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HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
After going through this chapter you will be
able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Subject -Discussion
1.3 Summary
1.4 Check your Progress/ Exercise
1.5 Answers to the self le arning questions.
1.6 Technical words and their meaning
1.7 Task
1.8 Glossary
1.9 References for further study
1.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –understand the
meaning of Geography
Know Human Geography in pre -historic times, mediaeval time
and in the modern times
Understand the relationship among human groups in different
parts of the world
Know the contribution of different geographers such as German,
French, British, American, Soviet and Indian.
Know the nature and scope o fH u m a nG e o g r a p h y
Learn why the knowledge of Human Geography is essential
Study different branches of Human Geography
Understand different approaches to Human Geography
Study Determinism
Understand Possibilismmunotes.in
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21.1 INTRODUCTION
Human Geography is consi dered as a diverse discipline.
This field of geography explains the relationships between people
and places in the world where we live.
1.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Geography can broadly be classified as Physical
Geography, Human Geography and Cartography. Human
geography on the other hand, is the study of the relationship
between the natural and the human world, and the spatial
distributions of the human phenomena, created by the human
beings through mutual interactions. In this chapter we will learn
about th e various concepts and approaches in Human Geography
which has been evolved over time. Attempts have also been made
to classify different fields and sub fields of human geography which
states its inter disciplinary nature.
INTRODUCTION TOHUMAN GEOGRAPHY :
The term Geography is derived from the Greek word ‘Geo’
meaning ‘Earth’ and ‘Graphy’ meaning ‘Description’. Thus, we can
define ‘Jeography’ as “Description ofthe Earth”. Today
Geography has. Become a very important part ofnatural science
and social science. Geography isdivided into3main branches:
1.Physical Geography
2.Human Geography
3.Cartography
One of the most popular and widely accepted definition of
Human Geography is “man and hisadjustments tohisnatural
environment”. Wecan say,Human Geography is that branch of
Geography which deals with distribution of various phenomena
oftheEarth. Everything that makes the environment is a part of
the subject ofHuman Geography. Human Geography as the
branch of the Geography has deve loped very recently. According
toVidal -De-La-Blache, relationship ofman and nature isthe
subject matter ofHuman Geography. Infact, there aredifferent
definitions which are putforward by different experts about the
subject matter of Human Geography. But wecan say that the
subject matter ofHuman Geography is the study ofrelationship
between man and nature, and this relationship isdynamic.
However, inHuman Geography the centre of study istheman.
Itisfound that inthesame world, allhuman gr oups do not
enjoy the same level of development. For example :Congo,munotes.in
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Amazor and Indonesia fall inthe same natural environment, but,
there isadifference intheir vels ofdevelopment.
We generally find that our food, clothing, shelter, tools,
techn ology, customs, tradition, faith, literature are directly or
indirectly influenced bythephysical environment.
Intoday’s world, there is an e e dt o study Human
Geography as it ischanging in nature. About 10,000 years ago
man discovered the art ofagriculture and he started settling down
inthe fertile river valleys. In15thcentury, man discovered new
lands and theexchange of knowledge was very slow. Later, man
learned how to utilize the available resources inabetter manner.
Human migration sb e c o m e common. Industrial revolution took
place. There were progress inthe field of science and
technology.
However, with, thepassage oftime, man became more
greedy and careless about theuse oftheenvironment and asa
result inthe 20th century, environmen taldegradation took place.
Several problems like pollution, soil erosion, population explosion,
energy crisis had started totake place. This istheright time to
examine human behaviour and tofind out asolution to allthe
problems that are taking place .’We should see how human
actions can becontrolled and hence here liestheimportance of
Human Geography. tissaid that theneed ofstudy ofHuman
Geography istheneed ofthehour.
The most important consideration to be studied in
Human Geograp hy is tounderstand the relationship among
human groups indifferent parts oftheworld. Today, there is no
place forhuman values and the problem ofglobal pollution and
population explosion areincreasing. We aresure that aproper
and systematic study ofHuman Geography will provide asolution
toalltheabove problems.
1.Human Geography inPre-Historic Times :
In the pre -historic times, Human Geography was mainly a
descriptive subject. During this time, Human Geography mainly
studied about land, water, airand people. During this time,munotes.in
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4Human Geography was less scientific. Maps during this time
showed only the location of places. The Greeks actually laid the
foundation ofGeography. Ptolemy made several contributions in
thedevelopment ofHuman Geography.
2.Human Geography intheMedieval Times :
Itwas the Arabs who spread the work ofPtolemy to
Western Europe. The Arabs travelled alotand they made
important contribution toCartography. r’lew lands were discovered.
Manylaws and theories were added to Human Geography. This
brought atremendous change in Human Geography.
3.Human Geography inModern Times :
Inthe 18th century, there was a development of Physical
Geography as well asHuman Geography. Several contribu tions
were made bythe German, French, British, American, Soviet
and the Indian Geographers. Below isalist of the
Geographers who contributed towards the development of
Human Geography.
School of
ThoughtGeographer and Contribution
German 1.Alexander Von Humboldt : Latitudes and
Longitudes
2.Carl Ritter : Unity in Diversity and Concept of
Land
3.Friedrick Ratzel : Established Cultural
Geography
French 1.Vidal -de-la-Blache : Father of French
Geography; idea of ‘Possibilism’.
2.Jean Brunhe s : Scope of Human Geography
3.Albert Demongeon : Transport Geography
British 1.J.Mackinder: Concept of‘Heart Land’
2.Sir Patrick Geddes : Founded ‘BritishRegional Studies’
3.F-Ierbertson : Concept of ‘Natural Regions’
4.Peter Hagget : Statistical Techniques andModels in Geography
5.Roxby: Scope and Aim of Human Geography
American 1.W.M. Davis: Cycle of Erosion
2.Bowman : Great Physical Geographer
3.Huntington : Great Human Geographermunotes.in
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Soviet 1.Vorikov: Climatol ogy forDevelopment of
Agriculture
2.V.V. Dokuchaev : Contributed to Regional
Geography and Planning
Indian 1.Prof. G. Kurian : Department of Geography at
Madras
2.Prof. M.K.Bose : Taught Human Geography at
Calcutta University
3.Prof. R.L .S i n g h:D e p a r t m e n to fG e o g r a p h ya t
Banaras University
Geography is an old field of knowledge and it is known to the
scholars of the ancient world. It is a well -developed multi -
dimensional subject. Geography covers a vast field and includes
many bran ches of different disciplines. The scope of Geography
has become very vast. The subject matter is broken into a number
of branches. Human Geography covers the evolution of human
beings, its different races, their description and distribution and
adapta tion to the environment. Human Geography has a very long
history. The view is that there is a close relationship between man
and nature.
Strabo and some other Roman Geographers said that
environment plays a very important role in the level of progress of
people. Miss Sample defined Human Geography as “a study of the
changing relationship between untrusting man and unstable Earth”.
We can say that Human Geography covers awide field or
say that the scope of the subject is immense. We study about
physic aland cultural differences among the human groups in
Human Geography. Human Geography covers the relationship
between man and hisnatural environment. Human Geography
also studies about types and patterns of rural settlements,
growth and functions of urba nsettlements, functional
classification oftowns, distribution ofeconomic activities,
industries, trade and transportation and communication.
Human Geography also deals with theworld asitisand
theworld theway itshould be. Itgives most importanc etoman -
where they are, what they are like, how they adjust themselves
totheir surroundings and soon.
The nature of Human Geography is not uniform. It has
relationship with other subjects also. Human Geography
changes with time and needs of the people .Human Geography
deals with several laws and theories for better understanding ofmunotes.in
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6relationships. Allthese discussion putforward thewide scope of
Human Geography.
The knowledge ofHuman Geography isessential due to
thefollowing :
1.Forthescient ificdevelopment ofGeography :
The study ofHuman Geography brings out the scientific
relationship between man and environment. In Human
Geography, we study about the population distribution inthe
world, differences among different groups of population and this
study makes Human Geography so very important. InHuman
Geography, we also study about thetypes of settlements and all
these studies make Human Geography avery important part in
Geography.
2.Forplanning ofthenational economy :
The knowle dge of Human Geography is very much
required in theplanning ofnational economy. The planners have
totake ideas from Human Geographers regarding thewelfare of
the state. The study ofHuman Geography also involves
techniques onhow toraise thestandard ofliving, improve health
and educational facilities inthedeveloping countries.
Human Geography serves the objective of liberal -education.
It helps us tounderstand the world where welive; wealso study
about thepeople oftheother nations of the world. InHuman
Geography we have several modules which explains usthe
economic, social and political system ofdifferent countries of
theworld Our study ofHuman Geography can help usto
make usbetter informed citizens who can understa ndand face
theproblem and find asolution aswell. Thus, thescope iswide
and importance ofHuman Geography isimmense.
Q.2. Explain the nature and scope of Human Geography .
3)Branches of Human Geography :
The main Branches of Human Geography are as follows:
1)Population Geography :
This branch of Human Geography is concerned with
distribution of population density, ratio, occupational structure, age -
sex pyramid, rate of fertility, rate of mortality, Human Development
Index (HDI), migration of population, etc. Population Geography
also deals with several laws and models of population growth.
Today, most of the universities of the world have a separate
department dealing with Population Geography. Much researchmunotes.in
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work and field work has been carrie do nt o d a yi nt h i s f i e l d .M a n y
geographers have made an elaborate study on international
migration. In Population Geography, the geographer uses statistical
data, as well as the data from several Government sources. At
present, population explosion has b ecome a serious problem.
Today, there are several population policies to control this ever -
increasing growth of population. The Population geographers are
interested to study the pattern of population growth and its
distribution in the third world countr ies. Hence, we can say that
Population Geography is one of the major branches of Human
Geography.
2. Economic Geography :
Economic Geography mainly deals with human occupation
and their types as well as their development. Economic Geography
can be class ified into three parts:
a)Commercial Geography : In Commercial Geography, we study
about dist ribution and consumption of goods.
b)Transport Geography : In Transport Geography, we study ab out
the movement of goods.
c)Resource Geography : Resource Geog raphy deals with
resources and their types, distribution, utilization as well as their
future.
Economic Geography as mentioned above mainly studies
about the pattern of economic development of different groups of
people. Human wants are unlimited. T oday, at every step, man tries
to bring development. In this manner, he feels, he will be able to
satisfy his wants. Man has brought about industrial revolution, he
has worked hard to improve his economy, but, at the same
time he has brought ab out several problems like population
explosion, degradation of the environment, etc. Economic
Geography tries to study all these issues regarding the economic
development of man and so it is an important branch of Human
Geography.
3. Political Geography :
Political Geography is very recent in nature, it studies about
different places, border a reas and the areas of strategic
importance; It also includes the study of division of power and rise
and fall of the Government of the country. In the initial t imes,
Political Geography was one of the weakest branches of Human
Geography. It became very interesting during the First and the
Second World War. Today, Political Geography is taught in several
universities, but, this branch lacks research work. Actually , Political
Geography has failed to attract new geographers. It has infact
become very old fashioned. However, after 1970, Politicalmunotes.in
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8Geography has started gaining importance. A part of Political
Geography has come to be known as ‘Electoral Geography’. At
present Electoral Geography has made an outstanding progress in
Political Geography.
4. Social Geography :
Social Geography is very wide and deep in its content.
Social Geography studies about different races, religions,
languages, societies, class and caste structures. Social Geography
started in 1960s and has expanded during 1970s. It was during
1970s that Social Geography became a part of Human Geography.
5. Geography of Settlements
Geography of Settlements studies about the location of rural
and ur ban settlements Various factors such as geographical,
economic, social, political and technological influence the site and
situation of rural and urban settlements. It studies about the growth
and development of settlements. Although, Geography of
Settlements is a traditional branch of Human Geography, but, in
the recent years, this branch has made a great progress. Rural
Geography and Urban Geography are the two branches of
Geography of Settlement.
a) Rural Geography :It includes the st udy of social and economic
characteristics of the village. Every detail of the rural area like
house design and building materials are studied under this.
b)Urban Geography :It is vast in nature and is developing
rapidly. It studies about the locatio n and growth of the cities as well
as their relationship with each other. The main aim of Urban
Geography is to make laws and theories. At present, Urban
Geography has become an important part of Geography of
Settlements.
6. Cultural Geography :
Cultura l Geography is a traditional branch of Geography. It
mainly focuses on the pattern of human culture. Cultural
Geography in the recent years covers new approaches, techniques
and ideas. Cultural Geography in the 21st century has been given
much importance in U.S.A.
7. Historical Geography :
Historical Geography is the study of history of Geography.
