bureaucracy, or politi cal party, or an NGO can ever replace trade
unions.
6.8 QUESTIONS 1. Examine the key features of the Indian Labour force.
2. Discuss the evolution of the workers’ movement in the pre -
independence and post -independence period.
3. Elucidate the challeng es put forth by the New Economic Policy vis -à-
vis the Indian labour movement.
6.9 REFERENCES  Sharit, Bhowmik : The Labour Movement in India: Present Problems
and Future Perspectives
 https://ijsw.tiss.edu/greenstone/collect/ijsw/index/assoc/HASH018e/b
46ab9d7.dir/doc.pdf
 Lahkar, Satyadeep (2022): ‘Organizing Indian Labour: History,
Politics and Beyond’, Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry,
Vol.1 3. Issue 1, (pp790 -796)
 Fantasia, R. Eidlin, B. and Voss, K. (2013): ‘Labour Movement’
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3195479 08_Labor_Moveme
nt/link/5b85e18aa6fdcc5f8b6e8b56/download
Workers Movement:
 http://www.drbrambedkarcollege.ac.in/sites/default/files/worker%27 s
%20movement%20%28English%29.pdf

*****
munotes.in

Page 55

55 7
STUDENT'S MOVEMENT
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 History of Student Movement
7.3 List of popular Students Movement
7.4 Social basis of Students Movement
7.5 Students’ movement and Globalization
7.6 Summary
7.7 Questions
7.8 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the different early student’s movement
 To learn about the impact in terms of leadership, ideology, and social
basis of the student’s movement
7.1 INTRODUCTION In the present chapter, we are going to learn about t he student’s movement
and its impact on society at large. The present chapter is useful to you too
as student yourself studying in higher education. Student’s movements
have played an important role throughout the world in shaping the
economy, policies, an d social structure. A university campus gives
students a certain space to interact, have a voice and express themselves.
While participating in student’s movement, certain skill sets like
leadership, mobilizing capacity, and communication skills are often
enhanced. A student is an individual who is studying in a college or
university. As these students generally are in the age group, i.e., 15 -30,
they are seen as contributing to the nation, in the future they would be also
the working population. In a count ry like India, with a second largest
population of the world, student’s play an important role in the country’s
economy and as well as migrants to other countries too for higher
education, and employment.
7.2 HISTORY AND STUDENT MOVEMENT There have been several times in the history throughout the world where
students have participated and it turned out to be a movement. Some of
them are like with the aid of educator and reformer Henry Louis Vivian
Derozio, the Academic Association was founded at undivided Bengal's
Hindu College in 1828, which led to a student movement in India that munotes.in

Page 56

56 Sociology of Social Movements lasted for over 200 years. In the early stages, a group of independent
intellectuals who were his disciples, played a significant role in the Bengal
Renaissance of the 19th cent ury. In 1920, King Edward Medical College
in Lahore saw the first students' walkout in independent India, which was
in protest of academic inequality between English and Indian students.
Throughout the nation, students and their organizations took part in the
independence movement (Hindustan Times).
After the country gained its independence, practically all major political
parties had student wings, and a number of independent student
organizations that aided the socially and economically underprivileged
emerged as well. Several student movements that took place in India after
it gained independence are forever imprinted in the country's memory.
Indian history has contribution of several student leaders. On August 15,
1947, at the stroke of midnight, two me n who had stood on the same
student platform eleven years before rose to leadership positions namely
Jawaharlal Nehru and Jinnah. When questioned to Nehru whether students
should be politically involved in the national struggle at the first congress
of the All-India Students Federation in Lucknow, Jawaharlal Nehru
immediately responded that participating in the national movement was
not politics but rather a sacred duty for the student community at large
(Chopra, 1978). In the pre -independent student’s part icipation can be seen
as contributing to the independence and welfare of the nation as the whole,
being the main goal among students for joining the social movements. The
Student Movement had varied leaders, populations, working styles, and
challenges duri ng both pre - and post -independence periods.
7.3 LIST OF POPULAR STUDENT’S MOVEMENT The demographic nature of India with diverse and uniqueness in terrain,
culture, language, population effects both the amount of student’s who
have access to education. Th ere are other factors too like environmental,
metropolitan cities, socio -cultural factors which influence the number of
students getting education. At the individual level there are factors like
parental role, role models, influences, peers etc. which make s a child
decide whether to continue or not. Hence, only when a student goes to
institution and then the question comes of joining the movement or not. A
student’s movement many a times emerges out of crisis, a will to get out
of a situation or it could be other reasons which is affecting society at
large and they want to express solidarity about the event – students
participating in the independence movement.
Ideology also plays a very important role in making the student join a
movement. This the student must have learnt through the literature, books
in library, constantly hearing discussions around, nature of friends, or
from the ideology which the institution operates at large. In present times
ideology of a individual can be also influenced, tampered t hrough that of
social media and the algorithm of the videos which pops out in the mobile,
laptop. Making artificial intelligence too influencing the kind of
worldview a student develops. munotes.in

Page 57

57 Student's Movement Linguistic Movement of Tamil Nadu, 1965 :
Even though Tamil Nadu had been experiencing agitation against Hindi
for years, things changed when a sizable number of students protested
against the Official Languages Act of 1963, which proclaimed Hindi and
English official languages. The measure was enacted despite the Dravida
Munnetra Kazhagam's (DMK) a political party in Tamil Nadu, opposing
it. However, Jawaharlal Nehru, who was the then Prime minister,
promised that English would remain the national language. After Nehru's
death in 1964, the state's Congress administration en acted a three -
language formula, which prompted students to protest in the streets. The
number of fatalities during the unrest reached 70. Upon Lal Bahadur
Shastri's assurance that Nehru's promise would be kept, the movement
came to an end. Here, we can obs erve that the students joined the protest
for opposing the language. A problem which was a movement beyond the
campus by at large though effecting the state in which they resided.
Nav Nirman Andolan (Reconstruction Movement), 1974 :
An agitation was starte d on December 20, 1973, by engineering students
in Ahmedabad against a 20% charge increase for dorm meals. On January
3, 1974, Gujarat University saw unrest between the police and students
during a similar strike. Chimanbhai Patel, the country's then -Chief
minister, was called to resign by the protesters. On January 25, a state -
wide strike was called, and it was followed by yet another altercation
between the police and demonstrators. 44 towns were placed under a
curfew, and the army was dispatched to Ahmed abad to put an end to the
unrest. Patel was asked to resign by the Centre government, which was led
by Indira Gandhi. The state government was deposed as a result of the
agitation.
Bihar Student Movement, 1974 (also called JP movement) :
The Jai Prakash Nar ayan -led Chatra Sangarsh Samiti put pressure on the
issues of nepotism, electoral reforms, subsidized food, and educational
reforms. This peaceful demonstration started at Patna University and
extended to a number of other academic institutions in the nort hern Indian
states that use the Hindi language. Some of the well -known youth leaders
who took part in the JP movement were Nitish Kumar, who is currently
the chief minister of Bihar, Lalu Prasad, a former chief minister of Bihar,
and Mulayam Singh Yadav, a former chief minister of UP. The socialist
philosophy was the main message of the JP movement. Here we can
observe the society’s issues at large and student leaders who turned later to
be politicans emerging out through the student’s movement.
Student p rotests during the Emergency1975 :
Students and staff members at various universities and educational
institutions across India planned secret protests. The methods of protest
during the declaration of an emergency in 1975 was through that of
distribution o f pamphlets and leaflets. Arun Jaitley, the president of the
Delhi University Students Union at the time, and Jai Prakash Narayan, the munotes.in

Page 58

58 Sociology of Social Movements leader of the Chatra Sangarsh Samiti, were two among the over 300
student union leaders that were imprisoned. In this pro test also one could
observe participation of student’s at large number for the issues which
they were facing at that point of time.
Agitation in Assam (1979 to 1985) :
The protests against illegal immigration were started in Assam by the All -
Assam Students Union, who also participated in the against the revised
citizenship laws. After a wave of immigration from Bangladesh following
the Liberation War of 1971, there was a movement to preserve Assamese
identity. The Assam Agreement was signed in 1985, putting an end to the
student -led protest that had the backing of the majority of Assamese
citizens. At the age of 35, student leader Prafulla Mahanta, who was the
Asom Gana Parishad's leader at the time, was appointed chief minister in
1985.
North East Student’s Movement:
One of the strongest and longest -lasting social movements in Northeast
India are student movements. Student groups participate in student
movements to varying degrees of intensity and duration in all states in the
region. They discuss general co ncerns affecting their society and ethnic
groups as well as challenges unique to students and educational settings.
Student organizations frequently belong to certain ethnic or tribal groups
in Northeast India. They typically coordinate their movements wit h those
of other social groups in their neighbourhoods. The most frequently
mobilized issues in student protests are academic institutions, ethnic or
tribal identity, migration, border conflicts, political autonomy of their
respective areas, corruption, so cial concerns, environment, development,
Inner Line Permit, citizenship, etc.
In addition to addressing general concerns, student movements also focus
on issues unique to the tribe or ethnic group that the student organization
is associated with. Students' movements frequently involve strikes,
dharnas (protests), or roadblocks. Conflicts between students and police or
acts of ethnic violence can occasionally result from student movements.
The AASU -led six -year Assam agitation (1979 –1985) against foreigners
was Northeast India's longest -running student movement. In Northeast
India, it set the benchmark for other student movements. The majority of
student organizations in the Northeast do not formally participate in party
politics. They assert that they are ap olitical in that regard. Political parties
and student movements have also worked together on numerous
occasions. The Asom Gana Parishad (AGP) and its leadership were
products of the student protests in Assam. Some political leaders have also
arisen from t he student protests in other states (Kharbithai, Moses).
1990's Anti -Mandal Agitation :
India -wide student demonstrations opposing the adoption of a 27% quota
for members of the Other Backward Classes in government employment
began in 1990. The Mandal Commi ssion's 1980 recommendations were munotes.in

Page 59

59 Student's Movement carried out under the leadership of VP Singh. The country experienced
violent riots as demonstrations started at Delhi University and quickly
extended to other educational institutions. Exams were skipped in
numerous locat ions by students. The protest was put to a stop when Singh
announced his resignation on November 7, 1990, following the BJP's
withdrawal of support for his Janata Dal administration.
There are other recent social movements too which began after the death
of Rohith Vemula, 2016. Movement which took place at Jadavpur
university against the Vice Chancellor. Students demanded the resignation
of the VC (2014). The students from Film and Television demanded for
removal of the Head of the institute stating he was not eligible (2015).
Here, we can note that all these movements are inspired by their own
issues than that of something beyond the campus like society at large.
There were also Anti reservation protests in the year 2016.
Social Basis of Student’s Movement :
Durkheim the Classical Sociologist points out that Students may share in
generalized social pathologies like the anomie. To use Weber
interpretation on students’ movement it can be seen as a voice against the
various modern threats to personal freedom kn own as the "iron cage" or
"the colonization of the Lifeworld by system imperatives" as pointed out
by Jürgen Habermas as members of a larger society. Studies on political
opportunity structures have attempted to demonstrate how, depending on
various factor s like social divisions, institutional stability, and tactics
employed by the movement and the regime, a society's political and social
consistency may sometimes make it easier than other times for widespread
discontent to be expressed.
In order to explain why student protests have occurred repeatedly
throughout European history, social scientists have put out a number of
explanations. Some have emphasized the importance of generational
conflict. Lewis Feuer, for instance, claims that members of a younger
generation who have been raised with ideas of modernity and progress
may feel the need to vent their grievances on the age that came before
them. Some observers have seen identity and personality crises as a result
of socialization issues impacting sizable populations of people. According
to Erik Erikson, many young people may reject accepting adult roles on
the terms that adult society sets for them, particularly during times of
social upheaval.
Others, like Kenneth Keniston, have believed that a student po pulation's
propensity for uprising is greatly influenced by the presence of alienated
yet talented leadership types. Others, like Gianni Statera, have focused on
the issue of class conflict, pointing out that even students from wealthy
backgrounds may occa sionally share a dependent status with, say, factory
workers.
Students have spoken out against injustice that they have personally
experienced. The three primary strands of student participation in politics
in independent India, according to Singh, are wor king with political munotes.in

Page 60

60 Sociology of Social Movements parties, organizing workers and peasants, and supporting non -party
political processes and new social movements. In all of these exchanges,
students have taken part in discussions and arguments, preserving the
notion of knowledge as pra ctice. Since gaining independence, student
groups have worked alongside political parties and other organizations to
protect and broaden democracy. The movement frequently has a same
objective of demand rights fulfillment, equality. Although there are
unofficial leaders inside the movement, over time the movement itself
produces a formal leader.
Even today some of the main reasons for students’ movement to rise and
sustain for a long time is that of deprivation of facilities , higher fee’s
structure, poverty , lack of proper infrastructure, being denied the resources
which the students are supposed to receive. Many at times it is the
student’s movement who come forward and take the issues which the
larger society is also facing like participation against corru ption,
malpractices in the institutional level or in the state level.
According to Altbach, many of the new republics in Asia, Africa, and
Latin America depend heavily on students for their economic and political
development. They have overthrown governme nts in certain countries, and
they have been a major factor in voicing on nationalist conflicts. The
student population serves as a major supply of technologically skilled
labour and a key driver of modernization in nearly all emerging countries.
There is a part of the student population in many countries that has
introduced political and social activity to the student movement. These
students have ideology, new methods of working and have sense of power
of togetherness to bring often change Altbach (1966) .
Additionally, intellectual students have made a significant ideological
contribution to bigger movements for social change. Students alone have
produced protest episodes that have had a lasting effect on the lives of
following student generations as well as on their communities as a whole.
Students are a social elite with special needs and connections to the
institutions of power. Many of the social movements in the Universities
turned out to be influenced by the Marxian and Leftist thoughts as one of
the reasons, could be that the literature has been taught as a part of the
curriculum leading them to read it more. The leaders among students are
those is one who are vocal, strong, able to express and take stands and
ready to raise voice on the issues.
Locations also matter in terms of social movement. Central universities
the students have many a times stable students’ movement as many
students live within the campus. They have free time to interact, spaces to
meet again beyond classrooms. Unlike Day schol ars – these are students
who commute to the university have little time left to join other extra
circular activities specially if they are studying and working. Specially in a
city like Mumbai, where individuals have to commute to able to join
social movem ents as that would take time and effort away from studies.
Delhi, being the capital of the country. Delhi also been in the prime
location in terms of politics and universities like JNU where students from munotes.in

Page 61

61 Student's Movement different states come together it become and an act ive location for
conversation, exchange of different thought process.
Check Your Progress :
1. Discuss Students movement during Emergency.
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________ ____
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. List out Students movement in pre -independence India.
____________________________________________________________
_____________ _______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
7.5 STUDENT’S MOVEMENT AND GLOBALIZATION The obstacles facing India's student movement have changed as a result of
the country's economy's changing with that of globalization. Students
many a times now pay attention to issues that directly affect the student
community, such as the resources available for training and job placement,
the facil ities the institution offers, rising tuition, insufficient test scores,
and people like students. Another fascinating development in student (and
youth) politics at this time is the use of ethnic and caste affiliation to
organize young people. It has becom e quicker with the usage of
technology like Telegram, WhatsApp, Youtube Videos.
Through the indoctrination of ideas and ideologies, few young people are
getting more interested in joining groups on issues which are beyond their
problem. Yet, the students’ movements are active and working. The
evolution of the media is what distinguishes today's social movement from
that of the early student movement. Nowadays, using WhatsApp and the
groups, it's simple to spread the word about any activity. Within the
mess age's reach, thousands may assemble. Early on, communication was
sluggish.
Television, newspapers, and computer networks have all contributed to
"media -led globalization," which has improved access to information for
students and young people and exposed t hem to a variety of media. Social
media is now one of the key factors in the rapid spread of social
movements, and videos of these speeches are widely shared, making the
student speakers famous. During pandemic even a Nursery going student
ends up speaking about the issue – for example during the pandemic the
number of hours a school goer has to spend while using the online classes
was complained by the Nursery attending student and there after the
number of hours was reduced. In today’s time with the adven t of mobile
phone – students in remote villages are recording their problems like –
lack of infrastructure, absence of teacher in the class, no benches, broken munotes.in

Page 62

62 Sociology of Social Movements classrooms etc. This shows the new change which has positive effects on
the student’s life too, whereby they have a platform to express themselves.
Check Your Progress :
1. What is the name of the movement which took place due to increase of
Dorm (hostel) fees?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________ ________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. What is some of the main reasons due to which student’s protest
according to you?
_________________ ___________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
7.6 SUMMARY This chapter begins with understanding the History of Students movement
in India, which can be seen during the pre -independence period. We also
learnt about how students’ movements have contributed in giving platform
for emergence of future leaders. Students’ movement has ra ised voice
against both student’s own problems as well as about the society’s
problems at large. We also learnt and discusses about different movements
which took place at different parts of the country in the earlier times like
that of Linguistic movement in Tamil Nadu to Students movement in
North east. There is also discussion about globalization and the changes
which is taking place in the student movement is discussed. Like the usage
of technology which has brought about massive change in the speed of
communication and even the use of social media. The reasons for joining
students’ movement is also discussed in the chapter like lack of facilities,
like infrastructure, hike in the fees, hostel issues, transportation issues.
Being the second largest coun try in the world and with active democracy
the student’s movement in the country reflects how they have a platform
to voice out their issues. We also discussed about how strategic locations;
ideologies also play an important role in the rise of student mov ement.
7.7 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how globalization and student’s movement have
interconnected in the recent times.
2. Write a note on the social basis of student’s movement.
3. List out three popular students’ movement.
munotes.in

Page 63

63 Student's Movement 7.8 REFERENCES  Chopra, S. (1978). Polit ical Consciousness of the Student Movement
in India. Social Scientist, 6(10), 53 –68.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3516578
 Satyajit Singh, (2021) Moral Center or Anti Nationalist? Student
Protest Movements in India, Volume 14, Issue 13,
 https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/78983 , Kharbithai, Moses,
2021.
 https://duexpress.in/11 -notable -student -protests -in-post-independent -
india/
 Braz, R. (1973). Student movement, political development and
modernisation in India.
 Urvashi, S. (2018). Student political movement in India. Ideas,
Peoples and Inclusive Education in India.
 Altbach, P. G. (2012). Student Politics: Historical Perspective and the
Changing Scene. A Half -Century of Indian Higher Education: Essays
by Philip G Altbach, 473.
 Mazumdar, S. (2019). The post -independence history of student
movements in India and the ongoing protests. Postcolonial
Studies, 22(1), 16-29.
 Paul, N., Goswami, N., Nandigama, S., Parameswaran, G., & Afzal -
Khan, F. (2022). South Asian Feminisms and Youth Activism: Focus
on India and Pakistan. Wagadu: A Journal of Transnational Women's
& Gender Studies, 24(1), 1.
 https://www.hindustantimes.com/india -news/a -brief -history -of-
student -protests -in-india/story -zYvk2GeblUVBtzjOzcLA1N.html Dec
18, 2019 02:44 A M IST accessed on 19th Nov 2022.

*****
munotes.in

Page 64

64 8
TRIBAL MOVEMENTS: (WARLI
MOVEMENTS)
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 History of Conflict
8.2 Dahanu's communities
8.3 Forests
8.4 Orchards
8.5 People vs Environmentalists
8.6 Environmental Campaign
8.7 Land use Clause
8.8 Setting up of the Dahanu A uthority
8.9 Making Environmental Mandates Meaningful
8.10 Efficacy of Dahanu Authority
8.11 Issues and Contradictions
8.12 Trapped into Farming
8.13 Agriculture in Dahanu
8.14 Orchard Economy at Risk
8.15 Impact of Globalization
8.16 The Tribal's Right
8.17 Tribal Bill and Justice
8.18 Summary
8.19 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES  To introduce y ou to the Tribal Communities .
 To understand the problems and issues faced by Tribal Communities .
 To analyze the Campaigns undertaken by various tribal communities .
8.1 INTRODUCTION A fierce environmental struggle won Dahanu the status of a protected,
environmentally -sensitive region in 1991. But in one fell swoop it
destroyed Dahanu's dreams of rushing into the neoliberal economy. This is
the firs t in a series of articles, r esearched as part of the lnfo -change Media
Fellowships 2008, that looks at how the environmental restrictions have
impacted farmers, fisherfolk, adivasis, traders and others in Dahanu. munotes.in

Page 65

65 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) Whether the battle for ecological equity in evitably compromises
opportu nities for economic development is a question the communities of
Dahanu have grappled with for over a decade. While there may be no
simple answer, Dahanu's communities live in a paradoxical reality. Even
as the environmental mov ement has sheltered them fro m the hazards of
unregulated industrialisation, it has been unable to provide an alternative
viable reality, while restricting many of the benefits of the modern
economy.
Situated in the picturesque Sahyadari mountain range in w estern
Maharashtra, merely 1 25 km north of Mumbai, is the serene and sleepy
region of Dahanu. Sandwiched between the chemical corridor of Vapi,
Gujarat, to the north and the industrialised zones of Palghar -Boisar to the
south, Dahanu remains one of the las t surviving green zones in t his region.
One amongst 15 talukas of Thane district in the Konkan division of
Maharashtra, Dahanu is known as the fruit and food bowl of the region.
Home to a predominantly large adivasi community of Warlis forming
64.84% of th e total population of 3,31,8 29 lakh (Census 2001), Dahanu
also has a large fishing and farming community. With a total of 174
villages and only one municipal area, the main source of livelihood is
agriculture and its allied activities. A notification decla ring it a special
ecological ly fragile zone by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in
1991 put Dahanu on the national map with nine other regions. The
Notification restricts industrial development and disallows a change in
land use for environmentally sensitive areas.
The Supreme Court, in 1996 also appointed the Dahanu Taluka
Environment Protection Authority (DTEPA) to ensure that the
Notification is implemented and Dahanu remains a protected region. This
legal regime changed the options for Dahanu. Ma ny of its dreams of
rushing headlong into the neoliberal economy were thwarted, if not
crushed. There were conflicting responses from the communities of
Dahanu ranging from hostility and anger to gratitude and acceptance.
However, having closed many of the options for conventional
development, the challenge before the environmental movement was to
chart a sustainable path for growth.
8.2 HISTORY OF CONFLICT Historically the struggle for minimum wages, land rights, and forest rights
by the adivasis had dominated the discourse of the r egion. The period
from 1945 to 1947 where the All India Kisan Sabha under the banner of
the Communist Party of India (Marxist) mobilised the Warlis on the issue
of land rights with the guidance of Comrades Godavari and Shyam
Parulekar is well documented. T he region's struggle for control over
natural resources also came to the fore with the rise of social movements
such as the Bhoomi Sena and Kashtkari Sang hatana in the late -1970s that
took up the battle on behalf of the adivasis. munotes.in

Page 66

66 Sociology of Social Movements While many of these confli cts were centred around access and rights over
natural resources of land and forest, they were not necessarily articulated
in the language of environmenta l discourse. It was only in the late -1980s,
following opposition to the setting up of a thermal power plant, that an
environmental campaign focused around conservation and protection
emerged in Dahanu. It was led by the Dahanu Taluka Environment
Welfare As sociation (DTEWA), with members consisting of a handful of
local orchard owners who sought environment al protection of Dahanu via
the courts. While they lost the struggle against the thermal power plant (a
500 MW plant was set up in 1996), they continued t o work for the
implementation of the Dahanu Notification.
"We believed that Dahanu's natural resources needed to be protected. We
are today safe from threats like the SEZ because of the Dahanu
Notification that has ensured that no dirty industry enters Dah anu," states
Kitayun Rustom, founder -member of the Dahanu Taluka Environment
Welfare Association. "In the beginning when we campaigned against a
local power plant," she continued, "we had the support of various
institutions, traders, orchard owners, politi cians and social movements like
the Kashtkari Sanghatana. However, once the Notification was put in
place and the matter went to the Supreme Court, several proposals and
plans were stalled or frozen. For example, all stone quarries were shut
down and no fu rther quarrying has been permitted in Dahanu after 1991.
These kinds of restrictions built up antagoni sm against us especially from
the traders, commercial interests and political parties."
A form of environmentalism that was not led from the ground had it s
limitations. Over the years, the environmental campaign divided Dahanu,
with the disgruntled traders , commercial interests and politicians making
every attempt to undo the laws that had caused them very clear losses.
However, the impact of environmental restrictions on the resource -
dependent communities that form a majority of Dahanu are not so clearly
apparent to all, and it will be interesting to study those.
8.3 DAHANU'S COMMUNITIES Topographically, Dahanu taluka can be divided into a 10 -12 km -wide
bandarpatti, the coastal belt of lowlands and flats extending from the
seacoast to the railway line situa ted at the foot of the Sahyadri range. The
junglepatti (forest belt) which is to the east of the railway line is a belt of
approximately 20 -25 km that run s parallel to the coast at a distance of 15
km from the shore.
The entire coastal belt with its rich n atural resources, wetlands, mangroves
and river deltas, forms a lucrative fishing area. With a coastline of 35 km,
fishing is an important economic activi ty of the region. The Thane District
Gazetteer (1982), puts Dahanu as one of the five most important f ishing
centres along the coast of Maharashtra with 21 fishing hamlets and seven
fish landing centres. munotes.in

Page 67

67 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) Along with the Notification, Dahanu's coasts were cl assified under the
most stringent clause of the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification
[CRZ I (i)] , 1991 that did not permit any development 500 metres from the
high tide line. This led to a protective cover being cast on Dahanu's coast,
shielding it f rom the acquisitive reaches of commercial tourism and
landgrabbers. Other than the thermal plant situa ted in the creek, there is no
other major development activity on the coast that could directly affect
fishing. Over the last decade, construction of new projects that violate
both the Notification and the CRZ have been brought before the Dahanu
Authority and resolved.
One of the most significant cases was the setting up of a multi -berth
industrial port by global giant Peninsular & Oriental (P&O) in the coa stal
village of Vadhavan in 1997. The entire coastline of Dahanu with its
fishing communities was thre atened by this proposal which involved the
acquisition of large tracts of land. For the first time, the environmental
campaign became broad based, with fi sherfolk, local farmers, NGOs like
the DTEWA, as well as the Kashtkari Sanghatana Joining in the campa ign
against the port. The Dahanu Authority held a series of hearings with
activists, communities and the company and passed a landmark order in
1998, that the port could not be permitted in ecologically fragile Dahanu.
The environmental regime, along with civil society action, was able to
prevent the setting up of a large industry that would have destroyed the
coast and its communities. However, a decade la ter, the residents of many
fishing villages are struggling to live off the natural resources. Ganesh
Tandel, fisherman and resident of Dhakti Dahanu, a fishing village near
Vadhavan states, "We were definitely relieved when the port was
canceled, since we would have lost our livelihoods and been displaced.
However, if you look at our community today, it is becoming increasingly
difficult for us to sustain ourselves and most of the younger generation is
opting for jobs outside Dahanu."
Statistics reveal that while the fish catch was 11,503 tonnes in 1996 -97, it
has now increased to 19,816 tonnes (District So cio- economic survey,
2006 -07, Thane), indicating that the real problem may be the changing
aspirations of the youth who do not think that their tradition al occupation
will give them access to the consumerist economy. The fishing community
continues to ben efit from the restrictions of the notification. However, the
bigger challenge is to create sustainable and economically viable
alternatives in a rapidly c hanging economy and a constantly evolving
community.
8.4 FORESTS Dahanu has the third highest area (47 ,606 ha) under forests amongst the
15 talukas of Thane district (Regional Plan 1996 - 2015). The proportion of
forest area to total geographical area is 45 .91%, making it the predominant
land use of the region (estimates provided by Deputy Conservator of
Forests, Dahanu division). A large part of the adivasi community resides
in this zone, in remote, almost inaccessible, villages. In spite of a rich munotes.in

