SYBA-History-SEM-IV-Paper-II-Landmarks-in-World-History-English-Version-munotes

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1
KEMAL PASHA AND MODERNIZATION
OF TURKEY
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Kemal‟s Early Career
1.3 Reforms of Mustapha Kemal Pasha
1.4 Foreign Policy of Kemal Pasha
1.5 Conclusion
1.6 Summary
1.7 Questions
1.8 Additional Reading
1.0 O BJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to -
1. Mustapha Kemal Pasha‟s early career and his rise to power as
President of the Republic of Turkey.
2. The various reforms of Kemal which contained his six principles and
through whi ch he successfully modernised and westernised Turkey.
3. Kernel‟s „peaceful‟ foreign policy.
1.1 INTRODUCTION After the First World War, the spirit of nationalism spread very quickly all
over the Middle East. People here were determined to get rid of thei r
foreign masters and establish independent nations for themselves. These
two words, “nationalism” and “self -determination” influenced people‟s
minds to a great extent. Turkey was no exception.
The Ottoman Empire had dominated Asia Minor, the Middle East, and the
Balkan Peninsula since the mid -fifteenth century. But the early 19 th
century saw the decline of the Empire. The Balkan provinces broke away
and by 1914, Turkey in Europe was reduced to Istanbul and a part of
Eastern Thrace. But in Asia, Turkey h ad large territory. During the First
World War, Turkey had joined the Central Powers. After losing the war,
Turkey naturally had to sign a peace treaty. The Sultan‟s government
accepted the Treaty of Sevres, which deprived the Empire of almost all her
territory. The Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits, connecting the Black Sea
with the Aegean Sea were demilitarised and placed under the control of
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2 Kemal Pasha And Modernization Of Turkey The harsh terms of the treaty shocked the Turks and some of them decided
to take immediate action. Th eir leader was Mustapha Kemal.
1.2 KEMAL’S EARLY CA REER He was born at Salonika in 1880 and went to a military college for
training. He developed into a first -rate soldier and at the same time was
interested in revolutionary literature. He hated the Sult an‟s autocratic
government and for some time joined the Young Turks Party. By 1919 he
was back to study military techniques in France.
All his military training was put to the test when his country fought the
Balkan Wars in 1912 -13. But what established his reputation as a military
commander was his defeat of the British in 1915 at Gallipoli.
After the war, he was angry at the harsh treaty that the Allies imposed on
the Turks. He tried to persuade the Sultan Muhammad VI to fight the
Allies. But the Turk ish government was too frightened.
Kemal was not the type to be quiet for long. He went to Anatolia and
reorganized the army. Then he started a nationalist party called the
PEOPLE‟S PARTY with the slogan, “Turkey for the Turks.” This party
met several ti mes and decided not to accept the Treaty of Sevres. The
parliament at Istanbul supported them. The British army replied to the
situation by marching into Istanbul and proclaiming Martial Law. So in
1920, Kemal called a Grand National Assembly at Ankara and declared
that this Assembly was the only representative of the Turkish people. The
Assembly elected Kemal to be its President and Commander -in-Chief of
its army. So, Kemal had set up a parallel government at Ankara.
Kemal‟s first act was to clear the country of foreign troops. He forced the
Italian troops to move out from southern Anatolia, and the French troops
from Cilicia.
The Greeks had got a lot of territory by the Treaty of Sevres, so they were
keen to see that the Turks kept to the terms of the treaty. The British
Government offered them financial support. In 1921, they attacked
Turkey and moved towards Ankara. To their great surprise the Turkish
troops pushed them back. Kemal then captured Smyrna and pushed out all
Greek inhabitants from As ia Minor. On being so successful, Kemal
wanted to cross the Straits. But the British warships prevented him from
doing so. Kemal did not want to fight a war with Britain, so he concluded
a peace with them.
Kemal‟s victory over the Greeks forced the Alli es to revise the Treaty of
Sevres. In 1923, they met at LaU.S.A.nne to frame a new treaty. By this
new Treaty of LaU.S.A.nne, Turkey regained eastern Thrace,
Constantinople was also given back to her. All restrictions on Turkey‟s
army, navy and air forc e were removed. Foreign control on customs was
lifted. Turkey agreed to the demilitarization of the Straits. This treaty was
a great triumph for Kemal and a huge humiliation for the Allies. Kemal
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3 Landmarks In World History The Grand National Assembly had voted to depose the Sultanate and
Muhammad VI had fled from Turkey. On 22 October 1923, Turkey was
declared a Republic and Kemal was elected its first President. He was
virtual dictator of Turkey. The only differenc e was that he used his
powers for the benefit of the people and the good of the country.
On 1 March 1924, Kemal opened a new session of Parliament. In his
speech he emphasised three main points:
(1) The safeguarding and stabilization of the Republic.
(2) The creation of a national and unified system of education.
(3) The need to “cleanse and elevate the Islamic faith, by rescuing it from
the position of a political instrument to which it had been accustomed
for centuries.”
In other words, he wanted to sep arate the religion from the government.
The Grand National Assembly now voted to abolish the Caliphate and to
banish all members of the Ottoman house from Turkey. This was Kemal‟s
first open attack on Islamic orthodoxy. He met with a lot of opposition,
but he dealt with it firmly.
1.3 REFORMS OF MUSTA PHA KEMAL Kemal was a man of courage and determination, and he used his authority
in introducing -tremendous reforms. His programme contained six
principles:
(1) Republicanism
(2) Secularism
(3) Populism
(4) Nationalism
(5) Statism
(6) Reformism.
He was determined to remove all ancient systems in the country and
remodel Turkey on a western pattern. The modernization and development
of Turkey became his goal.
1.3.1 Administrative Reforms:
The new Turkey ha d a democratic government. There was a written
constitution, and the National Assembly was to be elected once every four
years by universal adult suffrage. The Assembly would elect the President.
In practice however, Kemal conducted the government of Turk ey as a
national dictator. There was only one political party, the People‟s Party,
and Kemal was the leader. Since he controlled the Assembly, his election munotes.in

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4 Kemal Pasha And Modernization Of Turkey as President was definite. He was also Commander -in-Chief of the armed
forces and had their total o bedience.
The old administrative units of the Ottoman Empire were abolished.
Turkey was divided into 62 VILOYETS (provinces). These Vilayets were
sub-divided into 430 KAZAS (districts). Each Kaza was further divided
into NAHIYAS (boroughs).
1.3.2 Legal Reforms:
Kemal felt that a radical reorganisation of the entire legal system was
necessary. The old legal system based on the Sheriat or Holy Law was
abolished. In 1926, the National Assembly adopted -
(1) A new civil code based on the Swiss law,
(2) A new penal code based on the Italian law, and
(3) New commercial laws, which were based on the German commercial
law.
Laws were passed regarding private debts and their collection. But the
system of arresting and imprisoning debtors was done away with.
In the old system, certain families and individuals had always enjoyed
special rights and privileges. However, the new constitution declared that
all Turkish citizens were equal before the law and all privileges were
cancelled. Kemal incorporated this ide a into the word, „populism.‟
The new codes were western in nature. Polygamy was abolished and
instead civil marriages and divorce with equal rights for both partners was
introduced. The marriage of a Muslim woman to a non -Muslim was
legally permitted.
1.3.3 Secular Reforms:
Kemal believed that Turkey would not develop if Islam continued to
control the people. The strict laws of the Islamic faith were opposed to
westernisation, and Kemal was determined to get rid of all Islamic
influences.
In 1924, the Ca liphate was abolished. Until then the Sultan of Turkey was
also the Caliph (religious head) of the Muslims all over the world.
In 1928, the state was further secularised, and it was declared that Islam
was no longer a state religion. Islam became a priva te and not a public
concern. Sacred tombs were closed as places of worship.
One of his first reforms was very symbolic. A new law was passed which
required all men to wear western hats instead of the Fez (traditional hat).
To all others, the replacement of one headgear with another might seem
very unimportant, but to the Turks it was of great significance. munotes.in

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5 Landmarks In World History The Muslim calendar was replaced by the Western calendar. The Muslim
year 1342 became 1926 A.D. The weekly holiday was changed from
Friday to Sunday.
Religious schools were converted into state schools. Religious instruction
was banned in all schools. Kemal and his supporters tried their best to de -
emphasize the place of religion in everyday life.
1.3.4 Educational Reforms:
Universal education was ano ther expression of Populism. Kemal
encouraged education both primary and secondary and set up schools in
most towns. All children between die ages of six and sixteen had to attend
school. Adult education was promoted and all Turks under forty years of
age were made to take lessons m reading and writing
The Turkish language was still written in the Arabic script. So Kemal
appointed a committee to prepare an alphabet using the Roman (Latin)
alphabets.
Kemal also made provisions for teacher training instit utes to be set up in
different parts of the country.
For higher studies, students were encouraged to go abroad, and they were
given scholarships.
1.3.5 Military Reforms:
After the defeat of Turkey in World War I, Kemal decided to develop the
Turkish armed forces on modem lines. Special emphasis was placed on
discipline, training, and education of military officers. Soldiers too were
trained and provided with new and modern weapons. The air force was
modernised, and the navy was developed. A large share of the budget was
kept for developed the army so that Turkey could defend herself if
necessary.
1.3.6 Social Reforms:
Kemal Introduced sweeping changes in the social life of the people. His
most important and worthy efforts were the reforms to „emancipat e
women.‟ So far women had always been considered inferior and had been
denied any rights. So, Kemal decided to make women equal partners with
men. Polygamy was abolished and instead civil marriage was introduced.
The marriage of a Muslim woman to anon -Muslim man was permitted.
Divorce was permitted with equal rights for both parties. The „burkha‟
was not banned but women were discouraged from using it. Schools were
established for girls and women were allowed to become doctors, lawyers,
etc. In 1929 women were granted the right to vote in local elections and
five years later in national elections.
Other cultural reforms were introduced. Men and women were
encouraged to wear western dress in public. The Muslim style of greeting munotes.in

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6 Kemal Pasha And Modernization Of Turkey was abolished, and the western style of shaking hands was encouraged.
Western dance and music were promoted among the youth.
Mustapha Kemal was proud of being a Turk and he wanted all Turks to be
proud of their race and heritage. Many of his reforms were to promote
nationalis m. Removing all Arabic words revived the Turkish language.
Then all the Turks had to adopt surnames. The National Assembly gave
Kemal the surname of ATTATURK, which means „Father of the Turks.‟
All titles were abolished and replaced by the words, BAY an d BAYAN
that means Mr. and Mrs. Kemal Ataturk‟s new slogan was „Turkey for the
Turks and the Turks for Turkey.
1.3.7 Economic Reforms:
When Kemal became President, he introduced a new economic policy. He
stressed the need for greater economic activity by t he State. This did not
mew that Turkey was turning Socialist. He had no intention of
eliminating private enterprise from industry and commerce, or of
collectivising agriculture. The purpose of state control was to start and
develop projects in fields, wh ich were very important to the country.
Banking Industry:
Attention was first paid to the Banking industry. There were two major
banks, „Banque Ottoman‟ and „Banque Agricole.‟ The Industrial and
Mining Bank was started in 1925 and the Mortgage and Trustee Bank was
started in 1926.The sound monetary policy of the banks and their proper
functioning helped to bring about a favourable balance of trade.
State Monopolies:
The tobacco and cigarette industries were made a state monopoly. Mining
concessions were a lso placed under government supervision. The profits
made from these and the monopoly of the salt industry were used to
finance the development of other industries.
Industry:
To increase industrialisation, manufacturers were permitted to import
machinery without paying any duty. They were also allowed to transport
goods on the railways at reduced freight rates. Important industries were
free from taxation for the first ten years and after that they were taxed.
These measures yielded great profits.
The p olicy of accepting foreign loans at high rates of interest was
discouraged. For multinational companies operating in Turkey, 50% of
the capital had to be Turkish. A law was passed making it compulsory for
all firms to use the Turkish language in all tran sactions. This was done to
prevent damaging the Turkish reputation.

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7 Landmarks In World History Agriculture:
Perhaps one of the most serious defects of the entire economic programme
was the limited development of agriculture. Most of Turkey was a high
barren plateau with and soil . But nearly ¾ of the population was engaged
in agriculture. Kemal introduce land reforms by dividing the large estates.
His government subsidized agriculture by the free grant of cattle and
ploughs to deserving families. He encouraged agricultural pro duction by
better methods of cultivation. Farmers were motivated to grow cash crops
like cotton and tobacco, which were in great demand. Agricultural
colleges were set up and agricultural banks started to lend money to
farmers. Model farms were set up w here the latest machinery was
displayed. Kemal had his own model farm on which he himself worked,
driving his own tractor.
Means of Transport and Communication:
Kemal realised that the means of transport and communication would have
to be developed if Tur key was to have a self -sufficient economy. Before
World War I Turkey had a limited railway network. The construction of
strategic railways was necessary from the point of view of defence. It was
also essential to create the infrastructure for developmen t and growth of
industries. Turkey decided to employ foreign contractors to construct the
railway.
The Government also started a programme of construction and
improvement of harbours. Ports on the Black Sea were developed. The
Government also built narr ow-gauge railways to connect the important
ports.
Finally, the Government gave priority for the construction of roads and
bridges, and they employed the latest technology. An ambitious plan of
constructing over 5000 Km. of roads was begun.
Public Works:
At another level, Kemal saw that the Municipality provided the people
with civic amenities. They started massive programmes of drainage and
water supply. Villages and towns all over soon received electricity. The
construction of dwelling houses and publi c buildings offered many job
opportunities to the skilled and unskilled labourers. By 1930, the capital
city of Ankara was one of the most modem cities in the world.
Check Your Progress:
1. Briefly explain the reforms of Kemal Pasha.


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8 Kemal Pasha And Modernization Of Turkey 1.4 FOREIGN POLIC Y OF KEMAL PASHA At first, Kemal was suspicious of the Western Powers because of the harsh
treatment Turkey had received after the First World War. Hence, he was
drawn into friendly relations with Russia. In 1925, he concluded a treaty
of mutual guarantee and neutrality with Russia. But he remained
suspicious of Russia‟s plans to spread Communism. Russia in turn did not
approve of Turkey suppressing Communism, and the relations between the
two were not so good.
In 1932 Turkey joined the League of Nations . Next Kemal Pasha tried to
develop diplomatic friendships with all Turkey‟s neighbours.
After an exchange of Turks living in Greece with Greeks living in Turkey,
good relations were maintained with Greece.
As the threat of fascism increased, Turkey drew closer to Greece,
Romania, and Yugoslavia by signing the Balkan Pact in 1934.
This was followed by the Eastern Pact by which Turkey, Iraq and
Afghanistan promised not to interfere in each other‟s internal affairs and
to consult each other on matters of int ernational concern.
The peaceful attitude of Turkey won her the sympathy of the Western
Powers. With the rise of Hitler and Mussolini, Turkey felt it was
necessary to fortify the Straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. The
Allied Powers agreed to this request. Though the Straits were declared
open to all countries during peace times, Turkey had exclusive control
during times of war.
The only country with which Turkey did not share a good relation was
Italy. Mussolini‟s attempt to convert the Mediterra nean Sea into an Italian
lake, was not approved of by the Turkish people. Turkey supported the
League of Nations and protested against Italy‟s conquest of Abyssinia.
When the Rome -Berlin -Tokyo Axis was formed, Turkey was worried
about her security. She signed treaties of mutual assistance with Britain
and France.
Check Your Progress
1. Write a short note on the foreign policy of Kemal Pasha.
1.5 CONCLUSION The renaissance of Turkey must be attributed in a large measure to the
personality of her ruler. Mustapha Kemal was a man of swift and decisive
action. Under him, Turkey was an authoritarian State, ruled by a
government based on a one -party system. But the Turkish State was not
totalitarian like Italy or Germany. Kemal showed a great respect for
human and legal standards, which was in contrast to other dictators. He
was an inspired leader who snatched the “Sick Man of Europe” from his
deathbed and gave him a new life. He was aware that a mere outward munotes.in

