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CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA AND
KING ASHOKA
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Origin
1.3 Sources
1.4 Chandragupta Maurya, the Founder
1.5 Bindusara
1.6 Reign of Ashoka Maurya
1.7 Extension of Empire
1.8 The Kalinga war 261 B.C.
1.9 Ashoka's religious policy and spread of Buddhism
1.10 A welfare state
1.11 Fall of Mauryas
1.12 Society and Economy
1.13 Art and Literature
1.14 Summary
1.15 Questions
1.16 Additional Reading
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of the chapter is:
To study the rise of the Mauryan dynasty as a single paramount power.
To study the achievements of Chandragupta Maurya as the founder of the
dynasty.
To study the achievements of Ashoka
To leaser the Spread of Buddhism in and outside India
To trace the causes of its decline.
To study the society and economy of the times. munotes.in
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
After ruling for about twenty -five years, Chandragupta left his throne to
his son Bindusara and became a Jain ascetic. In the year 298 BC Bindusara
became the next king of Mauryan Empire. It i s stated that Chanakya
continued to work as Bindusara's minister.
Mauryan administration was highly centralized. Kautilya the author of
Arthashastra had held the royal decree above the law. He also upheld nyaya
(Reason) to dharma (Text). The Arthashastra t a l k s a b o u t t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f
governance and lays down rules of administration. It also discusses in detail
the role of the king, his duties, rate of taxation, use of spying, and laws for
governing the society.
Chandragupta carved out an empire of which h e was the architect. But he was
not an absolute autocrat. The administration was divided into central
government, provincial government municipal government. munotes.in
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Chandragupta Maurya and King Ashoka
3 The Central government consisted of the king who exercised legislative,
judicial and executive pow ers. His powers were extensive. The ruler himself
made appointments to the most important offices. The State maintained a huge
standing army. The king himself led the army.
The empire was divided into administrative provinces or districts or zones,
each of which had a hierarchy of officials. There was a purohita who was a
Brahmin to keep an effective check on the absolute powers of the king, Sativa
or Amatya’s who were close advisers to the king, the Mantrins or the council
of ministers to assist him in mil itary, judicial and administrative duties, the
Adhyakshas or superintendents employed in various departments of the
state as in -charges.
The viceroys were usually of royal blood, Rajukas or subordinate officers,
Yuktas were in charge of revenue, pradeshika s or revenue collectors,
Purushas, Vachambikas collected taxes from those who reared cattle,
Dharmamahamantras were entrusted with the task of bringing about
spiritual welfare of the people, spies acted as secret reporters to the king.
The provinces were f urther sub -divided into Vishayas or Prasdeshas.
Gramikas or villages were the basic units of administration The top most
officers from these districts or zones, directly reported to the Mauryan ruler.
These officials were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining army,
completing irrigational projects, and maintaining law and order.
Taxes were heavy and were collected from various sources. Taxation system
was quite burdensome. The people moaned under demanding taxes. The main
source of revenue was land revenue. They were the bhaga and bali. The bhaga
was the king's share that was 1/ 6th or 1/4th or 1/8th varying from time to
time and bali was the land tribute. There were sales taxes, excise taxes, forest
taxes, fines and such others. The only people who did not pay taxes were
Brahmins, Buddhist, and Jain monks.
1.2 ORIGIN
The kingdom of Magadha became prominent among the Janapadas from 6th
century onwards. Under the able rule of Bimbisara (542 B.C. - 493 B.C.) and
his son Ajatshatru (493 B.C. - 461 B.C.), Magadha became strong but soon
weakened after the death of Udayan (460 B.C. -444 B.C.) and was conquered
by the Shishunaga dynasty in 46 B. C.
Within a span of fifty years, it was replaced by the Nanda dynasty. In the 4th
century B. C. the Nanda rulers ruled Magadha, At that time, it was the most
powerful state of the northern part of India. The strength of the Nanda kingdom
rested on the taxes levied on the farmers and traders by the state. The Nandas
maintained a huge army. But as the Nandas were not effici ent
administrators, they were not popular, and it was not hard for the Mauryas
to overthrow them.
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4 The Mauryas took over the kingdom of Magadha by defeating the Nandas.
The fall of the Nandas was engineered and designed by one of their Brahmin
ministers w hose name was Chanakya. Thus began an important period in
India, when several regions were drawn together into an empire led by the
Mauryan dynasty. (322 -185 BC).
1.3 SOURCES
The dawn of the Mauryan dynasty marks the way from darkness to light for
the hist orians because Chronology becomes more definite and almost precise.
The history of the Mauryas is based on the study of the
1. Brahminical, Buddhist and Jain literature.
2. The Arthashastra, a Political treatise by Kautilya.
3. Indica, accounts of Megasthanese, the Greek ambassador.
4. The Inscriptions of Ashoka.
5. Other contemporary writings.
The name Maurya probably is a Sanskrit word Mayura. The Mauryas
emblem Mayura seen in their coinage and monuments provides further
evidence to it. The Jain tradition describes Chandragupta Maurya as a
grandson of the chief of village of Peacock tamers. The Brahminical and
Buddhist sources in the Puranas and Mahavamsa respectively throw light on the
downfall of the last king Dhananananda in the hands of Chandragupta Maurya.
With t he discovery of the book on Kautilya's Arthashasthra (also called
Dandaniti) by Shamasastri in 1909, the Maurya chronology became very
definite though the dates are still controversial. This important source has
fifteen books and a hundred and eighty chapt ers with 6000 slokas. Another
source of information although not found in its original form has proved to be a
significant source in the reconstruction of history of the Mauryas is the
Indika of Megasthanese. Megasthnese has described about the splendor of
the palaces, military system, administration of Pataliputra, social classes
and the caste system. However his accounts have been subject to criticism
on the base that he was unaware of Indian languages and his stay in India was
not enough for him to give such detailed accounts on the conditions that
prevailed. Another source of information for the Mauryan period is the
Mudrarakshasa. This gives us clear details of the revolution by which
Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nandas. The drama also presents
details about the rivals of Chandragupta who were slayed one after the
other. The Inscriptions of Ashoka have been the most authentic sources
available in providing information of the Mauryan dynasty. Its history is
uncovered in the two minor rock edicts, fou rteen major rock edicts, seven
pillar edicts, two commemorative pillar inscriptions, three cave
inscriptions.
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5 1.4 CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA, THE FOUNDER:
(322 BC - 298 BC)
The Mauryan Empire was established under the leadership of
Chandragupta M aurya. He can be considered as the first Indian ruler who
built an empire with natural boundaries. He laid the foundation of a strong system
of government, which remained long despite several foreign invasions. He gave
India a well -organized and discipline d administration.
Early rise to power:
The rise of Chandragupta Maurya to power is controversial.
According to Buddhist sources, Chandragupta's mother took shelter at
Pataliputra after the death of his father. His father was the Chief of a village.
The chi ld was handed over for safety with a cowherd. The cowherd sold the
child to hunter. The buy was always fond of playing king's role while playing
with his companions. One day Chanakya was passing by when he was
impressed by the boy's personality Chanakya to ok the boy to Taxila and
educated him.
About the rise of Chandragupta, Justin states "India after the death of
Alexander had shaken, as it were, the Yoke of servitude from its neck and
put his governors to death. The author of this liberation was Sandrocot tus.
This man was of humble origin but was stimulated to aspire to regal
power by super natural encouragement."
The Mudrarakshasa describes Chandragupta as Maurya putra.
Another source, namely Vishnu Purana states that Chandragupta was the
son of Nanda who se wife's name was Mura. Mura according to this source,
was the daughter of a Sudra king Vrishlamaja.
But the Mudrarakshasa deny that the terms `vrishala' as terms of
dishonour. In fact, the term has been used to mean 'one who is vrisha
among the kings on the best among the kings".
According to the Jain tradition, Chandragupta is described as the son of a
barber. It also states him as the son of chief of peacock -tamers.
However, it is generally accepted that during this time Chanakya was the in
service of t he Nandas. He was in charge of the Dhanasala, a charity school
run by the Dhana Nanda. The manners and features of Chanakya made
Dhana Nanda to dismiss Chanakya and the latter took vow to destroy the
Nandas. In 322 B.C. he took the help of Chandragupta aft er training him in
the art of warfare and finally succeeded in capturing Magadha after
overthrowing Nandas. Thus Chanakya who is also known as the Indian
Machiavelli established the Mauryan Empire by using Chandragupta.
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6 Extent of empire:
After the over t hrow of Nandas, Chandragupta Maurya and chanakya
extended the Mauryan Empire far and wide. The dominions of
Chandraguptaa included parts of Afghanistan, the ancient Ariana, the
Punjab, parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Kathaiwar. At the time of his death,
he was the ruler of India situated to the north of Narbada including
Afghanistan.
During his reign, there was Greek invasion under the leadership of
Alexander. After the death of Alexander in Babylon (323 BC), India could
not be held together. This prompted I ndia to have political unity. It is the
same time, Chandragupta Maurya collected recruits from different places and
organized them into a powerful army with which he played an important
part in the liberation of India from the Greek rule. On the other hand , the
ambitious Selucus Nicator, the Greek Viceroy of Alexander, had crossed
Indus with the ambition to recover the lost conquests of Alexander.
Chandragupta Maurya mutilated his expedition and Selucus entered a treaty
with Chandragupta Maurya.
The most im portant result of this treaty was that Chandragupta's fame spread far
and wide and his empire was recognized as a great power in the western
countries. Punjab, Kabul, Kandahar, Gandhar and part of Herat and
Baluchistan were absorbed into the Mauryan territory through the treaty.
Chandragupta Maurya eventually pushed his conquests to as far as
Saurashtra in the west and Deccan in the south. Chandragupta thus united the
whole of northern India and parts of Deccan under Mauryan rule.
During the rule of Chandra gupta Maurya, trade flourished, agriculture was
regulated, and weights and measures were standardized. Money first came
into use. Taxation, sanitation and famine relief became the concerns of the
State.
After ruling for about 25 years, he became a Jain asc etic and left his throne
to his son Bindusara (296 bc -273 bc). He adopted Jainism, renounced the
worldly affairs, became disciple of Jain Muni Bhadrabahu Swami and
followed him to South India (Karnataka). He spent his last days, (298 B.C.) in
the hill of s outh India that is called after him as Chandragiri, where the
Gangas carved the tallest statue of Gomateshwara later during their rule.
V. A. Smith rightly comments on the greatness of Chandragupta and says, "In
the course of some eighteen years, Chandragu pta had
(i) expelled Macedonian garrisons from the Punjab and the Sindh,
(ii) repulsed and humbled Selucus, the conqueror, and (iii) established
himself as undisputed supreme lord of at least all northern India and a
large part of Arabia. These achievements airily entitle him to rank among
the greatest and most successful Kings, known to history.
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7 1.5 BINDUSARA
Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara. Not much information is
available about Bindusara's rule or administration. However, Bindusara was
given th e title Amitraghar or slayer of enemies. But, not much is known about
how he defeated his enemies, but it is believed that the people of Taxila
revolted two times during his reign.
It is also said that Bindusara was a pleasure seeker. He is said to have ha d
many sons. The eldest son was susima and his second son was Ashoka.
The eldest son was in charge of Taxila and the second son was in charge
of Ujjain.
Bindusara maintained good relations with Seleucus Nicator and the
emperors’ exchanged ambassadors. He a lso maintained friendly relations
with the Hellenic west started by his father. Envoys from Syria and Egypt
resided at Bindusara's court. He preferred the Ajivika philosophy rather than
Jainism.
The Puranas state that Bindusara ruled for 25 years and was s ucceeded by
Ashoka.
Check Your Progress:
1. Narrate the life and career of Chandragupta as the founder of
the Mauryan dynasty.
1.6 REGION OF ASHOKA MAURYA (273 BC - 232 BC)
Coronation:
In 273 BC, Bindusara died, leaving the Mauryan throne to his eldest son .
However, a younger son, Ashoka meaning 'one without grief' - was the
viceroy of Ujjain and Taxila during Bindusara's reign. Due to untimely
death of his father, he had to suppress the rebellion of Taxila.
It is said that Ashoka challenged his brothers for succession, and after four
years of brutal warfare, he established his control of the Mauryan empire in
269 B.C. by taking his ministers into confidence. Nevertheless, the fact that his
formal coronation was delayed for some years until 269 B.C. due to th e bloody
dispute with his other brothers (100) for the power, has no reliable evidence.
(Until the last few centuries, Western scholars to be more thought Ashoka a
legend than a fact. It was only with the discovery of the inscribed pillars
stating the prin ciples and laws of Ashoka's reign that his achievements
were established as historical fact by the West.)
In spite of these violent and ruthless beginnings, Ashoka would prove to be
one of the most influential and cherished political and even spiritual le aders
in Indian History. Under him, the Mauryan Empire reached its pinnacle and for
the first time, the whole of the sub -continent, leaving out the extreme south, was
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1.7 EXTENSION OF EMPIRE
Very little is known about the early yea rs of Ashoka’s control or conquests.
However from the way he acquired the throne, it can be safely presumed that he
must have continued the aggressive policy.
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9
Ashoka's Empire extended to the whole of non -Tamil India and a
considerable portion of Afghan istan. It stretched from the land of Yonas,
Kambojas and Gandharas in the Kabul valley and some adjoining mountain
territory. It included the country of the Andhras in the Godavari -Krishna basin
and Isila in the north Mysore. It extended from Sopara and Gi mar i n t h e
west to Dhuli and Jaugada in the east. The territories of Ashoka seem to
have included vales of Kashmir and Nepal.
1.8 THE KALINGA WAR, 261 BC
However, the Kalinga war proved to the turning point in the career of Ashoka
and produced far reachi ng consequences not only in the history of India but
also in south east Asia. In 260 BC, Ashoka was still pursuing the goal of
uniting India by pushing control towards south. In the 6th year of his reign,
he conquered Kalinga. It is said that during the wa r of Kalinga 1,00,000 munotes.in
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10 persons were slain, 1,50,000 held captive. The sight of the massacre
involved in his conquest deeply troubled Ashoka and affected his mind.
Ashoka could not see the sufferings of the people who survived in the war.
The Kalinga war ope ned a new epoch in the history of Magadha as well as
India. Lord Siva seems to have been his favourite deity till then. He
renounced war and turned Buddhist and sought peace in Buddha's preaching
of love and ahimsa (non-violence). The war also developed in him a hatred
for all kinds of violence. So he gave up hunting and slaughtering of animals.
He became a strict vegetarian. He propagated his new religion by engraving
his Dhamma, Law of Piety through the rock edicts throughout his empire.
1.9 ASHOKA'S RELI GIO US POLICY AND SPREAD OF
BUDDHISM
Ashoka became a fervent Buddhist. From this time till his death in 232 BC,
Ashoka attempted to rule the Mauryan Empire as a Buddhist state, based on the
principles of Buddhist dharma and the ideals of non-violence and
compassion. Compared to the political and social patterns followed in other
parts of the ancient world, where the aim of the state was mere security and
power for the privileged, this was indeed a noteworthy experiment.
Rock edicts and pillars:
Thirteen year s into his reign after the Kalinga war, Ashoka's personal
Buddhist principles were interpreted into state policy in a number of ways.
He began by clearly establishing the ideas of Buddhist dharma as the basis for
his rule. He spread his beliefs of Dhamma to different parts of his
kingdom. (Dhamma is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit word Dharma).
Inscribed on rocks and pillars, the edicts made the ornate structures famous - t h e
rocks were known as stupas, and the pillars as the Ashoka pillars. Although
only ten survive, it is estimated that at one time a number of these pillars
(each weighing about 50 tons and standing
40-50 feet high) were scattered throughout India, as well as modern day
Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. These are referred to as the rock edicts.
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11 The edicts had one thing in common - they subscribed to high ideals and
they set forth unique political principles of tolerance and compassion. They
also contained his ideas on matters such as religion, Government and
people's behaviour towards on e another. These edicts are in the form of 44
royal orders.
Propagation of the Dhamma: Testifying to Ashoka's effort to ensure that
people could read and understand the message of peace.
Usually, the script was Brahmi and the language, Prakrit - both popular
with the public.
Many edicts were in languages and scripts appropriate to the region of
his far -lung kingdom.
the sites chosen for these engravings were areas where people were went
to meet
The inscriptions were engraved at a convenient height.
The te achings aimed at moulding the general behaviour of the people.
Mostly Buddhist teachings counseled obedience to parents and those older
in age; kindness towards employees and slaves; non violence towards animals -
refraining from meat consumption and anima l sacrifices.
The minor rock edict stated that,
"Father and mother must be obeyed. Similarly respect for the living
creatures must be enforced. Truth must be spoken. These are the virtues
of the law of piety, which must be practiced. Similarly the pupil mu st revere
the teacher, and proper courtesy must he shown to relatives. This is the
ancient standard of piety. This leads to length of days, and according to
this, man must act."
The third rock edict says,
`Abstention from killing animals is meritorious. Mo deration in possession
and moderation in expenditure are also meritorious.'
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12 Dispatch of Missionaries to different countries:
Ashoka also promoted the spread of Buddhism by sending missionaries to
neighboring countries.
1. He himself started touring places an d he called them as dhamma yatras.
2. To achieve his goals, he requisitioned state officials such as Rajukas,
pradeshikas and Yuktas.
3. He appointed officials such as Dharma Mahamantras and Dharma yuktas
whose sole business was propagation of religion.
4. He calle d for Buddhist councils for expounding Buddhist doctrines.
Although Buddhism had already begun to spread at a slow pace as a result
of trade, communication and interaction, the painstaking efforts of Ashoka
particularly increased the exposure of other soci eties to Buddhism, and thus its
increasing importance as an Asian, not just an Indian, religion spread to Syria,
Egypt, Macedonia, Central Asia, Burnia during his reign.
1.10 A WELFARE STATE
One of the most notable features of Ashoka's rule was the reforms aimed at
creating a more compassionate state. The Mauryan Empire stopped wars of
aggression, although the military certainly still defended the empire. Since there
were now no more wars of aggression by the Mauryan king, the merger of
states ceased. Judic ial reform reduced the cruelty and harsh punishments of
the legal system. Citizens of the state were encouraged to behave with
kindness towards the deprived. In typically Indian fashion, this compassion
extended to the natural world. Protection of animals and habitat was given
priority. Cruelty to animals was forbidden.
Ashoka attempted a paternalistic society - one in which the state had immense
power, but in which it was committed to take care of the people and
guarantee a certain quality of life. Increas ed state power included expanded
bureaucratic control and more taxes. The state used these taxes to carry out a
number of public work developments. The Mauryan state paid for the
digging of wells, irrigation projects, importing of herbs for medicinal
purpo ses and even the planting of trees and creation of rest houses for
travelers. State Finances were also spent in constructing sites of worship and
preserving the texts of Buddhism.
Policy of toleration:
Even though Buddhism was protected, Ashoka did not repress Hinduism or
Jainism. In fact, state funds were also used for improvement of sites for
these religions. In his rock edicts, Ashoka expressed his loyalty to religious
tolerance - this alone marks his rule as unique in human history. He in fact
took deli ght in being called 'Devanampiya'.
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13 1.11 FALL OF MAURYAS
The great Mauryan Empire did not last long after the end of Ashoka's rule.
This characteristic political trial of a state based on generous but powerful
control, and a state based on dharnia, collaps ed within a few years after his
death in 232 B.C. There is a controversy as who was his successor but if
Puranic tradition is to be believed, the immediate successor of Ashoka
was his son Kunala. But his name is nowhere mentioned in the Chronicles of
Kashm ir. Most probably the Mauryan Empire broke up after his demise and it
was divided among his sons. One thing is certain that the Mauryan country
began to fall apart and finally ended in 185 B.C. when Pushyamitra Sunga,
Commander in chief of Brihadatta, the last Mauryan king killed him and
established the Sunga dynasty in its place.
The decline of this empire may be attributed to many causes.
Seven kings (some say 10) followed Ashoka within a period of 50
years. Besides this, after Ashoka there were no strong kings to rule such
a vast empire.
According to some historians, the Brahmanas felt antagonized because
their privileged position was affected by the policies of Ashoka.
However, Ashoka was extremely tolerant towards other religions.
There are evidences in the inscriptions that show his royal patronage to
Brahamanas, Jains and Ajivikas.
The two constant features of Indian political instability re -emerged local
leaders trying to take back some of their regional and tribal power, and
assaults by outside invad ers from Central Asia. Various parts of the Empire
became independent and soon the Mauryan Empire gave birth to smaller
segments. There was entry of foreign ruling dynasties like the Sungas, the
Kanvas, the Kushanas the Satavahanas, the sakas in India thro ugh
northwestern frontier and Central Asia.
Ashoka's transformation into a staunch supporter of Buddhism, his belief
in the principle of non -violence, also played a role in the decline of the
Mauryan Empire. During his reign, Ashoka gave up war and preache d
peace in the kingdom. It therefore may be assumed that since the later
part of Ashoka's rule was devoid of wars, the military were inactive and
this weakened them. The state also could not collect taxes properly,
which was essential for keeping a vast ar my and the administrative
network working.
Check Your Progress:
1. Trace the Career and achievements of Ashoka Maurya.
1.12 SOCIETY AND ECONOMY
The Indica of Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at the court of
Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra, gives a colo urful description of the munotes.in
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14 Mauryan society under the rule of Chandragupta. He also expressed his
admiration for the efficient administration of the empire. His book 'Indica'
also presents a collection of comments of other Roman Greek travelers,
speaking of t he general prosperity, Megasthenes wrote, "The Indians,
dressed in bright and rich colors, they liberally used ornaments and gems."
He also spoke of the division of society according to occupation and the
large number of religious sects and foreigners in t he empire.
He further reported that agriculture thrived, water was abundant and mineral
wealth was found in plenty. Most of the people worked on farms. They
either had their own lands or worked as labourers on the land owned by the
ruler. The state brought n ew lands under cultivation and developed
irrigation facilities. The famous Sudarshana Lake was built during this time.
Forestry was another occupation and the superintendent of forests was
entrusted with the responsibility of developing their resources. Cattle
rearing and artisanship were popular professions and a large number of
people were engaged in activities like animal herding, weaving, pottery
making, mining, shipbuilding, shoe making, fishing etc. Irons, copper, silver
and gold were available in l arge quantity. Wood was used for construction
purposes.
Traders of all trade were provided state security. Trade was managed by
guilds that looked after both internal and external trade. The guilds gave
security in their occupation and finance whenever needed. A network of
roads, which served as important trade routes, crisscrossed the Mauryan
Empire. The merchants and traders took their wares from one part of the
empire to another. They carried goods to far -off places by both land and sea.
A royal highway connecting Taxila and Pataliputra was built - a road, which
survives to this day as the Grand Trunk road. Ships were used for
international trade. At this time, India had good trade relations with Egypt,
Greece, Syria, south East Asia and China.
A large se ction of the people worked in the Imperial army. They were
employed under various Boards like cavalry, infantry and navy and were
well paid and lived a comfortable life.
A few people worked as ministers in the royal court or were high officials,
who looked a fter the various administrative districts of the empire. The
society at that time also had Buddhist and Jain monks who generally lived in
monasteries. The condition of women was not very good. Birth of a female
child was not welcome. However they enjoyed parental property. Although
unmarried women were allowed to pursue the study philosophy, they were
deprived of the privilege after marriage. Especially the rulers and noblemen
practiced polygamy. Prostitution as an institution existed in the society.
Prostitutes were taxed and protected against abuse. Accomplished courtesans
of the dancing girl class enjoyed a privileged position at the court. Slavery
too existed. Slavery as an established institution was not only accepted in the
law books but also in the inscriptions. But it appears that slaves were not
mistreated. Megasthenes reports that he did not see any slaves in India.
Caste system was widespread. However the kings were tolerant towards all munotes.in
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15 religions. Punishments generally were severe. The general pr inciple was that,
'those whose guilt is believed to be true shall be subjected to torture.'
1.13 ART AND LITERATURE
Art and sculpture:
Art flourished during the Mauryan period. The palace of Chandragupta, the
rock and pillar edicts, the cave paintings and such other monuments are the
living examples of the magnificent art of those days.
The palace of Chandra Gupta Maurya at Pataliputra was magnificent
with eighty pillars in the royal hall decorated with golden vines and silver
birds. The palace had a beauti ful park decorated with fishponds,
ornamental trees and shrubs.
While perishable materials like wood and bricks were used in the construction
of cities and palaces, permanent materials like stone were used for religious
structures. The belief probably was that the religious structures being the house
of Gods had to remain forever in contrast to the dwellings of the humans, which
was transitory in nature. Yet the beauty of the cities was unique in character.
According to the writings of the Greek diplomat Me gasthenes, Pataliputra, the
capital -surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers -
surpassed the splendors of contemporary Persian sites such as Susa and
Ecbatana.
The Mauryans outclassed in the art of stone carving. Mauryan stone sculpture s are
characterized by a polished mirror -like surface, which has maintained its shine to
this day. This is evident in the famous statue of a beautiful Yakshi, or a female
figure unearthed at Didarganj in Patna.
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16 The sandstone pillars were highly polished to a mirror -like effect, and
crowned by capitals of animal figures. Some bore an elephant, others a bull
or a lion. They are made of fine single block (called monoliths) are so well
polished that they give an appearance of metallic columns of 40 -50 feet in
height. Ten of such magnificent monolithic pillars are found in Delhi,
Allahabad, Sanchi, Sarnath, Vaishali, and some other places. They were
erected to spread the gospel of Buddhism.
The floral designs on these pillars and the use of pillars themselves show Persian
influence. It is said that the Persian palace at Persepolis was the motivation
behind these pillars. The animal figures of lion, bull, or elephant, on
uppermost part of the pillars also have this well polished exterior.
The Sarnath pillar by fa r is the best of the series. It is crowned with four
lions standing back to back and facing all four directions and has a big
wheel of Dharma with thirty -two spokes positioned on their shoulders. This
unique pillar at Sarnath with four lions was chosen as the national emblem
of India upon independence. The chakra at the bottom of the Sarnath pillar
is acknowledged as the Ashoka chakra and is part of the Indian national
flag.
It indeed reveals an extraordinary skill in art and sculpture. Dr.V.A.Smith
comment ed on the beauty of the pillar thus, 'It would be difficult to find in any
country an example of ancient animal sculpture, superior or even equal to
this beautiful work of art which successfully combines realistic modeling
with ideal dignity and is furnish ed in every detail, with perfect accuracy.'
Mauryan artisans also carved out a number of rock -cut caves throughout
the empire for the monks to live in. The earliest examples are the Barabar
hill caves near Gaya. The caves were the products of immense patie nce
and enormous skill.
The Stupas were built throughout the empire to enshrine the relics of Buddha.
The Mahayana Buddhism influenced the stupas. They were the dome
like structures made of brick and stone and are also known as chaityas. The
general belief is that Lord Buddha ordered one of his disciples to erect a
stupa over the remains of his body after cremation. It is said that during
the time of Ashoka 84,000 stupas were built in India. Of these, the most
famous are at Sanchi and Barhul. The Buddhist c aves in the Barabar hills near
Gaya in Bihar are famous. They also built a number of Buddhist stupas. munotes.in
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Chandragupta Maurya and King Ashoka
17
Literature :
The main languages of the times were Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali. Some of
the important literary works were Kautilya's Arthashastra, Panini' s grammar,
Bhadrabahu's Kalpasutra, Vatsyayana's Kamasutra. The very fact that Ashoka
used writing as a means of medium to spread his ideas shows that the people
were literate. The University of Taxila was famous. Usually preliminary
education was imparted in the monasteries, gurukulas.
Check Your Progress:
1. Give an account of the main features of Mauryan administration.
1.14 SUMMARY
It is thus found that the rise of mahajanapadas resulted in some dynasties
becoming more important than others. In the mids t of competition, emerged a
single paramount power — n a m e l y t h e M a u r y a n Empire which laid the
foundation of a new rule with a strong government.
It is indeed difficult to explain satisfactorily the causes of the decline of
the Mauryan Empire by presenting s everal occurrences like military
inactivity, Brahmincal resentment, popular uprisings or economic pressures.
Dr. R. K. Mookaerji commented on the downfall thus,
"But even if Ashoka's policy brought about the downfall of the Mauryan
Empire, India has no cau se to regret the fact. That Empire would have fallen
to pieces sooner or later, even if Ashoka had followed the policy blood and
iron of his grandfather. But the moral ascendancy of Indian culture over a
large part of the civilized world, which Ashoka was mostly instrumental in
bringing about, remained for centuries, as a monument of her glory and
has not altogether vanished even now after the lapse of more than two
thousand years.”
The Mauryan empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya and strengthened
by his i llustrious grandson Ashoka gave the country a much needed political
unity, an appreciable system of administration, cultural and commercial
contacts with other countries, economic prosperity and above all for munotes.in
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Ancient India
18 preaching ideas of international peace and brot herhood, religious tolerance
and nonviolence.
1.15 QUESTIONS
1. Why did Ashoka embrace Buddhism? What efforts did he take
for the spread of Buddhism far and wide?
2. Write Short notes on:
a) Sources of Mauryan Study.
b) Ashoka's Inscriptions
c) Kalinga war
d) Ashoka and Bu ddhism
e) Causes for the full of Mauryas.
f) Social and economic development during the Mauryan rule.
g) Art and architecture.
1.16 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A. S. - Rashtrakutas & Their Times
2. Ayyanger S. K. - Ancient India and South Indian History &
Culture
Oriental Book Agency, Pune 1941
3. Bhattacharya N.N. - Ancient Rituals and their Social Contents,
(Delhi, Manohar Publication) 1996
4. Chakravarti Uma - The Social Dimensions of Early
Buddhism - Delhi, Mumshiram
Manoharilal - 1996
5. Chakaravar ti K.C. - Ancient Indian Culture & Civilization
Vora & Co. Bombay 1992
6. Jha D. N. - Ancient India in Historical Outline
Motilal Banarasidas, Publishers Pvt. New
Delhi.
7. Kulkarni C. M. - Ancient Indian History & Culture
Karnataka Publishing House, Mumba i-
1956.
Pannikar K.M. - Harsha & His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla & Sons Co. 1922
8. Kautilya - The Arthshatra Penguin Book, 1987
9. Luniya B. N. - Life & Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra - 1994 munotes.in
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Chandragupta Maurya and King Ashoka
19 10. Majumdar R. C. - Ancient India, Mot ilal Banarasidas,
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi - 1974
11. Mookerjee R. K. - Ancient India,
Allahabad, Indian Press, 1956
12. Mukherjee B. N. - Rise and Fall of the Kushanas
- Empire
13. Nilkantha Shastri - A History of South India, Madras, OOP
1979
14. Nandi R. N. - Social Roots of Religion in Ancient India
15. Pathak V.S. - Historians of India (Ancient India)
- Asia Publishing Bombay 1966
16. Pannikar K.M. - Harsha and His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla and Sons Co. 1922
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20 2
MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mauryan Polity
2.3 King
2.4 Council of Ministers
2.5 Administration
2.6 Summary
2.7 Questions
2.8 Additional Reading
2.0 OBJECTIVES
To introduce students to Ma uryan Administration
To understand Mauryan Polity.
To orient learners about Mauryan Judicial and Military organization.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Chandragupta Maurya not only founded a vast empire, but also established
an effective administrative system that help ed the empire to last for a very
long time. The basic administrative values and machinery was set up by
Chandragupta Maurya. It continued without any major transformation
except under Ashoka. Ashoka tried to liberalize the entire administrative
structure b y elaborating the public duties of the state officials. The
Mauryan Empire had an efficient and centralised administrative system.
The chief source of information regarding administration under the
Mauryan Empire is Chanakya’s work, Arthashastra. Megasthen es also
gives some information in his book Indica.
Check your progress:
1] Describe the contribution of Chandragupta Maurya in administration.
2] Examine how Ashoka tried to reform the Mauryan administration.
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Mauryan Ad ministration
21 2.2 MAURYAN POLITY
The Arthashastra of Kauti lya (Chanakya), the Indica of Megasthenes and
the various edicts of Ashoka provide useful evidence regarding the
administrative system of the Mauryas. The Arthashastra is the best source
of political theory. According to some writers the Mauryan administra tion
was a military rule or centralized despotism. But a close scrutiny of the
different aspects of the Mauryan political organization makes it clear that
it was a constitutional monarchy which had decentralization. There were
certain checks and balances o n the monarch so that he could not become
absolute or autocratic.
There was a council of ministers known as mantriparishad . There were
two popular assemblies known as paura and janapada to which the king
was responsible. He consulted them on important matt ers of policy and
administration. Besides, the Mauryan kings followed the principles laid
down by the Arthashastra of Kautilya or Chanakya. This could be
considered as the dharma of the king. Kautilya says, “In the happiness of
the subjects lies the happin ess of the king; in their welfare, his; he should
not consider good that which pleases himself; he should consider good
that which pleases his subjects.” Ashoka highlighted the same ideal when
he said, “All men are my children; just as I wish every welfare and
happiness for my children, both in this world and the next, I wish the same
thing for all men.” Thus, the ideal of happiness and welfare of the whole
community was the guiding spirit of the Mauryan polity.
Check your progress:
1] Describe the Mauryan administration.
2] Describe the guidelines for the king mentioned in the Arthashastra.
2.3 KING
Kautilya was the chief advocate of the monarchical form of government.
To Kautilya the king was the spirit and the state was its expression. The
welfare of the state depended upon the kingship and it automatically
became the symbol of sovereignty. According to Kautilya, kingship was
the embodiment of the unity of the interests of the various sections of the
community. It was the guiding authority which regulated all political and
political relations.
The king was the ultimate head of the state and administration. He
performed legislative, executive, judicial and military functions of the
state. His chief task was to protect his subjects and work for their welfar e.
From Megasthenes we come to know a great deal of the king’s own part in
the administration. Megasthenes states that, “the king does not sleep in
day-time but remains in the court the whole day for the purpose of judging
causes and other public business which was not interrupted even when the
hour arrived for massaging his body. Even when the king has his hair
combed and dressed, he has no respite from public business. At that time munotes.in
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Ancient India
22 he gives audience to his ambassadors.” The twenty -four hours of each day
and night were divided into eight parts and in each part he performed
different duties. The king lived in a large and comfortable palace which
was highly praised by Megasthenes. Elaborate precautions were taken to
ensure the safety of the king’s person wit hin his palace. All personal
services were performed by women whose trustworthiness and efficiency
had been tested in advance.
The princes were given careful training and employed in offices suited to
their capability and interest. Kautilya lays down the p rocedure for
imparting training to the princes with a view to enable them to take up the
responsibility of kingship. He was of the opinion that an indisciplined
prince should not be put on the throne even if he happened to be the only
son of the king. His son or a daughter’s son should be preferred to him.
Bad tempered princes were to be put under restraint and kept away from
the throne.
Check your progress:
1] Describe the duties of the king.
2] Examine the treatment given to the prince.
2. 4 COUNCIL OF M INISTERS
There was a Council of Ministers to advise the king known as
Mantriparishad. It was also a kind of check on the absolute power of the
king. However the powers of the council of ministers itself were limited
due to the fact that it was the king h imself who appointed the council of
ministers. Kautilya in his Arthashastra stressed three important qualities
that a minister had to possess. These were the qualities of birth, integrity
and intelligence. Emphasizing the importance of the council of minis ters
to advise the king on the administration of the state, Kautilya writes,
“Sovereignty is possible only with assistance. A single wheel can never
move. Hence, he shall employ ministers and hear their opinion”. Further
he says that the king cannot steer the ship of the state without the
assistance of ministers. Ministers are the eyes of the king. Thus, “all kinds
of administrative measures are preceded by deliberations in a well -formed
council”
Kautilya classified the ministers in two categories, the mant ris and the
amatyas . The mantris constituted the inner circle of the council of
ministers which corresponded to the modern cabinet. They included the
prime minister, the purohita , the commander -in-chief and the crown
prince ( Yuvaraja) . The amatyas formed t he outer circle of the council of
ministers. The amatyas corresponded to the ministers of state of the
modern cabinet. The policies were formulated by the mantris where as
they were implemented by the amatyas . In addition to the amatyas, the
council of min isters included the leaders of the popular assemblies, the
paura -janapada . They were designated as mahamatya . The all -inclusive
larger council resembled a senate. munotes.in
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Mauryan Ad ministration
23 Kautilya was in favour of a small cabinet. The normal size of the cabinet
was twelve, sixtee n or twenty members depending on the need of the time.
According to Kautilya it “shall consist of as many members as the needs
of his dominion require.” Each of the ministers was in charge of one or a
few administrative departments. One of them was appoint ed as the prime
minister. They were appointed by the king on the basis of merit and they
could be dismissed by him at his wish. The ministers could issue orders,
written and oral, as mentioned in the sixth Rock Edict of Ashoka. Every
proposal had to be scr utinized by the minister before it was accepted or
rejected by the king.
The ministers were directly responsible to the king for the discharge of
their duties. They also had an indirect responsibility to the people. By their
character and work they tried t o win the approval of the people. The prime
minister had greater responsibility for the good government of the empire.
That was why Kautilya assigned second position to him after the king.
Check your progress:
1] Discuss the duties of the council of minist ers.
2] Examine the roles of mantris and amatyas.
2. 5 ADMINISTRATION
The Mauryan administration was carried on by a highly organized,
efficient and centralized bureaucracy. Besides the ministers who were in
charge of the different departments, Kautilya m entions two very high
officials, the collector general ( samaharta ) and the treasurer and keeper of
things ( sannidhata ). The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces
with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan Edicts, the name of
the four p rovincial capitals were Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in the west,
Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). At the centre of the
structure was the king who had the power to enact laws. Kautilya advises
the King to propagate dharma when the soc ial order based on the Varnas
and Ashramas (stages in life) perishes.