8. Medical Geography :
Medical Geography has become an important branch of
Human Geography in the present years. It studies about the
distribution of disea se, illness, death and healthcare.munotes.in
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99. Military Geography :
This branch of Human Geography studies the strategic
places, frontiers and boundaries.
10. Agricultural Geography :
This branch studies the distribution and location of different
agricultural and other associated activities.
11. Transportation Geography :
Transportation Geography studies various transportation
networks used in the distribution of goods, people and services.
12. Geography of Tourism :
This branch studies about tourist activi ties and services.
13. Hazard Geography :
It mainly focusses on extreme hazards and disasters. It tries
to explore the human interaction and response to extreme events.
Q.3. Describe Various branches of Human Geography .
4. Different Approaches to Huma n Geography
This concept of this approach originated in 1920s and 1930s
by the German school approach believes that the way in
which people behave depends upon the understanding of the
environment in which he lives. The term was brought to
prominence by William Kirk and Kant.
2. Behavioural Approach
This gives more importance to one’s society. It believes that
man is a goal oriented animal. He influences the environment and
in turn is influenced by it. This approach ha sam u l t i -disciplinary
outlook because several scientists, philosophers, historians and
sociologists have contributed towards its development.
3. Welfare Approach :
This is a very important approach in Human Geography. It
deals with the questions relate dt oi n e q u a l i t y . I th a sb e e nw i d e l y
accepted after 1960s and after 1970s, importance has been
given to issues like poverty, hunger, malnutrition,
unemployment, crime, distribution of income, quality of life, etc.
The basic focus of this appro ach is ‘who gets what, where and
how?’ “Who” refers to the group of population -this may be a
population of a village, city, region, nation or entire world. This
population may belong to particular class, caste, community,
religion, race, gender and soon.“What” refers tovarious goods
and services which thepopulation receives. “Where” receives tomunotes.in
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10different areas and “how’ refers totheprocess through which
differences occur.
4.Humanistic Approach :
This isanimportant approach inHuman Geograph y.
The main feature ofthisapproach isthat itgives central and
active role toman, InHumanistic approach, human beings are
not treated asmachines. ftcan be traced back tothe
French school ofthought.
5. Radical Approach
Radi cal approach in Geography developed in 1970s. The
followers of this approach were mainly concerned with the social
issues like inequality, crime, discrimination against females, etc.
The followers of this approach were interested in restructuring of
the c apitalist society. In the late 1960s, all this led to social Unrest
and tension. All this gave a boost to this approach. The main
objective of this approach is to develop a just, equal, tension free,
peaceful and enjoyable life.
6. Quantitative Appro ach
In the beginning of the 20th century, a lot of data was
collected. There was an urgent need to analyse the data. This led
to the development of Quantitative approach in Geography.
Descriptive Geography, now, was given less importance and stress
was put on mathematical and sophisticated statistical techniques.
The introduction of statistical techniques is known as Quantitative
Revolution after which statistical techniques are extensively used in
Geography.
5. Man Environment Relationship :
1. Dete rminism :
This approach implies the dominance of nature. According
to Determinism, the history, culture, lifestyle, stages of development
of man are largely governed by the physical factors of environment.
Here, nature is active and man is passive.
Although Determinism was established in the 19th century
the roots go back to the 5th century A.D. During this time,
Hippocrates said that “Human life is totally dependent on nature.”
Strabo, the leading Roman Geographer explained how
slope, relief, cl imate are the works of God and all of them
influence the life style of the people.
The German geographers, Humboldt and Ritter also
studied on how man is controlled by nature. Another German
geographer Kant also contributed to the concept. Actua lly speakingmunotes.in
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it was Kant’s philosophy about man and environment
relationship which was adopted by Humboldt and Ritter in the
later years.
Determinism is criticized by some geographers. The
geographers feel that there is lack of discipline in this approach and
this discipline can only be brought about by man. Man has the
ability to bring a change in the nature. Nature is monotonous and
variety is created by man. Today, dense forests, marshy lands and
barien deserts are all changed by man. man has applied his
knowledge to bring this change. It is the man who has created
the gardens, the roads, and the agricultural fields and made the
nature unique. It is the man who can save problems, which the
nature cannot.
Although, Determinis m is criticized from various angles,
but it is an important approach to study Human Geography.
2. Possibilism
This is the philosophy, which states that rnan is most
important in man -environment relationship. According to
Possibilism, with Kn owledge and intelligence man can master the
forces of nature. Man is active and nature is passive. Man is the
supreme power. Man can never be the slave of the nature. He is
more active than nature and has the capacity to change the nature.
Vidal -de-la-Blache was the strong supporter of Possibilism.
According to him, nature only offers a number of opportunities
from which man is free to select. Today, man has planted new
varieties of crops, domesticated several types of animals and
nature could n ot control his actions. This proves that man is active
and nature is passive. Discovery of fire was only possible by man.
There are many geographers who are the followers of
Possibilism. According to Possibilism, nature is only an advisor to
man.
However, Possibilism cannot be fully accepted. Many times
man has to put his head down in front of the nature. Man is unable
to produce minerals and power resources. These are only
provided by the nature. During nauti caldisasters, man always
suffers and nature becomes powerful. Man has definitely brought
several changes but his actions and powers are only up to a
particular limit.
In spite of all these criticism, Possibilism is of a great
importance. It has inspires man to study about man-environment
relationship in a detailed manner.munotes.in
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3. Stop And Go Determinism
Taylor put the idea of stop and Go determinism. He said
that neither the idea of Determinism nor the idea of Possibili sm can
be fully accepted. Nature is controlled by man but it is so when
nature is passive. When the nature becomes active, we have to
wait for achange. This concept isoften compared with the
traffic signal. When thesignal isred, man has towait and when it
isgreen, man can proceed further.
Ifred light iscrossed, accidents are bound tohappen.
Similarly, man has towait forafavourable situation and then
only hecan succeed.
This Stop and Go Determinism and Possibilism states
that human progress willdepend onhow man takes the
chances offered bynature.
From the above, itcan be understood that ,the
relationship between man and the environment has been
established intheearly periods itself. The influence ofnature is
seen every aspect ofhislife. Therefore, any change inhis
environment can cause harm tohisrace.
The relationship between man and environment forms
isthe core ofHuman Geography. Historical evidences say
that, man could develop only the basis of natural elements. For
example: All civilizations have developed on the banks of the
rivers, because, it gave him resources like water, fertile soil and
suitable land to settle. Similarly, man depended only on monsoon
for agriculture. This relationship exists today also. This implies that,
man heavily depended and does depend on nature for his
survival. Thus, the role and power of nature is inevitable.
However, this relationship is changing through man’s
intelligence, with the help of which he has been able to find
out ways to face the vagaries Df nature. He has used
techniques to cultivate the land, build houses, use water for
irrigation, to store and bring water from elsewhere for fixed
settlements, developed roads and towns, etc . The whole credit
for reducing the dependence on nature goes to technology and
the people behind it.
4. Probabilism
Probabilism can be understood as a thesis about the
relationship between culture and nature. This theory proposes a
balan ce between environmental determinism and possibilism. It
reflects upon the fact that, there is no specific or fixed
response to the present environmental conditions. It states that
the physical environment helps us know the probable respon sesmunotes.in
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13that might be experienced in the future. Thus, the theory tries to
predict the future or probable impacts according to the
environmental conditions present today.
Q. 4 .E x p l a i nt h ev a r i o u sv i e w p o i n tr e l a t e dt om a ne n v i r o n m e n t
relationship .
SUM MARY
In this chapter we have learnt about the contribution of
different geographers such as German, French, British, American,
Soviet and Indian beside the nature and scope of Human
Geography which is immense as it covers a wide field. It also takes
into account the relationship between man and his environment.
We have also learnt the Physical as well as the Cultural
environment and the relationship between these environments and
human activities. The knowledge of Human Geography is essential
for the scie ntific development of geography and for planning of the
national economy.
By studying different branches of Human Geography we
have been able to understand the world where we live in as well as
the effects of varied social and political systems existing in different
part of the same. Also the definition of Determinism, Possibilism
and Probalismin Geography has been learnt.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1.True and false
a)The most important consideration to be studied in Human
Geography is to understand the relationship among human
groups in different parts of the world.
b)A dirty and unhealthy environment has immense contribution to
human’s physical and emotional wellbeing.
c)In Commercial Geography we study about the distribution and
consumption of goods.
d)Resou rce geography deals with resources and their types,
distribution, utilisation and future.
e)Febver the founder of Determinism stated that there are no
necessities but everywhere possibilities and man as a master of
these possibilities is the judge of their use.munotes.in
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142.Fill in the blanks
a.Cultural geography mainly focuses on the pattern of ________
_________.
b.Historical geography is the study of ________ ______.
c.______________ is the theory that the human habits and
characteristics of a particular culture are sh aped by geographic
conditions.
d.____________ is the founder of possibilism.
e.According to Huntington , ____________and
_____________________ characters are the products of
climate.
f.Contributions of geographer Alexander Von Humbolt is in the
field of _______ _a n d_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
3.Multiple choice question
3a. The concept of ‘neo -determinism’ was put forward
i. by Griffith Taylor —a leading Australian geographer
ii. Huntington
iii. Febver
iv. Weber
3.b. Culture is the man -made part of the environment that
determin es
i. Physical environment
ii.green house
iii. social environment and social action
iv.atmosphere
3.c. Father of French geography and idea of possibilism was put
forwarded by
i. Huntington
ii. Weber
iii. Vidal de la Blache
iv.JeanBrunhes
3.d.Behavioral approach gives more importance to one’s
i. environment
ii. society
iii. food habit
iv.unemployment
4.Short answer question
1.Describe in short the nature and scope of Human Geography.
2.Define Determinism.munotes.in
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153.What are the different approaches of human Geography?
4.What are the different branches of Human Geography?
5.Define possibilism
Answers to the self learning questions :
1. a) True
1.(b) False, clean, healthy
1.(c) True
1(d) True
1(e) false, possibilism
2. a . human culture
2. b. History of geography
2. c. Geograp hic determinism
2. d . Febver
2. e. Religion, racial
2.f. latitudes and longitudes
3. a.i.
3. b.iii
3.c.iii
3.d.ii
Technical words and their meaning
1.Human Geography -one of the two major divisions of
Geography; the spatial analysis of human population, its
cultures, activities, and landscapes.
2.Environment –natural surroundings
3.Globalisation –universalisation
4.Culture –consist of activity like art and philosophy which are
important for the development of civilization
5.Pollution –the process of polluting water, air, land especially
with poisonous chemicals.
6.region -an area on the Earth's surface marked by a degree of
formal, functional, or perceptual homogeneity of some
phenomenon
7.cartography -the art and science of making maps, including data
compilation , layout and design; also concerned with the
interpretation of mapped patterns
8.culture -The sum total of the knowledge, attitudes, and habitual
behaviour patterns shared and transmitted by the members of a
society.munotes.in
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169.Possibilism -Geographic viewpoint -a respo nse to determinism -
that holds that human decision making, not the environment, is
the crucial factor in cultural development.
Task
1.In a chart show the different branches of Human Geography.
Biblography
http://www.sctimst.ac.in/conferences/resourcesAVlnvitation%20%2
1’World%20Environment%2ODav%20 Celebration. pdf
Gregory, D eta! ed. (2011): ‘The Dictionary of Human Geography’,
Wiley Blackwell , New Jersey, 5th Edition .
munotes.in
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172
POPULATION
After going through this chapter you will be
able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Subject -Discussion
2.3 Terms of Population
2.4 Factors affecting distribution o fP o p u l a t i o n
2.5 Factors affecting growth of population
2.6 Population policy of India, its objectives and goals
2.7 Promotional and motivational measures for adoption of
Small Family Norm
2.8 Check your Progress/ Exercise
2.9 Answers to the self learning questions.
2.10 Technical words and their meaning
2.11 Task
2.12 References for further study
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to
Understand the meaning of different terms of population such as
population density, birth rate, d eath rate, sex ratio, fertility rate.
study population explosion
Learn the factors responsible for distribution of population, such
as availability of natural resources, age of civilisation,
connectivity and accessibility, restrictions of national boundar ies
Understand the factors affecting growth of population such as
the large size of the population in the reproductive age group,
higher fertility, infant mortality rate, child marriage or early
marriage and poor literacy rates.
Learn population policy of India, its objectives and goalsmunotes.in
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182.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter you have learnt about the Definition,
Scope and Nature of Human Geography. All the factors influencing
the Human Geography have been discussed. Definition of
Determinism and Possib ilism also learnt. In this chapter you are
going to study about population as well as its characteristics
.Special attempts have been made to study population policy of
India, its objectives and goals.