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9 Landmarks In World History modernisation was worthless -what was necessary for Turkey was
fundamental changes in her society. He permitted a wide field of initiative
in education, cultural and social activities.
1.6 SUMMARY After her defeat in World War I, Turkey was forced to accept the Treaty of
Sevres. The terms were very ha rsh, and turkey would lose practically all
her territory. Mustapha Kemal Pasha, a Turkish military hero, organised a
national movement since the Sultan‟s government would not reject the
treaty. He conducted victorious military campaigns until the Allies agreed
to renegotiate the treaty. The Treaty of LaU.S.A.nne was signed in 1923,
and Turkey got much better terms.
Mustapha Kemal Pasha was the founder and first President of the
Republic of Turkey. He served as the country‟s President from 1923 until
his death. Under his leadership, Turkey adopted major reforms that
changed the political, economic, and social conditions in the country. He
was a great visionary, and his reforms were based on the European model.
The policies of modernization and westerni zation adopted by Kemal Pasha
came to be known as Kemalism.
Kemal secularized the country by first abolishing the Caliphate and the
Sultan was exiled. Then Turkey adopted a parliamentary system of
government. The old religious law was replaced by modem s cientific civil
codes. Education was given top priority and even adults were made to
learn to read and write. Women were given equal rights under the new
law. The initiative shown by the Turkish women not only in occupations
and professions but also in rising to positions of leadership made Turkey
unique among Muslim countries. Numerous cultural reforms were
introduced but more attention was paid to economic reforms. Industries,
trade, and commerce were developed. Special attention was paid to the
development of harbours, railways, and roads. Public works were started,
and the city of Ankara rebuilt. As a result of sustained efforts of Kemal
Pasha, Turkey made great progress in the economic field which led to the
prosperity of many Turks.
Kemal‟s for eign policy was one of friendly relations with all neighbouring
countries. He did not involve his country in war after independence had
been won.
1.7 QUESTIONS 1. Describe the modernisation of Turkey under leadership of Kemal
Pasha?
2. What were the impo rtant reforms carried at by Kemal Pasha in
Turkey?
3. Discuss the foreign policy of Kemal Pasha?
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10 Kemal Pasha And Modernization Of Turkey 1.8 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Albercht R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publicati on, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan North American Library
Press 1965.
Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Ir an: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
MahmoodShamma Ed.. Introduction to the History of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P.The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hukumchand and Krishna Mathur, AdhuniMagachaItihas, K
SagarPublication , Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. VisavyaShatkaliMagachaItihas,PhadkePrakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005.
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2
REZA SHAH AND REFORMS IN IRAN
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Anglo –Iranian Secret Agreement
2.3 Early life of Reza Shah
2.4 Reforms of Reza Shah Pahlavi
2.5 Foreign Policy
2.6 Questions
2.7 Additional Reading
2.0 OBJECTIV ES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to -
1. Understand the background of the Anglo – Iranian Agreement.
2. Discuss the early life of Raza Khan.
3. Explain the reforms of Reza Shah Pahlavi.
4. Describe the foreign policy of Reza sh ah Pahlavi.
2.1 INTRODUCTION Reza Shah Pahlavi’s Iran had been the centre of the ancient civilization.
One group of Aryan settled in the North -West, founded the Kingdom of
Media and the other group settled in the Southern part of Iran came to be
Known as Persis. These two areas together called Iran, means the Land of
Aryans. In 550 B.C. it came under the control of Cyrus the Great of
Achaemenid dynasty and in 331 B.C. Alexander the Great of Macedonia
conquered it and made it a province of Greece. Iran came under the rule of
Sassanians, Arabs, and Seljuk Turks. Seljuk and other Turkish tribes ruled
Iran from 1000 A.D. to 1220 A.D.
Iran never experienced peace, because it became victim of campaigns of
Genghis Khan Mongol and later Tartars under the leadership of
Tamerlane. In Sixteenth Century, Turkish tribes Known as Safavid
controlled it and ruled up to 1722 A.D. It plunged into turmoil for nearly a
period of seventy years, and in 1795 Agha Muhammad Khan brought all
area of Iran under his rule and establishe d the rule of his Qajar dynasty
which ruled Iran up to 1924.
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12 Reza Shah And Reforms In Iran 2.2 THE ANGLO –IRANIAN SECRET AGREE MENT The big powers Like Russia, England and France had interest in Iran for
their own ends. British Foreign Secretary, Land Curzon wanted to create a
chain o f Vassal States stretching from the Mediterranean to the Pamirs in
which Iran was the most vital link. In order to put this plan into action, the
British troops, immediately after the world war I, on their way to help the
‘Whites’ in Baku and Caucasus in t heir civil war against the Bolsheviks
occupied whole Iran. Meanwhile in 1919, England induced the Iranian
Prime Minister to sign the Anglo -Iranian Agreement giving the former
substantial control over Iran. By this agreement England recognized the
integrity and sovereignty of Iran on certain conditions. Accordingly,
England helped Iran in all possible areas. This agreement would have
made Iran a virtual protectorate of England, which the Iranian people
would not have agreed. Even the other powers like the U. S.A. never
approved it. The internal and external forces pressurized the British to
withdraw her forces from Iran.
The Coup d’état:
Due to the disapproval of the Anglo - Iranian Agreement England was
unhappy with the developments taking place in Iran. Moreo ver, England
became suspicious about the Iran - Soviet Treaty of 1921 because this
treaty retained same vestiges of Tsarist imperialism in Iran. England,
therefore wanted a strong central government in Iran to safeguard British
interests and keep Soviet Rus sia at bay.
The Political instability in Iran alarmed all nationalists including Reza
Khan, An army officer of Iranian Cossack Brigade. Reza Khan was a man
of little education, but his courage and initiative had risen him to a
position of command. His long association with Russian officers and bad
experience of them had turned him against Russia. Reza Khan took
advantage of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and wrested power from
them. He wanted to explore the chaotic conditions in Iran and convinced
that he m ust do something about it. However, he needed a partner, who
knew politics, could make speeches, and do many things for which he
himself was not yet prepared. He found such a partner in Ziauddin
Tabatbai, a newspaper publisher and admirer of the British in stitutions.
Ziauddin Tabatabai too wanted to bring about a change in the Iranian
government, but he was convinced that he would not be able to stage a
coup without military support. Thus, these two persons, Reza Khan and
Ziauddin Tabatbai had the same obje ct but did not know each other. The
British Legation, who knew them both, put them in touch with each other
and let them work out their plans to achieve their goals.
On 21st February 1921, Reza Shah and Ziauddin Tabatbai entered Tehran
with 2500 Cossacks, who fired some machine gun shots and completed the
coup d’état against the government of Ahmad Shah. Ziauddin became the
Prime Minister and Reza Shah was declared as the Commander –in-chief
of the Iranian Armed Forces without any Cabinet post. But the
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13 LANDMARKS IN WORLD HISTORY him and Reza Shah. Meanwhile, Reza Shah excluded all Russian officers
from the Cossack Brigade and established himself as the Supreme
Commander of the Iranian forces. Reza Shah forced Ziaudd in to resign
from the post of Prime Minister, Iran and assumed the office of the Prime
Minister of Iran. On 31 st October 1925, a specially convened Assembly
deposed Ahmad Shah. On 12 December 1925 the Constituent Assembly
amended the constitution and procl aimed Reza Khan as Reza Shah Pahlavi
of Iran. Thus, Reza Khan became Shah mean King of Iran.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a short note on Anglo -Iranian Secret Agreement and the coup
d’état of Raza Shah.
2.3 EARLY LIFE OF RE ZA SHAH As mentioned above Rez a Khan and Ziauddin came together, former
being a soldier commanded the Cossack division and the latter being a
radical writer provided a political ideology. It was an amiable
combination, which subsequently became inconsistent. The Cossack
division was cr eated in 1878 on the line of the Russian army, which
became the most efficient brigade of the Iranian army. The Russian
officers used to be in command of this Cossack Brigade, which protected
the Russian interest in Iran during the Russian Revolution of 19 17.
Reza Khan, who became Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1925, was born in month
of March,1878 at Savad KHU village in the Caspian Province of Iran. The
family of Reza Khan produced several soldiers, who served the country
with remarkable distinction. Although, Reza had no formal education, he
had very strong and robust common sense by which he judged people
accurately in his life. He had good wisdom and winsome manners which
secured him many foreign friends. Reza rose from the ranks to the higher
position by dint of his merit like Hyder Ali of Mysore in India who rose
from the ranks to that of a ruler. Reza was a man of fortune but behaved
as irreligious person whereas Hyder Ali was more liberal in his religious
outlook. Reza was aware about confusing conditions in Russia, which he
wanted to explore and exploit. These plans of Reza Khan were fully
supported by British strategically for their own interest. When Soviet
Russia tried to drive all British out of Iran, the British strengthened their
position in Iranian arm y and asked Raza to dismiss all Russian officers
appoint British officers in the positions. Consequently, Colonel Smyth, a
British officers commanded the Cossack brigade for some time. Reza
Khan himself commanded the army after the British officers imparte d him
all concerned technical know -how and advised him properly. He marched
towards Tehran and stayed in coup in 1921. Finally, the Iranian Majilis
depose the Shah and proclaimed Reza Khan as the Shah of Iran in 1925
that ended Qajar dynasty in Iran.
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14 Reza Shah And Reforms In Iran Reza Shah wanted to modernise Iran by adopting Western technique on
the line of his role model Kemal Pasha in Turkey. He was to consolidate
his position to rule Iran for a longer time. He was to strengthen the Iranian
army and make the central Government stron g enough to enforce several
reforms in the country.
2.4 REFORMS OF REZA SHAH PAHLAVI He was a far -sighted man and wanted to modernise his country like Kemal
Pasha of Turkey. To achieve this objective, he introduced several reforms
and created national awa kening, social reorganization, economic
reconstruction and chalked out a sound foreign policy to enhance the
national prestige.
1. Establishment of Law and Order:
Reza Shah created safety and security of masses in the country – using
stern measures agains t the people who oppressed the common man. He
was a god sent deliverer to the peasants and the masses. He reorganized
army to subdue rebellions, disarm the tribes and to bring every corner of
Iran under the rule of the central government. Due to his ruthle ss methods
all villages became safe and for the first -time transport and
communication could take place in all parts of Iran without fear and
molestation.
2. Transport and Communication:
The development of transport and communication is very essential in t he
economic development of any country. Reza Shah realized this important
factor and built roads across the country. He constructed wireless service
and took over the operation of the telegraph company from the British
government. His greatest achievement in the field of transport and
communication was the construction of rail roads throughout Iran, in
which the important railroads were the Caspian and Persian Gulf roads,
which were completed in the year 1939 and covered the distance of 865
miles. These rai lroads facilitated the movement of troops, goods, raw
material, personnel, and machinery – to industrialize the country and
enhance economic development of Iran.
3. Economic Reforms:
After the coup in 1921, Reza Khan introduced a programme of economic
reforms as
a) In 1922 he employed Dr. Arthur Millspaugh of the United States as
financial adviser to the Iranian government, who improved the
finances and regulated the budget of Iranian government.
b) Iran began to finance the state -owned industries, which was the direct
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15 LANDMARKS IN WORLD HISTORY c) The Iranian government began to appoint officers to recover revenue
properly on regular basis.
d) Reza ordered the State Trading Agency to carry on the greater part of
foreign tra de.
e) Reza Shah established a National Bank and took over the privilege of
issuing bank notes from the British.
f) He established several factories like cement, sugar, and textile
factories in various parts of Iran.
g) He also introduced government monopo lies on all trade and
commerce.
4. Reforms in Education:
Reza Shah had realized the importance of educating Iranian youths on the
modern lines of Europe. He wanted to achieve two objectives by way of
reforms in education as one was to modernize Iran based on western
countries and the other was to undermine, the influence of orthodox
clergy, who neither appreciated liberalism nor adopted progressive policy
in the country. Accordingly, he opened schools for men and women and
started the same educational insti tutions to educate adults in Iran. He made
primary education compulsory and established a university at Tehran in
1934 to bring coordination in all educational institutions. Reza Shah sent
Iranian students to various European countries for study and allowe d all
western missionaries to continue with their educational institutions in Iran
to maintain the level and standard of education in the country.
5. Religious and Judicial Reforms:
There were several authorities in religion in Iran namely, the Clergy,
Landlords, the Shah, and the foreigners, who created confusion in the
administration of Law. To put an end to the chaotic and confusing legal
systems, Reza Shah introduced the reforms as under:
a) In 1922, he introduced a law by which all titles and propertie s had to
be registered.
b) He made provisions to put down the opposition of the Mullahs to this
law with an iron hand and took away the control of religious
endowments from their hands to curb their power forever.
c) Reza Shah abolished the Shariat and in troduced the new Penal Code
in the country. He adopted the French judicial system to speed up the
secularization of Laws to benefit the people as early as possible.
d) In 1935, Shah passed a law by which all marriages and divorces had
to be registered wit h the government and the records should be
maintained properly. munotes.in

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16 Reza Shah And Reforms In Iran e) He confiscated the Waqf properties and abolished the extraterritorial
privileges of foreigners. He also relegated the Mullahs to background
and ignored all religious institutions run by the m in the national life or
Iran.
6. Social and Cultural Reforms:
In addition to the above reforms, Reza Shah carried out the following
Social and Cultural Reforms in Iran:
a) He pressurized people to adopt the European attire.
b) He made women optional to wear Veil. When the Queen herself
attended a prayer at the Mosque unveiled, the cleric admonished her
in the congress, the Shah ordered his forces to flog the concerned
clerk and put down the opposition with stern measures.
c) Reza Shah asked the Iranian P arliament to enact Laws against
polygamy and exaggerated privileges of males.
d) He made women eligible to hold public offices, however, they were
not granted with political rights.
e) Reza Shah minimized Islamic influence on Iranian Society for which
he a dopted old Persian solar calendar in place of Islamic Lunar
calendar. He also established a Persian academy to enable the people
to read Persian Language with Arabic words encouraged the poets and
writers to choose the conventional subjects of the past wit h the style
of European novels.
f) He permitted Western music, arts, architecture, and cinema their
presence felt in the modernized Iran.
g) In 1935, Reza Shah officially rechristened his country as Iran. Thus,
Reza Shah tried his level best to modernise Iran.
1. Check your progress:
Briefly discuss the reforms of Reza Shah.

2.5 FOREIGN POLICY Although, Reza Shah required foreign technical expertise for his newly
started industrial development, he tried to avoid involvement either with
England or Soviet Russia. Because he felt that he would bring Iran under
the influence of those countries Like France, Germany, and Italy. But this
led Iran to be in trouble after 1939, when England and German began to
fight against each other in the World War II. Although , Reza Shah
declared neutrality of Iran in the war, England ask Iran to expel all
German experts, technicians and other people who were spying and
sabotaging the British in their Anglo - Iranian oil Company. Reza Shah munotes.in

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17 LANDMARKS IN WORLD HISTORY could not comply with the demand of the British government because it
was against the interest of Iran, and it would have affected very adversely
to the industrial development of Iran. But England and Russia did not
agree with Iranian neutrality because they wanted to use the Trans - Iranian
Railroad as an alternative route for transporting supplies from the Persian
Gulf to the Soviet Caucasus region. Thus, Russia and England who had
come together against Germany in 1941, attacked on Iranian forces and
defeated them. The prime Minister of Iran re signed, and Muhammad Ali
Farooqi accepted the term of Allied Forces as new Prime Minister of Iran.
The British captured Reza Shah and shifted him to the Island of Mauritius,
where he died on 26 July 1944. Muhammed Reza became new Shah of
Iran after the abd ications of his father Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1944.
2.6 QUESTIONS 1. Assess the reforms carried to by Reza Shah Pahlavi.
2. Examine the role of Reza Shah in the modernization of Iran.
3. Briefly describe the foreign policy of Reza Shah Pahlavi.
2.7 ADDITION AL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Albercht R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Mid dle East,Abhinav
Publication, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publis hing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955, Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan North American Library
Press 1965. munotes.in

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18 Reza Shah And Reforms In Iran Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M . The History of Modern Iran: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
MahmoodShamma Ed.. Introduction to the History of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 N ew York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P.The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hukumchand and Krishna Mathur, AdhuniMagachaItihas, K
SagarPublication , Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. VisavyaShatkaliMagachaItihas,PhadkePrak ashan,
Kolhapur, 2005.



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19
3
BIRTH OF ISRAEL
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Factors Responsible for Zionist Movement
3.3 Declaration of Birth of Israel
3.4 Summary
3.5 Questions
3.6 Additional Reading
3.0 OBJECTIVES After the study of this unit the student will be able to
1. Understand the Zionist movement.
2. Explain the various factors responsible for the rise of Zionist
movement.
3. Perceive the conditions in which the birth of Israel took place.
3.1 INTRODUCTION In two thousand B.C. Arabs original in t oday’s west Asian countries Like,
Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordon, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. The word Arab
first appeared in the Assyrian documents dated back to 850 B.C. The
documents suggest that the early Arabs were nomads, camel herders and
inhabited in th e areas known as Jordon and Israel. Thereafter, they spread
to northeast, south and central Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs had no social
harmony, as they inhabited different regions, developed their own social,
cultural, and political character. They were no mad initially and carried on
caravan trade in dates and palms. They had no sufficient food items for
which they were to depend on the neighbouring countries. Arabs faced
cultural diversity, as well as political diversity and lack of well -defined
religion. Each Arab tribe had its own religion and system of governance.
But all Arabs were brought together when they visited Kaaba to worship
their holy idols once a year.
The birth of Israel took place on 14 May 1948 at Tel Aviv in the territory
of Palestine whe re the Jews and the Arabs have been living since the time
immemorial. Although these two communities belonged to the same racial
groups, divided by religion into Judaism and Islam which led to involve
into a deadly conflict. They defied the solutions sugge sted by the
international communities to their problem for last half a century. Even munotes.in

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20 Birth of Israel today, the state of Israel is involved in a struggle to maintain her identity
and keep intact her security to the requisite minimum.
Zionism:
The movement that led to the foundation of the state of Israel was Known
as Zionism. This was the Jewish nationalist movement aimed at uniting all
Jews exiled in Europe and America to settle in the territories of Palestine,
which was their ancient homeland. This Zionist movement was c alled
after the ancient hills Zion in Palestine in 1890. Zionist movement
originated in the nineteenth century had its roots in the Biblical period.
The association of the Jewish people with Palestine existed for over 3500
years. In the sixth century B.C. the Jews were carried off to captivity to
Babylonia and thereafter, they moved to various countries in the world due
to the struggle with the Arabs. Their prophets encouraged to believe that
one day their god would allow them to return Palestine or the Lan d of
Israel. Over the centuries, the Jews spread in various countries, associated
the hope that God would send the Messiah, a saviour to liberate them.
Thus, the Jews in groups or individual began to migrate to Palestine, to
materialize their dreams of sep arate Land for themselves, which came to
be Known as the State of Israel.
3.2 FACTORS RESPONSI BLE FOR ZIONIST MOVEMENT Initially, the trend of Jews in Europe was towards assimilation into
European society, which allowed them to adopt German culture or, th e
culture of their respective country. The Jews in revolutionary France
achieved political equality, which spread throughout Europe in the
following decade. But this became a temporary phenomenon. The Jews in
Europe began to get suppressive and oppressive treatment in various
countries of Europe, which led them to start the movement to move
towards their original land Palestine. Among the factors which influenced
Jews to start the Zionism, whereas 1) The French Revolution and its
aftermath, 2) Dreyfus affai r, 3) Assassination of Tsar Alexander II in
Russia,4) Organization of anti - Semitic parties in Germany and Austria –
Hungary and were the most important. Almost all European countries
began to treat Jews differently. To escape from the persecution of
Europ ean people, the Jews began migration to the United States of
America. But a smaller group of Jews believed that their security Lay only
in a Homeland of their own, which was Palestine. Thus, these Jews began
to migrate towards Palestine with the financial support of a French Jewish
Baron Edmond de Rothschild. Moses Hess, a German Jewish Socialist,
got inspiration from the Italian national movement, published a book
Known as Rome and Jerusalem, in which he rejected the idea of
assimilation of the Jews into t he European society and insisted that the
essence of the Jews problem was their lack of a national home. In 1896,
Theodor Herzl an Austrian Journalist published a short book called ‘The
Jewish State’ and gave a political turn to the Jewish problem. He rega rded
assimilation as the most desirable solution but in view of anti - Semitism it munotes.in

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21 Landmarks In World History was impossible to realize. He argued that the external forces forced the
Jews to form a nation to lead a normal existence in one territory and that
would be their original ho me Palestine.
Theodor Herzl convened the First Zionist Congress at Basel, Switzerland
in 1897 which was attended by two hundred delegates from all over the
world. This Congress formulated the Basel programme which became the
fundamental platform of the Zio nist movement till the realization of their
dream, the creation of Israel an independent State for themselves. Vienna
was made the centre of Zionist movement, from where Herzl published the
official weekly came to be Known as ‘The World’. The Zionist Congr ess
used to meet yearly until 1901 and thereafter every two years. When the
Ottoman Government refused Herzl’s request for Palestine as the national
home for Jews, the British offered to explore the possibility of Jewish
colonization in Uganda an East Afri can territory. This proposal of the
British people brought out a split in the Zionist movement. The Zionist
delegate from Russia accused Herzl of betraying the Zionist Programme,
which Herzl could not bear and died a broken heart in 1904. After the
death o f Herzl, the Zionist leadership went on changing from Vienna to
Cologne and then to Germany.
The Balfour Declaration:
After 1904, the Zionist movement popularized their programme through
pamphlets and newspapers in their own language known as Hebrew. The
major achievements of the Zionist movement during the twentieth Century
were two -fold as one was the commitment of the British Government
made in the Balfour Declaration of 1917 and the second was the actual
establishment of the Independent State of Israel in 1948. During the world
war I, the British tried to please the Zionist to secure the strategic control
over Palestine, which was under the rule of Turkey and to gain the support
of all Jewish people from all over the world for the cause of Allied
powers. The declaration, which was made contained in a letter dated 2
November 1917, from the Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to a British
Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann approved the establishment of a national
home for the Jews in Palestine. Because, Palestine h ad shifted from
Turkey to the British control. This led Weizmann to emerge as an
unchallenged leader of the Zionist movement. The serious setback was
sustained to this due to two reasons as one was the Communist rule of
Lenin in Soviet Russia which prevent ed immigration of Russian Jews to
Palestine and the second reason was that the rift was erupted between
Louis Brandeis an American Zionist and Chaim Weizmann a British
Zionist Leader. Due to this dispute, the American Jews directed their
major part of char ity to the relief of European Jews rather than the Jews in
Palestine until the World War II. Naturally in 1929 Weizmann was forced
to set up a chain of Jewish Agency throughout the world to coordinate the
financial support to the Jews in Palestine from var ious organizations
philanthropist in the world.
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22 Birth of Israel British Mandate in Palestine:
After the world war I the League of Nations came into existence to create
Law and order in the world. In 1922, the League issued a mandate and
control over Palestine to England . It entrusted England to facilitate the
establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine, this created
encouraging effects among the Jews world over, who began to arrive to
Palestine in large groups. The Jews immigrated to Palestine between 1919
to 19 39 were in large number who began to contribute towards the all -
round development of the Jewish community. The Jews who immigrated
from Russia between 1919 and 1923 laid the foundation of basic and
comprehensive development of social and economic infrastru cture,
development of agriculture, establishment of collectivization and provided
chief labour for construction of housing and roads connecting Jew locality
with each other. Between 1924 and 1932 around sixty thousand Jews
immigrated from Poland to Palesti ne, they developed and tried to enrich
the urban life in Palestine as they established various businesses in the
cities Like in Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Jerusalem. In 1933, Hitler came to
power in German, who began to prosecute the Jews to recover a large
weal th from them. To avoid increasingly ruthless persecution at the hands
of the Nazi Party, around One lakh fifty thousand Jews immigrated to
Palestine. Another important factor, the economic recession in Europe
combined with the international enthusiasm towa rds the Zionist movement
from Western and Central Europe led them to migrate to Palestine in the
Late 1930’s. Among these migrants, many were highly educated and
professionals, their skills and experiences raised the standard of business
and improved their urban and rural life which broadened the cultural life
of all Jews in Palestine.
The migration of Jews and their development in Palestine created
suspicion in the minds of Arabs. This generated full scale rebellion by
Arabs against the Jews in the 1920’s. The recurrent riots between 1936
and 1939 made coexistence with Arabs very difficult for the Jews. Despite
this situation, the Zionist leaders adopted various approaches as the
foundation of a joint Arab -Jewish State advocated by Judah Magnes,
President o f the Hebrew University and the proposal of David Ben -
Gurion, the future Israeli Prime Minister to make Jews a majority
community in Palestine.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a short note on the Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate
in Palestine