Page 68

68 Sociology of Social Movements history of resistance, the adivasis are today either marginal farmers or
work as daily wage labourers in orcha rds, brick kilns, or on boats earning
a wage of Rs 50 -80 a day, struggling to live off their slowly eroding
forests. Many migrate for several months of th e year to nearby places for
work.
It can be safely assumed that the entire tribal population is Below the
Poverty Line (BPL) in Dahanu given that the figure of BPL families is a
high 69% which is approximately the population figure of the region.
Shiraz Ba lsara of the Kashtkari Sanghatana, a social movement working
with the adivasis of Dahanu for the last two decades, discusses their role in
the environmental campaign.
She states that the Sanghatana is opposed to an elitist kind of
environmentalism that is not pro -people, but that they have in fact
supported the environmental campaign from its initial stage s. However, it
is interesting to note that in the last decade there has been no mobilisation
or inclusion of the adivasis in the environmental campaign in any
significant form.
On the contrary, the Communist Party of India (Marxist), which disagrees
with t he environmentalists, has held rallies and demonstrations of adivasis
demanding the removal of the special environmental status granted to
Dahanu. "A blan ket ban on a number of industries is not a balanced view
of development, and while concerns about the environment are important,
the creation of jobs and livelihoods for a marginalised community are
equally critical," states Mariam Dhawale, member of the M aharashtra state
secretariat of the CPl(M) and of the All India Democratic Women's
Association, an org anisation of the CPl(M) active in the region.
The adivasi community has remained largely unaffected by the
environmental campaign. Kitayun Rustom admits t hat it was impossible
for them to create a consciousness amongst the adivasis regarding the
notificati on, given that most of their time went in opposing violations
either before the Dahanu Authority or at various courts. Discussions with
the adivasi commun ity in various villages (Sogve, Raytali and Jamshet),
reveal that while some of them acknowledge that pollution from the
thermal power plant is an issue, very few are even aware that Dahanu is a
notified zone.
The forest department is unable to provide a s ystematic assessment of the
potential benefits of the Dahanu notification on the forests and
consequen tly on tribals. Anecdotal accounts indicate that there has been
considerable degradation in the last ten years, suggesting that the
notification has not l ed to any meaningful ecological improvement of
Dahanu.
8.5 ORCHARDS Between the sandy soils of Dahanu' s coast and the coarser earth of the
hills, the plains with their black cotton soil have created a lucrative munotes.in

Page 69

69 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) horticultural economy with chickoo as the pri mary commercial crop (6%
of land in Dahanu is under horticulture) and subsidiary plantations of
coconu t and mango. Aware of the havoc pollution can wreak on their
crops, most orchard owners have supported the environmental movement
and the resulting restri ctions on development.
The campaign to ensure that the local thermal power plant does not pollute
has been primarily supported by the orchard owners, organised under the
banners of the DTEWA and more recently, the Dahanu Parisar Bachao
Samiti, concerned ab out the impact of emIssIons on their crops. However,
the farming and orchard -owning community in Dahan u also grapples with
its own realities. With declining yields since the late -1990s post the attack
of a seed borer and reduced viability of the orchard ec onomy, the
challenge facing farmers is to be able to retain their tranquil way of life
while still red efining their sources of livelihood.
Prabhakar Save, a progressive orchard owner running Tarpa, a rural
tourism centre on his farm at Gholvad, states, "Th e constant monitoring
and vigilance of the environmental campaign has played a critical role in
ensuri ng that the region is largely protected from the impact of
industrialisation and pollution. However, as farmers in a constantly
changing economy, it is ou r responsibility to innovate and ensure that
horticulture and associated activities can bring about in creased incomes
while still protecting the environment."
Dahanu may have been saved from becoming a toxic hotspot like its
neighbour Vapi. Additionally, t he legal restrictions on industrialisation
may have played some role in protecting the cultural identi ty and
livelihoods of the diverse communities of Dahanu. However, for
environmental justice and equitable growth to happen in tandem, much
more would need to be done. Efforts to create a parallel economy based on
rural tourism are options that need to be u rgently explored. The need of
the hour is to demonstrate alternative and sustainable forms of
development that are economically and ecologically viable.
8.6 PEOPLE VS ENVIRONMENTALISTS There is no doubt that there is a sharp polarisation between Dahanu's
environmental lobby, which pushed through the region's ecologically
fragile status, and local communities, including industrialists, farmers and
adivasis. Is this the result of an environmental movement that failed to
ensure community debate and engagement?
August 22, 2003 will remain etched in the history of Dahanu taluka, a
small region in northwest Maharashtra, as a day when the polarisation
between the e nvironmentalists and the people was exposed in a most
dramatic manner. In a public hearing organised b y the ministry of
environment and forests to review the environmental status of Dahanu as
an ecologically fragile zone, representatives of adivasis, fishe rfolk, urban
middle class, farmers and political parties vociferously claimed that munotes.in

Page 70

70 Sociology of Social Movements environmental prote ction had wrecked their lives by closing all options for
development.
Preventing the environmentalists and their supporters from making their
case, the re presentatives implored the expert committee to immediately
remove the Dahanu Notification of 1991 that classified it as an eco -fragile
zone in order that jobs and livelihoods could be created. They also pleaded
for the relaxation of Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notifications that do
not permit any development along Dahanu's seacoast 500 metres from the
high tide line. While the environmentalists claimed that the entire show
had been staged by vested interests, the public hearing nevertheless starkly
reveal ed the contradictions and dilemmas of an environmental narrative,
spanning over two decades, where eco logical protection had been brought
to a region via the legal institutions.
8.7 ENVIRONMENTAL CAMPAIGN The environmental campaign started in 1989 with opp osition to a proposal
to set up a 500 MW coal -fired power plant in Dahanu to power the
growing megapol is of Mumbai, given its proximity (120 km) to the city.
Predominantly a tribal and agricultural belt, a few orchard owners were
alarmed by the possible ad verse effects on the region and began
campaigning against the thermal power plant under the Dahanu Tal uka
Environment Welfare Association (DTEWA).
While they lost the case against the thermal power plant in the Mumbai
High Court in 1991, they continued to push for Dahanu's protection. The
ministry of environment and forests, utilising a clause in the Envir onment
Protection Act, recognised the tribal culture, marine and horticultural
wealth of the region and passed a landmark notification declaring Dahanu
ecologically fragile.
It said, "the Central Government, in consultation with the Government of
Maharasht ra, after considering the need for protecting the ecologically
sensitive Dahanu Taluka, and to ensure that the development activities are
consistent with principles of environmental protection and conservation,
hereby declare Dahanu Taluka, District Thane (Maharashtra) as an
ecologically fragile area and to impose restrictions on the setting up of
industries which have a detrimental effect on the environmen t."
Dahanu was only one among three areas in the country declared
ecologically fragile at that time, t he other two being Dehradun and Murud
Janjira. Currently there are ten such designated zones. The notification
specifically restricted the setting up of i ndustries to a limit of 500 acres. It
classified industries into Red, Orange and Green categories on e cological
considerations, disallowing the Red category. The notification also
significantly stipulated "no change in land use" while directing the state
government to prepare a Regional Plan demarcating all green areas,
orchards, tribal areas and other env ironmentally sensitive ones.
munotes.in

Page 71

71 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) 8.8 LAND USE CLAUSE "The Government of Maharashtra will prepare a Master Plan or Regional
Plan for the taluka based on the ex isting land use patterns to clearly
demarcate all the existing green areas, orchards, tribal areas and other
environmentally sensitive areas. No change of existing land use will be
permitted for such areas..."
The Dahanu Industries Association was one of t he first to react negatively
to the notification and petitioned the Mumbai High Court against it.
"The re was no public debate or engagement on the issue of development
of Dahanu. We were unexpectedly declared a special eco -sensitive zone
with a prohibition on industries, leading to frustration amongst the
business community," states Amar Dhanukar, treasure r of the Dahanu
Industries Association, which lost the case against the notification.
For the business and commercial community in Dahanu along with
repre sentatives of some political parties, the notification became an
obstacle to accessing the booming mod ern economy. Over the last decade,
they have played a key role in accusing the notification and environmental
laws for Dahanu's slow -paced development.
"The frustrations of the local business and political interests also came
from the fact that environment al norms could no longer be bypassed.
Permissions and procedures for Dahanu became legal and lengthy. Local
politicians did not have the liberty to sancti on projects and proposals,"
states Kerban Anklesaria, lawyer associated with the environmental
movemen t.
Along with disgruntled commercial interests, political parties like the
Communist Party of India (Marxist) actively demonstrated against the
notificat ion, claiming that the tribal community would suffer due to lack
of employment opportunities. However, the reality is that there is no
blanket ban on industries. The notification provides guidelines for the
setting up of industries stating that "only those industries that are non -
obnoxious, non- hazardous and do not discharge industrial effluents of a
polluting nature will be permitted".
Moreover, the indicative list of Red category industries includes refineries,
cement plants, petrochemical industries, su gar mills etc, reflecting that the
notification protects the area from industrial pollution and does n ot restrict
development. Given that the environmental campaign was led by a
handful of orchard owners, especially at the initial stages, it was critical t o
get wider support from the community. Moreover, had an atmosphere of
public debate been created to d ispel the incorrect interpretations of the
notification, the community may have been reassured that development of
many sectors such as information techno logy, food processing, and eco -
tourism were open.
munotes.in

Page 72

72 Sociology of Social Movements 8.9 SETTING UP OF THE DAHANU AUTHORITY While the not ification was based on the philosophy of appropriate
utilisation of natural resources, conservation and planned development, the
interpretation of develop ment was very different for the bureaucracy and
institutions that were implementing it. Unable to see any value in such a
notification, given that rapid economic growth and industrialisation were
the mantras, development continued in violation of the notif ication in the
period from 1991 to 1994.
"It was ironical that the state government and institutions l ike the
Maharashtra Pollution Control Board that had the responsibility of
protecting Dahanu were acting in contravention of the Dahanu and CRZ
notificati ons. They granted permission to prohibited industries and to
buildings along the seacoast. Additionall y, they drafted a Regional Plan
for Dahanu that promoted urbanisation and industrialisation, against the
spirit of the notification," states Noshir Irani, local orchard owner and
former secretary of the DTEWA.
The environmentalists were unhappy with these violations and contested
them in a writ petition in the Supreme Court in 1994. The case ended in
1996, with a landmark order that resulted in the setting up of a quasi -
judicial authority, the Dahanu Taluka Environment Protection Authority
(DTEPA) headed by retired Chief Justice of Mumbai High Court, Justice
Dharmadhikari, with a team of experts from diverse fields such as urban
planning, terrestrial ecology , oceanography and environmental
engineering. The Dahanu Authority's role was to ensure that the
devel opment of the ecologically fragile region was in consonance with the
Dahanu Notification and other relevant legislations.
Since its inception in 1996, the Authority has played a significant role in
steering the development of Dahanu by scrutinising and dec iding on large
projects, developing innovative schemes for afforestation, ensuring that
the thermal power plant controls its emissions and taking to task
unplanned and illegal development. "This was practically the only green
zone left on the west coast wh en the Authority was formed. We felt that it
should be conserved, else the future generations would suffer," states
Justice Dharmadhikari, Chairman of the Dahanu Authority, which has set
precedents for environmental governance in the last decade. "There we re
many challenges before the Authority and credit must go to the expert
members who provided their independent views so that we could consider
the pros a nd cons of many controversial matters," he continued.
Notably, the Dahanu Authority through a series o f hearings rejected the
siting of a multi -berth industrial port proposed by global giant P&O Ltd at
Vadhavan village in Dahanu in 1998. Additionally, the thermal power
plant (owned by Reliance Energy) was forced to install a Flue Gas
Desulphurisation Plant (FGD), a pollution control device to reduce sulphur
emissions, after the Dahanu Authority demanded a Bank Guarantee of Rs
300 crore from the company. The unit was finally commissioned in munotes.in

Page 73

73 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) October 2007, the culmination of a decade -long campaign, and the exp ert
members of the Authority recently visited the plant for an inspection.
"For us orchard owners whose crop is at risk from the pollution of the
thermal power plant, the Authority, being an independent organisation
devoid of any political compulsions, has been able to operate
autonomously, and played a critical role in holding companies like
Reliance accountable," states Vijay Mhatre, President of the Daha nu
Parisar Bachao Samiti, a loose federation of orchard owners that emerged
more recently, in 2004, wh en they began facing a decline in production of
chikoo.
Along with the environmental group, they played a key role in petitioning
the Dahanu Authority for the installation of the FGD that reduces the
sulphur emissions from the plant. The setting up of the Authority
consolidated the environmental movement, but further polarised Dahanu
society. While it may have been easy to bypass the Notification, the
Autho rity stood its ground. Government officials were apprehended at
meetings of the Dahanu Authority. Elec ted representatives had no choice
but to acknowledge the institution.
Consequently, concerted efforts were made to disband the Dahanu
Authority. The publi c hearing of August 2003 was a result of efforts by
politicians and business interests which led a del egation to the ministry of
environment and forests stating that Dahanu should be de -notified and the
Authority disbanded since the local representatives w ere capable of
charting the development of their own region. Additionally, a petition was
filed in the Supreme Court by the Ministry of Environment and Forests
asking for the dissolution of the Dahanu Authority in 2002. The DTEWA
however, fought hard and w on the case, further strengthening the work of
the Authority.
There are many in Dahanu who believe tha t the Notification and the
Dahanu Authority have played an important role in ensuring that the
region does not become like the neighhbouring Vapi, a toxic hotspot, or
Boisar. Unfortunately, they have been unable to form a critical mass or a
formidable forc e against the conventional commercial interests. Networks
like the Dahanu Parisar Bachao Samiti, representing a large number of
farmers, can push an alter native paradigm of development and support the
work of the Dahanu Authority.
However, the framework fo r the protection of Dahanu's natural resources
remains largely confined to the realm of law, dependent on the
commitment and conviction of environmental a ctivists and members of
the Dahanu Authority. Even as competing lobbies continue to push for the
remov al of the Dahanu Authority and de -notification, the
environmentalists walk a tightrope attempting to protect the natural
resource base of the region.
munotes.in

Page 74

74 Sociology of Social Movements 8.10 MAKING ENVIRONMENTAL MANDATES MEANINGFUL Environmental Mandates:
While India has a series of constitu tional prov1s1ons and stringent
environmental laws and policies to ensure that its forests, water and land
are protected, there is a high level of non- com pliance with most
environmental laws. Interestingly, from time to time the Supreme Court of
India, in response to public interest litigations and sometimes acting on its
own has compelled bureaucrats to enforce environmental laws and rules
that the governm ent is unable to implement.
This has led to complex configurations in society, given the contradictio n
in the values espoused by the Supreme Court on the one hand and those of
business and political interests on the other. Dahanu, located on the west
coast of Maharashtra, is a microcosm of this contradiction, wherein the
intervention of the Supreme Court and the enactment of notifications and
authorities to protect the environment has led to a creative new space for
debate and action on conservation. Howeve r, the question that remains is
whether these approaches are replicable in a milieu where competing
lobbies continue to battle over the appropriation of natural resources.
8.11 EFFICACY OF DAHANU AUTHORITY Tukaram Machi, a fisherman from Pale village in Da hanu, complained
that "the water released from the power plant is so hot that the marine life
is bein g affected and we are finding it difficult to lay our nets" in a
presentation to the expert members of the
Dahanu Authority :
The technical representative of the power plant and the officer of the
Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) present at the m eeting,
fumbled to respond to this allegation, stating that all pollution control
measures were in place. Dissatisfied with this response, the expert
membe rs ordered a site inspection and testing of the outlet of water at the
plant site in the presence of community and civil society representatives.
A date was fixed and MPCB was told to conduct the sampling.
While it is rare to see tables turn so quickly on corporations and
government institutions known for their lackadaisical approach on issues
of environm ental pollution, this scenario has been repeated frequently in
the last decade at the meetings of the quasi- judicial Authority set up to
protect Dahanu ta luka. Set up on the directive of a Supreme Court order in
1996, the Dahanu Taluka Environment Protect ion Authority (DTEPA)
was the culmination of an environmental campaign that had extensively
relied on the courts to protect Dahanu.
The notification settin g up the Authority directed it "to protect the
ecologically fragile area of Dahanu taluka and to cont rol pollution in the munotes.in

Page 75

75 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) area, to consider and implement the precautionary principle and the
polluter pays principle, to implement the Dahanu notification and the
Coastal Regulation Zone notification". Significantly, it also permitted the
Authority to exercise powers under Section 5 of the Environment
Protection Act for issuing directions.
"For the activists, the Dahanu Authority opened up a new space for
engage ment and dialogue with the authorities and corporations.
Functioning like a people's court, the Dahan u Authority invites to its
meetings members of concerned government departments, elected
representatives, community and civil society groups, corporations and
agencies interested in undertaking work or projects in Dahanu. Any person
or community aggrieved by an environmental violation can send a petition
to the Authority. All concerned are invited to the hearings," states Maya
Mahajan, former activist with t he Dahanu Taluka Environment Welfare
Association (DTEWA), the environmental organisation that spearhe aded
the movement.
The hearings are held every four to six months in the Maharashtra State
Secretariat building and decisions are taken after a thorough in vestigation
and examination of issues to ascertain whether these proposals are
permitted within the n otified Dahanu taluka (Dahanu, in north western
Maharashtra, was notified as a ecologically fragile zone by the ministry of
environment and forests in 1991 , putting restrictions on industrial
development and land use).
8.12 ISSUES AND CONTRADICTIONS One of the issues taken up by the Authority that merits attention is the
setting up of a multi -berth industrial port in Vadhavan village in Dahanu
in 1997, the f irst year of functioning of the Authority. A series of hearings
were held, where people's organisatio ns, environmental groups and
representatives of the international shipping giant Peninsular and Oriental
(P&O) Company presented their case to the Authorit y. Scientific,
economic and sociological studies were presented by both sides.
Eventually, in spite o f pressures from vested interests, the Dahanu
Authority rejected the siting of the port in Dahanu, stating that it could be
considered an industry not perm itted as per the notifications. The
chairman, Justice Dharmadhikari, a Gandhian by conviction, states that
"pressures have not worked for him and his Authority". Due to the
presence of a strong leadership and a team of experts from diverse fields,
the Auth ority has engaged in a variety of development discourses,
becoming a model for environmental governan ce. Aware of the politics of
control over natural resources, the Dahanu Authority has stood
unwaveringly by the principles of social and ecological justice . However,
there has been considerable resistance to the orders and directions passed
by the Authorit y, both by officials and companies.
In the case of the port at Vadhavan village, the order was upheld. "In
many cases, however," states Kerban Anklesaria, advocate on behalf of munotes.in

Page 76

76 Sociology of Social Movements the environmental group that has been appearing for most of the Authority
heari ngs, "while the Dahanu Authority has powers under Section 5 of the
Environment Protection Act to issue directions, it has no powers to ensure
that these di rections are implemented." This contradiction became visible
in the setting up of a pollution control device, a Flue Gas De-
sulphurisation Unit (FGD), to reduce sulphur emissions from the thermal
power plant owned by Reliance Energy. While the ministry of
environment and forests gave clearance to the company on the condition
that it would set up the FGD, the company went ahead and set up the
thermal power plant in 1994 oblivious to this clause.
The Dahanu Auuthority on being petitioned by local environment al
groups, passed an order in May 1999 that the FGD Plant had to be set up
within six months. In 2003 , the company had still not complied and
another order was passed by the Authority. Finally, in March 2005, after a
prolonged series of hearings and scient ific reports being presented to the
Dahanu Authority, the company was directed to pay a Bank Guarante e of
Rs 300 crore to display its commitment to installing this plant.
Still unyielding about setting up the FGD, the company appealed against
the Authority 's order in the Mumbai High Court. However, they lost the
case and had to provide a Bank Guarantee of Rs 100 crore and set up the
plant by October 2007. "Bringing to task a corporation like Reliance has
been a landmark victory. However, it was an extremely difficult campaign
for the people of Dahanu. Without the support of the expert members of
the Author ity who were able to decipher the scientific data and piles of
information submitted by Reliance, the case would have been lost,"
continues Anklesaria.
In spite of being a declared protected zone with a Supreme Court -
appointed Authority, the struggle again st environmental pollution that was
directly impacting people's livelihoods in the predominantly agrarian
region took a decade to come to a conclusion. In several other cases, while
the Dahanu Authority passed significant orders, getting the local
authorit ies to implement them has been an uphill task. A lack of
environmental consciousness coupled with challenging ground realities
has more often than not led to non -compliance.
A classic example of this is the issue of solid waste management of
Dahanu town. T he Dahanu Municipal Council (DMC) has been unable to
resolve the issue of a dumping ground for the last decade. Unable to find a
permanent location to trea t and dispose of the solid waste of Dahanu town,
the sanitation officer inevitably promises better se gregation and
finalisation of a site at every meeting of the Dahanu Authority. At the last
meeting of the Authority held on February 27, 2009, Dr Asolekar, expert
member, reprimanded the DMC for not abiding by the laws applicable for
treatment of solid was te, specifically in an ecologically fragile zone. He
said that Dahanu should be a zero -waste zone with exemplary segregation
and disposal facilities. Justi ce Dharmadhikari even threatened prosecution
of the Chief Executive Officer of the DMC, given the num ber of years this
issue was being discussed. munotes.in

Page 77

77 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) In a business as usual manner, the sanitation officer with the Dahanu
Municipal Council present at the meeting responded that attempts at
segregation were ongoing and a few other sites had been shortlisted as
permanent locations for management of solid waste. However, there was
resistance from local communities for dumping waste there and he was
unsure if they wou ld be able to finalise a space. The apathy and lack of
commitment on the part of the officials is obv ious from the fact that the
total waste generated in the DMC is a meagre 11 tonnes of which seven is
bio- degradable waste, making it imminently possible f or a small urban
region like Dahanu to successfully treat this waste.
Thus, even as the Dahanu Author ity holds hearings and decides on various
environmental issues, local institutions and elected representatives resent
the loss of control over decision- ma king of their region as well as being
accountable to the Authority.
Priyanka Kesarkar, Chief Executiv e Officer of the DMC, states that she is
unable to sanction many projects in the town since she is waiting for the
Dahanu Authority to clear the much- awai ted Development Plan of the
municipal area.
The Plan has been under preparation by the town planning department
under the supervision of the Authority for several years since it has often
failed to comply with all the environmental restrictions.
The leader ship and vision of the Dahanu Authority has been key to
ensuring the ecological protection of Dahanu. However, until the mandate
is endorsed fully by the people, both who live in the protected zone as well
as the elected representatives and officials, mean ingful development that is
socially and ecologically just cannot take place.
8.13 TRAPPED INTO FARMI NG The main difference between a farmer today and one 50 years ago is that
today's farmer has a mobile phone, said a principal scientist from the
Institute of Horticulture Research, during a seminar on knowledge
dissemination in agriculture. While this met aphor may be an exaggeration
of the conditions today, the reality is that in the India -booming narrative,
the agricultural sector has been left behind.
In spite of employing about 60% of the population, it grew at a slow rate
of 2.7% in 2007 -08, relative t o 11% growth in both the services and
industry sector. Agricultural incomes are lower and growing slower than
incomes in other sectors. The reasons for thi s range from the adverse
impact of globalization to inadequate access to credit and direct markets,
poor infrastructure and post- harvest facilities and lack of technology.
Ironically, until very recently, prior to the economic slowdown, a booming
real est ate market had skewed land prices in many regions, making it more
lucrative to sell land rather than farm it. Ecological realities such as
climate change and impact of industrial pollution add to the farmers' woes.
Grappling with these realities daily is t he farming community of Dahanu munotes.in

Page 78

78 Sociology of Social Movements taluka, a small region 120 km from Mumbai, on the border of Maharashtr a
and Gujarat.
8.14 AGRICULTURE IN DAHANU Out of a total geographical area of 100,000 hectares in Dahanu,
approximately half (45%) is under agriculture and horticulture, making
this the predominant source of livelihood in the region. Given that it is
prima rily a tribal belt, rice is the primary crop grown on 19,000 hectares
of land while pulses, millets and vegetables constitute a smaller share.
This is larg ely rain -fed subsistence farming.
However, the region of Dahanu has become famous for its commercial
cultivation and large -scale production of the chikoo (sapota) fruit. It was
way back in 1898, a little over 100 years ago, when the first commercial
cultiv ation of chikoo in Maharashtra was undertaken in the Gholvad
region of Dahanu taluka. The coastal pla ins with their warm and humid
climate and rich black cotton soil have created a lucrative and vibrant
horticultural economy, with a production totaling app roximately 400 -500
tonnes annually.
Currently, while the total land under chikoo is 4,126 hectares, c onstituting
only 6% of the land in Dahanu, it has generated employment for the
communities in Dahanu, both in terms of direct agricultural labour on
farms as well as trading, packaging and transportation. Besides sapota,
other plantations in the area inclu de coconut, mango, and litchi. However,
the economy has faced multiple problems in the last few years.
8.15 ORCHARD ECONOMY AT RISK "Till the late -1990s, we had a comfortable life. Chikoo being a sturdy crop
it did not require heavy doses of pesticide and fertilisers. It’s around -the-
year fruiting made it a very viable high- income crop. But a slow decline
in production, especially from the older orchards, pest attacks and a crash
in prices in the period up to 2005 has made farming challenging for us,"
states Sanjay Adhiya, a second -generation farmer.
Professor Mohan Bari, retired chief scientist with the local Krishi Vigyan
Kendra in his research report, 'A n Environmental Study on Decline of
Chikoo Fruit Production in Coastal Parts of Thane and Navsari Dis tricts',
2003, finds that chikoo production increased till the year 1999 and then
began declining in these regions for various reasons including change in
atmospheric temperature, infestation of bud borer and water stress.
According to data from the same r eport, chikoo production dropped from a
high of approximately 400 tonnes in 1997 -98, to 50 tonnes in 2001 -02.
Local traders verify these figures, stating t hat truckloads have dropped
from around 70 in 1995 to around 20 truckloads in 2003. However farmers
also allege that the decline they faced in the early parts of 2000 is due to
the emissions from a local thermal power plant. A research study munotes.in

Page 79

79 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) conducted in 2 004, 'Decline in the Yield of Sapota from the Orchards of
Dahanu.
Taluka:
An Ecological Investigatio n', by the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and
Natural History concludes that "the pattern of decline indicates a causative
relationship with the environm ental pollution, especially atmospheric
pollution and the consequent environmental impacts. The Dahan u thermal
power plant is the single most likely source of this pollution and hence
more stringent pollution control measures in the thermal power plant
specially to reduce the SO2 and ash emissions are imperative for the
environmental health and long -term sustainability of Dahanu's orchards,
farms and other traditional livelihood supports".
8.16 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION Besides the agro -ecological challenges, farmers are confronted with
challenges from a new economy. During the same period, globalisation led
to the opening up of the agricultural markets, permitting the entry of
various fruits and vegetables into India. "With a diverse variety of
international and Indian fruits available to the consumer throughout the
year, the common man's fruit, chikoo, now competes with apples from
Australia and kiwi from New Zealand," states Hemant Babu, a local
orchard owner. "Very often we are stuck with selling our produc e at low
prices of Rs 2 -3 a kg. The critical challenge for us is to be able to directly
access the ma rkets, innovate, introduce fruit processing and most
importantly remove our dependence on the cartel of brokers that currently
dominates the prices."
G Kol he, head of the Krishi Vigyan Kendra at Dahanu agrees, stating that
there is an urgent need for value addition in these competitive times. The
KVK in a report authored by him clearly outlines the need for the
development of products such as dehydrated chik oo slices and chikoo
powder, direct retailing and better packaging as the way forward.
8.17 THE TRIBA L'S RIGHT Dahanu's special environmental status has made little difference to the
poverty -stricken Warli tribals, shunted out of the forests and lands they
cultivated for generations. The 2006 Tribal Bill, on the other hand, goes a
long way in granting the m their rightful share of the forests. Shankar of
Raytali village, Dahanu, retells the popular Warli folktale about the rat
that takes away the grain from the fields. Called 'The Rat's Right', he
explains that the rat was one of the earliest creatures to p rovide humans
with the seeds to begin agriculture. Thus, when they see the tops of their
rice crop eaten up, the adivasis do not call the rat a thief, but say that it has
taken its rightful share. The rat inevitably finds its role and space in the
lives of the Warlis. munotes.in