According to Megasthenese, the empire exercised a military of 600,000
infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. For the purpose of
internal and external security, there was a va st espionage system to keep a
watch on the officials and messengers went to and fro. Kings appointed
officials to collect taxes from herders, farmers, traders and craftsmen etc.
The king was the centre of administrative superstructure and king used to
select ministers and high officials. Administrative structure was as
follows:
King assisted by Mantriparishad (council of ministers) whose members
included Mantriparishad Adhyaksha and below him was as following:
Yuvaraj: The crown prince
Purohita: The chief p riest munotes.in
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Ancient India
24 The Senapati: The commander in chief
Amatya: Civil servants and few other ministers.
Scholars suggest that Mauryan Empire was further divided into various
departments with important officials:
Revenue department :- Important officials: Sannidhata: Chi ef treasury,
Samaharta: collector general of revenue.
Military department: Megasthenese mentions a committee with six
subcommittees for coordinating military activity of these, one looked after
the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, and the third was
responsible for foot -soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots
and the sixth for elephants.
Espionage Department: Mahamatyapasarpa controlled Gudhapurushas
(secret agents)
Police department: The jail was known as Bandhangara and it was
different from lock -up called Charaka. There were police head quarters in
all principal centres.
Provinicial and Local Administration: important officials: Pradeshika:
modern district magistrates, Sthanika: tax collecting officer under
Pradeshika, Dur gapala: governor of fort, Antapala: Governor of frontier,
Akshapatala: Accountant general, Lipikaras: Scribes, Gopas: responsible
for accountants etc.
Municipal Administration: Important officials: Nagaraka: incharge of
city administration, Sita - Adhyaksha : Supervisor of agriculture, samastha -
Adhyaksha: superintendent of market, Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of
ships, Sulkaadhyaksha: Collector of tolls, Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent
of Iron, Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines and Pauthavadhyaksha:
Superin tendent of weight and measures etc.
Megasthenes referred for six committees of which five were to look after
Pataliputra’s administration. Industries, Foreigners, Registration of birth
and deaths, Trade, Manufacture and sale of goods and Collection of sale s
tax were under the control of administration.
Check your progress:
1] Discuss the various departments of Mauryan administration.
2] Discuss the municipal administration under the Mauryas.
2. 6 SUMMARY
The Mauryas not only built a vast empire, covering pr actically in the
entire subcontinent and extending beyond it in the north -west, but also
integrated it by adopting a suitable administrative system. The
administrative set -up established by Chandragupta Maurya (c. 325 – 300 munotes.in
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Mauryan Ad ministration
25 BC) , the founder of the Maurya n dynasty, continued under his successors
and no change was felt necessary except that Ashoka tried to liberalise it
further and elaborated the public duties of the state officials. The basic
principles of Mauryan administration remained the same till the weaker
Mauryas lost their hold over the administration. Three major sources viz.,
Kautilya’s Arthashastra , Megasthenes’ Indica and Ashokan inscriptions
provide necessary information on Mauryan administration. On the basis of
the Arthashastra and the Indic a many scholars put forwarded the idea of a
highly centralised and uniform structure of Mauryan administration. This
idea was prevailed for a long time but now scholars like Romila Thapar,
Gerard Fussman have modified this view. In general Mauryan state wa s a
monarchy with a powerful king at the centre of the political system. The
Mauryan kings were guided by the Council of Ministers and followed the
advice of the Arthashastra. They regarded the welfare and interests of their
subjects more important than th eir own interests (Yoga -khema). Ashoka
declared in one of his inscriptions that all his subjects were like his
children and he was most anxious to promote their spiritual and temporal
well-being. It indicates that the idea of paternal kingship became popul ar
during the reign of Ashoka.
2. 7 QUESTIONS
1. Analyze the Mauryan Polity.
2. Discuss the duties of the King.
3. Examine the responsibilities of the council of mnisters.
2. 8 ADDITIONAL READING
Dr. Eugene D’ Souza, Ancient India, Manan Prakashan
Upind er Singh – A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India
(From the Stone Age to the 12th Century).
https://www.jagranjosh.com/general -knowledge/the -mauryan -empire -
administration -1437217258 -1
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26 3
POST MAURYAN DYNASTIES - SUNGAS,
KUSHANAS AND SATAVAHANAS
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction: The age of new Invasions
3.2 The Sunga dynasty
3.3 The Kanvas and the Satavahanas
3.4 Kujula Kadaphises
3.5 Kadaphises II
3.6 Kanishka, a gallant w arrior
3.7 Kanishka and Buddhism
3.8 Science and Literature
3.9 Importance of the coins
3.10 Successors of Kanishka
3.11 The Satavahanas
3.12 The Sakas
3.13 The Indo -Greeks and The Indo -Parthians
3.14 Summary
3.15 Questions
3.16 Additional Reading
3.0 OBJ ECTIVES
In this chapter an attempt is made to understand the political, social and
economic conditions of India during this period, to assess the interaction of
these foreign groups with Indians, to understand the absorption of these
foreigners into the In dian society leading to the fusion of culture, an analytical
study is made of the cultural achievements of the period.
a) To study the history of Kushanas.
b) To assess the interaction of this dynasty with Indians and its
spread of Buddhism
c) To learn the cultural achievements.
d) To assess the impact of the Satavahanas Indo -Greek and Saka
rule on India. munotes.in
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Post Mauryan Dynasties -
Sungas, Kushanas and
Satavahanas
27 3.1 INTRODUCTION: THE AGE OF NEW INVASIONS:
The emergence of the Mauryan dynasty in India had facilitated the
consolidation of political and economic unity. For the f irst time India had
taken the shape of a nation because almost all parts were under the control of
the Mauryas except the Southern end of India. But with the closing stages
this glorious rule, a brilliant phase of the history of India ended.
After Ashoka , the successors were feeble and the Mauryan dynasty was divided
into small principalities. The picture was of instability and insecurity
everywhere. There was no strong central authority to control the newly sprung
states, which had declared their indepen dence. The internal disturbances offered
a golden opportunity for the foreign invaders to seize different parts of India.
Among the many foreigners who entered India the outstanding ones were the
Sungas, the Kanvas, The Satavahanas, the Indo -Greeks, the In do-Parthians, the
Kushanas. These events on the northwestern borders were to have a profound
effect both on her own history but also on that of Asia. A distinctive feature
of the coming of the new lot of people here was that they came, adopted
themselves t o the changed situations, influenced the Indians by theirs and
finally were absorbed in the Indian culture themselves. This indeed proves
the flexibility and strength of Indian culture.
The sources for the study of the various dynasties are inadequate and not well
documented.
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Ancient India
28 The Kushanas:
Kushana Rulers Era
Heraios 5 – 45 BC
Kujulu Kapdphises 30 – 65 AD
Vima Takto 80 – 95 AD
Vima Kadphises 95 – 18 AD
Kaniishka I 18 – 70 AD
Huvishka I 70 – 180 AD
Vasu Deva I 180 – 210 AD
Kanishka II 210 – 230 AD
Vashishka 230 – 250 AD
Kanishka III 255 – 275 AD
Vaskushana 275 – 290 AD
Vasu Deva II 290 – 310 AD
Shaka 325 – 345 AD
Xandesh 335 – 336 AD
Vashishka 350 – 360 AD
Vasu Deva III 360 – 365 AD
Kipunada 350 – 375 AD
The next important chapter in India' s history begins with the a of another
wave of Central Asian tribes called the Yueh -chih. The Yueh -Chihs belonged
to the pastoral nomad state, which is now known as Inner Mongolia. This
nomadic horde was the members of the Xiongnu association. They were
China's chief foes during the Han period. The Great Wall of China was
built to defend the territory that the Hans had occupied from Xiongnu.
So, because of the chaotic and unpredictable conditions on the borders of
China, The Yeuhchi tribe was forced to lea ve the country. They moved to
Central Asia and settled in Bactria, Parthia and Afghanistan, leaving back
the fertile plains of Xiongnu. Here, they came into contact with the Greek
culture and steadily but surely lost their nomadic habits and fitted well to this
culture. The Yueh -Chih nobles intermarried the local rich women of high status
creating several powerful clans.
Gradually they were divided into five branches. One of these branches —
Kouel Chougang (Kushans) — was superior to all. About the middle o f the first
century A.D. one of those tribes, they overpowered the others and founded the
Kushan state. The Kushanas, however, did not do away with Sakas entirely,
and allowed them to continue to be under the rule of their princes and show
loyalty to Kusha na rulers. munotes.in
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Post Mauryan Dynasties -
Sungas, Kushanas and
Satavahanas
29 3.2 THE SUNGA DYNASTY
The important sources for the Sunga period are available in the inscriptions
from Ayodhya, Vidisha, and Bharut. The other sources are Gargi Samhita,
the Divyavadana, the Puranas, patanjali's Mahabhyasa, Kalidasa's
Malavikag nimitra, Banabhatta's Harshacharita.
Pushyamitra Sunga was the commander -in-chief of the last Mauryan
ruler Brihadatta. He became the ruler of the Magadha and neighbouring
territories after killing the last king in 185 B.C. According to the Vedic texts
and the writings of Panini, he belonged to the clan of Bharadwaja
Brahmanas. There is a reference to the assassination of Brihadatta by
Pushyamitra in the Harshacharita of Banabhatta and the Puranas.
The kingdom of Pushyamitra was extended upto Narmada in the south, and
controlled Jalandhar and Sialkot in the Punjab in the northwestern regions. As
far as the northwestern boundary is concerned it cannot be stated with reliably
that they belonged to him. But tradition acclaims Pushyamitra to be the ruler
of the se regions also.
The Sungas governed the kingdom with the help of a mantriparishad. This
council existed both in the center and the provinces. The Viceroys
administered the provinces. During the Sunga rule Brahmanism revived its
vigour. The Bhagavata form of religion prevailed. The Bharbat stupa and the
ivory works in its fine manner prove the promotion of art. Patanjali's
Mahabhashya is an example of the successful literature of the Sunga.
Pushyamitra had to be on guard in the northwest because of the constant
Greek threats. He had to fight two wars the first one with Demetrios, king
of Bactria and the second one with King Manender. During the first war,
Demetrios conquered Taxila and Sindh and left his lieutenants Manender
and Appolodotos to look after the regions respectively. The second war
was fought between Manender and Vasumitra the grandson of Pushyamitra.
The Greek General defeated Vasumitra in the war. Pushyamitra must have
been an aged man and his grandson must have looked after the kingdom
during the second war with the Greeks.
There is a reference to the two horse sacrifices performed by Pushyamitra in
the Ayodhya Inscriptions. Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years (187 -81
BC). His Son Agnimitra succeeded him. This prince is the hero of a fam ous
drama by India's greatest playwright, Kalidasa. Agnimitra used to hold his
court in the city of Vidisa, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa. Not much is
known about the king through either the inscriptions or the coins. The next ruler
was his son Vasumitr a during whose time the Greek invader defeated him
on the banks of river Sindhu.
However the power of the Sungas gradually weakened. It is said that the
Sunga dynasty had a line of ten rulers, the last of them being Devabhuti. He
was supposed to be a luxur y loving person who neglected his duties.
Vasudeva, the minister of Devabhuti got him killed by a female
attendant while he was merrymaking and grabbed the throne. munotes.in
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Ancient India
30 Thus the Sunga period though is less reflected as a great role in Indian history
yet is sign ificant in the matter of its administration, religion, art and literature. As
far as the administration was concerned, they neither contributed much to
political unity nor introduce any novel administrative ideas. But the kings to
a certain degree succeede d in defending the northwestern frontier against
recurring invasions of the Greeks.
The achievements of the Sungas in the field of art are worth mentioning.
Some of them are the vihara at Bhaga near Poona, the stupa atAmaravati, the
no 9 chaitya hall at Aj anta, Bharut and Bodhgaya monuments. Human figures
played a prominent role in the Sunga art. One can see them in the superb
figures of Virudha Yaksha, Gangeya Yaksha, Chakravaka Nagarjuna,
Sirima Devata, Suchiloma Yaksha and such others.
Hinduism especiall y, Vaisnavism revived during this Period. Vedic rites were
invigorated. The yagnas, which had taken a back seat under the Mauryas,
came to be patronized. H.C. Raychaudhari rightly says that, 'they (The
Sungas) heralded the dawn of a new Brahminical movemen t which reached its
climax in the spacious days of the Guptas.
3.3 THE KANVAS AND THE SATAVAHANAS
The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty Devabhuti was overthrown Vasudeva
Kanva, his minister in 75 B.C. The extent of Kanva territory was confined to
the areas o f Sunga rule. However, the Kanva ruler seems to have allowed the
Sungas to carry on their rule in anonymity in a parts of their four
dominions.
Magadha was their main center of power. This period is said to have
witnessed the rule of four kings extending t o a period about 45 years.
Susarman was the last ruler of the Kanva dynasty. He was slain by the
Andhra prince whose identity is not known.
Check Your Progress:
1. Discuss the contribution of the Sunga dynasty in the History of ancient India.
3.4 KUJULA KA DAPHISES
In about 25 AD, they overpowered the Saka - Pa hla va or Parth ian s who ruled
Hindu Kush under the leadership of Kujula Kadaphises (30 A.D - 65 A.D)
and founded one of the greatest empires of India. It was one of the
outstanding and illustrious dynast ies of ancient India, both culturally and
territorially. Kadaphises conquered Gandhara, southern Afghanisthan and
Parthia. He stuck his own coins.
3.5 KADAPHISES II
After his death his grandson Vima Kadphises commonly known as
Kadaphises II (65 A.D. to 75 A.D.) who made Kushan a paramount power of
northern India. His reign saw emergence of Kushan Empire when he munotes.in
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31 conquered North western regions, Punjab, and large territories of Gangetic valley
also. (Pakistan and modern Afghanistan) and northern India. Vima K adphises
revolutionized the monitory system by introducing gold coins to the existing
copper coinage. The issue of gold coins reveals two important things, one
the prosperity of his empire and the other his conversion to Saivism. The
coins show that he cam e under influence of Hinduism and took opportunity
to proclaim himself Mahishwara, another name for Lord Shiva, on his
coins.
The Kushana Empire's trade of rare goods with China, Central Asia, Egypt
and Rome explains the wealthy and prosperous monetary economy of
Kushanas. Ample evidences of trade are available through coins and
inscriptions which made their economy strong and kingdom wealthy and
prosperous. Vima mostly used one deity, Shiva standing and with bull Nandi
on reverse of his coins.
Kanishka w as the most famous of the Kushan kings. The dates of his
mounting the throne and his relation with the earlier Kushana rulers both are
debatable issues. Some of the historians are of the opinion that Kanishka
was never related to Vima Kadphises, Kanishka w as not strictly a saka but the
term is loosely applied as he is known to have founded an era. It is not also not
known how he became the king but according to some scholars he ascended
the throne in A.D 78 while according to some others he mounted the thro ne in
18 A. D and yet others feel that he became the king in 120 A.D. of popular Saka
era (78 AD) to Kanishka while some others direct it to Vima. However,
present opinions of most competent authorities favour a date as 78 A.D.
3.6 KANISHKA, A GALLANT WARR IOR
When Kanishka rose to the throne, his kingdom consisted of Afghanistan,
Sind, Punjab and portions of the former Parthian and Bactrian
kingdoms. His empire extended from the northwest and Kashmir, to the
large parts of the Gangetic valley, Kanishka also defeated the Saka ruler
Chasten of Ujjain who accepted his suzerainty. He seized three territories
belonging to the Chinese namely, Tashkand, Khotan and Yarkhand.
Kanishka also triumphed over the Parthian king Khusru. He subjugated the
Kashmir valley and is acclaimed of laying the foundation of town, which munotes.in
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32 he named it as Kanishkapura. Kalhan, a poet and historian of Kashmir, who
wrote a famous chronicle of Kings of Kashmir, ‘Rajatarangini', a crucial
historic document, testified that Kashmir was part of hi s empire. Thus Kushan
Empire was at it's peak in terms of area during his reign.
He maintained two capitals one at Purushpura which is now situated in
Pakistan and the second one at Mathura in west Uttar Pradesh. He seems to
have endorsed the title of Kais er or Caesar on himself.
3.7 KANISHKA AND BUDDHISM
Gandhara Buddha
Kanishka's father was a saivite and his grandfather was a Buddhist.
Kanishka was a patron of Mahayana Buddhism. Kanishka embraced
Buddhism towards the middle of his reign. He is said to have been
Zoroastrian before he embraced Buddhism. He spent funds in spreading
Buddhism. Mahayana was the new form of Buddhism that was followed
during this period with the essential points of modifications, which were as
follows:
Hinayana (the lesser Path) Mahayana (the great Path)
Buddha worshipped by
symbols. Buddha deified as God and
worshipped in the form of statue.
No intermediaries in worship. Bodhisattvas as inter -medddiaries
between the Buddha and the
followers.
Direct worship to symbols. Bodhisa ttvas worshipped with
flowers, gifts to attain salvation.
Emphasis on good actions. Image worship with elaborate rituals
like prayers, acts of sacrifice, helping
the needy etc.
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33 3.8 SCIENCE AND LITERATURE
Apart from being a successful warrior, Kanishaka was certainly a man of
great taste and superior knowledge. He was a great patron of art and
literature. During his reign, a large number of Buddhist monasteries, sculptures
were built in and around Gandhara and Mathura region. Old monasteries were
repaire d and many new ones were built. Inscriptions and coins bear well -
expressed evidence to the king's keenness and enthusiasm for the spread of
Buddhism. The most celebrated monument of the many is the great Chaitya
(Shah -ji-kidheri stupa) at his capital Puru shpur. Chinese travellers Fa Hien
and Huan Tsang wrote detailed account of Kanishaka's temple building
activity in Taxila and Gandhara.
Thus Mathura and Gandhara were centres of art. Mathura developed its
distinct Indian style of art and the images were ba sed on prototypes of an
Indian Yaksha (nature deity). whereas the Gandhara school was influenced by
Greco -Roman philosophies. A new form of art — Gandhara Art — was
developed. Beautiful images of Buddha were developed in a Greek -Roman
style.
The two styles interacted to develop into classical Buddha sculptures of the
Gupta period where the hast mudras (hand -postures) symbolised universal piety -
preaching law, calling the earth to witness, meditation and bestowing peace
and benediction.
His coinage also bea r eloquent testimony to his zeal for Hinduism and
Buddhism. Lord Shiva and bull, Nandi were commonly portrayed on his
gold and copper coins, but the most important numismatic contribution of
him is as follows: he was the first ruler who minted coins with t he image of
Buddha. The coins depicting Buddha are extremely rare. There exist only 5
gold coins in the world having portrait of Buddha. There are some copper
coins, which show Buddha, which are also rare. All these coins have been
minted by Kanishka, most likely to commemorate building of great stupa
of Purushpur. There are two types of Buddha's coins, Standing Buddha,
Gautama, and sitting Buddha, Maitraya.
Gautama Buddha as seen in the Gold Dinar of Kanishka
3.9 IMPORTANCE OF THE COINS
Undoubtedly all the Kushana emperors used their coinage for the
propaganda of their own superiority and the possession of extraordinary munotes.in
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Ancient India
34 talents. The notion of showing the ruler on the coins was absent in India
and all the earlier dynasties minted coins demonstrating only the symbols,
which were in the form of punch marked coins. It was the Kushana rulers who
popularized this idea. Certainly their coins are perhaps the finest evidence
we possibly will have of this renowned dynasty.
The coins reveal a great deal about the ru lers, coins were used as a media to
propagate Kings superiority. They reveal how the images of kings wished to
be seen, and the religious practice. Coins were the carriers for official
propaganda of greatness of Kings and deities of the empire. Kushanas
devised their coins with various Gods of culturally, ethnically diverse
population of the empire. It is evident through Kanishka's coins which
carried images of Buddha in several poses, that he had been a great patron of
Mahayana Buddhism. Vasudeva's coins r eveal that he is a convert to
Hinduism and a devotee of Mahisvara (Oesho). The motif of the shoulder fire
on Vima, Vasudeva I, Huvishka and Kanishka -I coins, symbolizes the super
natural power of the kings (connection with Athso - the Fire God).
Trade:
During this period, Buddhism spread in China and Central India. Kushanas
enriched the cultural ethos of India. They linked Central Asian, Chinese,
India and Persian cultures and trade. They opened and protected silk road, a
major trade path for caravans carry ing silk and other prominent goods from
China to India and Middle east (especially, spices, textile, medicines through
ships bound for the Roman empire). The inflow to Kushana empire was gold
coins, Greek wine and slaves. The Roman history records that amb assadors
were sent to the court of Trajan (98 -117 AD) by the Indian kings, but it is
unclear whether it is by Vima or Kanishka.
Literature:
Kanishka was a, great patron of art and literature. His court was adorned
by many scholars like Ashvaghosha, Vasumit ra, Nagarjuna and Charaka.
Kanishka also patronized contemporary intellectual’s sage `Shakya -muni'
who had introduced him to Buddhism.
Kanishka summoned a great council of contemporary scholars and
philosophers to examine the Buddhist scriptures and prepar e
commentaries on them. Ashvaghosha was a great poet and a master of
music. He has been credited for being the author of three dramas namely,
Buddha Charita (biography of the Buddha), Sariputra, and Saundarananda.
Charak was a great physician and he wrote a book Charakamhita which is based on
the Ayurvedic system of medicine.
Sanskrit became an official language and many works of the Buddhists
were composed in Sanskrit. Nagarjuna was a Buddhist scholar, philosopher
and a scientist of the time. He wrote Madh yamika Sutra in which he discusses
the relativity theory. Susruta was a renowned physician. The other celebrated
personalities were Mathara who was a political scientist and Agesilans an
engineer. munotes.in
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35 3.10 SUCCESSORS OF KANISHKA
Kanishka's immediate successor was Vashishka who was then succeeded by
Hyvishka. Huvishka -I is supposed to have ruled the Kushana empire from 70 -
180 AD. There is a controversy as the last ruler of the dynasty although the
scholars have agreed upon Vasudeva I being the last great king of Kushanas.
Probably he was the last powerful king of the dynasty because the lineage of
rulers shows that there were successors after him What is to be noted here is
that after Vasudeva, Kushana empire had started declining and soon after his
death it comp letely disintegrated into few small kingdoms.
The descendants of Kanishka namely Vashishka, Huvishka I, Vaskushana,
Vasudeva -II, Shaka, Xandesh, Vashishka, Vasudeva III, held onto power by
holding the Kabul valley, though the Kushna power had declined tota lly.
Kipunada (350 -375AD.) seems to be the last king who was the descendent of
the little Kushanas. The rule of Kushans ended almost at the same time as
that of the Satavahans in the south. By fourth century AD this dynasty went
into total obscurity with a dvent of mighty when the Kushans were
overthrown by the Sassanians of Persia in the north -west and the Guptas in
the north.
Check Your Progress:
1. Outline the career and the achievements of Kanishka.
Some Kushana coins : Vima Kadphises
Vima Kadphises 90 -100 AD
Gold Dinar, Possibly the First Gold Coin of India
Obverse : King emerging of cluds
Reverse : Shiva standing holding trident
Weight : 8.0 gm Reference : GK # 19
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36 Kanishka (100 -126 AD)
Kanishka I (the great) 100 -126 AD Gold Dinar, Obverse: King Sacrificing at
Altar, Reverse : Four Armed Shiva Weight : 7.9 gm ,GH # 55.
Kanishka I (the great)
100-126 AD
Copper Tetrad rach m
Obverse : King sacrificing attt altar
Reverse :" Buddha Maitraya seated
Weight : -16 gm.
Huvishka 126 -164 AD
Gold Dinar O bverse : Bust of King
Reverse : Lunar god Mao with crescent on shoulder
Weight : 7.9 gm
BMC # 30 Very Rare munotes.in
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37
Kanishka II
200-222 AD
Obverse : King Sacrificing at Altar
Reverse : Three headed Shiva
Gold Stater
Weight : 7.8 gm.
GK # 635.7
I Kushana Coin
Vasudeva (164 -200 AD)
Vasudeva I
164-200 AD
Gold Stater
Weight : 8.0 gm MAC # 3389 munotes.in
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Ancient India
38 3.11 THE SATAVAHANAS
The Satavahanas were also called Andhras. There is a controversy regarding
their ancestry. The Aitareya Brahmana claims the Andhras as, the exiled
and degenerated sons of Viswamitra. Scholars are of the opinion that the
original home of the Andhras Andhra Bhrityas was the Bellary district. Others
claim their records to be found in the Northern Deccan and central India.
Ashokan and Nasik inscriptions ment ion the Andhras to be Brahmins and
as Dravidians who joined the Aryan fold later. While Roy Chaudhari agrees
that they belonged to the Brahmin fold Dr. Gopal Charya holds the view that
they were Kshatriyas.
Whatever may be the debate, the dynasty lived and ruled in the territories
lying between the rivers Godavari and the Krishna. This dynasty was
believed to have confined to a large part of the South during the time of the
Mauryas. It was supposed to be powerful with a well -built army. As long as
the Maury as were dominant, this dynasty accepted their supremacy. After the
death of Ashoka it began to exercise its power because it found that the
successors of Ashoka were not in a position to defend the vast kingdom
handed down by their ancestors. We come to kn ow from the puranas that
the dynasty produced thirty kings and ruled for over four thirty years.
Not much is known about the rulers of this dynasty but from the available
sources, especially it is possible to trace some of the names of the kings.
Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty who ruled from 235
B.C. to 26 B.C. He seized the power after overthrowing the last Kanva ruler
Sushanna. His brother Krishna or Kanha succeeded him and ruled the
kingdom for eighteen years from 212 B.C.to 195 B.C.
Sri Satakarni was the successor after Simuka, and perhaps the greatest
of the Andhra monarchs. He ruled from 194 B.C. to 184 B.C. He is known
for his performance of two aswamedha sacrifices.
His reign was followed by the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni. (80 A D –
104 AD) Gautamiputra Satakarni was the famous king during the Satvahana
dynasty. He defeated the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks) and
Pahlavas (Parthians). His empire extended up to Banavasi in the south, and
included Maharashtra, Konkan, Saurashtra, M a l w a , west Rajasthan and
Vidharbha.
His son, Vasishtiputra Sri Pulamavi, succeeded him in about 60 A.D. And
ruled at Paithan on the banks of Godavari. He extended his rule towards the
Andhra country. Two other cities, Vaijayanti in North Kanara and Amrav ati
in the Guntur district , attained fame during this period. Kings succeeding
Gautamiputra lost many of their territories.
But the power of Satvahanas rejuvenated under Sri Yajna Satakarni, who
was the last great ruler. After him the weak successors resulted in the
decrease of the territory of the Satavahanas. Hostility with the Saka rulers
also led to the ultimate decrease in its territories and declaration of
sovereignty. munotes.in
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39 Some scholars say that there were 19 kings in this dynasty and they ruled
for 300 years, while others say there were 30 kings who ruled for 456
years. The dynasty came to an end about the middle of the third century AD.
Their empire at last broke up into small principalities ruled by the Abhiras,
Chutus, lkshvakus, Pallavas. The Satavah ana Empire was divided into five
provinces in the later years of its rule. The Abbiras possessed the western
territory of Nasik while the Ikshavakus dominated the eastern parts of the
Krishna -Guntur region. The Chutus triumphed over the southwestern
parts and extended their power to the north and east. The southeastern
divisions went under the control of the Pahalvas.
The Satavahana society revealed the presence of four classes. In the
first class were placed the persons who administered the districts, the
officials or the nobles belonged to the second strata of society. The
Vaidhya, cultivators, followed them. The fourth class was common citizen.
Both Buddhism and Brahmanism were followed during this time. Religious
tolerance continued among of various cult s of people.
Trade thrived and there existed association of workers undertaking a variety of
trades. Broach, Sopara and Kalyan were important trading centers. The
Satavahana rulers supported Prakrit, which was the frequently used
language of the people.
3.12 THE SAKAS
The Sakas or Scythians were originally the inhabitants of Central Asia at the
time of Herodotus (5th century B.C.). They were made up of four chief
branches identified as the Massa Gatae, Sacae, Alani, and Sarmatians. They
shared a common lang uage, customs and traditions.
Herodotus in the 5th century B.C. wrote after his observation about the
Scythians thus: "they were the most manly and law -abiding of the Thracian
tribes. If they could combine under one ruler, they would be the most
powerful n ation on earth." Greek and Persian historians as tall, large
framed and fierce warriors who were unrivalled on the horse remember
them.
The Greco -Bactrian rule (200 B.C. -100 B.C.) did not last for more than
a century. Continuous warfare’s and internal spli ts soon enfeebled them.
India was divided into many small Greek Kingdom, which fell an easy
prey to the new invasions of Scythians or Sakas about the middle of the first
century B.C. They overthrew the Greek rulers and established their
dominion as well as settlements all over India.
Before coming to India many of them lived in the Iranian Sakasthan under
Parthian rulers. These people were so closely associated with the Parthians
that some of the thinkers believe that both the Sakas and the Parthians
were o f the same race. A.K. Majumdar states that their association with the
Parthians resulted in the formation of a composite group known as the
Pahlavas. The Saka clans came into northwest India through two important
passes, namely, the Khyber Pass, and the Bo lan pass. These groups probably munotes.in
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Ancient India
40 moved from their homelands in search of pasturelands. When they came to
India they settled down in the lower valley of river Indus from where they
proceeded further. They initially settled down in Sindh and later on
establis hed their superiority over other parts of India.
Some invading groups went to Punjab, some went to Maharashtra, and yet others
moved further east to Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Their influence was
felt up to Godavari, Kathiawar and Saurashtra.
Sir Cu nningham, former Director General of Indian Archeological survey
recorded that,
`Me different races of the Scythians which successively appeared as
conquerors in the border provinces of Persia and India are the following
in the order of arrival :
Sakas or Sacae (the Su or Sai of the Chinese - B. C. ?) Kushans (the
great Yue -Chi (Yuti) of the Chinese - B. C. 163)
Kiddarite or later Kushans (the little Yue -chi of the Chinese -A.D. 450)
Epthalites or White Huns (the Yetha of the Chinese - 470 A.D.) ".
Once th ese tribes settled in India, irrespective of the part they settled in,
they soon mingled with the residents and adopted Indian ways of life,
religious beliefs. They married Indian women also.
Ancient Greek scholars like Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy, Arian and P e rs ia n
writer like Darius throw light on the origin of these inhabitants and show the
identified as follows:
Original Name Name derived
Gatae Jat
Avar Ahir
Scythii Saka
Khazar Gujjar
Tukharian Thakur
Sautra Matii Saurashtra
Sassanian Sessodia
Medes Madra
The Saka rulers may be divided under two classes from the administrative
point of view. They are as follows:
The Northern Satraps. The Western Satraps.
The northern Satraps were more predominant in Taxila and Matura. The first
three Saka kings w ere Manes or Manes, Azes I, and Azes II or Azilises.
It is difficult to give the exact dates of their rule Maues is supposed to ruled munotes.in
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41 the kingdom from 20. B.0 to 22 A.D. Their numerous coinages are seems throw
light on the influence of the Yavana (Greek) ancestors.
The western Satraps mainly occupied Gujarat, Kutch, Malwa and Maharashtra.
The first two rulers of the family were Bhumik and Nahapana. Nahapana is
known from his silver coins and from his inscriptions. He seems to have
ruled from 119 to 124 A.D. C h a t s a n a a n d R u d r a m a n were the Satraps who
ruled Ujjain. After the death of Rudraman the Sakas continued their rule till
the fourth century A.D.
3.13 THE INDO -GREEKS AND THE INDO -
PARTHIANS
To understand the history of these two ethnic groups it will be worthwhile
take a peep into the earlier history. Since Alexander's invasion, several
Greek families had settled down in northwestern India. It was after his death
that Seleucus Nicator, his able General founded a kingdom in the western and
Central portions of India. Seleucus Nicator carried on town construction too. He
built many towns all over his vast kingdom, including Alexandropolis in India.
Among the several tribes he established his grip over, in this territory, the most
important were the Bactrians and the Parthians.
These two tribes declared themselves independent during the rule of
Antiochus, the successor of Selucus. Ashoka refers to his Yavana (Greek)
subjects. He seems to have engaged Greek aristocrats in the service of the state.
With the establ ishment of Greek rule, arts and sciences received fresh and
dynamic momentum and Taxila, their capital, turned out to be one of the
greatest centers of learning. Since then the Yavanas are mentioned from time
to time in Indian literature.
The Bactrians occupied the north western frontiers in about 70 B.C. The most
renowned of the Bactrian kings was Manender (Milinda). He invaded central
India and fought a war with Pushyamitra sunga but was defeated.
Menander is said to have become a Buddhist later on.
Sind was also under the authority of the Bactrian rulers. It is probable that
both Apollodidus and his successor Menander ruled over Sind for a
hundred years. In the ancient and early Indian sources we find reference to
cities built by the rulers of the Greco -Bactrian states in the basin of the
Indus Delta. After Manender the dynasty began to decline. The last ruler
was Heliocles and his territories were taken over by the Saka dynasty in
about 125 B.C.
The Parthians became dominant in the western frontier of Ind ia. They
succeeded the Sakas. Manes was the ruler of Punjab and Kabul in about 120
B.C. The most important king of this tribe was Gondophernes. It is
believed from the clerical records that it was during time that Christianity
arrived in India when St. Tho mas began propagation this new religion in
52 A.D. In the course of time even this group was absorbed in the Indian
culture like the Sakas.
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42 Check Your Progress
1. Trace the history of Sakas
3.14 SUMMARY
Thus, with the fall of this dynasty, the Andhras be came powerful in the
south. The Greeks established themselves in the west. The history of the
period from the fall of Kanvas to the rise of the Guptas is a confused one. It is
true that the Satavahanas also referred to as Andhras, followed the Kanvas.
The Political History of India from 2nd century onwards witnessed political
turmoil and instability. There were sudden changes in the administration
from the Sungas to Kanvas and to the Anshras. The period also witnessed
the reestablishment of the Indo -Greeks in the Punjab and towards eastern
parts of India. The history of North West India was influenced also by the
coming of new tribal groups, namely the Sakas and Kushanas. Buddhism
spread and took a new from during Kanishka's period.
Thus, the various ethnic groups namely, the Satavahanas, the Sakas, the
Indo-Greeks and the Indo -Parthians settled in different pouts of Indian and
got absorbed in the main stream of Indian life and culture. The coming of
new groups also led to religious tolerance among various cu lts of people.
3.15 QUESTIONS
1. Write a note on Kanishka is spread of Buddhism.
2. Write short notes on :
a) The Kanvas
b) The Satavahanas
c) The Sunga Art
d) Pushyamitra Sunga.
e) Kanishka and Buddhism.
f) Science and literature during Kushana rule.
3. Trace the history of Sakas
4. Write a note on the Indo -Greeks.
5. Give a brief account of Indo -Parthians.
3.16 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A. S. - Rashtrakutas & Their Times
2. Ayyanger S. K. - Ancient India and South Indian History &
Culture
Oriental Book Agency, Pune 1941
3. Bhattacharya N.N. - Ancient Rituals and their Social Contents,
(Delhi, Manohar Publication) 1996 munotes.in
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Post Mauryan Dynasties -
Sungas, Kushanas and
Satavahanas
43 4. Chakravarti Uma - The Social Dimensions of Early
Buddhism - Delhi, Mumshiram
Manoharilal - 1996
5. Chakaravarti K.C. - Ancient Indian Culture & Civilizat ion
Vora & Co. Bombay 1992
6. Jha D. N. - Ancient India in Historical Outline
Motilal Banarasidas, Publishers Pvt. New
Delhi.
7. Kulkarni C. M. - Ancient Indian History & Culture
Karnataka Publishing House, Mumbai -
1956.
Pannikar K.M. - Harsha & His Times , Bombay,
Taraporewalla & Sons Co. 1922
8. Kautilya - The Arthshatra Penguin Book, 1987
9. Luniya B. N. - Life & Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra - 1994
10. Majumdar R. C. - Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidas,
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. N ew Delhi - 1974
11. Mookerjee R. K. - Ancient India,
Allahabad, Indian Press, 1956
12. Mukherjee B. N. - Rise and Fall of the Kushanas
- Empire
13. Nilkantha Shastri - A History of South India, Madras, OOP
1979
14. Nandi R. N. - Social Roots of Re ligion in Ancient India
15. Pathak V.S. - Historians of India (Ancient India)
- Asia Publishing Bombay 1966
16. Pannikar K.M. - Harsha and His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla and Sons Co. 1922
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44 4
IMPERIAL EXPANSION AND
ADMINISTRATION OF GUPTA AGE
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sources of Gupta History
4.3 Original Home of the Guptas
4.4 Rise of Gupta power
4.4.1 Chandra Gupta I
4.4.2 Samudra Gupta
4.4.3 Conquest of Samud ra Gupta
3.4.4 Extent of Samudra Gupta Empire
4.4.5 Estimate of Samudra Gupta
4.5 Ram Gupta (375 -380 A.D.)
4.6 Chandra Gupta II (38 -47 A.D.)
4.6.1 Policy of Matrimonial Alliance
4.6.2 Conquests of Chandra Gupta
4.6.3 Visit of Fa -Hien
4.6.4 Coins of Chandra Gupta II
4.6.5 Estimate of Chandra Gupta II
4.7 Kumar Gupta I
4.8 Skanda Gupta
4.8.1 Administration
4.8.2 Estimate of Skanda Gupta
4.9 Decline and downfall of Gupta
4.10 Monarchy
4.11 Council of Ministers
4.12 Other Administrative Officials
4.13 Provincial Administration
4.14 The District council and Administration
4.15 Village Administration munotes.in
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Imperial Expansion and
Administration of Gupta
Age
45 4.16 Revenue Administration
4.17 Judicial Administration
4.18 Military Administration
4.19 Summary
4.20 Questions
4.21 Additional Reading
4.0 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the students about the era of the Gupta Dynasty.
To study the Sources and about the origin of the Gupta Dynasty.