The White Paper:
To appease the Arabs, the British Government changed its policy towards
Palestine before the World War II. The British published the White Paper
in May 1939 and terminated its commitment to Zionism. It also provided
for the establishment of a Palestine State within the period of ten years. munotes.in

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23 Landmarks In World History The British guaranteed the Arab majority by a Clause along with a
provision of migration of 75000Jews to Palestine within the period of
subsequent five years, but the additional entry of Jews thereafter woul d be
depended on the consent of the Arabs over there. This White Paper of
1939 broke the traditional Anglo -Zionist Alliance and provoked Jews to
undertake violent protest in Palestine, which disturbed Law and order in
the area.
The Biltmore Programme:
The Jews in the World were helping the democratic forces during the
World War II as they did in the World War I. The Nazi regime under
Hitler did not like this and carried out a plan to murder all Jews in Europe.
As German armies swept through Europe, Jews wer e captured and sent to
concentration camps, where they were put to death by sending them to gas
chambers. It is said that around six million Jews were killed at the hands
of the Nazis during the World War II. The Jews, therefore, made America
as the centre of their activities from 1942. They held a Zionist conference
in New York and chalked out a programme which came to be Known as
the Biltmore Programme. The Programme rejected British restrictions on
immigration of Jews to Palestine and urged the British t o fulfil the Balfour
Declaration and establish a Jewish commonwealth in Palestine. The
British did not budge from their earlier stand. The Jews, thereafter,
instituted a secret network to immigrate illegally to Palestine. As the result
around 85000 Jews re ached Palestine through secret routes to make it their
permanent homeland.
Check your Progress
1. Discuss the factors responsible for the birth of Israel.
3.3 DECLARATION OF B IRTH OF ISRAEL England was totally exhausted due to the World War II and wanted to
reconsider her position and policy in Palestine as the mandate power. It
had already failed in negotiation with the Arabs and the Jews for an
amicable solution. In February 1947, England under these circumstances
referred the Palestine issue to the U.N.O. to thrash out a solution. After the
assessment of the situation, the UN Special Committee on Palestine
proposed to partition the territory of the British mandate west of the River
Jordon into Arab and Jewish states keeping Jerusalem under international
control. The United Nations adopted the partition plan submitted by the
Special Committee on 29 November 1947. The US and Soviet Russia
were in favour of the plan, the Zionist movement accepted the partition as
the best solution under the present political ci rcumstances. The Arabs
denounced and rejected the plan of Partition. England had already
abstained from voting. Meanwhile, the British colonial Secretary
announced the end of their mandate on 15 May 1948 over Palestine. After
the departure of the British f rom Palestine, brought in one of the bloodiest
wars in the area. These developments led the Jews National Council to
declare the birth of an independent State of Israel for Jews at Tel -Aviv. munotes.in

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24 Birth of Israel 3.4 SUMMARY The United States of America & the Soviet Russia acc orded recognition to
the new state one after another. On 17 September 1950 India granted
recognition of Israel did not mean that India endorsed Israel’s stand with
neighbouring Arab countries. India also did not establish diplomatic
relations immediately w ith the state of Israel. Thus, Israel came into
existence. Ben Gurion declared that Israel was the expression of the self -
evident right of the Jewish people to be a nation. Although, all Arab states
came to help the Palestinian Arabs, there attempts to ove rthrow the new
state were failed one after another on the contrary it enabled Israel to
possess more territories than allotted to her under the partition plan
including Jerusalem
3.5 QUESTIONS 1. Account for the rise of Zionist movement.
2. Examine the va rious factors that led to the birth of Israel.
3. Assess the role of British mandate in Palestine in the birth of Israel.
3.6 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Albercht R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publicati on, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York. munotes.in

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25 Landmarks In World History Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan North American Library
Press 1965.
Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Ir an: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
MahmoodShamma Ed.. Introduction to the History of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P.The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918),
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hukumchand and Krishna Mathur, AdhuniMagachaItihas, K
SagarPublication , Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. VisavyaShatkaliMagachaItihas,PhadkePrakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005.


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26
4
FASCISM
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Early Life of Benito Mussolini
4.3 Rise of the Fascist Party
4.4 Fascists in Power
4.5 Domestic Policy of Mussolini
4.6 Foreign Policy of Mussolini
4.7 Summary
4.8 Questions
4.9 Additional Readin g
4.0 OBJECTIVES After studying the unit, the student will be able to
1. Understand the factors responsible for the rise of Fascism in Italy.
2. Explain early life of Benito Mussolini.
3. Describe the domestic policy of Mussolini.
4. Discuss the foreign policy of Mussolini.
4.1 INTRODUCTION Reasons for the Rise of Fascism in Italy:
Inspite of being a member of the Triple Alliance, Italy had remained
neutral in the first year of the war. When the Allies promised her
TRENTINO and TRIESTE, she changed side s and fought against
Germany and Austria -Hungary. But she regretted her actions. She
suffered defeats and hardships during the war. But she did not withdraw
from the war, because she hoped that she would gain territory after it
ended.
At the Paris Peace Conference, she was handed over Trentino and Trieste
as promised. But Italy felt that she deserved more and asked for German
colonies in Africa and the port of Flume on the Adriatic Sea. Her extra
demands were rejected.
There was a general sense of disa ppointment at the treatment given to Italy
at the Paris Peace Conference. Most felt the Italy had not been sufficiently
compensated for her efforts and sacrifices during the war. The people munotes.in

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27 Landmarks In World History wanted the government to make a stronger demand, and when the
delegation returned to Italy, it was jeered at by the crowds.
Economic Problems:
Secondly, the post -war conditions in Italy had turned from bad to worse.
Poor before, she was poorer now because of war expenditure. Industry
and trade were disorganised, agr iculture was stagnant, and, in the cities,
unemployment was increasing. The value of her currency had depreciated
so much that the people were unable to buy the necessities of life. Public
debt had increased due to the war and post -war budgets showed eve n
bigger deficits. In some of the industrial regions of the north, there were
serious labour strikes.
Failure of The Democratic Government:
Due to so much misery people lost their faith in the democratic
government. Political instability was a common fea ture. Between 1919
and 1922, there were as many as six coalition governments. Politicians
were corrupt and the administration was inefficient.
Catholic Party:
There was another movement, not at all revolutionary but very
troublesome to the government. T his was the rise of a Catholic political
party called the POPULAR PARTY, led by the priest Luigi Sturzo.
Catholic intellectuals and peasants who wanted social reform supported
this party. The Government under Nitti and Geolitti proved incapable of
dealin g with the situation. Bold leadership was what was needed, and this
was finally supplied by the Fascists.
There were however many strong patriots, mostly belonging to the
middle -class, who were worried that the government was doing nothing
against the Com munist activities. They wanted to save the country from
Communism, even by force if necessary. To prevent anarchy and
revolution in the country, these Patriots formed an association. This
association finally developed into a highly disciplined political party
called the Fascist party (the full name being FASCIO DI
COMBATTIMENTO meaning ‘Union for Combat’) under BENITO
MUSSOLINI.
4.2 EARLY LIFE OF BE NITO MUSSOLINI Born in 1883, his father was a blacksmith and his mother a school teacher .
After he completed his university education in Switzerland, he worked
there for some time. He started as a teacher, then turned into a socialist,
and finally became an Editor of a Socialist newspaper. Because of his
revolutionary activities, he was asked to leave the coun try. He returned to
Italy for required military training but was soon arrested for revolutionary
activities. Later he became Editor of AVANTI, a newspaper of the Italian
Socialist Party. munotes.in

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28 Fascism Mussolini’s break with the Socialist Party began over the question of
participation in the war. The majority opposed while Mussolini was in
favour of joining. He joined the Italian army and fought on the battlefront.
His army career was cut short because he was wounded. After his
recovery he founded the newspaper call ed, ‘IL POPOLO D’ITALIA.’ He
used it to attack the Socialist party, as well as the existing government for
being unable to control the economic unrest and violence. He got the
support of many ex -soldiers, property owners and young intellectuals for
the ne w movement, which he called FASCISM.
4.3 RISE OF THE FASC IST PARTY The Fascists were so called because they organised themselves into a
group or FASCIO (bundle) like the FASCES or bundle of rods, which the
Roman Lictors carried as a symbol of authority. J ust as Garibaldi’s
volunteers had worn ‘red shirts’; Mussolini’s men wore ‘black shirts.’
They organised themselves into semi -military companies and saluted their
chief -IL DUCE -with the outstretched hand of the old Roman salute.
Between 1921 -1922, there wa s a rapid rise of the Fascist Party and the
opposition groups weakened. Mussolini strongly fought the Communists.
It was this fight together with militant nationalism, which won the hearts
of the bourgeoisie class, the ex -soldiers, peasants, and workers. All these
people were disgusted with the Government and the Communist take -over
of the factories.
The Fascist Party had two aims. The first was to restore the full authority
of the government. The second was to encourage Italian Nationalism. To
achiev e these aims, the Party conducted a vigorous PROPAGANDA
CAMPAIGN, through patriotic speeches, books, papers, and pamphlets.
The Black Shirts even trained school -children and made them parade with
slogans, “Believe, Obey and Fight.” In 1921, 35 Fascists we re elected to
the Parliament and their methods became even more radical. They used
castor oil, lathes, and guns to torture their enemies. Mussolini attacked the
communists in his editorials and got the sympathy of the middle -class,
industrialists and merch ants. They contributed lots of funds to the party.
The black shirts broke up the meetings of the other parties and the police
were useless.
4.4 FASCISTS IN POWE R In October 1922, the Fascists held a Congress at the city of Naples. Forty
thousand of them paraded the streets in military formation, and Mussolini
in a grand speech, declared that “EITHER THE GOVERNMENT WILL
BE GIVEN TO US OR WE SHALL MARCH ON ROME.” On October
27 the Prime Minister resigned, and the Fascist army moved from Naples
to Rome. Th e regular army did not stop them, and King Victor Emmanuel
Ill, without a government had no option but to send for Mussolini and ask
him to form the government. Mussolini had hardly expected that his bluff
would bring down a government, but that explains his popularity with the
people. munotes.in

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29 Landmarks In World History Mussolini realised that his opponents were waiting to overthrow his
government. So, he demanded dictatorial powers for a year to end the
disorder and violence in the country. He then proceeded to extend and
consolidate the Fascist organisation throughout the country.
(1) Since he had the power Mussolini began to appoint his loyal
supporters to important positions in the administration.
(2) He then concentrated on establishing his supreme control over the
legislature. He passed a revolutionary ELECTION LAW, according
to which the party that secured the largest number of votes,
automatically got 2/3 of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies (lower
house.) In the 1924 elections the Fascists got a majority of votes and
so they got 2/3 of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The
opposition parties were threatened, some of their leaders were
kidnapped or murdered. By 1928, there was hardly any opposition
worth mentioning. He took other steps to maintain his control over the
country.
(3) The municipalities of towns and cities lost their local autonomy.
(4) The press was censored.
(5) Mussolini became the Supreme Commander of all the armed forces
and he was responsible only to the King.
(6) He ruled over the country with th e help of a GRAND COUNCIL.
The members of this Council were all Fascist Party members. They
occupied ministerial positions, drafted laws, and discussed national
and international issues.
(7) All educational institutions were controlled by the state. Th e
textbooks glorified the state and preached loyalty to II Duce. Fascist
teachers and professors dominated the educational institutions.
(8) A secret police force was formed, and the death penalty was revived.
Thus, in all respects Italy became a TOTALI TARIAN STATE.
The machinery of the Fascist Party and that of the Italian State were
closely inter -linked and the supreme manipulator of both was Mussolini.
He was Chairman of the Grand Council and through its military he was
master of the entire country. He was also Prime Minister of the State
appointing officers, advising the King, drafting laws and much more.
Very few statesmen had exercised such wide and dictatorial powers
Check Your Progress:
1. Account for the rise of Fascism in Italy.
4.5 DOMESTIC POLICY OF MUSSOLINI Fascism achieved much for Italy. It restored the nation’s confidence and
made the administration of government very efficient. It brought about a munotes.in

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30 Fascism total transformation in the political, social, and economic life of the
country.
4.5.1 E conomic Development:
Mussolini dealt firmly with the economic problems facing his country.
THE KEY -NOTE OF HIS ECONOMIC POLICY WAS TO BRING
ABOUT SELF -SUFFICIENCY OF THE STATE IN ALL ASPECTS.
Efforts were made to reduce the country’s dependence on import s of
wheat, cotton, and tobacco. High tariffs were introduced on imports and
incentives were given to exports. He financed hydro -electric projects and
encouraged the shipping industry. He introduced economy in the
administration by dismissing the unprod uctive officials. Strikes and
Lockouts were banned. These types of measures brought about a sound
economy and a balanced budget. A variety of public works including
repairing ancient and historic monuments were undertaken. Transport and
communication w ere improved.
4.5.2 Corporate State:
Mussolini gained the support of the working classes by undertaking social
reform and substituting a “CORPORATE STATE” for the previous
“liberal state.” In 1926, a law abolished non -Fascist trade unions and
prohibited s trikes and lockouts. The law also established thirteen
SYNDICATES, six of employers, six of employees and one of
professional men. In 1927, he introduced a “CHARTER OF LABOUR,”
which guaranteed private property. For the employees it guaranteed
minimum h ours of work, medical, accident and old age insurance. In
1928, the electoral law gave the thirteen syndicates’ political functions,
i.e., to nominate parliamentary candidates. In 1930, the thirteen
syndicates were transformed onto “CORPORATIONS” under a general
Fascist Confederation of Industry. In 1934, a National Council was
created of deputies from the various corporations to advise parliament on
economic and social legislation.
The achievements of Mussolini in the economic sphere impressed many.
Trains ran on time. There were no strikes. The tourist industry flourished.
Education was made compulsory for children. The Italian currency (lira)
became stable, so also with the banking system. Unfortunately, the
economic depression of 1929 seriously harmed the Italian economy.
Millions were rendered unemployed. The government was unable to cope
with this problem. To divert people’s attention from these problems,
Mussolini concentrated on his imperialist foreign policy.
4.5.3 Settlement with the Cat holic Church:
One of Mussolini’s outstanding achievements was the settlement of the
long-standing dispute with the Pope. The conflict between the Catholic
Church and the State began with the annexation of Rome in 1870. All
efforts to pacify the Pope had not succeeded. The Catholics loyal to the
Pope were naturally not loyal to the State. Mussolini decided to end this
conflict by offering some compensation. Pope Pious XI too, was eager to munotes.in

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31 Landmarks In World History end the conflict. After some negotiation, the Pope and Mussolin i signed
the LATERAN TREATY in 1929.
The Lateran Treaty consisted of three documents, —a political treaty, a
Concordat, and a financial settlement. By the first, the Pope recognized
the House of Savoy as the legitimate rulers over Italy, in return King
Victor Emmanuel III recognized the Pope as the ruler of the Vatican City
and the religious head of the Catholics.
The second document — the Concordat — defined the future relations
between the State and the Papacy. The Roman Catholic faith was
recognized as t he sole religion of the State. The Pope could appoint all
bishops, priests and other officials and the State would not interfere.
The last agreement was a financial agreement. Money compensation was
paid to the Pope for the loss of Rome.
After the Lateran Treaty, Mussolini declared, “the citizen is Catholic, and
the Catholic is a citizen.” The Pope then replied, “God has been restored
to Italy and Italy has been restored to God.” The Lateran Treaty removed a
threat to the Fascist state.
Check Your Progress
1. Briefly describe the Domestic Policy of Benito Mussolini.

4.6 THE FOREIGN POLI CY OF MUSSOLINI One of the fundamental principles of the Fascist policy was to increase the
prestige of Italy in the eyes of foreign nations. The Fascists glorified war
as a symbol of national virility. They dreamed of the glories of the ancient
Roman Empire and adopted their customs and rituals to some extent in
their daily life.
The Fascists encouraged population growth, through early marriages and
large families. The purpose of increasing the population was to make Italy
a strong country. All children above the age of six were given military
training. The army and navy were expanded. Mussolini declared the soon
Italy would become a world power and the Mediterranean Sea would
become an Italian lake (Mare Nostrum.) An ever - increasing population
brought its own problems. Food production was less. Italy was left with
no other option but to establish colonies. Mussolini adopted a vigorous
policy of expansion.
4.6.1 Ea rly Conquests:
He turned his eyes to TUNISIA and CORSICA, which were French
possessions, and said that Italy had a better right to them. Mussolini’s
speeches put a severe strain on the relations between France and Italy.
Mussolini then turned to Eastern Europe for expansion. He first secured
the DODECANESE ISLAND and then in 1924 the port of FIUME. munotes.in

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32 Fascism Italy’s relations with Yugoslavia were not good, as Yugoslavia wanted
Dalmatia from Italy. They both wanted control of the ADRIATIC SEA.
This conflict bec ame worse when Mussolini conquered ALBANIA in
1939.
4.6.2 Conquest of Abyssinia (Ethiopia):
But the most spectacular of Mussolini’s achievements was the conquest of
ETHIOPIA. He wanted to wipe off the humiliation of Italy’s defeat in
1896. But the real c ause was that Italy needed colonies to improve her
prestige and to find more room and food for her growing population.
Mussolini attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935. The King Haile Selassie
appealed to the League of Nations. The League immediately dec lared
Italy to be the aggressor. Mussolini however, defied the League,
conquered Abyssinia, and proclaimed King Victor Emmanuel III as the
Emperor of Ethiopia in 1936.
4.6.3 Support to General Franco:
When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Mussol ini looked upon it
as a struggle between Communism and Fascism. He decided to support
General Franco and sent Italian troops to Spain. He also had selfish
reasons to support General Franco. He realised that a friendly Spain
would be of great help in che cking French and British influence over the
Mediterranean region. Then it would be so much easier for Italy to control
that region.
4.6.4 Rome -Berlin -Tokyo Axis:
After this war Italy drew closer to Germany and further away from France
and Britain. Musso lini came to an understanding with Hitler, and they
formed the ROME -BERLIN AXIS in October 1936. A month later
Germany and Japan entered the Anti -Commintern Pact against Russia.
Italy also joined this Pact, and this gave rise to the ROME -BERLIN -
TOKYO AXI S.
When World War II broke out and France collapsed, Mussolini joined
Germany and declared war on Britain and France. However, the Italians
did not win great victories, and finally in 1943, King Victor Emmanuel III
dismissed Mussolini, and obtained an arm istice with the Allies. In the
final days of the war, Mussolini tried to escape with his mistress. He was
captured and shot, by Italian freedom fighters. His body was hung by the
heels in Milan. Few Italians wept for him or the end of fascism.
Check Yo ur Progress
1. Briefly discuss the foreign Policy of Benito Mussolini.


munotes.in

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33 Landmarks In World History 4.7 SUMMARY Fascism was a political movement of the less wealthy members of the
middle class. Their ideology was a mixture of anti -communism, racism,
anti-intellectualism, extreme nationalism, and hatred of democracy.
Mussolini founded the Fascist Party in 1921. The post -war conditions
were not good. Tho usands of soldiers and workers were unemployed.
Industrial development was low, and inflation was high. Parliamentary
democracy was not working well. Mussolini was able to get the support
of the army, the industrialists, socialists and the poor unemployed. By the
end of October 1922. Mussolini and his party were firmly in power in
Rome. He had become IL DUCE (the leader).
The domestic policy of Mussolini was impressive. His economic re -
organisation was successful. The Charter of Labour made the workers
happy. Industrial and agricultural production increased. To some extent
the problems of national deficit and unemployment w ere solved.
Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty with the Pope and even gained the
support of the Church.
On the international front, Mussolini was able to give the Italians some of
their lost national pride. He managed to get Ethiopia, which was a long -
cherished dream of the Italians. By the agreement with Hitler, the power
and position of Italy was further enhanced.
In the beginning, the Italians did benefit from the reforms introduce by
Mussolini. The country made progress in all spheres of life. But
Mussolini’s greed for power and his contempt for all democratic
institutions, in the end brought disaster to Italy.
4.8 QUESTIONS 1. Account for the rise of Fascism in Italy. How did Mussolini take
control of the country?
2. Analyse the domestic and foreig n policy of Mussolini.
3. How and why did Fascism emerge in Italy? Bring out the salient
features of Mussolini’s dictatorship.
4. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Reasons for the rise of Fascism in Italy.
(b) Mussolini’s domestic Policy.
(c) Mussoli ni’s foreign policy.


