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PHYSIOGRAPHY, DRAINAGE BASINS
AND MONSOON OF INDIA
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features.
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Subject -Discussion
1.4 Theories behind the Origin of Himalayas
1.5 Physiography of Himalaya
1.6 Theories behind the Origin of the Deccan Plateau the
Peninsular India
1.7 Physiography of the Deccan Plateau or the Peninsular India
1.8 Theories behind the Origin of The Great Plains of India
1.9 Physiography of The Great Plai ns of India
1.10 Theories behind the Origin of The coastal Plains of India
1.11 Physiography of The coastal Plains of India
1.12 Different types of drainage patterns
1.13 Himalayan and Peninsular Drainage basins of India
1.14 Monsoon of India
1.15 Summary
1.16 Check your Progress/Exercise
1.17 Answers to the self learning questions.
1.18 Technical words and their meaning
1.19 Task
1.20 References for further study
1.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
understand the origin and physiography of the mighty
Himalayas
know the origin and physiography of the Peninsular India
understand the origin and physiography of the Great Plains of
Indiamunotes.in
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2know the origin and physiography of the Coastal Plains of
India
Understand the basic drainage patterns like Dendritic,
Annular, Trellis, Rectangular and others.
Know the Drainage basins of the Himalayan Rivers in India
and the river basins of the Peninsular India.
Understand the origin Monsoon of India and different seasons
along with rainfall dis tribution.
1.2. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will discuss on the followings:
1.The mighty Himalayas and their associated young folded
mountains.
2.The elevated Peninsular region
3.The Indo -Gangetic -Brahmaputra Plains
4.The Coastal Plains and Islands
5.Different drainage patterns.
6.Monsoon of India
Fig: India Politicalmunotes.in
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31.3. SUBJECT DISCUSSION
The Himalayas are considered as the body and soul of India
because they have affected the life of Indian people since time
immemorial.
The Indo -Gangetic plain is the la rgest unit of the Great
Plain of India covering an area of about 3.75 lakh sq km in the
states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. The Ganga along
with its large number of tributaries, the Yamuna, the Gomati, the
Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi, etc. h ave brought large quantities
of alluvium from the mountains and deposited it here to build this
extensive plain. In social and economic terms, the Indo -Gangetic
Plain is the most important region of India.
Major Geological Formations of the Peninsular In diawas
about 3600 million years ago. It is a large plateau; making up most
of the southern part of the country. The north -western part of the
plateau is made up of lava flows or igneous rocks known as the
Deccan Traps. The rocks are spread over the whole of
Maharashtra and parts of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. It is
separated from the Gangetic plain to the north by the Satpura and
Vindhya Ranges.
To the east and west of the peninsular plateau, two narrow
strips of plain lands are found, which are respectiv elycalled
Eastern Coastal Plain and Western Coastal Plain . Eastern
Coastal and Western Coastal Plain are formed by the erosional and
depositional & activities of the Sea waves and from the sediments
brought by the peninsular rivers.
In this chapter we will also learn about different drainage
patterns. Before that we must understand what drainage is. The
term ‘ drainage’ , refers to the river system of an area. Small
streams from different directions join to form a river. The river
ultimately empties itsel f into a larger water body i.e. a lake, a sea or
an ocean. The area that a single river drains is the drainage basin
of that river. Sometimes two drainage basins are separated by
upland or a mountain/hill. Such upland or mountain is called water
divide .W o rld’s largest drainage basin is of the River Nile in Egypt
in Africa. River Ganga has its largest drainage basin in India .
We will also learn about the Himalayan as well as the
Peninsular Rivers of India. Himalayan rivers are those which
originate in the Himalayas and flow through the Northern Plains,
e.g., the Ganga, the Yamuna, the Indus and their tributaries .
These rivers are snow fed, perennial and useful for irrigation and
navigation. The lowlands drained by them have fertile alluvial
deposits. On th eo t h e rh a n d ,t h e Peninsular Rivers, exceptmunotes.in
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4Narmada and Tapti, originate in the Western Ghats , flow
eastwards on the plateau and drains in to the Bay of Bengal. They
have a large seasonal fluctuation in volume as they are solely rain-
fed.T h e s er i v e r sf l o w in valleys with steep gradients. Major rivers
of the Peninsula are Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and
Cauvery. The Narmada and Tapti flow westwards.
Fig: India , state and capitalmunotes.in
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51.4THEORIES BEHIND THE ORIGIN OF HIMALAYAS
The Himalayas , one of the youngest mountain ranges of the
world are vast, extensive, and the loftiest. I tpasses through five
nations: India, Pakistan, Bhutan, China and Nepal .T h e
Himalayas stretches for nearly 2500 km. (over 22° longitude ),with
aw i d t ho f 150 km to 4 00 km from Nanga Parbat (8126 m) in
Kashmir in the west to Namcha Barwa (7755 m) in Arunachal
Pradesh in the east . i.e. from the Indus gorge in the west to the
Brahmaputra gorge in the east. The total area of the Himalayan
mountain range is nearly five lak h sq km and it extend eastward in
the form of an arcuate curve which convex to the south. It is the
world’s tallest mountain range . In addition to Mount Everest, the
world’s tallest mountain peak, standing at an elevation of 8,848
meters , the range also fe atures several other mountain peaks over
8,000 meters. It has 281 peaks .
Origin of Himalayas
Scholars have given divergent views regarding the origin of the
Himalayas. These views may be grouped under the following three
categories:
(a)Geosynclinals evo lution,
(b) Plate tectonics, or
(c) Vertical movements
(a)Geosynclinals Evolution
The geosynclinals origin of the Himalayas has obtained
maximum approval from the scholars. The theories of Suess,
Argand, and Kober etc. all belong to this category. According to
geologists the disintegration of Pangaea led to the formation of a
long Mediterranean sea (called Tethys) between the two land
masses of Laurasia or Angaraland (north) and Gondwanaland
(south). In between Laurasia and Gondwanaland, there was a long,
narrow and shallow sea called Tethys Sea. This sea was occupying
the region of the Himalayas during the Mesozoic era (180 my.)
During the end of the Palaeozoic era and begin ning of the
Mesozoic era the Tethys almost engirdled the whole earth running
from Europe in the west to China in the east. Eroded material from
the two land masses that were deposited in the Tethys assumed
considerable thickness due to the sinking nature o f the bed of the
sea. These sediments were subjected to the powerful compression
force from both the continents, this compression squeezed and
crushed the sediments of Tethys and series of folds were formed
one behind the other giving rise to the Himalayas .( F i g :1 . 4 )T h emunotes.in
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6curved shape of the Himalayas convex to the south, is attributed to
the maximum push offered at two ends of the Indian peninsula
during its northward drift. In the northwest it was done by the
Aravalis and in the northeast by the Assam Ran ges. During
Cretaceous period the bed of the sea started rising which led to the
folding of three successive ranges of the Himalayas, running more
or less parallel to one another.
The first upheaval, about 120 million years ago, which led to
the formation of the Greater Himalaya, took place during Eocene
period. Similarly second upheaval during Miocene period about 20
to 30 million years ago folded the Lesser Himalayas and third
starting in Pliocene period about two million to twenty million years
ago, end ed with the birth of the Siwalik Hills. Recent studies shows
that India is moving northward at the rate of about 5 cm per year
and crashing into rest of the Asia, buckling the Himalayas between
Angaraland and Gondwanaland. This drift is providing instabili ty to
the Himalayan region.
Fig: Formation of Himalayawww.nuance.communotes.in
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7(b) Plate Tectonics
According to the plate tectonics the collision of the Indian
plate with its Asian counterpart has given rise of the
Himalayas .(Fig:1.5). This has resulted into the seduction of the
northern margin of the Indian plate,(Fig:1.6) crustal shortening,
folding of the upper silica material, pilling up of nappes and isostatic
recovery.
These views are supported by the following features of the
Himalayas :
(i) Flysch occurs along the Indus -Tsangpo and Shyok -Kailash
zones,
(ii) The low angle MCT (Main Central Thrust )s e p a r a t e st h e
central crystallines from the meta -sedimentaries which
occur below the thrust and are pre -Cambrian to lower
Palaeozoic in age. Then Tethyan marine sediments occur
over t he central crystallines,
(iii) The klippen and windows were also taken to support large -
scale thrusting,
(iv) The MBT (Main Boundary Thrust) separates the Pre -
Cambrian Mesozoic metamorphics and sediments from the
Tertiary deposits. Above facts suggest crustal shortening in
the Himalayas which followed crustal consumption at the
edges and the intercontinental collision along the Indus -
Suture z one.
(c) Vertical Movements
Those who advocate vertical movements responsible for the
upliftment of the Himalayas take support from the fact that the
gravitational force, the main force among the various bodies in
space, can act only radially inhibiting enormous horizontal
translocation implicit in plate tectonics.
The facts in the Himalayas supporting this view include the
high angle inclination of the MBT; absence of distinct root zones
and possible occurrence of granite domes in various areas (E.
Ahma d, 1992, pp. 21 -22).
There are numerous evidences to show that the Himalayas
are still rising and the process of uplift is not completed. The
present rate of uplift of the Himalayas has been calculated at 5 to
10 cm per year.munotes.in
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8Following are some of the evi dences which prove that the
Himalayas are still rising :-
Some of thefossils found in the Siwalik Hills are also observed
in the Tibet Plateau. It indicates that the altitude of the Tibetan
plateau was same as that of present Siwalik Hills.
The frequent e arthquakes in the Himalayan region show that
the Himalayas have not yet attained the isostatic equilibrium
and they are still rising.
Earlier the height of the Mount Everest was measured 8,848
meters, but according to the measurements made by the
National Geographic Society (Washington) using GPS satellite
equipment on May 5, 2000, the height of the peak is 8850 mt
determined by the trigonometrical methods indicate that the
Himalayas continue to rise till date.
1.5. PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF HIMALAYA
The Northern Mountain:
TheNorthern Mountain is divided intothree groups .T h e ya r e :
(1) The Himalayas
(2) The Trans Himalayas
(3) The Purbanchal hills
1. The Himalayas may be divided on the basis of
A. The four east west extended parallel ranges,
B. The Regional Characteristics
They are discussed below:
A. The Himalayas consist of four parallel ranges from
South to North .T h e ya r ea sf o l l o w s :
i. The Oute r Himalayas Or The Siwalik
ii. The Lesser Himalayas Or Himachal Himalaya :
iii. The Greater Himalaya (The Himadri)
iv. The Trans Himalaya Or The Tibetan Himalaya
A. The four east west extended parallel ranges of the
Himalayas are discussed below:
i. The Outer Himalayas or the Siwalik
It is the outer most or the southernmost range of the
Himalayas.munotes.in
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9Its average height is over 1000m(600 -1500m)
Length about 2400 km.