To analyse the role of Chandra Gupta.
To estimate the conquest of Samudra Gupta.
To analyse the role played by Ram Gupta.
To estimate the various policies, conquest, coins of Chandra Gupta I.
To throw light on the achievements of Kumar Gupta I
To Estimate Skanda Gupta's carrier.
To trace the major factors responsible for the downfall of Gupta
Empire.
To study the admin istration of Gupta empire.
To analyse the provincial administration, District council, Revenue
administration judicial and military administration.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
After the fall of Kushanas, in the period of political disunity, the Gupta
rose to paramoun t power in Magadha. Imperial Gupta once again gave
political unity to the country. Under Gupta dynasty India made rapid
progress. Although the empire of the Gupta was not as large as the
Mauryan Empire, it did succeed in keeping north India politically uni ted
for more than a century, from about 300 to 450 A.D. Under Gupta India
enjoyed economic prosperity. Gupta rulers encouraged art and learning
and they showed interest in nation's cultural advancement. There was a
perfect religious tolerance. This era was a great period of expansion of
Indian culture in the Far East.
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46
It was due to this all – sided development that the reign of Imperial Gupta
has been called the 'Golden Age' in the annals of Indian history.
In many respects the Gupta administration con stitutes the water shed
between its past and future traditions of quality and government. Infact, it
will not be exaggeration to say that Gupta administration provided the
model for basic administrative structure both in theory and practise. Due
to an all -round development in this age European writers have compared it
with the age of Pericules in Greek history. Probably ancient India never
attempts such high water mark as she did during Gupta period. India
became once again united strong and glorious during Gupta period.
Cultural unity was combined with political unity. The monarchical states
continued to function in the traditional way based on Dharma. King
continued to be the center of Government, amusing all supreme powers to
him. Thus at that time India reached the peak of progress in all fields -
political, social, economic, religious and culture. Coins, inscriptions,
accounts of foreign travellers give us an inside into the administrative
structure of the Gupta Empire.
4.2 SOURCES OF GUPTA HISTORY
Both re ligious and secular literature, accounts of foreign travelers,
inscriptions, coins and monuments throw light on the history of Gupta
dynasty from various angles.
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47 Literacy sources can be listed as follows
I. Puranas – most Important are Vishnu, Vayu, Skandha , Siva,
Bhavishya, Brahma, Vamana, Maskandeya etc.
II. Kaumudi Mahotsava (Sanskrit Play)
III. Devichandraguptam by Vishakhandatta
IV. Harsha – Charita by Bana
V. Arya – Maurya – Sri – Mula – Kalpa – (Buddhist chronicle)
VI. Kamandaka’s Nitisastra
VII. Foreigners accounts – i) Fa -Hien ii) Hien - Tsang
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48 Archaeological sources
a) Coins
b) Inscriptions
c) Allahabad Pillar Inscription
d) Eran Stone pillar Inscription
e) Copper plates
f) Monuments
4.3 ORIGINAL HOME OF THE GUPTAS
Though there are numerous sources available on Gupta period, the fact
remai ns that the early history of the Gupta is obscure. The origin of the
Guptas has been the subject of a lively debate among the historians for
quite a longtime. The name or surname Gupta is not absolutely unknown
to Ancient Indian history. Officials with tit le of Gupta are mentioned in
old records, particularly of the Sunga and Satavahana period. But there are
no definite evidences to connect these Gupta with the Imperial Gupta
dynasty of the 4th century A.D. Dr. K.P. Jayaswal on the basis of
Kaumudi Mahotsav a has considered that Guptas were Jats and they
originally belonged to the Punjab. Another view has been advanced by Dr.
Dodwell. He says, 'It is just possible that the Gupta and Ghatotkacha are
foreign names, under a Sanskrit guise and that the Guptas wer e not a
Hindu blood. In any case the name Gupta suggest a humble origin'.
According to Dr. H.C. Raichoudhary Guptas were Brahmin by caste. On
the other hand Dr. S. Chattopadhaya is of the opinion that the Guptas were
Kshatriyas. According to Vishnu purana the Gupta belonged to Vaisya
caste and it also describes the location of Gupta kingdom, 'The territory
along the Ganges ( up to) Prayaga will be enjoyed by the people of
Magadha and the Guptas'. Thus puranas brings us to the conclusion that
the original Gu pta territory comprised Magadha, though it may not be
original home of Guptas.
4.4 RISE OF GUPTA POWER
Inscriptional evidences at Allahabad pillar proved that Sri Gupta was the
founder of the Gupta dynasty. Sri Gupta was succeeded by his son
Maharaja Ghato kacha. Sri Gupta, the founder of the Gupta dynasty said to
have ruled Magadha from 240 to 280 A.D. His son Ghatotkacha ruled
Magadha from 280 A.D. up to 320 A.D. In the Gupta records both Sri
Gupta and Ghatotkacha has been referred with the title of Mahara ja. It is
believed by some historians that both Sri Gupta and Ghatokacha Gupta
were feudatory chiefs as they styled themselves simply as Maharajas.
Since this title was often borne by feudatory chiefs. Probably early Guptas
were subordinate rulers. However there is no definite proof about it.
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49 4.4.1 Chandra Gupta I :
Chandra Gupta I was the first Gupta ruler, who assumed the imperial title
of `Maharajadhiraj' meaning 'Supreme king of great king'. Chandra Gupta
I was the first important king of the dynasty rose to eminence. Chandra
Gupta I was the son and successor of Maharaja Ghatotkacha. He was the
real founder of the Gupta power. His career is not fully known but his
main achievement consists in having established a stable and strong
government within a s hort period of fifteen years (320A.D — 335 A.D.) It
is generally accepted that Chandragupta's date of accession was 26th
February 320 A.D. To commemorate his coronation date he started a new
era known as the Gupta era.
In ancient Indian history there are p lenty of instances by which we can say
that matrimonial alliances enhanced the status of the rulers. Like several
kings of ancient India Chandra Gupta I also strengthened himself by the
significant marriage alliance with Lichavis. The Lichavis were a power ful
dynasty, who then, controlled considerable portions of Bihar and perhaps
even Nepals. Both inscriptions and Chandra Gupta I coinage recorded the
marriage of Chandra Gupta I with Lichavi princess, Sri Kamardevi. The
coins showed that Kamardevi was assoc iated with the government of
Chandra Gupta which included the Lichavi republic. It may be the result
of either of their marriage by the way of dowry or may be direct military
conquest by Chandra Gupta I. Thus marriage with Kumar Devi added to
political pow er and prestige of Chandra Gupta I. It is also possible that
Lichavais and Guptas who ruled over the adjoining areas were united by
the marriage between Chandra Gupta I and Kumardevi.
Chandra Gupta I secured a paramount position in Magadha and in the
neigh bouring countries by the means of this matrimonial alliance. Chandra
Gupta I ruled over a fairly extensive kingdom, this is obvious by changing
the title Maharajadhiraj. On the basis of a verse in Vayu Puran scholars
generally accept the view that Chandra Gupta I ruled over Saket (Avadh)
Prayag (Allahabad) and Magadha (south Bihar). From puranic verse given
below, we get vague idea of the extent of Chandra Gupta's Empire.
‘Ahu Ganga Prayagamcha Saketam
Magadhamstatha
Etan Janapadan Servan Bhokshyante
Gupta Vamsajah'
Kings born of Gupta race will enjoy all these territories, namely, along the
Ganges, Prayaga, Saketa and the Magadhas.
Thus Chandra Gupta prepared the solid foundation on which Gupta
kingdom was erected. An important act of this king was the hold ing of an
assembly of councilors and members of the royal family at which prince
Samudra Gupta was formally nominated successor to the imperial throne
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50 4.4.2 Samudra Gupta (335 A.D. — 380 A.D. ):
Dr. V.A. Smith has described Samudra Gupta as 'the Napoleon of India'
due to his conquests in all direction of India. Samudragupta is proverbially
known as the greatest conqueror of ancient India. Contemporary
epigraphs, such as the Eran inscription, credits him with the overthrowing
of 'the whole tribe o f kings upon the earth'. The Allahabad pillar
inscriptions give full details about him. The Allahabad Pillar inscription
reters to the appointment of Samudra Gupta by Chandra Gupta I.
Allahabad inscription is generally known as Prasasti (eulogy) because of
the superhuman attributes paid to him by the engraver. Inscription, a
eulogy of the emperor was composed by Harishena. Harishena was a great
official who hold the various portfolio in Samudragupta's court. He had
composed the poem in praise of his master Harishena the author of the
Allahabad pillar inscription says 'In the presence of the full assembly the
king embraced his son Samudra Gupta and the overcome with emotions
with hairs on his body standing erect, said with tears in his eyes : 'Thou art
worthy , rule this whole world'. The poet adds while this declaration caused
happiness to the courtiers, the faces of his Kinsmen of equal birth became
pale. Thus the nomination of Samudra Gupta has been described with a
dramatic effect. Inscription also throw li ght on genealogy from Srigupta,
Ghatotkacha and Chandra Gupta I. Special mention is made in respect of
Mahadevi Kumar devi, a Lichavi princess. Inscription also refer to a
number of rulers and their kingdom which were either annexed or
conquered by Samudra gupta. Along with inscriptions certain copper plates
supporting to inscriptions are excellent source of information. Samudra
gupta also left an extensive coinage. Some important political events of his
reign are known from this source and the records of hi s successors.
4.4.3 Conquest of Samudra Gupta :
The reign of Samudra Gupta is chiefly remarkable for the series of
military campaigns which led in various part of India. Since Samudra
Gupta was deliberately selected by his father as the next king, he had t o
deal with rival princes who coveted the throne. It possibly led to trouble
but they were successfully put down to Samudra Gupta. When Samudra
Gupta came in power, there were political disturbance in his kingdom but
he maintained law and order. All the ti me of his accession politically India
presented a dark picture. Due to lack of powerful empire and emperor,
India was divided and distributed into a number of petty principalities. The
Magadha empire was surrounded by powerful and independent rulers like
Nagas, the Vakatakas, the Shakas and several republican tribes. Rajput
and was often molested by the foreign invaders. Gujarat was ruled by
various Kshatriyas. Bengal was divided into various units. South was ruled
by Cholas, Pandyas, Pallavas and Cheras. T herefore it was really a
difficult task for Samudra Gupta to bring them under his control.
From the very beginning Samudra Gupta was fired with the idea of
conquest. He followed the policy of Digvijay and attempt success in
uprooting small states. Dr. Radh a Kumud Mukherjee had praised Samudra
Gupta as, "A hero of a hundred fights, he was able to make all parts of munotes.in
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51 India acknowledge his paramount sovereignty by a victorious march
through them which continued for more than two or three years under the
physical conditions of such a march." According to the Allahabad pillar
inscription of Samudra Gupta the places and the countries conquered and
annexed or liberated, by Samudra Gupta are as follows : -
a) Northern Conquest :
Samudra Gupta twice laid an expedition t o North or Aryavarta. Allahabad
pillar inscription records the name of following nine kings along with
several princess of Aryavarta defeated by him. There kingdoms where
incorporated into Gupta empire. The nine kings where :
1. Rudradeva
2. Matila
3. Naga - Dutta
4. Chandravarman
5. Ganpati –Naga
6. Naga – Sena
7. Achyuta
8. Nandin
9. Balavarman
Thus, Samudra Gupta appears to have led his forces as far as the river
Chambell. His Campaign was crowned with success and the kingdom of
defeated kings was made part of the Gupta Empire. Con quest of Samudra
Gupta had a profound effect on India, for they brought about her political
unification.
Southern Conquest : .
Samudra Gupta's campaign of conquest was not confined to north India
along. As regard his conquest's in Dakshinapatha i.e. the De ccan and south
India, Samudra Gupta defeated as many as twelve kings for this he had to
launched a travel of about 3000 miles. This campaign took him more than
two years but his empire was greatly extended. He marched through
Vindhya forest, Kaling and alo ng the east coast up to river Krishna on the
banks of which he made successfully a group of south Indian kings, laid
by Vishnu gupta and Pallava family. His expedition towards the south also
helps us to know the Geographical and Political condition of sout hern
India. The names of the twelve kings in the south defeated by him are :
1. Mahendra of Kosala
2. Vyaghararaja of Mahakantara
3. Mantaraja of Kaurala
4. Svamidatta of Kottura
5. Daman of Erandapalla munotes.in
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52 6. Vishnugopa of Kanchi
7. Nilaraj of Avamukta
8. Hastivarman of Vengi
9. Mahend ra of Pistapura
10. Ugravasena of Pallaka
11. Kubera of Devarashtra
12. Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura
Most of the kingdoms listed about where in the eastern part of the Deccan.
Hence, the many ports on the east, coast, carried on lucrative trader
probably Samudra Gupta w anted them under his control. Perhaps the
ambition of Samudra Gupta was merely to secure recognition of his
imperial position in the Deccan and south India. Samudra Gupta is said to
have acted as "Dharam Vijayi" in the south India.
Besides this many more k ings were subdued by him.
Kosala, undoubtedly denotes the districts of Bilaspur, Raipur and
Sambhalpur.
Mahakantara, most probably was in the forest region of Gondvana.
Kaurala was the Sonpur district of south India. Pishtapura is the
modern Pithapuram in the Godavari district.
Kottura was in Ganjam district.
Erandapalla is identified by fleet with erandol in Khandesh and by
Dumbreuil with Eranda, a town in the Ganjam district.
Kanchi in Canjeevaram in Madras. Avamukta, from Hathi Gumpha
inscription we lear n, existed near Godavari.
Vengi has been identified with Vegi or Pedd - Vegi, about 7 miles
north of Ellora between the Krishna and the Godavari.
Palakka is probably identical with Palakkada in Nellora. Devarashtra
was in Vizagapattam district.
Rusthalapura probably was Kuttalpur in North Arcot.
The territories of the defeated rulers in the south were not annexed by
Samudra Gupta, as perhaps he thought it was not quite easy to control
directly all the distant regions. Only Northern India came directly under
Gupta rule, whereas the southern regions paid homage to him as a
paramount ruler.
Subjugation of Forest tribes :
Samudra Gupta reduced to the position of serf down the rulers of forest
kingdoms. (Atavika Rajyas's). Harishena state that the border tribes munotes.in
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53 accepted his rule without much resistant. Tribal ruler submitted to him
voluntarily.
These tribes were :
1. Malavas : In the time of Alexander they occupied a part of the Punjab.
In the time of Samudra Gupta, they were most probably in eastern
Rajputana.
2. Arjuna yanas : The Arjunayanas inhabited the eastern portions of
Alwar and Jaipur
3. Yaudheyas : They were Rajputs and had extended their dominious
from Bharatpur to the borders of Bhawalpur.
4. Madrakas : The Madrakas had their capital at Sialkot in the Punjab.
5. Abhira s : The Abhiras occupied the tract in the lower Indus Valley
and western Rajputana, a section of the tribe apparently settled in
Central India and gave its name to the Ahirwar country between Jhansi
and Bhilsa.
6. Prarjunas : Their capital was at Narsimhapur in central provinces.
7. Sanakanikas : They were in the neighbourhood of prarjunas.
8. Kakas : The kakas is identified with kakupur near Bithur.
9. Kharaparikas : The Kharaparikas might have occupied the Damoh
district of the Central provinces.
Conquest with Shakas and Kushanas :
Samudra Gupta commanded respect amongst independent rulers of many
neighboring states. The Kushanas rulers of north west, the Saka ruler of
west India, the ruler of Sri Lanka and rulers of the south east Asia had
cordial relations with him and respected him.
Relations with Ceylon :
A Chinese account state that two Buddhist monks, sent to Bodhgaya by
Meghavarman a Buddhist king of Ceylon. These monks had faced a great
inconvenient for want of accommodation and this they reported to their
kings. On this king Meghavarman sent an embassy with gifts to
Samudragupta and obtain his permission to construct a Buddhist
monastery at Gaya in Bihar. Samudragupta readily accepted his request.
This indicates that Samudragupta had very cordial relations with Ceylon.
The king of Ceylon, than constructed a three storied monastery, with six
halls and three towers, which housed a statue of Lord Buddha, made of
gold and silver. Dr. A.S. Altekar had pointed, "It is likely that
Samudragupta's courtiers also regarded the rich presents as tribute and
constructed the Ceylonese king's prayer for permission for charter
confirming him in the enjoyment of his territories one of the forms of munotes.in
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54 homage paid by the category of states into which Simhala or Ceylon is
included",
4.4.4 Extent of Samudragupta's empire :
Samudragupta ruled over vast Empire. According to Allahabad pillar
inscription. Samudragupta never knew any defeat. He had unified the
greatest part of India under him. According to Dr. R. C. Majumdar, the
empire of Sam udra Gupta, "Comprised nearly the whole of northern India,
with the exception of Kashmir, Western Punjab, Western Rajaputana,
Sindh and Gujarat, with the highlands of Chhatisgarh and Orissa and a
long stretch of territory along the eastern coast extending as far south as
chinleput and probably even further."
4.4.5 Estimate of Samudra Gupta :
The fame of Samudragupta rests not only on his brilliant martial career,
but on his achievements in peace. After establishing such a vast empire
Samudragupta naturally performed the Ashwamegha ceremony which had
been traditionally recognized in India as a symbol of imperialism. The
name of Samudragupta deserves special mention in the history of ancient
India. He was a great conqueror and efficient administrator, a far si ghted
statesman and a patron and lover of art and literature.
1) A successful conqueror :
Samudragupta was one of the greatest warrior in the history of India.
Harishena his court poet mention, "Samudragupta was skillful in engaging
in a hundred battles of various kinds, whose only ally was the strength of
his own arm, whose most elegant physique was covered over with all the
beauty of the scars caused by the blows of battle arrows, spears, spikes
lances, javelins and many other weapons.'
2) Founder of an E mpire :
The real founder of the Gupta Empire was Samudragupta. Though
Chandra Gupta I laid the foundations of Gupta empire but his empire was
not powerful. Hence, the credit goes to Samudragupta. Samudragupta
added immensely to the resources of his empire. He is compared with
Napoleon and Akbar due to his sound knowledge of the administration. He
was the conqueror who never suffered a defeat.
3) Statesmanship :
Samudragupta was a great diplomat. He was far sighted statesman. He was
engaged in a hundred batt le, according to the Prasasti. He did not blindly
go on conquering one region after another. But he directly governed
certain region and from certain state he accepted tribute. He knew it very
well that it would be very difficult for him to control the far of areas from
Magadha. Samudragupta diplomatically compelled far of state to accept
his suzerainty and accepted homage and taxes. In this manner
Samudragupta gave proof of been a practical statesman. munotes.in
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55 4) A Great Administrator:
After his campaign Samudragup ta settled down to organized the
government. He established peace and order and gave good
administration. Due to his administrative qualities he could established a
powerful empire. There was general prosperity and people were happy.
The Allahabad Pillar i nscription described his allocation of his duties and
responsibilities to a council of minister. His central government very well
knit and also very well organized. The administration under him was quite
different from that of the Mauriyans. It must be adm itted that it was
chiefly due to the statesmanship of Samudragupta that the vast empire
which he left behind was gradually extended by his successors.
5) Learning and Lover of Art :
As a lover of learning Samudragupta patronize distinguished scholars. He
had a great attachment with literature and learning. Harishena and
Vasubhandu were the important personality lived in his court. Harishena
lays special emphasis upon Samudragupta's learning and wisdom.
Samudragupta had a profound knowledge of sacred books. He was also a
great musicians which is proved by his coins representing him as a
musicians playing on a vina. According to Harishena, he put to shame the
preceptor of the Lord of Gods and Tumburu and Narada and others by his
sharp and polished intellect an d choral skill and musical accomplishments.
The testimony of Harisena to his musical abilities finds corroboration in
lyrist type of coins.
6) Revival of Brahaminism :
Samudragupta coins and inscription throw light on his religious
conviction. He was a fai thful follower of Brahamanic Religion. He revived
the Ashwamegha which had not being performed for a longer time. He
brought back Hinduism with full honour which is also reflected through
the images of Lakshmi, Durga, Saraswati and Ganga and the symbols li ke
Chakra, Lotus and Garuda found in his gold coins.
7) Tolerance :
Samudragupta was a tolerant king. Though he was patron of
Brahamanism. He was free from narrow outlook in religion. Vasubhandu
the famous Buddhist scholar was his minister. The fact that h e permitted
to construct monastery at Bodhgaya Speaks for his religious tolerance.
Thus the synthesis of numerous qualities made Samudra Gupta a unique
personality. He was an emperor of intuitive genius. Samudragupta has
been described as the Indian Napole on by V.Smith. R.K. Mukherji regards
Samudragupta a 'many sided genius' while R.C. Mujumder regards him
'the great monarch who looms so large in Indian history'. K.N.Munshi has
correctly assessed him in the following words, 'A brilliant general, a
farsight ed state man, a man of culture and a patron of the arts and letters,
he became the symbol and architect of a mighty creative urge among the munotes.in
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56 people which while drawing vitality from tradition and race memory took
on a new shape and power.
Check Your Progres s:
1. What are the main sources of information for the history of the
Guptas?
4.5 RAMA GUPTA (375 - 380 A.D.)
Till half century ago it was believed by many historians that Chandragupta
II successes Samudragupta. But the discovery of a lost dramatic work,
'Devi Chandra Guptam' by Vishakdatta has given birth to almost a new
question. Accordingly Samudragupta was succeeded by his eldest son
Rama Gupta and not by Chandragupta II. The succession of Famagusta is
evidenced from a lost drama 'Devi Chandra Guam', fr agments of which
are preserved in the `Natyadarpana' by Ramachandra and Guruchandra,
Bana's Harshacharita and Kavyamimansa by Rajshekara. By piecing
together the scattered wideness the scholars have constructed the
following story.
Ramgupta was not a worth y successor of Samudragupta. He had to face an
invasion by the sakas. While fighting a war with the Sakas, Ram Gupta
was placed in a difficult situation. For the safety of his people, he agreed
to surrender his queen Dhruvadevi to the Saka King. When it wa s made
known there was protest everywhere. It is said that his younger brother
Chandra Gupta II opposed this insulting arrangement. He himself offered
to go to the Saka king in disguise of queen Dhruvadevi and killed Saka
king. Thus he saved the honour of Druvadevi and the family name. This
incident must have raised him in the estimation of his subjects as well as
of queen Dhruvadevi. Thereafter Chandragupta succeeded in killing his
elder brother Ramgupta and not only seized his kingdom but also married
the widow of his elder brother. Though the episode of Ramgupta is very
difficult to refuse, there is no authentic evidence to prove it. Whatever
may be the truth, the fact is that the reign of Ramgupta was short and
inglorious.
4.6 CHANDRA GUPTA!! (380 - 47 A .D)
Introduction :
The inscription, coins and writing of Chinese traveler Fa -Hien are the
main sources of the information about him. Chandra Gupta was the second
great king of Gupta Dynasty. Under Chandra Gupta, Gupta Empire
considerably expanded. Chandra Gupta is also called Narendra Chandra,
Simha Chandra, Narendra Simha and Simha Vikrama. He ascended the
throne in 380 A.D. His mother name was Datta Devi, as found recorded in
the Mathura stone inscription, which also says that Chandra Gupta II was
chosen by his father Samudra Gupta as the next Emperor. Chandra Gupta
II followed the footsteps of his father Samudra Gupta. The reign of
Chandra Gupta II witnessed the high water mark of the Gupta Empire, as munotes.in
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57 he carried on, with remarkable success, the policy of world conquest.
Chandra Gupta inherited the military genius of his father. He perceived
both wars of conquest and diplomacy for the expansion of his kingdom.
4.6.1 Policy of Matrimonial Alliance:
Chandra Gupta had Matrimonial Alliance with the powerful rul ing
families of his times. Matrimonial Alliances occupy a prominent place in
the foreign policies of Gupta's. Chandra Gupta I, the Grandfather of
Chandra Gupta II had strengthened his imperial position by Matrimonial
Alliance with the dynasty of Lichchavis who had controls most of the
Bihar and perhaps Nepal as well. Samudra Gupta, father of Chandra Gupta
II is said to have accepted the gifts presents of maidens from the courts of
contemporary potentates. Chandra Gupta II continued the policy of
Matrimonial Alliance followed by his forefather. He married Kubera
Naga, of the Naga family and had a daughter by her name Prabhavati
Gupta. Later Chandra Gupta II gave his daughter –Prabhavati Gupta in
marriage to the Vakataka Rudrasena -I I.
According to Dr. V.A. Sm ith "the Vakataka Maharaja occupied a
geographical position in which he could be of much service or dis service
to the northern invader of the dominions of Saka Satraps of Gujrat and
Sourashtra. Chandra Gupta adopted a prudent precaution in giving
daughter to the Vakataka prince and so securing his subordinate alliance".
4.6.2 Conquests of Chandra Gupta :
Chandra Gupta II has extended the Gupta Empire in all the direction. In
the East, the whole of Bengal was annexed to the Gupta Empire, in the
north west t he Punjab became part of the empire, in the west with the
acquisition of Gujarat and Saurashtra, the Gupta had reached the Arabian
sea. Chandra Gupta II task had already been made easy by his father
Samudra Gupta who had extended his kingdom in all the par ts of India.
But in spite of this Chandra Gupta had to wage mini wars.
1. Defeating the Republic:
The political condition of India had deteriorated at the time of accession of
Chandra Gupta II. The kingdom of Kushana and Avanti in the northwest
of India an d various petty republic in the south of Gupta empire were
disunited and disorganized. Chandra Gupta took full advantage of this
weakness and he defeated those states and annexed them to his empire.
2. Conquest of Bengal :
Due to local rebellion in Bengal Chandra Gupta was forced to interfere in
the matter. The king of Bengal suffered a terrific defeat and this areas
were also annexed by him.
War with Sakas :
The greatest military achievement of Chandra Gupta II was the conquest
of the Sakas who were ruling in Gujarat and Kathiawar peninsula. There munotes.in
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58 are three inscription which refer to the war with Saka. The Sakas or
western Satraps were an important dynasty who had being ruling in were
an important dynasty who had being ruling in western India from the later
half of the first century A.D. The campaign has been placed between 388
to 409 A.D The Sakas were finally defeated their territories were annexed
to the Gupta empire. The conquest and annexation of western India to the
Gupta Empire enormously enriched it by extension of it limit to the
Arabian Sea and establishment of direct overseas trade and commercial
contact with the Roman Empire. Thus, the western boundary of the empire
became secure and Gupta's gained control over the ports of western India.
Commenti ng on the vitality of the conquest of western India by Chandra
Gupta II Dr. V.A. Smith says, "The annexation of Saurashtra and Malwa,
not only added to the empire provinces of exceptional wealth and fertility,
but opened up to the paramount power, free acc ess to the ports of the
western coast; and thus placed Chandra Gupta II in direct touch with the
sea- borne commerce with Europe through Egypt and brought his court
and subjects under the influence of the European ideas, which traveled
with the goods of th e Alexandrian merchants".
Effects of the war with Saka:
1. The empire of Chandra Gupta extended to the natural frontiers of India
as he gained the areas of Gujarat and Saurashtra.
2. These areas were quite productive, so they contributed to the
prosperity of his empire.
3. The annexation of the Saka territory also led to the incorporation of
certain parts of the empire of Chandra Gupta and it immensely
contributed to the commercial relations with countries abroad.
4. Not only commercial relations were established with the countries
abroad, but cultural relations were also established.
5. Internal trade also received a fillip. The trade was not hampered by
any sort of local terminal taxes and goods passed unmolested from one
region of the country to the other. Increase in t rade led to economic
prosperity of the country's main center of trade was Ujjain.
4.6.3 Visit of Fa -Hien :
An outstanding event in the reign of Chandra Gupta II was the visit of
Chinese pilgrims Fa - Hien to India. Fa -Hien, though he visited with a
religiou s motive, yet the glimpses of the efficiency of Gupta
administration and a progress of the people can be had from his accounts.
Though Fa -Hien visited India during Chandra Gupta second time between
the year 399 to 47, he has not mention the name of Chandra Gupta II but
still the glimpses of Indian culture and political condition are available in
his account.
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59 His account tell us that, "the people are numerous and happy, they have
not to register their rules, only those who cultivate the royal land have to
pay a portion of the gain from it. If they want to go they go. If they want to
stay on they stay. The kings govern without any decapitation or other
corporal punishment; criminals are simply fined, lightly or heavily,
according to the gravity of the case. E ven in the cases of repeated attempts
at wicked rebellion they only have their right hands cut off. The king's
bodyguards and attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole country
the people do not kill any living creature, nor drink intoxicating liqu or, nor
eat onions or garlic. The only exception is that of Chandallas".
Fa-Hien's accounts throw the light on political, social, economic and
religious under Chandra Gupta II. According to Fa -Hien, the city of
Patliputra and royal palace of Ashoka were th e excellent peace of art and
architecture. He could not believe that it was constructed by human hands
according to him it was a miracle on rare device with marvelous
architectural designed. According to him Buddhism was in a flourishing
condition in Benga l, in Punjab and Mathura, both set of Buddhism
flourished side by side. But it was in decaying state in the middle
kingdom, where brahamanism prevailed. He visited many provinces in
India and he gives an elaborate description of them. He had given an
elabo rate account monastery in Taxila, Gandhara, Peshawar. He had also
described about Buddhist stupa created by Kanishka in Peshawar. The
description of Patliputra, Kapilvastu, Kushinagar and Gaya is very
interesting.
Fa-Hien had made some interesting observat ion of the country of
Magadha and its civilization. Thus, the description of Fa -Hien is of great
historical significance. He had made special mention of charitable inns
where shelter with bed, food and drinks were offered to travellers. Free
hospitals and dispensaries were instituted by rich people everywhere in the
country. It is only from the description of Fa -Hien, we come to know that
the political standard of the people of Gupta period was high in
comparison with that of Mauriyans. According to Fa -Hien people of
Gupta period avoided meat eating, hunting, drinking, gambling etc. And
their moral standard was quite high. Thus, we get an inside into living
condition of the people and the administration under Guptas from the
record of Fa -Hien. However, we ha ve to accept the account of Fa -Hien
with certain limitations.
4.6.4 Coins of Chandra Gupta II:
Gupta kings did much in the field of Indian coin age. Chandra Gupta II
introduces the most important innovation in the coin age. Along with gold
coins of his anc estor. He also struck silver and copper coins. He issued
three types of gold coins which varied in weight it was of 62 Grains, 126
Grains and 121 Grains. His gold coins were as fine as those of his father.
His coins are characterized by considerable origin ality. He had introduced
some new types of coin. Such as Umbrella type, horseman type etc. which
throw considerable light on his personality and power. It could be
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60 1. Archer type :
In this Chandra Gupta is holding a bow in his left h and while his right is in
the act of offering incense at the altar. There are many varieties of this
type of coins. The legend 'Chandra', 'Sri Vikram', the symbol on the
standards like wheel, garuda, crescent are all profoundly used with
different designed .
2. Couch Type:
In this coin the king has been shown sitting on a high backed couch, right
leg folded and the left kept hanging. He holds lotus in his hand. The
legend is Devasi Maharajdhiraj Sri Chandragupta. On the reverse is
goddess Lakshmi is shown. V arious legend like Rapakriti, Vikramaditya,
Sri Vikramah are used on couch types coins of Chandra Gupta II.
3. Chhatra Type:
In this coin behind the king is a drawf attendant holding Chhatra over him.
The legend is Maharajadhiraja Sri Chandragupta' on reve rse goddess
Lakshmi is standing. She holds Lotus.
4. Lion Slayes type:
In this king has been shown hunting down a lion. The king is dressed as a
hunter, he draw an arrow to hit the lion on which he has planted his foot
on the lion. There are different vari eties of the lion slayes type. In some,
the king is shown sending the dart, in other the lion is hit a falls back, in
some a retreating lion. On the reverse is shown goddess Durga with his
lion as a vehicle. The legends are `Narendrachandra Sinhavikrama,
Parama Bhagavata, Bhagavata, Ajitavikrama etc.
4.6.5 Estimate of Chandra Gupta II:
Chandra Gupta II was one of the greatest monarch of Gupta dynasty.
Before his coming on the throne there was tendency of political
disintegration Chandra Gupta II was the fir st sovereign of this dynasty to
assume the title of 'Vikramaditya'. He is also known as Sakari, Narendr
Chandra, Simachandra, Narendrasimha, Simhavikrama, Devaraja,
Devagupta and Devashri. He ruled for period of about 40 years, most
probably he died in 46 or 47, AD,
1. A Brilliant Administrator:
Chandra Gupta perfected the administrative machinery. He divided his
territory into provinces and districts. Officers of these divisions were
assisted by the local representative bodies. He paid personal attention
towards the administrative details. His administration was based on human
principles. He was also assisted by a numbers of ministers. According to
Vincent Smith "India was never ruled better than during the regime of
Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya".
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61 2. A succe ssful conqueror:
Chandra Gupta by his brilliant conquests not only put an end to foreign
domination, but also established peace and prosperity in his vast empire.
He defeated many republics and conquered Bengal Western Satraps. He
also conquered many terri tories in north — western India. His empire
extended from Himalayas to Narmada. He occupies a unique and
prominent position not only in Gupta dynasty but in Indian history also.
3. A Great Diplomat :
Chandra Gupta I was the greatest diplomat of his times. He had
strengthened his imperial position by matrimonial alliance with the
powerful reigning dynasty. His marriage with Kubernaga, the Naga
princess was very important act of his diplomacy. Further his daughter
Prabhavati Gupta was married to the Vakataka king Rudrasena II. The
Naga and Vakatakas might have been of great help to Chandra Gupta II in
his campaign against the Sakas.
4. Religious Toleration:
Chandra Gupta II religious toleration is proved by the fact that the
Udaygiri cave inscription are Shai va and the Sanchi inscription are
Vaishnava. Though he himself was a worshipper of Lord Vishnu yet the
respected all sects. He appointed his ministers who belonging to other
faith such as Virasenasaba, a staunch follower of Shaivism who was his
ministers of war and peace and his general Amarakarddava was a staunch
Buddhist. The Buddhist and the followers of Jainism enjoyed full liberty
under him. He is often compared with Ashoka and Akbar. Chandra Gupta
I was liberal, to learn and welfare king like Ashoka and was a great
diplomat efficient administrator and successful general like Akbar.
5. A patron of Literature:
Chandra Gupta II was a generous patron of art and literature. Being a man
of accomplishments himself, he encouraged learning. He had great love
for art and education. His court said to have graced by Navartnas or nine
gems Kalidasa, a great poet and dramatist, Varahmihira, the greatest
astronomer of the period, Vasubandhu, the Buddhist scholar and saint was
attached his court. Chandra Gupta I hims elf was a highly learned person.
The period of Chandra Gupta II is known as the period of renaissance in
literary sphere.
An able warrior, wise state man, liberal and generous patron, efficient
administrator his imperial pomp and power made Chandra Gupta I I a
greatest monarch of the Gupta dynasty. He occupies a unique and
prominent position not only in Gupta dynasty but in Indian history also.
Check Your Progress:
1. Give a critical account of political and military achievements of
Chandra Gupta II. munotes.in
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62 Later Gupta Kings —
Kumar Gupta I
Skanda Gupta
Downfall of Gupta Empire
4.7 KUMAR GUPTA I
Kumar Gupta succeeded Chandragupta II in about 47 A.D., whose known
dates ranges from 48 to 455 A.D. On the death of Chandra Gupta II, his
son Kumar Gupta born of his Chief Queen Dhruvadevi ascended the
throne. There is no contemporary book or account to have first rate
information of his region but from his coins we learn that he had an
efficient organization and complete security in his kingdom. His
inscriptions reveal the fact that the country enjoyed peace and prosperity.
Trade and Commerce flourished under Shrenis (Guilds). That he was able
to maintain the great is evidenced from the finds of his information from
north Bengal to Western Malwa. A number of inscriptions of his
Governors and feudatories have been found viz the Bilsad stone pillar
inscription, Damodarpur copper plate inscription, Gadhwa inscription and
Mandasor stone inscription.
Kumar Gupta I had two wives and two sons. The names of his wives were
Ananta Dev i and Devaki. Puma Gupta was born to Ananta Devi and
Skanda Gupta was born to Devaki.
There was a brisk trade during the period of Kumar Gupta. The merchant
class had organized themselves under guilds of Western Malwa was
famous for cotton and silk clothes in those days. Though he had not fought
any famous battle he had performed the Ashwmedha or horse ceremony.
And he was recognized as a Chakravarti King of India. After his accession
to the throne he adopted the title of Mahendraditya. Kumar Gupta I is
known by various names such as Sima Mahendra, Ashvamedha
Mahendra, Mahendra Karma, Mahendra Kalpa, Shri Mahendra Simha,
Mahendra Kumar, Shri Mahendra Ajita etc. Kumar Gupta I took up the
title of Vyaghra -bala-parakrama which means displaying the strength and
powers of a tiger. Thus it is obvious that Kumar Gupta was a brave king
who with his unflinching courage and inexhaustible strength had extended
the frontiers of the Gupta Empire.
The most important source to know more about Kumar Gupta I is his
coins. He issued various types of coins which throw a welcome light about
his administrative system and also his state officials. His gold coins
included archer type, Horseman type, swordsman type, lion slayer type,
Tiger slayer type, Elephant ride type, Ashwamegha type and Kartikeya
type. Kumar Gupta was a staunch Brahmanist. He introduced the worship
of new God Kartikeya. But Kumar Gupta I continued the worship of other
Gods and followed the ancestor's policy of religious toleration. The gold
coin with the figure o f Kartikeya riding his peacock on the other. munotes.in
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63 Ashwamegha coins must have been issued by him to commemorate the
performance of a horse sacrifice. The legend on the observe of these coins
is "Jayanti Diwam Kamarah" and on the reverse the legend is Sri
Asvamed ha – Mahendrah. Silver coins were issued by Kumar Gupta I for
circulation in Western India. He also issued copper coins. Kumar Guptas
coins shows the vastness of his empire. Many coins of Kumar Gupta have
been unearthed at Satara in Maharashtra indicates t he expansion of his
Kingdom towards South.