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34 Fascism 4.9 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Albercht R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publication, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmar ks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. C ontemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan North American Library
Press 1965.
Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Iran: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
MahmoodShamma Ed.. Introduction to the History of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P.The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hukumchand and Krishna Mathur, AdhuniMagachaItihas, K
SagarPublication , Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. Vis avyaShatkaliMagachaItihas,PhadkePrakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005.
***** munotes.in

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35
5
NAZISM
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Causes for the Rise of Nazism
5.3 Early Life and Career of Hitler
5.4 Hitler’s Domestic Policy
5.5 Hitler’s Foreign Policy
5.6 Summary
5.7 Questions
5.8 Additional Reading

5.0 OBJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to understand -
1. The causes for the rise of Nazism in Germany.
2. The early life and career of Hitler —the formation of the Nazi Party
Hitler’s rise to power as chancellor of Germany.
3. Hitler’s domestic policy.
4. Hitler’s foreign policy.
5.1 INTRODUCTION Nazism was a political movement - and later a form of government - that
developed in Germany in the 1920’s. The Nazis led by the dictator Adolf
Hitler, controlled Germany from 1933 to 1945. Na zism was a fascist
movement i.e., it tightly restricted personal but permitted private
ownership of property. The Nazis called for aggressive nationalism,
militarism, and the expansion of Germany’s borders. They glorified the
Aryan race. They claimed th at Jews, Slavs, and other minority groups
were inferior. Nazism opposed democracy, socialism and other political
systems that favoured equality. It promised to build a peaceful and
prosperous society for the Germans. Instead, it brought terrorism, war a nd
mass murder.
There were many factors that contributed to the rise of Nazism. The
humiliating Treaty of Versailles created severe economic problems for
Germany. She could not cope with the inflation, the war indemnity, and
the loss of territory and raw materials. Not being allowed to maintain an
army, made her feel totally insecure. It was no wonder that the Germans munotes.in

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36 Nazism supported Hitler when he promised them what they did not have. Hitler
was a great orator, and he convinced the people that unless they w ent
against the terms of the treaty of Versailles, Germany had no future. The
Germans also felt threatened by the spread of Communism. The Weimar
Republic seemed to be an ineffective government and the Germans
blamed it for all their problem.
5.2 CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF NAZI SM. The Treaty of Versailles:
The defeat of Germany in World I and the humiliation that she later faced,
made her want her revenge. The Treaty of Versailles caused a deep
wound on the minds of the Germans. It was not a matter of choic e for
them. Their delegates were not even allowed to participate in the drafting
of the treaty but were forced to sign it. The entire burden of the war guilt
was placed on her, branding her an aggressor.
War Indemnity:
By the treaty she was practically s tripped of everything she had and had to
agree to pay a ridiculously high war indemnity. The coal mines of Saar
were given to France for fifteen yews. Germany lost 1/6 of her arable
land, 2/5 of her coal, 2/3 of iron, and 7/10 of her zinc. The war indem nity
was fixed at $33 billion. The Allies knew that she would not be able to
pay this amount even if she borrowed from friendly nations. The Germans
not being m a position to meet all the demands were only waiting for an
opportunity to revoke the treaty.
Territorial Losses:
They were forced to give up territory. They surrendered Alsace and
Lorraine to France, Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium northern Schleswig
to Denmark, Posen to Poland, Upper Silesia to Czechoslovakia, and
Danzig was made a free city. All her colonies were taken away and her
position in China she surrendered to Japan.
Incapable Weimar Government:
The Germans were not willing to accept the Weimar Republic, which the
Allies had set up for her. The new government was not able to cope with
the problems of inflation, rising prices, and unemployment. There were
severe food shortages also. After the Depression of 1929, the Germans
lost their faith in the democratic government and were looking for
someone to pull them out of their problems.
Econo mic Conditions:
The economic problems seemed uncontrollable. Inflation was very high,
and the German Mark lost all its value. In 1923, France occupied the Rhur
valley because Germany had failed to pay its indemnity. The value of the
Mark dropped to 40,00 0 for a dollar. By November 1923, it was quoted as munotes.in

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37 Landmarks In World History 4,200,000,000,000 marks per dollar. Not only the middle -class but also
the rich were affected. Hitler gained his support from this group. The
lower classes were poverty stricken and were prepared to fo llow anyone
who promised a better future.
Limitation on Armed Forces And Armaments:
In their determination to keep Germany down, the Allies had limited
Germany’s armed forces. She was not permitted an Air Force at all. Her
army was cut down to 100,000 me n and the navy to 15,000 men.
Factories producing war materials had to be destroyed. The Rhineland
was demilitarised. Germany complied with all these requirements, but
around her the other countries continued with the production of war
materials. It wa s but natural that Germany would be upset. The League of
Nations failed to check the race for armaments. The disarmament
Conference held at Washington was not successful. So, Germany secretly
started manufacturing weapons and small battleships. In 1935, Britain
permitted Germany to increase the strength of her navy. It was a typical
case of guilty conscience since the Allies had not kept to their word of
disarming themselves after the war. This gave Hitler an excuse to defy the
Treaty of Versailles.
Policy of Appeasement:
One of the key factors, which gave rise to Hitler’s aggressive nationalism,
was the policy of appeasement, followed by Britain and France. While
Hitler was breaking the Treaty of Versailles clause by clause these
countries did not hav e the courage to stop him. A joint armed intervention
on their part would have been sufficient but they preferred to remain quiet.
Hitler’s acts of aggression, namely the invasion and annexation of Austria,
Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia remained uncheck ed.
Growth of Communism:
The German businessmen were worried about the steady growth of
Communism in the country. The number of Communists in the Reichstag
(parliament) increased. Hitler had strong anti -Communist views and he
spoke of Germany as a ‘bulwa rk against a world socialist revolution’. The
German industrialists and businessmen supported him with money, so that
the Nazi troops might help to destroy the trade unions etc.
Hitler’s Personality:
Hitler was a great orator, and he exploited the psychol ogical state of the
Germans to win them over. Through his speeched he played upon the
deep discontent of the people. He promised food, employment to
thousands who were unemployed, to fight inflation and so on. His
speeches against the Jews, Germany’s fo reign oppressors and the harsh
Treaty of Versailles, secured millions of votes for the Nazi party. He
sensed that the spirit of revenge burned deep within every Germans heart.
He played on their fears of Russia and the Communists, on their anti -
Semetism; and he stirred the discontented Germans with promises of a munotes.in

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38 Nazism new and greater Reich to rise from the ashes of the war to revenge the
humiliation and suffering the Allies had heaped on Germany.
Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the main causes responsible for the rise of Nazism in Germany.

5.3 EARLY LIFE AND C AREER OF HITLER Adolf Hitler was born on 20 th April 1889, in Austria. He belonged to a
peasant family and his father was a customs official. After going through
terrible hardships in his early life, he finally chose the profession of an
artist. He could not secure admission into the Imperial Academy, so he
earned his living by being a house decorator. It was during this period that
he realised the problems facing the Germans and Austrians. He develope d
hatred towards the Jews as they controlled the financial institutions.
He went to Munich (Germany) in 1912, and when the war broke out in
1914, he joined the army. He was wounded in the war, and for his bravery
he was given the Iron Cross. The defeat of Germany and the hardships she
faced caused him great distress. He remained unemployed.
It was at this time his political career began. In 1919, he formed the
GERMAN WORKERS PARTY. He was able to gather around him men
like Herman Goering and Joseph Goeb bels, who became his strong
supporters. In 1923, he participated in a coup (the Putsch) led by
Ludendorff, which failed. He was arrested and sentenced to five years
imprisonment.
During his prison days he wrote his memoirs called MEIN KAMPF. This
book c ontained his deep -rooted prejudices on many issues, and it outlined
the programme of the National Socialist Party. It included:
(1) His plans for expanding the German Empire —LEBENSRAUM.
(2) Plans for terminating the Treaty of Versailles,
(3) Equality on armaments.
(4) Regaining of colonies.
(5) Anti-Semetism or anti -Jewish Policy.
(6) Superiority of the Aryan race,
(7) Removal of German war guilt,
(8) Land reforms,
(9) Better conditions for workers,
(10) Nationalization of trusts and the like. munotes.in

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39 Landmarks In World History Hitler was freed within a yew, and he turned to reviving his party. The
party was converted into the NATIONAL SOCIALIST PARTY (Nazi
Party). The party adopted the brown shirt as its uniform and the
SWASTIKA as its emblem. Hitler was called the FUHRER and they
borrowed the Roman salute from Mussolini. He raised a body of Storm
Troopers, (Schutzstaffel or SS for short) and used them in rioting, street
fighting and general political terror. However, he had learnt from his
previous failure that a show of legality wou ld achieve much more than
only violence. So, though he used his Storm Troopers, in public he vowed
to use only ‘legal’ means to attain power.
The strength of the party kept increasing from 7 members in 1919, to
27,117 in 1925, and to 176,426 in 1929. In the 1924 general elections, the
Nazi Party secured 32 seats and in 1932 230 seats. It became the single
largest party in the Reichstag. The party’s spectacular victory at the polls
was due to two factors. First was the Great Depression of 1929, and
secondly, was Hitler’s ability to make speeches and sway the public.
In January 1933, President Hindenburg invited Hitler to act as the
Chancellor even though the Nazi Party did not have a clear majority in
Parliament. Hitler used his powers to crush all oppo sition. On the eve of
the March elections 1933, Hitler stage -managed a fire in the Reichstag
building and blamed it on the Communists. The Nazi Party then won the
elections with a huge majority. Most of the Communists were imprisoned
or killed.
Presiden t Hindenburg then ordered the old flag to be replaced by two new
flags: the black, white, and red of the Old Empire, and the Swastika of the
new Nationalism. On April 1, the Reichstag voted to give its powers to
the Hitler government for a period of four years. Thus, the democratic
German Republic formally came to an end, and was succeeded by the
THIRD REICH (Third German Empire.) This new government was
inaugurated with great pomp and popular support. The press, radio and
cinema were used to stir up pat riotic emotions. There were huge parades
with the brown -shirted soldiers saluting, the youth singing and waving
swastika flags, and the leaders making patriotic speeches. Such methods
were usual with the Nazis and were developed and utilised effectively.
Joseph Goebbels, one of Hitler’s chief lieutenants, was appointed Minister
of Propaganda and Public Enlightenment.
Hitler used the supreme power given to him in organising campaigns
against the Jews and Communists. On the same day that the new
governmen t was established, it sponsored a nation -wide boycott against
Jewish shopkeepers and professional men. Then it declared that only
ARYANS could occupy civil or military posts or serve as judges,
policemen, school teachers, lawyers and professors. Next, Je ws were
dismissed from public offices, and discriminated against in business.
Thousands of German Jews fled abroad, and those who could not, suffered
tremendously at the hands of the Nazis. In Germany, the antisemitic
policy was glorified as a policy, wh ich generated unity and patriotism. munotes.in

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40 Nazism Hitler was also anti -Communist. Parades were organised to demonstrate
the power of the Nazi labourers, and Nazi soldiers threatened Communist
and Socialist workers into silence. The government then banned all
Marxist p ropaganda in the country, abolished Socialist and Communist
trade unions and confiscated their funds. The National Socialist Party then
organised a single labour union, called the “German Labour Front.”
Taking advantage of the popular enthusiasm for the ‘ new Germany,’
Hitler and his Nazi lieutenants decided to get rid of all possible opposition.
All parties were suppressed, and Hitler declared that Germany would have
only a single political party, the Nazi Party. Those who opposed were
either sent into e xile or to concentration camps.
Next, in 1934, came the purge (cleansing) of his own party. Hitler
together with Goebbels, Goering and the secret police took drastic action,
to terrorize the National Socialist Party into unity and the country into
obedien ce. Several hundred people were murdered, including senior party
members. The only explanation that Hitler gave was ‘reasons of state’ and
‘morality.’ The fact that the people accepted this explanation without
question, showed the strength of his control and power over them.
In 1934, President Hindenburg died, and Hitler took charge of two offices:
the President and the Chancellor. In August 19434, a plebiscite was held
and thirty -eight and a quarter million Germans voted ‘yes.’ At last, by
popular will, Adolf Hitler became the sole and supreme ruler of Germany.
Check Your Progress:
1. Briefly describe the early life of Hitler.

5.4 HITLER’S DOMESTI C POLICY 5.4.1 Administrative System.
Hitler’s domestic policy was authoritarian and totalitarian in every sense.
He abolished the separate provincial governments and unified Germany
under a central government at Berlin. The Reichstag had passed a law,
which abolished the provincial diets, deprived the states of their sovereign
fights, and changed them into o nly administrative districts of the Empire.
A single party, that of the Nazis, ruled the state and all opposition was
suppressed. The Jews and Communists were looked upon as anti -German
and they were cruelly persecuted.
5.4.2 Education:
Every activity was subjected to state control. Individual freedom
practically disappeared from the country. The educational system was
used to create a Nazi mentality and absolute loyalty to the Fuhrer. People
were made to understand that” to serve Hitler is to serve Ger many, to munotes.in

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41 Landmarks In World History serve Germany is to serve God.” Many intellectuals and scientists who
could not tolerate the situation fled the country.
5.4.3 The Church:
Hitler had experienced some difficulties in his relationship with the
Christian Church. The Catholic Church had not supported the Nazi Party.
So, Hitler had negotiated with the Vatican, promising religious freedom.
The Nazis however, had done their best to suppress Christian practices,
schools, and religious orders. The relations between the two remained
shaky and the Christians though willing to co -operate politically, wanted
total freedom in the religious sphere.
5.4.4 Economy:
One of the causes of Germany’s collapse had been the breakdown of her
economic system and shortage of food supplies. Hence Hitler made every
attempt to secure economic self -sufficiency for Germany. Imports were
discouraged, exports were encouraged, and raw materials were rationed.
Wool, rubber, motor fuel was made by artificial process from such
materials as wood and coal. So, sub stitutes for imported articles were
manufactured. The tariffs increased and shipping lines were reorganized.
Strikes and lockouts were prohibited. From 1936 onwards Germany
moved into a war economy and all the national resources were used to
improve the country’s defence system. Millions of Germans were
recruited into the armed forces and employed in ammunition factories. In
this way the unemployment factor was dealt with. It was only after
building a militarily strong Germany that Hitler planned for world
conquest.
Check Your Progress:
1.Briefly discuss the domestic policy of Hitler.

5.5 HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY 5.5.1 Aims:
When Hitler came to power, he promised to recover for Germany the
position of power and importance, which she had held before wo rld war I.
His plan included the formation of a “Third Reich,” or empire which
would include all Germans in a new or greater German State. This would
mean absorbing or annexing the German -populated regions of Austria,
Czechoslovakia, and Poland. Thirdly , he was determined to tear away the
Treaty of Versailles which had humiliated Germany and imposed heavy
restrictions on her.
Briefly the three goals of Hitler’s foreign policy were:
(1) The union of all people of German race by the right of self -
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42 Nazism (2) The cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles
(3) The acquisition of more territory for the support and settlement of the
surplus population.
5.5.2 Germany’s Rearmament:
Hitler’s first significant step in this direction was to withdraw from the
Disarmament Conference.
On 16 th March 1935, Germany violated the Treaty of Versailles by
introducing conscription.
Next, Hitler left the League of Nations and openly sent troops to
remilitarize the Rhineland. Britain was not willing to act against Germany
for her violation of the treaty of Versailles. France dared not act against
Germany without the co -operation and collaboration of Britain. This
policy of appeasement only encouraged Hitler to take larger risks.
5.5.3 Annexation of Aus tria:
During the Spanish Civil War, Hitler had learnt all he needed about the
weakness of the Allies. He had found that his intervention in the Spanish
problem, had not met with any resistance from the Great Powers. So, he
found the courage to embark upo n a policy of naked aggression. He
turned his attention to Austria whose union with Germany was prohibited
by the treaty of Versailles. He encouraged Nazi agitation, bullied the
Austrian Chancellor to appoint a Nazi minister in his cabinet. In 1934,
when Nazi agents started a revolt and the Chancellor Dr. Dolfuss was
murdered. The Austrian government was unable to contain the trouble, so
Hitler sent the German army into that country and brought about the
ANSCHLUSS (union with Germany.)
5.5.4 Annexation of Sudetenland:
After Austria, Hitler turned his attention to Sudetenland where many
Germans were living. He accused the Czech government of oppressing
the German minority. The Czech government denied this and said they
had given the Germans all privileg es. Hitler refused to accept the
explanation and demanded that Sudetenland be ceded (given) to Germany,
or he would take it by force if peaceful means failed. At this point Britain
and France were very concerned. To check the growing ambition of
Hitler, the leaders of France, Britain and Italy signed the MUNICH PACT
with Germany on 8 th September 1938. Hitler was allowed to annex
Sudetenland to Germany. This policy of appeasement exposed the
weakness of France and Britain. They were not prepared for an other war.
5.5.5 Non -Aggression Pact with U.S.S.R.:
Hitler concluded a non -aggression pact with U.S.S.R. 23 rd. August 1939
and secured Russia’s neutrality. Stalin was angry with Britain and France munotes.in

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43 Landmarks In World History because he was ignored at the Munich Pact. He accused wes tern
democracies of encouraging Germany to attack Russia.
5.5.6 Attack on Poland:
Knowing that Hitler would turn his attention to Poland, Britain and France
gave her a guarantee of protection. Hitler put pressure on Poland to return
the city of Danzig. T he whole world was shocked at the bullying tactics
of Hitler and his war -mania. Having the backing of Britain and France,
Poland refused Hitler’s demands. Hitler then attacked Poland on 1 st
September 1939. Britain and France honour their promise to prot ect and
thus the world was drawn into another war.
The story of Adolf Hitler only ended when he committed suicide at the
end of the war in 1945.
Check Your Progress:
1. Briefly discuss the foreign policy of Hitler.

5.6 SUMMARY The treaty of Versailles pla yed a big role in the rise of Nazism in
Germany. It humiliated them, it robbed them of territory, it burdened
them with a huge war indemnity, it did not permit an armed force and
finally placed the entire war guilt on the Germans. It was but natural that
the Germans were ready to follow Hitler, since he promised them all that
they had lost as well as much more. His personality was such that people
were prepared to obey any of his commands.
He started the Nazi Party and gradually increased its strength in the
Parliament. His own personal army created fear in the minds of those who
opposed him. By 1933, he had established himself as Chancellor of the
Third Reich in Germany. He eliminated all opposition whether it was the
Communist Party or whether it was opponents in his party.
Hitler’s domestic policy was authoritarian and totalitarian in nature. He
controlled everything, including the Church and education. On the
positive side he revived the German economy. Industries developed, and
since he stopped paying the indemnity, there was more money to spend on
Germany’s development. He rebuilt the armed forces and ordered
conscription.
Then he embarked on his foreign policy. This included violating the terms
of the Treaty of Versailles. He signed an agree ment with Italy and Japan
which was referred to as the Rome -Berlin -Tokyo Axis. Russia and
Germany signed a Non -aggression Pact. He invaded Austria and
Sudetenland announcing that he wanted all the German speaking people to
be united in one country. Fina lly, he invaded Poland and that was the
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44 Nazism 5.7 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the reasons for the rise of Nazism in Germany. What was the
policy of the Party?
2. Describe the rise of Hitler to power in Germany. What was his
domestic policy?
3. Examine the domestic and foreign policy that Hitler followed.
4. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Causes for the rise of Nazism in Germany.
(b) Hitler’s domestic policy.
(c) Hitler’s foreign policy.
5.8 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Albercht R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publicati on, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan North American Library
Press 1965. munotes.in

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45 Landmarks In World History Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Ir an: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
MahmoodShamma Ed.. Introduction to the History of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P.The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hukumch and and Krishna Mathur, Adhuni Magacha Itihas, K
Sagar Publication , Pune 2006.
 Kadam, Y.N. VisavyaShatkali Magacha Itihas, Phadke Prakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005.