The width lies between 10 to 50 KM.
It is non -existent between the eastern boundary of Nepal and
the river To rsa in Bhutan.
It is almost continuous range of low hills, like, Jammu Hills, in
Jammu, Dafla, Mirrey, Abor, Mishmi in Arunachal Pradesh,
and Dhyang in Uttaranchal, etc.
This range is composed of unconsolidated tertiary sediments
emerged as most recent pha se in Himalaya orogeny.
The flat floored structural valleys lying between Siwalik and
Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) are called ‘Duns’ like Dehra
Dun, Kotli Dun, Patli Dun and Choukhamba Dun.
ii. The Lesser Himalayas or Himachal :
The range lies to the north of the Siwaliks.
The altitude of this range lies between 2000 and 5000 metres
and the average width is 50 KM (60 -80Km)
It generally consists of unfossiliferous sediments or
metamorphosed crystalline.
Important range include th eD h a u l a d h a r ,P i r p a n j a l ,
Nagtibba,Mahabharat and Mussoorie range in the Western
Himalaya. In the Eastern Himalayas, the ranges of the Himachal
runs in a north -south direction such as the Singalila, the
Dongkya etc.
It comprises of many famous hill stations like Shimla, Dalhousie
Darjeeling, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nanital etc.
It also comprises of famous valleys like Kashmir, Kullu, Kangra
etc.
Pass –Bundilgir, Banihal
Longest tunnel of Asia (23/5Km long),Jawahar tunnel lies in this
region
iii. The Greater Himalaya (The Himadri)
The Greater Himalayas or Himadris the most continuous,
longest, loftiest and northern most range of Himalayas.
Lying in the extreme north extending from Nanga Parbat in the
west to Namcha Barwa in the east is known as Himadri as many
snow capped mountain peaks adorn this range.
The Greater Himalayas comprises of the northern most ranges
and peaks. It has an average height of 6000 metres and widthmunotes.in
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10lies between 120 to 190 Kms. It is the most continuous range. It
is snow bound and ma ny glaciers descend from this range.
It has high peaks like Nanga Parbat (8126 mt) in Jammu and
Kashmir, Kedarnath (6940 mt), Badrinath (7138mt), Kamet
(7756mt), Nandadevi (7817 mt) in Uttarakhand. Mt. Everest
(8848 m), located on the Nepal -China border, is the highest
peak of the world and Kanchenjunga (8598m)in Sikkim, is the
highest peak of Himalaya in India. Makalu, Dhaulagiri are other
peaks.
High Mountain passes also exist in this range, namely, Bara
Lacha -La, Shipki -La, Nathu -La, Zoji -La, Bomidi -Laetc.
The Ganga and Yamuna rivers originate from this Himalayas.
iv. The Trans Himalaya or the Tibetan Himalaya or Tethys
Himalaya .
There are three more mountain ranges to the north o the Great
Himalayas in India.
They are the Zaskar theLadakh and the Karakoram range.
It extends north of greater Himalaya and parallel to it is called
Zaskar range.
Highest peak of Zanskar is Leopargel (7420m)
North of Zaskar range lies Ladakh range.
The Indus river flows between Zaskar and Ladakh range.
The Lad akh range stretches for 350 km with several peaks
above 6000m.
To the north east of Ladakh range lies the Ladakh plateau
(above 4000m), the highest plateau of India, which is a cold
desert.
To the north of the Ladakh range lies the Karakoram range.
Mount Godwin Austin (8611 mt) or K 2(King of Karakoram) of the
Karakoram Range is the second highest peak of the world and
the highest mountain peak of India.
India’s longest glacier Siachen (more than 70 km long) is on the
Karakoram range.
The Karakoram Range li e extreme north of the country.
3.Purbachal ortheHills oftheNorth Eastern India :
Encircling the Namcha Barwa the Himalayan Ranges take a
sharp bend to the south and run in north –eastern border of
India.munotes.in
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11The North -Eastern Himalayas run North to Sou th through
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and
eastern Assam.
Of these ranges Mishmi, Patkoi, Naga, Lushai, Mikir, Barail and
Mizo hills predominate the landscape, which are located in
eastern side.
The highest peak of the Naga hil li sS a r a m a t i .
The famous Logtak Lake in the Imphal Valley is located in
Manipur.
The Meghalaya (meaning abode of clouds) plateau isa high
plateau. It is dissected into hills, which includes the hills of Garo,
Khasi and Jaintia.
Meghalaya Plateau is an ext ension of the Deccan Plateau. The
land between the Rajmahal Hills and the Meghalaya Plateau
subsided due to the earth movements.
B.On The Basis Of The Regional Characteristics The
Himalayas Can Be Divided Into Three Sub -Regions:
1.Western Himalayas
2.Central Himalayas
3.Eastern Himalayas
1.Western Himalayas may be grouped into three sub regions:
a. Kashmir Himalayas
b. Himachal Pradesh Himalaya
c. Kumaun or Uttarakhand Himalaya
The sub -divisions of Western Himalayas are discussed
below:
a.Kashmir Himalayas : It belongs to the state of Jammu and
Kashmir. To the extreme south stands the Jammu and Punch Hills.
Further north is the Pirpanjal range. To the north of Pirpanjal lies
the famous Kashmir Valley which is bordered on the north by
Himadri and Zanskar Ran ges. Further north lies the Indus Gorge.
To the extreme north stands the Karakoram range, where K 2is the
highest peak
b.Himachal Pradesh Himalaya : It belongs to the Himachal
Pradesh. To the extreme stands the Siwalik range. Further north
stands the lesse r Himalaya ranges namely Pirpanjal, Nagtibba,
Dhauladhar
c.Kumaun or Uttarakhand Himalaya :It belongs to the state of
Uttarakhand. To the extreme south some famous valleys like Duns,
namely Dehradun, Choukhamba. To the north of these stands the
Nagtibba and Mussourrie range. Further north, snow capped peaks
like Nanda devi, Gangotri, Kedarnat ha r ef o u n d .munotes.in
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122.CENTRAL Himalaya: belong to the country Nepal and
include many lofty peaks, namely Mt Everest, Annapurna,
Dhabalgiri.
3.Eastern Himalayas lies to the east of Nepal and can be
subdivided into three subdivisions :
d. Sikkim Darjiling Himalaya
e. b. Bhut an Himalaya
f. Assam or Arunachal Himalaya
d. Sikkim Darjiling Himalaya : Singalila, Dowhill, Donkia are three
important ranges of this region.Kanchenjunga, which belongs to the
Sikkim Himalaya, the third highest peak of the world and the
highest peak of Him alaya in India, lies here.
e. Bhutan Himalaya :T o p o g r a p h yo ft h i sr e g i o ni sv e r yr u g g e d .
Kula Kangri(7554 m) is the highest peak of this region.
f. Assam or Arunachal Himalaya : It belongs to the ArunaIachal
Pradesh. Siwalik range stands to the north of Brahmaputra valley.
Further north stands the Lesser Himalaya and to the extreme north
stands the Great Himalaya.
Fig: Origin of Peninsular plateau and Himalayawww.nuance.communotes.in
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131.6. ORIGIN OF THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU
The peninsular plateau is a triangular shaped table land.
It is part of ancient land mass called Gondwana level. It covers an
area of nearly 5 lakh sq.km. It is spread over the states of Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Bihar, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Fig Plateaus of Indiamunotes.in
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14According to the geologists the origin of rocks of Peninsular
India is more than 3600 million years old .
It was a part of the Gondwanaland before the Carboniferous
period.
They also opined that during the Archaean Period, the Indian
Peninsula never subsided under the sea permanently.
It was more rigid, stable and had remained almost unaffected by
the mountain building forces.
It experienced block faulting and displacemen t during the
subsequent periods as evidenced by the Dharwar and
Gondwana formations and the fault valleys of the Narmada,
Tapi and Son rivers.
1.7. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND RELIEF FEATURES OF
PENINSULAR INDIA:
Covering an area of about 16 lakh sq km , the peninsu lar upland
forms the largest physiographic division of India .
With a general elevation between 600 -900 metres , the region
constitutes an irregular triangle with its base lying between the
Delhi Ridge and the Rajmahal Hills and the apex formed by
Kanyakuma ri.
Itis bounded by the Aravallis in the north -west, Maikal Range
in the north, Hazaribagh and Rajmahal Hills in the northeast, the
Western Ghats (SahayadriMountains.) in the west and the
Eastern Ghats in the east.
The highest peak of Peninsular India -Anai-Mudi (Nilgiris), is
2695 metres above sea level.
According to Prof. S. P Chatterji (1964), the Peninsular Uplands
can be divided into the following physiographic units
The broad Physiographic Regions of Peninsular India
are as follows :
1. Central Highlands
2. The Eastern Highlands (Plateau )
3. Deccan Plateaumunotes.in
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151. The Central Highlands are divided into
a. The North Central Highlands and b. The South Central
Highlands
a. The North Central highlands of peninsular India is again
divided into
i.The Aravallis,
ii. The Malwa Plateau
(i) The Aravallis :
It is one of the oldest fold mountains of the world that runs
from north -east to south -west for about 800 km between Delhi to
Palanpur (Gujarat). Guru -Sikhar (1722 metres,) on Mount Abu is
the highest peak is of Aravalli . The Aravillis are mainly composed of
quartzites, gneisses and schists of the Precambrian period.
(ii) The Malwa Plateau :
The Malwa plateau is located to the north of Vindhya and is
composed of pink granite. It is bordered by the Aravallis in the
north, the V indhyan Range in the south and the Bundelkhand
Plateau in the east. The highest peak of Vindhya is Manpur (881m).
Vindhya is the source of river Chambal. The Malwa Plateau has
two drainage systems, one towards the Arabian Sea (Narmada,
and Mahi), and anoth er towards the Bay of Bengal (Chambal, Sind,
Betwa and Ken) joining the Yamuna river.
b. The South Central Highlands
The Vindhyan Range extends from Jobat (Gujarat) and
Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) to Sasaram in Bihar. It extends for about
1050 km with general elevation between 450 to 600 metres. Apart
from the Kaimur Hills in the east, the Maikal Range forms a
connecting link between the Vindhyans and the Satpura mountains.