Page 80

80 Sociology of Social Movements Several other stories of wolves and ants, rabbits and tigers follow,
revealing the rich cultural ecology and ethos of the community of Warlis,
the tribal people of northwestern Maharashtra and south Gujarat.
Numbering approximately half a mill ion (Census of 1991), a majority of
the Warlis live in Thane district of Maharashtra in tiny hamlets spread
across the fringes of the picturesque Sahyadri mountain range. A deep
environmental consciousness is reflected in their worldview, in which
humans a nd nature are linked in a relationship that is celebrated in myth
and reality.
The folklore also records the history of oppression, brutality and resistanc e
against the takeover of their forest homelands by the British and the loss
of lands to Parsi and Ma rwari landlords and moneylenders. A tongue -in-
cheek story tells how a Parsi landlord eventually usurped everything from
the Warlis, even his wife! Of a tot al population of 3,31,829, in
Maharashtra's Dahanu taluka (Socio Economic Abstract, 2006 -07, Thane
district), 64.84% are tribal, belonging predominantly to the Warli tribe.
Dispersed across 174 villages in Dahanu, the Warlis are today a
marginalised commun ity.
Brutally shunted out of the forests and their homelands during British rule,
independence did no t alter the harsh realities for these communities. With
a majority of the forest lands taken over by the government, the adivasis
lost their habitats and c ulture and took to settled and subsistence
agriculture while still being dependent on the forests for food, fuel,
medicine and in many cases cultivation. Some became daily wage
labourers on farms, brick kilns and boats. The changes in the forest
management system had a negative impact on their social and cultural
lives. Low levels of literacy, malnourishm ent, poverty and deprivation are
the realities of a once proud and brave Warli community.
Moreover, the post -independence development agenda of modernising and
integrating tribals into the mainstream, has been partial and fragmented,
impacting the Warli id entity and consciousness adversely. The struggle for
access to forests, rights over land and minimum wages became the critical
conflicts around which the W arlis have been struggling for the last several
decades. In the current milieu with Dahanu being an e nvironmentally
protected region since 1991 and the passing of the Tribal Bill [Scheduled
Tribes (Recognition of Forest Rights) Bill, 2006], it is critical to analyse
whether these laws and notifications have played a role or contributed in
changing the con ditions of the tribal communities.
8.18 TRIBAL BILL AND JUSTICE For the communities in Dahanu, the passing of the recent Tribal Bill that
recognised their rights was a step at reversing the historical injustice they
had faced at the hands of the colonial a nd modern State. Brian Lobo, of
the Kashtkari Sanghatana, a grassroots movement that actively
campaigned for the Tribal Bill and is involved in its impleme ntation in
Dahanu, believes that "the Bill is a culmination of a struggle that has gone
on for 200 ye ars". "For us," he continues, "it is one step closer to the munotes.in

Page 81

81 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) democratisation of forests and towards the dismantling of the forest
bureaucracy that controlle d the jungle and abused the adivasis. We
definitely believe that the Bill can change the reality of f orest -dwelling
communities given that it provides power to the people to control the
forest."
According to estimates provided by the forest department in D ahanu, there
are currently approximately 5,500 individual claims for regularisation of
forest plots. Dighe, Deputy Conservator of Forests, Dahanu, who has
mixed reactions to the bill and seems reluctant to see its implementation,
admits that most claims ar e for fairly small sizes of land, granted to the
communities several decades ago and not regularised till now. More
importantly most claims do not exceed a few gunthas of land, contrary to
propaganda stating that the bill would amount to a land grab by bro kers
and the land mafia.
The regularisation and eventual handing over of these plots to the tribals
will indeed be a huge victory for the community and enhance the
livelihood of the families. However, the most powerful sections of the Act
concern community rights to manage, protect and conserve its forests.
While the state government and forest bureaucrac y continue to ignore
these aspects of the bill, the community's preparedness to take control of
this resource also seems lacking. For the Tribal Bill to si gnificantly alter
the power equations and grant control of the forests to the adivasis,
communities m ust be united and work towards conserving and protecting
a resource that is collectively owned.
Conclusion:
While the environmental legislations in Dahanu , may have played some
role in allowing the Warlis to retain a measure of their tribal ethos and
identity, the Tribal Bill goes a longer way in granting them their rightful
share of the forests. However, much more would need to be done to grant
the Warlis their rightful place in society. In the meanwhile, the struggle for
the Warlis continues.
8.19 SUMMAR Y Dahanu may have been saved from becoming a toxic hotspot like its
neighbour Vapi. Additionally, the legal restrictions on industrialisation
may have play ed some role in protecting the cultural identity and
livelihoods of the diverse communities of Dahanu . However, for
environmental justice and equitable growth to happen in tandem, much
more would need to be done. Efforts to create a parallel economy based on
rural tourism are options that need to be urgently explored. The need of
the hour is to demonstrat e alternative and sustainable forms of
development that are economically and ecologically viable.
There are many in Dahanu who believe that the notificatio n and the
Dahanu Authority have played an important role in ensuring that the
region does not become like the neighhbouring Vapi, a toxic hotspot, or munotes.in

Page 82

82 Sociology of Social Movements Boisar. Unfortunately, they have been unable to form a critical mass or a
formidable force against the con ventional commercial interests. Networks
like the Dahanu Parisar Bachao Samiti, representing a large number of
farmers, can push an alternative paradigm of development and support the
work of the Dahanu Authority.
However, the framework for the protection of Dahanu's natural resources
remains largely confined to the realm of law, dependent on the
commitme nt and conviction of environmental activists and members of
the Dahanu Authority. Even as competing lobbies continue to push for the
removal of the Dahanu Authority and de -notification, the
environmentalists walk a tightrope attempting to protect the natur al
resource base of the region. The leadership and vision of the Dahanu
Authority has been key to ensuring the ecological protection of Dahanu.
However, un til the mandate is endorsed fully by the people, both who live
in the protected zone as well as the e lected representatives and officials,
meaningful development that is socially and ecologically just cannot take
place.
The farmers continue to confront the multiple challenges of agriculture,
ecology, environmental protection, industrial pollution and a ne w
environmental legislations in Dahanu, may have played some role in
allowing the Warlis to retain a measure of their tribal ethos and identity,
the Tribal Bill goes a longer way in granting them their rightful share of
the forests. However, much more woul d need to be done to grant the
Warlis their rightful place in society. In the meanwhile, the struggle for the
Warlis continues.
8.20 REFERENCES 1. Barbar a R. Joshi, 1986, Untouchable!: Voices of the Dalit Liberation
Movement, Zed Books.
2. Mulk Raj Anand . 1992, An Anthology Of Dalit Literature, Gyan
Books.
3. Gail Omvedt. 1994, Dalits and the Democratic Revolution - Dr.
Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement in C olonial India, Sage
Publications.
4. Oliver Mendelsohn, Marika Vicziany, 1998, The Untouchables:
Subo rdination, Poverty and the State in Modern India, Cambridge
University Press.
5. Ranabira Samaddara, Ghanshyam Shah, 2001, Dalit Identity and
Politics, Sag e Publications.
6. Fernando Franco, Jyotsna Macwan, Suguna Ramanathan. 2004,
Journeys to Freedom: Dal it Narratives, Popular Prakashan. munotes.in

Page 83

83 Tribal Movements: (Warli Movements) 7. Sharankumar Limbale. 2004, Towards an Aesthetic of Dalit
Literature, Orient Longman.
8. Eleanor Zilliot, 2005, From Un touchable to Dalit - Essays on the
Ambedkar Movement, Manohar.

*****

munotes.in

Page 84

84 MODULE - III
9
DALIT AND OBC MOVEMENTS
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Dalit Movements – Context, Causes, and Dynamics
9.3 OBC Movements – Context, Causes, and Dynamics
9.4 Summary
9.5 Questions
9.6 References
9.0 OBJECTIVES  To un derstand the social movements of the marginalized
 To familiarize students with social issues concerning the Dalits and
OBCs
9.1 INTRODUCTION Post-independence many anti -discrimination laws came into force. But
even today, in the civilized society Dalits su ffer from social stigma and
discrimination. It would be nearly impossible to imagine Indian society
and polity without these identities of caste and gender, especially the
Dalits, and the OBCs. It is therefore, necessary to understand that each of
these ca tegories not only influences economic, social and political life in
India, they also belong to the marginalised sections of the society.
In the past some years, there has been a growth in the level of their
political consciousness and political mobilizati on. In response to their
political mobilisation, the state has responded with some policy
formulations. This has led to their empowerment to a considerable extent.
However, despite the relative improvement in their conditions in the post -
Independence perio d, the Dalits, and the OBCs still remain marginalised
groups in India. And their political mobilisation is an ongoing process.
9.2 DALIT MOVEMENTS - CONTEXT, CAUSES, AND DYNAMICS The term Dalit is of Marathi origins which literally means ‘broken’ or
‘dilapidated’. Dalit became popular with the emergence of the Dalit
literary movement in the late 1960s and with the formation of the Dalit
organisation in Maharashtra known as Dalit Panthers in the early 1970s.
The Dalit Panthers’ manifesto attempted to define the word Dalit as an munotes.in

Page 85

85 Dalit and OBC Movements umbrella term that sought to include diverse marginalised social groups
such as the Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Neo -
Buddhists, poor peasants, working class and women. The term got wider
recognition in the 1990s at all India level.
The SCs are not only placed in the lowest hierarchy of the social ladder,
but they also have experienced untouchability. The category of SCs
entitles them to avail of the state policies about protective discrimination
or affirmative action as mandated in the Indian Constitution. The
Government of India Act, 1935 introduced the category of ‘Scheduled
Castes’ for all official purposes replacing the category of the depressed
classes. With the adoption of the Indian Constitution in 1950, as per
Article 17, the practice of untouchability was legally banned and was
declared a criminal offence if anybody practiced it. Dalits have been
participating in the democratic process through mobilisation on social,
cultural, political, and economic issues.
It has now been recognised that the term ‘Dalit’ has attained hermeneutic
ability to refer to the exploitative past of the Scheduled Castes. The term
has the ontological ability to encompass within itself all the oppressed and
exploited sections of society including Adivasis, minorities and women.
As the Dalit category represents those who are exploited by social groups
above them in a deliberate manner, it also includes an element of protest
denial of dignity and the practice of untouchability. It has essen tially
emerged as a political category, a symbol of change and revolution. Dalits
have followed two paths in the political arena for asserting their identities.
One is agitational politics or direct action through struggle. The other is
participation in el ectoral politics and holding offices in various decision -
making institutions.
Even after independence the condition of Dalits did not improve much and
they were not allowed to live a life with dignity and equality. It is this idea
of equality, which sparke d the beginning of the Dalit Movement in India,
as a protest to the age -old atrocities committed against them. Dalit
movement is a struggle that tries to counter attack the socio – cultural
hegemony of the upper castes and to provide a dignity to this oppr essed
section of the society. The main objective of the Dalit Movement was to
establish a society in India based on social equality. These movements
tried to put an end to atrocities committed against the Dalits and mitigate
their issues. Efforts are there fore been made to mobilise them both
politically and socially.
The phenomenon of Dalit assertion in India has often been understood
through the prism of two models of Dalit social mobility: the first is
conversion and the second is Sanskritisation. It is generally believed that
Dalits make use of either one of these models to escape from caste -based
social exclusion. In the beginning, the movements which were launched
for Dalit’s upliftment were more reformative in nature; but later there
were also some mo vements which were transformative in nature. munotes.in

Page 86

86 Sociology of Social Movements Due to lack of access to mainstream political organizations and
increasingly aggravated with the slower pace of reforms, Dalits started
resisting subjugation and discrimination in two ways: one was peaceful
protest and another through open confrontation and struggle. Particularly
since the early 1990s, Dalit organizations started mobilizing Dalits to
protest peacefully against the human rights violations and discrimination
suffered by them. These movements gaine d momentum under the
guidance of some of the prominent Dalit leaders.
Over a period, India witnessed many social reform movements in order to
improve the situation of Dalits. The subjugated condition of Dalits drew
the attention of both Dalit and non -Dalit leaders. Among the Dalit leaders,
the most prominent are Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Jyotiba Phule. On the
other hand, Swamy Vivekananda, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayanand
Saraswati and Mahatma Gandhi are some non -Dalit leaders who tried to
uplift the Dalits in soc iety by their efforts to mitigate untouchability and
social restrictions which were imposed on them.
The major issues around which most of the Dalit movements have been
centred in colonial and post -colonial India are confined to the problem of
untouchabili ty. In this sense, these movements are predominantly anti -
untouchability movement. But at the same time, these movements also
raised issues of agricultural labourers as Dalits are mostly engaged in such
activity. The issue of increasing or maintaining rese rvations in elections,
government jobs and welfare programmes has also concerned the leaders
of these movements. Further, issues of education, employment and special
rights remained the dominant strategy of Dalit movement in India.
Ambedkar’s views on the caste system and untouchability have evolved
through interaction both with mainstream neo -classical economic theory
and the Marxian approach. But unlike the Marxists, he also stressed on the
role of Hindu religious philosophy in mutually reinforcing econom ic
forces and institution. For Ambedkar, both Brahmanism and capitalism are
the twin enemies of Dalits. The Mahars of Maharashtra under the
leadership of Ambedkar also initiated the Buddhist conversion movement
in the mid -1950s. But since early 1930s, Ambe dkar was very clear that to
improve their status, Dalits must renounce Hindu religion. Ambedkar
believed that there was no salvation for the untouchables so long as they
remained in the Hindu fold. And it was his conviction that religion was the
source of power. While embracing Buddhism in 1956, he argued that
“religion is necessary for people in distress”.
The efforts made by Ambedkar not only elevated the subjugated position
of Dalits but also mobilized them to make efforts for their rights. The
theoretic al footings of the Dalit intellectual movement can be traced in
subaltern perspective. As a spokesperson of this perspective, Ambedkar
urged Indians to analyze Indian society from the Dalit standpoint.
Therefore, the Dalit writers seek ‘Ambedkarism’ as a g uiding ideology
based on equality, liberty, fraternity and social justice to change the
existing unequal society. The emergence of Dalit intellectuals has helped
the Dalits to express their grievances and exploitation along with munotes.in

Page 87

87 Dalit and OBC Movements highlighting the achievemen ts of Dalit scholars at local as well as global
level.
After Ambedkar many significant developments took place in the Dalit
movements. There are many factors that are responsible for the rise of
Dalit movements in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The major
factors include entry of Dalits into military services, Dalit reform
movements, Dalit education, conversions, missionary activities, Islamic
revivalism, and Hindu reforms. On the other hand, there are some minor
factors like land settlement, ind ustry, communication facilities, education,
press and books, legal system etc. which have contributed in the rise and
development of Dalit movements in India.
Check Your Progress:
1. Elaborate on Ambedkar and Dalit movement.
______________________________ ______________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
9.3 OBC MOVEMENTS – CONTEXT, CAUSES, AND DYNA MICS Other Backward Classes (OBCs) – a political category comprising
various jatis at different levels of social and economic development. The
higher -end OBCs have land and political power, while the intermediate
ones have land combined with social backwar dness. The lower -end ones,
or the Extremely Backwards Classes (EBCs) have neither. What is
common between them is their location on the caste -ladder, perched
between the ‘outcastes’ and the higher -up caste Hindus. They are
entrenched within the Hindu fold despite being at the lower end of the
ladder.
More importantly, the OBCs have witnessed social and economic
mobility. A recent International Monetary Fund report cited OBCs as
enjoying the fastest inter -generational mobility compared to even the
higher cas tes. They became tenants and landowners, unlike the Dalits.
They experienced movement into the formal economy, higher education
and job opportunities owing to the implementation of the Mandal
Commission in 1990.
OBC mobilisation was often referred to as th e ‘second democratic
upsurge’, it was typified as representing ‘secular upsurge’ as both Hindus
and Muslims were included in the OBC list. The OBCs have not
experienced untouchability, but they are backward in social and
educational [Art. 15 (4), 16(4)] te rms an underrepresented in
governmental positions. Thus, OBCs are socially and educationally
backward classes. The OBCs are heterogeneous groups that consist of
multiple castes which are placed in the graded social hierarchy and have
been traditionally eng aged in different caste -based occupations. In terms munotes.in

Page 88

88 Sociology of Social Movements of such hierarchy, the OBCs consist of castes situated in the middle of the
social hierarchy. Thus, class in OBC represents nothing but a group of
several castes.
Thus, in terms of occupational and social composition, the castes which
are addressed by the generic category OBCs, consist of middle castes
owning and cultivating land, and the castes are placed lower than them in
the social hierarchy. Most belonging to latter is related to traditional
occupatio ns defined by the Jajmani system i.e. service castes such as
barbers, carpenters, potters, water carriers etc. Their caste names and
numbers vary from state to state. It is important to note that while the
castes placed in the lower social hierarchy are ge nerally placed in the OBC
category in various states, not all middle castes having ownership of land
and involved in cultivation are recognised as OBCs at the central level.
The middle castes land owning or land cultivating caste such as Yadavs,
Gujars, R ajasthan, Koeris, Kurmis, Jats in north Indian states like Delhi,
UP, Bihar, Rajasthan; Vokaliggas and Lingayats in Karnataka are
examples of land -owning middle castes being recognized as OBCs. The
caste groups like Kappus in Andhra Pradesh, Patels in Guja rat or Marathas
in Maharashtra have been demanding that they be recognized as the
OBCs. By the 1970s, the land -owing middle castes emerged as an
articulate and politically vocal class. They came to be addressed by
different names in academic and political discourse like - middle peasants,
rich farmers, kulaks or ‘bullock capitalists’. As the OBCs in general
belong to middle and lower castes and classes, these groups have been
focus of mobilisation by the socialist groups, generally inspired by Ram
Manohar L ohia. One of the principal objectives of the socialist
mobilisation was to empower the OBCs.
The main issues concerning the OBCs are relating to the demand for new
caste groups to be included in the OBC category; the demand of sub -
division of OBC quota int o two groups – the MBCs or the EBCs; demand
of some MBCs or OBCs to be recognised by the government as the SC or
ST communities; demand for recognition of cultural symbols of castes or
seeking awards like those of ‘Bharat -Ratna’ for their own caste heroes or
declaration of public holidays in the memory of their caste icons, symbols
or heroes. Some of the instances of such demands include: demand of
Marathas in Maharashtra, Patels in Gujarat, Jats of in Rajasthan (till 1999
when they became the OBCs) and of Haryana, Kappus in Andhra Pradesh,
Marathas in Maharashtra to be identified in the OBC list in their respective
states. The governments have responded to such demands in different
ways.
It is important to note that the mobilisation of the OBCs started in
southern India much before it began in northern India. Although the
reservation for the OBCs in the public institutions in the states was
introduced at different times in different states up to the late 1970s, the
first attempt to do so at all India level h appened after the Mandal
Commission Report was introduced by the V.P. Singh government in
1990. In real sense, the Mandal Commission Report was the first report
which led to introduction of reservation for the OBCs at the all -India level. munotes.in

Page 89

89 Dalit and OBC Movements Check Your Progre ss:
1. Who are the OBCs ?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________ __________
____________________________________________________________
9.4 SUMMARY Dalits, and OBCs belong to the marginalised sections of society. They are
among the politically conscious sections. Dalits, and OBCs as
marginalised groups have some common issues and some group -specific
issues. The common issues are related to equality, freedom, social
discrimination, self -respect, social justice, etc. The specific issues include:
in case of Dalits and OBCs, the injustice arising from caste inequalities.
9.5 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the features of Dalit movement in the Pre -Independence
period.
2. What are the major issues with the Dalits?
3. What kind of problems do OBCs face in India?
4. Elaborate on the significance of the Mnadal Commission.
9.6 REFERENCE S  Gopal, G. (1993). Dalit Movement in Mainstream Sociology.
Economic and Political Weekly, 28(14), 570 -573.
 Guru, G. (2011). Humiliation: Claims and Context: Oxford University
Press.
 Ilaiah, K. (1994). BSP and Caste as Ideology. Economic and Political
Week ly, 29(12), 668 -669.
 Ilaiah, K. (2006). Merit of Reservations. Economic and Political
Weekly, 41(24), 2447 -2449.
 Kumar, V. (2005). Situating Dalits in Indian Sociology. Sociological
Bulletin, 54(3), 514 -532.
 Muthaiah, P. (2004). POLITICS OF DALIT IDENTITY. The Indian
Journal of Political Science, 65(3), 385 -402.
 Sivaprakasam, M. N. (2002). Dalits and Social Mobilization. New
Delhi: Rajat Publications.
 Omvedt, G. (2005). Capitalism and Globalisation, Dalits and
Adivasis. Economic and Political Weekly, 40(47) , 4881 -4885.
***** munotes.in

Page 90

90 10
WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 History of Feminism
10.3 Tracking the Movement
10.4 Initial Efforts
10.5 Tactics used
10.6 Social Changes
10.7 Women's Movement
10.8 Women's Movement in I ndia
10.9 Dowry Deaths
10.10 Language Usage
10.11 Summary
10.12 References
10.0 OBJECTIVES  To introdu ce you to the concept of Feminism .
 To understand the Fem inist Movements .
 To Analyze the F emin ist Mo vements in India .
10.1 INTRODUCTION The Women' s Movement also known as the Suffrage movement,
Women’s Liberation, or simply, Women's Lib is a series of campaigns
on issues such as reproductive rights (sometimes including abortion),
domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, sexual harassment, and
sexual violence. The goals of the movement vary from country to
country.
10.2 HISTORY OF FEMINISM The history of feminist movements has been divided into three "waves" by
feminist scholars. Each is described as dealing with different aspect s of
the same feminist issues. The first wave refers to the feminism movement
of the 18th through early 20th centuries, which dealt mainly with the
Suffrage movement. Writers such as Virginia Woolf are associated with
the ideas of the First Wave of feminism. In her book A Room of One's
Own (book), Woolf "describes how men socially and psychically
dominate women". The argument of the book is that "women are
simultaneously victims of themselves as well as v ictims of men and are munotes.in

Page 91

91 Women's Movements upholders of society by acting as mirrors to men" She recognizes the
social constructs that restrict women in society and uses literature to
contextualize it for other women.
The second wave (1960s -1980s) dealt gender inequality in laws and
culture. It built upon th e established goals of the First Wave and began to
adapt the ideas to American culture. Simone De Be auvoir is very much
associated with this wa ve because of her idea of women as "the other".
This idea was touched upon in the writing of Virginia Woolf and was
adapted to apply not only to the gender roles of women in the household
or at work, but thei r sexuality a s we ll. Beauvoir set the tone for later
Feminist theory. The Third wave of Feminism (1990s -curre nt), is seen as
both a cont inuation and a response to the perceived failures of the Second -
wave.
In addition to "responding" to the Second Wave, the Third Wave was less
of a reaction to current events and more a focus on developing the
different achievements of women in America. The Feminist Moveme nt
grew during the Third Wave of feminism to incorporate a greater number
of women who may not have previously ident ified with the dynamic and
goals that were established at the start of the movement. Although
criticized as purely an addition to the Seco nd Wave, the Third Wave very
much holds its own additions to the Fe minist Movement as a whole. In
order to explore t he h istory, events, and structu re of the Feminist
movement it is imperative to explore different figures, specific protests
and demonstr ations, as well as the transformation in American culture as
a whole. The feminist movement is essentially one th at has worked and
continues to work against the status quo i n American society. According
to bell hook, "Feminism is a struggle against sexist oppression. Therefore,
it is necessarily a struggle to eradicate the ideology of domination that
permeat es Wester n culture on various levels, as well as a commitment to
reorganizing society so that the self -development of people can take
precedence over imperialism, economic expansion and material desires."
Countering these standards is part of the Feminist Mov emen t's agenda
and, although differing d uring the progression of waves, it was a
movement started to also challenge the political structur e. In thinking of
a social movement as a collective, organized, sustained, non -institutional
challenge to authorities, power holders, or culture beliefs or practices it
can be said the Feminist Movement in all aspe cts a large and long lasting
social movement. This is assuming that a social movement must exist
with more than one person and by all means the Feminist Movement is
one that i s multifaceted incorporating the efforts of individuals who
may not have affiliated themselves with the movement yet helped the
goals of the movement become attainable. There are examples of different
group s who w ere part of the movement that rejected the institution of the
American system of capitalism, however, the agenda of the First and
Second w aves worked with the American political system in order to gain
more rights.
munotes.in

Page 92

92 Sociology of Social Movements 10.3 TRACKING THE MOVEMENT The femin ist movement reaches f ar back before the 18th century, feminist
movement were planted during the late part of that century. Christine de
Pizan , a late medieval wri ter, was possibly the earliest feminist in the
weste rn tradition. She is believed to be the first woman to make a
beautifu l piece of writing. Feminist thought began to ta ke a more
substantial shape during The Enlightenment with such t hinkers as Lady
Mary Wortley Montagu and the Marquis de Condorcet championing
women's education. The first scient ific society for women was founded in
Middelburg, a city in the south of the Dutc h republic, in 1785. Journals for
women which focused on issu es like science became popular during this
period as well.
The period of feminist activity during the ni neteenth c entury and early
twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United States is referred
to as the first wave of feminism. It was someti me i n the 1920's when
feminism died in the US. It focused primarily on gaining the right of
wome n's suffrage. The term , "first-wave," was coined retrospective ly
after the term second -wave feminis m began to be used to describe a newer
feminist movement that focus ed as much on fighting social and cultural
inequalities as further political inequalities.
In Britain, t he Suffragettes campaigned for the women's vote, which
was eventually granted - to some women in 1918 and to all in 1928 -
as mu ch because of the part played by British women during the
First World War, as of the efforts of th e Suffragists. In the Un ited
States leaders of this move ment include Elizabeth Cady Stanto n and
Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for t he abolition of slavery
prior to championing women's right to vote. Other important leaders
include Lucy Stone, Olym pia Brown, and Helen Pitts. American first-
wave feminism in volved a wide range of women, some belonging to
conservative Christian groups (such as Frances Willard and the Woman's
Christian Temperance Union), others resembling the diversity and
radicalis m of much of second -wave feminism (such as Stanton, Anthony,
Matilda Joslyn Gage and the Natio nal Woman Suffrage Association, of
which Stanton was president). In the United States firs t-wave feminism
is considered to have ended with the passage of the N ineteenth
Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919),granting women the
right to vote.
10.4 INITIAL EFFORTS The women who made the f irst efforts towards women's suffrage were
those who came from the more stab le and privileged backgrounds. In
order to create change, one must be in a position to dedicate time and
energy into making change. The wome n previously mentioned worked
very hard to attain the personal and collective goals. Their intentions
benefited women in America, but no t all women. The deve lopments made
for women were for those who belonged to the middle and u pper class and munotes.in