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46
6
MILITARISM IN JAPAN
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Causes for the Rise of Militarism in Japan
6.3 Unrest among the Workers and Peasants
6.4 Rise of Ultra - Nationalist Groups
6.5 The Manchurian Crisis
6.6 Summary
6.7 Questions
6.8 Additional Reading
6.0 OBJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to -
1. Comprehend the background of Japan
2. Understand the reasons responsible for the rise of militarism in Japan.
3. Explain the attitude of western countrie s towards Japan.
4. Perceive the aftermath of the rise of militarism in Japan.
6.1 INTRODUCTION In the later half of the nineteenth century Japan was opened to the western
powers, which transformed her from a medieval slumber to an ultra -
modern nation. Ja pan adopted all those ideas and institutions that made the
western countries progressive and powerful, which led her to emerge as a
world power in the first two decades of the twentieth century.
Japan had transformed her military set up totally during the Meiji
restoration. It remodelled its armed and naval forces on the line of
Germany and England, which led her to become a strong military power in
the world. The period between the two wars proved to be the golden age
for Japanese militarism. The Manchuria n crisis, the second Sino -Japanese
war, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour and her entry into the Second
world war manifested the deep -rooted cult of militarism in Japanese
people.
It was unfortunate that the world did not learn a lesson from World War I ,
for hardly two decades later the world was at war again. Beginning with
Hitler’s invasion of Poland and ending with atomic bombs being dropped munotes.in

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47 Landmarks In World History on Japan, this war proved to be as disastrous as the first. At the same time
the second war differed in many respects from the first.
6.2 CAUSES FOR THE R ISE OF MILITARISM IN JAPAN There were several factors responsible for the rise of militarism in Japan.
Some of the important factors were as under:
1. Military Tradition in Japan:
Japan had a very long and str ong tradition of militarism with the emperor
as its head of honour and authority. During the regions of the Heian and
the Kamakura dynasties, the Japanese army occupied the position of
importance in the socio -Political set up of the country. The emperor
conferred the title of Shogun on Yoritomo, the head of a powerful clan.
Naturally, the Shoguns became the supreme commanders in the army of
Japanese Emperor, who dominated politics and administration from
sixteenth century to the twentieth century Japan. Thu s, it helped rise
militarism in Japan to some extent.
2. Rise and Fall of Party System in Japan:
During the First World War, the militaristic Germany and autocratic
Russia were defeated, and apparently weaker democratic nations became
victorious. This situ ation impressed Japanese and led them towards the
foundation of Liberal and party government. The expansionist policies
were manifested by the Twenty -one demands and Siberian campaign of
Japan were criticized strongly everywhere. The lowering of military
leadership in the war contributed much to the rise of party system in
Japanese politics. In 1918, Hara Takashi, the leader of political party
secured a seat in the lower House and made him to be Prime Minister of
Japan. He selected all members of his cabine t from his own party and
announced several reforms in the country. But his rule could not last long,
because he was assassinated in 1921and brought two more governments to
power which were non -party Cabinets and headed by naval officers
namely Admiral Kato and Viscount Kiyoura. These cabinet generated
social and economic unrest which led Japanese to introduce universal
manhood suffrage and bring to power one more party government. The
Japanese working class began to engage itself in forming political partie s
and trade unions, consequently, the communist party of Japan came into
existence in 1922. This paved the way for the establishment of several
proletarian and peasant’s parties in Japan.
Japan had several limitations on its Liberalism because between 1918 and
1932, there were only three Prime Ministers from the rank of common
people. There were several reasons for this situation as 1. There was lack
of deep -rooted tradition of elective and responsible government. 2. The
parties in Japan were not with defin ite ideologies but were comparatively
loose organizations. 3. These parties were depending on powerful
personalities then their political principles. 4. There developed munotes.in

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48 Militarism In Japan factionalism and corruption among the members of all political parties. 5.
These politi cal parties were supported by the middle class, trusts,
professionals, universities, and newspapers benefiting to urban industrial
workers and peasant farmers. Thus, the party systems at large showed that
the actual benefits of liberalism were highly, exag gerated. There was a
never strong faith in democratic process that made parties vulnerable to
challenges of militarist and disgruntled sections in society. Naturally, this
paved the way for militarism in Japan.
3. Political Influence of the Zaibatsu:
In 19 20, the party politics increased the political influence of the Zaibatsu
class and gave birth to their large firms Like Mitsui, Mitsubishi and
Yasuda Sumitamo. These firms controlled one fourth capital of Japan such
as finance, bank, insurance business and enabled them to corrupt members
of the ‘Diet’ and political parties. Due to their influence Japanese politics,
they always swayed cabinet decisions in their favours and scrapped the
anti-trust Laws and the Laws regarding the growth of trade unions. Both
politicians and bureaucrats began to receive huge donations and bribes
from the Zaibatsus which obstructed the creation of sound economic
foundation for political and social democratic set up. Due to favourable
policies of the successive governments towards the business interest of the
Zaibatsu, the welfare of common Japanese was totally neglected. This
situation created the following as 1. resentment of conservative
nationalists against the Zaibatsus support to political parties. 2. intense
struggle between the young military officers and Zaibatsus. 3. feeling in
the military class that Zaibatsu prevented the expansion of army and navy.
5. dislike in radical army officers about Zaibasus economic independence
and aristocratic status. 6. Public opinion extreme ly hostile towards the
politicians, bureaucrats and the Zaibatsus. Thus, the Japanese favoured the
military to control the government in Japan and it speeded the rise of
militarism in Japan.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a short note on the political party system in Japan.

6.3 UNREST AMONG THE WOR KERS AND PEASANTS The Governments which came to power failed to create a stable economy
and satisfactory living standard for common people. The problem became
more serious when a period of slump occurred in Japan ese economy and
created unemployment and social discontent. Since 1913, Japanese
government had not addressed to any problems of industrial workers,
which generated general discontentment among the people. The Japanese
government also neglected the interes t of the people and passed
legislations in favour of business and industrial magnets. Although,
agriculture was the backbone of Japanese economy, the political party
governments in Japan never tried to improve the position of agriculture munotes.in

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49 Landmarks In World History and the small -scale industries which were based on the agricultural
production that led to create discontent among the peasantry of Japan. On
the contrary, the Japanese government under Hara imported rice and
agricultural raw material when prices of agricultural production were
falling at home. Thus, the party Governments were criticized openly for
callous disregard towards the workers and peasants and people began to
advocate the old policy of colonial expansion.
Setback in Foreign Relations:
Japanese increased occupation o f the German islands appeared a danger to
American positions in the Philippines and south Pacific areas. England
also felt uneasy about Japanese presence in her neighbourhood. Under
these circumstances an attempt was made to achieve the naval
disarmament a nd political resettlement in the Far East. The United States,
therefore, convenvened the Washington Conference in 1921 -22.
At the Washington Conference the Japanese were forced to terminate the
Anglo - Japanese Alliance of 1902 and accept the Four Power Pac t, which
ratified the existing territorial possions in the Pacific region. Japan was
compelled to sign the nine power Treaty by which the signatories were
bound to respect the sovereignty, independence, territorial integrity of
China and respect the open -Door policy announced by U.S.A. in China.
Japan was pressurized to withdraw her forces from Siberia and restore
political control of China in Shantung. Finally, the Five Power Naval
Treaty established the unequal ratio of Britain, America, and Japan in the
proportion of 5:5:3. Thus, the outcome of the Washington Conference was
considered as a great setback by the Japanese military and ultra –
nationalists. They blamed the party government for its inability to secure
more favourable terms for Japan at the Con ference of 1930. Japan tried to
change the unequal naval ratio 5:5:3 determined at the Washington
Conference of 1921 -22. but Japan did not succeed in her efforts. This led
the Japanese military to hate the policies of the Liberal government and
the rise o f militarism took place in Japan.
Check form progress
Q. Write a short note on the contribution of the Zaibatsu towards the rise
of militarism in Japan.

6.4 RISE OF ULTRA - NATIONALIST GROUPS After the Washington Conference of 1921 -22, there came up seve ral ultra -
nationalist groups, radical societies, and terrorist organizations in Japan,
which paved the way for the rise of militarism in Japan. Some of the
important groups were as 1. Gen Yosha 2. The Black Dragon Society.
3.The Japan National Socialist P arty.4. The State Shintoists 5. The
Sakurakai. Among these groups the first group Gen Yosha was popularly
Known as the Sea of Genkai, that was founded in 1881 and had three aims
as crossing the sea of Genkai means adopting the policy of expansion, munotes.in

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50 Militarism In Japan patrioti c devotion to the emperor and the support for the movement
popular rights. Thus, this group favoured the rise of militarism in Japan.
The other groups like the Black Dragon Society and the Japanese
Production Party emphasized on the attainment of national economic self -
sufficiency and equitable distribution of sources of income. They
advocated the expansion in the Japanese empire in the Amur River region
and realization of its empire in the Greater East Asia. The Black Dragon
party had very dominant leader s like Kitalkki and Dr. Okawa Shumei,
who advocated the reconstruction of Japan around the military and the
high status to the soldiers and peasants. They influenced the younger and
petty military officials, who believed in the emperor worship cult and
opposed to Liberalism, Socialism and communism. Their ideology was
authoritarian, anti -Parliamentarian, anti - democratic and opposed to
disarmament and were suspicious about the work of the League of
Nations. There were several terrorist organizations in Japa n, who tried to
establish a military dictatorship in Japan, when it failed, they plotted to
assassinate the whole cabinet and bring the whole government into their
hands. However, before the plot was materialized, the leaders involved in
the plot were arre sted. Finally, the terrorist groups, assassinated to
successive Prime Ministers namely Hamaguchi in 1931 and the second
Inukai in 1932. Thus, these developments paved the way for the rise of
militarism in Japan in 1932.
Check form progress
1. How far the setback in foreign policy of Japan led to the rise of
militarism in the country?

6.5 THE MANCHURIAN CRISI S This crisis also contributed to the rise of militarism in Japan. In 1931,
there was a clear split between the Liberal Government in Tokyo and the
military classes. This was further divided into armed clashes by an
explosion of bomb on the Southern Railroad near Mukden, on the night
18-19 September 1931. This incident provoked the Japanese armed forces
to control Mukden, the Capital of Manchuria and Later whole Manchuria
based on protecting Japanese people and their property. After the critical
assessment and coming to a certain conclusion of the crisis by the League
of Nations, Japan declared that there was no interference of Japan, but it
was the wo rk of the independent State of Machukau and gave up her
membership of the league of Nations, in order to avoid any action by the
League of Nation. Thus, Manchurian incidence brought military
leadership to the forefront in Japan and led her to enter the age of
militarism, giving whole Japanese administration in the hands armed
personnel.

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51 Landmarks In World History 6.6 SUMMARY After, the rise of militarism in Japan in 1932, it launched the military
campaigns in the Far East, the mainland of China and started the second
Sino-Japanes e war in 1937. This incident led Japan to enter the second
World War in 1939 and finally it was to face the consequences of its
policy i.e., bomb attack by America in 1945.
6.7 QUESTIONS 1. Account for the rise of militarism in Japan.
2. Explain the role o f the Zaibatsu in the rise of militarism in Japan.
3. Discuss in brief the foreign policy of Japan after the World War .
6.8 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Alberch t R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publication, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S.B . Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japa n North American Library
Press 1965. munotes.in

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52 Militarism In Japan Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Iran: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
Mahmood Shamma Ed.. Introduction to the Hi story of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Huk umchand and Krishna Mathur, Adhuni Magacha Itihas, K
Sagar Publication, Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. VisavyaShatkaliMagachaItihas, Phadke Prakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005.


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53
7
WORLD WAR II
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nature of the Second World War
7.3 Causes of the Second World War
7.4 Main Events of the Second World War
7.5 Peace Treaties after World War II
7.6 Consequences of the Second World Wa r
7.7 Summary
7.8 Questions
7.9 Additional Reading
7.0 OBJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to understand -
1. The nature (character) of the war.
2. Causes (factors) that led to the war.
3. Main events (course) of the wa r.
4. Consequences of the war.
7.1 INTRODUCTION The seeds of the Second World War were sown much earlier. In 1919,
France humiliated Germany and forced her to accept the dictated peace
and sign the Treaty of Versailles. France not only recovered Alsace a nd
Lorraine, but also took away the rich Rhur Valley. Germany was unable
to pay the heavy war compensation. Germany’s economy soon crumbled.
These factors made her to prepare for the Second World War and tear up
the treaty of Versailles which had brough t her these troubles.
The causes that brought the Second World War were many. Some were
fundamental causes, and some were immediate. Some of the main factors
were (a) failure of the League, (b) failure of disarmament efforts, (c) rise
of dictators, (d) a ggressive nationalist (c) problem of national minorities,
and (f) policy of appeasement.
7.2 NATURE OF THE SE COND WORLD WAR It was a ’total war’ — a war in which all the resources of the country and
all the activity of the country was mobilised for the war purpose. The
power of the State was fully exercised. It took control of all the activities munotes.in

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54 World War II of every sphere of life and subordinated them to the needs of the war.
Food and many other things were rationed private houses taken over by
government, factories controlled, the universal blackout was declared —
these and many other factors brought the war home to every family. In a
sense everybody was made to contribute to the war effort.
Secondly, the scope of the war was worldwide and so was its strategy. Its
battles were fought in every part of the globe -in the deserts of Africa, in
the jungles of Burma, in the islands of the Pacific in the Far East.
Thirdly, this war was different in strategy and method. The First World
War was static, and its main feature was trench - warfare. In the second
war the armies moved with great speed. Hitler’s BLITZKRIEG, or
lightening war struck down six countries in a period of three months. This
was possible because of the close co -operation between the German land
and air f orces and the perfect organisation of the supply services. Another
feature of the war was the powerful use of the air force.
Lastly, it was a war of ideas and of nations. The Nazis were motivated by
their philosophy of the superior Aryan race and their b elief that the
inferior races must work for them. This philosophy made them very
aggressive. Nazism stood for a totalitarian state in which there was no
room for individual freedom. Hence it was a challenge to the western
democratic way of life. The st ruggle between the two worlds did not
permit any compromise. The Nazis did not bother about human rights or
moral considerations and committed terrible crimes against humanity.
Hence to fight against Nazism was to fight for freedom and civilization.
President Roosevelt summed up the war aims of the Allies as consisting of
four freedoms, freedom from fear, freedom from want, freedom of
worship and political freedom. Thus, the ideology of the Allies was
totally different from that of the Axis Powers. Muc h more than political
liberty was at stake, civilisation was being threatened.
7.3 CAUSES OF THE SE COND WORLD WAR 7.3.1 Treaty of Versailles
The injustice of the Treaty of Versailles was largely responsible for the
outbreak of the Second World War. This t reaty showed a spirit of
vengeance by imposing severe terms and restrictions on Germany. It had
stripped her of all armaments and left her powerless before the enemy. It
deprived her of all her colonies, burdened her with a huge war indemnity,
and placed the war guilt only on her shoulders. All this was done without
giving Germany any opportunity to negotiate. Forced to accept a dictated
peace treaty the Germany felt deeply humiliated. They felt that a deep
injustice had been done to them. The series of economic problems that
followed only increased the resentment that the Germans felt towards the
Allies. They wanted to be free of their economic problems. Hitler
promised to get rid of the root cause of their problems and he began by
defying the treat y of Versailles. Had the Allies shown good sense and
revised the treaty from time to time, then the war would not have munotes.in

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55 Landmarks In World History happened. But the short -sighted and selfish policy of the Allies was as
much responsible for the war as was Hitler’s aggressive policy.
7.3.2 Failure of the League of nations:
Had the League of Nations done its duty well, there would have been no
war. The League failed to come up to the expectations of the peoples of
the world. The League had become nothing more than a debating society
since the powers used it for their own personal objectives.
Britain used the League as an alternative to Bolshevism
France used the League to see that Germany did not break the terms of the
Treaty of Versailles. To her the League was an instrument to guar antee
her security against a revengeful Germany.
The Nazis called the League, “a joint -stock company for the preservation
of the booty won in the war”.
The first shock to the League came from Japan. In 1931, she occupied the
Chinese territory of Manchuria and set up a puppet government there.
Though the League condemned the act, Japan walked out of the League in
1933.This was a serious blow.
Hitler very systematically violated the Treaty of Versailles and then left
the League.
In 1935, Mussolini attacked Abyssinia. The League declared Italy to be
the aggressor and applied economic sanctions. Unfortunately, the
sanctions were not applied seriously by the members of the League. After
occupying Abyssinia, Mussolini withdrew from the League in 1936. The
action of Italy was a shattering blow to the League. It proved beyond a
doubt, that the League had no “teeth”’ and could not prevent its members
from fighting with one another. It proved that collective security was an
idle dream.
7.3.3 Problem of Minoriti es:
When the U.S.A. entered the First World War in 1971 the Allied Powers
promised to fight for the principle of ‘self -determination’ of all people.
But this was not what happened at the Paris Peace Conference. There
were nearly 30 million minority group s living in lands not their own. In
Rumania for example there were about one and a half million Hungarians,
and some more Hungarians lived in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia., In
Czechoslovakia there were nearly three and a half million Sudeten
Germans. Li kewise, there were Hungarians, Poles, Germans, Italians
Bulgars, Albanians, Russians, and Macedonians living in other countries.
The principle of self -determination had certainly not been applied for
them. Austria had not been allowed to join Germany. A s a result, Hitler
found justification for annexing Austria and Sudetenland from
Czechoslovakia. He invaded Poland in 1939 for the same reason.
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56 World War II 7.3.4 Failure of Disarmament Efforts:
The question of disarmament is closely connected with security. All
nations were concerned with security, but this would remain on paper
only, until they were persuaded to disarm themselves. Each country
waited for the other to begin disarming first. By the Treaty of Versailles,
Germany had been forced to disarm. She had h oped all nations would also
bring about a certain degree of disarmament, since the terms of the League
Covenant provided for it.
Some success was achieved in the field of naval armaments. In 1921, at
the Washington Conference, U.S.A. , Japan, France and I taly agreed to
limit their navies in a fixed ratio.
Attempts were also made to secure a limitation on land armaments. The
World Disarmament Conference met at Geneva in 1932 but came to
nothing. From the beginning, France and Germany had totally opposite
viewpoints. Germany demanded parity with France. France would not
disarm because to her, security meant the isolation and total disarmament
of Germany. Britain and U.S.A. could not convince France and so the
final attempt of the League ended in failure.
7.3.5 Aggressive nationalism:
The First World War resulted in the toppling of four monarchies and the
collapse of their empires. It led to the creation of new nations based on
the principle of self -determination as proclaimed by President Woodrow
Wilson. It was but natural that the people from these nations should feel
proud of their countries. Unfortunately, the nationalistic spirit took an
extreme and aggressive form. Nationalism was emphasized and promoted
by Mussolini and the Fascist Party. Italia ns were continuously reminded
of their past greatness and their future destiny as a nation. Mussolini tried
to revive the glory of the ancient Roman Empire and advocated the use of
force to attain such a goal. The Germans had been humiliated after the
war. Hitler promised to restore the national pride and glory by tearing up
the Treaty of Versailles. Through his speeches, Hitler promoted a sense of
militant nationalism.
Militant nationalism was used to promote imperialistic expansion. Japan’s
activitie s in the Far East, Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia, and Hitler’s
invasions of Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland finally brought the world
to another war.
7.3.6 Rise of Dictators:
Practically all countries faced severe problems after the war.
Government s were unable to cope with unemployment, food -shortage, and
inflation. The Great Depression of 1929 brought even more hardships. So,
countries became a breeding ground for the rise of dictatorships. In Italy
Mussolini came to power with promises to set thi ngs right. In Russia,
Stalin started five -year plans by which the people gained economic
development at the cost of their personal liberty. Out of the civil war in munotes.in