The South Central Highlands include the following
divisions
i.The Bundelkhand :
It is bounded by the Yamuna river in the north, the
Vindhyans in the south, the Chambal in the north -west and Panna -
Ajaigarh Range in the south -east. The rivers like Betwa, Dhasanmunotes.in
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16and Ken have carved out steep gorges, rapids, cataracts and
waterfalls.
ii.The Vindhy achal -Baghelkhand or Vindhyachal Plateau:
This plateau has an elevation varying between 150 to 1200
metres. To the south of this lies the Narmada -Son trough (rift
valley). Narmada flows through this rift valley in an east to west
direction. Besides the Na rmada and Son, this region is drained by
the Karmanasa, Tons, Ken and Belandare rivers.
Parallel to the Vindhyas between the Narmada and the Tapi
rivers is the Satpura Range. Satpura consists of Rajpipla Hills,
Mahadev Hills and the Maikal Range. Dhupgarh (1350 m, near
Pachmarhi) is the highest peak of Satpura. Amarkantak (1064
metres) is another important peak of the Satpura mountains.
2. The Eastern Highlands (Plateau )i n c l u d e s
i. The Chotanagpur Plateau
ii. The Meghalaya -Mikir Uplands
i. The Chotanagpur Plateau
The Chotanagpur Plateau sprawling over parts of West
Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and north -eastern part of
Andhra Pradesh, has a series of the meso and micro plateaux
(Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Singhbhum, Dhanbad, Palamu, Santhal,
Parganas and Puruliya districts of West Bengal). The highest
general elevation of the Chhotanagpur Plateau is about 1100 m.
The mid -western part is known as pat lands. Chhotanagpur Plateau
is drained by Barakar, Damodar, Subarnarekha, Koel rivers. These
rivers have carved out deep gorges, rapids, cataracts, and
waterfalls in the plateau region.
ii. The Meghalaya Plateau and Mikir Hills
It is a plateau which has been detached from the Indian
Peninsula by the Malda Gap. It consist of the Garo, Khasi, Jaintia
hills and the outlyi ng Mikir and Rengma hills. The Shillong Peak is
the highest elevation (1823 m) in the Meghalaya Plateau, while
Norkek (1515 m) is the highest peak of the Garo Hills, Mawsynram
(25°15'N, 91°44'E) about 16 km west of Cherrapunji records the
highest rainfall in the world.munotes.in
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17The Mikir Hills are detached from the Meghalaya Plateau
and are surrounded by plains from three sides. The southern range
of the Mikir Hills is known as the Rengma Hills (900 m). The Mikir
Hills are characterised by radial drainage with Dhan siri and Jamuna
being the main rivers.
3. Deccan Plateau
The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau of India . It is
composed partly of Lava flows, basalt and granite. On weathering
the plateau has become a rolling upland with shallow valley
together with a fe w flat topped structural uplifts. The Deccan
Plateau is bounded on the east by the Eastern Ghats and on the
west by Western Ghats.
The Deccan Plateau comprises the following physiographic
divisions :
i.The North Deccan
ii.The South Deccan
iii.The Western Ghats or Sa hayadri
iv.The Eastern Ghats
i.The North Deccan is further subdivided as follows:
a. The Maharashtra Plateau:
The plateau of Maharashtra includes the entire state of
Maharashtra, except the Konkan coast and the Sahyadris .
It is mainly covered by the basalt of the Cretaceous Period.
The basaltic sheet has a thickness of about 3 km in the
western part which diminishes towards the east and south -east.
The most striking feature of the Maharashtra Plateau is the
fault (1000 metres) , giving rise to the present shoreline of the
Arabian Sea.
Through the northern part of the Maharashtra Plateau flows the
Tapi River from east to west.
It has a gentle slope in the south and steep gradient in the north
(towards the Satpura Hills).munotes.in
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18(b) The Mahanadi Basin or the Chhattisgarh Plain :
Sprawling over the districts of Raipur, Bilaspur, Durg and
Rajgarh it is the only plain worth the name in the vast stretch of
plateaus and hill ranges of the Peninsular plateau.
It is a saucer shaped depression drained by the upp er basin of
the Mahanadi.
The whole basin lies between the Maikal Range with crest line
of 700 -900 metres and the Orissa hills.
The southern rim land includes the Dhalli -Rajhara Hills in
southern Durg district and the Raipur uplands in the south -
eastern R aipur district.
(c) Garhjat Hills or the Orissa Highlands
It is an undulating plateau, bordered by the Chotanagpur
Plateau in the north, Mahanadi basin in the west, Eastern
Ghats in the south and Utkal plains in the east.
It is drained by the Tel and Uda nti; tributaries of Mahanadi, and
the Sabari and Sileru; tributaries of Godavari rivers.
Fig.1.46 Rivers that drain the Peninsular India
ii. The South Deccan
The South Deccan consists of several plateaux:
a. Karnataka Plateau :
This plateau has an average elevation of 600 -900 metres,
spans in the state of Karnataka and the Cannanore and
Kozhikode districts of Kerala.
Mulangiri (1913 metres) is the highest peak in Baba -Budan
Hills, followed by the Kudermukh (1892 metres) peak.
The northern upland of the Karnataka plateau is known as
Malnad, while the southern part is called a Maidan.
It is drained by the Kaveri and the Tungbhadra rivers.munotes.in
Page 19
19b.The Telengana Plateau :
Hyderabad, the capital and cultural city of the state lies in
Telengana.
c.The Tamil Nadu Uplands :
This upland lies between the South Sahyadri and Tamil Nadu
coastal plains.
Between Coimbatore and Anaimalais, there is a broad gap,
known as Palakkad Gap (Palghat), about 25 km wide, through
which flows the Gayitririver fr om east to west joining Tamil Nadu
with the coast of Kerala.
Fig: Sahyadri major water divide
iii.The Western Ghats
The Western Ghats or Sahyadris are block mountains that run
parallel to the western coast for about 1600 km in the north
south direction from the mouth of the Tapi river to Kanyakumari
(Cape Camorin).munotes.in
Page 20
20The western slope of Sahyadri is steep while the easte rn slope
is gentle.
The Sahyadris form a watershed of the peninsula.
Rivers like the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri rise from the
Western Ghats.
The highest waterfall in India, Gersoppa (Jog Falls) on
Sharvatilies here.
The average elevation of the Western Ghats varies between
1000 to 1300 metres.
The important peaks of the Western Ghats are Kudermukh
(1892 m), Pushpagiri (1714 m), Kalsubai (1646 m) and Salher
(1567 m), Mahabaleshwar (1438 m) and Harishchandra
(1424 m).
In the Nilgiris the Ea stern Ghat joins the Western Ghat to form a
mountain knot (Nilgiri) whose highest point is Anaimudi
(2695 m).
South of Nilgiri lies the Palghat (Palakkad Gap).
South of Palghat, the Western Ghat is known as Anaimalai Hills.
Anaimudi, the hi ghest peak of Sahayadris, is 2695 m above the
sea level. The other important passes of the western Ghat are
Thal Ghat (joins Nasik with Mumbai) and Bhor Ghat. (Joins
Mumbai with Pune), Goran Ghat, Lying to the south of Mount
Abu, connects the city of Udaip ur with Sirohi and Jalore in
Rajasthan. Haldighat: It is a mountain pass in the Aravalli range
of Rajasthan. Harishchandra: It joins the state of Tamil Nadu
with the seaports of Kerala
iv.The Eastern Ghats
The Eastern Ghats with an average height of about 6 00 m form
the eastern boundary of the Deccan Plateau.
It is a massive outlying block of hills. The
The peak of Aroya -Konda (Andhra Pradesh,1680 metres) is the
highest peak of the Eastern Ghats.
Dewodi -Munda (1598 m), Singa -Raju (1516 m) and Nimalgiri
(1515 m) in the Koraput District and Mahendragiri (1501 m) in
Ganjam District are the other important peaks.munotes.in
Page 21
211.8. THE ORIGIN OF INDO GANGETIC PLAIN
Great Plains of India ,a l s ok n o w na st h e Indus -Ganga -
Brahmaputra plains , extends for a distance of about 3200 km and
itswidth varies from 150 km to 300 km. It is the largest
aggradational plain of India. It lies to the south of the Himalayas
and north of the Peninsular India. The plain appears as a great
alluvial crescent stretching from the Indus River syst em in Pakistan
to the Punjab Plain, in both Pakistan and India and the Haryana
Plain to the delta of the Ganga, in Bangladesh (where it is called
the Padma).
Topographically the plain is homogeneous. Floodplain bluffs
and other related features of river erosion and changes in river
channels form important natural features in some places .
The plain was formed as a result of filling of marine depressions by
detrital materials brought by river. Plains were formed after the
upliftment of Himalayas. Majority of this plain consists of alluvial
soils.
1.9. PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF THE GREAT
PLAINS OF INDIA
The Great Plains of India is a remarkably homogeneous
surface with an imperceptible slope .
The Great Plains of Northern India may be divided into
the follow ing Physiographic divisions:
1. Rajasthan Plain
2. Sutlej Plain
3. Ganga plain
4. Brahmaputra Valleymunotes.in
Page 22
22
Fig: North Indian Plains
Salient Features of Rajasthan Plain are as follows:
The region slopes from the east to the west into the Indus Valley
and to the south into the Rann of Kutch.
It rises over 325 m in the east while drops to 150 m in the west.
It is extensively a sandy plain.
It experiences extreme type of climate because of which River
Luni the only of this region is a saline river.
There are a few saline lakes namely Panchpadra, Didwana,
Sambhar.
The dry shallow channels or lakes are called “Dhand”
Shifting dunes found here are locally called “Dhrian”
Physiographically the Rajasthan Plain may be divided
into three sub -divisions:
I.Marusthali : ad e s e r tw i t h shifting sand dunes, dhrian
II.Bagar : A grassland located to the east of the Marusthalimunotes.in
Page 23
23III.Rohi : a fertile plain made by small streams located to the east
of bagar
Salient Features of Sutlej plain are as follows:
The new alluvium deposited near the banks of the rivers Sutlej,
Beas, Ravi, and Chenub forming a plain is called “Bet.”
Average elevation 200 to 240 m
The plain is formed by the silt deposited by the river Sutlej,
Beas, Ravi and Chenab.