His inscriptions reveals some important names of ministers and governors.
It is stated that Chiratadatta governed Pundravasdhana Bhakti. Govind
Gupta , younger brother of the emperor was in charge of Saurashtra,
Chitradatta was in charge of Bengal. Prince Ghatotkacha Gupta acted as
the Viceroy of the province of Eastern Malwa. Prithvisen, son of Samudra
Gupta's Chief Minister, Shikhariswami, was the Chief Minister and later
on commander — in — chief of Gupta armies . Another Viceroy named
Bandhuvarman ruled at Dasapura. Thus it is obvious that Kumar Gupta
was a brave king who with his unflinching courage and inexhaustible
strength had extended the frontiers of Gupta Empire.
Towards the end of his reign, the peace of the empire was rudely disturbed
and after this he had to face very critical situation and serious problems.
The empire was invaded by the Pushyamitra, a tribe of unknown origin.
Some scholars do not accept the reading Pushyamitra in the Bhitari
inscription as the second syllable of this name is damaged. Recent
researches show that they were probably white Huns. Their first attack
was in 450 A.D. Kumar Gupta sent his son Skanda Gupta to resist the
invasion. The struggle seems to have been severe and long str etched.
Kumar Gupta died before Skandagupta defeated the invaders. The Bhaitari
inscription of Skandagupta records that the victory was achieved after the
death of Kumargupta.
Kumar Gupta ruled the country for 40 years with a sound, efficient and
stable ad ministration, in peaceful and prosperous conditions. It seems that
the liberal religious policy, generous patronage to arts and literature and
efficient administration of Chandra Gupta II continued in the long reign of
Kumar Gupta I. According to R. C. Muj umdar ' The reign of Kumar Gupta
is generally regarded as devoid of interest and importance.
The numerous inscriptions of this age mention only one military campaign
towards the very end of his reign, while they all clearly indicate a peaceful
and stable a dministration from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal under
his personal authority.... On the whole, it is not unlikely that more credit is
due to Kumar Gupta's administration and personality than is usually given
to him by modern historians.'
4.8 SKANDA GUPTA (455 - 467 A.D.)
There is a controversy regarding Skanda Gupta's succession. The Bhitari
seal of Kumar Gupta makes Puru Gupta the son and successor of Kumar
Gupta. However scholars like Smith, Pannala, Raychaudhari hold that the munotes.in
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64 skanda Gupta was the immediate successor of Kumar Gupta I. Puru
Gupta, Ghatotkacha Gupta, sons of Kumar Gupta and Govind Gupta
brother of Kumar Gupta were the rivals of Skanda Gupta . However the
Bhitari inscription emphasizes that civil war threatened the fortunes of the
Guptas and Skanda Gupta defeated his rivals and seized the throne.
The most important source of information about Skanda Gupta and war
with Huns is Bhitari Pillar inscription. Bhitari is in Ghazipur district.
There is a red sandstone pillar outside the villag e and it has a long
inscription in 19 lines. In addition to Bhitari inscription the Junagarh
inscription, Kahaum Stone pillar inscription (Indore), Bihar Stone pillar
inscription and gold coins of Arches, Chakra, King and Lakshmi and
horsemen types are the sources.
Skand Gupta ruled for a brief period of about 12 years. He defeated his
rival claimants to the throne and succeeded Kumar Gupta I. The
inscriptional evidences reveal the fact that other princes were not able and
only Skanda Gupta was there fit to have the throne. Dr. R. C. Mujumdar
suggests that,' After Kumar’s death which apparently took place while the
struggle with Pushyamitra was still undecided, there was and fratricidal
war in which Skanda Gupta came off victorious after defeating his
brothe r's including Puru Gupta, the rightful claimant and rescued his
mother just as Krishna rescued Devaki. After coming on the power Skanda
Gupta was surrounded with many problems. He could not regain the peace
for a long time. Almost immediately after his suc cession he had struggle
with many enemies. The problem of defending the frontiers was the
serious one. During his reign Skanda Gupta had to encounter the invasion
of the Humas who had already proved them to be a formidable power and
terror to both Europe a nd Asia. While fighting against this barbaric
people. He had to sleep on bare floor. In the second century B.C. Huns
lived in Central Asia on the western border of China. Soon after his
accession to the throne, the Huns made a severe attack on India and th ey
chained into India crossing the river Indus in large numbers. For the
Second time Skanda Gupta's abilities were tested in dealing with the most
dangerous enemy. For second time he proved himself worthy as a Great
son of Gupta. Skanda Gupta succeeded aga inst the Huns which was a
great achievement for which he might well go down in the history as the
savior of India. On the occasion of this victory he offered sacrifices to the
God and laid a statue of Lord Vishnu in Bhitary village of Ghazipur
district. Af ter this hard earned victory he took the title of Vikramaditya' as
his Grandfather.
4.8.1 Administration:
Skanda Gupta inherited certain qualities from his forefathers like other
Gupta kings; he also was not only a great warrior but also an administrator
of rare caliber. His administration did not become weak even in then our
of foreign invention. He shifted his capital from Patliputra to Ayodya
because it was located in the Centre of his Empire. He undertook number
of welfare activities to strengthen his E mpire. munotes.in
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65 Skanda Gupta paid great attention to public work. The construction of
Sudarshan Lake is a notable event of his period. Junagardha Rock
inscription informs us that the Sudarshan Lake , built in the time of
Chandra Gupta Mourya bridged and burst in th e time of Skanda Gupta in
450 A.D. This lake caused a great harm to the people as well as their
property. Skanda Gupta got it fully repaired and enlarged within a short
period of just two months.
His kingdom was divided into a number of provinces and each province
had provincial administrator. Junagardha Rock inscription tells us about
administrative spirit of Skanda Gupta. "Having thus conquered the whole
earth and the pride of his enemies, he set about organizing his empire by
appointing governors in all the provinces and had to spend much thought
to find among his officers the most competent of them who could shoulder
the burden of administering the whole of the Saurashtra countries newly
acquired. Many a day and night did the king spend on this thought t ill he
appointed Parnadatta to rule over the Saurashtra region. Posting Parnadatta
on the West quarter, the king was easy at heart, just as the Gods were by
appointing Varuna as the guardian of the Western quarter."
4.8.2 Estimate of Skanda Gupta :
Skanda Gupta was the last great emperor of Gupta dynasty. During his
period the economic condition was appreciably good, people were happy
and prosperous. He issued both Gold and Silver coins. Since under him
Empire had to face many problems. Comparatively he had issued few
Gold coins. He had introduced a new type of coin age system. And the
coin had the picture of King on the one side and Goddess Lakshmi on the
reverse. He had issued archer type, King and Lakxmi type and horseman
types of coins.
Samudra Gupta was worshipper of Lord Vishnu and a follower of
Brahmanism but he was tolerant towards all religion and cults. He did not
interfere with the religion of his officers and subjects. The Bihar Pillar
inscription refers to the construction of pillar with a circle of temples
dedicated to God headed by Skanda and the divine mothers who were
Brahmi, Maheshwari Kumari. Vaisenavi, Mahendri, Varahi, Chamunda,
Chandi and Charchika. According to the Buddhist Inscription he had
recognized Vasubandhu, a Buddhist Saint as hi s Guru in the rule. The
Hindus and the Buddhist had a cordial relation. Thus Skanda Gupta was a
great warrior , an able administrator, a benevolent and justice loving
emperor.
4.9 DECLINE AND DOWNFALL OF GUPTA EMPIRE
The Great Gupta empire which was founde d by Sri Gupta and bravely
built up by Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II began to decline an
ultimately collapsed completely towards the end of 6th Century A.D.
Along with the death of Skanda Gupta the imperials rule seemed to have
come to an end. Many fa ctor are responsible for decline of Gupta Dynasty. munotes.in
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66 1. Weak Successor:
Empire building in ancient India was mainly because of an ambitious
ruler. It mainly centered upon the individual ruler who could built the
empire. Till Skanda Gupta all the rulers were in a position to extend or
maintained the kingdom but the later Gupta's who followed Skanda Gupta
where Puru Gupta, Narasimha Gupta, Baladitya Gupta, Buddha Gupta
who were weak and incompetent and therefore Gupta Power came to an
end.
2. Foreign Invasion:
The stability of Gupta Empire was seriously threatened by Pushyamitra in
the time of Kumar Gupta I. Though Skanda Gupta beated them but when
the Central Government of the Gupta became weak, this foreign forces
became more vigorous and soon after the death of Skanda Gupta Huns
brought about the ruin of Gupta Empire. The repeated attacks of Huns
must have exhausted the resources of Gupta empire. Under the leadership
of Toramana Hunas established their authority over Punjab, Rajputana,
Sindh and Malwa. Thus th e foreign invasions gave a serious blow to the
Gupta Empire.
3. Absence of Strong Central Authority:
Gupta dynasty had monarchical type of Government until the rule of
Skanda Gupta monarchical type of Government was boon to them, but the
Central administr ation became weak and defective after the death of
Skanda Gupta. Many chiefs revolted against later Gupta rulers. They were
successful in setting up an independent kingdom towards the middle of 6th
Century. Later Gupta rulers lacked the power to handle the administrative
machinery of the Country. They were not competent to hold the empire
and being unity and oneness. Thus the Central administration became
weak and defective.
4. Change of Religion:
Another cause contributed to the fall of Gupta's was shift f rom Hinduism
to Buddhism. The early king of Gupta dynasty was followers of
Brahmanism whereas later Gupta embraced Buddhism. Buddha Gupta,
Tothagata Gupta and Baladitya adopted Buddhism. This conversion
causes a profound impact on the military enterprises o f the country so
much as that they could not resist the foreign invasions. Buddhism
completely brought a change in their military outlook and the later Gupta
were not so powerful as the former ones.
5. Deteriorating Economic Condition :
The system o Tax Col lection did not work well after Skanda Gupta. Thus,
Economic conditions of the people under later Gupta, deteriorated.
Deteriorated Economic Condition is well reflected through Gupta Coin
Age. The Superior Gold Coins issued by Chandra Gupta and Samudra
Gupta could be continued by their successors. Considerable fall in munotes.in
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67 economic condition has affected the military strength of a country. Thus,
the financial crisis proved to be a cause of destruction of the Gupta
empire.
6. Neglected the Borders of the Empire:
The threat of foreign invasions can be weakened by securing the borders
of the empire. The later Gupta did not pay much attention to the borders of
the empire. As a result, there was always the fear of foreign invasions.
This negligence brought about the d ownfall of Gupta Empire.
7. Vast Empire :
The Gupta Empire was very vast. A vast Empire could only be control by
powerful rulers like Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II. But later Gupta
rulers were incapable of controlling such a vast Empire. For the
conve nience and efficiency of the administration, empire was divided into
number of provinces. The administration of the provinces was carried on
by Governors. Unfortunately all the Governors were not loyal to kings
instead of fighting for the empire they fough t against it. Thus, internal
disturbance and mal -administration led to the ruin of the empire.
Check Your Progress:
1. Make an estimate of Kumar Gupta I as an conqueror and administrator.
4.10 MONARCHY : ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
During the Gupta period king w as the center figure in the administration.
The kings were looked upon by the people as Gods. The kings lived for
their subjects. In order to achieve the high ideals of kingship, Gupta kings
like Samudra Gupta, Chandra Gupta, Skanda Gupta devoted their who le
life for the welfare of people. Though the powers of king was more or less
absolute, there were checks and balances as in the Mauryan policy. The
Guptas placed before themselves certain ideals, which they tried to reach.
The achievements of Samudra Gupt a and Chandra Gupta, for instance,
prove this. In order to be worthy of power, the princes were trained
properly.
The Guptas discarded the modest title of Rajans. Instead they adopted the
titles such as Maharajadhiraja, Vikramaditya, Samrat, Prithvipala,
Chakravartin, Parmeshvara, Paramadevta, etc. In an inscription at Prayaga
Samudra Gupta has been identified with God Indra, Kubera and Vishnu.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription has referred Samudra Gupta as 'God
dwelling on earth'. The coin legends of the Gu pta emperor from the time
of Samudra Gupta refers to them as having 'acquired heaven (by good
deeds) following their conquest of the earth. The rule of succession in the
Gupta Empire was hereditary descent. But many time emperors himself
selected his succe ssor. Younger brother of the ruler and elder sons of the
ruler were usually appointed to the post of provincial Governors.
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68 Emperors during Gupta period appeared too absolute. He was as usual the
center of all military, political, administrative and judici al authority, many
times they were thus own commands -in-chief. Samudra Gupta, Chandra
Gupta -II, Skanda Gupta personally led their armies. All the official
appointments in administration were appointed by King. The King was the
sources of all honours and ti tles. The Secretariat at the capital worked
under his personal direction and supervision and the provincial governors
and their officers were under their control and guidance. King had a full
liberty to distribute property, titles, recover and remit taxes and give
justice loaded with innumerable privileges and rights Gupta Kings were
assisted by various officers at and central state, district and village level.
All these officials were responsible to the King. They enjoyed their
respective positions accordi ng to the King's pleasure and could be
deprived of their rank at any time.
4.11 COUNCIL OF MINISTER
The Gupta continued the traditional machinery of bureaucratic
administration. The King was assisted by a council, which was called as
Mantrimandalam. The ro yal council should not be regarded as a mere
advisory body. It must have formed an important organization in the
administration machinery. Probably council of ministers consisted of
princes, high officials and feudatories. The Gupta Empire had grown fast
and extensive. So it was very difficult for the king to govern the country
all alone. Thus, the Gupta Kings had a council which rendered advisory
functions. The council of ministers was accommodated the officer of the
different ministers and heads of depart ment. Each office had its own seal
with which its communication were stamped for authentication. Kalidasa
had remarked that the important matter were placed before Council of
Ministers. The decision of council were conveyed to the King by the
Ministers. Bu t the King was not compelled to accept the decision of the
Cabinet. Thus duty of the council of ministers was to advice King, but
ultimately final decisions were taken by King. The main function of the
council was to accept or reject the successor. It was held responsible for
making preparation for the coronation of Yuvaraja.
4.12 OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICIALS
Kautilya has mentioned various kinds of ministers who were in charge of
different departments. The mantri (high minister), whose office is known
to Kautilya's Arthashastra, was the head of civil administration. Among
the imperials officers were Mahabaladhikarta (commander -in-chief), the
Mahadandanayak (general), the Mahapratihara (chief of the palace guard).
Pratihara and Mahapratihara were important officer's in the royal court.
They regulated and granted the necessary permission for admission to the
royal presence. The Mahashvapati (chief of cavalry), Mahapitupati (officer
in charge of elephants), Senapati and Baladhikrta, Sandhivigrahika etc.
were o ther high ranking, officers. A link between the central and the
provincial administration was furnished by the class of officer called
Kamaramatyas and Ayuktas. The Ayuktas may be traced back to the munotes.in
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69 Yuktas of the Ashokan inscriptions. Ayuktas were entruste d with the task
of restoring the wealth of the kings conquered by the emperor and
sometimes placed in charge of districts or metropolitan town,
Kumaramatyas figured prominently in the Central Government
Secretariat. Some of the Kumaramatyas worked in the p rovincial
government. Harishena (Samudra Gupta's Minister). Sikharaswami
(Chandra Gupta II's minister) and Prithvisena (Kumar Gupta's Minister)
are the best examples of the designation Kumaramatyas. There are no
clear evidences about the mode of payment th e officers and minister's
during Gupta period. Mode of payment has changed from person to person
and different at each rule. It is possible that some officials must have
received their salaries in cash. However some officials must have given
lands in the l ieu of their salaries. They earned their livelihood out of the
money obtained through this landed property.
4.6 PROVONCIAL ADMINISTRATION
Gupta had ruled upon a very vast and extensive territory. For
administrative purpose, it was divided into a number of units and
provinces called Bhukti which were about the size of the Commissioner's
division in modern times. The head of the provinces was called Uparika or
Bhagpat. They were related to the royal family. Further each Bhuktis were
sub-divided into Vaishyas , roughly corresponding to the modem districts.
Vaishya was ruled by a Visyapati. Uparika and Visyapati were allotted
many administrative responsibilities. They were assisted by number of
sub-officials. Uparika were appointed by and responsible to emperor
himself. Visyapati was usually appointed by Uprikas, but sometimes
directly by the emperor himself. Lastly the village or grama was under the
officer called Gramika. There is also reference to the `Ashtakutadhikama'
which was a council of 8 leading familie s in village. This body and
Gramika managed the affairs of village.
The administrative divisions of the south differed from that of north. The
south was divided into mandals which were further divided into Kohmas.
In the south village was the smallest admi nistrative unit. Administration in
village was carried out by the village headman, where as in town it was
looked after by Nagarpatis'. (in some areas in Central India rural affairs
were managed by a committee of five known as Panchamandal. Group of
villag es formed Vithis' which are mentioned in Gupta inscription and
seals.)
The Gupta seals excavated near Vaisali mention about the following
provincial officer.
Kumaramatyadhikarana (Office of Prince's Minister) are
1. Bladhikarna (Head of the Army)
2. Military Exc hequer
3. Chief of the Police
4. Chief Censor munotes.in
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70 5. Chamberlain
6. Chief Justice
7. Minister for Law and Order
8. Head of Infantry and Cavalry
9. Governor of Provinces
Thus we can state over here that there was no over - centralization of
government under the Guptas. Obviously exc ellent and well set system of
Administration brought peace and prosperity during Gupta period.
4.7 THE DISTRICT COUNCIL AND ADMINISTRATION
The district administration enjoyed considerable powers. Officers in
charge of districts were responsible for maintai ning law and order. They
was also in charge of collection of government taxes and revenue. As
mentioned earlier a province was divided into District called Vishayas,
which were under Vishayapati. The term `Adhishthitakarana' seemed to be
used for the Distr ict headquarter during Gupta period. The Districts
officers were large in number subordinate revenue officer serving as link
between the district administration and the villages were Yuktas, Ayuktas,
Niyuktas, Vyaprilas and Adhikritas. The district adminis trators always
enjoyed considerable power. Central Government always consulted
district authorities while dealing with the matters related to district
administration. At district cover also there was a council whose members
were known as Vishayamahattaras. The Faridpur plate III shows that there
were about 20 members, some of whom were non -Brahmana. Seals of
Vishayamahattaras have been found at Nalanda. The Chief banker, the
Chief traders, the Chief artisan and Chief Kayastha (write) figured
prominently in the council. The Damodar copper plates furnish more
information of the district administration. The district council consisted of
Nagarsrestin or the president of the guilds and main traders, artisans,
bankers and Kayastas.
4.8 VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION
Gupta period has witness excellent system of administration even at grass
root level. As mentioned above the lowest administrative unit was known
as Grama. The village (Grama) administration was placed under the
change of gramika. The rural council or board kno wn as
`Ashtakutadhikarana' was said to be headed by village elders. This council
and Gramika managed the affairs of the village. In some areas in Central
India, rural affairs were managed by a committee of five, known as
Panchamandal. The seal near Vaisali refer to Pancha Mandali which are
equivalent to the Panchayat of later times. These assemblies constituted
various committees to look after specific departments, such as tanks,
temples, justice etc. Though each village was independent unit of
administrati on, in later period it looked forward to further help from the
emperor. Numerous inscription of the Guptas throws welcome light on the munotes.in
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Age
71 grants of villages to the scholars, servants and even for the religious
purposes.
4.16 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
Excellent r evenue administration was the backbone of the Gupta
Administration. Though taxation system of the Guptas was not as
elaborate as that of Mauryas, it was a perfect system of its kind.
Unfortunately inscriptions do not give much information regarding the
revenue administration of the Guptas. It appears that the traditional
number of taxes was 18, but we do not find the names of these taxes in the
inscriptions of the Gupta age. The primary source of revenue to the central
exchequers was the land tax. Two types of land taxes specifically are
mentioned Shoga' a tax paid by private land owners and Sagabhoga', a tax
paid on crown lands. Land was also called Bhagakara in some localities
and Udranga in other. There was a separate department to collect taxes
regularly . The rate of land tax was according to the quality of land have
varied from 16 to 25 percent. It was usually collected in kinds instead of
cash. If the production was poor, the government share automatically
became small.
Another source of income was deri ved from taxes enforced on buffalo
milk, curd and also on fruits and flowers. The forests, meadow and salt
mines, added to the income of the state. The villagers had to pay
occasional levy when officers of the Central Government come for
inspection. They h ad to provide them food, flowers and other necessities
and luxuries of life with labour and transportation facilities. During
emergency these taxes could be raised and even new taxes could be levied.
The state claimed ownership in waste lands, forest, past ures and derived
considerable income by farming them out or selling their product.
However, other sources of revenue included the custom duty, fine
collected from criminals, transport fee for the cattle, slaughtering animals,
police tax for security of vil lagers, fee from guilds, traders, bankers, gold
and silver merchants. All these sources of revenue always kept Gupta
treasury flooded. And made Gupta period a Golden period of Indian
History.
4.17 JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
The Judicial administration of such a vast empire could not be carried on
by the King alone. The King was the highest judicial authority. But for the
convenience there were courts at Central and Provincial level. In
inscription we come across the name `Mahadandnayaka', Chief Judicial
Office r. He acted as commander as well as judge. Administration of
Justice in important towns and cities was carried on by specially appointed
officers. The seals of courts functioning at important provincial and
district centers are found at Nalanda and Vaishal i which mentions the
designations like Nayadhikarana, Dharmadhikarana and Dharmashasan
adhikarana. The justice in the village was dispensed by village Panchayat.
There were four types of courts namely Kala, Shreni, Gana and Rayakiya. munotes.in
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72 The first three were t he public and last was the government court. All the
disputes were referred to first three courts in the first instance. There was
permission to appeal to higher court.
The Gupta code of punishment was not very harsh. There was no death
punishment. Punishm ent was inflicted according to the nature of crime.
But certain scholars have contradicted the above view. According to them
there are very harsh and severe punishment during Gupta period. Ordeal
by fire, water, poison and by weighing with stone was also r endered to.
According to Fa -Hien punishments during Gupta period were very lenient.
However, Vishakhadatt describes heavy punishment, including death
sentence. Another cruel and barbarous punishment was the scooping out
the eyes or crushing the offender un der elephant's feet. In the inscription
of Skanda Gupta at Junagad we come to know of the torture inflicted on
the sinner. The whole purpose behind heavy and brutal punishments was
to dates the people from committing crimes.
4.18 MILITARY ADMINISTRATION
The Gupta kings were great warriors and conquerors. The military
organization of the Guptas was well knit and efficient. As they followed
imperialistic policy, they maintained big army. The army consisted of
elephants, cavalry and infantry. In Rajastan even camels were used in the
army. In the South there were some units of navy. The Senapati was the
highest official in the army. The imperialistic policy and security of
Kingdom was mainly based on the efficiency of military, hence Gupta
kings paid special att ention towards the army. Numerous references are
found about the designation of military officers. Senapati, Mahasenapati,
Baladhikrita, Mahabaladhikrita, Dandanayaka, Sandhivigrahik,
Mahasandhivigrahika, Gopta etc. The Junagad rock inscription of Skanda
Gupta tells as that he 'appointed protectors (Goptrin) in all countries. In
the hour of crises besides king's army there were separate armies in the
provinces. Thus military administration of Gupta gave peace, prosperity
and solace to the people.
Check Your Progress:
1. Describe the achievements of Imperial Gupta in Administration.
4.19 SUMMARY
Imperial Gupta once again gave political unity to the country. There are
sufficient sources of information about the Imperial Guptas. These are
literary archaeologica l and foreign. Much is not known about origin of the
Guptas. Scholars had viewed different origin of Gupta family from
Vaisyas to foreign blood. It however, appears that Chandra Gupta I was
the their first important ruler. He brought name and fame to this dynasty
and also founded a new hour. He married Lichchavi princess which
brought strength and prestige to his dynasty.
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73 Samudragupta succeeded Chandra Gupta I. At that time India was
politically divided and many small kingdom and monarchies existed. Thus
Samudra Gupta was faced with the problem of uniting them Samudragupta
was a great conqueror. He defeated 12 kings in the north, in the south also
he won many territories and subjugated forest and borders tribes. He had
very cordial relations with Ceylon. He also performed Asvamedha Yajna.
Thus Samudragupta occupies a unique place in Indian history. He was
great warrior, successful conqueror, founders of Gupta Empire, great
diplomat, good administrator, patronize of art and literature and a perfect
religious tolerant.
Samudra Gupta was succeeded by his son Rama Gupta. Chandra Gupta II
younger brother of Rama Gupta reached his wife from Saka rulers. Ram
Gupta was killed Chandra Gupta. Subsequently Chandra Gupta married
his sister – in – law Dhruvadevi. Chandra G upta II was one of the greatest
monarchs of Gupta dynasty. He ruled for a period of about 40 years.
Chandra Gupta followed policy of matrimonial alliance to extend his
empire. Chandra Gupta defeated many republics and conquered Bengal.
The achievement of C handra Gupta II was his victory over western
Satraps. His empire extended from Himalayas to the Narmada.
Chandra Gupta II issued large numbers of gold, silver and copper coins.
Fa- Hien was a Chinese traveler who came to India to study Buddhism.
His descri ption gives much information about social, economic and
political condition of India of that age. Thus Chandra Gupta II was the
most glorious king of king of Gupta dynasty. He was a successful efficient
administration, patron of art and literature and foll owed the policy of
religious toleration.
Kumar Gupta Succeeded Chandra Gupta II in about 47 A.D. Kumar Gupta
ruled the country for 40 years with a sound efficient and stable
administration. He had issued various types of coins. His coins and
inscriptions r eveal some important names of his ministers and governors.
Skanda Gupta succeeded Kumar Gupta. He ruled for a brief period of 12
years Skanda Gupta paid great attention to public work. His kingdom was
divided into a number of provinces during his period th e economic
condition was appreciably good, people were happy and prosperous. He
was a follower of Brahmanism but he was tolerant towards all religions
and cults. Along with the death of Skand -Gupta the imperial rule of Gupta
came to an end.
The Gupta admin istration provided the model for basic administrative
structure both in theory and practice. Cultural unity was combined with
political unity. During the Gupta period King was the center figure in the
administration. The Guptas discarded the modest title o f Rajas. Instead
they adopted the titles such as Maharajadhiraj, Chakravastin, Samrat etc.
The King was assisted by council of ministers which was called
Mantrimandalam. Apart from council of ministers there are other officials
also such as Mahaboladhikart a, Mahadandnayaka, the Mahapratihara and
Pratihara. For administrative purpose Kingdom was divided into numerous
units and provinces called Bhakti, Vishaya and Grama. The district munotes.in
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74 administration enjoyed considerable powers. The village administration
was u nder rural council headed by village elders. Excellent revenue
administration was the backbone of the Gupta administration. For judicial
administration there were courts at Central and Provincial level. The army
of Guptas consisted of elephants, cavalry an d infantry. Thus Gupta age is
rightly called the Golden Age.
4.20 QUESTIONS
1. What do you know about the origin and growth of Guptas? Give
brief account of Chandra Gupta I the founders of dynasty.
2. Describe the career and achievements of Samudragupta
3. Write Sh ort notes on
i) The origin of the Guptas
ii) Chandra Gupta I
iii) Samudragupta's military expedition.
iv) Fa-Hien
v) Ramgupta
4. Examine the contribution of Chandra Gupta II to the expansion
and consolidation of Gupta Empire.
5. Describe carrier and achievemen ts of Chandra Gupta II.
6. Describe the career and achievements of Skanda Gupta.
7. Bring out the salient features of the Gupta administration.
8. Discuss in detail, the imperial administration of the Guptas.
9. Describe, in brief, the Gupta administration.
10. What facto rs led to the decline and downfall of the Gupta Empire.
3.21 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A. S. - Rashtrakutas & Their Times
2. Ayyanger S. K. - Ancient India and South Indian History &
Culture
Oriental Book Agency, Pune 1941
3. Bhattacharya N.N. - Ancient Rituals and their Social Contents,
(Delhi, Manohar Publication) 1996
4. Chakravarti Uma - The Social Dimensions of Early
Buddhism - Delhi, Mumshiram
Manoharilal - 1996 munotes.in
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Imperial Expansion and
Administration of Gupta
Age
75 5. Chakaravarti K.C. - Ancient Indian Culture & Civilization
Vora & Co. Bo mbay 1992
6. Jha D. N. - Ancient India in Historical Outline
Motilal Banarasidas, Publishers Pvt. New
Delhi.
7. Kulkarni C. M. - Ancient Indian History & Culture
Karnataka Publishing House, Mumbai -
1956.
Pannikar K.M. - Harsha & His Times, Bombay,
Tarapor ewalla & Sons Co. 1922
8. Kautilya - The Arthshatra Penguin Book, 1987
9. Luniya B. N. - Life & Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra - 1994
10. Majumdar R. C. - Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidas,
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi - 1974
11. Mookerjee R. K. - Ancient India,
Allahabad, Indian Press, 1956
12. Mukherjee B. N. - Rise and Fall of the Kushanas
- Empire
13. Nilkantha Shastri - A History of South India, Madras, OOP
1979
14. Nandi R. N. - Social Roots of Religion in Ancient India
15. Pathak V.S. - Historians of India (Ancient India)
- Asia Publishing Bombay 1966
16. Pannikar K.M. - Harsha and His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla and Sons Co. 1922
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76 5
CLASSICAL AGE
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Religious Condition
5.2.1 Hinduism
5.2.2 Buddhism
5.2.3 Jainism
5.3 Economic Conditions
5.3.1 Agriculture
5.3.2 Industry
5.3.3 Trade
5.3.4 Guilds
5.4 Social Life During Gupta Period
5.4.1 Caste system
5.4.2 Untouchability
5.4.3 Marriages
5.4.4 Joint family system
5.4.5 Position of women
5.4.6 Dress and Ornaments
5.4.7 Food and Drinks
5.5 Literature
5.6 Education
5.7 Art and Architecture
5.8 Sciences and Technology
5.9 Summary
5.10 Questions
5.11 Additional Reading
5.0 OBJECTIVES
To focus on the religious, Economic and Social conditions during
Gupta period.
To brief survey the progress made in the field of Art and Architecture
Science and Technology and coinage. munotes.in
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77 5.1 INTRODUCTION
Many historians have titled Gupta period as 'The Golden Age' of Gupta.
An eminent historian A.L. Basham has expressed his view in the
following lines:
‘Perhaps the Gupta period was an age when love, in all the senses of the
word, was more wid ely diffused in India than at any other time in her
history – love of the gods and love of one's fellow men, love of the things
of the spirit and love of the things of sense, love of pomp and splendor and
love of simplicity, love of nature and love of life . In almost every relic of
the Gupta age this love is apparent, in the Gupta age this love is apparent,
in the simple but dignified script of Gupta inscriptions, in the fine design
of Gupta. Coinage, in the words of the court poet Kalidasa as in these of
the provincial hack -writer Vastabhatti and of the anonymous scribes who
drafted in rather in accurate Sanskrit the texts of the Damodarpur title -
deeds, taking pains to mention the names of the members of the local
council and those of the humble clerks who kept the records of land
transactions. This was surely a period of high civilization in every sense,
but especially in the truest sense of the term – an age of equilibrium, when
human relations reached a degree of kindliness rare in the history of the
world, and the best minds of India expressed the fullness and goodness of
life in imperishable art and literature'. (A. C. Basham )
5.2 RELIGIOUS CONDITION
A distinguish feature of Gupta period is religious freedom and toleration.
During Gupta period every citize n was treated equally apart from their
religious beliefs. The Gupta Kings was quite tolerant towards other
religion. People loved one another. Buddhism and Jainism enjoyed all
those facilities which were enjoyed by the Brahmins. Consequently,
Buddhism and Jainism flourished along with Hinduism. The emperor
showed the noble spirit of tolerance and did not suppress or harassed any
religious community. Talent was encouraged without any religious
prejudices. In this period, Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism exis ted side
by side.
5.2.1 Hinduism :
The Gupta rulers were the champion of new Brahmanical movement. The
revival of Brahmanism had begun during the Sunga period. The Gupta to
patronize this religion. Rather it will be correct to say that a new life was
infus ed into Hinduism. The Gupta age was the Golden age of Hindu
revival. There is epigraphical evidence to show that Gupta King's revived
Ashvamedha sacrifice after their victory. Most of the Gupta rulers
supported Vaishnavism. The epigraphs and coins speak o f other God and
Goddesses like Laxmi, Durga, Parvati, Shiva, Kartikeya and Surya etc.
This period also became famous for Dharma Shashtra literature. The some
of Puranas, the epics, the smritis etc. were written during this period. From
the inscription we learn ed that the Gupta's God constructed many temples munotes.in
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78 and made liberal Grants to the religious institution. The Bhakti movement
became strong and one over thousands of people to Hindu faith.
5.2.2 Buddhism:
The Gupta rulers were known for their liberal rel igiou s policy. They
patronized all faiths equally. Buddhism continued flourishing along with
Brahminism. Samudra Gupta granted permission to the ruler of Ceylon for
the construction of Vihar at Gaya. The Sanchi inscription of Chandra
Gupta II referred to a gran t instituted by military officer, for feeding the
Buddhists. The Buddhist University of Nalanda was a beneficiary of the
royal patronage. A large number of Buddha and Bodhisattva images are
discovered in different parts of India. Especially in the sit es of Nalanda
and Mathura focuses on the religious freedom enjoyed by the Buddhists
under the Gupta's. During this period Buddhism underwent complete
transformation and adopted some of the practices of shavism and
shaktism. At Sarnath images of Buddha were inst alled under the
supervision of Kumar Gupta II and Buddha Gupta. Thus, Buddhism had
widely spread during the Gupta age.
5.2.3 Jainism :
The Udayagiri Inscription of Kumar Gupta I in the Kancham Pillar
Inscription relates to the installation of Tirthanka ras. East Bengal,
Mathura, Vallabhi and Punavardhan and in central India Udayagiri, in
South Kanchi, Camatic and Mysore were the important places of Jainism.
Private and Royal Gifts to the Jain temples and installation of the statues
of Tirthankaras are on record. In this age commentaries were written on
ancient Jain books. But Sanskrit was dominating language during this
period so all the Jain Scripture were written in Sanskrit.
5.3 ECONOMIC CONDITION
Economic prosperity is one of the reasons for the Golde n period of Gupta
Dynasty. Under Gupta's agriculture, trade and commerce was greatly
encouraged. Economic Prosperity was the hallmark of the Gupta age.
5.3.1 Agriculture :
The backbone of Indian Economy is agriculture. It is the basis of
economic life in I ndia. During Gupta period agricultural land was owned
by individual families and not by State. Land was inherited and cultivated
generation after generation. Agriculture was carried on both with Artificial
and Natural irrigation. Canals, wells and huge lak es w ere constructed for
irrigation. The construction of Sudarshan Lake by Skand Gupta is
evidence of these facts . Many inscriptional records referred to the public
welfare project like wells, tanks and canals for irrigation purposes. It is
believed that some s cientific methods were followed for better agricultural
produced. There were strict rules and regulation regarding transaction of
land. Land was not sold without the permission of the state. Severe
punishments were given to those who stole food grai n or da maged dams or munotes.in
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79 canals. Therefore, during Gupta period there was bumper harvest of not
only of food grain but also of different varieties of foods.
5.3.2 Industry :
Millions of people earned their livelihood by spinning and weaving. The
most important center of cloth industry was at Gujarat, Bengal and some
state in the South. During Gupta period initially instituted clothes were
used. But later on, with the influence of foreigners stitched clothes like
coats, jackets were also used. Another flourishin g indus try of Gupta period
was of Jewelry making. During this period ornaments were studded with
precious and semi -precious stone. The work of cutting diamonds and
polishing of diamond was also done. Many people were engaged in metal,
copper and ivory work .
5.3.3 Trade :
During Gupta period India traded with number of foreign countries like
Arabia, Egypt, Greece, Persia, Rome, Syria and in the east with Burma,
Cambodia, China, Malaya, Ceylon, Siam and Sumatra. There was a very
active internal trade. For int ernal t rade there were good means of
transportation. Internal trade was carried on through sea as well as by land
routes. In those day Ujjain, Banaras, Vaishali, Gaya, Prayag and Mathura
were the important center of trade. The Ganga, Krishna, Godavari,
Brahmaputr a were the rivers utilized for trade. Trade routes were made
secure from the robbers on the land and pirates at sea. India exported
pearls, precious stone, clothes, scents, spices, drugs, coconut, ivory etc.
5.3.4 Guilds : (Shreni):
Guilds were the associa tion of merchant and traders. In today's term it was
like a trade union. There were guilds not only of commercial classes but
also among workers and weavers. Some guilds combine banking operation
to provide capital for the members. During Gupta peri od some of the
Guilds were consisted of a president and an executive community. The
Guild was designated by the name of head man. Guild used to deposit and
lend money. The members of the Guild got state security and enjoyed
social respect. This Guild also imparte d vocational and professional
education. The Guilds were very powerful in economic and social life.
They could even race a protective police force of their own. A fully
organized Guild gave bonus, leave, pension, provident fund etc. Its fixed a
fair price according to the quality of product. A minimum wage was fixed
by Guilds. They lavishly donated to the charitable institutions, built
monasteries, chaityas and temples and promoted education and art.
5.4 SOCIAL LIFE DURING GUPTA PERIOD
5.4.1 Caste S ystem :
During Gupta period the social frame work was patriarchal. There are
references to the four stages of life. A man was expected to keep balanced
among the four Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha). Society munotes.in
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80 was divided among the four castes . Brahmin s and Kshatriyas enjoyed a
very high status. Different quarters of the city were assigned to different
caste, the out caste living outside. The King granted land and Agrahara to
Brahmins. Brahmins were known by their Gotras.