Page 93

93 Women's Movements were part of the Whi te race. This was the dynamic o f the beginning of the
Feminist Movement in America. It was a specific agenda for a certain
group of women.
The sec ond wave of feminist activity began in the early 1960s and lasted
through the late 1980s. What helped trigger this second wave was the
book w ritten by Betty Friedan. "The key event that marked the
reemergence of this movement in the postwar era was the surprise
popularity of Betty Friedan's 1963 book The Feminine Mystique. Writing
as a housewife and mother (though she had had a long story of political
activism, as well), Friedan described the problem with no name the
dissatisfaction of educated, mid dle class wives and mothers like herself
who looking at their nice homes and families wondered guiltily if that
was all there was to life was not new; the vague sense of dissatisfaction
plaguing housewives was a staple topic for women's magazine s in the
1950s. But Friedan, instead of blaming individual women for failing
to adapt to women's proper role, blamed the role i tself and the society
that created it" (Norton, Mary Beth, A people A Nation pg. 865. 2005
Houghton Miffli n Comp any New York.) During this time feminists
campaigned against cultural and political inequalities. The movement
encouraged women to underst and aspects of their own personal lives as
deeply politicized, and reflective of a sexist struc ture of power. If first -
wave feminism focused upon absolute rights such as suffrage, second -
wave feminism was largely concerne d wit h other issues of equality, such
as the end to discrimination. The feminist activist and author, Carol
Hanisch coined the slogan "The Per sonal is Political" which became
synonymous with the second wave. Second -wave feminists saw women's
cultural and political in equalitie s as inextricably linked and encouraged
women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politi cized
and a s reflecting sexist power structures.
In the early 1990s, a movement arose in responses to the perceived the
failures of second wave femi nism, it has been termed the "thi rd wave". It
is also described as a res ponse to the backlash against initia tives and
movements created by second -wave feminism. Feminist leaders rooted in
the second wave like Gloria Anzaldua, bell hooks, Chela Sand oval,
Cherrie Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other
feminists of colour, called for a new su bjectivity in feminist voice. They
sought to negotiate prominent space within feminist thought for
consideration of race related subjectivities. This focus on the intersection
between race and gender remained prominent through the Hill -Thomas
hearings, but began to s hift with the Freedom Ride 1992. This drive to
register voter s in poor minority communities was surrounded with rhetoric
that focused on rallying young feminists. For many, the rallying of the
young is the emphasis that has stuck within third wa ve feminism .
10.5 TACTICS USED The different waves of feminism are not only reflective of the cultural
evolution in America since the 1920s but it is also the way in which the
Femi nist Movement used different social movement tactics to encourage munotes.in

Page 94

94 Sociology of Social Movements women in America to become active and motivate individuals to make
change for the whole of women in America. Although the Feminist
Movement has spanned almost a century there are ways in which to
breakdown the timeline and re cogn ize ho w women have framed the
ways they have achieved differen t goals throughout history. It is "By
rendering events or occurrences meanin gful, frames function to organize
experience and guide action, whether individual or collective" The
Feminist Movem ent has been an ongoing presence in American culture
and although some women might not have affiliate d themselves with the
movement their lives have been affected by the influence the movement
has ha d on women's roles in society. Inevita bly women h ave had a part in
this movement even if they do not call themselves feminists.
It is very important to recognize that feminism h as gone through its
own transitions with the different waves. Primarily Women's suffrage
addressed white middle class women with a claim that t hey worked on
behalf of women's (in general) liberation. The specific group Women
targeted at the beginning of the movement has changed as the movement
has shifted its framing.
The identity of the Femin ist Movemen t cannot be determined by just one
statement, however, that is what makes it such a dynamic social
movement. The beginning of the Femi nist movement was exclusive in
that, "given such socialization, [oppressed] women have often felt that
our only re sponse to white, bourgeois, hegemonic dominance of feminist
movement is to trash, reject, or dismiss feminism" Different groups of
wome n did not feel a part of the Feminist Movement because they felt
they were being excl uded and oppressed by the domina nt white women.
According to David A. Snow and other sociologists "Value amplification
refers to the identification, idealization, and elevation of one or more
values presumed basic to prospective constituent but which have not
inspired collect ive action for any number of reasons" (Snow 469).
The three waves of Feminism that exist are examples of how values have
been identified, shared, an d transformed. T he Feminist Movement has
worked to redefine certain standards of its agenda in order to incl ude a
broad er spectrum of people. For example, the movement later included
women of different races and sexual orientations. It was only in the fall
of 1971 that NOW (National Organization of W omen) "acknowledged,
'the oppression of lesbians as a legitimat e concern of feminism" The
Feminist movement is one that has not ended and will continue in order
to support and encourage women in American society to pursue their goals
as individuals deserving of equal opportunity. "The Foundation of futur e
feminis t struggle must be solidly based on a recognition of the need
to eradicate the underlying cultural basis and causes of sexism a nd other
forms of group oppression" An awareness of the oppressions in American
society is the first step t o ma king c hange as part of the Feminist
Movem ent no matter what generation, age, gender, race, age, or sexual
orientation.
munotes.in

Page 95

95 Women's Movements 10.6 SOCIAL CHANGES The feminist movement affected change in Western society, including
women's suffrage; the right to initiate divor ce proceed ings and "no fault ”
divorce ; and the right of women to make individual decisions regarding
pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion); and the right
to own property. Feminism has affected many changes in Western
society, inclu ding women' s suffrage, broad employment for women at
more equitable wages and access to university education. The United
Nations Human Development R eport 2004 estimated that when both paid
employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for, on average
wom en work more than men. In rural areas of selected developing
countries women performed an average of 20% more work than men, or
an additional 102 minutes per day. In the OECD countries surveyed, on
average women performed 5% more work than men, or 20 minutes per
day. At the UN's Pan Pacific Southeast Asia Women's Association 21st
International Conference in 2001 it was stated that "in the world as a
whole, women comprise 51 percent of the population, do 66 percent of the
work, receive 10 percent of the income and own less than one percent of
the property".
The social climate in America has definitely evolved throughout history.
The definitions of Feminism, Feminist, and Feminist Theory now are not a
monolithic term. There are multiple dimensions to the move ment that
encompass all different aspects of American culture. In America "most
people are socialized to think in terms of opposition rather than
compatibility". Social changes have not only included the right to vote,
greater equality in the workforc e, as well a s reproductive rights but also
the recognition of injustices and the ways in which both men and women
can work to change them. According to bell hooks, in order to create
change it is essential to recognize that "exploited and oppressed groups of
women are usually encouraged by those in power to feel that their
situation is hopeless, that they can do nothing to break the pattern of
dominat ion".
The movements often take up women's issues b ut the basis and direction is
not specifically gender bas ed. Large numbers of women are mobilized and
they participate actively in the movement which then includes some
women's issues and needs. Often in th e end women go back to 'their place'
in the home. So it seems better not to define such movement as 'women' s
liberation movements'. However, they do lead to the development of a
women's movement. Women's participation in these movements gives
them self -confidence, they experience the strength of collective action and
they learn to take on leadership and decision -making roles. Earlier
movements have played an important role in the process of development
of the new women's movement in the late 70s and early 80s of the
twentieth century. The main difference between these earlier movements
and contemporary women 's movement is that the latter challenges
oppressive social structures i.e. it challenges sexual division of labour and
patriarchy in society and the family. Referring to these earlier movements munotes.in

Page 96

96 Sociology of Social Movements Geraldine Forbes writes, "the trappings of modern life, education health
care, protective legislation and civil and political rights" were demanded
within "an ideology that constructed women as socially and
psychologically different from men".
We usually say that the changes that have taken place in the status and role
of women in society began under British Rule. The British system of
education and the principles of liberal philosophy influenced educated
men to l ook again at their own society, social customs and their views
about women's intellectual and other capabilities as well as at the wider
role that women could play in society. Thus, began a movement, a process
we often describe with word like "moder nisation" and "westernisation".
The (reform an d revivalist) movements of this period, critiqued society or
looked back to an earlier "golden age". These early movements show that
in patriarchal societies, areas of change are identified by men; there was
an obvious absence of radical attraction patriarchy.
10.7 WOMEN'S MOVEMENT Women's liberation movements are based on feminist ideology - that
women are specifically oppressed as women, and therefore, such
movements take up specific issues of oppression. Wom en's liberation
movements prioritize and emphasize women's equality in society. At the
same time, they are aw are of and support movements of other oppressed
sections - dalits, tribals, minorities wor kers. They are also concerned about
issues like environme ntal degradation, economic backwardness and
exploration, communalism etc. They had also participated along with men
in the nationalist movements and peasant movement. During the colonial
period, we had Saraladevi Choudhari, th e founder of Bharat Mahamand al
in 1910, Saroj Nalini Dutt, the founder of the women's institute
movement, Sarojini Naidu, who start ed the A ll Ind ia Women's Conference
in 1926.
We will see that the women's movement which began here in the late 70s
is largely unstructured. It has taken up diverse women's issues, developed
new autonomous organisations and it includes several ideological and
strategic positions. An ideology explains and justifies the action of a
group, the direction of a movement eg. Socialism is the ideology of the
class struggle . Feminism the ideology of the women's movement looks at
women as an oppressed section of society and aims t o fight this inequality
and oppression. Just as different groups have their own understanding
and interpretation of socialism, so also there are many types of feminism.
Very briefly, liberal feminism strives to bring about gender equality withi n
the exis ting structure of society. Socialist feminism, which is the ideology
of most women's groups in India, takes up issues of wo men's oppressi on
within the context of socialist goals, thus linking up with the struggle
against other form of oppression. Radical feminism seeks revolutionary
change in all social institutions but emphasizes that sexual oppression is
primary. munotes.in

Page 97

97 Women's Movements 10.8 WOMEN'S MOVEMENT IN INDIA In 'A Decade of Women's Movement in India' - Dr. Neera Desai writes
'Participation in the Naxalbari mo veme nt, an ti-price rise demonstrations,
Navnirman Youth movement i n Gujarat and Bihar, rural revolt in Dhule
District in Maharashtra and Chipk o movement provided a backdrop for
the ensuring struggles on women's issues'. In a similar vein Rad ha Kumar i
(Seminar , March 1989, Now social Movements in India pg . 21) writes:
The first women's movements of post-independent India were initialised
by Gandhian and socialists in the early 70's a, but it was only much later
that they began to be looked upon as femin ist. In the mid - seventies, the
far left began to show an interest in women's question, and two intriguing
women's groups were formed In 1975 'The Progressive Organisation of
Women' in Hyderabad, which offered an Engelian analysis of women's
subordina tion, and the 'League of Women Soldiers for Equality' in
Aurangabad which lin ked feminism and anti -casteism, saying that
religious texts were used to subordinate both women and the lower caste.
The imposition of Emergency on India in 1975 led to a break in most
agita tional activities. Though there was corresponding intensification of
theoretical discussion. In 1977, when the Emergency was lifted, several
women's groups which had developed out of these discussions were able
to surface and several new gro ups were f ormed at the same time. Most of
these groups were based in the major cities like Bo mbay, Delhi, Madras,
Pune, Patna and Ahmedabad, Though there was no particular uniformity
among them, their members were drawn l argely from the urban educated
midd le class, and this was an important reason for their feeling that their
own needs were minor, and different from the needs of the majority of
poor I ndian women.
In 1971 a committee was appointed by the Ministry of Education and
Social Welfare to evaluate the impac t of the constitutional, legal and
administrative provisions that have a bearing on the social status of
women, their education and empl oyment." The report of this committee
which came out in 1974, declared that women's status had declined since
Independ ence. There were statistics (the declining sex ratio of women for
example) and studied focusing on the failure of government progra mes
and policies with regard to women to substantiate this. Towards Equality
and the emerging research data provid ed the int ellectual foundation for a
new women's movement.
By 1979 -80 the contemporary women's movement had emerged all over
India. Autonomous women' s groups had been formed and they took up a
range of issues: dowery death and police rape. Campaigns agains t these
caught the attention of the public and also taken up by the press. These are
referred to as campaigns that initiated t he women's movement. Ot her
issues taken up were, unionising women from slums etc.
Eg.: Narmada Bachao Andolan, lead by Medha Patkar against the
construction of a dam. munotes.in

Page 98

98 Sociology of Social Movements 10.9 DOWRY DEATHS Women's groups took up the issue of the large number of so called
accidental deaths or "Suicides" of newly married women. The Mahila
Dakshata Samiti (1977) investigated some of these cases and pu blished a
report in 1978 to show that these were not accidents or suicides but
murders. 'One of the first such case that came to wide public attention was
that of a newly wed bride in Delhi. She protested against being forced to
get money from her parents, and was b urned to death in May1979.
Though in her dying declaration she stated that her mother -in law and
sister in - law had set her on fire, the p olice registered the case as suicide.
Women activists in Delhi came together to demonstrate outside the sc ene
of th e crime the home of the woman's in - laws. They were joined by
local residents. This demonstration is considered the beginning of the anti-
dowry campaign. Initially the campaign consisted of demonstrations and
dharnas directed at the husband and his famil y. Later, to make people
aware of this problem, meetings, discussions, street plays and poster
competitions were organised. Activists put pressure on police to make
thorough enquiries and they exposed the bias of existing laws and court
procedure s. Women's organisations in the major cities established support
centres for women.
The state amended Dowry Prohibition Act 1968, but did not ban dowr y.
The women's movement is made of hundreds of different organisations.
They contribute on different - issues and come togeth er when joint action
is needed. These groups includes those which provide support to
individual women in distress - in cases of rape, dowry problems, sexual
harassment at work, legal advice is needed. Other groups see their roles
as creating awareness of women's issues and they use media and protest
actions to achieve this goal. Side by side with action, the women's
movemen t has also emphasized Research & documentation studies.
Groups like these, for example the research centre for wom en's studies of
the S.N.D.T. University provide the knowledge basis for further action
and for recommending to the government, necessary policy changes. The
studies and reports prepared by such groups have brought state and publ ic
attention to t hese impor tant issues.
10.10 LANGUAGE USAGE Women's movement and feminists are often proponents of using non -
sexist language, using "Ms." To refer to both married and u nmarried
women, for example, or the ironic use of the term "her story" instead of
"histo ry". Femin ists are also often proponents of using gender -inclusive
language, such as "humanity" instead of "mankind", or "he or she" in place
of "he" where the gende r is unknown. Gender -neutral language is a
description of language usages which are aimed at minimi zing
assumptions regarding the biological sex of human referents. The
advocacy of gender -neutral language reflects, at least, two different
agendas: o ne aims to clarify the inclusion of both sexes or genders munotes.in

Page 99

99 Women's Movements (gender -inclu sive language); the other propose s that gender, as a category,
is rarely worth marking in language (gender -neutral language). Gender -
neutral language is sometimes described as non-sexist language by
advocates and politically -correct language by opponents.
10.11 SUMMARY The Wome n's Moveme nt also known as the Suffrage movement, Wome n's
Liberation, or simply, Women's Lib is a series of campaigns on issues
such as reproductive r ights (sometimes including abortion), domestic
violence, maternity leave, equal pay, sexual harassment and sexual
violence. The history of feminist movements has been divided into three
"waves" by feminist scholars. The first wave refers to the feminism
movement of the 18th through early 20th centuries, which dealt mainly
with the Suffrage movement. The Femini st Movemen t grew during the
Third Wave of feminism to incorporate a greater number of women who
may not have previously identified with the dynamic and goals that were
established at the start of the movement.
The feminist movement reaches far back before the 18th c entury, feminist
movement were planted during the late part of that century. It focused
primarily on gaining the right of women's suffrage . It was a specific
agenda for a certai n group of women. Second -wave feminists saw
women's cultural and political in equalities as inextricably linked and
encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply
politicized and as reflecti ng sexist power structures. Inevitably women
have had a part in this movement even if they do not call the msel ves
feminists.
Primarily Women's suffrage addressed white middle class women with a
claim that they worked on behalf of women's (in general) liber ation. The
specific group Women targeted at the beginning of the movement has
changed as the movement has shifted it s framing. The beginning of the
Feminist move ment was exclusive in that, "given such socialization,
[oppressed] women have often felt that our only response to white,
bourgeois, hegemonic dominance of feminist movement is to trash, reject,
or dismiss feminism" Different groups of women did not feel a part of the
Feminist Movement because they felt they were being excluded and
oppressed by the dominant white women. For example, the movement
later included women of different races and sexual orie ntations.
Feminism has affected many changes in Western society, including
women's suffrage, broad employment for women at more equitable wages
and access to university education. The definitions of Feminism,
Feminist, and Feminist Theory now are not a monolithic term. The
movements often take up women's issues but the basis and direction is not
specifically gender based. Large numbers of women are mobilized and
they participate actively in the movement which then includes some
women's issues and needs. munotes.in

Page 100

100 Sociology of Social Movements Women 's liberation movements are based on feminist ideology - that
women are specifically oppressed as women, and therefore, such
movements take up sp ecific issues of oppression. Women's liberation
movements prioritiz e and emphasis women's equality in soci ety. We wi ll
see that the women's movement which began here in the late 70’s is
largely unstructured. Feminism the ideology of the women's movemen t,
looks at women as an oppressed section of society and aims to fight this
inequality and oppression. Towards Equal ity and the emerging research
data provided the intellectual foundation for a new women's movement.
By 1979 -80 the contemporary women's move ment had emerged all over
India. Other issues taken up were, unionizing women from slums etc.
Women's groups look up the issue of the large number of so called
accidental deaths or "Suicides" of newly married women. Women activists
in Delhi came together t o demonstrate outside the scene of the crime the
home of the woman's in - laws. Women's organisations in the major cities
established support centres for women. The women's movement is made
of hundreds of different organisations. Side by side with action, the
women's movement has also emphasized Research & documentation
studies. Women's movement and feminist s are ofte n proponents of using
non-sexist language, using "Ms." to refer to both married and unmarried
women, for example, and the ironic use of the term "herstory" instead of
"history".
10.12 REFERENCES  Humm, Maggie 1978 The Dictionary of Feminist Theor y. Columbu s:
Ohio State University Press, p. 251
 Walker, Rebecca, 'Becoming the Third Wave' in Ms. (January /
February, 1992) pp. 39 -41
 Krolokke, Ch arlotte and Anne Scott Sorensen, "From Suffragettes to
Girls" in Gender Communication Theories and Analyse s. From
Silence to Performance (Sage, 2005)
 Hooks, bell. 2000. Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center.
Cambridge: South End Press. p. 26)
 Freedman, E stelle B., No Turning Back: The History of Feminism
and the Future of Women (London: Ballantine Books, 2003)
 Echols , Alice (1989). Daring to be bad: radical feminism in America,
1967 -1975. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 416.
 Henry, Astrid (2004). Not my mother's sister: generational conflict
and third -wave feminism. Bloomington: Indiana Unive rsity Pres s.
 Gatlin, Rochelle. 1987. American Women Since 1945. Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi. p. 119
 Sarachild, Kathi e. Consciousness -Raising: A Radical Weapon, in
Sarachild, K, Hanisch, C, Levine, F, Leon, B, Price, C (eds.) Feminist
Revoluti on. Rando m House N.Y. 1978 pp. 144 -150. munotes.in

Page 101

101 Women's Movements  Mitchell, Juliet, 'Women: The longest revolution' in New Left
Revie w, 1966, Nov -Dec, pp. 11 -37
 Hinckle, Warre n and Marianne Hinckle. Women Power. Ramparts
1968 February 22 -31
 Freeman , Jo. The politics of women's lib eration. David McKay N.Y.
1975
 Hooks, Bell (2000). Feminist theory: from margin to center.
Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
 Maclean, Nancy 2006 Gender is Powerful: The Long Reach of
Feminism Magazine of History 20: 19 -23
 Messer -Davidow, Ellen, Disciplining feminism: from social activism
to academic discourse (Duke University Press, 2002).
 Butler, Judith, 'Feminism in Any Other Name', differences vol. 6,
numbers 2 -3, pp. 44 -45
 Hochschild, Arlie Russell, The Time Bind: When Work Becomes
Home and Home Becomes Work (Owl Books U.S, 2003),
 Sarah Fenstermaker Berk and Anthony Shih, "Contributions to
Household Labour: Comparing Wives' and Husbands' Reports,", in
Berk, ed., Women and Household Labour
 Luker, Kristin, Dubious Conceptions: The Politic s of the Teenage
Pregnancy Crisis. Harvard University Press (1996)
 Laurie A. Rudman & Julie E. Phelan, "The Interpersonal Power of
Feminism: Is Feminism Good for Rom antic Relationships?" Sex
Roles, Vol. 57, No. 11 -12, December 2007.
 Bundesen, Linda, The Feminine Spirit: Reca pturin g the Heart of
Scripture (Jossey Bass Wiley, 2007).
 Haddad, Mimi, "Egalitarian Pioneers: Betty Friedan or Catherine
Booth?" Priscilla Papers , Vol. 20, No. 4 (Autumn 2006)
 Anderson, Pamela Sue and Beverley Clack, eds., Feminist philosophy
of relig ion: critical readings (London: Routledge, 2004)
 Pellauer, Mary D. (1991 ). "Toward a Tradition of Feminist
Theology". Brooklyn, Ne w York, NY: Carlso n Publishing Inc
 OCHS, CAROL (1977). Behind the Sex of God - "Toward a
New Consciousness - Transc ending Ma triarchy and Patriarchy".
Boston, MA: Beacon Press
 OCHS, Ruether, Rosemary Radford (1998). Women and Redemption
- A Theological History. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress
Publishers.
***** munotes.in

Page 102

102 11
ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Scope of the Movement
11.3 Environmental Law and Theory
11.4 Modern Environmentalism
11.5 Environmentalism as a Social Movement
11.6 Origins of Environmental Movement
11.7 Features of the Movements
11.8 Environmental Organizations
11.9 Environmental Ethics
11.10 Nature of Ecology
11.11 Indian attitude towards environment
11.12 Environmental movements in India
11.13 Property Rights
11.14 Environmental issues and W omen
11.15 Summary
11.16 References
11.0 OBJECTIVES  To introduce you to the Environmental Laws and Movements .
 To understand the scope of Environmental Movements .
 To Analyze Environmental Movements in India .
11.1 INTRODUCTION The environmental movement, a term that includes the conservation and
green movements, is a diverse scientific, social, and political movement
for addressing environmental issues. Environmentalists advocate the
sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environme nt
through changes in public policy and individual behavior. In its
recognition of humanity as a participant in (not enemy of) ecosystems,
the movement is centered on ecology, health, and human rights. The
environmental movement is represented by a range of organizations,
from the large to grassroots. Due to its large membership, varying and
strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature, the environmental
movement is not always united in its goals. At its broadest, the movement
includes private citizens, professionals, religious devotees, politicians, and
extremists. munotes.in

Page 103

103 Environmental Movement The roots of the modern environmental movement can be traced to
attempts in nineteenth -century Europe and North America to expose the
costs of environmen tal negligence, notably disease, as well as widespread
air and water pollution, but only after the Second World War did a wider
awareness begin to emerge. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, several
event s illustrated the magnitude of environmental damage caused by
humans. At the same time, emerging scientific research drew new
attention to existing and hypothetical threats to the e nvironment and
humanity. Among them were Paul R. Ehrlich, whose book The Population
Bomb (1968) revived concerns about the impact of exponential population
growth. Biologist Barry Commoner generated a debate about growth,
affluence and "flawed technology." Additionally, an association of
scientists and political leaders known as the Club of Rome published
their report The Limits to Growth in 1972, and drew attention to the
growing pressure on natural resources from human activities.
Meanwhile, technological accomplishments such as nuclear proliferation
and photos of the Earth from outer space provided both new insights and
new reasons for concern over Earth's seemingly small and unique place in
the universe. In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment was held in Stockholm, and for the first time united the
representatives of multiple gove rnments in discussion relating to the state
of the global environment. This conference led directly to the creation of
government environmental agencies and the UN Environment Program.
The United States also passed new legislation such as the Clean Water
Act, the Clean Air Act, the Endangered Species Act, and the National
Environmental Policy Act - the foundations for current environmental
standards. Since the 1970s, public awareness, environmental sciences,
ecology, and technology have advance d to include modern focus points
like ozone depletion, global climate change, acid rain, and the
potentially harmful genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
11.2 SCOPE OF THE MOVEMENT Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the air -polluting emissi ons
from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of
sulfur dioxide.
Biological studies :
 Environmental science is the study of the interactions among the
physical, chemical and biological components of the environment.
 Ecology, or ecological science, is the scientific study of the
distribution and abundance of living organisms and how these
properties are af fected by interactions between the organisms and
their environment.
Primary focus points :
 The environmental movement is broad in sc ope and can include any
topic related to the environment, conservation, and biology, as well as munotes.in

Page 104

104 Sociology of Social Movements preservation of landscapes, flora, and fauna for a variety of purposes
and uses. See List of environmental issues
 The Conservation movement seeks to protect natural areas for
sustainable consumption, as well as traditional (hunting, fishing,
trapping) and spiritual use.
Other focus points :
 Environmental Conservation is the process in which one is involved
in conserving the natural aspects of the environment. Whe ther through
reforestation, recycling, or pollution control, environmental
conservation sustains the natural quality of life.
 Environmental health movement dates at least to Progressive Era, and
focuses on urban standards like clean water, efficient sewage
handling, and stable population growth. Environmental health c ould
also deal with nutrition, preventive medicine, aging, and other
concerns specific to human well -being. Environmental health is also
seen as an indicator for the state of the environment, or an early
warning system f or what may happen to humans.
 Environmental Justice is a movement that began in the U.S. in the
1980s and seeks an end to environmental racism and prevent low-
income and minority commun ities from an unbalanced exposure to
highways, garbage dumps, and factories. The Environmental Justice
movement seeks to link "social" and "ecological" environmental
concerns, while at the same time preventing de facto racism, and
classism. This makes it particularly adequate for the constructio n of
labor-environmental alliances. [2]
 Ecology movement could involve the Gaia Theory, as well as Value
of Earth and other interactions between humans, science, and
responsibility.
 Deep Ecology is an ideological spinoff of the ecology movement that
views the diversity and integrity of the planetary ecosystem, in and for
itself, as its primary value.
 Bright green environmentalism is a currently popular sub -movement,
which emphasizes the idea that through technology, g ood design and
more thoughtful use of en ergy and resources, people can live
responsible, sustainable lives while enjoying prosperity.
11.3 ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND THEORY Proper ty rights:
Many environmental lawsuits question the legal rights of property owners,
and whether the general public has a right to intervene with detr imental
practices occurring on someone else's land. Environmental law
organizations exist all across the world, such as the Environmental Law
and Policy Center in the mid -western United States. munotes.in