2.3 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
The word population ––and als ot h ew o r d populace ––has
been derived from the Latin populus ,m e a n i n gp e o p l e .P o p u l a t i o ni s
a group of organisms of the same species inhabiting a given area.
When the carrying capacity of an area is exceeded by its population
the area is said to be over po pulated, when a population is too
small, to fully utilise the available natural resources and optimum
population lies between two extremes, i.e., overpopulation and
under -population. In terms of number, the human population keeps
changing all the time. In India, population growth is mainly the
result of the natural increase of population. Birth rates and death (or
mortality) rates are the two major statistical instruments for studying
the population trend. In India, the birth rates and death rates were
almo st equal between 1901 and 1921, which explains why
population did not increase in this period. From 1921 onwards,
improvements in medical facilities and a check over epidemics
reduced the death rates, although there was widespread poverty.
After independen ce, special measures undertaken by health and
family planning programmes further reduced the infant mortality
rate (IMR) and the maternal mortality rate (MMR), causing a decline
in death rates.
Some Important Terms of Population :
Population :The total number ofpersons inhabiting a
country, city, oranyarea.
Population Density :The number ofpeople living per
unit ofan area istermed asdensity ofpopulation. Itis
calculated using the following formula:Total PopulationPopulation DensityTotal Land Area
Birth Rateumber oflivebirths per1000 population ina
particular year.
Death Rate Total number ofdeaths per1000 population in
aparticular year.munotes.in
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19Sex Ratio :The number offemales per 1000 males ina
particular year.
Fertility Rate The total fertility rate (TFR), sometimes also
called the fertility rate, ofapopulation istheaverage number
ofchildren that would beborn toawoman o verherlifetime.
Q.1 Write note on Important terms of population.
POPULATION EXPLOSION :
Population explosion refers to the rapid and dramatic rise
in world population that has occurred over the last few
hundred years. Between 1959 and 2000 ,t h e world’s population
increased from 2.5 billion to 6.1 billion people. According to United
Nations proje ctions, the world population will be between 7.9
billion and 10.9 billion by 2050 . Most of the growth is currently
taking place in the developing world, where rates of natural
increase are much higher than in industrialized countrie s.
Concern that this might lead to over population has led some
countries to adopt population control policies. However, since
people in developing countries consume far less, especially of
non- renewable resources, per head of population than people
in industrialized countries, it has argued that the West should set
an example in population control instead of giving, for example,
universal child benefit.
Q.2.Write short note on Population Expansion.
3. Factors affectin g distribution population :
1.Availability of natural resources
Natural resources like arable and other land, water and
clean air are the b asic natural resources needed for a
human’s living. Thus, there is a direct relation ship between
the availability of natural resources and population. Thus, we
find, in areas where the land is suitable for agriculture and
wate ris available in ample quantities, the population ranges
between high and very high. Th eI n d o Genetic Plains in India
are a fine example of this. It is the most densely populated region
of the country with all natural resources available in large
quantities. However, pollution and improper administration are
causing probl ems. Similarly all the river valleys around the
world have a very high density of population. The Nile River
Valley in the continent of Africa is a great example of the same.
2.Age of Civilization
The age of civilization and population are directly related
to each other. The older it is, the more is the population. This
is due to the well -established economic, social, political andmunotes.in
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20
administrative structure. Thus, we find, older cities are more
populated and dense as compared to newer cities. For
example, Mumbai has a population of 11.98 million which
is very high as compared to Navi Mumbai with a population of
704,002 persons (Census, 2001).
3. Connectivity and Accessibility
The greater the connectivity, the higher the population. In
the present era, when the world has become a global village,
the need for higher connectivity and accessibility has increased.
If a place is not well connected, it will receive poor response
economically and therefore socially. This would not allow the
place to grow and population would therefore be very less.
This is particularly true in the cases of unstable topography. In
Konkan division of Maharashtra, the southern districts of
Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg are very less populated as compared
to its northern districts of Thane, Mumbai and Raigad. This
imbalance is primarily due to the varied topography of the
districts making it difficul tf o rt r a n s p o r t a t i o nt o d e v e l o p . H o w e v e r ,
the recent development of Konkan Railways has solved the
problem to a certain extent.
4. Restrictions of National Boundaries
The strictness of international migration laws and
population are inv ersely related to each other. If the migration
laws of a country are too strict, the immigration is less and
vice-versa. This is particularly applicable for people working
overseas and on a temporary basis. This not only affects the
number of immigrants in a particular country bu ilso its
population and the pressure on resources. It also helps to
prevent brain drain m the country people tend to migrate on a
large scale. The UNDP estimates that India loses $2 billion a
year because of the emigration of computer experts to the
(iS. Indian students going abroad for their higher studies cost
India a foreign exchange outflow of $10 billion annually. If this
continues, India would lose a hoard of its professionals every
year causing a shortage of the same. However, it can be
stopped by generating employment opportunities in the country
so that unemployment ration comes down.
4. FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF POP ULATION
Population growth in India continues to be high due to the
following reasons:
1.The large size of the population in the reproductive age -
group
In India, the population in the age group of is very high.
Thus, the population conti nues to increase. It is necessary that
the reproductive age group adopts without further delay ormunotes.in
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21exception the ‘small family norm, for the reason that about 45
percent of population increase is contributed by births above two
children per family.
2. Higher fertility
High fertility rate is due to unmet need for contraception.
Urgent steps are currently required to make contraception more
widely available, accessible, and affordable. Around
74 percent of the population lives i nr u r a la r e a s , i na b o u t5 . 5
lakh villages, many with poor communications and transport.
Reproductive health and basic health infrastructure and services
often do not reach the villages, and, accordingly, vast numbers of
people cannot avail these services.
3.Infant mortality rate (IMR)
The mortality rates are very high, due to which couples
believe in giving birth to more than two children so that if one of
them dies, the other can replace him/her.
4. Child Marriage / Early Marria ge
Over 50 percent of girls marry below the age of 18, the
minimum legal age of marriage, resulting in a typical reproductive
pattern of “too early, too frequent, too many”. Around 33 percent
births occur at intervals of less than 24 m onths, which aTso
results in high IMR.
5.Poor Litetacy Rates
The literacy rates in India are, low. Low Lvels of literacy is
an obstacle in the process of spreading awareness because
people are not mentally ready to accept concepts such as smal l
family, contraception, family planning, etc. they fInd it very
difficult to adopt the new trends over their traditional beliefs;
which may not necessarily be applicable always.
Q. Explain various factors affecting growth of population.
5. POPULATION POLICY OF INDIA
Introduction
On 11 May, 2000 India was projected to have 100 crore
people, i.e. 16 percent of the world’s population on 2.4 percent
of the globe’s land area. If current trends continue, India may
overtak e China in 2045, to become the most populous country in
the world. While global population has increased threefold
during this century, from 2 billion to 6 billion, the population
of India has increased neal five times from 238 million
(23 crores) to I billion in the same period. India’s current annual
increase in population is 15.5 million.munotes.in
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22Half a century after formulating the National Family
Welfare Programme, India has reduced crude birth rate (CBR)
from 40.8 (1951) to 26.4 (1998, SRS); halved the infant moitality
rate (IMR) from 46 per 1000 live births (1951) to live births
(1998, SRS);
Achieve universal access to information / counseling, and
services for fertility regulation and contrac eption with a wide
basket of choices.
Achieve 100 percent registration of births, deaths, marriage
and pregnancy .
Contain the spread of Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome (AIDS), and promote greater integration
between the management of reproduc tive tract
Infections (RTI)a n ds e x u a l l y transmitted infections (STI )a n d
the National AIDS Control Organisation.
Prevent and control communicable diseases .
Integrate Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM ) in the provision
of reproductive and child health servi ces, and in reaching out
tohouseholds.
Promote vigorously the small family norm to achieve
replacement levels of TFR.
Bring about convergence in implementation of related social
sector programs so that family welfare becomes a people
centred programme.
Public Support :
Demonstration of strong support to the small family norm,
as well as personal example, by political, community, business,
professional and religious leaders, media and film stars, sports
personalities, and opinion m akers, will enhance its
acceptance throughout society The government will actively enlist
their support in concrete ways.
New Structures :
The NPP 2000 is to be largely implemented and
managed at panchayat and nagarpalika levels, in coordination
with the concerned state I Union Territory administrations.
Accordingly, the specific situation in each state / UT must be
kept in mind. This will require coordination of planning and
implementation between health and family welfare on the one
hand, along with schemes for education, nutrition, women and
child development, safe drinking water, sanitation, rural roads,
communications, transportation, housing, forestry development,
environmental protection, and ur ban development. Accordingly,
the following structures are recommended.munotes.in
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23National Commission on Population
A National Commission on Population, presided over by the
Prime Minister, will have the Chief Ministe rs of all states and
UTS,a n d t he Central Minister in charge of the Depar tment
of Family Welfare and other concerned Central Ministries and
Departments, for example Department of Woman and Child
Development, Department of Education, Department of Social
Justice and Em powerment in the Ministry of HRD, Ministry of Rural
Development, Ministry of Environment and Forest, and others as
necessary, and reputed demographers, public health
professionals, and NGOs as members. This Commission will
oversee and review i mplementation of policy .The Commission
Secretariat will be provided b he Department of Family Welfare .
Coordination Cell in the Planning Commission
The Planning Commission will have a Coordination Cell
for inter -sartorial coordination between Ministries for enhancing
performance, particularly in States / OTS needing special attention
on account of adverse demographic and human development
indicators.
Promotional & Motivational Measures for Adoption of Small
Family Norm
The following promotiona la n dm o t i v a t i o n a lm e a s u r e sw i l lb e
undertaken:
Panchayats and Zila Parishads will be rewarded and
honoured for exemplary performance in universalising the
small family norm, achieving reductions in infant mortality
and birth rat es, and promoting literacy with completion
of primary schooling.
The Balika Samridhi Yojana run by the Department of
Women and Child Deve lopment to promote survival and
care of the girl child, will continue. A cash incentive of 500
is awarded at the birth of the girl child of birth order I or 2.
Maternity Benefit Scheme run by the Department of Rural
Development will continue. A cash incentive of 500 is awarded
to mothers who have their first child after 19 years of
age, for birth of the first or second child only.
Disbursement of the cash award will in future be linked to
compliance with ante -natal check up, institutional delivery by
trained birth attendant , registration of birth and BCG
irrimunisation.
AF a m i l y W e l f a r e -linked Health Insurance Plan will be
established. Couples below the poverty line, who undergomunotes.in
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24‘sterilisation with not more than two living children, would
become eligible (alo ng with children) for health
insurance (for hospitalization not exceeding ` 5,000 and a
personal accident insurance cover for the spouse undergoing
sterilisation.
Couples below the poverty line, who marry after the
legal age of marriage, register the marriage, have their
first child after the mother reaches the age of 21, accept the
small family norm, and adopt a terminal method after the
birth of the second child, will be rewarded.
Ar e v o l v i n g f u n d w i l l be set up for income -generating activities
by village -lcvc] self help groups, who provide community -level
health care services.
Crèches and child care centres will be opened in rural areas
and urban slums. This will facilitate and pro mote
participation of women in paid employment.
A wider, affordable choice of contraceptives will be made
accessible at diverse delivery points, with counseling
services to enable acceptors to exercise voluntary and
informed consent.
Facilities for safe abortion will be strengthened and expanded.
Products and services will be made affordable through
innovative social marketing schemes.
Local entrepreneurs at village levels will be provided soft
loans and en couraged to run ambulance services to
supplement the existing arrangements for referral
transportation.
Increased vocational training schemes for girls, leading to self -
employment will be encouraged.
Strict enforcement of Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1976.
Strict enforcement of the Pre -Natal Diagnostic Techniques
Act, 1994. Soft loans to ensure mobility of the ANMs will be
increased.
The 42nd Constitutional Amendment has frozen the
number of representatives in the Lok Sabha (on the ba sis of
population) at 1971 Census levels. The freeze s currently valid
until 2001, and has served as an incentive for Statemunotes.in
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25Governments to fearlessly pursue the agenda for population
stabilisation. This freeze needs to be extend ed until
2026.
Conclusion
In the new millennium, nations are judged by the well -
being of their peoples: by levels of health, nutrition and
education; by the civil and political liberties enjoyed by their
citizens; by the pro tection guaranteed to children and by
provisions made for the vulnerable and the disadvantaged.