In spite of rigid caste regard ing the occupation of each Varna. Inscription
of the period testify the occupational mobility among caste, Kshatriya
merchant and a body of weavers from Gujarat adopting other occupation
in Malwa.
5.4.2 Untouchability :
Untouchability existed in the societ y. Fa -Hein observed "Chandals" are
segregated. These people live away from other people and when they
approach the city or market place, they beat a piece of wood in order to
distinguish themselves. Then the people know who they are and avoid
coming into c ontact with them. Fortunately, along with other caste
Shudras were also permitted to change their occupation. Shudras were
Traders, agriculturists and artisans. Shudras were also employed in army
and state security. Even sudras could own property and could take up
teaching as a profession.
5.4.3 Marriages :
Monogamy was the cherished ideals but some of the Gupta ruler and rich
merchants followed Polygamy. In spite of the laws of Manu, Caste system
was still fluid. Marriages with foreigners and inter ca ste m arriages were
common. Gupta Kings themselves married with the girls of other dynasty.
Chandra Gupta, I had matrimonial alliance with the dynasty of Lichachvis,
Chandra Gupta II married with Kubera Naga of Naga family. Later
Chandra Gupta II gave his da ughter Prabhavati Gupta in marriage to the
Vakatala Rudrasena II.
5.4.4 Joint family system :
Joint family system was very common during Gupta period. The family
was managed by the patriarch who was shown profound respect. The
ownership of the property ves ted in the father. However, the Smritis
contained rules for the division of property. Rights of sons and brothers to
their separate shares were recognized by birthright. Widows got a life
interest on maintenance from the family.
5.4.5 Position of women :
The status of women was enhanced during Gupta period. Yagna Valkya
Smriti recognizes the right to inherit property for women. Though
Kautilya prohibits widow remarriage, Yagnavalkya allows niyoga by
which a widow could beget a child. Woman were free in soci al life. But
their Upanayana was stopped. The age of marriage for women was
lowered during Gupta period. System of Sati was rare. In the later Gupta
period position of women had deteriorated. They had no individual liberty.
They could not attain higher edu cation. The women were banned from munotes.in
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81 attaining religious education. Admission of women to the Buddhist
monasteries was stopped by 500 A.D. The women were trained in
dancing, painting and playing musical instruments. Parada system was not
common but the women of higher families used veils while going out.
5.4.6 Dress and ornaments :
Economic prosperity, peace and security during Gupta period has its
impact on their dress and ornaments. Literary evidences of times reveal
the information about the dress of the peopl e. The men wore dhotis and
covered themselves with shawls. The rulers and the rich wore gorgeous
and costly dress and thereby set the fashion in the court. The men wore
turban too. Coats, overcoats and trousers become common among the
Kings and noblem an. W omen generally wore blouses, saris and petticoats.
Cotton was more common among woman but silk clothes were also worn
occasionally. Common dress of women Saree and Blouse is also seen in
the Ajanta paintings.
Women used cosmetics, perfumes etc. Severa l style of hair dressing and
use of paints, pastes and lipsticks as well, are depicted in the painting at
Ajanta. Both women and men used a variety of ornaments. Rings,
bracelets and necklace were commonly used. The women used jingling
ornaments. The ornam ents were made of gold, silver and Ivory.
5.4.7 Food and Drinks:
According to Fa -Hein the majority people in Gupta period were
Vegetarian. But the literacy works of Kalidasa and other references proved
that on an festive occasion both meat and wines were c onsum ed. Fa -Hein
writes that the people did not use wines, onion, meat and geulic. Only
Chandalas ate such things. Probably views of the Fa -Hein were limited to
Buddhists only. Even smritis did not put any restriction on eating non -veg.
Smritis did not all ow wo men to eat meat especially whose husband have
been out. The smritis allowed meat -eating for the sick persons. Use of
betel nut and leaves (Pan) were in practice. People sought happiness in
good drinks. In fact, the prose and poetic works refers to drin king wine by
the queens and other rich ladies.
5.5 LITERATURE
Gupta period has witnessed excellent system of education. The literacy
outburst that Gupta age is compared to the golden age of Queen Elizabeth.
Gupta kings themselves were highly cultured and l iberally patronized art
and literature. Samudra Gupta has been described in the Allahabad Pillar
inscription as a gifted poet and musicians. Chandra Gupta maintained a
magnificent court with the 'Nine gems'. Kalidasa the great poet and
dramatist lived in t he G upta age. He wrote number of dramas like
Shakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashem etc. Poetic works –
Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are of rare
merit. Bhasa was another great dramatist. Fourteen plays of him have been munotes.in
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82 discovered till today. The important among them were the Urubhanga, the
PratimaNataka, the Pratijna Yaugandharayana and the Svapnavasavadatta.
Sanskrit literature greatly flourished during Gupta period. The
inscriptions, coins and literacy work of Gupta age ar e the evidences of the
great progress made in the literacy fields. Prose and poetry both were
written during this period. All the literature of a very high orders were
composed and written in this age. The famous work in Sanskrit called
'Panchatantram' is the creation of Gupta period. It has been translated in
almost all the languages of the world. The puranas were re -written during
Gupta age. Yajnvalkya, Narada, Kotyagana and Brihaspati Smriti were the
religious literature that were rewritten during this a ge. Ramayana and
Mahabharata the two great Epics were rewritten during this age.
Kamandaka, the disciple of Kautilya wrote `Nitisarai a revised version of
Arthasastra. In this period a commentary was written on `Sankhya
Philosophy' and `Mimansa Sutra'. Vat syayan' wrote a commentary on the
Philosophy of law. Vasubandhu composed 'Abhidharmakosha' Dignaga
wrote `Pramana Samuchchaya'. Famous Jain Achrya Siddhasena
composed `Nyayavrtra' or `Nyaya'. Iswara Krishna wrote `Sanlya Karika',
a 'famous work on Sankhya System.'Prasastapada had written
Padarthadhasma Samgraha and Vyasabhasya, composed on Yoga
Philosophy.
5.6 EDUCATION
Kings, rich merchants’ prices all promoted education during Gupta period.
Primary education was imparted by family while the vocational educ ation
was given by the guilds and the artisans. Generous donations from Princes
and rich merchants promoted higher education scholars were devoted to
teaching and learning Pataliputra, Ujjain, Vallabhi and Pamavati were the
main centers of education. Relig ious placed like Banaras, Mathura, Nasik
and Kashi, were also educational ventures. For Buddhist education Kanchi
was the main city. Fa -hein records those rich monasteries were scattered
over the country. Instruction in Vedas, the Puranas, the Smritis, gram mar,
logic, mathematics, astronomy and medicine was given at the Universities
in the traditional manner, Instruction was oral and it was to be received
directly from teacher. Even debates and discussions were the popular
means of instruction at university level. During this age only literacy,
education was not imparted but even technical education was equally
important. The students also learnt arts and crafts.
5.7 ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Coins, sculpture, paintings, caves and temples speak in volumes of the
high standard of art in the Gupta period. It is rightly said that art entered in
the classical phase in Gupta period. The art of Gupta period has reached at
its climax from the point of view of beauty, ideas and representation.
Thus, the glories of the Gupta period are partly due to the Gupta art. Some
of the most beautiful monuments are a heritage of Gupta period. The
center of art during Gupta period were at Mathura, Banaras and Patna. munotes.in
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83 People during Gupta period had a sharp aesthetic sensibility .
Achievem ents in the field of art and architecture can be studied under
following areas.
Architecture :
A new phase began in this sphere under the Guptas. Most of the temples
and stupas of the Gupta period has been destroyed, but the few that have
survived show rem arkable feature. Temples constructed during Gupta
period had its own prominent features and themes. Temples are decorated
with fine sculptured panels. Some of the Gupta temples were built of
bricks, especially in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal and Madhya Pra desh.
Some of the best examples of Gupta architecture.
1. The Siva temple at Khoh.
2. The temple of Lord Vishnu at Tigawa in Jabalpur.
3. A Parvati temple at Ajaygrah.
4. The Buddha temples at Ranchi and Bodh Gaya.
5. The Siva temple at Bhumara in Nagod state.
6. The Dashav atara temples of Devagarh.
7. A temple through devastated has been found on the bank of
river Brahmaputra in Darrang district.
This period witnesses the carving of numerous caves and the construction
of stupas. The Stupas at Rajgir, and Sarnath belongs to this period. The
caves at Ajanta, Nashik, Karla, Mogulrajepuram and Undavalli are the
example of the rock architecture.
Painting :
A unique example of Gupta painting can be seen through paintings at
Ajanta and other caves. Painting during Gupta period taken the themes
from contemporary literature, including the epics. During Gupta period
some of the finest caves in Ajanta (No. 16 and No. 17) were painted. The
paintings in those days aimed at depicting the main events of human life
and the realities of the world. The beautiful Fresco painting in Ajanta
insipid and high technical skill in wall painting. Height of excellence
achieved in the field of painting indicates that Arts in Gupta period had
received royal patronage. Caves were selected for religious painting may
be with scanty point of view. They know that their act was worth
preserving. And most important characteristic of Ajanta painting is that,
though painted for religious purposes, the murals of Ajanta bear rather a
secular than a religious message. This devotion to art, religion, knowledge
was really praiseworthy. Colour used in Ajanta are still fresh even today
reveal their knowledge of science. Thus, the beauty of the paintings during
Gupta period is ineffable.
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84
Sculpture:
Gupta king made great progres s in the field of Art of Sculpture. This
period was at its zenith in Sculpture representation. The important feature
of the Gupta's sculpture is the evolution of the perfect types of divinities
both Buddhist and Brahmanical. Patliputra, Sarnath and Mathura were the
three main centers of statue making. These statuses were made of stone,
metal and burnt clay. Very beautiful statue of Buddha and images of
Vishnu and Shiva were made. Even other hinder Gods such as Sun,
Kartikeya have also been found. During thi s age some innovations were
introduced in the statue of Lord Buddha.
Some of them are :
1. Curly hair were introduced.
2. Graceful ornamentation of different kinds introduced in the halo of the
Buddha figure.
3. Transparent drapery plains or with folds, clearly rev ealin g the
form was a notable distinguishing feature.
4. Large variety of mudras (hand poses and attitudes.)
5. More spiritual Calmness of face and eyes of the Buddha image than is
found in Kushana or Gandhara art.
6. The Gupta age was absolutely free from the infl uence of Gandhara.
It was entirely Indian and free from foreign influences.
Along with images of Buddha icons of Kartikeyas, Shiva, the Ganga relief
from Bernagar, Shiv Parvati, from Mandor, The Varahavatara relief of
Udaygiri are another specimen with dif feren ce.
5.8 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Gupta period has witnessed a great progress in the field of science and
technology. This proves that the ancient scholars of India were interested
in only religion philosophy and imaginative literature. During Gupta Age,
Indian Science made great progress. The contribution to scientific
knowledge by the ancient Indian scholar particularly in the Gupta age was
immense. The University of Nalanda and other institution were not only
for religious but peculiar learning also. D uring Gupta Age, Astrology and
Arithmetic too advanced to a considerable stage. Aryabhatta was born in
476 was a renowned personality of this age. He proved that the earth is
round and it revolves round the Sun. Varahamihira a famous Astrologer
made notabl e con tribution through "Panchasiddhanta, Laghujataka,
Yogabhasha and Brihatasamhita".
During Gupta Age, Arithmetic also greatly progressed Aryabhatta was
also a great Mathematician. He regarded Mathematics as a separate branch munotes.in
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85 of knowledge. The Vedic Mathe matic al literature like Vedanga, Jyotisha
and Kalpasutras are the Greatest work in Mathematic produced during
Gupta period. It was India that gave to the world the decimal system.
Brahma Gupta was also a great Mathematician of this age. Great progress
was made in the field of medicine also. A scholar name Nagarjuna
invented a new method of curing diseases. He proved that diseases could
be cured with the help of Gold, silver, Iron, Copper and like metals. A new
system of curing diseases known as "Rasachikits a" this system made use
of various metals as cures for various disease.
In the field of physics also India made valuable contribution. Brahma
Gupta had found that things fall to the ground not because there is hidden
force within them but because of law of Gra vity. Thus, ancient Indian
medicine, surgery, mathematics, astrology, physics are of a higher order
than those of modern west.
5.9 SUMMARY
A distinguish feature of Gupta period is religious freedom and toleration.
Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism were tr eated equally. Under Gupta
agriculture, trade and commerce well greatly encouraged. There were
associations (Guilds) of merchants and traders which were very powerful
in economic and social life. Society was divided among four castes.
Brahmins and Kshatriy as en joyed a very high status. Untouchability
existed in the society. Monogamy was cherished ideals but some of the
Gupta rulers and rich merchants followed polygamy. Marriages with
foreigners and inter caste marriages common. The status of women was
enhan ced d uring Gupta period. The women were trained in dancing,
painting and playing musical instruments Both women and men used
variety of ornaments.
Gupta period has witnessed excellent system of education Sanskrit
literature greatly flourished during Gupta perio d. Coins, sculptures
paintings, caves and temples speak in volumes of the high standard of art
and architecture in the Gupta period.
5.10 QUESTIONS
1. Why the Gupta age is known as the Golden Age of Ancient India?
2. Discuss the social and economic conditi ons d uring the Gupta age.
3. Explain the achievements of the Gupta in the field of literature
and art.
5.11 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A. S. - Rashtrakutas & Their Times
2. Ayyanger S. K. - Ancient India and South Indian History &
Culture munotes.in
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86 Oriental Book Agency, Pune 1941
3. Bhattacharya N.N. - Ancient Rituals and their Social Contents,
(Delhi, Manohar Publication) 1996
4. Chakravarti Uma - The Social Dimensions of Early
Buddhism - Delhi, Mumshiram
Manoharilal - 1996
5. Chakaravarti K.C. - Ancien t Indian Culture & Civilization
Vora & Co. Bombay 1992
6. Jha D. N. - Ancient India in Historical Outline
Motilal Banarasidas, Publishers Pvt. New
Delhi.
7. Kulkarni C. M. - Ancient Indian History & Culture
Karnataka Publishing House, Mumbai -
1956.
Pannik ar K.M. - Harsha & His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla & Sons Co. 1922
8. Kautilya - The Arthshatra Penguin Book, 1987
9. Luniya B. N. - Life & Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra - 1994
10. Majumdar R. C. - Ancient India, Motilal Ba naras idas,
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi - 1974
11. Mookerjee R. K. - Ancient India,
Allahabad, Indian Press, 1956
12. Mukherjee B. N. - Rise and Fall of the Kushanas
- Empire
13. Nilkantha Shastri - A History of South India, Madras, OOP
1979
14. Nandi R. N. - Social Roots of Religion in Ancient India
15. Pathak V.S. - Historians of India (Ancient India)
- Asia Publishing Bombay 1966
16. Pannikar K.M. - Harsha and His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla and Sons Co. 1922
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87 6
REGION OF HARSHAVARDHANA
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Accession of Harshav ardhana
6.3 Military campaign of Harshav ardhana
6.3.1 Campaign against Sasanka
6.3.2 Conquest of Assam
6.3.3 Conquest of Sind and Nepal
6.3.4 War wit h Pulkesin II
6.3.5 Conquest of Ganjam
6.4 Extent of Harsha's Empire
6.5 Harshavardhan's Administration
6.5.1 Council of Ministers
6.5.2 Division of the empire of Harsha
6.5.3 Revenue System
6.5.4 Harsha's Army
6.5.5 Crime and Punishments
6.6 Harsha's Religious Activities
6.6.1 Kanauj Assembly (643 A.D.)
6.6.2 The Prayag Assembly
6.7 Social Conditions
6.8 Estimate of Harsha
6.9 Harsha as a patron of art
6.10 Summary
6.11 Questions
6.12 Additional Reading
6.0 OBJECTIVES
To make students aware of the political condition during the rise of
Harsha Vardhan.
To focus on the Military campaigns of Harsha Vardhan. munotes.in
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88 To analyse the Administration and Religious activities of Harsha
vardhan.
To und erstand the society during the R egign of Harsha Vardhana.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
From the decline of the Guptas until the rise of Harsha in the early seventh
century the political scene is confused, and there are few records to
illuminate it. This was a period when petty kingdoms vied with each other
to succeed to the pa st glory of the Guptas. North India was divided into
three main Kingdoms, those of the Later Guptas of Magadha, the
Maukharis, and the Pushyabhutis.
After the fall of Gupta Empire and due to Huns invasion, there was
political disintegration in the country. Political unity given to the country
by the Guptas practically came to an end. Many petty kingdoms sprang up.
The small state was always involved in internal Struggle, with the result
that the political condition of the country greatly deteriorated. It wa s an
age of darkness. The Pushyabhuti became the most important power after
575 A.D. under PrabhakarVardhana and his son HarshaVardhanas 606 –
647 A.D.
There are ample sources which throw a considerable light on the history of
Harsha. They are:
1. Description of Yuan -Chwang.
2. Bana's Harshacharita.
3. Inscriptions of those days.
4. Chinese official records.
5. Coins of Harsha.
6. Works of Harsha: - Ratnavali, Priyadarsica and Nagananda.
According to Harishacharita the Vardhana Kingdom was founded by
Pushyabhuti. The City of Thaneshwara between Ganga and Indus became
the capital of rising family of Vardhan rulers. The work of Harsha refers to
only four of his successor Naravardhan, Rajya -Vardhan I, Aditya –
Vardhan and Prabhakar – Vardhan. The first three rulers were given the
simple little of Maharaja. It shows that these rulers were initially feudal
lords under Gupta Kingdom. The first ruler to assume full imperial title,
Parama Bhattaraka Maharajadhiraj was Prabhakar Vardhan. He defeated
Hunas, Sindhu kings Gurjara's king, t he lord of Gandhara and Malwa's
king. According to be 'a lion to the Huns deer, a burning fever to the king
of Sindhus a trouble of sleep to the Gurjara King, a bilious fever to that
scent elephant, the lord of Gandhara, destroyer of the skill of the lotus , an
are the creeper, which is the goddess of fortune of Malaya."
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89 Prabhakar Vardhana desire for conquest was eventually carried out by his
younger son HarshVardhana. Prabhakarvardhan was a devotee of his son.
Prebhakarvardhan married Yashovati. They had t wo sons and a daughter
namely RajyaVardhana, HarshaVardhana and Rajeshree respectively. The
elder son Rajyavardhan was born in 587 A.D. and the younger son
HarshaVardhana was born in 590 A.D. Probably Rajeshree was the
youngest. She was married to Grahavar man the son of Avanti Varman, the
Maukhari ruler of Kanauj.
Being a elder son Rajyavardhan became the crown praised and was
initiated in the affairs of the state. This was the time the rulers of
Thaneshwar had to face Hunas invasion. Hence Rajyavardhan and
Harshavardhana left the capital to solve the problem. But unfortunately,
they got the news of the serious condition of their father, so
Harshavardhan was forced to return to see his father. Prabhakarvardhan
died and his Queen Yashovati burnt herself alive in her husband funeral
pyre. Rajyavardhan did not make any haste to return to kingdom till he
succeeded in his campaign. By the time he returns his father was already
dead. Rajyavardhan was asked to be the ruler by the court of minister.
A series of trage dies has to be fallen the kingdom. Within the few days the
news came that Graha –Varman, husband of Rajeshree was killed by Dev
Gupta, king of Malwa. Rajeshree was imprisoned. Rajyavardhan entrusted
the government in the hands of Harsha and proceeded with his army. He
was able to defeat the ruler of Malwa. But later Rajyavardhan himself
murdered by Dev Guptas friend Sasanak the king of Gauda. Harsha's
inscriptions record that Rajyavardhan gave up his life at the house of his
enemy owing to adherence to a pr omise. Harsha was too young to tolerate
tragedies and responsibilities. After the death of elder brothers. Harsha
Vardhan was asked by the council of Ministers to take the supreme
command in his hand.
6.2 ASSESSION OF HARSHAVARDHANA
Harshavardhan began his reign in A.D.606. He was sixteen years old when
he accepted the responsibilities of kingship, yet at such a critical moment
he showed a remarkable energy and military genius on his accession. On
the death of his brother, he took a firm decision that the e nemies. He
decided to rescued his sister from prison and to take revenge of his
brother’s death. So, he sent his general Bhandi against Sasanka of Gauda
and he himself went to rescue his sister Rajashree from Malawa. Soon he
received the news that Rajeshjr ee has escaped from the prison and flight to
the Vindhya Forest . Harsha made his way into the dese Vindhya jungles.
He found her when she was about to mount the funeral pyre. Thus, he
rescued his sister. Rajashree was widow of Maukhari king Graha -Varman
of Kanauj. Kanauj had been left in a hopeless state of confusion after the
death of GrahVarman. He had left no heir. Hence Kanauj was annexed to
the kingdom of Thaneswar. Now two important Kingdoms Kanauj and
Thaneshvar was united under Harshavardhan. Harsha formally transferred
his capital from Thaneswar to Kanauj and declared himself the sovereign
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90 6.3 MILITARY CAMPAIGN OF HARSHAVARDHANA
Harsha extended his empire by conquest. Definite data about military
campaign of Harsha is not available. Harsha was a great warrior and
conqueror. In the course of the 41 years that Harsha ruled, he included
among his feudatories, the kingdoms; of Jalandar, Kashmir, Nepal,
Vallabhi, Gujarat, Malwa, Sindh, Frontier provinces and Assam. The
provinces which he brought under his direct administration where united
Province, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa. Central India, Rajputana etc. The
following are some of the major conquests of Harsha.
6.3.1 Campaign against Sasanka:
There is evidence that Harsha defeated Sasanka. The literary work,
Manjushri, Mulkalpa makes a reference to Harsha defeating Sasanka.
Sasanka was his deadliest enemy. Harsha was keen to lake revenge of the
death of his brother. It is stated in Bana's Harshachrit a that military
conquest of Harsha started with elaborate preparations for war against the
Gauda king who is probably Sasanka. To defeat Sasanka, Harsha entered
into an alliance with Bhaskar Varman, the king of Assam. Then Harsha
marched against Sasanka an d defeated him. Sasanka in a panic ran away
from Yauda. When Harsha returned back Sasanka once again took the
possession of Magadha. After the death of Sasanka in 620 A.D. Harsha
and. Bhaskar Varman divided state amongst them. Orissa and west Bengal
were c ontrolled by Harsha and Eastern Bengal was occupied by Bhaskar
Varman.
6.3.2 Conquest of Assam:
From the available evidences it appears that Bhaskar Varman the ruler of
Assam accepted the suzerainty of Harsha. With 20,000 Elephants, he
attended the assembl y at Kanauj.
6.3.3 Conquest of Sind and Nepal:
According to R. C. Majumdar Harsha was not successful against Sind,
since Hsuan! Sang mention it is independent and strong Kingdom but
from Bana's Harshcharita we learned that Harsha assumed huge wealth
from Si nd. The view of Bana cannot be accepted as entirely correct. But
there is no denying the fact that PrabhakarVardhana was not having
cordial relation with the rulers of Sind and there is a possibility that
Harsha might have conqueror Sind completely. Harsha is also credited
with the extension of his empire over Nepal. An inscription at Khatmandu
says that Amser Verma of Nepal accepted the Harsha era. Harshacharita
say that Harsha conquered the difficult Himalayan Kingdom. The regular
use of the Nepal route b y Chinese and Indian Secular and religious
mission and close cultural connection between the two countries may
indicate close relations.
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Regign of Harsha Vardhana
91 6.3.4 War with Pulakesin II :
The war between Harsha and Pulakesin II is regarded very important.
After having establ ished his authority over the north, Harsha made heavy
preparation for the Southern campaign. He tried to invade the South which
was under the powerful Karnataka rulers Chalukya Pulakesin II. Pulakesin
had defeated almost all the state in the South and he a lso defeated Harsha.
This war was fought most probably in 634 or 635 A.D. The Aihole
inscription states that Harsha's Elephant failed in the battle that took place
on the river Narmada. And when Harsha had fled the battlefield. Hsuan
!sang states that Hars ha had defeated many countries but could not defeat
Pulakesin. The Hyderabad Grant of Pulakesin II reveals that he had
assumed the title of Parmeshwar after defeating the Harsha. Defeat of the
ruler from the North at the hands of the South was most certain ly one of
the Greatest events of history of India. To Pulakesin it was certainly a
great victory and he had perfectly justified it by assuming the title of
Parmeshwara.
6.3.5 Conquest of Ganjam :
This was the last conquest of Harsha. Ganjan was situated on the Western
Coast of India. Harsha made many attempts in order to conquer the
province of Ganjam. At last in 643 A.D., he succeeded in establishing his
authority over Ganjam.
6.4 EXTENT OF HARSHA'S EMPIRE
The Empire of HarshVardhana was very vast and exte nsive. He was
sovereign lord of at most the whole northern India. All the territories
under Harsh's control were extensive enough for him to have the title `The
Lord of the Entire North ’. Harsh’s Empire was extended from Nepal in the
north to Narmada in th e South and from Brahmaputra in the east of
Gujarat in the West. The provinces of Assam, Bengal, Gujarat, Bihar,
Orissa, Kanauj and Punjab form the parts of his Empire. His Empire also
included the states of Kashmir, Sind and Nepal. Harsha was unable to
extend his power in Deccan or south India. In fact, he suffered in one
major defeat at the hands of Deccan Chalukya king, Pulkesin II. Thus,
Harsha finally found himself ruling a large kingdom in northern India.
6.5 HARSHAVARDHAN'S ADMINISTRATION
Harsha was not only a great administrator but also the founder of a
powerful empire He resorted the political unity in India and consolidated it
by his successful administration. The accepted title of a great king in
Harsha's day was, Param = Bhattaraka Mahesvara and Maharajadhiraja
means' the noblest the great lord and the supreme king of kings. It was
inherited from the Gupta Empire. Huan Tsang's record contains a great
deal of information on general aspects of administration. According to him
Harsha worked very har d and believed in the personal supervision of
minute details. It is believed that he forgot sleep and food in his devotion
of good works. He took personal interest in every department of the state munotes.in
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92 and was very particular about the welfare of his people. He himself
undertook frequent tours of inspection. Administration during Harsh's
period finds resemblance with the Mauryan and Gupta administration.
King :
The king was the center of the administration. King enjoyed the supreme
position in the state, but Har sha never misused them. Harsha aimed at high
ideals of Kingship and worked hard to promote the welfare of the people.
Harsha was such a dynamic person always busy in administrative
business. He treated his subjects as his children. The King was aided and
advised by council of ministers. He made the appointments of all the
important officials of the state such as Mantri, Rajjapal etc. To ensure
good administration, he conducted tour throughout his empire.
Contemporary sources mention the different places lik e Prayaga, and
Valabhi, where he camped for the inspection. There are references which
reveals the fact that during inspection he made grants in charity and issued
official royal orders. Harsha never sat at ease; he expended his energies in
the service of his people. Harsha's day was divided into three periods, one
part he spent for state purpose and the second for religious and cultural
pursuits and third to the care of his subjects. Thus, service and sacrifices
were the mottos of his life.
6.5.1 Council o f Ministers :
There are no definite evidences available of the existence of council of
Ministers during Harsha's time. But it is certain that he was assisted by
ministers in the task of administration. Bana's Harshcharita mentions
various names of the offi cials. Harsha's cousin brother Dandi was sachiv
or Chief Minister. Huan Tsang mentions that minister and official were
given land grants and were not paid cash salary. Thus, the practice making
land grants, which stated in the Satvahana period, became fair ly
widespread at the time of Harsha.
Dr. R. S. Tripathi has given us the following list of Harsha's Ministers.
1. Mahasandhivigrahadhikrita (Minister of War and Peace).
2. Mahabaladhikrita (Officer in Supreme command of the area).
3. Baladhikrita (Senapti or comman der).
4. Brihadasvavara (Head cavalry officer).
5. Katuka (Commandant of the elephant force).
6. Pathi (Superintendent of Soldier's barracks).
7. Chata -Bhata (Irregular and regular soldiers)
8. Yama –Cetis (Women watchers at night)
9. Duta (Ambassador).
10. Rajasthaniys (Foreig n Secretary)
11. Kumaramatya (Counselor of the Prince) munotes.in
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Regign of Harsha Vardhana
93 12. Uparika (Governor of a Province)
13. Visyapati (The head of a visya or modem district)
14. Daussadhanika (Superintendent of Villages)
15. Bhogika or Bhogapati (one responsible for the collection of state
produce)
16. Maha pratihara. (Chief warden), Minansak (Justice)
17. Akshpattalika and Dutaka (Keeper of the records)
On the basis of the names of these ministers it can be said that Harsha
adopted the administration of Guptas. Almost all the names referred to
above are availabl e during Gupta period.
6.5.2 Division of the empire of Harsha:
Harsha's inscription gives us clear picture of division in administration.
The province (Desha or Bhukti) was divided into number of district
(Pradesha of Vishaya). It was further divided into taluka (Pathaka) and
village (Grama). The village administration was in a hand of the village
headmen, called the Gramakshapatalika. The Bhukti was governed by
Uparikas. The Governors were designated as Uparika Maharaja, Bhojapati
Rajasphaniya. Heads of Vi shaya were called Vishayapati or Ayuktaka.
Self-growing institution at the village level perhaps function efficiently.
There were also Adhistan Adhikarana (Municipal Board) and the village
council of elders. Huan Tsang refers to forest Chief who were proba bly
non-Aryans. The officers in charge of district (Ayuktaka) and yet a higher
provincial official (with the title Kumaramatya) was the link between local
administration and the center.
6.5.3 Revenue System:
Land revenue was the main source of income durin g Harsha's period.
From contemporary records we learned that taxation was not high. The
main source of income was:
1. Udranga (a type of land revenue)
2. Uparika (taxes behind regular one)
3. Hirenya (Gold)
4. Ordinances.
The officer called Bhogika was in charge of th e Bhoga or the share to be
paid to the state. Land revenue was one sixth of the produce. Bhoga was
the land tax paid in kind. Taxes were also imposed on goods of daily
requirements. Traders and Businessmen also paid taxes for transporting
their goods. King also had a claim over mines and busied treasures.
According to Huan Tsang royal land was divided into four categories,
assigned to four item of expenditure:
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94 1. Government Expenses and State worship.
2. Endowment to Ministers and officers of the crown.
3. Rewards to main of distinguish ability.
4. Charity to all persons of all sects and creed.
6.5.4 Harsha's Army:
Harsha's army consisted to elephant, camels, cavalry and infantry. In order
to established peace and stability in his empire, to check internal rebellions
and foreign invaders. Harsha felt the necessity of increasing his military
strength. Huan Tsang records that there were 5000 Elephants, 20000
Cavalry and 50000 infantries . After territorial expansion of his empire
Harsha came to possessed 1 lakh cavalry an d 60000 Elephants. The horses
for cavalry were imported from Sind, Persia and Kamboja. The Officers of
this elephant corpse were called Pilupati and of the cavalry, Ashwapati.
The sthanapala was the stable officer while Mahut was the Mahamatra. All
the wea pons during Harsha period were sharp and pointed which included
battle axes, lances, javelins, bows, arrows and swords.
6.5.5 Crime and Punishments:
Huan Tsang refers to a cruel barbarous, ordeals of Harsha's time. The
punishments were exemplary in charact er. The Severity of punishment
was perhaps due to the reason that crimes must have been frequent. But
Huan Tsang refers, "As the Government is honestly administered and the
people lived together on good terms, the criminal class is small." Though
the admin istrator was straight yet the roads were not safe". Crime was rare
but roads and river routes were exposed to robbers. Life imprisonment,
exile and militation were the penalties prescribed. The Criminals were
looked down upon and they had low social statue s in the society.
Banabhatta refers that on certain festive occasion such as Kings Birthday
the prisoners were released. Minor offences were dealt with fines. Ordeals
by fire, water and poison were the instrument to prove the innocence or
guilt of a person . For offences against social morality, disloyalty, the
punishment was to cut of nose or an ear or a hand or a foot to banish the
offender to another country.
6.6 HARSHA'S RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES
Harsha occupies a supreme place in the Indian History for his r eligious
and cultural activities. Huan Tsang had over emphasized Harsha's
devotion to Buddhism, but it must be remembered that he was not a born
Buddhist. Pushyabhuti, the founder of Vardhana dynasty was a follower of
saivism. Harsha's father worshiped the sun and his brother and sister had
embraced Buddhism. In the beginning Harsha also was the worshipper of
Shiva. He was influenced by Buddhist sage Divakarmitra who was a
friend of Grahahvarman. Initially he embraced Hinayana Buddhism but
due to the Huan T sang he embarrassed Mahayana form of Buddhism. He
became a staunch supporter of Mahayana Buddhism and showered great
honour to Chinese pilgrimage, Huan Tsang. Thus, under HarshaVardhana munotes.in
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95 along with other religion Buddhism also flourished. Harsha brought a
tooth relic from Kashmir and had it enshrined at Kanauj. Every year he
used to invite Buddhist monk for discussion. Harsha gave enormous grants
to Buddhist monks. He had erected punyashalas for free supply of food
and medicine on the high ways.
Huan Tsang r ecords the condition of Buddhism in all the places he visited:
1. "He (Harsha) caused the use of animal food to cease throughout the
five Indies".
2. He prohibited the taking of life under severe penalties.
3. He erected thousands of topes (Stupas) on the banks of the Ganges and
established Traveller's Rests through all his dominion.
4. He erected Buddhist monasteries at sacred places of the Buddhists and
adorned the common halls of the monasteries.
5. He regularly held, after every five years, the Buddhist convocation,
and liberally distributed in religious alms everything except the
material of war.
6. At the royal lodges, everyday viands were provided for 1000
Buddhists monks and 500 Brahmans.
7. The king's day was divided into three periods, of which, one was given
up to aff airs of Government, and two were devoted to religious works.
8. In 643 A. D. Harsha summoned a Buddhist assembly at Kanauj and
another at Prayag, where alms were liberally given to mendicants,
Brahmans, Buddhists and Jains.
6.6.1 Kanauj Assembly (643 A.D. ):
Religious assembly at Kanauj was the landmark event during the reign of
HarshVardhana. While returning from Ganjam campaign Harsha mate
Huan Tsang in Bengal and decided to honour him by holding a religious
assembly of all denomination at Kanauj. This assemb ly was presided over
by Huan Tsang.
There were about 3000 Hinayana and Mahayana monks, 3000 Brahmins,
1000 students of Nalanda University, 20 kings and many other people.
The Assembly of Kanauj was precided over by Huan Tsang. Harsha
himself proposed the n ame of Huan Tsang to the chair.
It is said that on these occasions a special Tower, 100 feet high with
Golden statue of Buddha of the King size was constructed. Harsha also
erected a great monastery and a shrine upon the bank of Ganges. Every
day a smaller golden image of 3 feet in weight was carried in a procession
on a decorated elephant . The canopy was carried by Harshvardhana
himself and followed by prince, princes and state officials.
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96 The conference lasted for 23 days. The proceedings of the assembly
started with the announcement of Huan —Tsang in the challenging word,
"Characteristic of the Age that the master of the law offered hi own head
as the revolt of a successful reputation of his thesis." No one accepted the
challenge for five days but then th e Hinayanists tried to plot a murder of
pilgrim. Therefore, Harsha issued a stern warning. That if anyone should
the fourth with beheaded. Thus, further 18 days passed without discussion.
Huan Tsang was fully praised Mahayana form of Buddhism and the
assem bly was dissolved. However, on the last day a great fire suddenly
broke out in the tower and in the confusion an attempt was made to stab
Harsha. Huna Tsang records that 500 Brahmin were arrested and exile on
this occasion. This incident reveals the fact t hat Harsha's religious policy
was not acceptable to the people.
6.6.2 The Prayag Assembly :
After the Kanauj assembly was over Harsha also invited Huna Tsang to
the assembly at Prayag. This was another ceremony which king used to
hold after every 5 years a t Prayag. Harsha had celebrated five such
ceremonies and along with the Huan Tsang it was sixth one. This
ceremony also attended by 18 kings and people amounting to 5 lakhs.
Harsha distributed alms every 5 years. On the first day lord Buddha was
worshiped and precious article and valuable were distributed. On the
second - and third -day Tsang and Lord Shiva were worshiped with the
same rights and rituals. On the fourth day began the distribution of
treasure. Every Buddhist monk was given hundred pieces of gol d, one
pearl, one cotton garment, various drinks, flowers and perfumes. During
next 20 days Brahmans received the gifts. The next 10 days were reserved
for Jains and member of other sects. Then mendants or poor orphan and
the destitute received his charity . This distribution exhausted Harsha's
accumulated treasury.
6.7 SOCIAL CONDITIONS
The most important source which has described elaborately about social
condition during Harsha's reign is account of Hsuan Tsang. He has
described the people as harsh, trust worthy, gentle, upright and sincere.
Even literature in Sanskrit also present an account of the social conditions
prevailing under Harsha. People were peace - loving and had a high
standard of honesty and morality. Social distinctions were based on caste
and governed by its rules. Brahmans are greatly respected. Hsuan Tsang
observed that 'Brahmins to be the purest of all castes. The Kshatriyas are
described to fair and unostentatious, pure and simple life. The Vaishyas
were trading class. The condition of t he sudras had comparatively
improved. The general impression he gathered was prosperity.
System of sati prevailed in society; this is obvious from the case of
Rayashree Harsha's sister was about to burn herself after the death of her
husband. Most of the c ustoms and rituals of north were different from
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97 Though people during this reign did not wear colourful clothes, Hsuan
Tsang had made a mention of beautiful ornaments like bracelets, earing,
bangles and necklace. The ladies covered their shoulder with a long cloth
hanging down. In prosperous rule of Harsha houses were either single or
multi -storied. The upper classes lived in the cities in well -constructed
houses. But the poorer section of the society lived in the houses made of
thatch, b amboo and mud. H suan Tsang states that houses were built of
stone, bricks or wood, with flat roofs. He also mentions painted or carved
doors, walls and ceilings. Kanauj the capital of Harsha was tastefully
structured with beautiful gardens, tanks of clean water, broad roads, free
eating houses.