It is a very fertile plain especially in the Bari Doab between t he
Beas and the Ravi and the Bist Doab between the Beas and the
Sutlej.
Flood Plain is known as “Dhaya”and the eroded Plain is known
as ”Chos”
Salient Features of the Ganga plain are as follows:
This is an extensive plain comprising nearly 3,75,000sq Km. in
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
It is a monotonous plain with scattered hills and levees.
The largest delta of the world has formed at the mouth of river
Ganga to the south eastern part of the region.
The region slopes from west to the east and so uth east.
The old alluvium is known as “Bhangar”
The new alluvium is known as “Khadar”
To the north of this plain is stony “Bhabar”, located at the
Himalayan foot hills.
To the south of Bhabar lies “Terai”, a narrow humid region.
Physiographically the Ganga plain may be divided into
three sub -divisions:
I.The Upper Ganga Plain
II.The Middle Ganga Plain
III.The Lower Ganga Plain
i. The Upper Ganga Plain
Extends from the river Yamuna from the west upto the
confluence at Ganga and Yamuna near Allahabad in the east
with a height of100 -250 m.
The Upper Ganga Plainis sub-divided intomunotes.in
Page 24
24a. Rohikand Plain
b. AwadhPlain
c. Ganga and Yamuna Upper and Lower Doab
d. Yamunapar Plain
ii. The Middle Ganga Plain
Stretching from Allahabad in the west to Rajmahal in the
east with a height of about50 -to 100m .
iii. The Lower Ganga Plain
Stretches from Rajmahal hills to the Bay of Bengal with an
elevation of 4 to 50m.
The whole of West Bengal except the Puruliya district and the
northern mountains comprises the Lower Ganga Plain.
The Lower Ganga Plai n is Sub divided into
a.The North Bengal Plain –
North Bengal Plains lying in Uttar Dinajpur, Dakshin Dinajpur
and Malda form a part of the old Ganga Delta and is known as
“Barind”
b.South Bengal Plains
The vast alluvial plain of the southern part of Bengal ex tends
southwards from the southern bank of the Ganga to the shores of
the Bay of Bengal.
South Bengal Plains is again sub -divided into:
I.Moribund delta
II.Mature Delta
III.Active Delta
Salient Features of Brahmaputra Valley:
Elongated narrow plains bounded by hills in the north, east and
south
The plain slopes from the east (130m) to the west (30 m)
The river Brahmaputra flows in a braided course
There are many sand banks and river islands in the river
Brahmaputramunotes.in
Page 25
25Majuli island is the largest river island of th ew o r l di sf o u n di n
the river Brahmaputra
The northern part of this plain lying on the foothills of the
Himalaya composed of sand stones and pebbles called Terai.
The Great Plains of India may be divided into the following
sub-regions on the basis of regi onal characteristics:
1. The Bhabar Plain
It lies to the south of the Siwalik from west to east i.e. from
Jammu Division to Assam, having a width more in the western
plains than in the eastern plains of Assam. In width, the Bhaba r
tract is generally 8 to 1 5 km, consisting of gravel and unassorted
sediments deposited by the rivers descending from the Himalayas
and the Siwalik. The porosity of this tract is very high and so
most of the small streams (chos and raos) disappears in the
Bhabar tract. The Bhabar t ract is not suitable for cultivation of
crops.
2. The Tarai Tract
The Tarai belt which is a marshy tract, 15 -30 km wide, lies south
of the Bhabar tract.
The Tarai is wider in the eastern parts of the Great Plains,
especially in Brahmaputra Valley.
This zone is characterised by excessive dampness, thick
forests, rich wild life and malarial climate.
In Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and Jammu
Divisions (J & K) the Tarai forests have been cleared for
cultivation of crops.
Disappeared ri vers of Bhabar region appear again in Terai
region and make this region a flood prone one.
3. The Bhangar (Bangar) Plains
The Bhangar land lies above the flood limits of the rivers. It is
the higher part of the plains.
The Bhangar or older alluvial plain, represent the upland alluvial
tracts of the Great Plains of India, formed by the older alluviums.
The Bhangar formations were deposited during the middle
Pleistocene Period.
The soil is dark in colour, rich in humus content and productive.
It contains c oncretions and nodules of impure calcium
carbonate or Wankar' .munotes.in
Page 26
26In relatively drier areas, the Bhangar also exhibits small tracts of
saline and alkaline efflorescences known as “Thue”.
Bhangar is generally a well drained and the most productive
land of t he Great Plains of India.
The Bhangar deposits have the fossils of elephants, horses,
man, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, etc
4. The Khadar Plains
The new alluvium tracts along the courses of the rivers are
known as the “Whadar” or 'Bet' lands.
The khadar tra cts are enriched by fresh deposits of silt every
year during the rainy season.
The Khadar land consists of sand, silt, clay and mud.
Most of the Khadar land has been brought under cultivation
after independence. This land has been devoted to sugarcane,
rice, wheat, maize, oilseeds, legumes, and fodder crops.
The Khadar deposits have the fossils of living species like man,
deer, oxen, buffaloes, horses, elephants, rhino, etc.
5. Delta Plains
The deltaic plain is an extension of the Khadar land.
It covers about 1.9 lakh sq km of area in the lower reaches of
the Ganga River.
In fact, it is an area of deposition as the river flows in this tract
sluggishly.
The deltaic plain consists mainly of old mud, new mud and
marsh.
In the delta region, the u plands are called 'Chars'.
The delta of Ganga being an active one, is extending towards
the Bay of Bengal.
These are very fertile and are suitable for jute & rice cultivation.
For example: The Ganga -Brahmaputra delta, spread in India
and Bangladesh.
1.10. THE COASTAL PLAINS
Introduction
The Plateau of Indian Peninsula is fringed by narrow coastal
plains of varied width from north to south, known as the West -
Coastal Plains on the west and the East Coastal Plains on the
east. The West -Coastal Plains and the E ast Coastal Plains aremunotes.in
Page 27
27washed by the Arabian Sea on the west and by the Bay of Bengal
on the east respectively. They were formed by the depositional
action of the rivers and the emotional and depositional actions
of the sea -waves and differ from each other .
Origin of The Coastal Plains
India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km (6100 km of mainland
coastline, 1197km. coastline of Indian islands) touching 13 States
and Union Territories.
According to geologists the origin of the western and eastern
coasts of India m ay be attributed to the faulting and subsidence of
the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal towards the close of the
Eocene Period. Consequently, alluvial deposits along these coasts
are of very recent origin, ranging from Pliocene to recent times.
These coas tal plains have the evidence of submergence and
emergence. The straight and regular coastline of India is the result
of faulting of the Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous period.
The west coast of India is both emergent and submergent .
The northern portio n of the coast is submerged as a result of
faulting and the southern portion, that is the Kerala coast, is an
example of an emergent coast.
The east coast of India, especially its south -eastern part
(Tamil Nadu coast), appears to be a coast of emergence.
1.11. THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN COASTAL
PLAINS
According to their location to the east or west of the
peninsular, Indian coastal plains may be divided into two
broad physiographic divisions:
1.The Western Coastal Plains
2.The Eastern Coastal Plains
1.The West ern Coastal Plains :
Lying between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, the
west coast strip extends from the Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of
Khambhat in the north to Cape Comorin or Kanyakumari in the
south.munotes.in
Page 28
28It is made up of alluvium brought down by the shor t streams
originating from the Western Ghats.
The western coastal plain of India is situated on a thin strip of
land.
It is about 1400 km long and10 to 80 km wide .
The west coastal plain becomes narrower gradually from the
Kutch coast to Kanyakumari.
The western coastal plains cover an area of about 64,284
square kilometre
It has an elevation up to 150 m above sea level ,r e a c h i n g
more than 300 m at places.
The Western Coastal Plain (Fig.1.54)is characterised mainly by
sandy beaches, coastal sand -dunes, mud -flats, and lagoons,
alluvial tracts along rivers, estuary, laterite -platforms and
residual hills.
The west coast has short rivers coming down swiftly from the
western slopes of the Western Ghats, the draining into the
Arabian Sea without forming an yd e l t a s .
The estuaries, of theNarmada and the Tapi are the major
ones.
The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent
and submergent.
Starting from north to south, the Western Coastal Plains
is divided into the following sub -divisions:
a. Kutch Peninsula
b. Kathiawar Peninsula
c. The Gujarat Coastal Plain
d. The Konkan Coastal Plain,
e. The Karnataka Coastal Plain
f. The Kerala or Malabar Coastal Plain
1. a. Kutch Peninsula
Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of Peninsular plateau
(because Kathiawar is made of the Deccan Lava and there are
tertiary rocks in the Kutch area), they are still treated as integral
part of the Western Coastal Plains as they are now levelled
down.
Kutch, formerly an island, is almost surrounded by the Rann
except in the south -westmunotes.in
Page 29
29All along the Kutch Peninsula there lies a broad level of salt
soaked marshy land known as the Great Rann.
Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is the Great Rann. Its
southern continuation, known as the Little Rann lies on the
coast and south -east.
The salt in the soil makes this low -lying marshy area almost
barren and unproductive.
The Rann of Kutch is an extensive tract of naked tidal mudflats
transacted by abandoned and live creeks.
The Gulf of Kutch separates the Rann of Kutch from the
Kathiawa rP e n i n s u l a .
These seas and lagoons were later filled by sediment brought
by the Indus River which used to flow through this area.
Lack of rains in recent times has turned it into arid and semi -
arid landscape.
The Luni drains into the Rann of Kutch.
1.b. Kathiawar Peninsula
The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south of the Kutch
Is a plain level land
Northern part is a rolling upward
Central part is dissected into hills.
The coastal areas are sandy.
The highest point is mount Girnar (1117m) of the Gir Range
in central Kathiawar
The central part is a highland of Mandav Hills from which
small streams radiate in all directions (Radial Drainage). Mt. Girnar
(1,117 m) is the highest point and is of volcanic origin.
The Gir Range is located in the southern part of the
Kathiawar peninsula. It is covered with dense forests and is famous
as home of the Gir lion.
1.c. The Gujarat Coastal Plain
Broadest part of the Western Coastal Plain
The Gujarat plain covers almost the entire state of Gujarat,
except the districts of Banaskantha and Sabarkantha.
It is formed by the alluvial deposits of Sabarmati, Luni, and
numerous tiny parallel consequent streams.munotes.in
Page 30
30Origin : Part of this plain is the product of depositional activity of
the winds and recession of the sea.