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57 Landmarks In World History Spain, General Franco emerged as dictator. Similarly, Portugal also
welcomed a dictator. In the Far East, the military generals supported the
Japanese Emperor. The political scene was fast changing, and it is no
small wonder that Germany too embraced an ambitious dictator. These
dictatorships used violence at home and had no problem using it abroad.
It was a prime means of securing and strengthening their hold on their
people. These dictatorships were militantly aggressive.
7.3.7 Policy of Appeasement:
European affairs between March 1938 and April 1939 were dominated by
the full -scale imple mentation of Neville Chamberlain’s policy of
appeasement. This policy was based on a number of considerations.
(1) Britain and France did not agree on many issues. France wanted
Germany to be economically crippled. Britain disagreed, because
British eco nomic recovery depended on German economic recovery.
(2) The most significant basis of this policy was the fear of Communism.
Britain, France and U.S.A. did not want Russia to become a world
power.
(3) This policy also rested on a careful calculation of t he balance of
power. Germany, Italy, Japan and other dictators too, were against
Communism and ready to destroy it. The Western Powers wanted to
see Germany, Japan and Russia fight each other and perhaps destroy
each other.
(4) This policy was also based on their internal weakness. British Prime
Minister Neville Chamberlain believed that the policy of appeasement
would either avert a war or at least delay it long enough for Britain
and France to be ready for the war.
(5) Finally, the British did not real ly understand the new generation of
dictators. Neville Chamberlain believed that once the injustices in the
Treaty of Versailles were removed, Hitler would not fight a war.
7.3.8 Hitler’s Foreign Policy:
One of the promises that Hitler made to the Germans was that he would
recover for Germany her position of power. His view of the Third Reich
was an Empire that included all Germans within one nation. He intended
to annex territory that had a German population, which meant Austria,
Czechoslovakia, and Pol and.
(1) Hitler first turned his attention to Austria. He encouraged Nazi
agitation within Austria, bullied the Austrian Chancellor to appoint a
Nazi minister and forced him to conduct Austria’s foreign policy at
Germany’s dictation. In 1938, Hitler sent German armies into Austria
and brought about ANSCHLUSS (union) with Germany.
(2) The Nazi dictator then turned his attention to Sudetenland where
many Germans were living. He accused the Czech government of munotes.in

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58 World War II oppressing the German minority. The Czech gove rnment replied that
it had given equal privileges to all its citizens. Hitler was not satisfied
and said that he would help the Sudeten’s. Britain and France were
very concerned with this development and in September 1938,
together with Italy they signed the MUNICH PACT. Hitler was
permitted to annex Sudetenland on condition that in future he did not
want more territory.
(3) This policy of appeasement exposed the weakness of Britain and
France. Hitler became bolder and he conquered Bohemia, Moravia,
and Slovakia. Hitler forced Lithuania to hand over Memel to
Germany.
7.3.9 Immediate cause of the War:
Hitler’s plans involved Poland. He demanded that Danzig be returned to
Germany and the Polish Corridor as well. This demand proved too much
for the Britis h. Chamberlain gave up his policy of appeasement and
announced that in case Poland was attacked, Britain would come to her
aid. He concluded a formal alliance with France and Poland, and the three
Powers agreed to guarantee one another’s independence and territorial
integrity. Hitler moved swiftly and signed a Non -Aggression Pact with
Russia for ten years. Hitler was convinced that Britain and France would
not fight. On September 1, German troops invaded Poland without any
declaration of war. On 3 Septe mber Britain and France declared war on
Germany. Thus began the Second World War.
Check Your Progress:
1. Trace the causes of the World War II.

7.4 MAIN EVENTS (COU RSE) OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR The Blitzkrieg:
The long war began with Germany’s invasion o f Poland. It was here that
the new German strategy of BLITZKRIEG or lightening war was first
demonstrated. The Polish capital of Warsaw fell in two weeks. Russia
invaded eastern Poland according to her Pact with Germany, and Poland
was partitioned betwe en them.
Hitler next attacked NORWAY because he wanted the iron mines for his
war production. Then one after another he took control of HOLLAND,
BELGIUM, and FRANCE. The German army entered France on June 5,
and in less than three weeks the French Genera l Marshal Petain signed an
unconditional surrender. The world was shocked at the success of Hitler’s
Blitzkrieg. munotes.in

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59 Landmarks In World History Mussolini joined the war on the side of Germany and seized NICE from
Italy.
The Battle of Britain, 1940 -1941:
With the fall of France, Britain was left alone to fight Germany. Hitler
chose not to invade Britain immediately. He tried to break down the
British morale by heavy air attacks and large -scale sinking of British
ships. The Luftwaffe (German air force) bombed Britain’s industrial
areas , the ports and London itself, for a year (August 1940 – June 1941.)
But the British fought back with great determination. They had a skilful
system of air -raid precautions. The pilots of the British Royal Air Force
did a splendid job in fighting off the Germans. WINSTON CHURCHILL,
the war -time Prime Minister of Britain, paid rich tributes to the R.A.F.
pilots with these words, “Never in the field of human conflict was so much
owed by so many to so few.” It was during this time that U.S.A. supplied
war m aterials on a lend -lease basis to Britain.
Invasion of Russia:
The Non -Aggression Pact signed between Russia and Germany proved to
be for a short time only. Stalin did not like the German occupation of
Balkan territory. The conquest of Yugoslavia by Germ any and quarrel
over sharing the territory created a division between the two countries. In
June 1941, Hitler attacked Russia by ordering a well -coordinated and
massive attack. The German army advanced from three directions. In the
south, the German adv ance was swift but as the Russians retreated, they
destroyed all bridges, factories, railways an even crop growing in the
fields. It was a “scorched earth” policy, to prevent the Germans from
getting any kind of advantage. In the northern area, the Germa n troops
laid siege to LENINGRAD. It was a matter of life and death for Russia
and her patriotic citizens fought it out. The over -confident Hitler did not
take into account the Russian winter. The Russian winter froze the
German soldiers and the Battle for Russia turned out to be a great disaster
for Germany.
Pearl Harbour and Japanese Success:
The war was converted into a global conflict when Japan invaded the
U.S.A. naval base at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii on December 7, 1941.
Three days later they sank two British battleships. They captured
Hongkong, Malaya, Singapore, and Burma. The Dutch East Indies were
conquered, and the Philippines surrendered after four months of fierce
fighting. By October 1942, Japan was at the gates of India’s eastern
frontie rs, and controlling an empire stretching over three million square
miles.
Allied Victories In North Africa And Italy:
From the beginning 1943, the prospects of the Allies improved in the west.
The Eight Army under the command of General Montgomery won a
historic battle against General Rommel (German tank Commander) at EL munotes.in

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60 World War II ALAMEIN. At the same time a large British and American force under
General Eisenhower landed in northwest Africa near Algiers. The two
Allied armies after some fierce fighting, joined u p in Tunisia and
compelled the whole enemy force to surrender in May 1943. The German
struggle in North Africa came to an end.
The Allies next invaded and took Sicily. From there they began to march
to Rome. Mussolini fell from power and Italy surrender ed
unconditionally. But the German army in Italy offered a tough resistance
and Rome was only taken in June 1944. Before this, Mussolini had been
shot dead by the anti -Fascists.
The D -Day Invasions:
One of the most spectacular events of the second world war was the Allied
invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944, led by General Eisenhower.
Before this day the Allies bombed Germany fiercely. The Ruhr and other
industrial centres, the railway and canal system -all were heavily damaged
by this constant bombing . When the Allies landed, the Germans put up a
stiff resistance but were pushed back everywhere. In August, Paris was
liberated. Soon after the Germans were expelled from Belgium and
Holland. The Allies penetrated through Germany’s weak defences and
moved across the German frontier. Meanwhile the Russians had opened
their great offensive through Poland and were fighting in Berlin. Hitler
committed suicide, and on May 7, 1945, Germany surrendered. Hitler’s
successor Admiral Doenitz signed the peace agr eement.
The Pacific War:
Although the guns were silent in Europe, the war had not ended. Japan
continued to fight. A British and Indian army fought Japan steadily in the
jungles of Burma, while the Americans attacked the Japanese bases in the
southwest Pacific. The battle was fierce, and the Americans took island
by island, till they reached Okinawa. Both sides suffered heavy casualties
in the battle for Okinawa, but the Americans won.
The Allies then issued an ultimatum threatening Japan with prompt a nd
utter destruction if she did not surrender. The Japanese government turned
down the proposal. The Americans were left with no options, and they
dropped the atom bombs on HIROSHIMA and NAGASAKI. The wo
cities were destroyed and Japan realising the hop elessness of the situation
surrendered on August 14, 1945. The nuclear holocaust came as a finale
to the Second World War.2
Check Your Progress:
Briefly enumerate the main events during the World War II.
7.5 PEACE TREATIES A FTER WORLD WAR II Regarding th e fate of Germany, the Allies had made their aims known
through the Atlantic Charter and the Conferences held in Teheran, Yalta, munotes.in

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61 Landmarks In World History and Potsdam. Germany and her capital were to be divided into zones and
occupied by Russia, France, Britain, and U.S.A. The Na zi leaders were to
be tried for their offences and punished. The Franco -German frontier of
1939 was restored. After a plebiscite the Saar was annexed to Western
Germany. Russia and the Western Allies quarrelled over many issues and
the unification of Ge rmany remained unsolved.
A Council of Foreign Ministers prepared drafts of peace treaties to be
signed by Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, R omania, and Finland. The Paris
Peace Conference was held in July 1946, which was attended by 21
nations. In February 1947 , these countries signed their treaties after
pleading their cases.
(1) Italy surrendered all her territorial conquests gained after the First
World War. Albania became independent and Communist. Trieste
was divided into two zones and occupied by Anglo -American and
Yugoslav forces.
(2) Austria was separated from Germany and occupied by the Four
Powers until 1955.
(3) Hungary and Bulgaria came under communist governments.
(4) Finland ceded some territory to Russia.
(5) The Allies under General Mac Arthur o ccupied Japan until 1951.
Japan signed treaties with Britain, France, and U.S.A. She gave up
her control over Korea, Formosa, Sakhalin, and Kurile Islands, and
signed a defence treaty with the U.S.A. permitting her forces to
remain in Japan.
7.6 CONSEQUE NCES OF WORLD WAR II The Second World War like the First, brought economic, social, and
political changes. In 1945 the most drastic economic and social changes
came in central and Eastern Europe, and where many countries underwent
a complete economic reor ganization under Communist control. The
greatest political upheavals came in the Asiatic countries of China, India,
Burma, Malaya, and Indonesia.
World War II produces catastrophic results, unparalleled in the history of
mankind.
(1) During the five years and ten months of war, it was estimated that
twelve million soldiers were killed in action. Another twenty -five
million died due to starvation and disease. About 1,60,000 people
died in Japan because of the atom bombs. Even today the children of
those who survived the holocaust, suffer from skin diseases and
cancer. The numbers will never be accurate, but this time women and
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62 World War II (2) The U.S.A. spent nearly 350 billion dollars. The other countries may
have spen t something like a trillion dollars (i.e., 1,000 billion.) In
terms of damage the cost was another trillion dollars.
(3) At the end of the war Europe found itself completely ruined. Almost
every European State had witnessed heavy bombing. Industries were
destroyed, ports, railways, bridges were destroyed and civilian homes
as well.
(4) The war caused sufferings to millions of people all over the world.
Everything was in short supply. There was scarcity of foodstuff,
kerosene, building materials etc. Pric es shot up and the standard of
living went right down.
(5) Every country found itself bankrupt and this affected political life.
European nations came to be influenced by socialist and leftist ideas.
E.g., the Labour Government came to power in Britain s oon after the
war.
(6) The people of the world were horrified at the MORAL
DEGENERATION of all humanity. Man had committed the worst
possible cruelties and atrocities on other innocent human beings. The
Nazis had massacred millions of Jews in the most te rrible way. The
dropping of the atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki proved that
man was prepared to wipe out his own species. Acts like these
showed the depth of moral degradation.
(7) The three great Axis Powers i.e., Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and
militarist Japan were completely crushed. (a) GERMANY was split
into four zones, and each zone was put under the control of U.S.A. ,
Britain, France, and Soviet Russia respectively. The capital city of
Berlin was also divided into four zones. These zones we re under
foreign military control between 1945 -1948. (b) Italy lost all her
colonial possessions. She had to pat a war indemnity and Russia got a
hundred million dollars as reparation from Italy She collapsed
economically, and the Marshall Plan helped her to recover. (c) Japan
too lost her entire colonial empire including Korea, Manchuria and
Taiwan. The Allied Forces (SCAP) under General Eisenhower of the
U.S.A. occupied her. Today all these three countries under
democratic governments have staged an ec onomic recovery.
(8) World War II brought about changes in the positions of then Allied
countries as well. Britain and France lost their positions as
superpowers, and they gave up this position to U.S.A. and USSR.
After the War Britain and France were fa ced with domestic and
external problems. Both could no longer hold their respective
colonies. Their economies were almost bankrupt.
(9) One of the surprising results of the war was the rise of USSR as a
superpower. She was partly responsible for the defeat of Germany.
The heroism shown by her people at the time of the war, could hardly
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63 Landmarks In World History (10) The U.S.A. played a pivotal role in winning the war. The U.S.A. had
benefited financially in a tremendous way and her industrialists had
made huge profits . During the war the U.S.A. had loaned money to
many countries. After the war, since her financial position was secure,
she continued to loan money to war -tom countries.
(11) These two new Superpowers, U.S.A., and U .S.S.R. represented totally
different ide ologies. U.S.A. represented the Capitalist bloc and USSR
represented the Communist bloc. The “cold war,” between the two
lasted from 1945 -1989.
(12) The most far -reaching consequence of the war was the colonial
revolution. The people of the colonial em pires of Britain, France and
Holland revolted against the domination of the white man. They were
determined to have their freedom. India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon,
Indonesia, Indochina, Israel, Iran, Syria, Ethiopia, Libya and states in
Africa, all won the ir independence soon after the war.
(13) The United Nations Organisation ( U.N.O. ) was born in 1945.
Although the League of Nations failed, mankind did not lose its hopes
of making the world a safer place. The UN Charter was signed at San
Francisco, and it contains the hope that countries can work together to
maintain peace.
Check Your Progress:
Bring out the important effects of the World War II?

7.7 SUMMARY Even though all countries in Europe and the world had suffered so much
due to the First World War , they did not seem to have learnt a lesson. In
less dm 33 years these same countries were at war again.
Though there is no doubt that the rise of dictators like Hitler and
Mussolini was responsible for the war, yet we should not overlook the
deeper reaso ns. The Treaty of Versailles had humiliated and hurt
Germany deeply and destroyed her economically. Germany wanted her
revenge. Nationalism all over became aggressive and national minorities
fought for their independence. Though the League of Nations h ad tried to
stop the race for armaments, it was unsuccessful. Once again, the world
was an armed camp. Surprisingly, Britain and France followed a policy of
appeasement, whenever Hitler went against the Treaty of Versailles.
Nobody stopped him and he to ok advantage.
Hitler invaded Austria, Sudetenland and finally Poland. This led the
whole world into war again. On one side were the Axis Powers i.e.,
Germany, Italy, and Japan. On the other side were the Allied Powers who
included U.S.A. , Britain and F rance. Russia at first was with the Axis munotes.in

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64 World War II Powers but when Germany attacked her, she was forced to join hands with
the Allies.
The Allies were finally successful, but they paid a heavy price. There was
immense loss of life and destruction of property. Whe n Japan refused to
surrender, the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The Allies were careful not to be harsh at the peace conference. The
Second World War saw the rise of two new Superpowers, U.S.A. and
USSR. Britain and France were now second -rate powers. Germany, Italy
and Japan were economically destroyed. Japan was occupied by SCAP to
help with its economic recovery. Finally, the U.N.O. was established in
an attempt to maintain peace and cooperation among all nations.
7.8 QUESTION S 1. What were the major causes of World War II?
2. Analyse the causes of World War II.
3. Discuss the Important effects of World War II.
4. Write short notes on the following,
(a) Nature of World War II
(b) Course of World War II
(c) Main events during World War II
7.9 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Albercht R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publicati on, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999. munotes.in

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65 Landmarks In World History Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan North American Library
Press 1965.
Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Ir an: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
Mahmood Shamma Ed.. Introduction to the History of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hukumchand and Krishna Mathur, Adhuni Magacha Itihas, K
Sagar Publication, Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. VisavyaShatkaliMagachaItihas,Phadke Prakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005 .


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66
8
THE ATLANTIC CHARTER AND UNITED
NATIONS ORGANISATION
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Atlantic Charter
8.3 Aims and objectives of the U.N.O.
8.4 Membership of the U.N.O.
8.5 Organisation of the U.N.O.
8.6 Specialised Agenc ies of the U.N.O.
8.7 The Achievements of the U.N.O.
8.8 Summary
8.9 Questions
8.10 Additional Reading
8.0 OBJECTIVES After studying of this module, the student will be able to –
1. Appreciate the significance of the Atlantic Charter
1. Perceive the objectives and aims of the U.N.O.
2. Understand the organisation of U.N.O.
3. Comprehend about the special agencies of U.N.O.
4. Describe the achievements of the U.N.O.
8.1 INTRODUCTION When Woodrow Wilson had put forward his Fourteen Points, he had
hoped it would bring about a peaceful settlement after the war. He argued
that unless all countries collectively tried to maintain peace, there would
be no peace. All countries had to respect each other’s territorial integrity.
Based on these ideas, he p roposed the establishment of an international
association called the League of Nations.
The main aim of the League was to prevent war, promote peace and
international co -operation. The League functioned through the main
organs of the Assembly, the Council , and the Secretariat. There were
other auxiliary organs like the International Court and the World Health
Organisation.
Unfortunately, the League failed in its main purpose of preventing war. It
was the member nations themselves who, failed the League a s they munotes.in

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67 Landmarks In World History refused to obey orders. The League did not have any military force with
which to compel members to obey. When the League asked Italy not to
colonise Abyssinia and to withdraw, Italy withdrew from the League
instead.
But in the field of social and humanitarian work it accomplished much. Its
agencies did much to suppress the illegal drug trade, prostitution of
women and children and to abolish slavery. The League was also
successful in promoting educational and intellectual Co -operation and in
co-ordinating health and scientific organisations throughout the world.
Wilson and other statesmen who designed the League hoped it would lead
nations to stop seeking protection through secret alliances. Instead, they
favoured a system of ‘collective security .’ In this system the security of
each member would be guaranteed by the protection of all. For collective
security to work, it was necessary that all members come to the aid of each
other if any member was attacked. The League could not force nations to
help each other. It had to be a voluntary action. Each nation had to
believe that a threat to the peace of any nation however small, was a threat
to its own peace.
Why the League failed was most dramatically illustrated when Italy
attacked Ethiopia in 1 935. The League declared that Italy had gone
against the Covenant and asked members to impose sanctions against
Italy. Members agreed to stop all imports from Italy and to send no
money or war materials to Italy. But the U.S.A -, Japan and Germany were
not members. It was left to Britain, France and Russia to strongly oppose
Italy. However, Britain and France were not willing to use force to stop
Italy, as it might lead to war. They did not impose the oil sanctions
against Italy, and finally Italy conq uered Ethiopia in May 1936.The
Ethiopian crisis completely discredited the League as an instrument of
maintaining peace.
The U.N.O. was culmination of various war time conferences. Historically
it was the grand alliance against Axis Powers was the backgrou nd of it.
During the second world war, various peace efforts were attempted
through some major conferences for co – ordinating the war effort and
military strategy of the allied powers. The fundamental principles for the
post war reconstruction and mainten ance of peace were laid down. The
foremost effort was the result in the Atlantic charter which contained the
principals of world peace and co – corporation among nations.
8.2 THE ATLANTIC CHARTER Course of Peace Efforts – In the Midst of Second World Wa r, the “Big
Three” – Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin attempted to reassure the war
battered humanity of peace and freedom. The statesmen and diplomats
were putting their maximum effort in examining the weakness of the
existing system of international syste m and plan of action to have the
remedial measures. It was concluded that there was an urgent need form munotes.in