The main occupation of the people was agriculture. Hunting and metal
crafts was carried on side by side. Rice, wheat, sugarcane, Beans, vines
and pomegranates were grown. The people observed the purity of diet.
Onio n and garlic were not used by the people, Meat was forbidden. The
common food comprised of milk, ghee, sugar, sugar candy and parched
grain with mustard oil. The citizen enjoyed themselves in theaters, musical
gathering and picture galleries. Playing chess was another main source of
recreation. During Harsh's reign the women led a very peaceful family
life. Girls were married at early age. Parada system was in vogue. The life
at the court and of the upper classes does not seem to have been so pure
and catho lic.
6.8 ESTIMATE OF HARSHA
Harsh Vardhana built a vast empire cover almost the entire north. His
empire was one of best organized and justify administered e mpires of
ancient India. He was undoubtedly one of the greatest kings of ancient
India. Harsha died either of the end of A. D. 646 or the beginning of 647.
A great general and a just administrator, he was even greater a patron of
religion and learning. He came to the thrones at a critical moment, yet he
build a powerful state reflect his military skills .
6.9 HARSHA AS A PATRON OF ART
Harsha extended liberal patronage to learning and the learned. He showed
a taste for literature and the arts of peace. He gathered around himself
some of the finest intellects and holiest sages’ men like Bana, Maurya,
Divaka ra and Hiuen Tsang. Harsha, himself was the author of three plays
– Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. The Banaskhera inscription
reveals that he was an accomplished painter. In the Banaskhera inscription
is his beautiful signature, which suggest that he was an expert at
Calligraphy. Harsha being a scholar also encouraged other men of letters.
Banabhatta, a distinguished scholar composed the Parvatiparinaya
Chendisataka, the Harsh's Charitra and the Kadambari. Jaideva in his work
`Gita Govinda' had comp ared Harsha with Kalidasa. Maurya was Bana's
brother -in-law was a celebrated poet was also in the Harsh's court. He is
the other of Suryasataka, Aryamuktamal, and Mayurastaka.
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98 Hauin Tsang observed that during the age of Harsha, India had made
splendid pro gress. Harsha used to keep one -fourth of his income for the
economic assistance of the scholars. Every temple or monastery served as
an educational institution . Nalanda University was the most famous of all.
Students from distant land like China, Tibet and Mongolia come have to
receive education. Hauin Tsang stayed in Nalanda University for a period
of two years. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. According to him,
the famous teachers at Nalanda were Shilabhadra who was Chancellor of
the University, Gu namali and Darmapala. Thus, Harsha occupy a
distinguished place in the annals of Indian History.
6.10 SUMMARY
Vardhana kingdom was founded by Pushyabhuti Vardhan.
Harshavardhana was the greatest king of the Vardhana dynasty. He was
sovereign lord of at mos t the whole of northern India. He resorted the
political unity in India and consolidated it by his successful
administration. Harsha aimed at high ideals of Kingship and worked hard
to promote the welfare of the people. For the successful administration he
had divided his kingdom in number of provinces and districts. Land
revenue was the main source of income during Harsha's period Harsha's
army consisted of elephant, camels, cavalry and infantry. In the lattes life
Harsha became a staunch support of Mahaya na Buddhism . He brought a
tooth relic from Kashmir and had it and enshrined at Kanauj. Harsha gave
enormous grants to Buddhist monks. Religious assemblies at Kanauj and
Prayag were the landmark event during the reign of Harshavardhana.
6.11 QUESTIONS
1. Make an estimate of Harshavardhana as promoter of Buddhism and
patron of learning and literature.
2. Examine the circumstances that led to the accession of Harshavardhan.
3. Describe briefly the administration of Harshavardhan.
6.12 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A . S. - Rashtrakutas & Their Times
2. Ayyanger S. K. - Ancient India and South Indian History &
Culture
Oriental Book Agency, Pune 1941
3. Bhattacharya N.N. - Ancient Rituals and their Social Contents,
(Delhi, Manohar Publication) 1996
4. Chakravar ti Uma - The Social Dimensions of Early
Buddhism - Delhi, Mumshiram
Manoharilal - 1996 munotes.in
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Regign of Harsha Vardhana
99 5. Chakaravarti K.C. - Ancient Indian Culture & Civilization
Vora & Co. Bombay 1992
6. Jha D. N. - Ancient India in Historical Outline
Motilal Banarasidas, Publishers Pv t. New
Delhi.
7. Kulkarni C. M. - Ancient Indian History & Culture
Karnataka Publishing House, Mumbai -
1956.
Pannikar K.M. - Harsha & His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla & Sons Co. 1922
8. Kautilya - The Arthshatra Penguin Book, 1987
9. Luniya B. N. - Life & Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra - 1994
10. Majumdar R. C. - Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidas,
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi - 1974
11. Mookerjee R. K. - Ancient India,
Allahabad, Indian Press, 1956
12. Mukherjee B. N. - Rise and Fall of the Kushanas
- Empire
13. Nilkantha Shastri - A History of South India, Madras, OOP
1979
14. Nandi R. N. - Social Roots of Religion in Ancient India
15. Pathak V.S. - Historians of India (Ancient India)
- Asia Publishing Bombay 1966
16. Pannikar K.M. - Harsha and His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla and Sons Co. 1922
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100 7
INVASION OF ARABS & RISE OF
RAJPUTAS
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Political Condition of Indian on the eve of Arab invasion
7.3 Administrative and Social conditions in 8th century
7.4 Sindh on the eve of Arab Invasion
7.5 Arab Inva sion
7.6 Mohammad -bin-Qasims Invasion of Sindh
7.7 Causes of Fall of Sind
7.8 Effects of Invasion
7.9 Rise of Rajputas
7.10 Pratihara Empire (725 A.D. – 97 A.D.)
7.11 Nagabhatta II (800 – 833 A.D.)
7.12 Mihira Bhoja (840 – 890 A.D.)
7.13 The Later Pratihar as
7.14 Summary
7.15 Questions
7.16 Additional Reading
7.0 OBJECTIVES
To survey the circumstances led to the Arab invasion of Sind.
To critically assess the impact of the Arab invasion of Sind on the
history of India.
Understanding the rise and expan sion of the Rajputas.
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101 7.1 INTRODUCTION
The history of India is full of rise and fall of empires. India, at the opening
of the 8th century presented the sad picture. After the death of Harsha,
India had been broken into pieces. There were many petty indep endent
states which were all disunited and weak. There was no central
government and as such whole of the country was split up into numerous
independent states. At the beginning of 8th century important states in
northern India were those of Kanauj, Malwa, Kashmir, Afghanistan, Sind,
Pandya, Chola, and Chera Kingdom occupied important position. On the
eve of Arab invasion Sind was ruled by King Dahir. Sind was politically
weak and divided due to internal differences. Thus Arabs took advantage
of the state o f disunity and dissensions in India.
7.2 POLITICAL CONDITION OF INDIA ON THE EVE
OF THE ARAB INVASION
For about Five decades, there was no central government and whole
country was split up into numerous independent states. Kanauj was the
most prominent sta te at the beginning of the 8th century. King
Yoshovarman ruled over Kanauj. He was a successful administrator and a
great patron of letters. Under him kingdom of Kanauj was extended from
the Himalayas in the north to the Narmada in the south and from Benga l in
the east to the Thaneshwar in the north -west. Another important kingdom
was Malwa, which was governed by Pratihara dynasty of the Rajputs. The
kingdom of Pratihara was extended to Marwar, Broach and other
neighbouring territories Bagabhatta. I was a p owerful king who ruled from
725 to 740 A.D. king Lalitaditya ruled over the independent state of
Kashmir from 725 to 755 A.D. A great conqueror and military general he
defeated and killed Yashovarman of Kanaui. Bengal, Afganistan, Nepal,
Assam and Sindh we re other important kingdoms on the eve of Arab
invasion of Sindh.
7.3 ADMINISTRATIVE AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN
8TH CENTURY
The head of the administration was the king. King had number of
ministers to advise and assist him. Kingship was usually hereditary. T he
empire was divided into provinces like Bhakti, Mandal, Desa etc. The
province was sub -divided into Vaishyas, each under Vaishyapati Villages
were governed by Panchayats. The important ministers usually were –
a) Samant - Minister of foreign Affairs.
b) Raja - Purohit - Minister of Religious Affairs
c) Sandhivigrahikas - Minister of war and peace
d) Amatya - Minister of Finance
e) Askstrapataladhikarita - Minister of in charge of Records munotes.in
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102 The chief source of income was land revenue, depended on capaci ty of
land. Tributes from vassals, duties of excise, Fines were other sources of
income. Army consisted of infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants.
Majority of people were agriculturist but few were engaged in trade also.
There were four main classes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Sudras. System of polygamy was existing particularly amongst the upper
classes. The widow could not remarry and the practice of sati was
prevalent in the society. There were famous universities like Nalanda and
Vallabhi wh ere science, mathematics, astronomy, Vedas and Shastras
were taught. Hinduism was the most important religion. Buddhism and
Jainism were not popular religions.
7.4 SINDH ON THE EVE OF THE ARAB INVASION
In the beginning of the 8th century A.D. Muslim invade rs of India began
to attack India. They however, could only succeed in conquering Sindh
and Multan. As such the Arab conquest of Sindh did not have any far -
reaching effects on India. On the eve of the Arab invasion Sindh was ruled
by king Dahir, son of Cha cha. His Kingdom included Debal, Nirun,
Brahmanabad and Alore. When we peep into the early history of the Sindh
we find that Sindh was ruled by the Buddhist Rai dynasty. Rai dynasty
ruled from 485 to 622 A.D. Rai Shahi II was the last ruler of the Rai
dyna sty Chacha, a Brahmin minister of Sindh, set aside he Buddhist rule
and established his own Brahmin rule Chacha was succeeded by his
brother Chandra. After the death of Chandra nearly for 30 years kingdom
was divided and ruled by the two sons of Chacha, Da hir, a youngest
amongst all the sons of Chacha brought the whole kingdom under his rule.
It seems Dahir, being Hindu ruler had introduced number of measures
against Buddhist. They were neither allowed to wear silk dresses, carry
arms, nor to ride on saddle d horses. The Buddhist monks who possessed
much political power were opposed by the Brahmin regime. All this
rendered the king highly unpopular among his Buddhist subjects who
welcomed the Arabs. In fight against the Arabs, king Dahir was defeated
and kill ed and his kingdom was conquered by the foreigners.
7.5 ARAB INVASION
In the first quarter of 8th country A.D. the Arab under the leadership of
Mohammadbin -Qasim, conquered Sind and Multan. There were various
motives behind the conquest of India. Political and territorial ambition of
Arabs acquire wealth of India by plunder and spread of Islam are some of
the important causes behind Arab invasion. The immediate cause of Arab
invasion was the failure of King Dahir to give compensation for certain
ships plund ered by pirates of the coast of Sindh. In 711 A.D. some Sindhi
pirates had plundered a few Arab vessels near Debal port. AL -Hajjaj,
viceroy of eastern provinces of khalifa enraged and wrote to king of Dahir
of Sind to punish the culprits and compensate for the loss. Dahir replied
that the pirates of Debal were not under his jurisdiction and he was
powerless to punish them. Hence expedition was send in 711 A.D. under munotes.in
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Invasion of hunas, Arabs &
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103 the leadership of Ubaidulla against king Dahir but he was killed in the
battlefield by Dahir . Again in the A.D. under Budail another expedition
was sent, but again Arab were defeated.
Finally Mohammed -bin-Qasim, a blooming youth of 17 years, was sent to
conquer Sind. He had about 25,000 troops under him. Fortunately while
marching towards Debal m any Jats and Meds who were unhappy with
Dahir joined Qasim. With the help of 25,000 troops and native support
Mohammad conquered Debal and indulged in massacre and forcibly
converted people to Islam. Further Mohammad captured Nirun and
Sehwan without much resistance. Consequently whole of lower Sind was
dominated by Arabs.
7.6 MOHAMMAD -BIN-QASIMS INVASION OF SINDH
In 712 A.D. Mohammad -bin-Qasim a 17 years old boy was send to
conquer Sindh. Unfortunately king Dahir did not realized the seriousness
of Arabs i nvasion and he remained inactive. He made no attempt to check
the progress of the invading army. From Shiraz, Mohammad reached
Maskon which was under the Arab control. Fortunately many Jats and
Meds, who were mostly Buddhist joined Qasim and further swelle d the
number of his forces. Mohammad's army was more than 25,000 troops, on
the other hand only 4000 soldiers fought from the side of Dahir.
Indian troops fought very bravely in the war at Debal. But at last Arabs
captured Debal, for three days Arabs merci lessly slaughtered the Indians.
People were asked to choose between Islam and death and most of them
'preferred the latter. It is said that all males above seventeen years were
put to death and their women and children were enslaved.
Following the capture of Debal, Kasim moved further, fought a great
battle at Rewar in which Dahir lost his life. Further he captured
Brahmanabad and Multan also. After the conquest of Multan,
Mohammad -bin-Qasim began to prepare for the conquest of Kanauj but
his sudden tragic death put a full stop to further conquests of the Arabs in
India.
7.7 CAUSES OF FALL OF SIND
1. The Hindu Kings had imposed restrictions on Buddhist subject
which antagonized them. They rather welcomed the foreigners as
they could provide an opportunity for s pecial charge.
2. Population of Sind was sparse and heterogeneous. They did not unite
to oppose the conqueror.
3. Sind was isolated in a country which was a cheque -board of small
political units.
4. Traitors abounded in Sind and quite often the natives got attracte d to
the temptations offered by invaders. munotes.in
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104 5. The people did not like king Dahir who was weak and inefficient.
6. On the other hand Mahmud –bin –Qasim was more capable general
and more popular among his soldiers.
7. Resources of Sind were insufficient and could not effectively face
the enemies.
8. People were governed and led by superstitions and did not depend
upon their own strength.
9. King Dahir made many mistakes on the battlefield.
10. Dhair's army were no match to the army of Muhammad -binKasim.
11. The Muslim fought very b ravely and enthusiastically due to their
religious zeal.
In the battle of Rawar (20th June 712A.D.) Dhair was defeated and killed.
His queen Ravi Bai performed the traditional jauhar, preferring death to
dishonour. The Arabs thus won a complete victory. Th e invader also
conquered Brahmanabad and Alore. The whole of the lower Indus valley
was dominated by the Arabs. Muhammad -bin Qasim found it difficult to
control conquered territories. He followed a policy of partial religious
toleration towards the Hindu b ut the Arab administration did not improve.
In 716 A.D. it at the prime of life, Mohammad -bin-Qasim died. One
version of the death of Mohammad is that, Mahammad had send beautiful
daughter of Dhair, Suraj devi and Parma! Devi to khalifa Walid.To take
the revenge of the father's death, they cook the story. Girls told Khalifa
that they had already been dishonoured and molested by Qasim. Annoyed
Khalifa ordered that Mohammad should be dismissed from Sind. Further
Mohammad was sent as a prisoner to Mesopotamia where he was tortured
to death.
7.8 EFFECTS OF INVASION
Arab conquest was a mere episode in Indian History as it did not have any
permanent effect on any sphere of Indian life. They could only succeed in
conquering Sindh and Multan while rest of India rem ained independent It
is rightly considered to be a mere episode in the annals of Indian History.
The Arabs like Turk could not take full advantage of pathetic conditions in
India and failed to extend their conquest. If they had acted wisely and
taken advan tage of the Indian disunity of that time, History of India most
probably would have been written in a different manners.
According to Stanley Lahnepool "it was an episode in the history of India
Islam, a triumph without result". A close and critical scruti ny proves that
Arab conquest did not have any important effect on political, social,
religious economic or cultural life of the people. In political sphere Arabs
conquered only Sind, a part of India. The other parts of India remained
independent under Rajp uts. In social sphere also Arabs, due to caste
system of Hindus could not influence the customs, traditions and munotes.in
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105 institutions of India. One of the main purpose of Arab invasion was to
spread Islam To some extent they were successful. Arab did not spread
Islam widely but they sowed seeds of Islam in India. Another bad impact
of Arab invasion was that the lands of the Hindus were confiscated and
given over to Arabs. Thus Hindus were reduced to poverty and were
obliged to accept the position of tillers alone. T he Arbas could not
influence the culture of Indians because culturally they were far more
backward than Indians. They learnt from Indian in the subject of
astronomy , medicine, mathematics, music, painting etc. Many Indian
scholars were invited by Khalifas to teach lessons of Indian culture to the
Arabs. Some important Sanskrit works. Like Brahama Siddhants of
Brahmagupta and his Kandyaka were translated into Arabic. Arabs were
enriched due to their contact with India. Arab invasion of Sind resulted in
the beginning of India's contact with Islam. Thus Arab conquest did not
lead to any momentous and permanent effect on Indian History and
civilization. But at the same time it is incorrect to hold that Arab conquest
was an episode in the history of Islam becaus e the effects of the conquest
upon Muslim culture were 'Profound and far reaching'.
7.9 RISE OF RAJPUTAS
The Gurjara Pratihara:
7.9.1 Objectives:
1. To make Students aware of the History of Rajput period.
2. To analyse the rule of Gu rjara Pratihara in north Indi a.
7.9.2 Introduction:
After the death of Harsha in 647 A.D. India again witnessed the disruption
and disintegration. The period of 7th Century to 12th Century A.D. there
was a rise and growth of various Rajput clans in India. It is, therefore
called the p eriod of Rajput ascendancy or Rajput period. Origin of the
Rajputs is surrounded in mystery. According to some historians they are
foreigners because they love war and worship fire which were the
characteristics of foreigners. Dr. Bhandarkar are the opinio n that Rajputs
were Gurjaras who were foreigners and as such the Rajputs were also
foreigners. Some thinkers are of the view that the Rajputs are original
inhabitants of India. They have advanced Agnikunda theory, which is
more or less not historical. Dr. V. A. Smith has given mixed origin theory.
According to him, "The Kshatriya or Rajput group of castes essentially an
occupational group, compose of all clans following the Hindu ritual, who
actually undertook the work of government, that consequently peopl e of
most diverse races were and are lumped together as Rajputs and that most
of the great clans now in existence are descended either from foreign
immigrants of the 5th or 6th Century of the Christian era or from
indigenous races such as Gonds and Bhars."
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106 7.10 PRATIHARA EMPIRE (725 A.D. — 97 A.D.)
After Harsh's death in 646 or 647 A.D., his empire collapsed. However his
weak successor tried to maintain their hold at least over Kanoj. It was
continued till Pratihara dynasty took over Kananj. The Gurjara Pr atihara
trace their origin to the solar dynasty. The early history of the Pratiharas is
to be found in the Gwalior prasasti of Mihirbhoja. In their epigraphic
record the Pratiharas claim descent from Kshatriya Lakshmana (brother of
Rama) of the solar race famed in the Ramayana and also from a Brahmana
name Harishchandra. There are different school of thoughts placing origin
of Pratihara. Accordingly some scholars are of the opinion that, Gurjara
race played very important role in 6th Century A.D. They estab lished
principalities in Punjab, Marwar and Broach. Hence there is a mention of
Gurjara in Harsha -Charita, the records of Hiuen Tsang and Aihole
inscription of Pulakesin II. About the middle of the eight centuryA.D.
certain Gurjara chiefs are represented a s serving a Rastrakuta monarch as
a Pratihara (door keeper) at a sacrifice performed at Ujjain. The Pratihara
have claim to be descendants of Rama. Since there is a reference to
Lakshamana, who acted as Pratihara or door keepers to Rama, it has been
sugges ted that they were palace officials, who rose to power. Another
interpretation claims that Gurjara Pratihara said to have begun their
political career in Gurjat, hence the dynasty is known as the Gurjara -
Pratihara. Western writers, however, have emphasized that they were the
descendants of the Pratihara or Parihara, a section of Gurjaras, who come
along with Huns in the early sixth century A.D. and established a
Kingdom near Mount Abu, in southern Rajastan. According to R. C.
Mujumdar the dynasty was based in Western Malwa and had its capital at
Ujjain.
Nagabhata I – (725 – 760 A. D.) :
The earliest known History of Gurjara Pratihara commences with
Nagabhatta. He has been described as a national hero and empire builder
by R. C. Mujumdar, Nagabhata I founded the Pratihara dynasty in 725
A.D. and ruled over his kingdom upto 740 A.D. He is also described as
Narayana, appearing in the response to the people's prayer. Nagabhata I
defeated Arabs. Arabs who had overrun the Western borders of India in
Second quarter of the 8th Century A.D. Arabs army marched through
Kutch, Kathiawar, Northern Gujrat and Southern Rajputana and ultimately
threatened Western Malwa. Nagabhata I resisted them and sent them back.
Thus the whole Northern India was saved from the early invasi ons of the
Muslims. Nagabhat I brought under him a large number of states, which
had been overrun by the Arab of the Sind. Nagabhat I kingdom included
Bhilamala, Lata, Jalor, Abu and other region in Rajastan and Central
India. R. C. Mujumdar has described him as a national hero and empire
builder.
Vatsaraja (775 – 800 A.D.) :
The Gurjara Pratihara could not rule in complete peace but had to fight
many wars with Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The next munotes.in
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107 important ruler of the dynasty was the fou rth king Vatsaraja. His kingdom
was comprised of Malwa and Eastern Rajastan. In Jaina Harivamsha,
Vatsaraja is described as a distinguished ruler of a Avanti (Malwa).
Vatsraja, a grandson of Nagabhat I claim to have won the position of
Samarat or emperor d ue to his military conquest. He defeated the Bhattis
of Central Rajputana and won a victory against Dharmapala of Bengal.
But he was defeated by the Rashtrakuta King, Dhruva. However a struggle
for supremacy over Northern India among Gurjaras, Rashtrakutas and
Palas defeated and pushed Vatsaraja into the desert of Rajasthan, which
become the center of Pratihara power.
7.11 NAGABHATTA II (800 - 833 A.D.)
Vatsaraja was succeeded by his son Nagabhatta II. In the beginning of his
carrier, he had to face many ha rzadles. He was defeated by Govinda III of
the Rashtrakata, as worn enemy of his time. Nagabhatta II was very
ambitious; his military expestese secured him political prominence. The
disturbed political condition of the Ganga Yamuna valley provided him
the required opportunity to invade Kanauj. He dethroned Chakrayudha in
816 A.D. and made Kanauj his Capital. His most notable achievement was
the defeat of Dharmapala, King of Bengal. He extended his influence from
a Kathiwad in the west to the borders of Beng al in the East. According to
Dr. R. C. Mujumdar,' reign of Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II occupy a
prominent place in the contemporary history of India. Both of them were
remarkable personalities and had a high degree of military skill and the
ultimate revers e at the hands of Rashtrakutas cannot minimize the glory
that had been achieved by extensive military conquest from one end of
North to the other. They raised a provincial principality into a first rate
military and political power and although their dream s of founding a
stable empire were not realized, they laid its foundations so well that ere
long king Bhoja succeeded in the great task even in the face of very
streneous opposition from his hereditary enemies, the Palas and the
Rashtrakutas."
7.12 MIHIRA BHOJA (840 - 890 A.D.)
Pratihara power recovered under Mihir Bhoja, grandson of Nagabhatta II.
Mihir Bhoja was another powerful King of this dynasty who ruled from
840 — 890 A. D. He established his authority over the Sutlej, the Punjab,
Prayag, Kashi and a territory of Gwalior. Numerous coins of Mihir Bhoja
has been traced at several places in North. He assumed the title Adivaraha,
which the one of the name of Vishnu's incarnation. This indicates that he
was a worshipper of Vishnu. His coins also indicate the external of his
Kingdom and the long duration of the rule of Mihir Bhoja. The Arab
merchant, Sulaiman visited his empire in 851 A.D., admired his military
strength and orderly administration. Dr. R. C. Mujumdar wrote,'Bhoja had
the reputation of a stro ng rule He stood as a bulwork of defence against
Muslim aggression and left this task, as a sacred legacy to his successors".
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108 7.12.1 MAHENDRAPALA (890 — 908 A.D.):
Mihira Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala. He maintained his
father's empire and s eems to have extended it towards the east. He added
West Suarashtra and in the East Magadha. Mahendrapalas inscriptions
have been found in Haryana, Jhansi district and Ayodya. He had the title
Nirbhag raja (fearless king). He was a great patron of learning and
patronized his teacher Rajasekhara. Rajsekhara was the celebrated prakrit
poet. His famous works are Karpuramanjari, Balaramayan, Balabharat.
Rajashekhara has described Mahendrapala as "Maharajadhiraja
Aryavarta".
7.13 THE LATER PRATIHARAS
Mahendrapal a was succeeded by his son Bhoja II (908 -97), followed by
his brother Mahipala I in 97. It seems he was the last great Pratihara ruler.
Mahendrapala had no good successor. The Pratiharas thus began to be
challenged by their rivals. They lost Kalinjar to th e Chandelas and Kanauj
to Rashtrakutas. Gwalior also becomes independent during the rule of
Rajyapala. Finally Ajayapala, another ruler of this dynasty joined the
group of Hindu Kings to oppose Sbuktagin in 991 and 1008. Finally
Kanauj was conquered by Mah mud of 1019. Thus the Pratiharas ruled
over an extensive territory for more than three hundred years. Pratihara
held the Muslim invaders in check. It is said that the Gurjara Pratihara
Empire was just as glorious as the Gupta Empire. The sack of Kanauj by
the Turks in the early 11th Century ended Pratihara rule.
Check Your Progress:
1. Describe the achievements of the Pratiharas.
7.14 SUMMARY
Arab conquest was a mere episode in Indian history as it did not have any
permanent effect on any sphere of Indian l ife. India since the fall of
Harshs had been split up into many petty independent states which were
all disunited and weak. Arabs were ambitious and wanted to conquer
Indian territories. Immediates cause was that failure of King Dahir to pay
compensation t o Khalifa for Arab ship looted by pirates of Debal.
Consequently Mohammad -bin-Qasin 17 years old boy was sent to conquer
Sindh. With the help of 25000 troops. Mohammad conquered Debal and
whole of Sind and Multan by 76 A.D.He was, however suddenly called
back and tortured to death by the Khalifa. Sind was fall due to various
reasons such as unpopularity, inefficiency, incapability of Dahir and vise -
a-varsa of Mohammad. Arab conquest did not led to any momentous and
permanent effect on Indian History and civ ilization.
Origin of Rajputs is surrounded in mystery. After the death of Harsha,
Parihara dynasty took over the Kanauj. The earlier known History of
Gurjara Pratihara commences with Nagabhata I. He ruled from 725 A.D.
to 760 A.D. Nagabhata I defeated Arab invaders. Vatsaraja was another munotes.in
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Invasion of hunas, Arabs &
rise of Rajputas
109 important King of dynasty. He extended his empire to Central Rajastan but
was defeated by Rashtrakuta King Dhruva. Vatsaraja was succeeded by
his son Nagabhatta II. He made Kanauj as his capital and defeated
Dahrmapala, Kin g of Bengal. Mihir Bhoj a grandson of Nagabhatta II was
another powerful king of this dynasty ruled from 840 – 890 A. D. He
established his authority over the Sutlej, the Punjab, Prayag, Kashi and a
territory of Gwalior. He worshipped Lord Vishnu. His son Mahendrapala
succeeded him. Mahendrapala maintained his father empire and extended
it towards the East. He was a great patron of learing and patronized his
teacher Rajasekhara a great poet. Mahendrapala had no good successor.
The sack of Kanauj by the Turk s the early 11th Century ended Pratihara
rule.
7.15 QUESTIONS
1. Why did Arabs invade India? Give a brief account of Arab conquest
in India?
2. Critically examine the effects of Arab conquest in India?
3. Briefly trace the history of Gurjara -Pratiharas.
4. Write short notes on the following
1. Vatsaraja
2. Nagabhatta II
3. Mahendrapal.
7.16 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A. S. - Rashtrakutas & Their Times
2. Ayyanger S. K. - Ancient India and South Indian History &
Culture
Oriental Book Agency, Pune 1941
3. Bhattacharya N. N. - Ancient Rituals and their Social Contents,
(Delhi, Manohar Publication) 1996
4. Chakravarti Uma - The Social Dimensions of Early
Buddhism - Delhi, Mumshiram
Manoharilal - 1996
5. Chakaravarti K.C. - Ancient Indian Culture & Civilization
Vora & Co. Bombay 1992
6. Jha D. N. - Ancient India in Historical Outline
Motilal Banarasidas, Publishers Pvt. New
Delhi. munotes.in
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110 7. Kulkarni C. M. - Ancient Indian History & Culture
Karnataka Publishing House, Mumbai -
1956.
Pannikar K.M. - Harsha & His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla & Sons Co. 1922
8. Kautilya - The Arthshatra Penguin Book, 1987
9. Luniya B. N. - Life & Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra - 1994
10. Majumdar R. C. - Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidas,
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi - 1974
11. Mookerjee R. K. - Ancient India,
Allahabad, Indian Press, 1956
12. Mukherjee B. N. - Rise and Fall of the Kushanas
- Empire
13. Nilkantha Shastri - A History of South India, Madras, OOP
1979
14. Nandi R. N. - Social Roots of Religion in Anci ent India
15. Pathak V.S. - Historians of India (Ancient India)
- Asia Publishing Bombay 1966
16. Pannikar K.M. - Harsha and His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla and Sons Co. 1922
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111 8
THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI AND
RASHTRAKUTAS
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 History of the Chalukyas of Badami
8.2.1 Pulkesin I
8.2.2 Kirti Varman
8.2.3 Mangalesa
8.2.4 Pulakesin II
8.3 Later Chalukya Rulers
8.4 Religion in t he period of Chalukyas
8.5 Art and Architecture
8.6 The Rashtrakutas
8.6.1 Objectives
8.6.2 Introduction
8.7 Rashtra Rulers
8.7.1 Danti Durga
8.7.2 Krishna I
8.7.3 Govinda II
8.7.4 Dhruva
8.7.5 Govinda III
8.7.6 Amoghavarsha I
8.7.7 Later Rasht rakuta Rulers
8.8 Administration under Rashtrakutas
8.9 Contribution to Religions under Rashtrakutas
8.10 Education and Learning
8.11 Art and Architecture
8.12 Summary
8.13 Questions
8.14 Additional Reading
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112 8.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To examine the History of the Chalukyas of Badami.
2. To analyse the conquest of Chalukya Rulers.
3. To know about the religion and art and architecture in period
of Chalukyas.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the sixth century the Chalukyas had become very powerful in the south.
The Chalukya ru led over south after the Rashrakuta. The rule of
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113 in the history of south India in particular and the Indian history in general.
There were three main branches of the Chalukyas viz. t he Chalukyas of
Badami or early western Chalukyas of Kalyani or later western Chalukyas.
The early Chalukyas ruled from the middle of 6th centuryA.D. to the
middle of 8th centuryA.D. Towards the end of the later part of the 10th
century, the Chalukyas of K alyani established their rule defeating the
Rashtrakutas and rule up to 12th centuryA.D.
About the origin of Chalukyas any definite evidence is lacking. According
to V.A.Smith, the Chalukyas of Solankies were of foreign origin, related
to the Gurjaras inva ders from Central Asia. Probably the Chalukyas were
of the indigenious Kanarese families and they called themselves as
Kshatriyas. In the account of Huan Tsang Pulakesin I is addressed as
Kshatriyas. Dr. D.C. Sarkar writes that this dynasty was name after the
name of the predecessors of Chalukyas, Called Chalak, Chalika or
chaluka. We come across such name in Chalukyas inscription. The
Chalukyas considered themselves as the sons of God. Some contemporary
records reveal that the Chalukyas were worshipers of lord Vishnu.
8.2 HISTORY OF THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI
The Chalukyas of Badami, often referred as the western Chalukyas who
had held there political sway from the 6th century for more than two
century till they over powered by the Rashtrakutas. Jayasimha, was the
first Chalukya king. The great work of Jayasimha has not been recorded
well. He had defeated Indra, the son of Krishna and reestablished
Chalukyas dynasty. But there is no reference of it in the Aihole
inscription. The first historical figure emerges only from Pulakesin I
onward.
8.2.1 Pulakesin I (540 — 566 A.D.) :
The first ruler who laid the foundation of Chalukya dynasty was Pulakesin
I. He was the son of Ranjraja and the grandson of Jayasimha about whom
much is not known. The Aihole inscription pr ovided us the genelogy of
the western Chalukya king up to Pulakesin II. The first king mention in the
list is Jayasimha. His son and successor was Ranaraja. Nothing more than
the names is mention in the inscription. Pulkesin I was the first great king
amon g the Chalukyas. He was the first great independent ruler. Infact he is
regarded as the real founder of the Chalukya dynasty. From the inscription
we get the information that he had perform number of Yajnas and
sacrifices, for eg — Himagarbha, Asvamedha, A gnishtoma, and Vajpaye.
He established his capital at Vatapi. According to Badami inscription,he
had laid the foundation of Vatapi fort, which is situated near modern
Bijapur. He was great scholar and had thoroughly studied Puranas,
Ramayanas and Mahabhara ta.
He assumed the title of Ranavikram and Shreeprithvi — Vallabha.
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114 8.2.2 Kirti Varman I (566 — 598 A.D) :
Pulakesin I was succeeded by his son Kirti Verman I. He had defeated,
Vangas, Angas, Maghda, Keralas Vatamas, Madraka, Gangas, Pandyas,
Cholas, Dra mila. This information is noted in the Mahakuta inscription,
may be with little exaggeration. According to Badami cave record he was
also known as Puga Verman and Kattiyarasa. He extended his kingdom
both in the east and the west.
58.2.3 Mangalesa (598 — 608 A.D.):
In the year 598 Kirti Verman died. He was succeeded by his brother
Mangalesa as he had no son. An Aihole inscription shows that he had
secured victory over Kalachurei and Revati island. Mangalesa assumed the
title like Ranavikram, Parambhgvata. H e was also known as Mangalraja,
Mangaleshwara and Bhagavati. A great work of art, a beautiful cave
temple of Vishnu was excavated during this time at Badami. His last days
were clouded by a civil war between him and his nephew Pulakesin II who
finally won in the contest for the throne against his uncle and his sons.
8.2.4 Pulakesin II:
Pulakesin II was the son of Kirti Verman I. He ascended the throne of
after killing his uncle Mangalesa in the year 910 A.D. He was the most
outstanding among the great Chalu kya of Badamin. Pulakesin II not only
asserted his claim to the throne but also reduced those powers which tried
to assert themselves during the Chalukya civil war. Most of the ruler by
taking under advantage of the civil war had established their independ ent
dominious. The Chalukya fendataries like Rashtrakuta, Appayika and
Govinda declared independents creative disorder and confusion in the
Chalukya Empire. In such a situation Pulakesin took a diplomatic and a
tactful step. He adopted the policy of divide and rule. He entered in to a
military and political alliance with Govinda, and defeated Appayika.
CONQUEST OF PULAKESIN II :
1. Pulakesin's conquest of North :
After stregthening his power and resource Pulakesin II adopted the policy
of aggression. He def eated Kadambas, Mauryas of north Konkan, Alupas
of south Kanara, the Gangas of Talakadu and the Latas, Malavas and
Gujarat in the north. Pulakesin II extended northern frontier of his
kingdom upto the river Mahi. He conquered Gujarat and appointed his
brother Jayasimha as the Governor of Gujarat.
2. Defeat of Harshavardhan :
Aihole inscription depicts his victory over Harshavardhan of Kanauj. It is
the most significant and memorable of all the victories of Pulakesin II.
Both the king wanted to occupy Gujara t. Pulakesin II defeated Harsha on
the bank of river Narmada. Some historians are of the view that Gujaras,
Latas and Pallavas of Vallabhi joint hands with Pulakesin II due to the fear munotes.in
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115 of Harsha. After defeating Harsha Pulakesin assumed the title of
'Param eshwara'.
3. Pulakesin other conquests :
According to Aiholi inscriptions Pulakesin II turned to the east and
conquered southern Kasala and Kalinga and important fort of Pistapur.
Pulakesin had become the head of the three states namely Maharashtra,
Konkan and Karnataka. With Cholas, Keralas and Pandayas he had
established cordial relation. Thus, he had won many fold victories.
4. Pulakesin defeat and Death:
Pulakesin could not resist Pallavas for long. Narsimha Verman son and
successor of Pallava Mahendre Verman I was eager to take revenge of the
defeat and death of his father. Narsimha invaded Badami in 642 and
defeated Pulakesin II. Probably Pulakesin II was killed in his war.
Pulakesin was the greatest among the Chalukya ruler. His fame spread far
and wi de. A contemporary Muslim record shows that he had sent his
ambassador in the fort of the Persian king Khusruo II. As an administrator
he was active and just devoted his personal attention to the details of the
administration. Thus he is regarded as the re al founder of the Chalukya
imperialism. He should be credited with a remarkable share in the
advancement of culture, characteristics of his dynasty.
Vikramaditya I:
Pulakesin II was succeeded by his youngest son, Vikramaditya
Vikramaditya I attained his he reditary throne and crushed his enemies.
There were many claimants to the throne of Pulakesin II. Vikramaditya I
with the help of his maternal grandfather succeed to get the throne. As
Badami had fallen into the hands of the Pallavas, his accession become
difficult for quite some time. His primary aim was to regain the lost
empire and to destroy the power of the Pallavas. According to the
Hyderabad inscription, he conquered the southern part of the Pallavas and
restored the state to the Brahmans, which was confiscated by their
enemies. He defeated the Pallava king! Narasimhavarman I,
Mahendravarman II and Parmeshwar I. He also captured the city of
Kanchi. Vikramaditya I had established his authority on almost whole of
the Deccan. He also shattered the power of the Cholas, Pandyas and the
Keralas, and compel them to accept his overlord ship. But Vikramaditya
could not assert his authority for a long period in the south as he was
defeated by Parmeshwar I, the rules of the Pallava dynasty Vikramaditya I
died in the year 681 A.D.