Itcontains the Gondwana rocks (Umia Series), resting over the
marine Jurassic rocks and capped by Lower Cretaceous beds.
The Deccan lava lies over the Umia series.
The eastern section of Gujarat Plain is a projected jet of Sindhu -
Ganga alluvial tract in Peninsular Ind ia. This projection is the
outcome of an extensive Pleistocene sedimentation .
The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kutch and Kathiawar and
slopes towards the west and south west .
Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi and Sabarmati ,
the plain includes the sout hern part of Gujarat and the coastal
areas of the Gulf of Khambhat.
The eastern part of this plain is fertile enough to support
agriculture ,b u tt h eg r e a t e rp a r tn e a r the coast is covered by
windblown loess (heaps of sand).
1. d. The Konkan Coastal Plain
The northern part of the west coastal plain, known as the
Konkan Plain, is about 530 km long and 30 to 50 km wide
Lies in Maharashtra, stretching from Daman in the north to
Goa in the south.
Narrow and broken region.
Coastline of submergence
It has some features of marine erosion including cliffs, shoals,
reefs and islands in the Arabian Sea.
The Thane creek around Mumbai is an important embayment (a
recess in a coastline forming a bay) which provides an
excellent natural harbour.
No other coastal plain of India is so narrow.
Most of the plain is formed of rock.
Through the northern part of this coast flows the Baitarani River.
Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa Coast) is a Coastline of
submergence.munotes.in
Page 31
311.e. The Karnataka Coastal Plain
Southward is the Karnatak a coastal plain which is about 525 km
long and 8 to 25 km wide. It is the narrowest part of the West
coastal plain.
Goa to Mangalore.
It is a narrow plain with an average width of 30 -50 km, the
maximum being 70 km near Mangalore.
At some places the stream s originating in the Western Ghats
descend along steep slopes and make waterfalls.
The Saravati while descending over such a steep slope makes
an impressive waterfall known as Gersoppa (Jog) Falls which is
271 m high.
Marine topography is quite marked on the coast.
To the east of this plain lies the highest waterfall of India, called
Jog or Gersoppa which falls across the Saravati River. The
height of the fall is 275 meters.
1.f. The Kerala or Malabar Coastal Plain
The southern part of Western Coastal Plain is known as the
Kerala Plain or the Malabar Plain. (Fig: 1.61)
The Malabar Coast lies between Mangalore and Kanyakumari.
This is much wider than the Karnataka Coastal plain.
It is a low lying plain
It is about 550 km long and 20 -100 km wide.
The maximum extension of the Malabar Coast is found in the
valleys of the Beypore, the Ponnani (draining through Palghat),
and the Periyar and Pamba Achankovil rivers.
This coast is characterised by sand dunes.
Along the coast, there are numerous shallow lagoons an d
backwaters.
These lagoons are linked together to facilitate navigation
through small country boats.
Vembanad, near Kochi is 75 km long and 5 -10 km wide. It
being the largest, gives rise to a 55 km long spit {Marine
Landforms}. Asthamudi Kayal, near Quil on is another important
lagoon of the Malabar Coast.munotes.in
Page 32
32The coast shows evidence of emergence.
The backwaters, locally known as kayals are the shallow
lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying parallel to the coastline.
Regional Names of The Western Coastal Plains of India
Konkan coast -Maharashtra coast and Goa coast;
Malabar Coast -Kerala and Karnataka coast coastlines of
Emergence and Submergence
2.The Eastern Coastal Plains
Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
It extends from the mouth of the Subarnarekha River along
the West -Bengal Odisha border to Cape Comorin or
Kanyakumari in the south, for nearly 1500 km.
It stretches along the coasts of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu.
It is marked by deltas of rivers like the Mahanadi, the
Godavari , the Krishna and the Cauvery.
There are some of the important lagoons of India along the
Eastern coast. Chilka Lake in the south -west of the Mahanadi
delta is the biggest lake (65 km x 8 km) in the country.
The Kulleru lake lies between the deltas of Go davari and
Krishna
The Pulicat Lake (lagoon) lies further south on the border of
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu is another important
geographical feature of east coast.
The East coastal plains consist mainly of Recent and Tertiary
alluvial deposits.
Am a j o r part of the plains is formed as a result of the alluvial
fillings of the littoral zone (relating to or on the shore of the
sea or a lake) by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
Cauvery comprising some of the largest deltas of the world.
In contrast to the West Coastal Plains, these are extensive
plains with an average width of 120 km.
These are gentle, monotonous plains rising gently westward
to the foot of the Eastern Ghats.
The monotony of the topography is broken by the presence of
numerous hill s.
This coastal plain has a straight shoreline with well defined
beaches of sand and shingles .
The most famous is the Marina Beach in Chennai .munotes.in
Page 33
33All along the coast, there are several sandbars generally in
front of the river mouths.
The east coast of Ind ia, especially its south -eastern part (Tamil
Nadu coast), appears to be a coast of emergence .
The Eastern Coastal Plains may be further sub -divided into
two divisions:
1.North Circar Coast
Northern part of the East coast.
Extends from the mouth of river Subarnarekha to the Krishna
Delta.
2.Coromondal Coast
Southern part of the East coast.
Extends from the Krishna Delta to Cape Comorin.
The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Andhra coast together are
known as Coromandal Coast.
Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu)is Coas tline of emergence
According to states the Eastern Coastal Plain is sub -
divided from north to south into the following division:
1.Orissa Coastal Plain
Itextends from the mouth of the Subarnarekha in the north to
Rushikulya River in the south .
In Orissa (Odisha) it is known as Utkal coast .
It includes the Mahanadi delta .
The most prominent physiographic feature of this plain is the
Chilka Lake .
It is the biggest lake in the country and its area varies between
780 sq km in winter to 1,144 sq km in the monsoon months.
South of Chilka Lake , low hills dot the plain.
2.Andhra Coastal Plain
Itextends from the southern limit of the Utkal plain, and
stretches along the Andhra coast i.e. from the mouth of the
Rushikulya River in the north to the Lake Pulicot in the south.
The most significant feature of this plain is the delta formation
by the rivers Godavari and Krishna.
The two deltas have merged with each other and formed a
single physiogra phic unit.munotes.in
Page 34
34This part of the plain has a straight coast and badly lacks
good harbours with the exception of Vishakhapatnam and
Machilipatnam.
3.Tamil Nadu Coastal Plain
In the south of the Andhra Coastal plain is the Tamil Nadu
coast.
The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675 km from Pulicat Lake
in the north to Kanyakumari in the south along the coast of
Tamil Nadu.
Its average width is 100 km .
The most important feature of this plain is the Cauvery delta
where the plain is 130 km wide.
The fertile soil and large scale irrigation facilities have made
the Cauvery delta the granary of South India .
The sand dunes along the Tamil Coast are called ‘ Theris’ by
the locals.
Significance of the Coastal Plains
Large parts of the coastal plains of India are covered by fertile
soils on which different crops are grown. Rice is the main crop
of these areas.
Coconut trees grow all along the coast.
The entire length of the coast is dotted with big and small ports
which help in carrying out trade.
The sedimentary rocks of the se plains are said to contain large
deposits of mineral oil.
The sands of Kerala coast have large quantity of Monazite
which is used for nuclear power.
Fishing is an important occupation of the people living in the
coastal areas.
Low lying areas of Gujarat are famous for producing salt.
Kerala backwaters are important tourist destinations.
Goa provides good beaches. This is also an important tourist
destination.
The differences and comparison between Eastern and
Western Coastal Plains are discussed below:
1. The Eastern Coastal plain lies along the east coast of India and
is washed by the Bay of Bengal whereas, the Western Coastal
Plain lies along the west coast of India and is washed by The
Arabian Sea.munotes.in
Page 35
352. The East Coast plain runs smoothly from the north t ot h es o u t h
with a broad plain and level surface while the West Coast plain also
runs from the north to the south and it is in some places intersected
by the mountain ridges.
3. Eastern Coastal Plain is broader than the West Coast plain.
4. The large rive rs make wide deltas on the Eastern Coastal Plains
but the short swift rivers do not make any deltas on the West Coast.
5. The Eastern Coast is sandy with alluvium and slopes gently
towards the sea, sand dunes and marshy lands and lagoons are
also found. Bu t the Western Coast is relatively rocky with sand and
sand dunes. It slopes abruptly down to the sea. There is no lagoon
on the northern part. It has many estuaries on the Konkon Coast.
But the southern part especially the Malabar Coast has the
beautiful s cene of back -water country with a series of lagoons.
6. The Eastern Coast is smooth and unfit for making ports. So, very
few ports are developed there whereas the Western Coast is
broken and indented and suitable for ports.
7. The Western Coastal plain receives heavy rainfall while the
eastern Coastal plain receives comparatively low rainfall.
8. The deltas on the East Coast Plain are formed by fine alluvial soil
and are fertile and agriculturally prosperous while the West Coast
Plain is washed by the Ar abian Sea. The West Coast Plain, formed
by coarse grained soil is infertile and agriculturally not prosperous
except in the Malabar Coast.
1.12. DRAINAGE PATTERNS
According to the configuration of the channels, drainage
systems can fall into one of seve ral categories known as drainage
patterns. Drainage patterns depend on the topography and geology
of the land.
There are numerous patterns that drainage systems follow:
1. Accordant drainage patterns and
2. Discordant drainage patterns
1. Accordant drainage patternsmunotes.in
Page 36
36A drainage system is described as accordant if its pattern
correlates to the structure and relief of the landscape over which it
flows.
There are the following most common drainage patterns
that we come across on the land surface of the earth.
(i) Dendritic Pattern (iv) Annular Pattern (vii) Deranged Pattern
(ii) Trellis Pattern (v) Radial Pattern (viii) Centripetal Pattern
(iii) Barbed Pattern (vi) a. Rectangular Pattern b. Angular
Drainage Pattern (ix) Parallel Drainage
2.Discordant drainage patt erns
A drainage pattern is described as discordant if it does not
correlate to the topology and geology of the area. Discordant
drainage patterns are classified into two main types:
(x) Antecedent and
(xi) Superimposed
The different types of Accordant and Discordant drainage
patterns are as follows:
(i)Dendritic Pattern :
Adendritic drainage pattern resembles the pattern made
by the branches of a tree or the veins of a leaf or the branching
pattern of tree roots. In this pattern tributaries join the large r
streams at acute angles (less than 90 degrees). Most of the rivers
of the Indo-Gangetic Plains are of dendritic type.