The vast numbers of the people of India can be its
greatest asset if they are provided with the means to lead healthy
arid economically p roductive lives. Population stabilisation is a
multicultural endeavour requiring constant and effective dialogue
among a diversity of stakeholders, and coordination at all levels
of the government and society. Spread of literacy and education,
increasing availability of affordable reproductive and child health
services, convergence of service delivery at village levels,
participation of women in the paid work force, together with a
steady, equitable improvement in family incomes, w ill facilitate
early achievement of the soda -demographic goals. Success will
be achieved if the Action Plan contained in the NPP 2000 is
pursued as a national movement.
Q.5 Explain the Population Policy of India
After studying this lesson, we w ill be able to understand the
following.
Population means all the inhabitants of a particular place.
Availability of natural resources has a direct relationship with
population growth. As a result in agriculturally developed areas
population ranges betwe en high and very high. Moreover, the older
the civilisation the more is the population. In the present day Global
Village population has increased with the effect of developed
connectivity and accessibility. It is noticed that if the present trend
of popul ation growth continues India may overtake China in
2025.The rising population of India is one of the major problems of
the country. The present population of India consists of over 1.21
billion people. The increasing pressure of population on natural
resou rces will retard the economic progress and minimize the
scope for social services in the form of education, wealth, housing,
etc., so essentially needed for a progressive state. Therefore, a
planned growth of our economy needs some effective check on
popul ation.munotes.in
Page 26
26Check your Progress/ Exercise
1.True and false
f)Birth rates and death (or mortality) rates are the two major
statistical instruments for studying the population trend.
g)Birth rate is number of live births per 1000 population in a
particular year.
h)Fertility rate of a population is the average number of children
that would be born to a woman over her life time.
i)The strictness of international migration laws and population are
directly proportional to each other.
j)Promote early marriage for girls.
2.Fillin the blanks :
a)The word ______________ has been derived from the
Latin populus.
b)Birth rates and ______________ rates are the two major
statistical instruments for studying the population trend.
c)India has the second largest population in the world after
_______.
d)The UNDP estimates that India loses dollar ___ _______ a year
because of the emigration of computer experts to the U.S.
e)High fertility rate is due to unmet need for ___________.
3.Multiple choice question
a.Over population may lead to
i)high unem ployment ii)employment for everyone
iii)economic development
b.Sex ratio is
i)The number of females per 1000 males in a particular year.
ii)The number of females per 2000 males in a particular year.
iii)The number of females per 100 males in a par ticular year.
c.According to United Nations projections the world population will
be between 7.9 billion and 10.9 billion by
i)2051 ii)2060
iii)2050
4)Short answer question
6.What are the important terms of population?
7.Define population.
8.What is popul ation explosion?munotes.in
Page 27
279.What are the reasons for growth of population?
10.What is the population policy of India?
5)Answers to the self learning questions :
1. (a) True 1. (b) True 1. (c) True
1. (d) false, inversely related
1. (e) false, promote delayed marriage
2. a .P o p u l a t i o n
2. b.death (or mortality)
2.c.China
2. d. Two billion
2. e. contraception
3. a.i. 3. b.i 3. c.iii
6)Technical words and their meaning
1.Population -all the people who live in it
2.Mortality –number of people who die in an area
3.Distribution -The spread of people over an area
4.Infant Mortality Rates -The number of deaths per 1000 children
under one year old in a country per year
5.Birth Rate: The number of live births per 1000 people per year.
7)Task
1.In a map of India show the popul ation distribution of any three
states of India in bar graph
2.In a chart show the promotional and motivational measures for
adoption of small family norm.
munotes.in
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283
MIGRATION
After going through this chapter you will be
able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Subject -Discussion
3.3 Terms of Population
3.4 Factors affecting distribution of Popula tion
3.5 Factors affecting growth of population
3.6 Population policy of India, its objectives and goals
3.7 Promotional and motivational measures for adoption of
Small Family Norm
3.8 Check your Progress/ Exercise
3.9 Answers to the self learning questio ns.
3.10 Technical words and their meaning
3.11 Task
3.12 References for further study
3.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to
Learn the definition of Migration and its three fold impact
Understand the difference between migration a nd circulation,
commuting, transhumance
Learn different types of migration
Study the difference between emigration and immigration
Understand different types of migration such as short distance
and long distance migration
Understand the types of migration on the basis of political units
or countriesmunotes.in
Page 29
29Study the distinction between internal and international
migration
Study the historical perspective of migration
Present trend of international migration
Push factors and pull factors
Understand different conseq uences of migration
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters you have learnt about the Definition,
Scope and Nature of Human Geography. Also Population, its
growth and distribution as well as the reasons behind each of them
has been learnt. In this ch apter you are going to study about
migration. Special attempts have been made to study the difference
between migration and circulation, commuting, transhumance,
emigration and immigration, short distance and long distance
migration, internal and internati onal migration. The last part of this
chapter deals with the historical perspective of migration and
present trend of international migration. This again helps us to
understand different consequences of migration.
3.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Human Migration is the movement of people from one place
in the world to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or
semi -permanent residence, usually across a political boundary.
Similar to mortality and fertility migration do holds a place of
prominence in a geog raphical analysis of population change in any
area. Migration happens for a range of reasons classified as
economic, social, political or environmental. International migration
being a global phenomenon is growing in scope, complexity and
impact. Migration is both a cause and effect. International migration
has become a priority for the international community. The
contribution of various phenomena in this regard include, rise in
global mobility, the growing complexity of migratory patterns and its
impact o n countries, migrants, families and communities.
Migration isthemovement ofpopulation from one place to
another.
Fig. 3.1Migrationmunotes.in
Page 30
30According toTrewartha -Migration, like fertility and
mortality, holds aplace ofprominence inageographical
analysis ofpopulation change inanyarea.
Fig. 3.2 Various Components of Population Change
Bogue considers migration as an instrument of cultural
diffusion and social integration that results into more meaningful
distribution of population.
Migration has three -fold impact:
i)On the area experiencing inmigration.
ii)On the area experiencing out migration .
iii)Onthemigrants themselves.
Fig. 3.3 : Areas of out and in migration and migrants
According to Beaujeu -Garnier and Smith the area from which
people out migrate, the area to which they immigrate and the
migrants themselves -never remain the same.
Lee considers migration as a permanent or semi -
permanent change of residence with no restriction so nt h e
distance involved in the movement.
Migration is different from ‘circulation’, ‘commuting’ and
‘transhumance’.
Circulation has been defined to cover a great variety of
movements, usually short -term repetitive or cyclical in characte r,
but all having in common, the lack of any declared intention of a
permanent or long -lasting change in residence.munotes.in
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31Commuting refers to the movement individuals from place
ofresistance to place of work and back either daily or weekly.
Transh umance refers to the seasonal movement of people up
and down the hills along with their heads .
Population geographers consider migration as a
movement of people which may involve a change in place of
normal residence of people from one settlement to another.
Migration can he age selective i.e. people belonging to
working age group may move more than the children and the
aged.
Migration can also be sex selective i.e. in certain situations
more females may move than the males, while in others male
may move more than the females. e.g. in India females
change their place of residence as they adopt their husband’s
residence after marriage.
On the other hand in rural to urban mig ration more
males migrate to urban areas than the females. In western
countries more girls migrate to urban areas from the
surrounding rural areas.
The movement of people through the process of migration
is normally indicated by two terms —Emigration and immigration.
Emigration is movement from a country e.g. the migration of
people from India to O.K. is a emigration, while immigration is
migration into a country e.g. migration from Bangla Desh
to India. Emigr ation reduces the population of country while
immigration increases it.
1.Define the term migration.
Migration can be classified:
The movement of people through the process of migration
is normally indicated by two terms Emigration an d
immigration. Emigration is movement from a country e.g. the
migration of people from India to U.K. is a emigration, while
immigration is migration into a country —e.g. migration horn
Bangla Desh to India. Emigration reduce st h e p o p u l a t i o no fa
country while immigration increases it.munotes.in
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32
Fig. 3.4 Immigration & Emigration
Migration can be classified on the basis of(A)
Distance, (B) Political units orcountries, (C)Cause.
stinguish between Immigratio na n d m i g r a t i o n .
A.TYPES OF MIGRATION ACCORDING TO THE DISTANCE
TRAVELLED.
i)Short distance orlocal migrations.
ii) Long distance orregional and global migrations
The migration of people from UP., Kerala and South Konkan
to Mu mbai is an example of regional migration; while the
migration of Indians to U.S.A., Canada and U.K. is a global
migration. In the 19th century large scale global migration took
place from Europe to the newly discovered countries like U.S.A.,
Canada, Australia etc. and hence there was a combined
movement of people and capital from the overpopulated
countries to the underpopulated countries. In that century global
transfers of population was one of the important reason for the
population growth in many countries
Fig. 3.5 Short and Long Distance migration
As the short distance local migrations are easy and less
expensive such migraons are on a large scale than the globalmunotes.in
Page 33
33miglalions but at the same time the in fluence of local migrations
is limited to that particular region. On the other hand long
distance, global migrations are more expensive and difficult or
restrictive due to the various restrictions imposed on the migrants
by different cou ntries.
Sometimes international migrations are of short distance
e.g. Migation from Bangladesh to India. On the other hand
internal migration could be long distance e.g. migration from
Kashmir to Kerala.
3.Distinguish between shot -distance and long distance
migration:
B.TYPES OF MIGRATION ON THE BASIS OF POLITICAL
UNITS OR COUNTRIES
The migration can take place within a particular political
unit or country and hence it is termed as a internal migration. But if
the migratio n is from the one political unit to the another political
unit or country then it is known as international migration. All
long distance or global migrations are the international migrations.
Fig. 3.6 Internal and External Migration
As t here are less restrictions for the internal
migrations than the int ernational migrations, internal
migrations are more frequent than the international
migrations. According to Kingsley Davis internal migration is
more important than international migration from the point of
view of demography. Sometimes the distance involved in internal
migration may be greater than that involved in international
migration. e.g. the migration from UP. to Bombay and Ka thmandu
in Nepal.munotes.in
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34Internal migration can be further subdivided into four
categories as follows :
i)Migration from the village to the city.
ii)Migration from one village to another village.
iii) Migration from one city to the city.
iv)Migration from the city to village.
Fig. 3.7 Types of Internal Migration
i.Migration from the village to the city: Migration from the
village to the city or urban areas is most important
especially in India. Almost all major Indian metr opolitan
cities like kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai have
experienced tremendous growth of population during last few
decades mainly due to the rural to urban migration.
In a research project taken up by Dr. Hemant Pedne kar
on the rural urban migration from South Konkan to Mambai
it was found that 82% of the migrants from the village
Devbag (Malvan taluka) and 95% migrants from the
village Kupavade (Kudal taluka) preferred Mumbai as their
place of destination. Mumbai being an economic capital ol
India, there are many industries as well as job opportunities
in Mumbai and hence Mumbai has acted as a strong
magnet —atracting migrants from the underdeveloped region
of South K onkan.
ii.Migration from one village to another village : This type of
migrations take pla(e due to economic, at social
reasons. Normally people from the underdeveloped, inac
essiblt vilLgus migrate to the better developed , accessible
village for employment. Similarly marriage is a social
reason, which is responsible for the large scale rural to
rural migration.
iii.Migration from one city to another city : Skilled workers and
educated people migrate from one city to another inmunotes.in
Page 35
35search of the better employment opportunities. People
working in the government and private organizations are
sometimes transferred from one city to another city.
iv.Migration from the city to the village Generally retired
persons prefer calm and pollution -free life of the villages and
hence they migrate from city to the village. Some Specific job
opportunities like those of development offkers, social workers,
doctor s and nurses, teachers etc. attract, population from
cities to Villages
4.Distinguish between Internal and International migration :
C.TYPES OF MIGRATION ACCORDING TO THE CAUSES OF
MIGRATION
i)Migration due to the geographical reason si . e .n a t u r a l
calamities like volcanic erruptions, earthquakes, floods and
droughts etc.
ii)Migration due to the economic reasons people migrate
from Kerala to Mumbai or Saudi Arabia as the
employment opportunities are more in these areas.
iii)Education as a reason of migration Many students migrate
to USA., U.K., and Canada for their higher studies and
most of them settle in the foreign countries after
completing their studies. This type of permanent miqration of
the more educated people frcm one country to the another is
termed as Brain drain.
iv)Migration due to the social factors Discrimination of an
individual on the basis of language, religion, caste etc. l eads
to the migration of that person from one place to another
place. Similarly marriage is also an important social factor which
is responsible for the large scale social migration.
v)Political or forced migration Change in the administratio no r
partition of a country leads to the political migration. Many
Jews migrated from Nazi Germany toother countries before
the II nd world war. The partition of India in 1947 was
responsible for the large scale migrations of Hindu a nd
Muslim population among India and Pakistan.