Later Chlukya Rulers:
In the year 681 A.D. Vikramaditya, son of Vikramaditya I, ascended the
throne. He ruled till 696 A.D. He established his authority over the
Pallavas, Kalabhras, Kerala Kalachuris, Mallar, Cholas and Pandyas. He
was s ucceeded by his son Vijayaditya in 696 A.D. Vijayaaditya assumed munotes.in
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116 the imperial title of Shri Prithvi — Vallabha. His reign was a peaceful. He
got constructed a beautiful siva temple at Kanchi. He had a tolerant
religious policy and he gave grants to many Ja ina teachers. He was
succeeded by his son Vikramaditya II. He ruled from the year 735 to 745
A.D. He had defeated Nandivarman and collected heaps of gold from
temples at Kanchi. He also defeated the Pandyas, Cholas, Keralas; the last
king of the imperial l ine of Chalukyas was Kirtivasman II. He ruled till
757 A.D. During his reign the Chalukya dynasty started hastening towards
decay and downfall and within a short time and Rashrakutas became all
powerful in southern India.
8.3 RELIGION IN THE PERIOD OF CHAL UKYAS
Chalukyas were the followers of Hinduism. This period was an era of the
revival of the Hindu culture and spirituality. Chalukya rulers had
performed various sacrifices including Ashwamedha yagna. The
Vaishnava, Shiva and Shakti cult received full sup port and encouragement
from both the rulers and ruled. Though Chalukyas were staunch patron of
Brahmanism, they gave toleration to other religions. Jainism and
Buddhism both got royal support. During the period of Chalukya rule,
Jaina religion was practice d by large section of the people. Ravikitri who
composed the inscription of Aihole was a general of Pulkesin II. He was a
Jain and built `Jinendra temple at Aihole. Vijayaditya gave a village for
the maintenance of a Jaina temples. He also gave grants to J ayapansita a
learned Jaina. Thus Jaina temples and institutions received greater
encouragement and endowments from the members of royal family.
According to Hiuen Tsang there were about 100 Buddhist monasteries and
5000 Buddhist monks. However Buddhism was on its decline.
8.4 ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN THE PERIOD OF
THE CHALUKYAS
Art and Architecture flourished during Chalukya period. The Chalukyan
monarchs were liberal patron of art, architecture and sculpture. They
evolved and developed a new style of archit ecture known as the
Chalukyan style or the Vesara style, which is a combination of the
Dravidian (the south Indian) and the Nagara (the north Indian) styles. The
structural experiments of the early Chalukyas were confined to their
capital Vatapi (modern Ba dami), Mahakututeshwar and the town cities of
Aihole and Patadkal (Bijapur districts).
At Aihole the typical Manadapa temples can be seen at Lad — Khan,
Kontgudi and Meguti. The Lad — Khan temple has a simple hall, which is
open in the front and enclosed b y walls on three sides. The hall contains
two square groups of pillars, which are caused with the Kalasha motifs
and Ganga and Yamuna images. The Kantgudi complex consist of three
temples, two of them facing each other, with a tall open mandapa
occupying t he open space between them. The mandapa temples have a
shrine at its center. In the Meguti, it is a Jaina temple dated 634 A.D. This munotes.in
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The chalukyas of badami
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117 dating is supported by the inscription at the foundation of the temple. This
Jaina temple is having a principal square stru cture, which is like a closed
mandapa on a molded base, with four central taller pillars walled in
between to form the central shrine, closed by peripheral wall on all on four
sides.
At Badami and Mahakuteshwar one can witness the early southern
Vimana typ e of structural temples built by Chalukyas.
The important temples are
1. The two temples called the Malegittisivlaya standing on a outer crag in
the hills on the northern side of Badami.
2. The sivalaya highs upon the main hill on the same side called upper
sivalaya
3. The main temple and the extreme southerly one called Mallikarjuna in
the Mahakutesvara group of northern and southern styles temples
inside and enclosure at Mahakateswar in the neighborhood of Badami
4. The temple called Banantigudi on the hill in front of the
Mahakutesvara.
The main temple of Mahakuteshwar consists of a vimana, square on plan
and with a closed frontal mandapa preceded by an open porch. The
garbhagriha has an inner circuam blustery surrounding it.
The Sangamesvara, Virupaksha and Mallika rjuna temple at Patakal exhibit
to a large degree the southerly elements in their vimanas. The
Sangamesvara, the earlier of the three, built by Chalukya Vijayaditya is
nearer to each other in being square on plan from the base to shikhara. The
Virupaksha w as built by the queen of Vikramaditya. It is the earliest dated
temple with the Sukanasika, being by another queen of the same king.
Thus the Chalukya of Badami were able rules and they contributed much
to enrich the India's culture. The two centuries of C halukya rule were
benevolent and in all fields progress was registered.
Check Your Progress:
1. Sketch the history of Chalukyas of Badami and estimate its
importance.
2. Examine the contribution of western of Badami to Indian culture.
8.5 THE RASHTRAKUTAS
8.6.1 Objectives:
1. To introduce the students to the rule of the Rashtrakutas.
2. To explain about the origin and the rulers in the dynasty. munotes.in
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118 3. To illustrate the contribution of Rashtrakutas in the field of
Religion, Education and Learning and Art and Architecture.
8.5.1 Introduction:
After the death of Harhsa, disorders became rampant in northern India.
There were many petty kingdoms, that they were always involved in
internecine struggles. From the seventh to the twelfth century, the south
has altogether a different history. In this period Indian civilization and
culture had greatly progressed in Deccan. Number of important dynastic
were established during that period
Chalukyas Dynasty
Rashtrakuta Dynasty
Yadava Dynasty
Pallava Dynasty
Hoysala Dynasty
Pandya Dynas ty
Chera or Kerala Dynasty
Chola Dynasty
Kakteya Dynasty
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119 8.6 ORIGIN OF RASTRAKUTAS
For about 735 A.D. to 975 A.D. the Rashtrakutas held the political
domination over Deccan. They destroyed the Chalukyas supremacy in
Deccan. Initially they were subordinate s of Chalukyas of Badami. In about
735A.D. the powerful Rashtrakuta chief, Dantidurga defeated the
Chalukya king Kirtivarman II. Thus laid the foundation of Rashtrakuta
supremacy in the Deccan. There is a controversy among the Historians
about the origin o f Rashtrakutas. They themselves claimed descent from
the epic Yadavas. But some scholars suggest that they were pure
Dravidians. According to Basnel, the Rashtrakutas had some affinity with
the Dravidians of Andhra. Dr. Altekar had placed them as a loyal
feudatories in Maharashtra. Their original place was Karnataka, because
they used the Kannad language. In this inscription they have been
addressed as the owner of the beautiful city of Latur. Danti Durga's family
originally belonged to Latur situated in th e Osmanabad district of
Maharashtra. This was on the borders of the Karnataka empire in those
days. Many personal names such as Asagavve, Abbalabbe, Revaka etc
suggest that they were a Kannada family.
Some scholars have mentioned that the family lived in M aharashtra and
was related to the ancient family of Yadu (Yadava). Some regards them as
related to Reddi family of Andhra, while few other consider, them as
Kshatriyas. According, to some the, word 'Rashtrakuta' is derived from
two words namely - Rashtra me aning a province or a division of a kingdom
and Kuta means the master. Thus, Rashtrakutas were originally governors
of a province. However, the most accepted view is that they were chief of
district administration under the Chalukyas of Badami and their
designation was Rashtrakutas from which they derived their name.
8.7 RASHTRAKUTAS RULERS
8.7.1 Danti Durga (753 – 758) :
The earlier Rashtrakutas rulers namely Dantivesman, Indra I Pushakraj,
Govinda I, Kaska I and Indra Raj II were the kings of Rashtrakutas
dynasty but they were not renowned enough to occupy a significant place
in history. According to Dr. Altekar, they had their sway over the
principalities of Berar and Gujrat. Danti Durga, a remarkable monarch
seems to have been the founder of the Rashtrak utas dynasty. He was the
son of Indra and the grandson of Kaska and great grandson of Govindraja
who were feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami. Initially Danti Durga
also was a loyal feudatory of Vikramaditya. He accompanied Chalukya
ruler in his expedit ion against Kanchi. Danti Durga was very ambitious, he
decided to take full advantages of the experiences he had gained in his
campaigns in north and south. He became successful in his conquest
against Pallavas, Arabs, Gurjaras, Malwa, Kalinga, South Kosal a etc. By
the years 750 A.D. Dantidurga became the master of central and southern
Gujarat and whole of Madhya Pradesh and Berar. By 753 A.D. he had
become the masters of the whole of Maharashtra. Danti Durga thus munotes.in
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120 destroyed the power of Chalukyas of Badami and laid the foundation of
the empire of Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.
Hence Dantidurga can be regarded as the real founded the Rashtrakutas
Empire. He assumed the full empirical titles, Maharajadhiraja,
Parameswara, Paramabhattaraka. Danti Durga performed ` Hiranyagarbha'
ceremony at Ujjain. Thus Danti Durga had patronized Hinduism. He died
at the age of thirty six in 756 A.D.
8.7.2 Krishna I :
Krishna I was the ambitious uncle of DantiDurga. DantiDurga left no legal
heir; hence he was succeeded by this uncle Krishna I, also known as
Kannarasa Ballala in 756 A.D. He continued the policy of his nephew and
defeated the Chalukya king Kirti Varman II and practically extinguished
their power. The he proceeded against the Gangas and conquered their
capital Manayapur am in state of Mysore. By 772 A.D. the whole of
Hyderabad state was incorporated in the Rashtrakuta Empire. He brought
under him whole of southern Konkan and whole of Marathi – speaking
part of Madhya Pradesh. Krishna I is also remembered for having
constr ucted the famous rock cut temple, Kailasa (siva) temple at Ellora.
Temple is vastly regarded as a marvel of architecture, also proves the high
level of skill attained by India in the arts of sculpture and architecture
under the Rashtrakuta patronage.
8.7.3 Govind II – (773 - 780 A.D.) :
Krishna I was succeeded by his son Govindraja II. Govindraja II was the
eldest son of Krishna I. He had been nominated as Yuvaraja by his father.
He had distinguished himself on the battlefield by defeating
Vishnuvardhan IV o f Vengi. But after of coming on the throne, as a ruler
he proved an utter failure. He became pleasure loving and left the entire
administration to his younger brothers Dhruva. Dhruva took full advantage
of the situation and dethroned his brothers Govinda I I and came to the
throne.
8.7.4 Dhruva (780 A.D. - 793 A.D.) :
Dhruva was one of the at least ruler of India. Under him, the power,
prestige and glory of the Rashtrakuta reached its zenith. His conquest
made him the undisputed overlords of the entire Deccan . He defeated the
Gurjara king, Vatsaraja who ruled in southern Rajputra. He also defeated
the Pallava king Nandivarman and Chalukay king Vishnu Vardhan IV.
Dhruva was not satisfied with the achievements, he attacked north India
with a view to capturing Ka nauj, and finally captured it. Dhruva defeated
Ganga prince and imprisoned him, Pallava king surrender himself to
Dhruva, Vatsaraja had fled and Pala king Dharmapala had been over
thrown. There was no power in the country to challenge the Rashtrakuta
supre macy. Unfortunately he could not consolidate his conquest of the
north due to internal rivalries in his family. Thus Dhruva was undisputed
overlord of Deccan and Rashtrakuta was at their zenith during his reign.
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121 8.7.5 Govinda III – (794 - 87 A.D.) :
Dhruva had several sons. According to an inscription of the time of
Govinda III Dhruva chose Govinda as his successor because he was the
ablest and worthiest among his son. Govinda III ascended the throne in
794 A.D. The first known date of Govinda III is May 79 4 according to
Paithan plates. Govinda III had several great achievements to his credit.
His elder brother Sthamba (Kamba) who was ruling the Gangavadi
rebelled against him with the group of twelve kings. Govida III defeated
Sthamba and he allowed him to c ontinue as governor of Gangavadi. He
also appointed his other brother Indra as a governor of Gujarat. Thus
Govinda III became the undisputed overlord. In his northern expedition he
defeated Nagabhapala of Bengal. Thus the powerful Gurjara, Pratihara and
Pala king and other rulers of northern India were also humbled by
Govinda III. During the northern expedition, the Pandyas, Pallavas,
Cholas, Gangas and Cheras had performed an alliance to attack the
Rashtrakuta territory. But Govinda III defeated them and e xtended his
empire up to Kanchi in the south. Govinda III had constructed a Siva
temple at Kanchi to serve as a column of victory. The ruler of Ceylon was
frightened by this act and surrendered to Govinda III. Undoubtedly
Govinda III was the ablest of Rash trakuta Emperor. The Rashtrakuta
reached the climax of their power under Govinda III
8.7.6 Amoghavarsha I:
Next important king in this dynasty is Amoghavarsha. On the death of
Govinda III. His son Sarva or Amoghavarsha, a boy of 6, came to the
throne and K arka, the nephew of Govinda became regent. Obviously
Rashtrakuta had to face many difficulties. Ganga, Pandayas and Eastern
Chalukya revolted and declared their independence. Karka brought the
situation under control and thus peace was established. The dea th of Karka
brought about discenity in the Empire. And almost continuous war was
going on between the Rashtrakuta and Gangas during the first 20 years of
the reign of Amoghavarsha. Amoghavarsha adopted conciliatory policy
towards the Gangas and the Pallava s. He gave one of his daughter in the
marriage to prince Bhughta I, son of Ganga and another daughter to
Pallava prince Nandi Verma III. Thus both the dynasty remained loyal to
Amoghavarsha.
Amoghavarhsa was not born military leader. He had faced many
rebellions towards the end of his region. His general Bankesha crushed the
rebellion successfully. The most serious rebellion was that of the Gujarat
branch of the Rashtrakuta founded by Indra. Amoghavarsha enjoyed reign
of 63 years form 87 -877 A.D. He founded a new capital city, Manyakheta
which still exist under the name of Malkhed. He was a liberal, patron of
literature. His court full of many famous Hindu and Jain writers. Jivasen,
Mahaviracharya and Sankatayan got patronage from him. He himself was
a great writer. He wrote a book of Ethic's called "Kavirajmarga". He
became Jain and liberally patronized the Digambara sect.
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122 8.7.7 Later Rashtrakuta Rulers :
Amoghavarsha was succeeded by his son Krishna II (878 - 97). During his
reign Rashtrakuta power graduall y declined. It is said that Krishna II had
terrified the Gurjaras. But he suffered, defeat both at the hands of
Chalukyas of Vengi and the Gurjaras who had conquered Kanauj a few
years ago and transfer their capital to the city. Krishna II died towards end
of 97 A.D. He was succeeded by his grandson Indra III. He was a youth of
30 at the time of his accession. He had inherited the military dash and
daring of Govinda III. He assumed the titles of Nityavarsha,
Rattakandarapa. He also captured Gujarat which cr eated a big sensation.
Indra died prematurely in 922 A.D. and was succeeded by his son
Amoghavarsha II. But he became a victim of the foul play of his younger
brother Govinda IV. Govinda IV was a unpopular young ruler. So minister
and the feudatories reque sted Amoghavarsha III, an uncle of Govinda to
replaced Govinda. Amoghavarsha III 50 years old at the time of his
accession. He did not take any active interest in the administration and
thus administration was carried by his son Krishna III. Krishna III wa s one
of the ablest ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He planned an invasion on
Chola kingdom. He had an expedition against Bundelkhand, Malwa, and
Ujjain. He constructed many temples. His successors who all proved to be
very weak rulers, continued to rule a gradually diminishing territory until
about 973 A.D. when the last of the Rashtrakuta kings Kakka II was
overthrown by Tailapa, the founder of later western Chalukya dynasty of
Kallyani.
8.8 ADMINISTRATION UNDER RASHTRAKUTAS
It was under the Rashtrakuta that Deccan took interest in the affairs of
North India. They took the whole course of Indian history. All the political
institution of the Rashtrakuta we can clearly see the impact of western
Chalukya. King was the centered figured in the administration. The kings
used to nominate their own successor. Their existence of council of
ministers and a village assembly acted as checks on the absolute authority
of the king. Due to the vastness of the empire the kingdom was divided
into rashtras or Mandalams, Vis ayas and Bhuktis. Rashtra was the biggest
unit which was governed by Rashrapati. Vaishya was roughly of the size
of modern district, was in a charge of Visayapati. Each Visaya was
divided into Bhuktis or Tehsil, was governed by officer known as
Bhoghpati o r Bhogika. The village was the lowest unit of administration
and was in charge of Gramapati.
8.9 RELIGIOUS CONTRIBUTION UNDER
RASHTRAKUTAS
Three main religion mainly Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism flourished
during Rashtrakuta period. Many Rashtrakuta kin g were worshipper of
Shiva and Vishnu. Their inscription begins invocation to these Gods. The
royal emblem, Govinda reveals the fact, that Rashtrakuta were
Vaishnavas. Jainism seems to have enjoyed royal patronage liberally. munotes.in
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123 Some scholars described Amoghav arsha as a Jain. But Amoghavarsha
worship Hindu Goddess Lakshmi and Jain Tirthankara Mahavira as well.
Many Jain temple were constructed. Dr. Altekar is of the view that about
30 % of the population in Karnataka during this period must be Jain.
Buddhism wa s losing its hold in Karnataka but Islam was popular in the
Kankan coast. Rashtrakuta had permitted Arabs to construct their
mosques.
8.10 EDUCATION AND LEARNING
The Rashtrakuta were great patrons of education and learning. Rashtrakuta
ruler encouraged the education by giving liberal grants to educational
institutions. In those days education was imparted through Mathas and
Agrahara. The Puranas, Philosophy, literature and works on polity were
taught. Malkhed, Paithan, Nasik and Karhad were the main center of
higher education.
Rashtrakuta period had witnessed the excellent literary works both in
Sanskrit as well as in Kanada. The Rashtrakuta were great patron of Hindu
and Jains scholar. Amoghavarsha was himself a scholar who wrote
Kavirajamarga. The importan t Sanskrit work produced during this period
are –
1. Trivikrama - ‘Nalachampu’ and Mandalasachampu’
2. Halayudha - ‘Mrita -Sanjivani’ and ‘Kavirahasya a
dhathupatha’
3. Somadevasuri - ‘Yashatilaka champu’ and ‘Neetivaky
amrita’
4. Visvarupa - ‘Balakrid a’
5. Mahaveer - ‘Ganithasarasangraha’ and ‘Shakatayana
Amothavritts’.
6. Virasena and Jinasena - ‘Dhavala’ and ‘Jayadhavala’.
7. Jinasena - Harivamasha and Aadipurana
8. gunabhadra - uttarapurana
In Jain literature the famous works are
a) Sri Vij aya - Kavirajamasga
b) Chanvundarya - - Chavundaryapurana
c) Poona - Shantipurana, Bhuvanaika, Rambhyudaya,
Jinakshasamale, Gatapratigata.
d) Pampa - A dipurana and pam Bharati or Vikramarjuna
Vijaya
e) Pushpadanta - Mahapurana, Jasaura Charju and Nayakumara
Charju (Prakrit)
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124 8.11 ART AND ARCHITECTURE
The greatest contribution of Rashtrakuta dynasty in the field of Art and
Architecture is rock - cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta. The Rashtrakuta
have a unique position in the domain of art, archite cture and sculpture.
The temple of Kailasa was excavated by Krishna I in the 8th century. The
Kailas temple can be said as the best visible monuments of the
Rashtrakuta. The sculptured panels of Dasavatara, Bhairva, Ravana
shaking the mountain dancing Shiv a, Vishnu and Lakshmi listening to
music carved at bas - relief are the excellent piece of the creativity of the
artist. Work at Ellora is an example of unrivalled rock architecture.
Dashavatara temple is the only Brahmanical example in stores. It is the
largest as well as simplest, depicting both the Vaishnava and Siva temple.
Along with this, there we also five Jaina rock shrines. Chota Kailasa, Indra
Sabha and Jagannath Sabha are the outstanding structure of Jaina rock
shrines.
Elephanta, near Mumbai is o utstanding monument of the period. The three
faced shiva, sculptured relics of Nataraja and Sadasiva are excellent. They
are the finest sculptures in all India. As regards the Great or main shrine at
elephanta, it is considered to be superior to the shrine at Ellora. Thus no
other ruling dynasty in the Deccan played such a dominant role in the
history of India till rise of Marathas as an imperial power.
Check Your Progress:
1 Who were Rashtrakuta? What part did they play in the history of
Northern India.
2. Describe the achievements of the Rashtrakutas in literature,
religion, art and architecture.
8.12 SUMMARY
Rashtrakutas were ruling over Deccan before Chalukyas came on the
throne. The Chalukyas believed that they were sons of God. Jayasimha
was the first r uler of the dynasty. The other important rulers were Pulkesin
I, Maharaja Kirtivarman, Mangalasa, Pulkesin II. Under Pulkesin II
country made considerable progress. It was under Kirtivarman II that their
hold began to disintegrate. Chalukyas were followers of Hinduism but
they gave patronage to Jainism and Buddhism. The Jaina temples and
institution got great royal support during Chalukyas period. Chalukya
Monarch were liberal patron of art, architecture and sculpture. The piece
of art during Chalukyas have left behind are of two types, a) rock -cut halls
and structural temples, wrought in hard sandstone, at Badami, Aibole,
Patakal and Mahakututeshwar.
It is believed that the Rashtrakutas belonged to Karnatka. Danti Durga was
their first important rules. By 7 50 A.D. he had become master of control
and southern Gujarat. Krishna I brought southern Konkan under his
control. He was both a great conqueror as well builder. Dhruva from the munotes.in
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The chalukyas of badami
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125 same dynasty was undisputed overlord of Deccan and Rashtrakuta were at
this ze nith during his reign. Govinda III ascended the throne in 793 A.D.
He took his brother as a prisoner. He was also the undisputed overlord of
Deccan. He was the best of all the Rashtrakuta kings. Amoghavarsha l's
later part of his reign was full of rebellio ns. He also sent expeditions
against Palas. Important Rashtrakutas after Amoghavarsha I were Krishna
II. Govinda IV, Krishna III. During the reign of Karkka II prestige of the
empire considerably came down. Thus it was under Rashtrakutas Art,
Architecture and Literature reached at its zenith.
8.13 QUESTIONS
1. Describe the origin of Chalukyas and their contribution to Indian
culture.
2. Who were the Chalukyas? Bring out their political and cultural
movement.
3. What were the contribution of Chalukya of Badami to Anci ent
History and culture.
4. Form an estimate of the Chalukya of Badami.
5. Examine the significance of the Rashtrakuta power.
6. Write short note on the following
a) Dantidurga
b) Dhruva
c) Amoghavarsha.
8.14 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A. S. - Rashtrakutas & Thei r Times
2. Ayyanger S. K. - Ancient India and South Indian History &
Culture
Oriental Book Agency, Pune 1941
3. Bhattacharya N.N. - Ancient Rituals and their Social Contents,
(Delhi, Manohar Publication) 1996
4. Chakravarti Uma - The Social Dimensi ons of Early
Buddhism - Delhi, Mumshiram
Manoharilal - 1996
5. Chakaravarti K.C. - Ancient Indian Culture & Civilization
Vora & Co. Bombay 1992
6. Jha D. N. - Ancient India in Historical Outline
Motilal Banarasidas, Publishers Pvt. New
Delhi.
7. Kulkarni C . M. - Ancient Indian History & Culture
Karnataka Publishing House, Mumbai -
1956. munotes.in
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126 Pannikar K.M. - Harsha & His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla & Sons Co. 1922
8. Kautilya - The Arthshatra Penguin Book, 1987
9. Luniya B. N. - Life & Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra - 1994
10. Majumdar R. C. - Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidas,
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi - 1974
11. Mookerjee R. K. - Ancient India,
Allahabad, Indian Press, 1956
12. Mukherjee B. N. - Rise and Fall of the Kushanas
- Empire
13. Nilkantha Shastri - A History of South India, Madras, OOP
1979
14. Nandi R. N. - Social Roots of Religion in Ancient India
15. Pathak V.S. - Historians of India (Ancient India)
- Asia Publishing Bombay 1966
16. Pannikar K.M. - Harsha an d His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla and Sons Co. 1922
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127 9
THE PALLAVAS AND THE CHOLAS
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Origin of Pallavas
9.2 Rulers of Pallava Dynasty
9.2.1 Sivaskanda Varman
9.2.2 Narasimha Varman
9.2.3 Paremesvara Varman
9.2.4 Narsimha Varman II
9.2.5 Nandivarman II
9.3 Administra tion Under Pallavas
9.4 Art and Architecture
9.5 Literature and Learning
9.6 The Cholas
9.6.0 Objectives
9.6.1 Introduction
9.7 Chola Dynasty
9.8 Early Rulers of Cholas
9.9 Paratanka I
9.10 Rajraja Chola
9.11 Rajendra Chola
9.12 Successor of Raj endra Chola
9.13 Administration under Cholas
9.13.1 Central Administration
9.13.2 Provincial Administration
9.13.3 Popular Assemblies
9.13.4 Revenue Administration
9.14 Art and Architecture
9.15 Summary
9.16 Questions
9.17 Additional Reading munotes.in
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128 9.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand the Origin and rules of Pallava Dynasty.
To study about the Administration and Art and Architecture during
Pallava period.
9.1 ORIGIN OF PALLAVAS
The origin of the Pallava has remained still in mystery. After the fall of
Andhra kingdom the Pallavas were the first to come to powers in the
Deccan. The Pallavas were only chieftains during the Sangam age. About
the origin of Pallavas the historian hold different views. Some of the
thinkers are of the view that they belonged to the s outh, but still their munotes.in
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The Pallavas and the Cholas
129 origin is very controversial. Some historians are of the view that they
belonged to the Parthians who had settled down in Kanchivaram.
According to them, the Pallavas of south India were Pahlavas or Parthians,
who invaded India, settl ed down in the Indus valley, then moved on to
western India and finally immigrated into the Kanchi region during the
period of the decline of Satvahanas. The other theory is that Pallavas were
of Tamil origin. According to some historians, the Pallavas bel onged to
the Chola - Naga family. The first Pallava ruler was the son of a Naga
princess. According to Jayswal, the Pallavas were the descendants of the
high – ranking Brahmans of Northern India. The names of some early
Pallava like Simhavarman and Sivaskan davarman are known from a few
coppers plate chastens written in prakrit. It is said that they performed
Brahmanical sacrifices and ruled over a well -organized kingdom that
covered the northern part of the peninsula. The Pallava, may be the
product of inter course between the Brahman and the Dravidian. There are
no unanimous opinion about their origin amongst historians. Historians
differ as regards the early history of Pallavas.
9.2 RULERS OF PALLAVA DYNASTY
9.2.1 Sivaskand Varman:
There are different opinio ns about the earlier rulers of the Pallava dynasty.
Some are of the opinion that Bappa was the founder of the Pallava at
power Kanchi. The earlier prakrit inscriptions refers that Bappadev,
Sivask and Varman and Viravarman were the first three rulers of th e
Pallavas. It seems Sivaskand Varman was the first great ruler of the
Pallava dynasty. He ruled in the 4th century A.D. and extended his empire
up to the river Krishna. He was devoted Brahmin. He had also performed
the Ashwamedha ceremony and Vajapeya. He assumed the title of
Dharmamaharga. His administration resembled the administration system
of Mauryas.
Vishnu Gopa:
In the fourth century Vishnu Gopa was defeated by Samudragupta. An
inscription at Allahabad reveals that he was one of the kings of souther n
India who were defeated by Samudragupta. The period between 350 - 375
A.D. is assigned to Vishnugopa. After his defeat in war, we do not have
much information about Pallava dynasty. However, with the reign of
Simhavishnu (575 – 660 A.D.), we have clear ac counts of the Pallavas.
Simhavishnu:
To him belongs the credit of the grand political and cultural attainments of
the Pallavas. He ascended the throne probably in 565 A.D. He had high
political deals and won a victory over the Cholas, Chera, Pandya and
Ceylon. His kingdom stretched from Madras to the Kaveri. He was a great
Vaishnava. He was also a great patron of literature. Bharvi, the author of
Kirtarjuna belonged to this period. Mahabalipuram was the center of fine
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130 Mahendra Varman 1(600 - 630 A.D.):
Simhavishnu was succeeded by his son Mahendra Varman I who was one
of the ablest among the Pallava kings. He was contemporary of Pulakesin
II as well Harshavardhn. The common feature among them was their
outstanding contribution to art a nd culture. From Aihole inscription it is
known that the Pallavas had obstructed the path of Pulakesin and
consequently Pulkesin marched against Pallavas. As a result Pulkesin
defeated Mahendra Varman and thus Pallava lost the province of Vengi.
But Pallav a sources refers to king Mahendra Varma's victory. It is
probable that the loss of Vengi stimulated the Pallavas to push forward the
southern frontiers resulting in the conquest of Triuchirapali.
rt, architecture and painting received tremendous encouragem ent during
the reign of Mahendra Varman. He commenced building rock cut shrines.
He is regarded as the founders of the novel system of stone structure that
has produced remarkable specimens in the course of the centuries.
According to some scholars he was a follower of Jainism but later on the
embraced saivism. He also patronized Vaishnavism. He constructed cave
temples at Mahabalipuram, Pallavasam and other places. He also
dedicated temple to Brahma, Iswara and Vishnu. Mahendravarman also
constructed a Mah endratank near the city of Mahindravadi. He had got
constructed many temples of Lord Vishnu. He was also liberal patron of
arts like painting, music and dancing. He himself was a poet and a
musician. He wrote Mattavillasa – prahasana in Sanskrit. From the
inscription we get information about various titles of Mahendra Varman
like Mattavilasa, Vichitrachitta, Chettakari, Gunabhara, Avanibhajan etc.
Narasimha Varman I:
Narasimha Varman I succeeded Mahendra Varman in the years 630 A.D.
He was the son of the e arlier rules. He carried on the administration
probably till 680 A.D. Narasimha Varman continued the hereditary
conflict with Chalukyas. He had defeated Pulkesin II, the Chalukyas rules.
After the death of Pulkesin, Pallavas become all - sovereign in the so uth.
Victory over Pulkesin had made the greatest of the Pallavas ruler. Pulkesin
II lost his life on the battle - field and thereafter Narsimha assumed the title
of Vatapikanda means the captor of Vatapi (capital of Chalukay). He had
dispatched a naval expe dition against Ceylon. In the first expedition he
failed but in the second he was crowned with success.
Like his father Narasimha Varman also constructed several rock – cut
temples at Pudukotta and Trichinopoly district. The structures during his
period we re more proportionate and graceful. He built a beautiful sea
beach town near Kanchi, called it after his own name Mahamallapuram
(Mahabalipuram). During his period Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchi.
According to him the capital Kanchi was a large city with monast eries and
1000 monks. Jaina temples numbered 80 and about 100 Buddhist
monasteries.
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The Pallavas and the Cholas
131 9.2.3 Paremesvara Varman I :
Paremesvara Varman was the grandson of Narsimhvarman I. Before him
his father Mahendra Varman II came to the throne. But he ruled only for a
short period of two years (668 – 670 A.D). He was succeeded by his son
Paremesvara Varman I, who ruled between 670 – 695 A.D. Durign his
period Vikramaditya I, a chalukya king got hold over Kanchi and
destroyed it. To some extent Paremesvara Varman succeede d in
safeguarding his empire. He was ardent followers of siva and had
constructed a siva temple near Kanchi.
9.2.4 Narasimha Varman II (695 – 722 A.D.) :
Narasimha Varman II, son of Paremesvara Varman succeeded him. He
ruled from 695 to0 722 A.D. His perio d was a peaceful one. That is the
reason, during this period, empire made tremendous cultural progress. He
had send his ambassador to China. He assumed the titles of Rajasimha
(lion among kings), Agamapriya (loves of scriptures) and Sankarabhakta
(devotee of siva). He built the Kailsanaath temple at Kanchi. It is believed
that the great Sanskrit poet Dandin lived in his period. He was succeeded
by his son Pasmeshvaravarman II, who ruled till the year 730 A.D. During
his period he had to wage a war with Yuva jraja Vikramaditya, a chalukya
ruler. Paremshvarman settled the matter by giving money and presents to
Vikramaditya -ll.
Nandivarman 11(730 — 800 A.D.) :
Nandivarman was supposed to be elected rulers of Pallava dynasty. With
the death of Paremesvara Varman II the imperial line of Pallavas almost
came to an end. Nandivarman was defeated by Chalukya emperor
Vikramaditya II and occupied Kanchi but Nandivarman II was successful
in getting back Kanchi. He also fought against Pandayas and Rashtrakutas.
However, it resulted into a matrimonial alliances between Nandivrman the
daughter of Rashkuta king Dantidurga. Nandivarman Constructed temple
of Kanchi. He gave great importance to religion and literature and himself
was a great scholar. Probably he also has performe d Ashvamedha sacrifice
to declared himself as king Emperor.
Nandivarman was succeeded by his son Danti Varman. From that time
onward, the Cholas become supreme and Pallavas kings sank into the
position of mere feudatory nobles and officials in the service of others.
9.3 ADMINISTRATION UNDER PALLAVAS
The Pallavas organized their government well and promoted the welfare
and happiness of the people. The benevolent hand of the rulers reached all
fields political, social, economic religious and artistic. The kin g was the
head of the administration. The administrative system was patterned, after
the administrative system of the Mauryas with some modification.
Kingship was hereditary, ran from father to son. Though king was a center
figure in the administration he was assisted by council of ministers in day-munotes.in
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Ancient India
132 to-day administration. The important minister in the council of ministers
was Purohit.
Decentralization of power can be seen during Pallava rule. The empire
was divided in the provinces called Rashtras or Mandala m. They were
governed by princes of the royal blood or a prominent personality of
respectable family. Provinces were further divided into Kottam and Nadus
had their own officials. Village or grama was the lowest unit. There were
village assemblies and thei r committees to look after the village
administration. Brahmins held the great position during Pallava rule. They
managed temples, supervised water tanks and other public work such as to
supervise the digging of tanks and canals, make road etc.
9.4 ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Under Pallavas art and architecture constitute a brilliant chapter in the
history of south Indian art. Pallava art brought a revolution with its
different architecture style. The Pallavas were tenderly attached to art and
of culture. They got constructed temples manifesting different styles of art,
the Guha temples and rock —cut temples. Roughly during Pallavas three
of architectural style can be seen. The first is Mahendra architectural style
introduced during the Mahandra Varman I period. He introduced rock —
cut cave style temples during 600 to 630 A.D. The second style was
introduced during the period of 625 to 674 A.D., known as Mamala
architectural style. This period was marked by the construction of the
famous five rathas named after Dha rmaraja, Bhima, Arjun, Sahadev and
Draupadi, descent of the Gangas cave temples of the Trimurti, Varaha,
Durga and five pandavas. The third architectural style is called Rajasimha
architectural style represented by the structural temples at Kanchi in the
8th century. Even in ninth century a style called Apasjita architectural
style was famous.
Temples during Pallava times represent art in its trust and most sublime
form. The temples of Nasasimhavarman are well decorated and painted.
The Pallava art can be w ell seen in the Kailasa temple. The well chiseled
temples of stone and bricks are highly important from artistic point of
view. Besides music dance and painting made great progress.
9.5 LITERATURE AND LEARNING
The Pallavas were equally interested in litera ture. This capital Kanchi was
a famous center of art and literature. There was a lot of literary activity
during this period. Kanchi was a great center of Sanskrit learning in the
south India. Dandin a great Sanskrit poet was adorned in the court of
Narasi mhavarman II. Except few inscriptions most of the Pallava
inscription were written in the Sanskrit. Sanskrit language was greatly
encouraged. A provision was made for the recitation of the Mahabharata
in a Mandapa at Kurram near Kanchi. The royal patronage was also
extended to the Tamil language. In seventh century Mahendra Varman
wrote a Sanskrit farce. Dharmapala, the president of the Nalanda munotes.in
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The Pallavas and the Cholas
133 University was from Kanchi. The Tamil Kura! of Triavalluvar was a rich
work of learning.
Check Your Progress
1. Sketc h the history of the Pallavas and estimate their importance.
2. Describe the origin of Pallavas and write a detailed note on Pallavas
art.
9.6 THE CHOLAS
9.6.1 Objectives:
1. To examine the history of the early rulers of the Cholas.
2. To briefly survey the rule of Paratanka I, Rajaraja and Rajendra Chola.
3. To assess the development done by Chola rulers in the field of
administration and art and architecture.
munotes.in
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Ancient India
134 9.6.2 Introduction:
Chola country or Chola mandalam between the rivers of Pennar and Velar
constituted the modern districts of Tanjore and Trichinopoly and a part of
Pudukoty, Uraganur (Uraipur) near modern Trichinopoly, Tanjore and
Gangikonda -Cholapuram near Chola capital. The three prominent states in
Tamil country were Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. The Cho la kingdom was
a very ancient one. Their early history is, however, obscure. Cholas were
the most civilized race of the Deccan. Regarding the origin of the Cholas
historians hold divergent views. But it is beyond a shadow of doubt that
the Cholas were the original inhabitants of the Deccan in comes of the
inscriptions they have called themselves as suryavansi.
The history of Cholas in definitely ancient one. Since they are also
mentioned in the account of Megasthenes and inscription of Ashoka. II
and XII. R ock Edicts of Ashoka also refer to them. The sangam literature
refers to many Chola princes who were models of justice. Chola rulers
have been mentioned by the grammarian, katyayana (circa 4th century
B.C.). The periplus and the geography of Tolemy further give us some
information regarding the Chola country and its inland towns and ports. In
sabha and Bhishmaparva of Mahabharata the name of the Cholas occurs.