(ii) Trellis Pattern
Trellis Drainage Pattern develops if the rocks are made up
of alternate hard and soft layers. Here the tributaries follow the
pattern of the rock structure and enter the main river at an
approximately 90 degree angle resulting into a trellis -like
appearance of the drainage system .T r e l l i sd r a i n a g ei s
characteristic of folded mountains, such as the Appalachian
Mountains in North America. In India ,The old folded mountains of
the Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) have a drainage of
trellis pattern.munotes.in
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37(iii) Barbed Pattern :
The barbed pa ttern, generally developed due to river
capture, is formed when the tributary flow in opposite direction to
their master streams. The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary of the
Kosi is an example of barbed drainage pattern.
(iv)Annular Pattern
In an annular drainage pattern the subsequent streams
follow the curving or arcuate courses before joining the consequent
stream. In this pattern the streams follow a roughly circular or
concentric path along a belt of weak rock, resembling a ring -like
pattern. Some examples of this are however found in Pithoragarh
(Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
(v)Radial Pattern
In aradial drainage system , the streams radiate outwards
from a central high point or dome .U s u a l l ye x c e l l e n tr a d i a l
drainag e pattern is displayed on conically shaped features as
Volcanoes. In India Radial drainage patterns are also found in the
Girnar Hills (Kathiawar, Gujarat), and Mikir Hills of Assam.
(vi) a. Angular and b. Rectangular Drainage Pattern
Where rocks are cons istently hard but have been fractured
by faulting or other processes Angular and Rectangular Drainage
Pattern forms.
(vi) a. Angular drainage patterns
Angular drainage patterns form where bedrock joints and
faults intersect at more acute angles than rec tangular drainage
patterns. Angles are both more and less than 90 degrees.
(vi) b. Rectangular Pattern
Rectangular drainage pattern develops on rocks that have
uniform resistance to erosion, but two directions of joining at
approximately right angles. A typical example of this drainage
pattern is found is the Vindhyan Mountains of India
(vii)Deranged Pattern .
Deranged or contorted drainage patterns develop from
the disruption of a pre -existing drainage pattern. It occurs in
drainage basins where there is no coherent pattern to the riversmunotes.in
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38and lakes. This type of drainage is found in the glaciated valleys of
Karakoram
(viii) Centripetal Pattern
Incentripetal drainage pattern, streams flow toward a
central depression. Sinkholes, craters and other basin -like
depressions display this type of drainage pattern. This pattern is
typical in the western and south -western portions of the United
States where basins exhibit interior drainage.
(x)Parallel drainage pattern
Parallel drainage pattern forms on uniformly sloping surfaces
where all the streams flow parallel to each other in the same
direction following the slope of the region. The small and swift rivers
originating in the Western Ghats and discharging their water into
the Arabian Sea are example of parallel drainage pattern in India.
(xii)Antecedent drainage
In antecedent drainage , a river's vertical incision ability
matches that of land uplift d ue to tectonic forces. The Himalayan
Rivers are great examples of antecedent origin.
(xiii) Superimposed drainage
The Superimposed drainage is a natural drainage system
developed by erosion and has little relation to the area's geological
structure. It is also known as discordant drainage as it shows
discordance with the underlying rock structure. In India the
Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the Chambal are some examples of
superimposed drainage.
1.13. DRAINAGE BASIN OF INDIA
A river along with its tributaries forms a river system. The
drainage systems in India are chiefly controlled by the broad relief
features of the subcontinent.
The Indian drainage is broadly divided into
(a) Bay of Bengal Drainage
(b) Arabian Sea drainage .munotes.in
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39The Indian rivers are also divided into two major groups :
the Himalayan Rivers and
the Peninsular Rivers
There is also an Inland drainage present in Indian drainage
system.
The Himalayan Rivers
Characteristics of Himalayan rivers are as follows:
Most of the Himalayan rivers are perennial.
These rivers are rain fed as well as snow fed.
Major rivers, The Indus, the Brahmaputra have cut through the
mountains making gorges.
The Himalayan rivers have long courses from their source to the
sea.
They pe rform intensive erosional activity in their upper courses
and carry huge loads of silt and sand.
In the middle and the lower courses, these rivers form
meanders, oxbow lakes, and many other depositional features
in their floodplains.
They also form deltas .
In India there are three major Himalayan River systems :
1) the Indus,
2) the Ganga and
3) the Brahmaputra river systems.
1. The Indus River System:
The river Indus, the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers which
originates in Tibet, in the springs of Sengee Khabab about 100
km. north of Lake Mansarowar, at an altitude of 5,180 metres.
Flowing westwards from its origin, it enters the Indian Territory
in the Ladakh district of Jammu & Kashmir where it receives
Himalayan tributaries such as the Gartang, Zaskar, Dras,
Shyok, Shigar, Nubra, Gilgit and Huza.
It forms a very picturesque gorge (3000m deep near Bunji) in
this area.
Famous city Leh also lies on banks of the Indus.munotes.in
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40After flowing through Baltistan and Gilgit, the Indus emerges
from the mountains at At tock. Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and
Jhelum join together and enter the Indus near Mithankot in
Pakistan.
On entering Pakistan, it takes southward turn and runs
hundreds of kilometres to meet Arabian Sea east of Karachi.
The river Indus, one of the longe st rivers of the world has a total
length of about 2900 km.
709 km long in India.
About a third of Indus basin is located in India in the states of
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab.
The rest of the portion is in Pakistan.
2. The Ganga River System
I. River Ganga
The main headwater of Ganga is called Bhagirathi which takes
its rise in the Gangotri Glacier. The Gomukh, an ice cave is also
taken to be its source.
Sweeping westward for 35 km the Bhagirathi turns south and
cut through the great H imalayas in a deep valley.
Bhagirathi is called the Ganga when it is joined by Alaknanda at
Devprayag in Uttarakhand.
At Rudra Prayag Mandakini, originating from Gourikund, meets
the Alaknanda.
Flowing south for 70 km Ganga cuts through two ranges , the
Nag Tibba and the Siwalik and descends on to the plains at
Hardwar.
In the plains river Ganga flows towards the south east upto
Mirzapur and then east wards in Bihar plains.
Near the Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south east and enters
West -Bengal.
In We st Bengal the river Ganga flow east ward and near
Dhulian it is divided into two distributaries, Padma and
Bhagirathi.
Padma enters Bangladesh.munotes.in
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41When Padma is joined by the Brahmaputra it is known as
Meghna, further downstream.
The other one, the Bh agirathi, flows south ward and is known
as Hugli from Chinsura to the mouth of the Bay of Bengal
forming an estuary.
The total length of Ganga is 2510 km.
Finally, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra flow into the Bay of
Bengal forming the Sunderban Delta.
Cham bal, Betwa and Son, the major tributaries which come
from the peninsular uplands, rise from semi arid areas, have
shorter courses and do not carry much water in them.
Tributaries of Ganga: Yamuna, Ghraghara, Gandak and Kosi are
the major tributaries of Ga nga.
Distributaries of Ganga : Jalangi, Mathabhanaga, Ichhamati
II. River Yamuna
Yamuna originates from the Yamunotri Glacier in the
Himalayas.
Traversing Lesser Himalayas for 75 km. comes down to the
plain at Paonta.
On the plains it flows towards south upto Agra and further down
towards the south east till it meets Ganga at Allahabad.
It flows parallel to the Ganga as a right bank tributary.
Yamuna is about 1375 km long.
Yamuna receives a number of tributaries from the central
Highlands: They are , the Chambal, the Betwa, the Sindh, the
Ken.
III. River Gharghara
River Gharghara rises in Nepal. It joins Ganga near Chapra.
IV. River Gandak
Rises in the Great Himalayas, joins the left bank of Ganga at
Sonpur.munotes.in
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42V. River Kosi
. River Kosi rises in the Tibet Plateau. Joins the left bank of
the Ganga at Kargola.
VI. River Ramganga
Originates from the Kumaun Himalayas. Joins Ganga as its left
bank tributary at Kanauj.
3. The Brahmaputra River System:
The Brahmaputra River is about 2580 km long. Most of the
course of the Brahmaputra lies outside India. In India it is about
885 km long.
The Brahmaputra rises in the Chemayungdung glacier (4900m)
located 90 km south east of Rakshas Tal and Mansarowar lake
in Tibet.
It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalay as.
In Tibet it is known as Tsangpo.
After reaching Namcha Barwa peak, (7757 mts high peak in
Tibet) it takes a ‘U -turn’ to enter into India in Arunachal Pradesh
through a deep gorge.
It is known as Dihang in this region.
The Dihang enters Assam near Sadi ya
It is then joined by Dibang, Lohit, Kenula and many other
tributaries’ and the combined flow forms the Brahmaputra in
Assam. At Dhubri the Brahmaputra turns south ward turn and
enters Bangladesh as Jamuna.
It then finally drains into the Bay of Bengal .
Important Tributaries are : Dibang, Luhit, Subansiri, Torsha ,
Tista, Dhansiri, Kopili etc.
There are innumerable river islands. Majuli (929 sq km.) the
largest river island of the world has been formed on the bed of
Brahmaputra.
Brahmaputra shifts its course frequently.
The Peninsular Rivers:
Characteristics of the rivers of Peninsular India
Most of the Peninsular Rivers are seasonal because they
depend on rainfall for water.munotes.in
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43These rivers have shorter and shallower courses as compared
to the Himalayan rivers.
Most of the major rivers of the Peninsula such as the Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri flow eastwards and
drain into the Bay of Bengal.
These rivers make deltas at their mouths.
The Narmada and Tapti are the only long rivers, which flow
westwards and make estuaries.
The main water divide in Peninsular India is formed by the
Western Ghats, which runs from north to south close to the
western coast.
There are numerous small streams flowing west of the Western
Ghats.
The drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are comparatively
small in size.
1.13.1. The Peninsular River system consists of Narmada,
Tapti, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers. According
to the direction of flow, these rivers can be grouped as the (i) east
flowing rivers and (ii) west flowing rivers. Among them Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery are east flowing rivers . Narmada
and Tapti (Tapti) are the only long rivers which are west flowing.
Rivers of the Peninsular India are as follows:
Major We st flowing rivers:
I.The Narmada Basin :
The Narmada rises in a tank at an elevation of 1057 m in the
Amarkantak peak of Mahakal range in Madhya Pradesh. It
drains into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Khambat near
Bharuch in Gujarat, forming an estuary a t its mouth.