Page 105

105 Environmental Movement Citizens' rights:
One of the earliest lawsuits to establish that citizens may sue for
environmental and aesthetic harms was Scenic Hudson Preservation
Conference vs Federal Power Commission, decided in 1965 by the Second
Circuit Court of Appeals. The case helped halt the construction of a power
plant on Storm King Mountain in New York State.
Nature's rights:
Christopher D. Stone's 1972 essay, "Should trees have standing?"
addressed the question of whether natural objects themselves should have
legal rights. In the essay, Sto ne suggests that his argument is valid because
many current rights -holders (women, children) were once seen as objects.
Environmental reactivism:
Numerous criticisms and ethical ambiguities have led to growing
concerns about technology, including the use of poten tially -harmful
pesticides, water additives like fluoride, and the extremely dangerous
ethanol -processing plants. NIMBY syndrome refers to public outcry
caused by knee -jerk reaction to an unwillingness to be exposed to even
necess ary dev elopments. Some serious biologists and ecologists created
the scientific ecology movement which would not confuse empirical data
with visions of a desirable future world.
11.4 MODERN ENVIRONMENTALISM Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and social movement regarding
concerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the state of
the environment. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often
represented with the color green. An informal or derogatory label for
environmentalists is the term "greenie" or "t ree-hugger". Today, the
scienc es of ecology and environmental science, rather than any aesthetic
goals, provide the basis of unity to most serious environmentali sts. As
more information is gathered in sci entific fields, more scientific issues like
biodiv ersity, as oppo sed to mere aesthetics, are a conc ern. Conservation
biology is rapidly -developing field. Environmentalism now has
proponents in business: new ventures such as those to reuse and recycle
technical equipment are becoming more and more popular . Computer
liquidators are just one example.
In recent years, the environmental movement has increasingly focused on
global warming as a top issue. As concerns about climate change moved
more into the mainstream, from the connections drawn between global
warming and Hurricane Katrina to Al Gore's film An Inconvenient Truth,
many environmental groups refocused their ef forts. In the United States,
2007 witnessed the lar gest grassroots environmental demonstration in
years, Step It Up 2007, with rallies in over 1,400 communities and all 50
states for real global warming solutions . Many religious organizations and
individual churches now have programs and activities dedicated to
environmental issues. The religious movement is often supported by munotes.in

Page 106

106 Sociology of Social Movements interpretation of scriptures. Most major re ligious groups are represented
including Jewish, Islamic, An glican, Orthodox, Evangelical, Christian and
Catholic.
Radical environmentalism Radical environmentalism emerged out of an
ecocentrism -based fru stration with the co -option of mainstream
environmentalism. The radical environmental movement aspires to what
scholar Christopher Manes calls "a new kind of environmental activism:
iconoclastic, uncompromising, discontented with traditional conserva tion
policy, at time illega l... "Radical environmentalism presupposes a need t o
reconsider Western ideas of religion and philosophy (including
capitalism, patriarchy and globalization) sometimes through
"resacralising" and reconnecting with nature. A study reported in The
Guar dian concluded that "people who believe they have the greenest
lifestyles can be seen as some of the main culprits behind global
warming." The researchers found that individuals who were more
environmentally conscious were more likely to take long -distance
overseas flights, and that the resulting carbon emissions outweighed the
savings from green lifestyles at home.
11.5 ENVIRONMENTALISM AS A SOCIAL MOVEMENT Environmentalism can also be defined as a social movement that seeks to
influence the political pro cess by lobbying, activism, and education in
order to protect natural resources and ecosystems. In recognition of
humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the environmental movement is
centered on ecology, health, and human rights. An environmentalist is a
person who may advocate the sustainable management of resources and
stewardship of the natural environment through changes in public policy
or individual behavior. In various ways (for example, grassroots activism
and protests), environmentalists and en vironmental organizations seek to
give the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs. Though opinions
vary, environmentalism may be seen as a spectrum; from the reformist to
the radical.
A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in
different parts of the world, throughout history. For example, in the
Middle East, the earliest known writings concerned with environmental
pollution were Arabic medical treatises written during the "Arab
Agricultural Revolution", by writer s such as Alkindus, Costa ben Luca,
Rhaze s, Ibn AI -Jazzar, al -Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan,
Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd -el-latif, and l bn al -Nafis. They were
concerned with air contamination, water contamination, soil
contamination , solid waste mishandling, and environmental assessments
of certain localities.
In Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea -coal by
proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke had become a problem.
But the fuel was so common in Engla nd that this earlies t of names for it
was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the munotes.in

Page 107

107 Environmental Movement wheelbarrow. Air pollution would continue to be a problem there,
especially later dur ing the industrial revolution, and extending into the
recent pas t with the Great Smog of 1952.
11.6 ORIGINS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT The environmental movement (a term that sometimes includes the
conservation and green movements) is a diverse scientific, social, and
political movement. In general term s, environmentali sts advocate the
sustainable management of resources, and the protection (and restoration,
when necessary) of the natural environment through changes in public
policy and individual behavior. In its recognition of humanity as a
participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology,
health, and human rights. Additionally, throughout history, the movement
has been incorporate d into religion. The movement is represented by a
range of organizations, from the large to grassroots, but a younger
demographic than is common in other social movements (see green
seniors). Because of its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, the
movement is not entirely united. Indeed, some argue that an environmental
ethic of at least some sort is so urgently needed in all quarters that the
broader the better. Conversely, disunity can be a weakness in the face of
strong opposition from unsympathetic political and industrial forces.
In Europe, it was the Industrial Revolution that gave rise to modern
environmental pollution as it is generally understood today. The
emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of
coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to unprecedented air pollution and the
large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load
of untreated human waste. The first large -scale, modern environmental
laws came in the form of the British Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to
regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given
off by the Leblanc process, used to produ ce soda ash. Environmentalism
grew out of the amenity movement, which was a reaction to
industrialization, the growth of cities, and wors ening air and water
pollution.
In the 20th century, environmental ideas continued to grow i n popularity
and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save some wildlife,
particularly t he American Bison. The death of the last Passenger Pigeon as
well as the endangerment of the American Bison helped to focus the
minds of conservationists an d popularize their concerns. Notably in 1916
the National Park Service was founded by President Woodrow Wilson.
In 1949, A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold was published. It
explained Leopold's belief that humankind should have moral respect for
the e nvironment and that it is unethical to harm it. The book is sometimes
called the most influential book on conservation.
In 1962 Silent Spring by American biologist Rachel Carson was
published. The book cataloged the environmental impacts of the
indiscrimin ate spraying of DDT in the US and questioned the logic of
releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment wi thout fully munotes.in

Page 108

108 Sociology of Social Movements understanding their effects on ecology or human health. The book
suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause can cer and that their
agricultural use was a th reat to wildlife, particularly birds. The resulting
public concern lead to the creation of the United States Environmental
Protection Agency in 1970 which subsequently banned the agricultural use
of DDT in the US i n 1972. The limited use of DDT in disease vector
control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains
controversial. The book's legacy was to produce a far greater awareness
of environmental issues and interest into how people affect t he
environment. With this new interest in environment came interest in
problems such as air pollution and oil spills, and envi ronmental interest
grew. New pressure groups formed, notably Greenpeace and Friends of
the Earth.
In the 1970s, the Chipko movemen t formed in India; influenced by
Mahatma Gandhi, they set up peaceful resistance to deforestation by
literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers"). Their peaceful
methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very
influ ential. By the mid -1970s, many felt that people were on the edge of
environmental catastrophe. The Back -to-the-land movement started to
form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-Vietnam War
sentime nts and other political issues. These indivi duals live outside normal
society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental
theories such as deep ecology. Around this time mo re mainstream
environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the
Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of CITES in 1975.
In 1979, James Lovelock, a former NASA scientist, published Gaia: A
new look at life on Earth, which put forth the Gaia Hypothesis; it proposes
that life on Earth can be understood as a single organ ism. This became an
important part of the Deep Gr een ideology. Throughout the rest of the
history of environmentalism there has been debate and argument between
more radical followers of this Deep Green ideology and more mainstream
environmentalists.
Free market environme ntalism is a theory that argues that the free market,
property rights, and tort law provide the best tools to preserve the health
and sustainability of the environment. It considers environmental
stewardship to be natural, as well as the expulsion of pollu tors and other
aggressors through individual and class action. Environmental
preservation in the United States is viewed as the setting aside of natural
resources to prevent damage caused by contact with humans or by certain
human activities, such as l ogging, mining, hunting, and fishing, only to
replace them with new human activities such as tourism and recreation.
Regulations and laws may b e enacted for the preservation of natural
resources.
11.7 FEATURES OF THE MOVEMENTS 1. They combine environment and subsistence issues with issues of
social justice. The underlying assumption is threatening the urban and munotes.in

Page 109

109 Environmental Movement economic sector that has usurped the environmental sector and rural
livelihood.
2. Mobilisation within the movement is against the degr adation of the
physical environment.
3. The form of mobilisation is that of direct action. Dharnas, Rasta roko,
Law Courts, hunger strikes, jail bharo, defiance of Section 144 [of t he
IPC]. These are the methods perfected by Mahatma Gandhi during the
freedom struggle.
4. Underwritten ideology Indigenous Gandhian ideology dominates. The
ethical concerns are for dignity of life and right to survival for all,
with special emphasis on survival of marginal groups especially
women. Women play a critical rol e as actors .
5. Leaders or even passive supporters of the movement. The leadership
for this movement is from outside the community and compris es of
urban middle classsocial workers and sometimes religious leaders.
These religious leaders are influenced by theology and bring that
within the ideology of the movements.
11.8 ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS Environmental organizations can be global, regional, national or local;
they can be government -run or private (NGO). D espite a tende ncy to see
environmentali sm as an American or Western -centered pursuit, almost
every country has its share of envir onmental activism. Moreover, groups
dedicated to comm unity development and social justice may also attend
to environmental concerns.
There are some volunteer organ izations. For example Eco-world, which is
about the environment and is based in team work and volunteer work.
Some U S environmental organizations, among them the Natural
Resources Defense Council and the Environmental Defense Fund,
specialize in bringi ng lawsuits (a tactic seen as particularly useful in that
country). Other groups, such as the US -based National Wildlife
Federation, the Nature C onservancy, and The Wilderness Society, and
global groups like the World Wide Fund for Nature and Friends of the
Earth, disseminate information, participate in public hearings, lobby,
stage demonstrations, and may purchase land for preservation. Smaller
groups, including Wildlife Conservation International, conduct research
on endangered species an d ecosyste ms. More radical organizations, such
as Greenpeace, Earth First!, and the Earth Liberation Front, have more
directly opposed actions they regard as environmentally ha rmful. While
Greenpeace is devoted to nonviolent confrontation as a means of bearing
witness to environmental wrongs and bringing issues into the public realm
for debate, the underground Earth Liberation Frontengages in the
clandestine destruction of property, the rele ase of caged or penned
animals, and other criminal acts. Such t actics are regarded as unusual
within the movement, however. munotes.in

Page 110

110 Sociology of Social Movements On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a
UN conference in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of
this meeting developed UNEP (United Nations Envir onment Programme)
and the follow -up United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development in 1992. Other international organizatio ns in support of
environmental policies development include the Commission for
Environmental Cooperation (NAFTA), the Europ ean Environment
Agency (EEA), and the Inte rgovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC).
11.9 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS An environmental social movement is organized around an ideology based
on environmental ethics. Broadly defined conservation, presentation and
respect for others are the essentials of environmental ethics. Such
movements exist both in developed and developing countries. In the
north among the developing countries the environmental protests are
organis ed around issues linked with the health of community and not
environmental well being in these contexts. The protection of rights of the
other human beings in addition to other organisms is the ideology of the
environmental struggles of the south.
Sustainable developme nt is development that meets the needs of t he
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs - World Commission on Environment and Development
Report: our co mmon future. Industrialisation in most developing
countries is "based on techn ology that has been imported from the west. It
is capital and labour intensive and therefore generally comes up aro und
cities. Thus there develop areas of urban - industrial concentration which
have very high levels of pollution.
The assertion that “envir onmental degradation is a necessary and
unavoidable stage in development can be classified on two counts. ”
 Firstly it implies the questionable assumption that development m ust
inescapably follow the path used by the developed countries and
involve the dep loyment of modern technologies; and
 Secondly, it does not reckon with the fact that the poverty stricken
inhabitants of developing countri es are more adversely affected by
pollution because of their much lower levels of nutrition and health –
the weaker environmental lobbies in the developing countries permit
resources to be used irrationally wastefully e.g. Rayon facto ries
denuding a whole region of its bamboo forests.
 Another effect is the creation of urban markets for rural producing
urban markets for charcoal have led to rapid deforestation, s oil
erosion and desertification ... and metropolitan demand for cash crops
have resulted in, taking away land from food crops.
munotes.in

Page 111

111 Environmental Movement 11.10 NATURE OF ECOLOGY You are familiar with the Trade Union Movement. It is part of the class
struggle that Marx has described. The conflict in this case is over control
of productive resources and the scene of the struggl e 'is industry and the
factory: As regards Ecolo gical and Environment movement we can say
that the conflict is ove r the preservation, the control and use of natural
resources like forests, land and water.
It is easier in theory than a practice to distinguish between ecological and
Environmental Movements. Very broadly we could say that environmental
movements are c losely concerned with economic issues, issues of
pollution and sustainable development. Ecological movement are more
concerned with presentation of the environment, maintaining of
biodiversity, extinction of species etc. These movements started as a
critiq ue to certain aspect s of man -nature relationship. The early initiatives
through men like John Muir focused on the need to preserve pristine areas.
Natural areas were according to Muir "temples of the human spirit". Such
movements were comm on in India in t he late 70s 80s of t his century eg.
Nanda Devi and Nilgini biosphere reserves, and the earlier Project Tiger
movement.
11.11 INDIAN ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENVIRONMENT Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha have their book "This Fissur ed
Land - an Ecological History of India" created an outline which help us to
look at our own society in terms of the various attitudes to nature and
lifestyles within it. From this perspective we can see three distinct groups
of people in terms of their relationship with the environme nt. The bulk of
the poor eke out a difficult existence and essential depend on the natural
environments of their on locality to meet most of their material needs.
Perhaps four-fifths of India's rural populations (over one - half of India's),
another group is the victims of destruction of natural habitats.
Development projects like dams and mines have displaced millions of
peasants and tribals . A large member of tribals wer e displaced when
destruction of forests deprived them of their sustenances impov erished
their lands' an d lives and pushed them to seek survival in urban
peripheries' Guha and Gadgil call these people 'ecological refugees' as
they live on the margins of islands of prosperity.
The group that is the real beneficiary of the developmen t process includes
big land owners, workers in the org anised sector, entrepreneurs. Urban
professionals and others who have the purchasing p ower to buy goods and
services from all parts of the system land also have enough influence to
secure access to reso urces at relatively cheap rates. At this point Anil
Agarwal reminded as that the main source of environment destruction in
this world is the demand for natural resources the narrate for the
consumption of the rich whether they are rich nations or rich
individuals and groups within nations and it is their wastes that
contribute t o the global pollution load and it is the poor who are munotes.in

Page 112

112 Sociology of Social Movements affected the most by the environmental destruction. These environmental
movements are calle d new distinguish from traditional Marxism they are
aimed at social change. These groups are exploited in wa ys related to the
new processes of contemporary capitalism. But these new processes of
contemporary capitalism are left unco nceptualized by the Ma rxists, as the
Marxists are pre -occupied with 'private property' and wage labour.
11.12 ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA The national level movements are more famous due to the size, duration,
impact and the mediapulicity they have received. The examples of the
same movements are given below . Baliapal: The missile firing range set
up by the Ministry of Defence became a ‘target for environmental protest.'
Chipko:
The forest contractors that logged for timber in the Himalayan foot hills
became the focus fo r the environmental protest. It became famous because
of the novel method of human clinging to forest trees.
Narmada:
Construction of Sardar Sarovar dam beco mes the focus for environmental
struggle the local tribals were to be displac ed by the dam. Fish workers
agitation: Struggle fisher folk against mechanized deep sea fishing by
trawlers is headed by a man of the church. What is unique about these
struggles is they take on the state as an adversary. In spite of their fight
against the state, they hav e managed to remain as mainstream movements.
They have not got labelled as terrorist, or revolutionary anti -state
moveme nts like the Naxalabri movement in West Bengal and Andhra
Pradesh.
Tribals are people with simple technology, they are people we refer to
as "primi tive and backward", yet there is much we can learn from their
way of life. Traditionally tribal communities and other simple rural
communities too show, a concern for nature and the environment which
can help us to understand solve m any of the problems facing us today. In
the past tribal and other communities had free access to forest produce.
The British wanted to exploit the forest resources (Timber for ship
building and railway sleepers for example) and they passed forest laws
to control use of forest lan d. Thus there were restrictions on the people
who were earlier free to enter the forest, and this led to the first
environmental movements in India. The protests of the Santhals in the
Chhota Nagpur region grew into what is called the "Santhi rebellion" and
the more recent Jharkhand movement.
In the 70s Santhals launched a movement against the planting of teak trees
by the Bihar Forest Development Corporation. Teak wa s planted to
replace "sal" which played a very important role in their lives. Tribals and
other people who are displaced by unclose the way of life is threatened by
it have always protested against dams construction. Eg: Silent Valley. munotes.in

Page 113

113 Environmental Movement 11.13 PROPERTY RIGHTS No discussion about the social movements is complete without reference
to issues of proper ty rights. There is no such thing as common property
resources. What exist are natural resources, managed as common property
or private property or something in-between (Bromley 1991 ). These
different property regime s exist in various forms related to different
resources in India. Property rights are rights to benefit streams arising
from natural resources. Two types of benefit stream can be broadly stated.
A benefit stream that arises out of subsistence eco nomy and which is
essential for the survival of the household, such as fuel, wood, fodder,
or small timber or water. Here the cost to the individual is in terms of his
or her personal labour and the output is for domestic consumption, as
agains t this the benefit stream that arises out of capital investment is
measured in the form of monetary profits. Here the input is in terms of
production of goods are services and consequences is wage labour.
The rights to the benefit stream arising out of sub sistence economy are de
jure rather than de facto, they have evolved overtime based on the
specific agro -climatic; conditions and therefore are informal in nature.
While the rights that arise out of monetary economy are de facto and
formal in nature. If property is defined as, not an object but a social
relation, then when the property changes hands the social relation also
change s. State property regime is the focus of; the presentation here.
When the ownership of the property changes hands fro m state. Ownership
to private ownership or from one department of the state to the other, it is
very easy to infringe on the informal/customary rights of the communities
dependent on, the benefit stream for their subsistence. This infringement
of customary rig hts by the state is the crux of the new environmental
social movements taking plac e in India (Omvedt 1993).
11.14 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND WOMEN Rural women especially those from poor landless and small -farming
families are most affected by the destruc tion of the environment and
most supportive of the movement to regenerate it. The accepted role of
women in the family includes the collection of firewood, fodder and
fetching of water. As a result of environmental degradation, the amount of
time required to complete these tasks increases. This is in addition to their
other work - household duties, agricultural work, caring for animals. In
many parts of India women work 14 -16 hours a day. In regions, where the
trees and forests are steadily being decimated in hill and mountain
villages, the situation is worse.
The acceptance of cash economy has gradually changed the relationship
that men have with nature and Anil Agarwal writes. "Even within the
same household, we can find cases of men happy to destroy natu re to earn
cash even tho ugh it could create greater hardships for the women in
collecting daily fuel and fod der needs." and the experience of the Chipko
Movement shows that women in these parts, despite their 14-16 hour back munotes.in

Page 114

114 Sociology of Social Movements breaking work schedule, are extremely keen to participate in such work,
especially in tree planting. Once women are organised and mobilized, the
evidence is that they work with great keenness and they fight any
obstacles that may be created by men; and we get as a result so me of the
highest tree survival rates found in afforestation efforts.
Eco Feminism:
Eco feminism is a significant ecological movement to asse rt women's
closer relationship to environment and their role in prese ntation of nature's
resources. Eco feminis m attends t o risk inequality by focussing on women
since it firmly believes that the base of all unequal relationship lies
in man's domination over women. One of the r ecent of women's
strong resistant to indiscriminate cutting of trees the Chipko movement on
ecological movements concerned with perseveration of forests and
maintenance of the ecological balance in the sub -Himalayan regions.
Women being solely in charge of cultiva tion and livestock and children
and lost all they ha d because of recurring floods and landslides in the
Garhw al region of Himalayas. The local village women literally hugged
trees interposing their bodies between trees and loggers to prevent their
being cut down.
Chipko Movement:
The name of the movement comes from the word "Embrace" as the
villagers hugged the trees and prevented the contractors from felling them.
The original Chipko movement was started around in the early is "century
in Rajasthan. A large group of them 84 villages led by Amrita Devi l aid
down their lives in an effort to protect trees from being fell down the
orders of the Maharaja of Jodhpur. After this incident the Maharaja gave
a strong decree preventing the cutting of trees in all Bishoni villages. The
Chipko movement gives us examples of how women and men of the same
region can have divergent interests. Women have played a most important
role in preventing the cutting down of trees, and women are also doing
most of the afforestation work -planting f uel and fodder trees o rganised by
the Chipko movement.
The Chipko movement of 1973 was one the most famo us in the villages of
Mandal and over the next 5 years spread to many districts of the
Himalayas in the UP. It spar ked the government's decision to allot a plot
of forest area to a sports goods company, this angered the villagers
because their similar demand to use wood for making agricultural tools
had been e arlier denied. Hence with the encouragement from a local NGO,
under the leadership of Chandi Prasad Bhatt went into the forest and
formed a circle around the trees preventing the men from cutting them
down.
The leaders and activists are primarily village women, acting to save their
means of subsistence and their communities even men are involved in the
movement too. Chi pko movement figures includes Sundarlal Bahuguna, a
Gandhian activist and philosopher whose appeal to Mrs. Gandhi resulted,
in the green felling ban and whose 5000 kilometre trans Himalaya foot munotes.in

Page 115

115 Environmental Movement march in 1981 -83 was crucial in spreading the Chipko message,
Bahuguna coined the Chipko slogan "Ecology is permanent economy".
Chandi Prasad Bhatt, one of the earliest Chipko activists who fostered
locally based industries based on the conversation and sustainable use of
forest wealth for local benefit. Dhoom Singh Negi/Devi and many other
village women were the first to save trees by hugging them. They coined
the slogan 'What do forests bears, Soil, Water and pure air! The Chipko
protest in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15 year
ban on green felling b y the order of Mrs. Indira Gandhi the then prime
minister of India.
11.15 SUMMARY The environmental movement, a term that includes the conservation and
green movements, is a diverse scientific, social, and political movement
for addressing environmental issues. The environmental movement is
represented by a range of organizations, from the large to grassroots.
Whether through reforestation, recycling, or pollution control,
environmental conservation sustains the natural quality of life.
Environmental health movement dates at least to Progressive Era, and
focuses on urban standards like clean water, efficient sewage handlin g,
and stable population growth. The Environmental Justice movement seeks
to link "social" and "ecologica l" environmental concerns, while at the
same time preventing de facto racism , and classism. Environmental law
organizations exist all across the world.
Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and social movement regarding
concerns for environmental conserva tion and improvement of the state of
the environment. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often
represented with the color g reen. In recent years, the environmental
movement has increasingly focused on global warming as a top issue. The
radical environmental movement aspires to what scholar Christopher
Manes calls "a new kind of environmental activism: iconoclastic,
uncompromising, discontented with traditional conser vation policy, at
time illegal ... "
In recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the
environmental movement is centered on ecology, health, and human
rights. The environmental movement (a term that sometimes includes the
conservation and green movements) is a diverse scientific, social, and
political movement. Mobili sation within the movement is against the
degradation of the physical environment. Moreover, groups dedicated to
community development and social justice may also attend to
environmental concerns. Other international organizations in support of
environ mental policies development include the Commission for
Environmental Cooperation (NAFTA), the European Environment
Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC). munotes.in

Page 116

116 Sociology of Social Movements An environmental social movement is organized around an ideology base d
on environmental ethics. It is easier in theory than a practice to
distinguish between ecological and Environmental Movements. Very
broadly we could say that environmental movements are closely
concerned with economic issues, issues of pollution and sustainable
development. Property right s are rights to benefit streams arising from
natura l resources. This infringement of customary rights by the state is the
crux of the new environmental social movements taking place in India.
11.16 REFERENCES  Theodore Roosevelt, Address to the Deep Waterway Convention
Memphis, TN, October 4, 1907
 Uniting to Win: Labor -Environmental Alliances, by Dan Jakopovich
 Manes, Christopher , 1990. Green Rage: Radical Envir onmentalism
and the Unmaking of Civilizatio n, Boston: Little, Brown and Co.
 A Brief Description of Radical Environmentalism, Jeff Luers, 4
Struggle Magazine, 26th September 2005.
 David Adam, "Green idealists fail to make grade, says study, "The
Guardian, 2008 -09-24.
 Paul Hawken, Bless ed Unrest, Penguin Books Ltd, United States of
America, 2007.
 John McCormick, The Global Environmental Movement, London:
John Wiley, 1995.
 Ramachandra Guha Environmentalism: A Global History, London,
Longman, 1999.
 Sheldon Kamieniecki, editor, Environmental Politics in the
International Arena: Movements, Parties, Organizations, and Policy,
Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. Philip Shabecoff,
A Fierce Green Fire: The American Environmental Movement, Island
Press; Revised Edition, 20 03.
 Paul Wapner, Environmental Activism and World Civil Politics,
Albany: State University of New York, 1996.
 de Steiguer, J.E.2006. The Origins of Modern Environmental
Thought. Th e University of Arizona Press. Tucson. Catherine Soanes
and Angus Stevenson, ed (2005). Oxford Dictionary of English (2nd
revised ed.). Oxford University Press.
 Gari, L. (November 2002). "Arabic Treatises on Environmental
Pollution up to the End of the Thi rteenth Century". Environment and
History (White Horse Press ) 8 (4): 475 --488. munotes.in

Page 117

117 Environmental Movement  Fleming, James R.; Bethany R. Knorr. " History of the Clean Air
Act". American Meteorological Society.
http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/ . Retrieved 2006 -02-14.
 Cunning ham, William P.; et al. (1998). Environmental encyclopedia.
Gale Research.
 Hall, Jeremiah. "History Of The Environmental Movement".
http://www.mtmultipleuse.org/endangered/esahisto ry.htm . Retrieved
2006 -11-25.
 Kovarik, William. "Environmental History Timeline".
http://www.environmentalhistory.org/. Retrieved 2006 -11-25.
 Martell, Luke. "Ecology and Society: An Introduction". Polity Press,
1994. http://www.sussex.ac.uk/User s/ssfa2/ecology.html.
 John McCormick. 1995. The Global Environmental Movement. John
Wiley. London. 312 pp.
 Marco Verweij and Michael Thompson (eds), 2006, Clumsy solutions
for a complex world: Governance, politics and pl ural perceptions,
Basings toke: Palgrave Macmillan.
 World Bank, 2003, "Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World:
Transforming Institutions, Growth, and Quality of Life", World
Development Report 2003, The World Bank for Reconstruction and
Development and Oxford University Press.