The kingdom of the Cholas included Madras, several other districts and
the greater part of Mysore state. In the early medieval age, the Chola
kingdom came to be known as Cholamandalam (coromandel)
9.7 CHOLA DYNASTY
Chola dynasty was a
Tamil dynasty which was
one of the longest -ruling
dynasties in southern
India. The earliest datable
references to this Tamil
dynasty are in inscriptions
from the 3rd century BC
left by Asoka, of Maura
Empire; as one of the
Three Crowned Kings, the
dynasty continued to
govern over varying
territory until the 6th
century AD.
The heartland of the
Cholas was the fertile
valley of the Kaveri River,
but they ruled a
significantly larger area at
the height of their power
from the latter half of the
9th century till the Chol a Empire
300s EC – 1219
Capital Early Cholas
Poompuhar, Urayur,
Medieval Cholas:
Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur
Gangaikond a Cholapuram
Language(s) Tamil
Religion Hinduism
Government Monarchy
King
-848-871 Vijayalaya Chola munotes.in
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The Pallavas and the Cholas
135 beginning of the 6th
century. The whole
country south of the
Tungabhadra was united
and held as one state for a
period of two centuries
and more.
Under Rajaraja Chola I
and his son Rajendra
Chola I, the dynasty
became a military,
economic and cultural
power in South Asia and
South -east Asia. The
power of the new empire
was proclaimed to the
eastern world by the
celeb rated expedition to
the Ganges which
Rajendra Chola I
undertook and by the
overthrow after an
unprecedented naval war
of the maritime empire of
Srivijaya, as well as by the
repeated embassies to
China.
During the period 1010 -
1200, the Chola territories
stretched from the islands
of the Maldives in the
south to as far north as the
banks of the Godavari
River in Andhra Pradesh
Rajaraja Chola conquered
peninsular South India,
annexed parts of what is
now Sri Lanka and
occupied the islands of the
Maldives’ Raje ndra Chola
sent a victorious
expedition to North India
that touched the river
Ganges and defeated the
Pala ruler of Pataliputra,
Mahipala. He also
successfully invaded
kingdoms of the Malay
Archipelago. The Chola -1246 -1279 Rejendra Chola III
Historical era Middle Ages
- Established 300s BC
- Rise of the 848
medieval Cholas
- Disestablished 1279
Today part of India
Sri Lanka
Bangladesh
Malaysia
Indonesia
Singapore
Maldives
List of Chola kings
Early Cholas
ElaraChola - 235 BC – 161 BC
Ilamcetcenni - Karikala
Chola
Nedunkilli*Killvalavan*
Kopperuncholan
Kocengannan* Perunarkilli
Interregnum (c. 200 -848)
Medieval Cholas
848 – 871
Vijayalaya Chola ?
Adityal 871 - 907
Parantaka Chola I 907 -950
Gandaraditya 950 -957 munotes.in
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Ancient India
136 dynasty went into decline at
the beginning of the 6th
century with the rise of the
Pandyas, who ultimately
caused their downfall.
The Cholas left a lasting
legacy. Their patronage of
Tamil literature and their
zeal in building temples has
resulted in some great
works of Tamil literature
and archit ecture . The
Chola kings were avid
builders and envisioned the
temples in their kingdoms
not only as places of
worship but also as centres
of economic activity. They
pioneered a centralized
form of government and
established a disciplined
bureaucracy. Arinjaya Chol a 956 -957
Sundara Chola 957 -970
Uttama Chola 970 -985
Rajaraja Chola I 985 -107
Rajendra Chola I 1012 -107
Rajendraraja Chola 1018 -1054
Rajendra Chola II, 1051 -1063
Virarajendra Chola 1063 -1070
Athirajend ra Chola 1067 -1070
Later Cholas
Kulothunga Chola I 1070 -1120
Vikrama Chola 1118 -165
Kulothunga Chola 163 -180
Rajaraja Chola II 176 -1173
Rajadhiraj a Chola II 1166 -1178
Kulothunga Chola III 1178 -1218
Rajaraj a Chola III 1216 -1256
Rajendra Chola III 1246 -1279
The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but
they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the
latter half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 6th century . The
whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state
for a period of two centuries and more.
munotes.in
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The Pallavas and the Cholas
137 Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became
a military, economic and cultur al power in South Asia and South -east
Asia. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world
by the celebrated expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I
undertook and by the overthrow after an unprecedented naval war of the
maritime em pire of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to
China.
During the period 1010 1200, the Chola territories stretched from the
islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the
Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular
South India, annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied the
islands of the Maldives’ Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to
North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of
Pataliputra, Mahipal a. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the
Malay Archipelago. The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning
of the 6th century with the rise of the Pandyas, who ultimately caused their
downfall.
The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and
their zeal in building temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil
literature and architecture . The Chola kings were avid builders and
envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but
also as centre s of economic activity. They pioneered a centralised form of
government and established a disciplined bureaucracy.
Check Your Progress
1. Which was the longest ruling dynasty in South India
9.8 EARLY RULERS OF CHOLAS
To trace the chronology of Cholas is a difficult task. The sangama
literature throw some light on the early political history of the Cholas. In
the middle of the second century B.C. A Chola king by name Elara
conquered Ceylon and ruled it over it for about fifty years. Chola gained
territory an d influence in the reign of Karikala who ruled in the 2nd
century AD. Accordingly to the Tamil and Telugu legends, the foremost
achievement of Karikala Chola was the defeat of his Chera or Kerala and
Pandya. Other prominent rulers of Cholas were Songannan Vijayalaya at
Tanjore and Aditya. Vijayalaya founded his own dynasty in 850 AD. He
was feudatory his own dynasty of the Pallava king. He was succeeded by
his son Aditya I (871 -907), who defeated the Pallava king. Aparajita,
conquered Coimbatore and Salem d istrict. He was a devotee of Shiva. He
built many temples of Shiva near Kaveri.
9.9 PARATANKA 1 (907 TO 946 AD)
Aditya's son Paratanka I was the real founder of the Chola supremacy.
They had ruled from 907 to 946 AD. He annexed the territories of the
Pandy a king who ran away to Ceylon for safety. By 930 the Cholas munotes.in
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Ancient India
138 become the master of almost the whole of the south extending from the
north Pennar to Cape Common. Paratanka I assumed the title of
Madurajkonda to commemorate his victory over the Pandya king. He also
wiped out the remains of Pallava power and conquered the country as far
north as Nellore. Chola kingdom received a set back of the hands of
Krishna III of Rashtrakuta during Paratanka I. The inscription of
Paratanka throw light on the self -governing village communities under
Chola kingdom. He was great patron of learning. Paratanka constructed a
temple at Tondaimanad in honour of his father.
9.10 RAJARAJA CHOLA (985 -1012 AD)
The greatest king of the dynasty was Raja I (985 -1012AD). The rule of
Rajaraj a gave Cholas, the paramount power in India. He was the most
famous and important among the Cholas. Rajaraja carried on the
administration of his country very efficiently and successfully. As
successful conqueror Rajaraja within twelve years of his accessi on
destroyed the independence of the eastern Chalukyas Vengi, the Pandyas
of Madurai, the Gangas of Mysore and the chiefs of Malabar coast.
Through his inscriptions we get the information that he had conquered the
(Ceylon). His conquest established his aut hority in the Deccan. He built a
powerful navy and with its help he was able to bring under his control the
Arabian sea and Indian ocean. It is claimed that his conquests included
Kalinga and 12000 islands which have been regarded as the Lacadiuves
and Mal dives. Thus Rajaraja was one of the greatest sovereigns of south
India. He was great conqueror and empire builder.
Rajaraja Chola was an able administrator also. His government was
humane and benevolent. He made a thorough survey of the country for the
purpose of assessing land revenue on a fair basis under him savism was
greatly encouraged but he was not intolerant towards other religion. He
patronized fine arts and spent lavishly on architectural masterpieces like
Rajkarayashwas temple of Siva at Tanjore. He gave toleration to all, as
testified by the grant of the village of Nagapatnam for the constructions of
a Buddhist Vihara by Sailendra king of Java.
9.11 RAJENDRA CHOLA (107 -1044)
Rajraya Chola was succeeded by his son Ranjendra Chola I. He
consolidate d the empire built by his father and also extended it. He was a
brave warrior and successful ruler he was not only resourceful and
powerful in the south but also in north. In the south he defeated Keralas,
Pandyas and Simhaldip and in north he had won vict ory over Orissa, West
Bengal and Kaushat. The military campaigns of Rajendra Chola did not
enlarge the Chola empire but it proved his martial glory. To commemorate
the stupendous expedition, he assumed the title Gangaikonda. He also had
naval fleet and thu s could establish his authority over the islands of
Andaman, Nicobar and Malaya. About Rajendras expedition against
Sailendra king of Java, Dr. R.C. Mjujmdar comments, the mighty
Sailendra Empire, the biggest naval power in the East lay prostrate before munotes.in
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The Pallavas and the Cholas
139 the victorious Chola army and Rajendra Chola had the proud satisfaction
of seeing his banner floating from the bank of the Ganga to the island of
Ceylon and across the bay of Bengal over Java, Sumatra and the Malya
peninsula.
Rajendra was an efficient admini strator and a benevolent king. He
maintained peace and order and patronized learning art and architecture.
Under him art and literature flourished he constructed his new capital
Gangikjonda Cholapuram, in which grand temples and palaces were
raised. He als o constructed the big irrigation tank sixteen miles long for
the welfare of the people.
9.12 SUCCESSOR OF RAJENDRA CHOLA
After the death of Rajraja Chola, his son Rajadhiraja become ruler. He had
faced with frequent revolts which broke out in his empire he was the last
able ruler, among the Cholas. In 1052, he was killed while fighting with
the Chalukyas. But his younger brother Rajendra Deva (1052 -1063) who
was crowned on the battlefield. He led the battle to final victory and then
successfully ruled the e mpire until his death in 1063 AD. Among the
others successor were Vira Rajendra (1063 -70) Adhi Rajendra (1070) and
Kalottunga I (1070 -1122 AD). After his death the Chola empire began to
decline many smaller federal barons also asserted their independence. The
invasion Malik Kafur uprooted the Chola power in 610.
9.13 ADMINISTRATION UNDER CHOLAS
The three centuries of Chola rule marked great progress in all fields. The
Chola developed a highly effected system of administration. The Cholas
developed a highly efficient system of administration. The Cholas are
remembered for their innovative and efficient administrative systems. The
Chola kings like Rajaraja, Rajendra were great warriors and far -sighted
and wise administrator.
9.13.1 Central administration :
The king was the pivot of the whole administration. He was the chief law
giver and established peace and order in the country. King gave close
attention to the details of the administration. For the convenience of
administration the king had appointed ministe rs and high officials. His
orders were recorded by his secretaries who communicated them to the
viceroys. A viceroy was appointed to rule the Mandalam. The Chola ruler
always cared for public welfare and travelled though different parts of the
country to k now about the condition of the people. This they were loved
by their subjects and were worshipped as Gods.
9.13.2 Provincial Administration:
To achieve the efficient and excellent administration Chola kingdom was
divided into six provinces called Mandalam . Each Mandalam or province
was divided into a numbers of kottam, or valanadu. Each kottam again munotes.in
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Ancient India
140 was subdivided into numbers of districts called Nadus. In each Nadus
there were many village union called Kurrams and Tar -Kurram and then
there were villages. Each mandalam was under a governor, who mostly
belonged to high families the village administration was carried on
through the panchayats. They also had legal rights an administered justice.
There are ample evidences to show that these divisional had their own
popular assemblies.
9.13.3 Popular Assemblies :
The unique feature of the Chola administration was the local
administration of the villages. Their administration was based on sound
democratic principles. The Kurrams were self - governing units. All
powers of administration was vested in a general assembly of the union
elected by the people. There were number of popular assemblies in the
state to look after the administration. These assemblies also used to look
after the state revenues. Even Nadus or the districts had an assembly that
looked after the problems of the districts. The cities had separate
assemblies known as Nagarhars. The village assemblies or Kurrnas
collected the land revenue and dispended – justice.
The Chola records mentions the existenc e of two types of villages -Ur and
Brahmadeya villages. The village assembly of Ur consisted of
representative from all castes of villages excluding the untouchables. It
carried out all functions and duties connected to the villages. The
Brahmadayas were t he Agraharas. The members of the assemblies in
Brahmadeyas were Brahmans. These assemblies made provision for the
public education. For teaching Sanskrit and Tamil in the monasteries
arrangement were made by the rural assemblies. These assemblies were
called as Mahasabhas which were completely autonomous. The
Mahasabha even collected the land revenue either in cash or kind and paid
to royal treasury. It also administered justice. However right to appeal to
the king was given to the king. The Sabha had many committees such as
committees for looking after gardens irrigation tanks, cultivated fields,
disposal of kinds, temples, charities, roads, education, general
managements etc. The meetings were held in temples and works of public
welfare were given due cons ideration. Thus popular assemblies almost
enjoyed autonomous powers in the management of rural affairs. The
Chola ruler adhered to the democratic principles.
9.13.4 Revenue Administration :
The agriculture was the main occupation of the people, so the land
revenue was the chief source of income of the Cholas. Usually, 1/ 6 of the
gross product was collected as the land tax. During crises and famines it
was not levied. It could be paid by the peasants both in cash or in kind.
The other sources of income for the state were taxes on trade and
professions, salt tax, water cases and fines, customs duties. Remission
were granted where necessary. The currency was the golden kasu,
weighing 1/ 6 of the ounce. The main items of expenditure were public
administration a nd public welfare. munotes.in
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The Pallavas and the Cholas
141 9.14 ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Under the Cholas art, in Deccan reached the height of its glory. The
Cholas greatly encouraged sculpture, architecture and painting. They
founded many new cities and constructed many palatial buildings. The
Chol a kings were great builders and under took vast irrigational projects.
They constructed wells, tanks, mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and
other rivers, cut out channel to distribute water to large areas of land. King
Rajendra I built a huge tank near h is new capital Gangaikonda
Cholapuram. The Chola also constructed grand trunk roads which was of
great help to commerce as well as military expedition.
Cholas beautifully erected temples which also served as the conference
houses for the assemblies. The i mperial Cholas succeeded to the
hegemony in the south in about first half of the ninth century after the
displacement of the Pallavas. They continued the tradition of temple —
building with many improvements in the technique use of the hard stones
and equa lly good but more embellished sculpture which became bolder.
This period marks the peak of temple – building activity. Many earlier
temples of brick and timbers were renovated in stone. A typical early
Chola temple - unit is the Sundaresvara at Tirukkattala i (Thiruchchirappali
District). The temple was built by Aditya I in 873 A.D. It is complete unit
built to stone throughout and consists of the main square two - storied
vimana.
The Korangantha temple at Srinivasanallur (Thirruchchirapalli District) is
an elegant example of the time of Parantaka I (907 –55). It is a square
vimana with a mandapa in front and contain fine sculpture and rich
miniature panels above and below them.
The great temple in Thanjavur, also called Brihadisvara or Rajarajasvara
after its builder Rajaraja I (985 – 107 A.D.) is the most ambitious
undertaking of Tamil architecture. It combines all that is mature and best
in the temple – building tradition – architecture, sculpture, paining and
allied arts. It is a large complex, with an enor mous monolithic Nandi. It
has the loftiest know vimana 60 m. high standing over a basal square of
about 30 m side, which forms an appropriately high and amply moulded
platform. The temple stands within a walled quarrel rage 500 feet by 250
feet. The main s tructure of the temple is 180 feet with a great shikhara or
tower, which consists of as many as 7 successive storeys rising to 9 dome
of a single block of stone, 25 feet high and weighing about 80 tones. The
entire temple is covered with beautiful sculptur es and decorative
mouldings. Apart from sculptures, some of them of immense iconographic
interest, paintings and illustrations of dance and music of which this
temple is a unique. Its long and well –inscribed epigraphs are most
interesting and informative of the history of the temples, its builders and
donors, and the endowment of jewels bronzes and other details. The
Brihadisvara temple, begun about 1003, and completed by 1010.
munotes.in
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Ancient India
142 Within about 20 years by Rajendra Chola (1012 – 44), in his new capital
Gangai kond Chola puram (District Thanjavur) built almost on the same
plan and model, a temple also known as Brihadisvara. This temple –
complex had only two entrances, a gopura on the east and 9 plain torana -
door on the north. It consist of 9 large Mandapa 175 feet by 90 feet and
massive Vimana measuring 1000 feet square. The vimana is just 160 feet
high. The sculpture are bold and almost cut out in the round, is perhaps of
greatest excellence. The Cholas also encouraged plastic art and the metal
and stone image s cast in their time are exquisitely executed and display
wonderful vigorous, dignity and grace. The Nataraja and the various
images and portraits of the saints and Hindu Gods and Goddesses are
considered to be masterpieces of the world. Thus Cholas dynast y made
long lasting impression in the annals of Indian history.
Check Your Progress:
1. What were the contribution of Cholas to village administration, art and
architecture?
2. Give the brief account of political condition of south India during
Chola period.
9.15 SUMMARY
In short the Pallava dynasty was great from cultural as well as political
point of view. Under the Pallavas art, literature, architecture, sculptor and
painting witnessed great progress. The Pallavas got constructed a number
of temples. During th e Pallavas, the Indian civilization spread far and
wide. They had dispatched two military expeditions against cyclone.
Important rulers of Pallava dynasty include Sivaskanda, Vishnu Gopa,
SimhaVishnu, Mahendra Varman, Narasimha Varman I, Pasmesavarman
I, Narsinhavarman II and Nandi Varman II. Thus Pallava dynasty was
great from cultural as well as political viewpoint. Under them culture and
civilization considerably progressed and reached far off places.
Cholas were the most civilized race of the Deccan. Re garding the origin of
the Cholas historians hold different views. They had many brilliant rulers.
Like Elara, Karikala, Vijayalaya Aditya I, Paratanka I, Rajraja I, Rajendra
I, Rajadhiraja, Rajendradeva king was central figure, Empire was divided
into Mand alas. Each Mandalas was sub — divided into districts. Their
system of administration was democratic. Land revenue was their main
source of income. The Cholas greatly encouraged sculpture, architecture
and painting. They founded many cities and constructed many palatial
buildings. The Cholas rules always cared for public welfare. They
developed many roads and irrigation projects. Cholas beautifully erected
temples which also served as the conference houses for the assemblies.
The Brihadisvara temples at Tanj avur is a masterpiece of Chola art. Many
metal and stone image in various forms are excellent.
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The Pallavas and the Cholas
143 9.16 QUESTIONS
1. Sketch the history of the Pallavas and estimate their importance.
2. Describe the origin of Pallavas and write a detailed note on Pallavas
art.
3. Desc ribe the contribution of the Pallavas to the Indian culture.
4. Discuss the achievements of the Pallavas in administration, literature,
art and architecture.
5. Examine the role of the leading Cholas in the history of south India.
6. Write a critique on the contrib ution of the Cholas to the Indian
culture.
7. Briefly describe the political career of Cholas and bring out their
contribution to Indian history and culture.
9.17 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A. S. - Rashtrakutas & Their Times
2. Ayyanger S. K. - Ancien t India and South Indian History &
Culture
Oriental Book Agency, Pune 1941
3. Bhattacharya N.N. - Ancient Rituals and their Social Contents,
(Delhi, Manohar Publication) 1996
4. Chakravarti Uma - The Social Dimensions of Early
Buddhism - Delhi, Mums hiram
Manoharilal - 1996
5. Chakaravarti K.C. - Ancient Indian Culture & Civilization
Vora & Co. Bombay 1992
6. Jha D. N. - Ancient India in Historical Outline
Motilal Banarasidas, Publishers Pvt. New
Delhi.
7. Kulkarni C. M. - Ancient Indian History & Cul ture
Karnataka Publishing House, Mumbai -
1956.
Pannikar K.M. - Harsha & His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla & Sons Co. 1922
8. Kautilya - The Arthshatra Penguin Book, 1987
9. Luniya B. N. - Life & Culture in Ancient India, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra - 1994
10. Majumdar R. C. - Ancient India, Motilal Banarasidas,
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi - 1974 munotes.in
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Ancient India
144 11. Mookerjee R. K. - Ancient India,
Allahabad, Indian Press, 1956
12. Mukherjee B. N. - Rise and Fall of the Kushanas
- Empire
13. Nilkantha Shastri - A History of South India, Madras, OOP
1979
14. Nandi R. N. - Social Roots of Religion in Ancient India
15. Pathak V.S. - Historians of India (Ancient India)
- Asia Publishing Bombay 1966
16. Pannikar K.M. - Harsha and His Times, Bombay,
Taraporewalla and Sons Co. 1922
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145 10
SPREAD OF INDIAN CULTURE IN SOUTH
EAST ASIA
Unit Structure:
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Agencies of Cultural interaction between India and South East Asia.
10.3 Overseas Political expansion
10.4 Influence of Indian culture in South East Asia
10.5 Summary
10.6 Questions
10.7 Additional Reading
10.0 OBJECTIVES:
To introduce students to Cultural interaction between India and South
East Asia
To understand Overseas Political Expansion
To orient learners about influence of Indian culture in South East Asia.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Right from ancient times, Indians never lived in splendid isolation from
the rest of the world. They had cultural and trade contacts with the outside
world. The transmission of Indian culture in distant parts of Central Asia,
China, Japan, and especially Southeast Asia has been one of the greatest
achievements of Indian history or even of the history of mankind. None of
the other great civilizations had been able to achieve a similar success
without military conquest.
By the beginnin g of the first century of the Christian era, the civilization
and culture of India began to penetrate slowly across the Bay of Bengal
into both inland and mainland of South -East Asia. By the fifth century
AD, Indian religions such as Sanatana Dharma, Buddh ism, and cultural
traditions took deep roots in the regions of Burma, Thailand, Indo -China,
Malaysia and Indonesia.
Check your progress:
1] Describe India’s contacts with the outside world.
2] Examine how Indian religions took root in other countries. munotes.in
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Ancient India
146 10.2 AGENCIES OF CULTURAL INTERACTION
BETWEEN INDIA AND SOUTH EAST ASIA
Southeast Asia was in the Indian sphere of cultural influence from 290
BCE to the 15th century CE, when Hindu -Buddhist influences were
incorporated into local political systems. Kingdoms in the southeast coast
of the Indian Subcontinent had established trade, cultural and political
relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Thailand, Indonesia,
Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia and Champa. This led to the
Indianisation and San skritisation of Southeast Asia within the Indosphere,
Southeast Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu -Buddhist Mandala
(polities, city states and confederacies).
Indian culture itself arose from various distinct cultures and peoples, also
including earl y Southeast Asian, specifically Mon Khmer influence onto
early Indians. A reason for the acceptance of Indian culture and religious
traditions in Southeast Asia was because Indian culture already had
similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, w hich can be
explained by earlier Southeast Asian (specifically Austroasiatic, such as
early Munda and Mon Khmer groups), as well as later Himalayan
(Tibetic) cultural and linguistic influence onto various Indian groups.
Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi,
among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and
political Mon -Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early Indian culture and
traditions. India is seen a melting pot of western, eastern and indige nous
traditions. This distinctly Indian cultural system was later adopted and
assimilated into the indigenous social construct and statehood of Southeast
Asian regional polity, which rulers gained power and stability,
transforming small chieftains into reg ional powers.
Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent, the
Pallava empire which ruled the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula
did not impose cultural restrictions on people who wished to cross the sea.
The Chola empire, wh ich executed the South -East Asian campaign of
Rajendra Chola I and the Chola invasion of Srivijaya, profoundly
impacted Southeast Asia. This impact led to more exchanges with
Southeast Asia on the sea routes. Whereas Buddhism thrived and became
the main re ligion in many countries of Southeast Asia, it became a
minority religion in India.
The peoples of maritime Southeast Asia — present -day Malaysia,
Indonesia and the Philippines — are thought to have migrated southward
from South China sometime between 2500 and 1500 BC. The influence of
the civilization which existed on the Indian Subcontinent gradually
became predominant among them, and it also became predominant among
the peoples which lived on the Southeast Asian mainland. South East Asia
was a region of special attraction for the Indian mercantile class. The
fertile soil and abundant wealth of the area had earned the region titles like
Suvarnabhumi or the Land of Gold, Tokkola or the Land of Cardamom,
Narikeldweep or the Island of Coconuts etc. munotes.in
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Spread of Indian Culture
in South East Asia
147 Southern I ndian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be
the dominating influences in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE.
Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to these states from India and for
many centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration . Eventually the
states of the mainland mainly became Buddhist. The process of Indian
cultural expansion in South East Asia received further impetus from the
missionary activities of the Buddhist and Hindu monks. These
missionaries from India accompanied t he mercantile class in their
maritime activities and took a leading role in spreading the message of
Indian thought and culture in those far -off regions.
Check your progress:
1] Describe the reasons for the Indianization of South East Asia.
2] Describe the role of missionaries in the Indian cultural expansion in
South East Asia.
10. 3 OVERSEAS POLITICAL EXPANSION
During this era, Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast
Asia came to be associated with economic activity and commerce as
patron s entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local
economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion of trading
activities. Buddhism, in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade,
promoting coinage, art and literacy.
In Jav a and Borneo, the introduction of Indian culture created a demand
for aromatics, and trading posts here later served Chinese and Arab
markets. The Periplus Maris Erythraei names several Indian ports from
where large ships sailed in an easterly direction to Chryse. Products from
the Maluku Islands that were shipped across the ports of Arabia to the
Near East passed through the ports of India and Sri Lanka. After reaching
either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports, products were sometimes
shipped to East Afric a, where they were used for a variety of purposes
including burial rites.
Maritime history of Odisha, known as Kalinga in ancient times, started
before 350 BC according to early sources. The people of this region of
eastern India along the coast of the Bay of Bengal sailed up and down the
Indian coast, and travelled to Indo China and throughout Maritime
Southeast Asia, introducing elements of their culture to the people with
whom they traded. The 6th century Manjusrimulakalpa mentions the Bay
of Bengal as ' Kalingodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been
called 'Kalinga Sagara' (both Kalingodra and Kalinga Sagara mean
Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the maritime trade.
The old traditions are still celebrated in the annual Bali Ja tra, or Boita -
Bandana festival held for five days in October / November.
The Chola dynasty (200 —1279) reached the peak of its influence and
power during the medieval period. Emperors Rajaraja Chola I (reigned
985-1014) and Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1012 -1044) extended the Chola
kingdom beyond the traditional limits. At its peak, the Chola Empire munotes.in
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Ancient India
148 stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in
the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river
Ganges acknowledg ed Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and
conquered Srivijaya and Srivijaya was the largest empire in Maritime
Southeast Asia. Goods and ideas from India began to play a major role in
the "Indianization" of the wider world from this period.
Quilon or K ollam in Kerala coast, once called Desinganadu, has had a
high commercial reputation since the days of the Phoenicians and
Romans. Fed by the Chinese trade, it was mentioned by Ibn Battuta in the
14th century as one of the five Indian ports he had seen in the course of his
travels during twenty -four years. The Kollam Port become operational in
AD.825. Desinganadu's rulers were used to exchange the embassies with
Chinese rulers and there was flourishing Chinese settlement at Quilon.
The Indian commercial con nection with Southeast Asia proved vital to the
merchants of Arabia and Persia between the 7th and 8th centuries CE.
The kingdoms of Vijaynagara and Kalinga established footholds in
Malaya, Sumatra and Western Java.
The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their
influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the
9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and
commercial activity. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the
west and t he east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these
ventures. The Tang dynasty (618 –907) of China, the Srivijaya empire in
Maritime Southeast Asia under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid caliphate
at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
During the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765 –790), the
Chera dynasty were a close ally of the Pallavas. Pallavamalla Nadivarman
defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king. Cultural
contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera co untry were common.
Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850),
al-Ghafiqi (1150 CE), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th
century). Chinese traveler Xuanzang mentions the town of Puri where
"merchants depart for dist ant countries."
Check your progress:
1] Describe the Kingdoms which expanded in South East Asia.
2] Examine the role of the Cholas in South East Asia.
10.4 INFLUENCE OF INDIAN CULTURE IN SOUTH
EAST ASIA
In Cambodia, Thailand and Indonesia or Burma today, m any symbolic
remnants of India’s influence are clearly visible in their art, culture and
civilisation. Through the centuries, India has been a source of inspiration
for art and architecture in countries belonging to the present day ASEAN.
The eleven countr ies of ASEAN are Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore, munotes.in
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Spread of Indian Culture
in South East Asia
149 Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Brunei, the Philippines
and recently added Timor Leste.
Temples of Angkor Wat, Pagan, Borobudur and Prambanan bear evidence
to the deep penetration of Indian art a nd architectural forms in these
famous Southeast Asian monuments.
Some of these monuments surpass the grandeur of Indian temples from the
same period because of their scale, extensive stone bas relief carvings and
expanse. Thanks to the contact with Indian civilisation, the Southeast Asia
also created many literary works based on the Ramayana but with
something distinctively their own being discernable in them. t must be said
that Southeast Asia did not accept all foreign influences in an
indiscriminate man ner. Two notably important external influences came
from China and India, but Southeast Asia accepted only those influences
and practices that were suitable to their local cultures. Almost every
country accepted Ramayana because it is easy to retell, under stand,
modify and apply to contemporary culture.
Folklore singers and artistes played a very important role in popularising
and modifying Indian literary works in Southeast Asia and it was the most
popular and effective way of propagating Indian culture. T hrough retelling
of the stories from generation to generation, the great epics of Ramayana
and Mahabharata could be edited and retold to attract bigger and bigger
audiences. The artistes who popularised these were called ‘dalangs’ and
contributed to the pr ocess of adaptation of these epic works originating
outside their country by adding or changing them to make them more
contextual and localised. This was the beginning of the formation of new
texts like Seri Rama ( Malaysian adaptation of Ramayana) and Ra mKer (
Ramayana Khmer) in Cambodia. These are regarded as some of the
highest literary works of Southeast Asia.
Similarly sculptors and artists copied and combined original Indian motifs
with local artistic motifs to arrive at something distinctively South east
Asian and produced stylised masterpieces of their own. Modelled after
Gupta period icons, the Cambodian ( Khmer) sculpture of 8th to 13th
centuries are very different in appearance and form yet they are beautiful
creations representing stylised figur es of gods, goddesses, Buddha,
Apsaras and demons with Southeast Asian features.
India’s civilisation and culture spread in many parts of the world through
trade but struck firm roots in Southeast Asia including in dance forms.Yet
India’s cultural conquest s were peaceful and without forced conversions.
There was no evidence of violence, colonisation and subjugation and there
was no extensive migration from India to the countries of Southeast Asia.
The Indians who went there did not go to rule nor had any in terest in
controlling from afar.
Southeast Asia was particularly attractive to Indian mercantile class and
they named the faraway lands Swarnabhumi or land of gold, Tokola or
land of cardamoms or Narikeldeep , land of coconuts. They followed two
routes —one through land via Bengal, Assam, Manipur and Burma to munotes.in
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Ancient India
150 reach different parts of Southeast Asia. The other route was the maritime
route from Coromandel coast or the coast of Bay of Bengal to Cape
Comorin and via Malacca strait to reach the Malay Peninsula.
India during Gupta period was a land of riches and people possessed great
skills at weaving textiles, crafting gold jewellery, metal, sculpture and
beautiful objects. There was much demand for Indian goods and trade
between India and Southeast Asia which wa s seen as a land of spices and
rice growing fertile lands, flourished. Funan in the Mekong Delta in
Vietnam was the first trading post of Indian traders. Traders took
residence there and from there spread to other countries of the region.
Hindu priests and Buddhist monks accompanied mercantile class and
assumed a leading role in spreading the message of Indian thought and
culture to the entire Southeast Asian region. Since they had no political
ambitions and were living in hermitages and ashrams, the local people
welcomed them.Thus merchants, monks and Hindu Brahmin priests
travelled to faraway kingdoms like Cambodia and Indonesia in large
numbers and India’s culture, religion and civilisation spread to different
parts of Southeast Asia. The kings of the reg ion wore Indian made silk and
brocade textiles during ceremonious occasions and donned jewels
imported from India. Printed and woven textiles were eagerly sought after
by the common people.
Indian religion, political thought, literature, mythology, artisti c motifs and
style, were absorbed deeply into local culture as greater interaction with
Indians who settled in the courts of South East Asia took place. Buddhism
came to Southeast Asia from India in 3rd century BCE when Buddhist
monks were sent by king Ash ok. In medieval times, from sixth to
fourteenth century, there existed a great maritime empire based in the
Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra. Many Indian artisans came to
work temporarily in the courts and were from Kalinga (modern day
Orissa).They h elped in building great temples and monuments. Many of
the motifs on the walls of Borobudur and Angkor Wats resemble carvings
of Konarak and other medieval temples of eastern India.
Brahmins also played an important role in the Siamese court as experts in
Astrology and in conducting ceremonies. They were not only experts in
performing religious rites but were also knowledgeable in political affairs,
art and architecture. They were invited by rulers to serve as advisors,
administrators and priests. They were experts in Sanskrit. Sanskrit scripts
are the first form of writing known to have reached Southeast Asia.
Similar alphabets were adopted for local languages as well. The alphabets
used today for Burmese, Thai, Laos and Cambodia derive originally from
Indian prototype. A large number of ancient inscriptions which have been
discovered are in Sanskrit.
Sanskrit terminology was used in all legal aspects of court procedures and
only the factual aspects were described in vernacular. The use of Indian
framework o f code of law was mentioned by these inscription. Codes of
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Spread of Indian Culture
in South East Asia
151 adopted by many kings of Southeast Asia. They considered themselves to
be incarnation or a descendant of one of the Hindu dei ties. Later when
Buddhism came, this view was modified. The kings of Cambodia,
Jayavarman VII (the founder of Angkor) and his successors were
addressed by the people as king of the mountain and they built their
palaces and temples on hill peaks ( Bayon tem ples).
Traders were also accompanied by Shudras (the lowest caste according to
the Hindu caste hierarchy) who migrated in search of a better life from
India and many settled in Bali. The caste system was modified when
adopted by Southeast Asians as they ha d a class system of their own. They
also did not adopt the Manusmriti which relegates women to an inferior
place. The Indonesians still have matriarchal society in Sumatra
(Minangkabau) where women are head of the family and inheritance is
through the daug hters’ lineage.
Finally, the decline of India’s influence in Southeast Asia began from
around 13th century when conversions to Islam took place in many major
countries like Malaysia and Indonesia. But within Indonesia, Bali
practices Hinduism even today. T he rise of India’s influence had taken
place when the Khmer kings spread it to other regions and decline began
with the coming of Islam. But even though it was a long time ago that
India’s influence on Southeast Asia’s culture and civilization more or less
halted, the impact can be seen and felt even today on its customs, culture,
architectural designs.
The syncretic culture of Southeast Asia is evident in Buddhism being
practiced in Hindu temples in Cambodia, Muslim wedding rituals and
dress in Malaysia wh ich are based on Hindu rituals and attire, Garuda –the
vehicle of Hindu God Vishnu, is the name of Indonesian Airlines, and
Naga and Kuber which are prevalent in both Hindu and Buddhist cultures
can be seen carved in many places. A Mahabharata Monument dep icting
Krishna and Arjun riding a chariot pulled by eleven horses is placed
prominently in a park in central Jakarta. Southeast Asia absorbed and
retained its past Indian influence in a very distinctive manner over the
centuries and today it has melded int o the Southeast Asian culture.
In Indonesia shadow play involving leather puppets with moveable arms
and legs on a screen narrating scenes from Ramayana is very popular even
today. It is also a popular art form in Orissa. There was reverse exchange
of idea s and artistic techniques in the last century when Rabindranath
Tagore travelled to Southeast Asia and brought the art of Batik from
Indonesia to India and taught it to the students in Santiniketan. The
influence of India can also be felt in the food and f lavours of South East
Asia. There are many spices in common between Indian and Southeast
Asian foods. Nearly all the people of Southeast Asian region eat rice and
curry like the people of Eastern India with many common ingredients.
Indian herbal medicines also reached Southeast Asia from ancient times
and are used even today in many countries.
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Ancient India
152 Check your progress:
1] Discuss the influence of Indian culture on religion in South East Asia.
2] Examine the impact of Indian culture various aspects of life in S outh
East Asia.
10. 5. SUMMARY
The impact of Indian culture was profound, especially in parts of Burma
(Myanmar), Thailand, Cambodia, and the Indonesian archipelago. Local
rulers adopted concepts of state and kingship as well as urban
development and hydr aulic engingeering. They also embraced a script and
literature in the Sanskrit language. Indic elements were integrated and
authenticated by both Hindu and Buddhist metaphysical ideologies. Those
ideologies claimed to be universal, embracing all human dive rsity within a
cosmic frame of reference. That probably explains why the culture was
adopted, for there was no Indian conquest of terrain and no imposition of a
populace or doctrine. India never established colonies in Southeast Asia,
and the transmission was more a movement of ideas rather than peoples.
10. 6 QUESTIONS
1. Examine the agencies of cultural interaction between India and South
East Asia.
2. Trace the influence of Indian culture in South East Asia.
3. Discuss the impact of Indian culture on rel igious and social life as well
as literature and art and architecture of the people of South East Asia.
10.7 ADDITIONAL READING
Dr. Eugene D’ Souza, Ancient India, Manan Prakashan
Upinder Singh – A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India
(From the Stone Age to the 12th Century).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indian_influence_on_Southe
ast_Asia
https://www.orfonline.org/expert -speak/indias -cultural -and-
civilizational -influence -on-southeast -
asia/#:~:text=Hindu%20priests%20and%20Buddhist%20monks,the%2
0local%20people%20welcomed%20them.
https://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast -Asian -arts/Indian -tradition
munotes.in