5. Define the term migration. What are its different types :munotes.in
Page 36
36MIGRATION -AH I S T O R I C A LP E R S P E C T I V E
‘Transport’ played a very important role in promoting
migration from one region to another. The scale and distance of
movements increased considerably with the developments in
transport systems.
In the past s mall groups of people moved along relatively
small di stance,either in search of ne wland or because they
were forced to move by invading people. Many people entered
South East Asia from north and pastoralists moved from Central
Asia to eastern Europe in search of better lands. This type of
movements were still in progress when Europeans entered Africa.
All early migrations were gradual and were basically land
migrations; as sea travel was difficult and dangerous. Few small
scale movements did however take place e.g. between the
various Pacific islands and those around the Indian Ocean. Ar abs
and Indians reached S.E. Asia.
Due to the favourable physical conditions, early
migrations in Europe were numerous. Most of these were
small scale land migrations. During the same period Seafaring
Vikings reached t he Mediterranean and settled in many
parts of Western Europe. They also reached N. America and
Greenland.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth century the Americas
were discovered. At the time agriculture was the main
occupation in Europe and Europe was already becoming
overpopulated, the situation was very bad in the poorer
countries such as Portugal and Spain. People werer e a d yt o
move to new lands. In sixteenth century three million people from
Spain left for Am erica. It is estimated that more than 100 million
Europeans have left for the Australia, Africa, Asia and America.
During sixte enthcentury Spanish and Portuguese migrants
were more in number whiledining the eighteenth and early
nineteenth century British. French and Germ anmigrants were
most numerous Still later these migrants were joined by
Spaniards, Italians and East Europeans such as Hungarians,
Russians and Poles (from Poland).
Developments in ship and railway t ransport accelerated the
process of migration.
In East Asia Chinese and Japanese people migrated to
south -east Asia, Hawaii and South America. Indians went to work
on sugar plantations in Mauritius, West Indies, Fiji. They also went
to east Africa as tra ders.munotes.in
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European colonies developed in different parts of the world.
They developed plantations in these areas and in order to meet
the large scale requirement of labour, slave -trade started. Many
Africans were moved to North and South America as slaves by
the European traders. This type of forced migration continued
until the abolition of slavery during the 19th century. In 19th
century the densely populated countries of Asia were exploited by
the Dutch and British colonists. Hence this semi -slave trade
supplied labour to newly developed plantations of Sri Lanka, Fiji,
Hawaii, Malaysia, Mauritius etc
A.African to North and South America
B.India nsto South Africa
C.Indiansto South East Asia
D.Chinese to South East Ass
E.Europe anto North America
F.Europeans to Siberia
G.Europeans to South Am erica
H.Europe it to South Africa
IEurop eans to Austra lia
European migrants migrated to America, S. Africa, Australia
and New Zealand which constituted one of the most important
migratory movement in human history which involved about 20%
oE u r o p e ’ st o t a l p o p u l a t i o n .
As a result of revolution of 1917 over one million
Russians moved to the adjacent parts of Europe. More than
300,000 Americans migr ated from Turkey in 1920; and more than
one million Jews left Germany in 1930 to escape from Nazi rule. In
1947 about 15 million people were forced to move horn one
part of the Indian subcontinent to another s a result of the
partition of B ritish India. In 1948, after the emergence of Israelmunotes.in
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38
about 1.5 million Palestinians were forced to move to Arab
countries. The Gulf War of 1990 was responsible for the large
scale movement of people of Indian origin to return to their native
country.
6.Briefly explain the migration of people of before pre -
industrial period.
4.PRESENT TRENDS OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
The developed countries of the world are no more the
major recipients of im migrants. Some of the less developed
countries have started attracting large -scale immigration e.g.
oil producing countries of Asia.
Due to the restrictive policies adopted by many countries the
international migrations have declined.
The number of illegal immigrants is fast increasing.
The number of refugees have increased after the second world
war. The wars, conflicts and changing political situation in
many countries is responsible for such a large scale movement.
e.g. emergence of Bangladesh.
5.CAUSES OF MIGRATION -‘PUSH -‘PULL’ FACTORS
The reasons for migration can be due to either push or
pull factors.
5.1 Push factors are factors that encourage or force people to
move away from their own areas of residence / countrie s.
Fig. 3.9 Push -Pull factors of Migration
5.2 Pull factors arc those that attract people to a particular new
area /country.
Both push and pull factors are present in different proportions
in any type of migrationmunotes.in
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395.1Push factors These can be further grouped into three
types. Physical, Economic and Political.
a) Physical —Environmental push factors
The adverse environmental conditions force people to
move out from a particular region.
The most common environmental problem is related to
water which forms one of the basic need of man. Too much or too
little water creates problem. People are forced to move out from
land affected by floods or storms that destroy farmlands and
homes.
Drought is a nother water -related push factor. Such region
die normally the regions of low population. The scarcity of water
in the Sahel region of North Africa has produced drought .
conditions for several years as a result land lost its productive
capacity. M any thouOf the SaheI.
In the interior part of Maharashtra e.g. the desh region is
sometimes affected by the severe drought condition. At that time
people move to the nearby areas in search of temporary jobs and
food. Sometimes they move to as far as Mumbai and never
return back to their original village / town.
b) Economic Push Factors
The differences in the standard of living between one
country or region and another encourages peopl et o l e a v e t h e i r
homes for higher wages. Though Mumbai is a part of Konkan, the
urban development, the wages, the standard of living in Mumbai
is still much higher than rest of the Konkan. Due to poor
infrastructural development, non availa bility of jobs, people
migrate to Mumbai from Konkan in search of jobs.
c) Political Push Factors
Refugees are the couple who are forced to migrate from
a particular country to another country due to political reasons.
People may be forc ed to move during wartime, if hostile forces
invade their land or if boundaries are changed after the
ceasefire. eq. Movement of refugees from South Vietnam and
Kampuchea (combodia) to U.S.A. and 1lilland. Movement of
refugees from B angla Desh to India.
5.2 Pull Factors
These are the factors related to the desirable features of a
particular location; These I a 1 attract people to live there pull
factors can al so be g rouped into three main categories -
Physical, Ec onomic and Political.munotes.in
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40a) Physical pull factors
Favourable environmental conditions — with respect to
climate, vegetation, soil etc., attract people. in this age of
improved communications and transportation systems people can
live in relativel yremote areas and still not be isolated from other
areas.
b) Economic pull factors
People move to places where jobs are available.
Favourable economic conditions are not distributed evenly on
the earth’s surface. The uneven distribution of prosperity is a
result of the location of a particular type of economic activities.
Generally economic growth is found where growing industries are
located. Thus more people are now attracted mc to countries with
such indust ries as electronics, chemical, engineering etc.
c) Political pull factors
The most important political factor is the lure of freedom.
More people are attracted to democratic countries where
individual decisions can be made concerning plac eo f
residence, career etc. e.g. many youth migrate from China to India.
7.Distinguish between PusharidPull fa ctors of migration :
6. CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION
Migration affects the area of out -migration, the area of in -
migration, and the migr ants themselves.
6.1 Economic Impact
The arts from which the people move out and the area
to which the people move in both undergo quantitative as well as
qualitative change in their demographic structure. Due to migration
of people from one region to another all the demographic attributes
like numbers. Density, growth, fertibility, mortality, age, sex,
literacy etc. experience a quantitative change. e.g. density of
population increases in the region of in migration —i.e. cities i n
the case of rural -urban migration. The quality of life in the region
increases due to the migration of educated and technically trained
people.
6.2 Health Problem
Migrants face serious adaptation problems. e.g. Migrants
moving from rural t o urban areas suffer from lack of pure air and
open space also fume, dust etc. Their dietary habits (food habits)
and timings of food intake also change. Many migrants from rural
areas are not able to adjust with new environment, polluted
environme nt in the city areas and hence the incidences of
respiratory diseases among these people is more. Diseases likemunotes.in
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41AIDS have spread World Wide due to migration of HIV infected
persons from one region to another.
6.3 Change of Culture
People carry their own culture —language, religion etc.
when they migrate from one region to another. Language
becomes a serious problem when people of different
languag esmigrate in large numbers and live together for long
e.g. Dutch and English in South A frica orFrench and English in
Canada .They pose a serious problem for their respecti velocal
governments.
6.4 Lack of Man Power
The region of out migration faces serious problem of lack of
man power; due to large sca le male migration from that region.
The problem of Brain Drain is also server in many underdeveloped
and developing countries. Highly educated People from these
countries migrate to more developed countries and permanently
settle in those countries as they get higher salary. The parent
country suffers heavy loss -in terms of money and skilled
manpower. The amount of money spend by the local government
on the education of these students is wasted.
6.5 Cultural Diffusion
Migrants try to spread their culture and religion in the new
region .e . g . Immigration of Ch ristians (Catholic and French and
British Protestants) in Canada and many countries and Asia
and Africa.
Cultural diffusion takes place due to migration as the
civilization gels enriched due to the contribution of the migrants
who integrate the two areas. This is very important process in
better understanding of different cultures and religions and bringing
people tog ether.
8. What are consequences of migra tion?
After studying this lesson, we will be able to understand the
following.
Migration can take place within the country or a particular
political unit. This is known as internal migration but if the same is
from one country to another country it is t ermed as international
migration. Natural calamities, employment opportunities, education,
discrimination due to various social factors and major political
issues like partition, in case of India, may be considered as the
factors behind migration. There ma yb ei n n u m e r a b l eb e n e f i t so f
International migration, but it is true that migrants themselves
remain among the most vulnerable members of society. High -
income countries have absorbed most of the recent growth in themunotes.in
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42global population of international migra nts. To conclude it may be
said that International Migration affects population change directly
by adding to or subtracting from the population in countries of
destination and origin. It also affects population indirectly by
impacting, for example, mortali ty and fertility in the respective
countries. Migration also plays a vital role in the cultural and
religious field of a society because migrants from different parts of
the world try to spread their culture and religion in the new region.
Check your Prog ress/ Exercise
True and false
i.Migration is the annual growth of population in a country.
ii.According to Trewartha migration holds a place of prominence
in a geographical analysis of population change in any area.
iii.Emigration is a movement from a country.
iv.Whe n retired persons migrate to have a calm and pollution free
life it is termed as city to city migration.
v.Migration of Jews from Nazi Germany to other parts of the world
during world war II is an example of migration due to economic
reasons.
Fill in the bl anks :
i.Bogue considers migration as an _______ of cultural diffusion.
ii.Permanent migration of educated people from one country to
another is termed as _________.
iii.___________ factors are those that attract people to a particular
new area or country.
iv.People moves to places where ________ are available.
v.Migrants spread their ___________ and religion in the new
region.
Multiple choice question
1.Migration on the basis of distance travelled may be classified as
i.Long and short distance
ii.Internal and internation al
iii.Village to city
2.Indians migrated in Mauritius, Fiji, to work in
i.Sugar plantations
ii.Jute factories
iii.Cotton textile industriesmunotes.in
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433.The scale and distance of movements increased with the
developments
i.In barter system
ii.in transport systems
iii.in education sys tem
Short answer question
i.What do you understand by short and long distance migration?
ii.Define migration.
iii.What are push and pull factors of migration? Distinguish
between them.
iv.What are the different types ofmigration?
v.What are the consequences of migratio n?
Answers to the self learning questions:
1. (a) False, the movement of population from one place to another.
1. (b) True
1. (c) True
1. (d) false, city to village migration
1. (e) false, political or forced migration
2.a. instrument
2. b.Brain Drain
2.c. Pull
2.d.jobs
2. e. culture
3. a.i.
3. b.i
3. c.iii
Technical words and their meaning
i.Migration -The movement of a person or a group of persons,
either across an international border, or within a State
ii.Emigration -The act of departing or exiting fro mo n eS t a t ew i t h
a view to settling in another.
iii.Immigration -A process by which non -nationals move into a
country for the purpose of settlement.