*****
munotes.in

Page 118

118 12
HUMAN RIGHTS MOVEMENTS
Unit Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Meaning of Human Rights
12.3 Background of Human Rights Movements
12.4 Human Rights Movement in India
12.5 Summary
12.6 Questions
12.7 References
12.0 OBJECTIVES  To un derstand the importance of Human Rights
 To familiarize students with significance of pursuing Human Rights
12.1 INTRODUCTION To emphasize the importance of rights, adjectives like 'natural',
'fundamental', 'human' have been used in the long history of thei r
development. Twentieth century has been described as the century of
human rights because the concept of 'Human Rights' became increasingly
important in liberal democratic and socialist countries as also in the
underdeveloped world. After two world wars, there started various types
of movements for human rights, particularly after Nazi and Fascist
repressions and curbs on freedoms. Today virtually all states subscribe
officially to some doctrine of human rights; in every case, there is a
general political theory justifying the kind of society and the political
institutions.
Globally, the human rights movement has undergone significant changes
over the past 65 years. Since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights in 1948 – both a landmark an d the foundational symbolic
framework for the movement – socioeconomic and geopolitical processes
have led this movement to experience numerous changes. The founding of
a series of human rights organisations in the United States and Europe
consolidated the movement in the 1960s. These organisations, like civil
liberty activists, became an important actor on the political scene.
By a global movement, it is referred to a conglomerate of social actors
who coalesce around common values and discourse and that w ork together
on the international level to meet a common goal: to defend, promote and
protect human rights, and strengthen the systems and institutional
mechanisms created for this purpose. munotes.in

Page 119

119 Human Rights Movements 12.2 MEANING OF HUMAN RIGHTS The tern 'human rights' refer to the concept that every member of the
human race has a set of basic claims simply by virtue of his humanness.
They are rights claimed in respect of all human beings as human beings.
They are said to be universal rather than national and are different from
legal rights. They are claims that belong to everyone regardless of any
provisions that may or may not exist for him in a particular state. They are
based upon the simple fact that a human being should not be forbidden
from certain things by any government. Th ey are inherent in human beings
rather than in societies and states.
They are called human rights because they are no longer derived from the
operations of natural reason but from what is called 'human'. It is derived,
for example, from the fact that a pe rson, who is malnourished, tortured,
wrongly imprisoned, illiterate or lacks in regular paid holidays, is not
living in a manner appropriate to a human being. According to
Macfarlane, human rights are those 'moral rights which are owned to each
man and wom an solely by reason of being a human being'. Similarly,
human rights are possessed by the human being irrespective of the fact
that they belong to ally state, society, race or religious faith.
The human rights emphasize upon the universal character of righ ts - rights
simply possessed by human beings as human beings irrespective of the
fact that they belong to any state, society, race, or religious faith. They are
based on the pledge given by the member states of the United Nations to
promote 'universal resp ect for the observation of the human rights and
fundamental freedoms'. The Preamble of the UN Declaration says the
purpose of Human rights is to set 'a common standard of achievement for
all peoples and all nations to the end that every individual and ever y organ
of society keeping this declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by
teachings and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms
and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their
universal and effective recogn ition and observance, both among the
peoples of member states themselves and among the peoples of the
territories under the jurisdiction.'
Check Your Progress:
1. What is the meaning of Human Rights?
________________________________________________________ ____
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
12.3 BACKGROUND OF HUMAN RIGHTS MOVEMENT The term human rights came int o being in the twentieth century. In early
centuries, these rights were commonly spoken of as 'natural rights' or the
'rights of man'. The theory of natural rights had emerged in the
seventeenth century in the writings of Grotins, Hobbes, Locke etc. which munotes.in

Page 120

120 Sociology of Social Movements attributed natural rights to 'natural law', which provided that 'no one ought
to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions'. That law, could
therefore, be said to give each person a natural right to life, liberty and
property, though it also imposed upon each a natural duty to respect the
lives, liberties and properties of others.
The theory got its classical expression in the writings of John Locke in his
book The Two Treaties on Government. Locke termed the rights to 'life,
liberty and est ate' as natural rights. He further stated that the whole idea of
establishing a state was to better protect these rights and if a government
violates these rights, the people can revolt against it. The early
international treaties concerning human rights a re linked to the abolition of
slavery in the nineteenth century such as Treaty of Washington 1862,
Conference in Brussels in 1867 and Berlin in 1885, laws of war such as
Declaration of Paris 1856, Geneva Convention 1864, Hague Convention
1899, the creation of International Committee of Red Cross in 1864.
Prior to World War 11, there existed no international human rights law
binding on nation states. Two social movements were, however, important
antecedents to current human rights regime. The first was the m ovement to
abolish slavery and the slave trade, which began in Britain in the 18th
century and gave birth to the Anti -Slavery Society, an NGO that still
exists to fight modern forms of slavery, and whose lobbying culminated in
the first anti -slavery treati es. The second was the Red Cross movement,
which originated during the Crimean War in the revulsion of a Swiss
businessman, Henri Bunant, to the immeasurable suffering of wounded
soldiers.
In the period between the World War I and II there were other signi ficant
beginnings. Efforts were made to offer protection to individuals by means
of the 'minorities treaties'. Economic and social rights began to receive
international recognition with the founding of the lnternational Labour
Organisation (ILO) in 1919 an d assistance to refugees was first organised
under international auspices in 1921 with the appointment of a League of
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
It was, however, in response to the horrors of the Nazi Holocaust that
NGOs began pressurizing St ates to lay the conceptual and legal
foundations for international human rights law. It was NGOs that were
largely responsible for inserting human rights into the Preamble and six
different Articles of UN Charter. It was NGOs that convinced the
governments that human rights should become one of the central pillars of
the United Nations System.
Eventually, a special committee of the UN drafted a Declaration of Human
Rights in 1948. The UN Declaration was followed by the European
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms (1950), the UN Convention of Rights (1966) and various human
rights conventions and declarations by the European, Latin American,
Africa and South Asian countries. Gradually, the concept of human rights
spread thro ughout the world and today in almost all the countries, several munotes.in

Page 121

121 Human Rights Movements organizations both governmental and non -governmental have come into
existence for the preservation, promotion and protection of human rights.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is the role played by the United Nations in the protection of
Human Rights?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________ _______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
12.4 HUMAN RIGHTS MOVEMENT IN INDIA The Constitution of India. which came into existence in 1950, had a rich
content of human rights in parts Ill and IV in the form of fundamental
rights and directive principles of state policy. The framers of the
Constitution not only referred to the other Constitutions of the world but
also to the UN Declaration and charters on various political, economic and
social issues.
In accordance with the Directive Principles of State policy, the state
passed several acts relating to human rights such as abolition of
untouchability, suppression of immoral traffic, prohibition etc. Again, to
safeguard the interests of minorities and weaker sections of the society, the
Constitution created many independent bodies such as Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes Commission, Minorities Commission, Language
Commission. National Commission for Women, etc.
In India, the last quarter of the 20t h century has been a witness to a
growing recognition of the place and relevance of human rights due to
pressure from various social movements. Human rights movement in India
got its germination during the Emergency Rule during 1975 –1977 and
developed duri ng the post Emergency period. Two major trends were
marked by Civil liberties concerns and the rights -based perspectives.
The civil liberties movement was a product of the emergency. Arbitrary
detention, custodial violence, prisons and the use of the judi cial process
were on the agenda of the civil liberties movement. For the following
decades, peasant movements, tribal movements, Dalit movements,
backward caste movements, women’s movements, working class
movements, students’ movements, middle class moveme nts and
environmental movements have highlighted human rights concerns.
Rude shock received from the imposition of the national emergency in
India in 1976 made the articulate and vocal sections of society sensitized
to human rights. Absence of democratic rights during those eighteen
months galvanized students, intellectuals, political activists, trade
unionists, artists into action. The educated middle class of India had
thrived on an uninterrupted flow of democracy in its national life since it
gained ind ependence in 1947. Organisations such as Citizens for munotes.in

Page 122

122 Sociology of Social Movements Democracy, People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL), People’s Union
for Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights (PUCLDR) and Chhatra Yuva
Sangharsh Vahini were at the forefront of human rights struggles at the
national level. Dozens of state -level and city -based groups were also
formed during this period.
Even in the post -emergency period, the Janata Party that had earlier raised
the slogan of ‘Democracy versus Dictatorship’, after coming to power
with po pular mandate, brought into force draconian laws such as
Preventive Detention Act, Industrial Relations Bill and condoned Essential
Services Maintenance Act and Disturbed Areas Act to repress the toiling
poor. During 1980s, those who were concerned only ab out formal
democracy confined themselves to ‘civil liberties movement’. And
organisations working against repression of the workers, poor, peasants,
Dalits, women, and tribal people joined ‘democratic rights movement’.
This set the tone for human rights mo vements in India during 1990s that
established their networks from local and regional to global level.
Check Your Progress:
1. Elaborate on the Emergency and its connection with the Human Rights
movement in India.
_________________________________________ ___________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
12.5 SUMMARY Although rights are granted in the Constitu tions of various countries, the
need for universal human rights over and above the state laws was acutely
felt particularly after the Second World War due to certain crimes
committed against humanity. The lead for this was given by the UN
Declaration of Hu man Rights in 1948 which was followed by the
European Convention, UN Conventions on Human Rights in 1966, the
African Charter of Human Rights, the OAS Convention on Human Rights
etc. The issue of human rights became a worldwide phenomenon in the
post war p eriod and it caught the attention of both the developed and
developing countries.
12.6 QUESTIONS 1. Mention some of the treaties concerning human rights in the
nineteenth century.
2. What is the UN Declaration of Human Rights 1948?
3. What is the role of NGOs in Human Rights Movement?
munotes.in

Page 123

123 Human Rights Movements 12.7 REFERNCES  Baxi, Upendra. (2002). The future of human rights. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
 J.L. Macfarlane. (1985) The Theory and Practice of Human Rights,
Maurice Temple Smith, London.
 Kannabiran, K.G. (2003) . The wages of impunity: Power, justice, and
human rights. Hyderabad: Orient Longman Private Ltd.
 Mishra, Kaushlendra. (2008). NGOs in the human right movement.
New Delhi: Navyug Publishers & Distributors.
 Nair, Ravi. (2006). Human rights in India: Histori cal, social and
political perspectives. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
 Sachar, Rajendar. (2009). Human rights —Prospects & challenges
(2nd edn). New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House.


*****


munotes.in

Page 124

124 MODULE - IV
13
MOVEMENTS AGAINST
GLOBALIZATION
Unit Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Globalization
13.3 Features of anti -globalization movement
13.4 Historical Context
13.5 Alter/Anti -Globalization movement
13.6 Forms of anti -globalization movements
13.7 Conclusion
13.8 Summary
13.9 Questions
13.10 References
13.0 OBJECTIVES  To discuss the historical context of anti -globalization movement
 To examine the key characteristics of anti -globalization movement
13.1 INTRODUCTION The twenty -first cen tury has witnessed a critical transition process. This
century is marked by a rise in social conflicts and uncertainties created by
human beings because of the dysfunctional management of global political
institutions and the spread of the value of capital ism which are embedded
in the process of globalization. Globalization is a widespread phenomenon
which includes aspects of politics, economy, social condition and cultural
context. The positive aspects of globalization are the promotion of the
value of est ablishing a ‘world society’ or a ‘global village’ and the
realization of communication between nations, traditions and cultures.
However globalization has ossified the development of human society and
has violated our original belief s and living systems. Economic
globalization has led to financial crises and political turbulences, in effect
setting the stage for anti -globalization movements. In this section, we will
discuss the historical context and characteristics of anti -globalization
movement.
munotes.in

Page 125

125 Movements against Globalization 13.2 G LOBALIZATION While definitions of globalization tend to vary, there are several
underlying themes relating to discussion on globalization. It is
characterized by the integration of national economics and expansion of
world trade, the emphasis on profit mot ive, and the values of consumerism
promoted by transnational corporations. Broadly speaking, globalization is
characterized by two features: “united -as-one” and ‘strengthening the
effect of diversification with opposition” simultane ously. These two
feature s collectively sum up the essence and influence of globalization.
Social scientists, especially sociologist such as Anthony Giddens, David
Held, Roland Robertson and others have observed si milar aspects of
globalization. Giddens portrayed globalization as an intensification in
worldwide social relations whereby local events are infl uenced by distant
occurrences. Varied definitions of globalization reflect its central themes;
that of interconnectivity, intensification, time -space distinction ,
deterritori alization, supra -territoriality, time -space compression, and
accelerating interdependence, among others.
Globalization may be defined as the stretching of social relationships in
space and time: a globalizing social system enlarges its border in a way
that means social relationships can be maintained across larger spatial and
temporal distances. Sociologists such as Giddens, Manuel Castells and
David Harvey assert that modern technologies such as computers have
played an important role in accelerating soci al relationships and making
them more flexible. The globe has been transformed into a worldwide
communication network that affects all realms of society.
German sociologist Ulrich Beck argues that globalization includes the
effects of “the -border-vanishe d” and “no -distance”. This implies that
spatial and political borders become less relevant to everyday behavior in
various dimensions of economics, information, ecology, technology,
cross -cultu ral conflict and civil society. So, distances vanish as a result of
globalization. This means that people are thrown into transnational
lifestyles that they often neither want nor understand. In effect, economic
globalization reveals a “possible result”, but hides the negative side effects
from us.
No matter what th e effects of “the -border -vanished” or “no -distance” has
been, globalization has its coercive character for all people around the
world. The participants of anti -globalization movement are the dissidents
who oppose to accept the negative effects of economi c globalization,
including the problems of inflation, financial and social unrest.
In effect, globalization has three main characteristics which are as
follows:
1) Through the process of globalization, political powers expand their
dominance, while at the s ame time there is violation of human rights; munotes.in

Page 126

126 Sociology of Social Movements 2) There is ever increasing opposition between different religions and
social values, which in some instances have led to a rise in
“terrorism”;
3) Socio -political movements which had a local base earlier are
globaliz ing worldwide, such as the “Arab Spring”.
While there may be some benevolent features of globalization, it is the
negative aspects of globalization that have posed challenges to the society
which are manifested in the most dominant form of globalizatio n, ie.
neoliberal globalization, also known as corporate globalization.
According to critics, neoliberal policies aim to create structures and
framework for the economy that allows maximization of profits at any
cost. This is affected through minimizing t he costs of investment, reducing
social security and social safety ne ts and promoting individualism. The
state withdraws from all areas of social life as a result the welfare state and
collective responsibility are effectively destroyed. A permanent insec urity
of wage and living conditions, an individualization of work contracts
means that collective bargaining systems are rendered weak. Growth,
productivity, and competition are projected as the only goals of human
actions. The key feature of neoliberalism is that the society becomes
increasingly dominated and penetrated by economic logic, that is, the logic
of commodities and ac cumulating finance capital. Thus, the stage is set for
conflicts, protests and people’s movement.
13.3 FEATURES OF ANTI -GLOBALIZATI ON MOVEMENT New Information and Communication Technologies:
Perhaps the greatest weapon in the anti -globalists’ arsenal is the Internet ’s
ability to spread messages. The most important feature of anti -
globalization movement is the innovative use of new i nformation and
communication technologies (ICTs). ICTs are used to organize actions,
information sharing, planning and coordination of activities. Websites and
web pages contain reflections, analyses, updates, links and logistical
information relating to the movement, a fact which reflects the growing
power of Internet advocacy.
Global –Local Networks:
The anti -globalization movement revolves around flexible, decentralized
networks, such as the Direct -Action Network in North America or Peoples
Global Action at the transnational level. One of the features of anti -
globalization networks is that they are locally rooted, at the same time,
globally connected. Networked movements of today are spaces of
convergence which involve a multiplicity of organization s, collectives and
networks, each with its own unique identi ty and autonomy. Anti-
globalization movements thus promote global democracy, at the same
time, emphasizing on autonomy and local self -management. munotes.in

Page 127

127 Movements against Globalization Creative Direct Action: Anti-globalization movem ents engage in various
forms of direct -action protest. The more radical anti -globalization activists
have adopted innovative forms to draw local and global attention to their
cause in collaboration with media. Located in varied contexts, these
activists us e tactics to generate theatrical images for mass media coverage.
They employ the overall blockade strategy in which activists “swarm”
their target from multiple directions and help create an electric
environment and social drama. They use various techniq ues like street
plays, drama, songs, giant puppets, mobile carnivals as was done in
‘Reclaim the Streets’ movement. Another instance relates to the militant
attacks staged against the symbols of corporate capitalism reflected in
‘Black Bloc’. This entire endeavor is designed to capture the attention of
mass media while expressing alternate political identities.
Lived Experience and Process:
Anti-globalization movements focus on day -to-day lived experiences of
people and incorporate them in the process. Rather than emphasizing on
messianic visions or an already established project, activist focus on day -
to-day practices. They view social transformation as an ongoing collective
process. ICTs have provided interactive ways of collaboration leading to a
rise of new political visions. Younger activists, especially focus on direct
democracy, grassroots participation, and personal intera ction within daily
social life. Thus, anti-globalization gatherings, meeting, protests, action
camps provide a perfect platf orm for experiencing and experimenting with
alternate ways of life.
13.4 HISTORICAL CONTEXT In the mid -1990s, politicians and economists were positive about the new
developments which were promised by globalization, they went to the
extent of proclaiming the dawn of a new age of humanity. It was believed
that the shrinking of the globe and the integrating economies of the world
would erode national borders, bringing in a new world order. But the
realit y projected a different story. The era of globalizatio n came into being
as a result of unique combination of world events such as; the end of the
Cold War, rapid advancements in technology and communication
(especially the internet), and the rise of the supranational bodies like the
World Trade Organization ( WTO).
Some scholars may note that globalization has made important
contributions to world populations in varied field. However, it is also true
that the accelerated pace of globalization has also proven to be a
destructive force to millions, probably bi llions o f people all over the
world. Studies have shown how the overall standard of living of people
has fallen drastically. Between 1960 and 1980, average per capita growth
in all countries of the world grew by 83 percent. But in the globalization
era (1 980-2000), it fell to 33 percent. In sub -Saharan Africa, per capita
growth was 36 percent between 1960 and 1980, and then collapsed
completely under globalization. The gap between the rich and poor
continues to grow as “458 billionaires possess more wealth than do half of munotes.in

Page 128

128 Sociology of Social Movements humanity.” In this context of extreme inequalities, a reactionary
movement against the forces of globalization was inevitable.
In November 1999, there were a series of WTO meeting co nducted in
Seattle, Washington. They had one motive: to further integrate the world’s
economies through lifting of trade barriers and introducing o ther liberal
economic measures. Yet, this meeting world become memorable not for
any advances in the world trade, but because of the presence of over
40,000 protesto rs who were chanting slogans, marching and occasionally
rioting against the WTO. As we entered a new millennium, a new protest
movement was born: th e anti -globalization movement. Though most
protestors marched peacefully for environmental causes, and for fair
labour practices, there were instances of violent anarchis ts who clashed
with the police. This gave publicity to a movement that was primarily
opposed to the capitalistic excesses of the modern era.
13.5 ALTER / ANTI -GLOBALIZATION MOVEMENT The anti -globalization movement sometimes referred to as alter -
globalization movement is a broad -based peoples struggle. It involves
people from all walks of life; the rich and poor, young, old, white -collar,
blue-collar, male, female, black, white, American, Europ ean, the workers,
unionists, feminists, environmentalists, youths, peasants, the urban poor,
indigenous people, marginalized sections of the society, and sometimes
anarchists from across the developing and industrialized world.
Although they have differe nt claims on different social issues, they have a
common target: to criticize global governments and capitalists who are
responsible for the present situation of unrest and conflict. Their main
objective is to attain social and economic justice and greater democratic
control over their daily lives. In the forefront of these movements are
activists who come from diverse backgrounds such as, nongovernmental
organizations, parties across the political spectrum, trade unions, mass
movements, informal networks a nd collectives, and revolutionary groups.
Thus the anti -globalists include people marching for the environment, the
protection of American jobs, religious freedom for Tibet, debt relief for
third world countries and several other causes.
A varied number of strategies are employed by these activists which
include non -violent civil disobedience, marches, dharnas, rallies, public
awareness and at times, lobbying. The anti -globalization movement does
not oppose globalization in the strict sense, but opposes corporate
globalization, or the extension of corporate power around the world.
Taken in this format, globalization threatens local communities and their
livelihoods, democracy and the environment. The movement addresses the
root causes of various societal problems directly linked to free market
capitalism and its aftermath, such as poverty, inequality, social
dislocation, hunger, malnutrition and ecological crises.
The organizers and participants of the movements believe that the
situation around us deter iorating and that it is their responsibility to
express their discontent for this situation on a public platform. These are munotes.in

Page 129

129 Movements against Globalization often referred to as “anti -globalizationalists” and take a radical position
regarding the future of the development of the global so ciety. Their
political and social actions and radical standpoints on the current situation
of the modern world are seen as integral part of the practice of anti -
globalization movement.
Anti-globalization movement aims at criticizing the negative effects o f
globalization. It is important to note that the position of anti -globalization
is not the exclusion outside the phenomenon of globalization, but is a part
of globalization. The development of economic globalization has not lived
up to its promise of dist ributing its profits to all sections of the society.
Thus the ‘trickle -down -effect’ is not visible. As a result, there is
deepening of social conflict between the rich and poor. Anti -globalization
movement does not oppose globalization, but expresses stro ng concern of
the effects of globalization brought by the vested interests in the world.
Thus, the anti -globalization movement embodies two things: one, it
recognizes the globalization of social movement; and two, it takes a clear
position on the anti -gove rnment and anti -capitalism stance of the
movement.
Across the world commentators and activists have observed the
emergence of a new movement in the recent years which qualify as anti -
globalization movement . For instance, the armed rebellion of the
Zapatist as against NAFTA and the Mexican state; high -profile protests
against corporate power, free trade and international financial institutions;
environmental groups; as well as campaigns against third world debt on
several platforms. Scholars such as Kingsnort h (2003) have also included
West Papuan struggles for independence; while Amory Starr (2000)
observes that such movements also include small business campaigners,
peace activists and religious nationalists.
13.6 FORMS OF ANTI -GLOBALIZATION MOVEMENTS Globa lization corrodes the influence of political power through breaking
down of traditional restriction of border and shortening the distance. The
end of the twentieth century witnessed a series of financial crises such as
the Asia Financial Crisis in 1998, th e American Sub -prime Mortgage
Crisis and European Debt Crisis. Political powers are incapable and
unable to stop the expansions of the crises and their negative effects. In the
first decade of the twenty -first century, there were anti -governmental
demonstr ations and protests which are seen as the rise of global social
movement. In this section, we shall examine two anti -globalization
movements: The “Arab Spring” and “Asian Financial Crisis”.
Arab Spring:
The “Arab Spring” is a term which is used by Schola rs and Western media
to refer to the series of anti -government movements and protest that broke
out in the Arab countries especially in the regions of th e Middle East and
North Africa. The Arab Spring was not a sudden awakening, instead, it
was a culminati on of a decade of protest, political activism and media munotes.in

Page 130

130 Sociology of Social Movements criticism which aimed at establishing more open and democratic political
systems. Tunisia and Egypt has witnessed a number of uprisings against
rising prices and unemployment, corruption and political stagnation in the
five years b efore the Arab Spring protest. There were strikes which posed
serious challenges to the governments struggling to maintain the economic
growth, which was crucial in creating jobs and employment opportunities.
In Syria, years of drought had wreaked havoc on agrarian economy.
Yemen had been plagued by struggles for power. Bahrain had to endure
disappointment despite a decade of political reform. The anti -government
movement practiced by world citizens not only spread in the Ara b World,
but also stretched to the Western countries.
Occupy Wall Street:
Occupy Wall Street (OWS) was a movement initiated in 2011 by the
common people of New York City. They protested against corporate greed
and widespread economic inequality that was experienced across N ew
York and the whole country. This protest consumed the city, as tens of
thousands of individuals participated in the movement. The New York
City was chosen because it represented both the center of economic
prosperity as also a const ant reminder of the financial inequality inherent
within the city itself. The protesters also consumed the physical space of
the city. Space is central in OWS because it is a movement not only
‘organized in space’ but also ‘about space’. The protestors ma de a
commitment to the de -beautification of the city, and thereby drew
attention of the elites. There was a clear intention to use public space for
the protest. It was designed to create an image of repugnance for the
movement. Observers stated that the pr otesters utilized ‘an aesthetic of
disgust’ in an effort to repulse the Wall Street elites, thereby draw
attention to their cause.
13.7 CONCLUSION Despite the ideological and political differences between anti -
globalization activist s, they are firm on one vision. They believe that their
struggle is to regain democratic control over their daily lives, reclaiming it
back from transnational corporation s and global financial elites. The anti -
globalization movements bring attention to the fact that there is a
democratic deficit in the current global political and economic order as
corporate globalization has disemb edded the market from society. The
unique feature of the anti -globalization movement is that it has the
capacity to coordinate across vast distances a nd high level of diversity,
overcoming political and geographical obstacles that have plagued and
reduced the impact of past mass movements.
13.8 SUMMARY Globalization is a widespread phenomenon which includes aspects of
politics, economy, social conditio n and cultural context. munotes.in

Page 131

131 Movements against Globalization The key feature of neoliberalism is that the society becomes increasingly
dominated and penetrated by economic logic, that is, the logic of
commodities an d accumulating finance capital. Thus the stage is set for
conflicts, protests and peoples movement.
The anti-globalization movement sometimes referred to as alter -
globalization movement is a broad -based people’s struggle which involves
people from all walks of life.
The ‘Arab Spring’ and ‘Occupy Wall Street’ are two instances of an ti-
globalization movement.
The anti -globalization movements bring attention to the fact that there is a
democratic deficit in the current global political and economic order as
corporate globalization has disembedded the market from society.
13.9 QUESTION S 1. Discuss the genesis of the anti -globalization movement .
2. State the characteristics of anti -globalization movement.
3. Examine the historical context of anti -globalization struggle.
13.10 REFERENCES  Eschle, Catherine (2004): ‘Constructing ‘The A nti-Globalization
Movement’, International Journal of Peace Studies, Volume 9,
Number 1, Spring/Summer 2004, available at:
 https://www.jstor.org/stable/41852911
 https://www3.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol9_1/Eschle_91IJPS.pdf?
gmuw -rd=sm&gmuw -rdm=ht
 Juris, Jeffrey (2008): Anti -Globalization Movement, In book:
Encyclopedia of Social Problems (pp.48 -50),(ed), Sage Publishers
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264623161_Anti -
Globalization_Movement/link/53ee5f280cf26b9b 7dc91d29/download
 Warner, Adam (2005): “A Brief History of the Anti -Globalization
Movement” in University of Miami International and Comparative
Law Review, Vol 12, Issue 2.
 Kwok, LO (2014): The Theory and Practice of Anti -Globalization
Movement: Case St udies of the Independent Media in the Chinese
Societies -Hong Kong and Taiwan (pp -37-57)
 https://bonndoc.ulb.uni -
bonn.de/xmlui/bitstream/ handle/20.500.11811/5991/3753.pdf?sequen
ce=1&isAllowed=y munotes.in

Page 132

132 Sociology of Social Movements  Fuchs, Christian. "Antiglobalization". Encyclopedia Britannica, 10
Dec. 2015, https://www.britannica.co m/event/antiglobalization.
Accessed 2 May 2022 .
 Saval, N (2017): ‘Globalization: The rise and fall of an idea that
swept the world’
 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/14/globalisation -the-
rise-and-fall-of-an-idea-that-swept -the-world

*****
munotes.in

Page 133

133 14
RURAL AND URBAN NETWORKING
Unit Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Meaning of Networking
14.3 Internet in Rural Urban Areas
14.4 Railways and Roadways in India
14.5 5G Network
14.6 Changing Informal and Formal Networks in Rural and Ur ban
Areas
14.7 Networking and Gender Gap
14.8 Summary
14.9 Questions
14.10 References
14.0 OBJECTIVES  To introduce the meaning of Networking .
 To explore the technological factors respon sible for increased
networks amongst the rural and urban areas.
 To understand the gender ga p with regards t o networking .
14.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter, we will try to understand the meaning of Networking and
its benefits. In order to understand the main topic ru ral and urban
networking firstly, you need to know t he meaning of networking. Further,
we will look into the core topic of the chapter, i.e., Rural and Urban
Networking. Understanding this topic would be useful to you as we are in
the most advanced stage o f human kind where communication and
technology, net working has been the fastest than any generation. Being a
part of the social change, learning about networking through this chapter
would help you to get new perspective.
14.2 MEANING OF NETWORKING The Merriam Webster dictionary describes Networking as t he exchange of
information or services amongst individuals, groups or that of institutions.
Networking can be seen of three types the first one being that of human -
to-human networking, building relationsh ip through communications. The
second one can be sai d that of networking as a means of software, through
that of internet. The third one being that of networking as transport that is munotes.in