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68 The Atlantic Charter and United Nations Organisation the establishment of a stronger and effective international order after the
war.
The Atlantic Charter – The first step to have the Atlantic charter was
taken when on 14th August 1941, the American President Roosevelt and
British Prime Minister Churchill met aboard on an American cruiser in
mid Atlantic Ocean. A joint declaration of the principal known as the
“Atlantic Charter” was issued. Both the leaders declared their commitment
to have an idealist program of international peace and justice to denounce
any attempt of territorial expansion. This declaration was to promote the
right of every country to choose its own form of government. The Charter
believe d that all the nations of the world must end the race for
militarization for realistic as well as spiritual reasons. It’s stated that the
race for armament and deployment of the arms and ammunitions at land,
sea and air were the immediate threat to the nei ghbouring countries and
threat to the world peace. It was understood to generate race for
armaments among the peace -loving nations also. Both the leaders realized
that economic prosperity can be achieved through the long -lasting peace
and equal opportunity of trade and economic corporation for the
development of every nation of the world eighter small or big.
The charter clearly stated that both the leaders pledge to work for durable
peace. The president Franklin D. Roosevelt in a speech guaranteed to the
world the freedom of speech and religion and freedom from want and fear.
This charter assured permanent peace by giving the guarantee for the
freedom of seas and security based on disarmament.
The U.N. Declaration – On January 01, 1942, the delegates of 26
governments pledged solidarity against the Axis Power. At Washington
they declared that each government would exploit its resources to the
maximum level for the destruction of Axis Powers. They also pledged not
to have any separate armistice for peace with the Axis Powers. They
declared their commitment to the principals of Atlantic Charter. The
Declaration of 26 countries was designated as United Nations declaration.
Later, the proposal to have an international organisation was discussed in
various subseq uent meeting and conferences by the “Big Three” at
Dumbarton Okas Washington, (1944) and Yalta (1945). Eventually, the
delegates from 51 nations assembled at San Francisco (U.S.A) in the
United Nations Conference during the month of April to June 1945.
These several consultations and meeting resulted in the framing on basic
charter of the United Nations. It was ratified by the majority of the
member nations by 24th October 1945, the day when U.N.O. officially
came into existence.
8.3 AIMS AND OBJECTI VES OF THE U.N.O. : The U.N.O. Charter has 111 Articles, and these Articles defuse, the
purpose, principles, and the way the U.N.O. was to be organised.
According to the Preamble, the U.N.O. will work to achieve and promote munotes.in

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69 Landmarks In World History social progress and better standards of living it will strive to establish
conditions of justice.
The UNG Charter contains four clear objectives:
(1) To maintain international peace and security,
(2) To promote friendly relations among nations on the basis of equal
rights and self -determination of peoples,
(3) To achieve international cooperation m solving various problems, and
(4) To promote respect for human rights, dignity, and freedom.
To achieve these objectives, the U.N.O. has accepted certain principles.
They are:
(1) Equality of all mem bers,
(2) Membership is open to all peace -loving nations,
(3) Each member is expected to fulfil its obligations in good faith,
(4) No member nation shall use force against any state and no other state
shall support the aggressor state.
(5) The U.N.O. shall not intervene in the internal affairs of any member
state.
8.4 MEMBERSHIP OF TH E U.N.O. When the U.N.O. began in 1946, it had 51 original members. These
founder members included not only the Great Powers but also Asian
nations.
There is a definite proce dure for admitting new members. Firstly,
membership is open only to peace loving nations that are willing to accept
the obligations contained in the Charter. Secondly, the Security Council
should recommend the new member and the General Assembly must
accept it by a two -thirds majority.
There is no provision for the withdrawal of membership. But on the
recommendation of the Security Council, the general Assembly can expel
or suspend a member nation which has violated the Charter.
8.5 ORGANIS ATION OF THE U.N.O. The main organs of the U.N.O. are (1) General Assembly, (2) Security
Council, (3) the Economic and Social Council, (4) the Trusteeship
Council, (5) the Secretariat, (6) the International Court of Justice.
Besides these there are many subsidiary and s pecialized agencies under
the supervision of the Economic and Social Council.
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70 The Atlantic Charter and United Nations Organisation 8.5.1 The General Assembly:
This is the main organ of the U.N.O. and is made up of all the members.
The Assembly can discuss and make recommendations on any matter of
internati onal importance. The Assembly is concerned with matters of
security and health, education, finance, politics, and social welfare. Its
function is to review, criticise and supervise the actions of the U.N.O.
In the General Assembly all countries are equal . Every country can send
five representatives, but they have only one vote. Decisions on important
matters are made by two -thirds of the members present and voting.
The General Assembly regularly meets each year in September. Special
sessions can be hel d. The Assembly elects a different President for each
session.
The General assembly has exclusive control over the finances of the
U.N.O. It must approve of the budget of any of the specialised agencies
like the UNESCO, the F .A.O., and the I .L.O.
The Gen eral Assembly is responsible for electing members to the
Trusteeship Council and the ECOSOC.
The most important election duty is that of the six non -permanent
members of the Security Council.
The Assembly appoints the Secretary - General on the recommendati ons of
the Security Council.
8.5.2 The Security Council:
The main organ established by the U.N.O. to preserve peace and security
is the Security Council. It has the authority to investigate any dispute
between nations and to recommend peaceful solutions. It has the right to
use diplomatic and economic measures to preserve peace. It also has the
right to use air, naval or land forces against the aggressor, to restore
international order It is both a peacemaker and a policeman.
The Security Council is made up of 5 permanent members and 6 non -
permanent members. The permanent members are, Britain, France,
U.S.A. , USSR, and China. The first no permanent members were
Australia, Brazil, Poland, Mexico, Holland, and Egypt.
It seems like the small nations have a majority. But this is balanced by the
VETO VOTE of the permanent members. To reach a decision on
important matters, the five permanent members must all agree. Even if
one member opposes by casting a veto vote, a decision cannot be taken.
However, to ap ply economic, military, or diplomatic sanctions, all five
permanent members and two non -permanent members must agree.
The Council has complete authority to decide whether peace is being
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71 Landmarks In World History efficiently and can act in seven days. It can go into session at any time
and function immediately.
8.5.3 Economic and Social Council:
ECOSOC is a strong cooperative agency for human welfare. Its aim is the
promotion of social and economic well -being. It seeks to provide
solutions for economic, social, health and related problems. It seeks to
develop respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms for all,
irrespective of race, sex, language, or religion.
The Council is made up of 18 member states, each with one
representative. Decisions are made by a majority of members present and
voting.
The scope of the Council extends to every human activity of international
interest. ECOSOC has created various Commissions to help people.
The Economic and Employme nt Commission is concerned with
devastated areas and employment.
The Social Commission deals with standards of living, food, clothing,
health care etc.
The ECOSOC co -operates with other agencies like the UNESCO —United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cu ltural Organisation, the WHO —
World Health Organisation, the FAO — Food and Agricultural
Organisation.
The job of ECOSOC requires action on a co -operative and not a political
basis. Its future depends on the intelligence and goodwill of the people of
the m ember nations.
8.5.4 The Trusteeship Council:
This council takes care of the people living in territories held under the
League of Nations mandate or the territories surrendered by the Axis
Powers coming under trust. It also receives reports on the progre ss made
in the trust territories under the concerned powers. People in these areas
were also permitted to present complaints or petitions.
The Trusteeship Council is composed of Big Powers, member -nations
which administer Trust territories and members ele cted by the General
Assembly. This Council elects a President at the beginning of each
session and meets twice in a year.
8.5.5 The Secretariat:
This is the administrative organ of the U.N.O. It serves as a permanent
liaison between the different branche s of the U.N.O. and between the
specialised agencies also. It prepares for every session of the Assembly,
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72 The Atlantic Charter and United Nations Organisation The General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council
appoints the Secretary -General. He represents the U.N.O. in the eyes of
the whole world.
He has the power to appoint the entire stall of the Secretariat. He must
present the annual report to the general Assembly.
The most important function of the Secretary -General is his right to bring
to the attention of the Security Council any matter that may threaten the
maintenance of international peace and security.
Finally, he is responsible for preparing the budget, allotting funds and
controlling expenditure, and for collecting contributions from member
states.
8.5.6 The International Court of Justice:
This court is situated at the Hague in Holland. It consists of fifteen judges
elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council. No two judges
can be from the same country. The judges are elected for nine years.
Only the Court can dismiss them.
Many countries have signed an “optional clause,” by which they accept
the court’s decision as binding in all legal disputes.
An important function of the court is to provide “advisory opinion,” to t he
general Assembly and the Security Council on request.
8.6 SPECIALISED AGEN CIES OF THE U .N.O To deal with the economic, social, educational, scientific cultural and
humanitarian activities, the U.N.O. has certain specialised agencies.
These agencies are independent organisations with their own secretariats,
administrative and executive bodies. Some of them are:
(1) THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION. (I .L.O.)
Established in 1919, it works to improve the conditions of workers all
over the world.
(2) THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION (F .A.O.)
This agency works to raise food production in the world. It also tries
to improve nutrition levels in developing nations.
(3) THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND. (I .M.F.) It is a
banking agency to help members p ay foreign debts, stabilise their
currency and promote international trade.
(4) THE INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT (I .B.R.D.). This agency was set up in 1944 and is
also known as, the World Bank. Its aim was to encourage economic
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73 Landmarks In World History (5) THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (W .H.O.). The
headquarters of this agency are at Geneva. It attempts to improve
health conditions throughout the world. It tries to eradicate epide mics
like malaria and helps nations to improve health services. It gives
assistance to victim of floods, famines and earthquakes.
(6) THE UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC, AND
CULTURAL ORGANISATION (UNESCO) This agency seeks to
increase respect for justice, law, human lights and fundamental
freedoms for all people. It stresses the development of education the
increase and peaceful use of scientific knowledge.
(7) THE UNITED NATIONS INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN’S
EMERGENCY FUND (UNICEF). Established in 19 46, it aims at
providing food, clothing, and shelter to poverty -stricken children. It
also provides medical relief for sick children.
Check Your Progress:
Bring out the main organisations of the U.N.O.
8.7 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE U.N.O. The U.N.O. has ha d to deal with numerous situations over since it was
formed. Some it has been able to solve and some, it has not. While it has
been able to deal with local conflicts successfully, on the international
front it has not been able to eliminate the possibili ty if a global war.
We will record a few of the successful attempts of the U.N.O. in the
political sphere.
(1) In 1946, the U.N.O. intervened in a dispute between Iran and U .S.S.R.
The Soviet Union was asked to withdraw its troops from Iran, which
she did .
(2) In 1947, the U.N.O successfully stopped a civil war in Greece and
saved its independence and sovereignty.
(3) In 1948, British troops withdrew from Palestine and the new state of
Israel was formed. It was situated in the middle of Arab States. The
Jews expelled the - Arabs from Israel and this led to a war. The
U.N.O. intervened and arranged for a cease -fire.
(4) Another serious problem faced by the U.N.O. was the Suez Crisis.
President Nasser of Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal Company in
1956. Britain and France joined Israel in invading Egypt. The world
almost fought another war, since USSR threatened Britain and France.
The U.N.O. conducted ‘quiet diplomacy.’ She managed to restore
peace in the area.
(5) In 1960, the, U.N.O. sent her peaceke eping forces to Congo to help
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74 The Atlantic Charter and United Nations Organisation (6) In 1965, India and Pakistan fought over Kashmir. The U.N.O.
intervened to maintain a cease -fire.
It is not possible to list out all the situations where the U.N.O. has
intervened. In many of these cases she has not been successful, and the
cases have not been solved. But the fact is that the U.N.O. is the only
forum through which all disputes can be settled. Many times, the U.N.O.
has not been consulted. Many times, the concerned countries settled the
dispute by themselves. Many times, the peacekeeping forces have only
brought about a temporary truce. Very often the U.N.O. has not been
effective, because of Superpower rivalry. One country or the other has
exercised its veto power, thus limiting the scope of the U.N.O.
In the non -political field the U.N.O. has an impressive record. Many
developing countries have received financial assistance firm the World
Bank and other agencies. The UNESCO and UNICEF have done an
extremely good job in the third wo rld countries. They have tried to
improve the quality of life for these people. Through the efforts of the
WHO, diseases like malaria, T.B. leprosy and polio have almost been
eradicated. The ILO has rendered valuable service in the improvement of
the con ditions of labour. One of the greatest achievements of the U.N.O.
has been the UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS,
unanimously adopted in 1948 by the General Assembly.
Finally, the U.N.O. can be successful only if the member nations want its
success. T he peace and welfare of the world depends on them. If they
chose not to co -operate with each other, especially the Permanent
Members, there will never be peace.
Check Your Progress:
1. Discuss in brief the achievements of the U.N.O. ?
8.8 SUMMARY As noted above, the need for a peace -keeping body was felt during the
second world war itself. People and the leaders of the countries realised
that by destroying life and property, no real victory was won. Selfishness
in world politics had led to the war. Now c ountries needed to co -operate
with each other, so that they might live in peace with each other.
Many meetings were held, and plans drawn up, to form a peace body after
the war. The Atlantic Charter was one of the first attempts, followed by
the Dumbarton Oaks Conference and the San Francisco Conference.
Finally on 24 October 1945, the United Nations Organisation was
formally inaugurated at New York.
The aims of the U.N.O. are clear:
(1) To maintain international peace and security,
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75 Landmarks In World History (3) To achieve international co -operation, and
(5) To promote respect for human rights, dignity, and freedom.
There are many subsidiary and specialised agencies through which the
U.N.O. functions. There are five main organs —the General Assemb ly, the
Security Council the ECOSOC, the Trusteeship Council, the Secretariat,
and the International Court of Justice. Besides these there are the
specialised agencies at work to promote economic, social, educational, and
cultural wellbeing of the people o f the world.
It is an extremely difficult task to list out the achievements of the U.N.O.
In the political area there have been many serious situations where the
U.N.O. has not been able to maintain peace. But in many situations the
peace -keeping forces have maintained peace in trouble areas. Very often
the U.N.O. conducts quiet diplomacy and manages to bring about a
compromise between the parties. India and Pakistan fought in 1965 over
the Kashmir issue and the U.N.O. intervened to bring about a cease -fire.
In the non -political field, the U.N.O. has a very impressive record. The
World Bank and the IMF have given much financial assistance to
developing countries. The UNESCO and the UNICEF have helped in
improving the quality of life in third world coun tries.
The U.N.O. as a body has its weaknesses, but if the ideals must succeed
and peace must be maintained in the world, then it is up to the members of
the U.N.O. to maintain peace.
8.9 QUESTIONS 1. What are the aims and objectives of the U.N.O. ?
2. Describe the organisation of the U.N.O.
3. Write short notes on the following.
(a) Specialised agencies of the U.N.O.
(b) The Security Council
(c) General Assembly.
(d) Atlantic Charter .
8.10 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. Eur opean History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Albercht R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publication, New Delhi, 1 987. munotes.in

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76 The Atlantic Charter and United Nations Organisation Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Ris e and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. T he Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan North American Library
Press 1965.
Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Iran: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
Mahmood Shamma Ed.. Introduction to the History of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P. The s truggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hukumchand and Krishna Mathur, Adhuni Magacha Itihas, K
Sagar Publication, Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. VisavyaShatkaliMagachaItihas,Phadke Prakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005.


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77
9
DR. SUN -YAT -SEN AND CHINA
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Beginning of National Awakening
9.3 The Three Principles of Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen
9.4 Summary
9.5 Questions
9.6 Additional Reading
9.0 OBJECTIVES After the study of this modu le, the student will be able to understand the
factors that led to the rise nationalism in China:
1. Describe the cause of the Revolution of 1911.
2. Discuss the three people’s principles.
3. Comprehend the role of Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen in the history of China.
9.1 INTRODUCTION The Manchu dynasty ruled China since 1650. But the rulers were weak
and inefficient. Power passed in the hands of feudal officers called war
lords. The country remained politically unstable, economically backward
and exploited. Foreign countries took advantage. They entered the country
as traders. Gradually they forced the rulers to grant concessions for trade.
They smuggled opium into China. The youth fell a prey to opium
addiction. When the Manchus objected the western nations fought two
opium wars against China. The Manchus were defeated. They had to sign
treaties according to which many Chinese ports were opened to western
nations. The British captured Hongkong. The French, Germans, Belgians,
and Americans, were interested in exploi ting the country. The Open Door
Policy was formulated, by, which the foreign countries, divided China into
spheres of interest. If meant that politically China would be ruled by the
Manchus, but economically every foreign nation would dominate over its
sphere of interest. Thus, the condition of China was miserable.
China faced exploitation by European and other imperialist powers.
Politically the country was not captured, but it was economically
exploited. The weak Manchu dynasty and subsequent weak Presid ents
could not escape humiliation. Finally, Mao -Zedong organised the
communist party, which fought against foreigners and other forces, which
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78 Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen And China 9.2 BEGINNING OF NAT IONAL AWAKENING The educated involved into secret revolutionary soc ieties. They protested
several times. A major episode was the Boxer’s rebellion in 1900. The
Boxers attacked European missionaries and foreign embassies. To save
themselves America, England, Russia, Germany, and Japan sent armies
into China. The rebellion was suppressed. China was once again forced to
accept the humiliating terms of the treaty, which was signed.
Early Life Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen:
Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen has been respected the father nation of China as
Mahatma Gandhiji has been respected as the father of n ation of India. Dr.
Sun-Yat-Sen was senior by three years to Mahatma Gandhiji i.e., he was
born on 12th November 1866 at a village Hsiang -Shan, in the district of
Tsui-Hang in prosperous farmers family. Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen studied at his
village up to the age of 14 and then he was shifted to the Church of
England school, Honolulu, where his elder brother had a business
establishment there. He studied mathematics, History and English in that
school, which created profound impression in his tender mind. Dr. Sun -
Yat-Sen was further shifted to Hongkong, where he studied medicine and
became a qualified surgeon. Sir James Cantlie, one of the reputed
surgeons of his time became a good friend of Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen, who
induced him to undertake social work with him and conv erted him to
Christianity. After completing his medical degree at Queens College,
Hongkong Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen went to Macao to start his medical practice
over there, but the Portuguese Government of Macao did not permit him
to start the practice because Dr. S un-Yat-Sen had no medical degree from
a Portuguese institution. Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen was terribly stunned due to this
institution. Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen was terribly stunned due to this experience
and decided to become a revolutionary like Dr. Ho -Chi-Mink of Indo
China.
Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen as A Revolutionary:
He himself established as a major revolutionary up to 1885, in which his
secret Society known as the Revive China Society, played an important
role and helped him to get married with a daughter of Charles Jones, a
wealthy merchant of Shanghai, Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen made Hongkong his base
for revolutionary activities and tried to seize canton, but he could not
succeed, which made him to go underground for some time. Dr. Sun -Yat-
Sen left for Tokyo, Japan to avoid arrest by Ch inese police. Japanese
Government helped him with men and material for revolutionary
activities, which he supervises from Tokyo. In 1896, Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen left
Japan for London, where he was arrested by the Chinese intelligence, but
Sir Charles Canttie, onc e his British friend, managed to secure his release.
His arrest and subsequent release made Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen extremely
popular as a revolutionary and reformer, who was fighting against the
autocratic government in China. The London episode led him to acquai nt
with the European revolutionaries and brought Chinese soldiers very close
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79 Landmarks In World History Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen and World War I:
During the first World War Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen had been out of any scenario.
There was a struggle between parties for powers. Despite the allied had
forced China to enter the war against Germany. General Chen one of Dr.
Sun-Yat-Sen’s followers defeated his adversaries and declared Dr. Sun -
Yat-Senas a President of the Chinese Republic at Cant on in 1920. Dr. Sun -
Yat-Sen expected help from the western powers, but it was not possible
because they wanted a strong man as a ruler of China not a democrat. The
western powers had decided to continue their imperial interests in China
for which they need ed a despotic ruler rather than Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen. This
dismated Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen and reminded him the betrayed of China at the
Versailles by the Western Powers.
Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen got a favourable response from communist Russia, who
sent Adolph Joffe to help hi m Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen in organisational work in
China. Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen had a dream of bringing whole China under the
control of his Republic but Wu -Pel-Fu, one of the warlords was creating
problems in the Northern China, Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen wanted to overpower as
soon as possible. Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen, therefore, sought alliance with Tuan
and Chang the other two war lords of China but they took decision on their
own before Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen reaching the meeting at Peking. These
warlords did not help him, he saw his dreams shattered and died of a
broken heart on 12th March,1925. His death made him a legendary hero,
the father of Nation of China.
Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen was a Chinese patriot. He founded the Chinese Revival
Society to save the nation. He aroused people by his anti -Manchu and
anti-foreign speeches. Young students got attracted to his thoughts. Sun
wanted to reorganise China on modern lines. He devised his own
programme of social reform based on three principles. This later became
his revolutionary philosophy.
9.3 THE THREE PEOPLE PRINCIPLES OF DR. SUN -YAT -SEN WERE 1. Min-tsu-chu-i or Nationalism
2. Min-chuan -chu-i- or Democracy
3. Min-sheng -chu-i- or Peoples livelihood.
He formed a secret party called Tung -meng -hui. Its branches were
established in many provin ces. This party was later called Kuo Ming tang
or KMT.
People in China were tired of the weak Manchu regime. They were
aroused by the revolutionary organisations. The revolution of 1911 began
suddenly. A police firing in Hankow led to the publication of a list of
conspirators. So, they revolted immediately. The local armies joined, and
the revolt spread rapidly. Dr. Sun was at Tokyo. He directed the activities
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80 Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen And China The Government tried to supress the uprising Gen -Yuan -Shi-kai was told
to put down the same. Meanwhile the revolutionaries captured South
China and proclaimed it independent. Yuan found it difficult to save
monarchy. He compromised with the revolutionaries, on the condition that
he would be the President of the new state. The people ha d no resources to
carry the struggle. So, Sun -Yat-Sen offered the post to Yuan. The Manchu
ruler Pu -Yi transferred, power to Yuan since he was helpless. Thus,
monarchy was overthrown, and China was proclaimed a republic.
China between 1912 and 1928:
After becoming the President, Yuan grabbed all power. His ambition was
to become the emperor. Chinese people did not like this. There were
protests, uprisings etc. leading to decrease of his power. War lords
emerged in provinces. They considered themselves in dependent.
Dr. Sun -Yat-Sen therefore, tried to get foreign support. Yuan died in 1916,
leaving China as divided as before. Dr. Sun had to organise the party to
establish control over China. He was influenced by the success of
Bolsheviks in Russia. He ask ed help from Bolsheviks. They agreed.
Michael Borodin was sent to reorganise KMT on communist lines. But
the alliance of KMT and communists was temporary. The communists
tried to side track Dr. Sun. He could not do much and died a sad man in
the year 1 925. His successor to the KMT party was Chiang kai shek.
Chiang was the President of China. But hardly, any China was under him.
It was grabbed by the war lords Secondly, he also to face the Japanese and
Communists.
Check Your Progress:
1. Discuss brie fly the three principles of Dr. Sun Yat Sen.
9.4 SUMMARY China suffered immensely due to foreign interference. The Chinese were
fully exploited, not only by Europeans, but by their own monarchy. In the
20th century Dr. Sun -Yat Sen laid the foundation of the national
movement. Mao -Tse-Tung arrived on the scene and led the country to
sovereignty.
9.5 QUESTIONS 1. Account for rise of nationalism in China.
2. Discuss role of D r. Sun Yat Sen in the Revolution of 1911 in China.
3. Describe briefly the Three Principles of Dr. Sun Yat Sen
9.6 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950. munotes.in