Task
1.In a map of world show the trend of international migration
2.In a chart exhibit the types of mig ration according to the causes
of migration
munotes.in
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444
TRIBES
After going through this chapter you will be
able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Subject -Discussion
4.3 World distribution of tribes wi th their general features
4.4 World’s major tribes and their habitats
4.5 Different tribes learnt in details such as: Eskimos, African
Pygmies, Masai, Bedouin
4.6 Check your Progress/ Exercise
4.7 Answers to the self learning questions.
4.8 Technical word sa n dt h e i rm e a n i n g
4.9 Task
4.10 References for further study
4.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to
Learn the definition of tribes and their general features
Understand the wide range of tribes throughout the world and
their vari ed habitat
Learn the ways of life of different types of tribes such as
Eskimos, African Pygmies, Masai, Bedouin
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters you have learnt about the Definition,
Scope and Nature of Human Geography. Also Population, its
growth and distribution as well as the reasons behind each of them
has been learnt. Furthermore we have studied about migration and
the difference between migration and circulation, commuting,
transhumance, emigration and immigration, short distance and longmunotes.in
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45distance migration, internal and international migration. In this
chapter we are going to learn about the world distribution of tribes
and their habitat. Every year August 9 is observed as the
International Day of the World’s Indigenous People. India has one
of the largest tribal populations in the world with 7.5 % of its
population classified as tribal. Maximum tribal population in India is
found in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, North
Eastern States (Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Nagaland), and Sikkim.
4.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Tribes are a group of people that includes many families and
relatives who have the same language, customs, and beliefs. They
are spread over the length and breadth of our world. They a re
found on the hills, along the plains and even in the deserts.
Different studies by the anthropologists suggests that the tribal
people and ethnic races throughout the world have developed their
own culture, customs, cults, religious rites, taboos, totem s, legends
and myths, song, foods, medicinal practices. It is felt that the
increasing trend of globalization, industrialization, and
homogenization have contribution in our lives to become global
citizens. This has again helped us to be at home in any par to ft h e
world. However, these processes have taken a heavy toll on
traditional ways of life around the world, particularly tribal cultures
that are trying to preserve their age -old traditions and customs.
4.3 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF TRIBES
Tribe can be defined as an aggregate of people linked
together by means of social ties, a common language and the
recognition of a common cultural heritage. The term tribe refers to
a cultural or social rather than a biological or racial group. Most of
the t ribal communities have only a low level of technological
development, productivity per capita is generally low.
4.3.1 General Features of Tribes
Cultivation of plants is the mainstay of tribal groups.
Animal domestication forms a part of their a griculture.
The herding tribal community are semi -nomadic way of life.
Tribal groups have some typical economic characteristics
plant cultivation animal rearing, hunting.
Since they cannot use modern technologies, even if they
are av ailable their productive capabilities are limited.
Exchange (Barter) and redistribution are the chief means
of disposal of surplus production if any.munotes.in
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46They cannot compete with modern political organizations, such
as state..
Though the membe rs of any tribe have common language
and common culture, they are not united group.
Tribes with simple technology cannot resist the onslaught by
the people with more sophisticated technology as a result they
are pushed into the areas of les sh o s p i t a b l e environment.
The isolation of tribes widen the cultural and technological
differences between tribal society and the rest of the
population of the country. For example, tribal population of
India concentrated in h illy and forested areas, while most of
the original inhabitants of Australia; the Aborigines are today
confined to the Northern Territory.
Define the term tribe. What are the general characteristics of
Tribes ?
4.4 WORLD -MAJOR TRIBES THEIR HABITA NTS
Table 4.1
Tribes Habitats
Afikpo Tribal people inhabiting SouthernNigeriaAinu Racial stock of Japan
Alacaluf A tribal society of Southern Chile.
Tribes Habitats
AndamaneseInhabitants of Andaman and NicobarIslands.Apache Inhabitants of So uth-West U.S.
Arapaho Trible people inhabiting in Rock Mountains
in U.S.ArapeshTribal Inhabitants of Papua NewArunta Tribal inhabitants of Central Australia
Ashanti A Tribal community of shana.
Aztec Central Mexco
Babinga Tribals i nhabiting in North Congo in Africa
Bantu Negrows of Central and Southern Africa
Basques Tribes of northern Spain and Southern
France.munotes.in
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47Basseri An a t i v e t r i b eo fI r a n .
Bedovins Nomadic tribe in Southwest Asia.
Bemba Atribal community of Zam bia in Africa
Berbers Tribals of Morocco, Algeria and Tunsia
Bindibu Natives of western Australia
Blaçkfeet Tribal people inhabiting in Northwest US
and Sputhern Canada.
Bushmua Inhabitants of Kalahari Desert in Africa
Cheroke Inhabitants of S outheast US
Chileat Inhabitants of southeastern coastal region
of Alaska US
Chono Tribal Community in Southeastern Chile.
Cree Tribal community in eastern Canada south
of Hudson Bay.
Creek Tribals in Florida state in US.
Dani Tribal i nhabants of West Irian
(Indonesian Guinea)
DelawareTribal inhabitants of northeastern part of USDobuansInhabitants of Melanesian islands in SouthPacific
EskimosNatives of the cold Tundra region inCanada and Greenland
Fins Native peop le of European Tundra.
FoxTribal people in US inhabitants to the Southof Great Lakes
GauchoNomads of the Pampa region in Uruguayand Argentina
Gumuz Inhabitants of valley of Iue Nile in Ethopia.
Hamites Dark skinned Muslims inhabiting northw est Africa
Haida Hunting and fishing tribe of
northwestern coast of Canada.munotes.in
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48Hanunoo Jungle farmers of one of the islands of
Central
Philippines Hopi Inhabitants of northeastern Arizona in US.
Hottentots One o fthe original racial stocks inh abiting
iii liopical
Africa. Hupa Tribals once aboriginal of California in US
HutuAn agriculturI tribe in central Africa inZaire, Rawanda and Burundi
Jabo Inhabitants of eastern Liberia in Africa
Javanese Inhabitants of Java island in Indon esia
Kachin A community in the northern highlands of
Myanmar.
Kikuyu A tribe in East Africa
Kirghiz A group of pastoral people inhabiting the
steppe in Asia
.K o a k aInhabitants of Guadalcanal (SolomonIsland)
[apps Inhabitants of European Tun dra
Maori Native inhabitants of rainforests of New
Zealand
Masai Nomadic cattle herders of East Africa
Tribes Habitats
Miskito Inhabitants of Nicaragua and Honduras
Mongols
Nayar Tribals of Kerala region in 1 undra
Noolcta Tribes living between the mountains andcoast Northeastern Canada
PygmiesInhabitants of tropical rainforests of ZaireBasin, Africa
Yakuts Tribe! people cf Tundra region of Russia.
Q2. Mark and Name any 10 type of tribes in the World Map.munotes.in
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49African Pygmies
The p ygmy people live in the rainforests of Central Africa in
areas such as the Congo and Equatorial Guinea. There are
different pygmy groups in these areas, including the Bambuti, Baka,
Twa and Babinga pygmies. More pygmy groups live in Cameroon
and Gabon. The pygmies are among the oldest populations of
Africa. They call themselves “Mambuti” or “Elf”. Egyptian record
mentioned the Pygmies 4000 years ago.
A pygmy is a member of an ethnic group whose average
height is unusually short; many anthropologists defi ne pygmy as a
member of any group where adult men are on average less
than 150 cm (4 feet 11 inches )t a l l .
They are traditionally hunter -gatherers living in the
rainforests throughout central Africa. They are nomadic. They also
carry on fishing to some e xtent. Primarily though, these
communities identify themselves as ‘forest people’ due to the
fundamental importance of the forest to their culture, livelihood and
history. They hunt with flash and arrow and hunting nets. Pygmies
eat a variety of foods that they either hunt or gather, including
antelopes, wild pigs, wild yams, honey, termites, mushrooms
and fruits. They also may eat fish from rivers or streams. Pygmies
also trade for food with people from nearby villages. Current
estimates put the population of the ‘Pygmy’ peoples at about half a
million.
The Pygmy families live in dome shaped huts made from
leaves. Their mattresses are also made from leaves. In these huts
they sleep very close to one another around a fire that protects
them from the humid c old temperature. The smoke keeps out the
mosquitoes as well.
The importance of the forest as their spiritual and physical
home, and as the source of their religion, livelihood, medicine and
cultural identity cannot be overstated. Traditionally, small
communities moved frequently through distinct forest territories,
gathering a vast range of forest products, collecting wild honey and
exchanging goods with neighbouring settled societies. Hunting
techniques vary among the forest peoples, and include bows an d
arrows, nets and spears.
Pygmy culture is closely connected to their “polyphonic”
music and dance, which everybody is involved in. Besides their
voices they use musical instruments such as drums, flutes, feet
bells, trumpets, mouth bows, thumb pianos, etc. Their original bark
clothes are painted with beautiful abstract patterns but at present
western clothing is pushing away this tradition.munotes.in
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50InAfrica ,t h eP y g m i e sa r ei nv e r yr e al danger of losing their
forest home, and consequently their cultural identity, as the forest is
systematically cleared by logging companies. In some situations,
like that in the Democratic Republic of Congo , there exists a sad
irony: civil war and uprisings that create a dangerous environment
for the Pygmies and their neighbors are in fact responsible for
keeping the logging companies at bay. Whenever a more peaceful
situation is cr eated, the logging companies judge the area safe to
enter and destroy the forest, forcing resident Pygmies to leave their
home and that which gives them their sense of cultural and spiritual
identity.
In addition to the persistent loss of the rain forest , African
Pygmy populations must deal with exploitation by neighboring
Bantu, who often consider them equal to monkeys ,a n dp a yt h e m
for their labor in alcohol andtobacco .M a n yB a n t uv i e wt h e
Pygmies as having supernatural abilities, and there is a common
belief that sexual inte rcourse with a Pygmy can prevent or
cure diseases such as AIDS ; a belief that is causing AIDS to be on
therise among Pygmy populations. Perhaps most disturbing of all
are the stories of cannibalism from the Congo; soldiers eating
Pygmies in order to absorb their forest power s. Although this is an
extreme example, it graphically illustrates the attitude that Pygmies
are often considered subhuman, making it difficult for them to
defend their culture against obliteration.
ESKIMO
The term Eskimo, refers to a number of groups who
traditionally inhabit the coastline from the Bering Sea to Greenland
and the Chukchi Peninsula in NE Siberia i.e. the northern
circumpolar region from eastern Siberia (Russia), across Alaska
(United States), Canada, and Greenland. Eskimos constitute the
chief element in the indigenous population of these regions. The
Inuit of Canada, Northern Alaska, Greenland; and the Yupik of
eastern Siberia and Alaska are the two main peoples known as
"Eskimo". Since the 1970s Eskimo groups in Canada and
Greenland have adopted the name Inuit. But this term has not
gained currency in Alaska or Siberia. In Canada and Greenland,
the term "Eskimo" has been criticised and widely replaced by the
term "Inuit", "Alaska Natives", or terms specific to a particular tribe,
each of which is a regional variant meaning, “the people” or “the
real people.” The name Eskimo has been applied to Arctic peoples
by Europeans and others in the 16th century.
In the 2 1st-century estimated Eskimo population is more
than 135,000. Among them 85,000 live in North America, 50,000 in
Greenland, and the remainder of them dwell in Siberia.munotes.in
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51In spite of regional differences, Eskimo groups , a distinctive
aboriginal people, have uniformity in language, physical type, and
culture. They speak dialects of the same language, Eskimo, which
is a major branch of the Eskimo -Aleut family of languages. These
characteristics made them different from all their neighbours.
The Eskimos adapt ed themselves to an extremely cold,
snow -and ice covered environment in the Arctic region. Their basic
social and economic unit was the nuclear family, and their religion
was animistic.
Agriculture was never possible in the millions of square
kilometres of tundra and icy coasts. Moreover, in this icebound
region as trees were scarce, vegetable foods were almost
nonexistent. The major food sources were caribou, seal, walrus,
and whale meat, whale blubber, and fish. Eskimos are basically
hunters. Their hun ting technologies included several types of
harpoons, the bow and arrow, knives, and fish spears and weirs.
Eskimo people hunted seals using harpoons. They killed the seals
either on the ice or from kayaks which are skin -covered, one -
person canoes. Larger boats called umiaks were used to hunt
whales. In the summer most Eskimo families hunted caribou and
other land animals with bows and arrows. Eskimo of central
Canada were a littoral people. They moved inland in the summer
for freshwater fishing and game hu nting.They ate raw meat.
Besides saving scarce fuel this provided their diet with essential
nutritional elements which cooking would have destroyed
Eskimo clothing was sewn from caribou furs and hides. They
included parkas, breeches, mittens, snow goggle s, and boots. It
provided protection against the extreme cold.
Eskimos traditionally used various types of houses. Among
some Eskimo groups the snow hut or igloos made of ice -block was
used as a winter residence. Sometimes they also live in semi
subterr anean houses. These were built of stone or sod over
wooden or whalebone frameworks. In summer many Eskimo lived
in animal -skin tents. Tents of caribou skins or seal skins provided
adequate summer dwellings.