Page 134

134 Sociology of Social Movements road, railways as a means of infrastructure. The important thing to see i n
all three is that all three have a common point th at is connecting.
14.3 INTERNET IN RURAL URBAN AREAS India has one of the largest numbers of internet users due to the larger
amount of population. Measuring Digital Development, Facts and Figures
2020, a new report released on February 4, 2022 by the In ternational
Telecommunication Union (agency of the United Nations), claims that all
urban areas worldwide are essentially covered by a mobile -broadband
network. However, there are still alarming connectiv ity and internet access
gaps in rural areas. These g aps are especially noticeable in the least
developed countries (LDCs), where 19% of the rural population is only
covered by a 2G network and 17% of the rural population resides in areas
with no mobile cov erage at all (Occam). This is case of that of severa l
countries. Though the Indian context is changing rapidly due to cheap
mobile phones and internet plans.
Traditionally, Rural connection is one of the main issues that
communication networks face. To ove rcome this issue, a variety of
solutions for diverse scenarios are needed. The current networking
concepts must be improved. The high infrastructure expenses and low
revenue of cell sites in rural locations relative to urban areas are
particularly disadvan tageous for telecom providers. To accomplish
connect ivity in remote places, it is crucial to optimize ground, air, and
space networks (Alouini, M. S., Alsamhi, S. H., & Fourati, 2022). This has
been the case with not just India but in several developing an d
underdeveloped, developed countries too. However, there is also change
due to the growth of cheaper phones, and cheap internet like 5G which is
being recently launched at mass scale.
In India's rural areas, there are 20% more internet users than in the nation's
urban centers, according to a recent poll b y the data and market
measurement company Nielsen. In India, there were 646 million active
internet users who were two years old or older as of December 20214.
This shows they have had recent acquaintance with internet. According to
the Bharat 2.0 Internet Study, only over 60% of rural people are currently
actively accessing the internet, leaving space for future growth. On the
other hand, urban India has a penetration rate of 59% and 294 million
active in ternet users. Between September 2021 and December 20 21,
surveys of 110,000 household members from 27,900 households were
conducted for the study in each of the 50 states.
Additionally, there are 592 million adults aged 12 and older who use the
internet re gularly. Internet usage among adults 12 and older ha s climbed
by 37% on average since 2019. Rural users' growth in 2019 was higher
than urban users' increase, which was 28%. Over the previous two years,
female Internet users have grown by 61% while male us ers have only
grown by 24%. In India, one in three i ndividuals actively use the internet,
according to Nielsen. Almost 90% of people regularly access the internet.
Eighty -one percent of users over 50 are frequent visitors. Mobile phones munotes.in

Page 135

135 Rural and Urban Networking continue to remain the main platform for all forms of internet
consumpt ion. Social networking or chatting is still the most popular online
activity in India, where there are 503 million active internet users, but
watching movies and listening to online music are still among the top five.
Nearly 440 million people watch videos online, with 54% of them hailing
from rural India. Men and women make up 60:40 of active internet users.
Even if 56% of India's active internet users come from the country's rural
parts, online shopping is still heavily dominated by its urban equivalent.
47% of the wealthy class is made up of online buyers. 46% of users are
from rural India, despite usage being higher in urban areas, and two -thirds
of those who use online banking and digital payments are defined as being
urban, wealthy, and between the ag es of 20 and 39. The study found that,
with a male to female ratio of 69:31, males are more likely than women to
enjoy this hobby (Mint).
14.4 RAILWAYS AND ROADWAYS IN INDIA Urban markets have overconsum ption of both commercial and
noncommercial products hence the major networks stay here for them as
the business exist here. Hence there are several better infrastructure
facilities. Let us take an example of the online applications which are
selling out pr oducts at within 10 minutes. They have a timer withi n the
application to show how much time they took to deliver the product. This
shows the changes in the system the speed and the network functioning
and existing in quicker pace.
The road network in Indi a expanded by over 14.16 lakh km in 2018 –19,
increas ing the whole length to almost 63.32 lakh km. The biggest benefit
came from the enlargement of country roads. In 2018 –19, India's surfaced
road network increased by 14.64 lakh km, indicating the governmen t's
efforts to provide all -weather connectivity acro ss the country, particularly
in rural areas.
The length of rural roads climbed to 45.2 lakh km in March 2019 from
44.1 lakh km during 2017 –18, according to the Basic Road Statistics for
2018 –19, which wer e published on Wednesday. While district and urban
highways, as well as National Highways, all increased in length during
this time, State Highways (NH) shrank by 7,300 km. According to the
study, rural roads make up 714.4% of India's total road network, a
considerable rise from the 61% rate in 2015. In a s imilar vein, the
percentage of NHs has increasingly climbed compared to 18% in 2015, to
21% of the whole road network in 2019. NHS transport a sizable portion
of the freight and passenger vehicles despite having a little portion of the
overall road network . Given that roads in India carry 80% of passenger
traffic and 65% of freight, the expansion of the road network is crucial.
According to the research, as of March 31, 2019, Maharashtra had the
greatest n etwork of NHs, followed by Uttar Pradesh and Rajasth an.
Maharashtra has the biggest percentage of state highways with over
17.8%, followed by Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh. munotes.in

Page 136

136 Sociology of Social Movements 53.9 percent of the nation's state roadways were located in the se five
states. Again, Maharashtra accounted for the biggest network of rural
roads, followed by Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.
42.4 percent of all rural roads in the US are found in these five states.
According to the study, rural roads make up 714.4% of India's total road
network, a cons iderable rise from the 61% rate in 2015. In a similar vein,
the percentage of NHs has increasingly climbed compared to 18% in 2015,
to 21% of the whole road network in 2019. NHS transport a sizable
portio n of the freight and passenger vehicles despite havi ng a little portion
of the overall road network. Given that roads in India carry 80% of
passenger traffic and 65% of freight, the expansion of the road network is
crucial.
Railways have played an importan t role in that of movement of people for
generations . Often it is observed that people move from those cities which
are having trains to another city. For example – When there is a train from
X station to Mumbai then often people from X commute more to the city.
This may not be the case where the infrastruc ture is weak like no railway
station, bus connectivity or vehicles people would less prefer to commute.
So, historical political and strategic location could lead to a quicker
development in a place and t hereafter the people would be more moving
out and ne tworking too. This is just a example. In these trains, the
unreserved compartment is also filled with that of informal sector male
and female who commute to the city for weekly market or for selling
thing s.
The Metros are an example of how suburbs are bei ng connected with that
of the main city. This would lead to reducing the time spent by people in
commuting and even bring changes in terms of population and market in
the stations and nearby areas. This c an also be seen as the population
moving from the ce nter of the city to that of the suburbs. Specially those
who wish for peaceful, less crowded and green spaces. This in a way,
would put less pressure on the main city.
Check Your Progress:
1. Discuss the meaning of networking
___________________________ _________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________ _________
2. How does access to internet helps in da y to day lives according to you?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________ ___________
_________________________________________ ___________________
munotes.in

Page 137

137 Rural and Urban Networking 14.5 5G NETWORK IT Minister announced that the government is spending close to $30
billion to create a strong digital infrastructure in rural areas and provide
last-mile network acces sibility for 4G and 5G in every village nationwide.
The minister also said, in a speech at the "Global Fintech Fest 2022," that
the government has already contacted more than 14.5 lakh gram
panchayats. He pointed out that there are measures being taken to bring
high-quality, fast data connectivity to every village in the nation and
involve them in the growth process, the minister emphasized that "we are
now developing a full ecosystem of village entrepreneurs." He added that
there are 80,000 new connections facilitated about every month. Building
a solid dig ital infrastructure, developing a digital regulatory framework, as
well as promoting social inclusion and the societal demands associated
with it, are the three main areas of fintech for the government. T he
minister also stated that telecom is the basic co re of Digital India when
discussing his opinions on the legal framework for the internet. While a
project on shared mobility was underway, he noted that "the way
technology has advanced over the last 5 -10 years, instead of a card,
probably the mobile phone itself will be used instead" while discussing the
integration of payment systems across the transportation sectors.
5G Network and its role in Agriculture:
By enabling 5G precision agriculture produce c ould be attained at optimal
cost. There could be als o the increase in the use of crop and animal
resources through smart management, and providing best pricing for the
end users. Drones with 5G capabilities can be used for remote agricultural
monitoring a nd insecticide, pesticide, and fertilizer applicatio n. Crop
health, soil health, post -harvest management, fisheries, and livestock can
be monitored through that of 5G. The creation of Variable Rate
Technologies (VRTs) for site -specific input management is one of the
goals of the 5G initiative in agriculture . Farmers may use VRT to apply
fertilizer, water, herbicides, and seed at various rates across the field.
Real-time measurements of crop traits or soil qualities can be made by
sensors enabled by 5G techn ology. The needed number of inputs can be
then deter mined by the control system. Using the 5G technology boosting
output, protecting the environment, and lowering expenses can take place.
The use of precision agriculture can increase production. This strat egy
uses automation, remote sensing, data analytics, and disruptive
technologies like 5G to boost accuracy, precision, and throughput at all
levels while lowering costs and labor. Profitability, environmental
protection, and sustainability are the objectiv es.
The utilization of 5G -powered modular IOT (Inter net of Things)
gateways, which can monitor the weather, livestock, soil moisture, plant
health, pest management, and water supply, is one way through which 5G
can being applied in agriculture. IOT devices with 5G support may gather
data from a variety of s ources, update it often, and send it instantly to the
cloud. To give the farmers useful insights, data is analyzed using Artificial munotes.in

Page 138

138 Sociology of Social Movements Intelligence/Machine Learning algorithms on the cloud. The data might
include soil moisture, weather, seed genetics, crop he alth, historical yields,
pH levels in the soil, crop prices gathered from the market, etc.
 What kind of seed should I plant? When do you plant?
 Which kind of fertilizer is best? When and how much fertil izer should
be used? What kinds of pests are present in the field? What and how
much crop protection should be used?
 How much water is being applied to the field? When, how much, and
how often should the field be watered?
 When is harvest time? When shoul d crops be sold? Who should sell
crops to? All this could be analyzed through data and accordingly
plans could be carried out. Smart farming will guarantee increased
agricultural yield.
 Drones: Drones may be remotely sensed to fill in the gaps between
satellite and ground remote sensing. By using digital soil mapping, 5G
enabled drones with multispectral sensors may be utilized to analyze
the nutritional status of crops.
The information related to weather and other agronomic data can be used
accurately to apply the right amount of fertilizer to a designate d region.
After the data is analyzed by an Artificial system, drones scan for pests,
illnesses, and weeds to administer pesticides to the targeted locations.
Agriculture is responsible for 20% of all gree nhouse gas emissions
worldwide. There are strict rul es in place to limit chemical consumption
and soil nutrient loss by 50%. By using drones powered by 5G as
previously said, chemical usage may be cut by 15% without affecting
production. Drones are also ab le to gather and transmit data regarding crop
stage and field conditions.
Farmers may be able to check on the state of the tractor from their
smartphone, which displays photos and real -time data. Tractors can be
equipped with 5G -capable gadgets that can le ad the operators change the
tractor's speed, depth o f soil penetration, and spacing between seed rows
from a distance. Farm machinery that is autonomous will be more
adaptable, efficient, and cost -effective. India is the nation with the biggest
consumer of dairy products and has more than 30 crore cattle. B ut the
yield of our livestock is lower. In Israel, a cow's daily milk production is
30 to 40 liters, compared to 4 to 6 liters in the United States. The
production of cattle can be improved with the use o f technology.
14.6 CHANGING INFORMAL AND FORMAL NET WORKS IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS In the post and pre pandemic in India several global players have started to
enter the grocery and other household related market as a result the
informal sector workers are affected and the nature of work is changing
slowly . As the bigger players, departmental stores have a distribution munotes.in

Page 139

139 Rural and Urban Networking network, freezing facilities which, a local vendor would not have hence
there the global player can easily over take the smaller vendors. A s many
of the headquarters are located in the city h ence the rural areas are
deprived of several facilities the city has naturally. With the urbanization
since independence and prior to Independence because of the railways and
ports the development majorly was in the urban areas. This has left the
rural are as even still less developed. Adding to that there is lopsided
development due to socio cultural issues, conflict zones and political
conditions and that of strategic location like borders, sensitive zon es. On
these zones the industries exist less, the hi gher number of industries are
majorly located in the cities specially the metropolitan areas. Today, in
metropolitan cities like Mumbai one can order a product through that of
application and receive the product at door step in 10 minutes or 20
minutes. Th is shows the speed at which inventories and networks are
operating.
Yet, Kingsley, Malecki, (2004) while speaking several countries point out
that many informal networks are used by small enterprises to gather
information. The developments in network util ization for urban and rural
firms are identical when it comes to issues affecting product development
and competitiveness. However, they employ their networks in a number of
different ways to address issu es relating to labor and export. Informal
networks d on't require a lot of direct connection between individuals and
rely on both local and global information sources. The effective use of
informal networks for informational purposes is not proximity -depend ent.
Instead, the emphasis is on finding "tried -and-true" answers to the
organization's problems. There is little evidence to suggest that these small
producers' informal networks are drawn to or actively seeking the
expansion of formal networks.
Some writ ers also feel that the complimentary character of ur ban and rural
areas and the complexity of their relationship, which highlights the fact
that rural development is independent of metropolitan assets while still
having advantages over cities in some ways (e.g., ecological services).
They also see that the power issue at rural -urban intersections takes place
(Smith, I., & Courtney, P. 2009).
14.7 NETWORKING AND GENDER GAP In terms of human networking, the greater the networking the quicker the
chances of g etting job done and less hurdles one would face. Net working
specially helps where then there is more competition. Through networking
one could also have access to a mentor who had prior experience of the
field and hence could minimize the number of mistake s one could take and
even reduce the resources. The less resources saved the greater the amount
of profit one could enjoy.
Often it could be observed in several society men spend more time in that
of public spaces like that of drinking in a tea stall havin g discussion,
exchanging fears, thoughts, expressing themselves, commenting on munotes.in

Page 140

140 Sociology of Social Movements society, reading newspaper or just sitting out. This helps them to build
connections, networks. This may not be the case of that of a female hence,
the lesser the connections ma ny a times greater the difficulty and lesser the
opportunities and jobs. Let us take this as an example of a housewife, she
has to consider other factors at her household. Even talking to another man
at certain section of society for work would not be appr oved hence she
loses several opportunities of networ king or being independent with her
own income. The female is taught since childhood to remain in the private
sphere of household. This makes her get into feeling of inferior and lack of
employment, mentor or career guiding individuals. She often continues
with the same life where even if she is not recognized but she thinks at
least this is available and out of the fear of unknown she continues with
the same work (Ananth Raman, 2022).
Check Your Progress:
1. Discuss how drone can be used in agriculture in your own words
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________ ____________________________________________________
2. What is your opinion on networking gap in terms of gender
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________ _______________________________________
_____________ _______________________________________________
14.8 SUMMARY The Merriam Webster dictionary describes Networking as the exchange of
information or services amongst individuals, groups or that of institut ions.
Networking can be seen of three types the firs t one being that of human -
to-human networking, building relationship through communications. The
second one can be said that of networking as a means of software, through
that of internet. The third one b eing that of networking as transport that is
road, r ailways as a means of infrastructure. Globally the lesser developed
countries even today have poor networks and connectivity in terms of its
villages. As well as even in terms of connectivity as rails and roadways. In
the Indian context, we are improving o ur infrastructure both in terms of
cities like new metros, national highways. The chapter also discusses the
5G and its possible role in the agriculture which is one of the largest
source of income to a l arge population in the city. The use of 5G aims to
improve both the resources, production in the agriculture. The chapter also
discusses about the networking gap in terms of human – male vs female.
As well as the power structure and hierarchy in terms of b ig players and
informal sector workers and farmers a nd the impact on their lives.
munotes.in

Page 141

141 Rural and Urban Networking 14.9 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the meaning of Networking and explain networking and
gender gap.
2. Discuss 5G network and its impact/ role in Agriculture.
3. Write a note on R ailways and Roadways in India
4. Explain in brief i nternet usage in terms of Rural and Urban areas.
14.10 REFERENCES  https://www.thehansindia.com/business/how -5g-will-change -the-
future -of-farming -754813
 https://www.business -standard.com/article/economy -policy/govt -
investing -30-bn-in-creating -4g-5g-infra -in-rural -india -it-minister -
122092201263_14.html September 2022
 Kingsley, G., Malecki, E.J. Networking for Competitiveness. Small
Business Economics 23, 71 –84 (2004).
https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SBEJ.0000026 022.08180.b7
 https://www.occam.org/post/difference -of-connection -between -city-
and-rural -areas
 Smith, I., & Courtney, P. (2009). Preparatory study for a seminar on
rural -urban linkages fostering social cohesion.
 https://uwe -repository.worktribe.com/OutputFi le/994076 Seminar
 Fourati, F., Alsamhi, S. H., & Al ouini, M. S. (2022). Bridging the
Urban -Rural Connectivity Gap through Intelligent Space, Air, and
Ground Networks. arXiv preprint arXiv:2202.12683.
 https://www.livemint.com/news/india/rural -india -has-20-more -
internet -users -than-urban -areas -nielsen -1165181 2524529.html 6th
May 2022
 https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/1 -16-lakh-km-of-roads -
mostly -rural -added -to-network -in-2018 -19/articleshow/93016179.cms
July 21, 2022
 https://telecom.economictimes.in diatimes.com/news/govt -investing -
30-bn-in-creating -4g-5g-infra -in-rural -india -vaishnaw/94386055

*****

munotes.in

Page 142

142 15
INTERVENTIONS OF MEDIA
Unit Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Understanding Intervention of Media
15.3 Planning an Intervention
15.4 Social Media and Intervention
15.5 Intervention of Media in Health
15.6 Tourism and Intervention o f Media
15.7 Summary
15.8 Questions
15.9 References
15.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand about Mass Media Intervention
 To learn about the impact of Mass Media Intervention in different
fields like Healthcare, Tourism.
15.1 INTRODUCTION Media has been influe ncing every human’s life in one way or another. In
today’s time mobile, internet has become part of day -to-day life. Media is
very helpful for spreading information at a quicker pace and to a large
audience in a minimal time. It has influenced social chang e, social
movement. Media has both positive and negative aspects too. Hence, in
this chapter, we will look how the media intervention has helped in the
betterment of society. As student of sociology, students living in the
digital era, being part of the di gital movement, observer this chapter would
help you gain perspective into the different interventions employed. There
are several institutions also offering courses related to Media like cultural
studies at Tiss, Masters in Mass Media, Film Institutes whi ch are related
fields if the topic interests you want to continue further studying these
topics.
15.2 UNDERSTANDING INTERVENTION OF MEDIA The word media is also used to refer the various public or private
institutions that create or distribute information such as newspapers and
wire services, magazines, book publishers, libraries, radio and television
networks, film studios, and record labels. Notably, mass media firms were
previously constrained through limited technology now have access to
other platform s thanks to the Internet as a method of mass communication. munotes.in

Page 143

143 Interventions of Media In fact, some publishing companies have completely given up on the print
medium. As an example, it is now common for newspapers, periodicals,
and books to be published on the Web or through Web -based applications,
and for musical recordings, television shows, and films to be accessible on
individual websites or through dedicated online services like YouTube,
OTT Information, opinion, advocacy, propaganda, advertising, artwork,
entertainment, and ot her forms of expression are sent to a very broad
audience through the use of mass media, or less frequently, a single mode.
A group of primarily private firms that are print or broadcast news and
news commentary for a national audience is another common ex ample of
mass media Britannica).
While the Cambridge dictionary discusses intervention as actively getting
involved in a challenging situation in an effort to make it better or stop it
from getting worse. Intervention is a multidisciplinary term; hence ev ery
discipline uses it differently right from medicine to that of politics or
philosophy. In other words, it means to take some action.
Meaning Intervention of Media :
Media power acquisition, challenge, or pursuit or strategic ends is referred
to as "medi a interventions." Media interventions can be used in a variety
of social, political, and cultural contexts, ranging from reality television
and Grassroots media to public relations initiatives. Studies in media,
communication, and culture are consulted by the researchers before
making any media intervention (Howley).
Media literacy programs use public health campaigns, development
communication initiatives and interventions as symbolic power to bring
change in society. Media interventions aim at altering pe ople's attitudes
and behavior towards their own and the public's health include initiatives
for example - Encourage people to stop smoking and prevent HIV/AIDS.
Initiatives to promote media literacy also aim at impacting audience
perception and usage of med ia texts and technologies popular in both
formal and informal educational contexts. In addition, since the late 1940s,
NGOs and international aid organizations have developed participatory
communication projects aimed at the social and economic betterment of
poor communities worldwide through media interventions (see, for
example, Abroms & Maibach, 2008; Romer et al., 2009). (Gumico
Dagron, 2001, Potter, 2010).
Through Media intervention it is possible to deliver preventative health
messages. A large porti on of the community's knowledge, attitudes, and
behavior can also be influenced by them. For instance, there is a high
chance that consumers will purchase something if mass media portrays.
Media intervention even impacts on individuals’ alcohol usage, eati ng too
much fat, or smoking as some sections of media show them in a cool or
dazzling way. Studies have shown positive effects through media
interventions that it can lower youth (under 25) smoking habits, improve
youth attitudes, intentions, and knowledge about, boost youth knowledge, munotes.in

Page 144

144 Sociology of Social Movements self-efficacy/self -esteem, and change perceptions, including the choice to
imitate healthy role models.
15.3 PLANNING AN INTERVENTION Planning an Intervention is a difficult task, there are several things which
needs to be c arried out like - The campaign strategist must decide how to
allocate available finances among possible pathways, focal behaviors,
message types, channels, and dissemination possibilities when developing
the plan. Different questions should be asked like s hould the campaign
concentrate on changing fundamental behaviors or is it planning to change
peripheral actions? What proportion of the available resources should be
used to directly affect the focal segment. As opposed to indirectly
employing environmenta l factors and promoting interpersonal influencers?
Which influences should be looked for? What is the most effective way to
combine messages of awareness, teaching, and encouragement? How
many messages should be used?
For example – If Alcohol consumption i s being studied. A healthy
campaign planning begins with an assessment of the behavioral aspects of
the teenage drinking problem in order to determine which activities should
be undertaken by which sectors of the community. The important youth
demographics whose drinking practices need to change must be identified
by the designer. Before building models of the direct and indirect
pathways of media effect, the proximate and each segment's final target
behaviors can be identified. A crucial part of the commun ication strategy
is defining target audiences and target behaviors that can be directly
affected by campaign messages. Questions like is it more successful to
spread the word using primarily small -screen media or expensive TV
channels? Is it better to spre ad out the campaign communications over
time or to deliver them in quick bursts?
While determining the community issue or objective one must solve and
take the necessary steps. Some of the steps are as discussed below before
making any intervention.
 Listing the issue or objective that the community is working to solve.
 Direct examination of the issue or objective
 Performing research
 Interviewing influential community members
 Examining historical or current records
 Set expectations for what "success" shou ld entail. Give an account of
what success would entail. In what ways, if at all, will the community
or group change as a result of the intervention would benefit?
 The intervention is intended to achieve objectives. Determine how
will you make the interven tion effective. What will change, when, and
by how much? munotes.in

Page 145

145 Interventions of Media  Find and evaluate "best practices" or "evidence -based solutions" that
might be used to solve the issue or objective. Indicate:
 Potential or promising "best practices" for your circumstance (take
into account numerous databases and lists of "best" or research -based
practices that are readily available)
 How certain is it each conceivable "best practice" would be able to
lead to the observed development? (Instead of other related
circumstances or potenti al influences)
 Check whether the "best practice" would be effective in your
community in producing the intended results.
 Check whether the elements (such as time, money, people, and
technical assistance) necessary for the "best practice" to succeed are
present
 The "best practice" or evidence -based strategy to try in your
circumstance (based on the evaluation)
 (Given the evaluation and the literature) Describe the main parts and
components of the intervention. Be specific about the following
components for each of these five interventional strategies:
 Deliver knowledge and developing skills (e.g., conduct a public
information campaign to educate people about the problem or goal
and how to address it)
 Access, obstacles, exposures, and opportunity modification (e.g.,
increase availability of affordable childcare for those entering work
force; reduce exposures to stressors)
 Improve supports and services (e.g., increase the number of centers
that provide health care)
 Modify the results (e.g., provide incentives t o develop housing in low -
income areas)
 Modify wider systems and policies (e.g., change business or public
policies to address the goal)
 Determine the delivery method each part and element of the
intervention will use to reach the community (e.g., workshops for skill
training).
 Make note of how you will modify the intervention or "best practice"
to suit the requirements and circumstances of your neighborhood
(e.g., differences in resources, cultural values, competence, language).
 Create a plan of action for the intervention. Include: Describe the
precise change or component of the intervention that will take place.
 Check the resources (cash and personnel) required or accessible? munotes.in

Page 146

146 Sociology of Social Movements  Test the intervention in a small -scale pilot study. Find out how to:
 Test the int ervention and the participants
 Analyze how well the intervention was implemented.
 Analyze the impacts, repercussions, and side effects.
 Gather input and utilize it to modify and enhance the intervention.
 Put the intervention into action, then keep an eye o n it and assess the
results as well as the process (such as the effectiveness and
satisfaction of it) (e.g., attainment of objectives).
15.4 SOCIAL MEDIA AND INTERVENTION Given the growing significance of social media in spreading false
information, incit ing hatred, and inciting violence, there are questions like
the doctrine of information intervention can be applied during mass
atrocities when violence and hate are promoted through social media
channels. In this essay, we specifically highlight the value of information
interventions for social media in particular as well as online
communications in general. While mainstream media has been subjected
to the more challenging information interventions (such the shutdown of
outlets). In doing so, we are especi ally interested in information
interventions as a tool to temporarily block social media in response to
non-state actors' attempts to silence specific voices or outlets.
Because social media may eliminate physical and geographic access
obstacles, it has be come more widely used in public health and health
promotion. Social media interventions were successful in certain
populations at risk for disadvantage (youth, older adults, low
socioeconomic status, rural), which suggests that these interventions may
be effective for promoting health equity. However, these interventions
also have the potential to increase health inequities for people who do not
have access to or do not use social media. Welch, et.al. (2016).
Through improvements in physical activity levels , wholesome dietary
alterations, and favorable changes to body composition or weight, social
media interventions can positively alter behaviors related to physical
activity and diet. The use of social media nowadays (such as gamification,
multi -model appli cations, image sharing/editing, group chats) is supported
by fresh data that may be used by policymakers, experts, organizations,
and/or researchers to guide the creation of upcoming social media
interventions (Goodyear, 2021)
15.5 INTERVENTION OF MEDIA IN HEALTH Polio is one of the successful campaigns which worked through the
intervention of media. With Media Intervention by using celebrities like
Amitabh Bachan the benefits of the polio dose was emphasized in simple
language. This helped in raising awar eness among parents and they visited munotes.in