It flows towards the west through a rift valley in faulting zone of
Vidhyan and Satpura hills.
It is 1312 km. long.
The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarat.
All the tributaries of the Narmada are very short.
Most of the tributaries join the Narmada at right angles. .munotes.in
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44It is the largest among all west flowing rivers of the peninsula
and after Godavari and Krishna, is third longest river that flows
entirely in India.
It has formed the famous Dhauladhar waterfalls on the
Bheraghat marbles near Jabalpur.
II.The Tapti Basin
The Tapti (724 km) rises from a spring near Multai (1922m) on
the Satpura ranges, in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
The basin of Tapti covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and
Maharashtra.
It flows through a rift valley lying between the Satpura range and
the Ajanta range.
It crosses the Western Ghats through a deep and narrow valley.
River Tapti empties into the Gulf of Khambat, just south of river
Narmada, near Surat in Gujarat.
It has formed an es tuary in the Gulf of Khambat.
Tapti runs parallel to the river Narmada and is the second
largest west flowing river of Indian peninsula.
Ukai dam in Gujarat is on river Tapti.
River Purna is its major tributary.
Major east flowing rivers
III.The Godavari Basin:
Godavari is 1465 km long and is the longest perennial river of
the peninsular plateau.
The river Godavari rises in the slopes of the Western Ghats in
Trimbakeswar in Nasik district of Maharashtra.
After flowing over the Maharashtra p lateau and the Telengana
plateau it crosses the Eastern Ghats through a picturesque
gorge, Papi Hill Gorge, and emerges at Polavaram into the
Coastal Plains.
Below Rajahmundry it splits into distributaries namely, Gautami
Godavari, Vasistha Godavari and V ainataya.
These rivers form the deltas at the mouth.
It drains into the Bay of Bengal.munotes.in
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45Its drainage basin is also the largest among the peninsular river
basins.
Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Manjra, Waiganga and Penganga are
the main tributaries of Godavari.
It is also known as the ‘Dakshin Ganga’.
IV.The Mahanadi Basin:
This river originates in the Sihawa Range in the highlands of
Chhattisgarh and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
The upper Mahanadi flows through the Chhattisgarh Plain
Flowing north ward it receiv es the Seonath on its right bank.
Below Seorinarayan it flows east wards and turns south wards a
little below Hirakund Dam.
Near Sonapur it turns again east wards.
After crossing the Eastern Ghats through a gorgy it divides itself
distributaries at Cuttack .
Seonath, Brahmani, Baitarani are the important tributaries of
the river Mahanadi.
The combined flow of the Mahanadi, Baitarani, and Brahmani
discharged through a common mouth and formed deltas after
Cuttack.
It is about 860 km long
The most important distributary at the delta is Katajuri.
The Mahanadi basin covers Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand and Orissa.
V.The Krishna Basin:
The Krishna river originates from a spring near Mahabaleshwar
in eastern side of Western Ghats in Maharashtra.
Itflows south and south east wards through Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh before it drains into the Bay of Bengal.
It is about 1400 km long.
Major tributaries are Bhima, Tungabhadra, Koyana,
Ghatprabha, and Musi.
Notable distributaries are Vamsdhara and Nagawati in the
delta region.munotes.in
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46Krishna is the second largest east flowing river of peninsular
India. Its drainage basin is shared by the States of
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
VI.The Kaveri (Cauvery) Basin :
The Kaveri originates in the Brahmagiri range of the Western
Ghats in the Coorg Districts of Karnataka and drains into the
Bay of Bengal in south of Cuddalore, in Tamil Nadu.
It flows east wards crossing the Ghats.
Total length of the river is about 760 km.
Shimsha and Amravati are left bank tributari es, Bhavani,
Hemavati, Lakshman Tirtha and Kabini are other tributaries.
The Kaveri splits into two branches in the west of Tiruchirapalli,
the northern branch known as Coleroon while the southern
branch known as Kaveri.
They again join together forming b etween them the island of
Srirangam.
Thereafter, Coleroon take a north eastern direction and Kaveri
takes a southern direction.
Kaveri splits into several branches like Vena, Keclanurtiyar and
Asasalai forming the deltas at its mouth in the Bay of Bengal.
The Kavery basin covers Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
It has several waterfalls and rapids in its course.
Other East flowing rivers are : Pennar, Bhaigai,
Tamraparni
Other West flowing rivers are: Sabarmati, Saravati, Ullhas,
Ntrabati, Sabitri etc.
River Saravati has formed the highest waterfalls in India i.e.
Jog or Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi waterfalls which is 275 m
high
Differences between the Himalayan and the Peninsular
India
1. The Himalayan Rivers are perennial, i.e. they flow throughout the
year. These rivers are both snow fed and rain fed such as, the
Ganga, the Yamuna, the Brahmaputra and the rivers of Punjab
whereas the peninsular rivers are seasonal. They do not flowmunotes.in
Page 47
47throughout the year. These are only rain fed. Examples are
Narmada, Tapt i, Godavari, Krishna etc.
2. The basins of the Himalayan Rivers are generally large
compared to the peninsular rivers, e.g. the Ganga basin, the Indus
basin. The basins of the Peninsular rivers are often small, e.g. the
Narmada basin, the Tapti basin etc.
3. The Himalayan Rivers are often long because their sources are
far away from the ocean. The Peninsular rivers are comparatively
smaller.
4. In case of the Himalayan rivers less number of rivers flow into
the ocean as most of them are either the main riv ers or are the
tributaries of a large river. On the contrary most of the Peninsular
Rivers flow into the ocean because of high peninsular slope.
5. The Himalayan Rivers form deep valleys and gorges in their
source areas. On the other hand, the peninsular r iver valleys are
often shallow.
6. The Himalayan Rivers are navigable. But the Peninsular Rivers
are not navigable. They are only navigable in the delta regions.
7. The Himalayan rivers form meanders because they flow through
plains where the land is friab le, i.e. soft.
The Peninsular Rivers flow through hard rocky areas and
have straight and linear courses. For example Narmada and Tapti
develop linear drainage system because they flow through rift
valleys.
8. The Himalayan Rivers have formed large deltas at their mouths.
But the Peninsular Rivers often form estuaries or small deltas at
their mouths.
9. Himalayan rivers are long and young while the Peninsular Rivers
are short and ancient.
1.14. SEASONS OF INDIA
On the basis of the weather phenomenon, the Indian
meteorological department has conveniently divided the year into
four different types of seasons which rotate in a cycle. They are
as follows:munotes.in
Page 48
481. The Hot Weather Season —March to May.
2. The South -West Mon soon Season —June to September.
3. The Retreating South -West Monsoon Season —October to
November.
4. The Cold Weather Season —mid-December to February .
There are regional variations in the length of period of these
seasons in India. These differences are significant as we move
from the south towards the north.
The Northern India experiences a distinct winter season as well as
ad i s t i n c th o tw e a t h e rs e a s o n .
1. The Hot Weather Season (March to May)
Characteristics :
The hot weather season begins in March and continues till the
end of May.
During this period there is a rapid increase in temperature.
Temperature :
May is the hottest month of the season, and temperature often
rises to about 40°C.
The highest temperature is recorded in the north -west and west.
Condition of low pressure develops over north -west India.
This area of low pressure is also called the monsoon trough.
But at this period it is too weak to start the monsoon.
Around this trough a local circulation of air sets in.
As a result local Storms o fv i o l e n tt y p eo c c u rd u r i n gA p r i la n d
May.
These are thunderstorms, accompanied with strong winds are
heavy rainfall.
Hot and Dry wind called Loosweeps over the Indo -Ganga Plain
which is known as Andhi in Rajasthan.
Plateaus, hills and mountains are compa ratively cool owing to
their elevation.munotes.in
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49The temperature is bearable in the coastal plain owing to the
nearness to the sea.
Rainfall
In summer thunder showers occur which are locally known as
Kalbaishaki in West Bengal, Mango Showers in South India,
Bardaic hhila in Assam.
2.The South -West Monsoon Season —June to September.
Characteristics :
With the advent of summer, the heat accumulates and the
temperature rises steadily throughout India.
Therefore an intense low pressure cell develops in Rajasthan.
The low pressure which existed over Northern Plain is further
intensified. It is now strong enough to attract the moisture
bearing winds from the Indian Ocean.
It pulls the south east trade wind which on crossing the equator
becomes south west monsoon winds (acco rding to Ferrell’s Law
)a nda r r i v e sa l lo fas u d d e no v e rC a p eo fC o m o r i n .
This is known a “Burst of Monsoon”.
The bulk of rainfall is received during this season in almost
every part of India except Tamil Nadu.
It is then divided into two branches
1. Th e Arabian Sea Current and
2. The Bay of Bengal Current.
The Arabian Sea Current gives orographic rain to the
western coastal plains of India while the Deccan Plateau being the
rain shadow area of the Western Ghats , remains dry. The northern
section of the Aravian Sea branch does not give any rain in Gujarat
as it blows parallel to the Aravalli Range.
The Bay of Bengal Current gives heavy orographic rain to
the southern slopes of the Himalayas and the Meghalaya Plateau.
Mawsynram receives the highest rainfall (about 1250 cm) in the
world. Shillong lies in the rain shadow area of the Meghalaya
plateau. It gives rain in Assam, West Bengal and moves westwards
and rainfall decreases gradually in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and
Punjab.munotes.in
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50Temperature
The sky remains overcast so temperature varies between 20°C.
-30°C.
Rainfall
80% of rainfall occurs in this season in India.
Rainfall is mainly orographic in nature.
Maximum rainfall occurs in the western coastal plains and in the
north east.
Except the desert in t he north west the rest of India receives
rainfall varying between 60 -200 cm.
Fig: India temperature (Jul)munotes.in
Page 51
513.The Retreating South -West Monsoon Season —October to
November.
Characteristics :
On 23rdSeptember the sun lies over the equator and moves
towards the south. So, the temperature starts to decrease in
India and the low pressure cells disappears.
By the end of September or early October, the intensity of low
pressure and rainfall becomes much l ess.
Conditions which prevailed over north -western part and central
part of India begin to decrease.
Consequently, the South -West monsoon winds begin to retreat.
They leave Punjab plain by mid -September, the Ganga delta by
the late October and the south by early November.
This act of the monsoon winds in known as Retreat of Monsoon.
During this season, as the south -west monsoon winds retreat,
the north -east monsoon winds approach and sometimes they
collide, resulting in the formation of Cyclones, particu larly on the
coastal strip of the Bay of Bengal.