The basic means of transport on land was Dogsle ds, used
for the hauling of heavy loads over long distances. This was
necessary for the Eskimos' nomadic hunting life. Their skin canoe,
known as a kayak, is one of the most highly manoeuvrable small
craft.
Most Eskimo groups relied on sea mammals for f ood,
illumination, cooking oil, tools, and weapons. Fish and caribou were
also important in their economy. In the traditional Eskimo economy,munotes.in
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52the division of labour between the sexes was well defined; men
constructed homes and hunted, and women took care o ft h e
homes.
Eskimo groups were famous for elaborate technologies,
artisanship, and well -developed art which other hunting and
gathering populations lack. They lived in small groups, under a
leader who could provide them with the necessary needs. Most
properties were for community own except for those of private and
personal use.
In the past weapons were crafted from ivory, bone, copper,
or stone. Since 20thcentury iron and guns have come to be used.
Finely crafted items such as needles, combs, awls, figurines, and
decorative carvings on weapons were executed with the rotary bow
drill.
Nowadays Eskimos in the United States and Canada live in
settled communities. They earn wages for livelihood and use guns
for hunting. For transportation they use the all-terrain vehicle or the
snowmobile.
Although animals for hunting are now in short supply with the
increase use of firearms, shortfall is made up by other sources of
food imbibed under the influence of other cultures.
Sami, or Lapps (as they were f ormerly called), are
commonly thought of as the inhabitants of Lapland, they have
never had a country of their own. They are the original inhabitants
of northern Scandinavia and most of Finland. Their neighbors have
called them Lapps, but they prefer to be called Samer orSami .
The Sami live in tundra (arctic or subarctic treeless
plain), taiga (subarctic forest), and coastal zones in the far north of
Europe, spread out over four different countries: Norway, Sweden,
Finland, and Russia's Kola peninsula. They live on coasts and
islands warmed by the Gulf Stream, on plateaus dotted by lakes
and streams, and on forested mountains. Sami territory lies at
latitudes above 62 degrees north, and much of it is above the Arctic
Circle, with dark, cold winters and warm, light summers. It is often
called the "land of the midnight sun" because depending on the
latitude, the sun may be visible for up to seventy day sa n dn i g h t s
straight in the summer. The far north sees almost three months of
continuous daylight. Balancing this out, however, is an equally long
period of darkness in the winter, which may last from October to
March. Beginning in November, the sun disap pears for weeks.
Much of the Samis' land is at high altitudes, rising to over 6,000 feet
(1,800 meters) above sea level. The highest point is Kebnekajse, at
6,960 feet (2,121 meters).munotes.in
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53Traditionally, the Sami lived in a community of families called
asiida , whose members cooperated in hunting, trapping, and
fishing. Officially, the number of Sami is estimated at between
44,000 and 50,000 people. An estimated 30,000 to 35,000 live in
Norway, 10,000 in Sweden, 3,000 to 4,000 in Finland, and 1,000 to
2,000 in Russia. However, some think the actual number is
considerably higher. For many years, the Sami culture and way of
life were criticized by their neighbors, causing many to conceal their
true identity. Thus, it is difficult to know how many Sami there
actual ly are (some estimates are as high as 200,000).
Traditionally, the Sami have pursued a variety of livelihoods,
including coastal fishing, fur trapping ,a n d sheep herding .T h e i r
best-known means of livelihood is semi -nomadic reindeer herding.
Currently about 10% of the Sami are connected to reindee r
herding, providing them with meat, fur, and transportation. 2,800
Sami people are actively involved in herding on a full -time
basis. For traditional, environmental, cultural, and political reasons,
reindeer herding is legally reserved only for Sami peopl ei nc e r t a i n
regions of the Nordic countries. Their main handicraft is called
“Duodji”. Men mostly use wood, bone, and antlers to make items
like knives, drums ,a n d guksi (burl cups). Women used leather and
roots to make items such as gákti (clothing), and birch -and spruce -
root woven baskets.
Traditionally, th e gákti was made from reindeer leather and
sinews, but nowadays, it is more common to use wool, cotton, or
silk. Women's gákti typically consist of a dress, a fringed shawl that
is fastened with 1 -3 silver brooches, and boots/shoes made of
reindeer fur or leather. Boots can have pointed or curled toes and
often have band -woven ankle wraps. Men's gákti have a shorter
"jacket -skirt" than a women's long dress. Traditional gákti are most
commonly in variations of red, blue, green, white, medium -brown
tanned lea ther, or reindeer fur.
Today the Sami are citizens of the countries within whose
borders they live, with full rights to education, social services,
religious freedom, and participation in the political process. Norway,
Sweden, and Finland all have Sami p arliaments. At the same time,
however, the Sami continue to preserve and defend their ethnic
identity and traditional cultural valu es.
Many Eskimo have abandoned nomadic hunting. They have
settled in northern towns and cities with regular jobs in mines and
oil fields. In Canada forming cooperatives they market their
handicrafts, fish catches, and tourism ventures. The creation
ofNunavut , a new Canadian territory, in 1999 helped to support a
revitalization of traditional indigenous culture in North America.munotes.in
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54The Masai are a Nilotic ethnic group of semi -nomadic
warrior tribe inhabiting southern Kenya and northern Tanzania .
They are among the best known local populations due to their
residence near the many game parks of the African Great Lakes ,
and their distinctive customs and dress. The Maasai speak “Maa”a
member of the Nilo-Saharan language family. They are also
educated in the official languages of Kenya and
Tanzania, Swahili andEnglish .
According to their own oral history , the Masai originated from
the lower Nile valley north of Lake Turkana (Northwest Kenya) and
began migrating south around the 15th century towards northern
Kenya to central Tanzania between the 17th and late 18th century.
The Masai territory reached its largest size in the mid -19th century,
and covered almost all of the Great Rift Valley and adjacent lands
from Mount Marsabit in the north to Dodoma in the south.
Masai society is strongly patriarchal in nature, with elder
men, sometimes joined by retired elders, decides most major
matters for each Masai group. A full body of oral law covers many
aspects of behavior. Formal execution is unknown, and normally
payment in cattle will settle matters. An out -of-court process is also
practiced called 'amitu', 'to make peace', or 'arop', which involves a
substantial apology. The Masai are monotheistic , worshipping a
single deity called Enkai orEngai . Many Masai have also
adopted Christianity andIslam . The Masai are known for their
intricate jewelry. They can be recognised by the special red cloth
they wear which is called a Shuka.
Masai generally lead a traditional life. The end of life is
virtually without any ceremony ,a n dt h ed e a da r el e f to u t
forscavengers .A corpse rejected by scavengers is seen as having
something wrong with it, and liable to cause social disgrace. Burial
is reserved for great chiefs, since it is believed to be harmful to the
soil.
Traditional Masai lifestyle centres around their cattle which
constitute their primary source of food. The measure of a man's
wealth is in terms of cattle and children. A herd of 50 cattle is
respec table, and the more children the better. A man who has
plenty of one but not the other is considered to be poor.
All of the Masai’s needs for food are met by their cattle. They
eat the meat, drink the milk and on occasion, drink the blood. Bulls,
oxen a nd lambs are slaughtered for meat on special occasions and
for ceremonies.
The central unit of Masai society is the age -set. Young boys
are sent out with the calves and lambs as soon as they can toddle.munotes.in
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55However, the childhood for boys is mostly playtime .G i r l sa r e
responsible for chores such as cooking and milking, skills which
they learn from their mothers at an early age. Masai men herd
cattle and carry spears to protect their cattle from wild animals such
as lions.
Over the years, many projects have begun to help Masai
tribal leaders find ways to preserve their traditions while also
balancing the education needs of their children for the modern
world.
The emerging forms of employment among the Masai
people include farming, business (selling of trad itional medicine,
running of restaurants/shops, buying and selling of minerals, selling
milk and milk products by women, embroideries), and wage
employment (as security guards/ watchmen, waiters, tourist
guides), and others who are engaged in the public an dp r i v a t e
sectors.
Bedouin
The term "Bedouin" has been derived from Arabic " bedu "
meaning "desert dwellers" in Arabic language. Traditionally
Bedouins are an Arab semi nomadic group inhabiting long
stretches that extends from the vast deserts of North Africa to the
rocky sands of the Middle East . They are the descendents of
nomads inhabited the Arabian andSyrian deserts in the past.
These nomads were termed Bedouin to differentiate between two
populatio ns in that area. One who raised livestock as their
livelihood by mainly natural graze and browse and the other
populations who have an agricultural or urban base knows as
hadar .
Bedouin tribes have traditionally been classified according to
the animal sp ecies that are the basis of their livelihood. Most
Bedouins are animal herders who migrate into the desert during the
rainy winter season and move back toward the cultivated land in
the dry summer months. Camel nomads occupy huge territories
and are organi zed into large tribes in the Sahara, Syrian, and
Arabian deserts. Sheep and goat nomads have smaller ranges,
staying mainly near the cultivated regions of Jordan, Syria, and
Iraq. Cattle nomads are found chiefly in South Arabia and in Sudan,
where they are called Baqq ārah (Baggara).
The Bedouin are very kind and generous people. They are
masters of the desert, and are able to survive in some of the
harshest conditions on earth. Like other Arabs, Bedouin speak
various dialects of Arabic, which belongs to th eS e m i t i cL a n g u a g e
Group.munotes.in
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56Bedouin society is tribal and patriarchal. The head of the
family, as well as of each successively larger social unit making up
the tribal structure, is called sheikh; the s heikh is assisted by an
informal tribal council of male elders.
The traditional shelters where the Bedouin lived are long,
low black tent supported by a line of central poles in the middle,
while the back and sides of the tent were supported by lower pole s.
These were made from goat or camel hair, woven by the women of
the family. The number of poles used in the back and side areas
indicated wealth and social standing of the tribe. It is also
waterproof.
Women held a very important position in Bedouin soc iety.
They played a versatile role, because they raised the children, herd
the sheep, milk the animals, cook, and make the clothes, and also
weave the cloth that makes the Bedouin Tent.
They wear loose flowing clothing perfectly adapted for desert
life. I t covers the skin and prevents heat stroke and sun burn in one
hand and allow air to flow around the body so that it can be cooled
in the heat. The Keffiyeh (a cloth) and Agal (woven cord) placed on
the head are iconic symbol of the Bedouin. It helps shade them
from the sun, allows air to flow freely around the head, but also
shades the face, and can be wrapped around the nose and mouth
in case of a dust storm. The Bedouin women generally wear the
family’s wealth on them.
Bedouin societies are found in th e arid steppe regions
ofArabia and North Africa and along the margins of rain -fed
cultivation. Most Bedouins are animal herders.
The growth of modern states in the Middle East and the
extension of their authority into previous ungovernable regions
greatly impinged upon Bedouins’ traditional ways of life.
Following World War I, Bedouin tribes had to submit to the control
of the governments of the countries in which their wandering areas
lay. This also meant that the Bedouins’ internal feuding and the
raiding of outlying villages had to be given up, to be replaced by
more peaceful commercial relations. In several instances Bedouins
were inco rporated into military and police forces, taking advantage
of their mobility and habituation to austere environments, while
others found employment in construction and the petroleum
industry.
In the second half of the 20th century, Bedouins faced new
pressures to abandon nomadism. Middle Eastern governments
nationalized Bedouin rangelands, imposing new limits on Bedouins’
movements and grazing, and many also implemented settlement
programs that compelled Bedouin communities to adopt sedentarymunotes.in
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57or semi seden tary lifestyles. Some other Bedouin groups settled
voluntarily in response to changing political and economic
conditions. Advancing technology also left its mark as many of the
remaining nomadic groups exchanged their traditional modes of
animal transporta tion for motor vehicles.
Some of the other tribes of the world are Abhors tribe of
Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, Afridis tribe of Pakistan, Akuntsu
(Akunt'su or Akunsu) tribe of Brazil, Awa tribe of Brazil, Batak tribe
ofIndonesia, Bantus tribe of Africa, Berbers tribeof Morocco,
Algeria and Tunisia, Boers tribe of South Africa, Bindibu tribe of
Western Australia, Cossacks tribe of Russia, Canada Flemings
tribe of Belgium, Gaucho tribe of Uruguay, Argentina Hamits tribe of
Africa, Jarawas tribe of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Korowai
tribe of Papua (New Guinea), Kyrgyz (Kirghiz) tribe of Central Asia,
Kikuyu tribe of Kenya, Kurds (Kurdish) tribe of Iraq, Magyars tribe
ofHungary, Maoris tribe of New Zealand, Negroes tribe of Africa,
Papuans tribe of New Gui nea, Red Indians tribe of North America,
Sentinelese tribe of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Veddas tribe of
Sri Lanka, Zulus tribe of South Africa, Zo'é tribe of Brazil.