Page 147

147 Interventions of Media the hospitals, centers on their own, and willing offered dose to the child.
This again, shows the positive implication of media.
Two studies found that immunization promotion campaigns in the media
had a favorable impa ct on immunization rates, either by portraying
immunization trends over time (Macdonald 1985) or by conducting
rigorous statistical analysis (Paunio 1991). When the Macdonald study
(Macdonald 1985) was re -analyzed using time series regression, a
statistica lly significant shift in level was found. Some studies conclude
that less was known about how media initiatives could encourage cancer
screening. Based on a before -and-after comparison of means, some studies
also revealed statistically significant increas es in media intervention
utilization (Brasca 1987; Shelley 1991; Bonerandi 1992; Healsmith 1993;
Pehamberger 1993; Herd 1995; Lowe 1994; Del Mar 1997). The
difference in data was estimated positively in the majority of these trials
(although not statistica lly significant). This indicated that the
interventions' impact was diminishing with time. For the two research on
HIV education efforts, a mixed trend was seen. Based on a description of
usage trends over time (Turner 1987) or a before -and-after compariso n,
both studies concluded that the use of mass media had an impact (Joshi
1988). Both trials reported an increase in the number of HIV tests run, but
this did not seem to be due to additional tests being run on people who
were at high risk for HIV. However , only one study (Joshi 1988) found a
statistically significant change in the level of the number of HIV tests after
re-analyzing the data.
Some studies show that people have become aware because of media
intervention, especially in terms of heart attack. A similar rise in
emergency department visits for chest discomfort was noted by Eppler
(Eppler 1994) based on a before -and-after comparison data; this increase
was still statistically significant upon further analysis using time series
regression. While bo th studies discovered that the campaigns led to an
increase in the number of patients seen at the emergency department, the
percentage of patients seen with a suspected heart attack remained mostly
steady. Changes in utilization by people were reported in five studies
analyzing the impact of media coverage of health -related topics outside of
any planned interventions. Here before data means before intervention and
after intervention effect cited from Dunn, A.G., Mandl, K.D. & Coiera, E,
2018).
People's opin ions, actions, and effects on their health can be profiled using
digital phenotyping tools and information from social media. A growing
number of examples show how successful digital phenotyping tools that
use social media data are, but little is known abo ut their capacity to make
it possible to execute individualised and focused behaviour change
treatments to improve health. Similar technologies are already used in
marketing and politics to sway consumers' spending and voting choices.
To improve health hab its in preventive medicine, digital phenotyping tools
and behaviour modification therapies may perform better together;
nevertheless, implementing behavioural interventions in social contexts
may present risks and unintended consequences. 2018 Dunn, A.G. H ere, munotes.in

Page 148

148 Sociology of Social Movements digital phenotyping means through technology a comprehensive digital
portrait of behavior of individual who uses smart gadgets are made. It
enables researchers to monitor anxiety and depressive symptoms and
provide new diagnoses and therapies. By exam ining the u ser's internet
behaviors, it can also anticipate a disease relapse. For instance, a business
can utilize an app to monitor changes in memory, speed, and typing
accuracy. The indicators contained in the user's smartphone usage patterns
are used for building data in the application.
Check Your Progress :
1. What is the meaning of Intervention?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________ _______________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Write in your own observations on social media intervention
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________ ____________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
15.6 TOURISM AND INTERVENTION OF MEDIA Research on the effects of new media in numerous sectors is receiving a
lot of globa l attention. As a socially, culturally, and commercially
significant phenomenon, tourism, the development of communication
technology has significantly altered the field. Although information
processing plays a significant role in the tourism industry. In the situation,
communication technology adjustments are important. similarly, to every
service. ICT allows decision -makers, participants, and service providers to
directly connect with the client. Processing information in a flexible and
personalized manne r has high ICT and traveler demand may expand
informational possibilities diffusion (Bethapudi, 2013:25). (Bethapudi,
2013:25). Pre -, During -, and Post -consumption stages of travel are all
heavily utilized by new media technologies. Through a variety of ne w
media platforms, travelers locate and gather information on a specific
destination, itinerary, route, lodging, and transportation options during the
pre-consumption stage.
In the pre -consumption stage, networking groups with similar interests
might prov ide a pool of information. Following the consuming phase,
travelers use a variety of computer platform for route planning, navigation,
and processing of snap decisions. Travelers are simultaneously posting
their real -time trip experiences on numerous socia l media platforms. by
publishing images, videos, and words on websites like Facebook,
Instagram, and Twitter. Last but not least, after consumption, tourists will
discuss their overall tourism experiences. social media friends and
communities about their e xperience. Here, people record, relive, and
evaluate their entire tourism activity (Buhalis & Costa, 2006:39). Even munotes.in

Page 149

149 Interventions of Media Electronic visa known as E Visa is available by applying online and taking
a print out. Compared to the traditional visa this becomes far ea sy and
handy and even saves time and peace of mind.
Media has been used to spread news on family planning. In turn, this has
been impacting the nature of population all over the world. There are
several key issues which has been spread out through the hel p of Media
intervention like knowing ones’ own right like voice against injustice,
Child rights, Domestic Violence. This intervention is not often through the
modern media alone like television internet, but also through folk media,
theatres, puppet shows, folk songs etc. The point is the closer the
information related to one’s own language and culture the more effective
would be the intervention strategies turn out to be.
Media has played a major role in creating awareness about health issues
like Cancer, especially Breast Cancer. The undeniable use of media has
been during the Covid where it acted as companion to thousands of people
by convening the necessity food through those who had enough food,
requirement of medicine, objects, news, awareness, inform ation and even
operating like a helpline. Through banners, radio the necessary
information like precautions one needs to take, especially with children,
senior citizens were been conveyed. Media also connects people both to
the person who needs and the per son who could supply for example during
flood times, disaster times. It intervenes into our lives in simple ways, like
guiding us where the traffic jam exists through the data like google map,
to how to reach there, again through maps.
Check Your Progress :
1. Write in your words, your observation of Media Intervention during
Covid.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________ ____
____________________________________________________________
2. Explain Tourism and Media Intervention
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________ ________________________________
____________________________________________________________
15.7 SUMMARY In this chapter we began with understanding the meaning of Intervention
i.e., Cambridge dictionary discusses intervention as actively getting
involve d in a challenging situation in an effort to make it better or stop it
from getting worse. Media power acquisition, challenge, or pursuit for
tactical or strategic ends is referred to as "media interventions." Media
interventions can be used in a variety o f social, political, and cultural
contexts, ranging from reality television and Grassroots media to public munotes.in

Page 150

150 Sociology of Social Movements relations initiatives. Studies in media, communication, and culture are
consulted by the researchers before making any media intervention
(Howley). W e also saw how Intervention of Media has played important
role in different areas like Tourism, Healthcare. In terms of Healthcare
Intervention of Media plays a important role as creating awareness,
spreading of right information, assisting and even provid e healthy role
models. On the other hand, for Tourism Media has been acting as a service
provider, connecting individuals through technology, make the services
easy. The chapter also discusses different steps one needs to take while
conducting any interven tion programs in communities or different sectors.
Like Testing the intervention in a small -scale pilot study. Analyze how
well the intervention was implemented. Analyze the impacts,
repercussions, and side effects. Gather input and utilize it to modify an d
enhance the intervention. Put the intervention into action, then keep an eye
on it and assess the results as well as the process (such as the effectiveness
and satisfaction of it) (e.g., attainment of objectives). There are several
key issues which has b een spread out through the help of Media
intervention like knowing ones’ own right like voice against injustice,
Child rights, Domestic Violence. This intervention is not often through the
modern media alone like television internet, but also through folk media,
theatres, puppet shows, folk songs etc. The point is the closer the
information related to one’s own language and culture the more effective
would be the intervention strategies turn out to be
15.8 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss intervention in detail
2. Write a note on Media Intervention and Health
3. Explain the planning the Media Intervention
15.9 REFERENCES  Bonnie, R. J. (2004). Reducing underage drinking: A collective
responsibility. Dev. Mental Health L., 23,
 Marcus, B., Owen, N., Forsyth, L., Cavil l, N., & Fridinger, F. (1998).
Physical activity interventions using mass media, print media, and
information technology. American journal of preventive medicine,
15(4), 362 -378.
 Gregorio, G., & Stremlau, N. (2021). Information interventions and
social med ia. Internet Policy Review, 10(2), 1 -25.
 Howley, K. (Ed.). (2013). Media interventions. New York, NY: Peter
Lang.
 Couldry, N. (2013). Media Interventions: Afterword by Nick Couldry.
Kevin. munotes.in

Page 151

151 Interventions of Media  Dunn, A.G., Mandl, K.D. & Coiera, E. Social media interventions for
precision public health: promises and risks. npj Digital Med 1, 47
(2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746 -018-0054 -0
 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/intervention
 https://www.talkinghealthtech.com/glossary/digital -phenotyping
 https://na p.nationalacademies.org/read/10729/chapter/31
 http://hdl.handle.net/10603/251064 PhD Thesis, Submitted at
University of Mysore, Lijin Joseph, 2018.
 Duignan, B. (2022, July 13). mass media. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/mass -medi a
 Welch, V., Petkovic, J., Pardo Pardo, J., Rader, T., & Tugwell, P.
(2016). Interactive social media interventions to promote health
equity: an overview of reviews. Health promotion and chronic disease
prevention in Canada : research, policy and practice, 36(4), 63 –75.
https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.36.4.01
 Goodyear, V.A., Wood, G., Skinner, B. et al. The effect of social
media interventions on physical activity and dietary behaviours in
young people and adults: a systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys
Act 18, 72 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966 -021-01138 -3
 https://ctb.ku.edu/en/developing -intervention

*****

munotes.in

Page 152

152 16
VIRTUAL MOVEMENTS SOCIAL
NETWORKING SITES
Unit Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Meaning of Virtual Movements
16.3 Nature of Virtual Movements
16.4 Social media and Justice
16.5 Examples of Virtual Movements
16.6 Summary
16.7 Questions
16.8 References
16.0 OBJECTIVES  To learnt about the role and influence of Virtual Movements in the
society at large.
 To understand the social networking sites virtual movements through
some popular movements.
16.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapt er we will learn about virtual movements which mainly
operates through different platforms like social networking sites which
became popular in the post liberalization and globalization. Many a times
virtual movements need not always carry a social message . As the subject
that we are studying is that of social movements hence, we are focusing
this chapter more towards movement which had a cause, brought about
social change than just movements which are ornamental like Instagram
reels, trends etc.
16.2 MEANI NG OF VIRTUAL MOVEMENTS Virtual movements can be said as part of cyberactivism, commonly
referred to as "digital activism". Virtual movements can be seen as a type
of activism that primarily employs the Internet and digital media as
important platforms for political action and mass mobilization. Virtual
movements can be seen as the adoption and use of new information and
communication technologies (ICTs) by people and community, such as the
Internet and the World Wide Web" (Loader, 2003, p. 1319, emphasis
original). This includes social movements that take place (exclusively)
online as well as those that employ ICTs. Due to the new functions of
ICTs, the literature on online social movements has come to be munotes.in

Page 153

153 Virtual Movements Social Networking Sites acknowledged as a modest but significant subject for research in
information science and associated areas.
Digital networks have been used as a platform for activism by activists
and computer experts since the early 1980s experiments to the present day.
Online activists initially exploited the Internet as a means of disseminating
information due to its ability to instantly reach vast audiences across
boundaries. In a more advanced society, the virtual movement have been
used as a protest that amplified and mirrored offline demonstrations.
Email and social me dia campaigns are some modes through which virtual
movements work.
Virtual movements can be seen as an effective tool for mobilizing the
general public in politics and offers fresh approaches to interacting with
demonstrators. Online activities can also b e significant in nations where
public venues are heavily restricted or controlled by the military. In certain
circumstances, online movements are preferable to potentially harmful
"real" actions. Online protests against certain organizations or events
could be also subject to misinterpretation due to fake news. Although a
large portion of digital activism falls under the umbrella of electronic civil
disobedience, some activists demand that such online political gestures
always represent a communal interest rather than a personal agenda and
that the identities of the people behind them be made known to the public.
It can be also observed that different digital strategies involve utilizing
various electronic networks. Email campaigns, SMS messages, Web
posting s, and online petitions are examples of text -based strategies to
promote a cause.
Through the coordinated effort of people throughout the world, more
expressive activities also take place. Like Virtual sit -ins are a type of
online protest when a networked group of people block on one or more
websites to engage in an act of digital resistance. An online software that
repeatedly requests the specific Web sites carries out the action. The
protestors' automated "clicking’s," which are simultaneously carried ou t
from several computers across the world, generate so much traffic that the
server for the targeted website is overwhelmed. The activity slows down
the website and finally forces it to shut down by cluttering the bandwidth
(Britannica).
16.3 NATURE FOR VI RTUAL MOVEMENTS With the coming on Internet there are several social movements which
have emerged virtually and are influencing the real world. This is possible
with the advancement of technology, easy availability of internet, free
time in the hands of i ndividual, the meaning of leisure being changed from
outdoor to that of indoor and even handy like devices.
The greater number of people joining the social media, the role of social
media has changed from just a social network platform to that of importan t
mode of communication – informal platform or social platform to that of a
formal platform. There are online websites like Facebook, twitter, munotes.in

Page 154

154 Sociology of Social Movements WhatsApp, Instagram which are major contributors of the different
movements and trends. These have influential ca pacity to a large extent.
Specially platforms like WhatsApp are easy to use and easy to forward.
Leaving no time to think or reflect and verify. WhatsApp doesn’t let any
individual to apply scientific temple like that of reflecting, verification,
observati on, drawing conclusion, cross checking. It makes individual like
a robot which need not think.
E movements:
One of the similar names for that of virtual movements is the E
movements. The advent of "e -movements" and new types of "e -protest"
and "e -activis m" has demonstrated the significance of the Internet as a tool
for social change activists to organize and mobilize several supporters
(Earl & Schussman, 2003). The use of information and communication
technologies (ICTs) has also helped extensively the so cial and political
scientists for a number of years. Technology has also historically,
positively impacted social movements; one of the similar examples to
understand the impact of virtual movements is like how in Europe the
printing press brought about ma ssive changes in the late eighteenth
century (Tarrow, 1998).
Unlike the traditional social movements, there is no strong leadership but
the movement many a times begins with an initiator/ victim or a spark of
incident that is when there is certain relatabi lity, commonality the virtual
movements spreads across different parts of the world. In more recent
times, it has been regular practice to broadcast information of social media
and inform about it in radio, television, telephones and even use direct
mail, fax machines, and e -mail (McCarthy & Zald, 1977; Lievrouw, 2006;
Porta & Diani, 1999).
A variety of modern social movements have benefited from the new ICTs
that are connected to the Internet, such as websites, streaming videos,
blogs, Voice -over-IP, and s ocial networking sites. For instance, today's
general people who might not consider themselves activists are actively
engaged in online mobilization, whereas historically so -called activists
have been the main participants in physical social movements (e.g ., Hara,
2008).
Traditional social campaigns have included tactics including sit -ins,
protests, street theater, and public rallies to engage opponents or those in
positions of power.
A number of movements arose along with the use of hashtags. It became
apparent as a pressing necessity and as a generation prepared to support a
cause. Along with being a voice against the oppressor, doing what is
popular, and occasionally even being the voice of the young and
progressive.
There are certain questions we need t o ask why the social movements
become so popular? One of the important reasons is that the movement
doesn’t require many a times physical presence, one could reside at the munotes.in

Page 155

155 Virtual Movements Social Networking Sites home and participate some of the examples are like the recent online
marathon where one could virtually run and one could get medals by
courier so that it feels like a achievement motivation and it can further
inspire to run to maintain one’s own health and society at large too. There
are several causes too associated with these virtual r uns like that of
bringing awareness about global warming, child rights, women’s rights,
rights for the differently abled people. Certain percentage of the entrance
fees which the organisation earns is further donated to the cause. This
helps both the commu nity and at individual level to create a sense of
community.
Online movements can lead to physical movement as online movements
doesn’t have time and space and the people can comment participate on it
anytime from anywhere hence, through proper social med ia marketing and
strategy things can become famous, or even trend and thereafter it could
be highlighted in the mainstream social media and it could be discussed
and it could spread out at a much quicker pace. The point to note is unlike
the traditional ti me media was on a location this changed due to online
social movement. So, we can say, that the online social movement could
be initiated, pushed to seriousness or a proper political movement through
that of online social movement.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is Virtual -Sit-ins?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________ __________
2. What is E movements?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________ ____________________
16.4 SOCIAL MEDIA AND JUSTICE Social media helps in communicating the problem to a large mass of
people in a quick time span. It is a platform for organizations, activists,
and people to call for justice and to elevate voices and stori es, raise
awareness, and establish and deepen relationships.
Organizing Community Reactions:
As shown with movements like #MeToo and #BlackLivesMatter, social
media has the potential to develop online communities where individuals
may connect and receive s upport. It can influence through worldwide
impact by sharing in large, having large -scale meetings that foster
togetherness for a cause.
munotes.in

Page 156

156 Sociology of Social Movements Lived experience platforms:
Building equality for minorities and underrepresented people and groups
within society is a goal of many social justice movements. Social media
may offer a platform to magnify and share minorities' experiences and
difficulties with possibly millions of people worldwide. Minorities' tales
and struggles are frequently unknown or underpublicized. Through this
exposure, the underrepresented may more directly express their own lived
experiences of racial violence, sexual harassment, and other types of
oppression.
Events Promotion and Planning:
Occupy Wall Street, Black Lives Matter movement are just a few
examples of how social media has raised awareness of problems
pertaining to social justice. Sharing knowledge allows groups to organize
in the real world around a cause and reach a wider audience. Rapid -
Reaction Events are planned and organized by th e political activist group
MoveOn in response to actual events. After a political event or series of
events, MoveOn hosts material that is readily accessible and may launch a
series of rallies with coordinated demands by 5 p.m. the following day.
Sharing v ideos and images:
In addition to being a tool for organizing large -scale protests, social media
may also be used to record them. In the present world, social media is used
to capture almost every social activity. News organizations routinely
search sites l ike Twitter for fresh information or moving images of current
events. Demonstrators also utilize social media to disseminate images and
videos of events as they happened in an effort to influence public
perception of the pro -democracy movement.
NGOs and Fu ndraising:
Social media can be a potent tool for NGOs and social justice activists
alike for telling a story, disseminating information, or starting a dialogue
about a problem. The mission of the organization can be helped by
connecting with and developin g an audience.
A social media fundraising campaign often makes use of the audience's
variety to draw attention to a single, narrowly defined objective. By
increasing awareness, which might result in more donations, this helps to
raise modest contributions from a larger group of donors. A call -to-action
can help to increase fundraising efforts. Social media offers a forum for
promoting charity giving and the neighborhood, sharing tales, and
interacting with contributors.
The ideal way to raise money on socia l media is with a strategic plan that
includes both a goal and a plan of action, while also emphasizing the value
of creating awareness and naturally expanding an audience. A media
strategy that will guarantee that views are turning into conversions is one
that builds a funnel from awareness to engagement to conversions. munotes.in

Page 157

157 Virtual Movements Social Networking Sites Collaboration with Influencers:
A message may be considerably enhanced by collaborating with a social
media influencer who has enough followers to affect public opinion. To
increase public knowledge and perception of a non -profit, a person with a
wider audience who takes a stand on a topic or champions a cause may be
able to connect with the target donor demographic.
Announcing Events:
Producing an event, such as a protest or rally, a fundra iser, an educational
or instructive event, or a clothes drive, can increase community
involvement in a cause. Using social media to promote an event gives you
the chance to reach out to each follower's audience as well as the chance to
attract the attentio n of and invite all of your followers. By offering an
estimate of the attendance, using Facebook as a platform to promote the
event may also aid in planning.
Spreading Knowledge:
Using social media may help NGOs and social justice movements raise
awareness of their goals, needs, and occasionally even the existence of a
problem. Social media may provide a venue for the sharing of tales,
photographs, and information in a digestible fashion that engages an
audience by assisting in their understanding. The effo rt to raise awareness
aids in the formation of a community around a problem. Although social
media and networking may be done with attention and determination, the
assistance of a professional with a degree in strategic communication or
subject -matter expe rtise can significantly enhance achieving concrete
goals of development and exposure for a campaign or organization (2).
16.5 EXAMPLES OF VIRTUAL MOVEMENTS These movements have become problem and have helped in raising
awareness among a large section of p eople. The common point of all these
movement is that they helped people in some way, to come together and
participate irrespective of their location, class, gender, age.
Ice Bucket Challenge for ALS:
In 2014, the ALS amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Associa tion organized an
ice bucket challenge to raise money and awareness for the condition ALS
(often known as Lou Gehrig's disease). The quantity of the contribution
was significant for the association since it allowed it to fund research and
assistive technol ogy projects, as well as expand ALS patients' access to
healthcare and services. The ALS Ice Bucket Challenge entailed emptying
a bucket of ice water over one's head or the head of another person to raise
money for ALS research. Due in part to its nominati on process, the
challenge quickly gained popularity on social media: Once someone had
finished the challenge, they would suggest other people take it on. The
nominee was meant to forfeit by making a generous cash gift if they
declined to accept the challen ge or failed to do so within 24 hours. The ice munotes.in

Page 158

158 Sociology of Social Movements bucket challenge's low entry barrier, entertainment appeal (self -made
videos that were generally under a minute long), and celebrity
involvement all contributed to its success.
Black Lives Matter:
The Black Li ves Matter movement started as an online group that used the
hashtag #BlackLivesMatter to fight against anti -black racism and police
violence that specifically targets African Americans. The online
community was able to unite, mobilize, and increase its ex posure thanks to
the hashtag and social media platforms, and eventually developed into an
organization with more than 40 chapters that supports black lives. Alicia
Garza's love letter to black people, which she wrote after Trayvon Martin
was killed, served as the idea for the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter, which
was developed by co -founder and strategic advisor Patrisse Khan -Cullors.
The hashtag #BlackLivesMatter was used on Twitter over 30 million times
(an average of 17,002 times per day) from its initial use in July 2013 to
May 1, 2018, according to the Pew Research Center. Although the hashtag
took a while to pick up steam in the beginning, it is now regularly used.
The hashtag is most frequently used in reaction to news topics that affect
the black communit y or during protests, marches, speeches, and national
conversations. According to further information from the Pew Research
Center report, the hashtag was often used to express how the black
community and
 Violent activities;
 Fatal police -related interacti ons;
 Police and law enforcement actions
 Particular national political figures and parties
 Racial discrimination and racial issues
 Activism and protests
Using social media and technologies like hashtags promoted knowledge
sharing, aided in raising awarenes s, and gave the Black Lives Matter
group a place online to coalesce and organize.
#LoveWins:
The Supreme Court's decision to allow same -sex marriage in 2015 was
applauded by a large audience on a variety of social media sites. In order
to advance the marri age-equality story, the Human Rights Campaign
(HRC) has been working all year long with digital marketing campaigns,
producing fresh material and language depicting devoted, loving same -sex
couples. With the courtroom triumph, the HRC's #LoveWins campaign
was fully implemented on social media, encouraging the posting of words
and images in celebration of the victory along with the hashtag
#LoveWins. With 97,592,956 impressions on HRC's breaking news
Facebook post and #LoveWins trending internationally all d ay thanks to 7 munotes.in

Page 159

159 Virtual Movements Social Networking Sites million tweets and 16.4 million Instagram pics, the internet campaign was
a triumph. Celebrities including Hillary Clinton, Taylor Swift, and
President Barack Obama took part, as well as other businesses of all sizes.
#MeToo:
For women from various backgrounds who have suffered sexual
harassment, the Me Too campaign (also known as the #MeToo
movement) provides a source of support. The movement focuses on the
stories of survivors of sexual assault from all spheres of life. Those who
participat e in the campaign seek to demonstrate how widespread sexual
harassment is by speaking and sharing tales.
The #MeToo campaign started in 2006 but gained popularity after several
well-known actors came forward to talk about their experiences with
sexual hara ssment in the entertainment business. In an effort to spread
awareness of the subject and encourage more support for victims, the Me -
Too movement, sexual harassment, and assault were made more widely
known.
Movements in Iran:
An Iranian Kurdish lady in he r twenties named Mahsa Amini was
apparently in Tehran when some of her hair was seen. She was sent to a
camp for reduction, where she later passed away while still being
detained. Her family says that she was beaten by cops before she passed
away. The bigg est protests the country has seen since the 2009 Green
Movement, when many women disrobed certain scarf in defiance of the
conservative Iranian government's restriction like their head coverings,
which was spurred by Amini demise. Her passing triggered a m ovement,
and women began to cut their hair, burn posters, and raise their voices.
People began speaking out against the treatment of women with
discrimination. World over celebrities joined and common people joined
and shared the feeling of injustice towar ds women by encouraging them,
citing them. Here both movement which started in physical space moved
towards online.
Delhi Nirbhaya:
One of the disturbing incidents in Delhi was that of the Nirbhaya case.
Through social media several people raised the Sai fuddin Ahmed, Kokil
Jaidka & Jaeho Cho (2017) discovered in their study that there existed a
striking similarity between online emotional patterns and offline protest
emotions as discussed in literature through a computer -assisted emotion
analysis of 65,61 3 Twitter posts (tweets) posted during the Nirbhaya
social movement (movement against the Delhi gang -rape incident) in
India. Formal statistical analysis of a variety of emotions (such as
negativity, optimism, anger, sadness, anxiety, certainty, individual ism,
collectivism, and achievement) shows that they significantly differed
across stages of the social movement. As a result, they had an impact on
how the online protest unfolded, drawing connections to offline events.
The findings demonstrate the signifi cance of wrath and fear in awakening munotes.in

Page 160

160 Sociology of Social Movements society's consciousness and social media can play in sharing emotion
related to the protest event (5).
Check Your Progress:
1. According to you, are virtual movements influential?
_____________________________________ _______________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Do you think social media can be used to make awa reness?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
16.6 SU MMARY Virtual movements can be said as part of cyberactivism, commonly
referred to as "digital activism". Virtual movements can be seen as a type
of activism that primarily employs the Internet and digital media as
important platforms for political action and mass mobilization. Virtual
movements can be seen as the adoption and use of new information and
communication technologies (ICTs) by people and community, such as the
Internet and the World Wide Web" (Loader, 2003, p. 1319, emphasis
original). We also discussed the nature of virtual movements like how it
can be accessed from any location irrespective of caste, class, gender.
There are several factors which has led to the rise of virtual movements
like information exchange at a quicker speed, low -cost i nterest, handy and
commonality like causes, values, movement for right. The chapter also
discusses several movements like Me too movement, black rights matter
movement and the recent Iran movement where females are raising their
voice against the existing system where they are marginalized in terms of
opportunities, clothing. The chapter also discusses in detail how social
media plays a important role in creating an atmosphere for justice, by
acting like observer, creating a space for transparency, by shari ng news at
quicker speed or even by helping in raising voice, creating a space for
community like bonding. The chapter also discusses how social media is
used by different stakeholders like NGOs for fundraising, developing
space for raising awareness on va rious issues.
16.7 QUESTIONS 1. Write a note on how social media could influence social justice.
2. Explain virtual movement
3. Discuss two examples of Virtual Social movement
munotes.in

Page 161

161 Virtual Movements Social Networking Sites 16.8 REFERENCES  Fuentes, M. A. (2014, June 25). digital activism. Encyclope dia
Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/digital -activism
 https://online.maryville.edu/blog/a -guide -to-social -media -activism/
 https://www.newyorker.com/news/q -and-a/fatemah -shams -how-irans -
hijab -protest -movement -became -so-powerful
 Hara, N., & Huang , B. Y. (2011). Online social movements. Annual
Review of Information Science and Technology, 45, 489 –
522.10.1002/airs. 144.v45:1
 Saifuddin Ahmed, Kokil Jaidka & Jaeho Cho (2017) Tweeting India’s
Nirbhaya protest: a study of emotional dynamics in an online social
movement, Social Movement Studies, 16:4, 447 -465, DOI:
10.1080/14742837.2016.1192457
 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aris.201 16.1440450117/ab
stract

*****
munotes.in