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81 Landmarks In World History Carrie Albercht R.A., D iplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publication, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R .D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan North A merican Library
Press 1965.
Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Iran: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
Mahmood Shamma Ed.. Introduction to the History of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hukumchand a nd Krishna Mathur, Adhuni Magacha Itihas, K
Sagar Publication, Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. VisavyaShatkaliMagachaItihas,Phadke Prakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005.

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82
10
MAHATMA GANDHI AND INDIA
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Gandhian Movement
10.3 Summary
10.4 Questions
10.5 Additional Reading
10.0 OBJECTIVES After the study of this module, the student will be able to
1. Perceive the rise of Ma hatma Gandhiji in the Indian National
Movement.
2. Comprehend the Non -Cooperation Movement Satyagraha of
Mahatma Gandhiji.
3. Understand the Civil Disobedience Movement of Gandhiji .
4. Discuss the quit India movement of Gandhiji of 1942.
5. Describe th e attainment of Independence of India.
10.1 INTRODUCTION This unit deals with the Indian national movement. India was colonised
by the British. About two -thirds of India was under direct British rule.
There were attempts to revolt against the British. Some uprisings failed,
but they aroused the people. The Indian National Congress and other
parties waged a long struggle against the British. In 1947 India got
freedom.
The British came to India as traders. Their East India Company played a
politics, c onquered almost all India by using the ‘Subsidiary Alliance
Systems and the Doctrine of Lapse’ to the indigenous rulers. They
exploited India using various ways and methods. Indians, however, were
exposed to new ideas of democracy and liberalism through th e
introduction of Western education. This aroused a sense of partition
among the Indians. They revolted against the British on several times. The
Revolt of 1857 was the most important uprising against the British
because it brought all Indians together and created the sense of
nationalism.
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83 Landmarks In World History 10.2 GANDHIAN MOVEME NT The Indian National Congress was established in 1885. It was the first
organised movement. The first phase of it was dominated by the western
educated, middle class, intellectuals. It is called the Moderate period.
They followed constitutional methods of agitation. They asked the British
to introduce reforms. However, some young congressmen became
frustrated because the British government neglected the demands of the
Congress. They felt that moderate methods would not succeed. These
people believed in strong action. They were called Extremists. Their
main objective was to get Swaraj. They believed in Swadeshi and burnt
English goods. The third phase of the national movement is called
Gandhian era. After 1919 we find that Gandhiji directed the national
struggle.
10.2.1 Emergence of Mahatma Gandhi:
He was born at Porbandar on 2 nd October 1869. He studied law and went
to South Africa. There he launched his non -violent satyagraha against
racial discrimination. He also promoted swadeshi, Hindu -Muslim unity,
abolition of untouchability and upliftment of women.
He returned to India and took active part in the national movement. His
first major action was the Champaran Satyagraha. He took up the cause of
indigo plantation workers. They were in a miserable condition, being
exploited by the British. Gandhiji then organised a strike of textile mill
workers of Ahmedabad for better wages. Then he instigated peasants of
Kheda to ask for tax remis sion since crops had failed. All his actions
proved a success. He was acknowledged as a leader.
10.2.2 Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy:
The Rowlatt act imposed restrictions on Indians and gave arbitrary powers
to the police. Gandhiji took over m atter. He asked Indians to observe
hartal on 6 th April 1919. All activities on that day were to be suspended.
In Punjab, things became serious. The government arrested two political
leaders. To protest this, tho usands of Indians gathered at the Jallian wala
Bagh in Amritsar. General Dyer entered the place and without any
warning fired the innocent crowd. Hundreds were injured and killed,
within 10 minutes. All Indians vehemently protested the British. There
was widespread violence. Gandhiji requested the people to be non -violent
and observe satyagraha.
Gandhiji joined the Khilafat movement, so that he could bring Muslims
closer to the Congress.
10.2.3 The Non -Cooperation Movement 1920 - 1922:
He launched the movement throughout India. The chief featu res of it were
1. Boycott of British goods and use of swadeshi. munotes.in

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84 Mahatma Gandhi And India 2. Boycott of English educational institutions and establishment of
national schools and colleges.
3. Giving up of honorary titles awarded by the British.
4. Popularisation of Charkha
5. Fight against untouchability.
6. Observation of non -violence and peace.
The movement was a success. People took part in protests, marches, and
demonstrations. They burnt British goods. They picketed shops selling
foreign material, wine, opium etc. It created political awakening even
among masses and the people from rural areas.
10.2.4 The British Governments Reaction:
There were lathi charges and mass imprisonments. As a result, the Indians
turned violent in Malabar, Mumbai, and other places. But the most vi olent
episode was the Chauri -chaura incident. This was a town in Gorakhpur
district, where the police fired a march. The mob turned violent and killed
22 policemen. Gandhiji was shocked to hear the news. He called off the
non-cooperation movement saying that the Indians were not ready for it.
Indians all over were unhappy over Gandhiji decision. Many became his
opponents in the process.
Check Your Progress:
Write a short note on Gandhiji’s Non -cooperation movement?
10.2.5 Swarajists. Revolutionaries and Others:
C. R. Das, Motilal Nehru etc. Were angry over the withdrawal of the
movement. They formed the Swaraj party (a group within the Congress),
to put forward their ideas. Another reaction came in form of revolutionary
movement. Chandra Shekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh etc. formed the group.
They believed in militant methods to oppose the government. They took
part in bomb making, looting government cash, and attack on British
officers. Bhagat Singh, Raj guru and Sukhdev were hanged, for killing a
Britis h. The government adopted severe measures to put down these
movements. However, terrorist activities continued in Bengal and
Maharashtra. Even young girls took part in these movements. People took
part in protests against Simon Commission., because it wa s an all -white
group, to recommend constitutional provisions for India.
10.2.6 Purna Swarajya And The Civil Disobedience Movement:
A new chapter begins with the emergence of Jawahar Lal Nehru. He was
elected the President of the Congress in 1929 at Lahore . The resolution of
Purna Swarajya was adopted by the Congress. He took the oath of
complete independence on the banks of river Ravi. On 26 th January 1930,
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85 Landmarks In World History The session gave Gandhiji the charge of the Ci vil Disobedience
movement. It meant that people should defy laws that were offensive.
Gandhiji began the movement with the Dandi March. The journey from
Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi Sea Coast was 200 miles. He selected 70
followers. All started the march on April 5, 1930. The aim was to reach
Dandi and pick up salt. The making of salt was government monopoly.
Tax on salt was heavy. Gandhiji wanted to break law in public.
Thousands of villagers welcomed Gandhiji at Dandi. This showed that
they had los t faith in the British rule. Another remarkable feature was the
large -scale participation of women in it. Many of them were imprisoned.
The movement spread all over India. People disobeyed laws. They
stopped paying taxes. They boycotted English goods. During this time,
we find the rise of Abdul Gafar Khan in Northwest Frontier province. He
was a follower of Gandhiji.
The government reacted brutally. There were serious lathi charges.
Newspapers were censored and could not write about British atrocit ies.
The police fired nonviolent nationalists. Still people were ready to suffer
physical torture, to support the movement. Due to national and
international pressure the government released political prisoners who
were not involved in the terrorist mov ement. Gandhiji signed a pact with
Lord Irwin. He also agreed to attend Second Round Table Conference at
London.
10.2.7 The Second World War And Indian National Movement:
Indians were not satisfied with the British government’s promises. They
were unhapp y with the provisions of the Act of 1935. When the second
world war broke out in 1939, the British sent Indian soldiers to fight the
war.
In 1940, the leader of the Muslim League, M.A. Jinnah laid the two -nation
theory. He demanded a separate state for Mu slims. It was also the period
of the activities of Netaji Bose. He believed that foreign help, could give
India her freedom. He went to Germany and Japan. With the Japanese
help he organised the Azad Hind Fauj.
10.2.8 The Quit India Movement 1942:
The C ongress adopted the Quit India resolution, as a part of the struggle
for independence. On August 8, 1942, Gandhiji and others gathered at
Gowalia Tank Mumbai. The British were told to quit India. Gandhiji
appealed to every Indian to join the movement. “Karenge ya marenge”
was the slogan. People shouted the slogan to support Gandhiji.
The immediate effect was that, on the next day all major leaders were
imprisoned. Leadership passed to militant students. Traders, workers, and
housewives participated. The re were protests, hartals, and demonstrations.
Students and teachers abstained from classes. People attacked railways,
post offices, electric wires etc, which were symbols of British authority.
We find the rise of Jai Prakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Ush a Mehta,
Achyut Rao Patwardhan. However, this movement was a Congress action. munotes.in

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86 Mahatma Gandhi And India The Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, depressed classes and Sikhs did
not participate. The British government suppressed the movement.
However, it was understood that Indians wer e determined and British
would have to quit India in near future.
10.2.9 India attains freedom:
The British sent several missions to India. The purpose was to discuss
with Indian leaders of various political parties, about the future structure
of India. The missions could not achieve much because of the differences
among the parties. The Muslim League was firm on a separate state. The
Congress tried to persuade the Muslim League, but in vain.
Lord Mountbatten arrived in India and laid the 3 rd. June Plan . According
to it the British rule ended. Pakistan was made a separate State from 14 th
August 1947. The princely states were free to decide their position.
Finally, India achieved independence on 15, August 1947. The 150 years
of British rule came to a n end. Hundreds of Indians died for their mother
land. Tho usands sacrificed their homes and property so that lakhs get
their independence.
Check Your Progress:
Write a short note on Quit India movement of Gandhiji’?
10.3 SUMMARY India suffered under the British rule. The Indian National Congress and
other parties carried the struggle for freedom. Gandhiji and many others
fought for the country. Finally, we got independence in 1947.
10.4 QUESTIONS 1. Evaluate the role of Mahatma Gandhi in lndia’s struggl e for freedom.
2. Explain the importance of non -Co-operation movement. Why did
Gandhiji withdraw it.
3. Write notes on:
a) Dandi March
b) Quit India movement
1.8 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Albercht R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958. munotes.in

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87 Landmarks In World History Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publicati on, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan North American Library
Press 1965.
Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Ir an: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
Mahmood Shamma Ed.. Introduction to the History of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hukumchand and Krishna Mathur, Adhuni Magacha Itihas, K
Sagar Publication, Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. VisavyaShatkaliMagachaItihas,Phadke Prakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005 .

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88
11
DR. SUKARNO AND INDONESIA
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Rise of Nationalism in Indonesia
11.3 Contribution of Sukarno
11.4 Sukarno’s guided democracy
11.5 Summary
11.6 Questions
11.7 Additional Reading
11.0 OBJECTIVES After the study of this unit, the student will be able to -
1. Appreciate the factors responsible for the rise of National movement
in Indonesia.
2. Understand the contribution of Dr. Sukarno in the national movement.
3. Analyse the demerits of the Guided Democracy in Indonesia.
11.1 INTRODUCTION This unit conveys the story of the Struggle of the people of Indonesia. This
group of Islands was conquered by the Dutch. The poor inhabitants had to
fight for independence. They were brought together by Sukarno later he
became the President of Indonesia.
11.2 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN INDONESIA Indonesia consists of Java, Sumatra and about 3000 other islands. The
state was colonised by the Dutch in the 17 th century. Till the beginning of
the 20 th century the Dutch followed the ir ‘ethical policy’. It meant that,
emphasis was put on social and economic progress of the islands.
Indonesia was rich in natural resources and tobacco, tea, coffee
plantations. Thus, it was a valuable colony for the Dutch.
Rise of Nationalism in the 20 th century:
In 1908 the first nationalist organisation was founded. It was called Budi
Utomo. it consisted of students, civil servants, and other intellectuals.
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89 Landmarks In World History The Dutch exploited the locals in every manner. Western education
enlightened the people. They were introduced to new ideas. This led to
the foundation of Sarekat Islam or Muslim Union in 1912. The object was
to unite Muslim patriots. It demanded self -government in 1916.
Encouraged by the Bolshevik revol ution of 1917, the communists within
the Sarekat Islam, formed the Communist party of Indonesia. The
leadership of Tan Malakka created confidence among the people. The
party workers brought about strikes, protests, and demonstrations against
the Dutch. Ho wever, they failed. The party was banned, and leaders were
expelled.
In 1927 a third party, was formed. It was called Partai National Indonesia.
(Indonesian National Party), The leader was a young leader called
Sukarno. The Dutch suppressed the party le aders. However, patriots
continued their struggle for freedom, -under their leaders, especially
Sukarno.
11.3 CONTRIBUTION OF DR. SUKARNO Most of the freedom fighters were in prison when the second world war
broke out. The Japanese captured almost all So utheast Asian nations. The
Dutch also had to surrender their hold in Indonesia. The Japanese released
the political leaders, including Sukarno. The leaders were divided about
their reaction to Japanese occupation. Some formed secret resistance
organiza tions. Sukarno felt that cooperating with the Japanese would be
helpful in future. At the same time, he asked his men to put up a resistance
force.
After the defeat of Japan in the world war, Sukarno proclaimed the
Republic of Indonesia. However, soon a c lash occurred between his party
- (the P .N.I.) the Communist Party, and the Islamic Majsuni Party.
By the end of the year, the Dutch officials came back and re -occupied the
islands. But they could not take Java and Sumatra, which were under
Sukarno. The Br itish brought some -peace but it proved to be time being.
Hostilities between the Dutch and Sukarno continued. The Dutch attacked
Java and Sumatra’s lines of communication. There were protests from
Asian countries, so the Dutch signed a ceasefire. Again in 1948, the Dutch
occupied Java and Sumatra. The leaders were imprisoned, but the army
and people gave a tough fight. International pressure and U.N.O. saved
them. The Hague agreement was signed. According to it, all islands
except West New Guinea were gi ven freedom. The new country was
called Indonesia. Sukarno was accepted as the President.
The new state faced economic problems. Sukarno nationalised Dutch
estates and companies. Dutch residents were forced to leave the country.
Still problems like unem ployment, over population, poverty continued.
Besides there was stiff opposition from Communist Party and Islamic
Party. To solve some crisis Sukarno adopted his dictatorship called
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90 Dr. Sukarno and Indonesia Check Your Progress:
1. Trace events that led to Dr . rise of Dr. Sukarno’s in Indonesia?
11.4 SUKARNO’S GUIDED DEMOCRACY He believed that western democracy was not suitable for his country. The
problems could not be tackled by western measures. Though the
constitution had recommended democracy the proce ss had failed in
Indonesia.
Sukarno was attracted towards communism. He increased the number of
communists in his government. Other parties resisted and there was an
attack on his life, but he escaped. His rivals said that he did nothing to
solve interna l problems. To divert the attention of the people, he
participated in international disputes regarding Malaysia.
It is said that in 1965 the communist party organised a coup against him.
Violence followed. He was openly accused of selling the country to
communists. In 1967 the army revolted against him. He was forced to step
down. General Suharto took the reins of the government in his hand.
Sukarno had a charismatic personality. Many considered him a god.
Though he failed to solve Indonesian problems, he gets the credit, for
Liberating his country from the Dutch yoke. He died in 1970 when he
was house arrested.
11.5 SUMMARY Asian colonies experienced the worst form of exploitation. Besides
political conquest, there was economic and socio -religious explo itation.
However, the Asian nations benefitted by the western education. They
learnt new ideas of democracy. They were aroused. They got inspired and
developed a spirit of nationalism. In Indonesia led the national movement.
Sukarno led the people of In donesia. The national movement was
successful and. the country threw away foreign yoke. He later
reconstructed the political and economic fabric of Indonesia.
11.6 QUESTIONS 1. Evaluate the role of Dr. Sukarno in the national movement in
Indonesia?
2. Trace the rise and growth of national movement in Indonesia?
3. Write short notes on:
a) Guided Democracy of Dr. Sukarno

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91 Landmarks In World History 11.7 ADDITIONAL READING English Books
Benns F.L. European History since 1870, Appleton Century Gofts,
New York, 1950.
Carrie Alberc ht R.A., Diplomatic History of European since the
Congress of Vienna, Harper, New York, 1958.
Chatterjee N.C. History of Modern Middle East,Abhinav
Publication, New Delhi, 1987.
Clyde and Beers, Far East, N.D. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
1976.
Cornell R.D., World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman,
Essex 1999.
David M.D., Landmarks in World History, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 1999.
David M.D Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya
Publications House, Mumbai 1999.
Fay S. B. Origins of the World War 1930, New York - Second Ed.
New York Free Press 1999
Hayes C.J.H. Contemporary Europe since 18 70 -1955,Macmillan,
New York.
Hsu Immanual C.Y. The Rise of Modern China OUP, New York
1975.
Kennedy MA, A Short History of Jap an North American Library
Press 1965.
Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford
University, London.
Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Iran: An Interpret ion,
Harvard University Press 1975.
Mahmood Shamma Ed.. Introduction to the H istory of the World,
Pearson, Delhi 2012.
Story Richard, Japan &The Decline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
St. Martin Press. 1979 New York City, 1979.
Taylor A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) ,
Oxford 1954.
Marathi Books:
Jain Hu kumchand and Krishna Mathur, Adhuni Magacha Itihas, K
Sagar Publication, Pune 2006.
 Kadam,Y.N. VisavyaShatkaliMagachaItihas,Phadke Prakashan,
Kolhapur, 2005.
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