After studying this lesson, we will be able to understand the
following.
An aggrega te of people linked together by means of social
ties, a common language and recognition of a common cultural
heritage is known as tribe. Anthropologists found that technological
development and productivity per capita in most of the tribal
communities is v ery low. Although cultivation of plants is the
mainstay of tribal groups animal domestication is also a part of their
domestic activities. Barter and redistribution of surplus products are
one of the chief characteristics of tribal community. We have also
learnt about the world distribution of major tribes and their habitat
such as Aztec of Central Mexico, Basseri of Iran, Cree of eastern
Canada, Fins of European Tundra, Gaocho of Uruguay and
Argentina, Hamites of Africa and many others. Going through this
chapter we have been able to understand tribal cultures that live
close to nature, and often in harmony with nature’s rhythms. Some
of the world’s fascinating and endangered tribal cultures around the
world have been learnt through the detailed study of Es kimos,
Bedouin, Masai and Pygmies. The Eskimo are the indigenous
peoples who have adopted themselves to an extremely cold, snow
covered environment in the Arctic region where agriculture was
never possible due to vast icebound region. Hence major food
prod ucts were caribou, seals, walrus etc. Many Eskimo have
abandoned nomadic hunting whereas Masai inhabiting in southern
Kenya and northern Tanzania are Nilotic ethnic group of semi -
nomadic warrior tribe. Masai society is strongly patriarchal in
nature. On th e other hand Bedouin societies are found in the aridmunotes.in
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58steppe regions of Arabia and North Africa. They are mostly animal
herders and women hold a distinctive position in Bedouin society.
As the quality of life of these people is poor the authorities should
emphasize on rapid educational development to bring them into the
mainstream of its population.
Check your Progress/ Exercise
1.True and false
a.The tribes cannot compete with modern organisations, such
as state.
b.The Ainu tribes are the racial stock of south ern Nigeria.
c.Basseri is a native tribe of Iran.
d.Eskimos are among the oldest population of Africa whose
average height is unusually short.
e.Eskimo groups have uniformity in languages, physical type
and culture in spite of their regional differences.
2.Fillin the blanks :
a._____________of plants are the mainstay of tribal groups.
b.__________ and redistribution of _____________ products
are one of the chief characteristics of tribal community
c.Dani are tribal inhabitants of ____________ _______.
d.The Negros of C entral and Southern Africa are known as
_______.
e.The Eskimos have adapted themselves to an extremely cold
and ice covered environment in the _______ region.
3.Multiple choice question
a)Eskimo people hunted seals with
i. harpoons
ii. bow and arrow
iii. spears
b)The high est point of Sami’s land is
i. Kebnekajse at 2121 metres
ii. Mt. Everest 8848 metres
iii. Ladakhmunotes.in
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59c)According to their own oral history the Masai originated from
the
i.Lower Ganga valley
ii.Upper Brahmaputra valley
iii.lower Nile valley
d)Masai can be recognised by the specia l red cloth they wear
known as
i.Skirt
ii.Shuka
iii.Shorts
4.Short answer question
1.Define tribes.
2.What are the general features of tribes?
3.Write a short note on
a.Eskimo
b.Bedouin
c.Masai
4.State how is a woman’s position in the Bedouin society.
5.Answers to the self learn ing questions :
1. (a) True.
1. (b) False, Japan
1. (c) True
1. (d) false, Pygmies
1. (e) true
2.a. Cultivation
2. b.Barter, surplus
2.c.West -Iranian (Indonesian Guinea)
2.d. Bantu
2. e. Arctic
3. a.i.
3. b.i
3. c.iii
3.d.ii.
6.Technical words and their meaning
1.Tribal Society -It is the stable social system with a division of
labour organised around extended family relations, in which
people lived before the rupture into social classes.
2.A patriarchal society -It is a social system where men are in
author ity over women in all aspects of society.munotes.in
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603.Technology -It is the application of scientific knowledge for
practical purposes.
4.Community -when a group of people live in the same place
or have a particular characteristic in common
7.Task
1.In a map of world ma rk the regions inhabited by the
Eskimos, Bedouins, Pygmies and Masai.
2.In a map of India mark the regions inhabited by the Abhors
and Jarawas.
3.In a chart show world major tribes and their habitats.
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615
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY -PRAC TICALS
Introduction: Statistical diagrams are drawn with the help of quantified
data to represent the variation in the given distribution between the
regions or within the region at a particular time or over a period time.
Diagrams help to analyse the f acts at a glance that are much more easily
understood than just the numerical figures which may not given a better
understanding of the facts. Different diagrams are drawn depending
upon the size and range of statistical data under study. Following are
some the statistical diagrams that are used to represent statistical
information in the research studies, documentation of data by
government agencies etc.
1.Bar Diagrams areone dimensional or linear statistical
diagram .In bar diagram data represented is made proportional to
the length of the barwhile the width remains constant for all the bars.
These bars may be drawn vertically or horizontally. The time element
is the main factor which is involved in the drawing of bar graphs.
Different types of bar di agrams are used with reference to the nature of
data to be plotted on a graph. These are:
1.1.Simple Bar diagram: Here only one variable is
represented. For example annual rainfall, annual production of
crops, minerals, population etc.over a period. They are generally
drawn for comparison of quantities.
1.1.1Simple Vertical Bar :
Study the vertical bar graph in which the bars of uniform
width are standing on a line or point. Since the bars are drawn at the
location of these places on world map repre senting the amount of
carbon -di-oxide emission by respective countries, they are therefore
said to be (cartographic technique) ‘Located proportionate simple
bar diagrams’ (figure 1).
Construction: Simple vertical bars have no sub -divisions. They
represent one variable ( fact)only at atime e.g. a column may be
erected straight to show the total carbon di -oxide emission of each
country .In simple bar the length of the bar varies with quantity
while the width representing country in this case remains same fo r
the countries.
Figure 1 depicts the percentage amount of total carbon dioxisde
emissions in the world by simple bar diagram. These are verticalmunotes.in
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62bars. The map represents that USA is the largest emitter of carbio -
dioxide in the world followed by former US SR, China, Japan, U.K.
Germany, India, Poland, Canada and France.
figure 1
Table 1. Growth of Population in India: 1901 -2011YearPopulation in Million1901238.41911252.11921251.31931279.01941318.71951361.11961438.21971548.21981683.31991846.320011027.020111210.2munotes.in
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63
figure 2
Figure 2 represents growh of population in India by simple bar
diagram from 18901 to 2011.
1.2. Multiple Bars: Bars are drawn to represent Spatial Data
{spatial is related to spac eo ra r e ae . g . production in different
countries states or regions). Multiple bars are used to represent
data containing more than one dependent variable &when
comparison between different variables is required. The
procedure for drawing multiple bars is similar to procedure of
drawing simple bars, but in this case two or more bars
representing different variables are drawn together e.g. represent
the following data with the help of multiple bars.PRODUCTION OF WHEAT AND RICE IN INDIAAND CHINACHINACropIndiaChinaRice110182Wheat57105
Note: Production is in million Tonsmunotes.in
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64
figure 3
Multiple Bars
figure 4
Figure 3 represents production of rice and wheat in India and China
in million tones. It faci litates the comparison between two crops
within a country as well between two countri es. This is the
advantage of multiple bar diagram.
1.3.Divided Bars: Divided bars are drawn when the spatial data
contains more than one dependent variables and the tota l value
of all these variables is required. Divided bars can be drawn
vertically or horizontally. E.g. Represent following data with the helpmunotes.in
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65of divided bar. The advantage of divided bar diagram is they help
us to differentiate the degree of variation with in the given variable
as well as we can compare the total of all these variables together
over a period of time or between difference regions. Figure 5
represents production of crops by countries in world by divided bar
diagram
WORLD -PRODUCTION OF RICE
Country Production in million tone
China 182
India 110
Other 227
Figure 5
2. Areal diagrams or two dimensional statistical diagrams:
Circles and squares are the examples of areal or two
dimensional statistical diagrams. In these diagrams areas are
drawn proportionate to the given quantity.
2.1 Circle Diagrams: In this diagram the area of a circle is
shown in proportion to the quantity it represents. To draw the
circle one has to drawn a ‘parabolic curve’ (figure 6 )w i t ht h e
help of the 'squar er o o t 'o ft h ea c t u a lv a l u e on a graph paper is
drawn .Apropriate scale is selected to include the lowest as well
as the highest in the given data series on the ‘x’ axis of the
graph.T hen todraw acircle the value is located on the ‘x’ axis tomunotes.in
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66drawn a per pendicular touching the parabolic curve. This
perpendicular is a radius for drawing a circle/ square to represent
its quantity.
Figure 6
Let us represent the following data with the help of circle
diagram.World -Production of Natural GasCountryProduction in milliontonnesU.S.S.R.•656U.S.A.444Canada88Netherland55Algeria43
World: Production of Natural Gas
By Located Proportionate Circle diagram
Figure 7munotes.in
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67Located proportionate circle diagram is shown to represent
following aspects:
Figure 7represents the total amount of natural gas production by
respective countries represented in the world map. We thus notice
that bigger the size of a circle larger the amount and vice versa.
Here Russia is largest producer of natur al gas followed by USA,
Canada, Netherlands and Algeria countries.
Figure 8represents continent wise proportion of population
distributed in the world. Asia continent has the highest number of
population while the continent of Australia has the lowest si ze of
population in the world.
World: Continentwise Proportion and Distribution of
Population
By Located Proportionate Circle diagram
Figure 8
In comparison with bar diagram, circle diagrams are more
difficult to construct, on account of the additi onal calculations
involved. Though circles will help in quickly recognizing the order
of importance from the relative sizes, the proportionate quantities
are more difficult to compare, particularly for laymen. Their major
merit lies in the fact that they c ompress the data in lesser space
areas where bars cannot be used on account of larger size of data
range where circles can be drawn .
2.2 Divided Circle or Pie diagram or Circle and Sector
statistical diagram :Pie diagram helps us to understand the
totalit y of the given phenomenon as well the variation among this
totality. For example total population of a counry is its totality,
while the proportion of rural and urban population of the totalmunotes.in
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68population is its variation. This type of data can help us to
understand whether a country is more or a rural nature or urban or
balanced. The size of a circle stands for its total population, while
its sectors (division of a circle) stands for proportion of rural and
urban population of that country. The whole circle consists of
360° isdivided into proportional parts to get sectors of the
required area. This diagram is known as divided circle diagram.
World -Rural and Urban PopulationContinentsPopulation -PercentageRuralUrbanTotalAfrica6832100N. Ameri ca2674100S. America3268100Asia7228100Europe2773100Australia2872100
In the above mentioned example all values are in the
percentage. Hence if we equate 100% to the angle of 360° then
we get 1% equal 3.6°. now we can multiply the various percentage
values by 3.6° to get the corresponding angles, i.e. Africa -Rural
population 68% x 3.6 = 244.8° which means 245°. This angle
can be drawn on the circle which is drawn for Africa. Once we
represent rural population, the remaining part of the circle
represents the urban population. As there are only two variables,
there is no need to calculate values for the urban population.
Figure 9munotes.in
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69Figure 9 represents continentwise proportion of rural and urban
composition in the world. We thus not ice from figure 9 that the
continents of Asia, Africa are largely rural in character while that of
Europe, North America, Australia and South America are largely
urban in nature. This helps to understand that Asia and Africa are
relatively less developed due to large proportion of rural
population and the rest continents are more urbanized and so are
relatively more developed in the world.
Figure 10 is also a pie diagram representing the type of landuse
existing in different continents of the world.
Figure 11 represents the environmental aspect of risk and intensity
of desertification level in different continents of the world by located
pie diagram.
Figure 10
Figure 11munotes.in
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70WORLD MAP -Students are exp ected to mark and name following
places / countries in the map of the world; with the help of atlas.
New York Delhi
Washington Sri Lanka
San Francisco Colombo
U.S.A. Singapore
U.K. Indonesia
Canada Australia
Mexico Sydney
Brazil Canberra
Argentina New Zealand
Peru Korea
Chile Pakistan
Riode Janeiro Iran
Los Angeles Iraq
Lima Kuwait
London Saudi Arabia
France Egypt
Paris Libya
Berlin Nigeria
Germany South Africa
Norway Kenya
Sweden Ghana
Finland Turkey
Rome Bangladesh
Russia Indian Ocean
Japan Pacific Ocean
Tokyo Atlantic Ocean
China Arctic Ocean
Hongkong Greenland
Thailand Poland
India Spain
munotes.in