In the West Bengal these Cyclones are known as ‘Aswiner Jhar’
or the storms of the autumn. They give some rains.
Temperature
Is moderate and the sky remains clear.
Fig: Winter Monsoon
4.The Cold Weather Se ason —mid-December to February.
Characteristics :
Starting in early December it continues till February.
On 22ndDecember the sun lies over the Tropic of Capricorn.
As a result of the southerly movement of the sun, during this
season, the sun’s rays do not fall vertically in any part of the
country.
The temperature decreases from south to north.
The decrease in temperature in north India forms high pressure.
The wind therefore blows from the north -east as off -shore
winds.munotes.in
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52The days are warm and nights are cold. Hence diurnal range of
temperature is high.
The snowfall is common in some parts of the Himalayan range.
The high pressure area develops over the plains in the north -
¬west regions.
The winds blow from high pressure area to the low pressure
area over the south. These winds are called winter monsoons.
They blow in north -east direction.
Generally a fair weather prevails. It is characterized by clear
skies, high pressure, low humidity and rain -less days.
This fine weat her is occasionally disturbed by the cyclonic
depressions visiting from the Mediterranean Sea. They bring
rain in areas of Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
Haryana, Rajasthan and U.P. Sometimes, they invade up to
West Bengal.
Temperature
The mea nJ a n u a r yd a yt e m p e r a t u r ei nC h e n n a i( S o u t h
India)is about 24°C while in the northern plain it is about 8° to 15°C.
Fig: India Temperature (Jan)munotes.in
Page 53
53Rainfall
The north -east monsoon wind is very dry.
The amount of rainfall decreases towards the east.
They also cause snowfall in North -Western Himalayan regions
such as Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh.
As these west -winds come from the west, they are popularly
known as ‘Western Disturbances’.
The precipitation offered by these winds, is of great importance
for Rabi Crops, especially wheat.
The average precipitation varies from 20 mm. to 50 mm.
Winter rainfalls also occur along the coastal strip of Tamil Nadu.
The north -east monsoon winds absorb moisture while blowing
over the Bay o f Bengal before crossing the coast.
These winds strike against the Eastern Ghats and cause rainfall
on Coromandel Coast.
Influence of Monsoon on the rainfall distribution of India
India is a land of Tropical Monsoon type climate. The most
dominating fact orof the Indian climate is the monsoon winds
and hence it is often called the monsoon climate. The complete
reversal of the monsoon wind brings about as u d d e nc h a n g ei n
the seasons of India.
Besides the monsoons, the Indian climate is also
substantially influenced by two more factors.
a. the Himalayas
b. the Indian Ocean
The Himalayas, that contribute a continental nature to the
climate is recognised by land winds, dry air, large diurnal range and
scanty rainfall and the Indian Ocean that contributes a tropical
character to the Indian climate characterised by uniformity of
temperature throughout the year, short diurnal range, damp air, and
frequent rainfall.munotes.in
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54Classical Theory or Thermal Concept of Indian Monsoons:
According to this theory, when the su n makes an apparent
northward movement there is a differential heating of land and sea.
This is considered as the main cause of the Indian monsoonal
regime.
The two factors that are mainly responsible for this very
strong development of monsoons are as fo llows:
(i) Vast size of the Indian subcontinent and adjacent seas;
(ii) Presence of the Himalayas
Very high and extensive mountain systems of the Himalayas
in the north have a great meteorological significance. It extends in
an east -west direction, thus posing a formidable physical barrier
between tropical and polar air masses. Bordering Indian
subcontinent on the three sides, they work both as a break and
motor. During the winter season, they prevent the penetration of the
cold polar air masses from Siberia into the subcontinent, while in
summer, the Himalayas do not allow the equatorial maritime air
masses to cross the Himalayas and force them to curve round the
north -west. The Himalayas obstruct the moist south -west monsoon
winds and give heavy rainfall to India . So, in can be said that the
mighty Himalayas produce hydro -dynamic effects that determine
the type of precipitation in India.
The Thermal Concept:
According to the thermal concept, the sun starts its apparent
northward shift during the period following the Spring Equinox
(March 23). As a result, the areas lying north of the equator i.e.
tropics and sub -tropics, get a progressive high incidence of solar
radiation. Intense heating of the vast northern plains and the
adjoining highlands on the Indian subcon tinent is the effect of this
phenomenon.
Owing to the overhead position of the sun over the Tropic of
Cancer and hence excessive heating, a massive low pressure
trough is formed extending from the Punjab plains in the north -west
India while high pressure develops on the Indian Ocean. .This low
pressure zone attracts wind regimes from the adjoining areas,
from short distances in the beginning. But as the level of solar
incidence reaches its peak during May -June, the pressure gradientmunotes.in
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55between this low press ure trough and the adjoining seas is so great
that it attracts winds from as far as the south of the equator.
Being attracted by this low pressure centre over the Indian
subcontinent, South -east trade winds, prevalent south of the
equator, cross the equ ator and is deflected to their right as south -
west monsoon winds, following Farrel’s law. So, the originally
south -east trade winds blow towards the north -east as south -west
monsoons. By end of May the south -west monsoons “burst” on the
Kerala coast with s torm and rain called the “ Monsoon Burst ”.
At this juncture, the Inter -Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
also shifts northwards. The ITCZ is the hypothetical line where the
north -east trade winds from the northern hemisphere and the
south -east trades from the southern hemisphere meet. The south -
west wands now approaching the Indian peninsula have to travel a
long distance over the Indian Ocean.
These winds, being warm, pick up sufficient amount of
moisture from Indian Ocean, during their journey. By the ti me they
reach India they are oversaturated. Due to the peninsular shape of
India, the south -west monsoons get divided into two branches
as the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.
There moisture -laden winds cause heavy rainfall on the windward
sides.
The two main branches, the Arabian Sea branch and the
Bay of Bengal branch, of the monsoon winds originally set out to fill
the intense low pressure void created in the north -west of the
subcontinent. But they follow different courses and the two
branches meet at the Chhotanagpur Plateau. As the Arabian Sea is
bigger in size and most of the Arabian Sea branch falls over India,
this branch is more powerful of the two. On the other hand, most of
the Bay of Bengal branch goes to Myanmar, Malaysia and
Thailand.
The Arabian Sea Branch:
The Arabian Sea Branch of the south -west monsoons strikes
the highlands of the Western Ghats at almost right angles. The
windward slopes of the Western Ghats receive heavy orogenic
precipitation exceeding 300cm. Although t he western currents of
the monsoon penetrate further into the Indian mainland the intensity
of rainfall goes on decreasing on the leeward side. As a result,
Deccan Plateau receives less rainfall (60 cm), forms a rain shadowmunotes.in
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56region. After crossing the Weste rn Ghats, the rain -bearing air
currents descend the eastern slopes where they get warmed up
adiabatically. This results in a pronounced rain -shadow area. The
higher the mountains, the larger are the rain -shadow effect.
Another Arabian Sea branch gives l ittle or no rainfall to
Kachchh and Western Rajasthan because there is no mountain
barrier to tap the advancing winds and the Aravalli Range lies
parallel to the direction of winds. The monsoon currents heading
towards Rajasthan are rather shallow and are superimposed by
stable anti -cyclonic air.
The hot and dry continental air masses from western
Pakistan (Baluchistan) are drawn towards the thermal low
developed in this region. These air masses check the ascent of air
and absorb its moisture. These conditions are unfavourable for
precipitation in Kachchh and western Rajasthan where desert
conditions prevail.
Some of the currents from the Arabian Sea branch which
manage to proceed towards Chhotanagpur plateau through the
Narmada and Tapti gaps ultima tely unite with the Bay of Bengal
branch.
Af e wa i rc u r r e n t sf r o mt h em a i nA r a b i a nS e ab r a n c h ,
diverted northward towards Kachchh and the Thar Desert, continue
upto Kashmir without causing rain anywhere on their way.
Bay of Bengal Branch:
A northern curr ent of the Bay of Bengal Branch, of south
west monsoon wind, blows over the Bay of Bengal and picks up
moisture. Going over the Ganga -Brahmaputra Delta it strikes the
Khasi hills in Meghalaya and causes very heavy rains. Mawsynram
(near Cherrapunji), situa ted on the southern slopes (windward side)
of Khasi hills, receives the highest rainfall in the world (1392 cm).
The wind blows further north and is obstructed by the eastern
Himalayas. These winds are deflected towards the west by the
Himalayas. It takes a left turn at the eastern end of the low pressure
trough i.e. the Bengal delta. From here, it blows in a south -east to
north -west direction along the orientation of the Himalayas. This
current causes rainfall over the northern plains. The monsoon
rainfall over the northern plains is assisted by west -moving
monsoon or cyclonic depressions called ‘westerly disturbances’.munotes.in
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57The Bay of Bengal Branch monsoon winds become moisture less
when it reaches the Thar Desert. The winds get obstruction by the
Aravalli rang e and cause very little rainfall.
The intensity of rainfall decreases from east to west and
from north to south in the northern plains. The decrease in the
rainfall intensity towards west is attributed to the increasing
distance from the source of the moi sture while the decrease from
north to south, is due to increasing distance from the mountains
which are responsible for lifting the moisture -laden winds and
causing orogenic rainfall in the plains, especially in the foothills.
Retreating South West monsoo no rN o r t h -East Monsoons:
During October to November the South -West monsoon
begins to retreat as retreating monsoon winds from the north east
to the south west direction.
Towards the end of September, the low pressure centre in
the north -west begins to d isintegrate and eventually shifts to the
equatorial region. The cyclonic conditions are replaced by anti -
cyclonic ones. As a result, winds start blowing away from the
northern region. Similar anti -cyclonic winds blow from the Tibetan
highlands and beyond.
At this time the sun makes an apparent movement south of
the equator. The ITCZ also moves equator ward. Now the winds
that dominate the sub continental landscape are the ones which
move from the north -east to the south -west.
These conditions continue fr om October till mid -December
and are known as the retreating monsoons or the north -east
monsoons. By December end, the monsoons have completely
withdrawn from India. The retreat of the monsoons is markedly
gradual in contrast to the ‘sudden burst’ of the s outh-west
monsoons.
The retreating monsoons while crossing the Bay of Bengal
pick up moisture on their way which is dropped over eastern or
coastal Orissa, Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka during October -
November. This is the main season of rains over th ese areas as
they almost lie in the rain -shadow area of the south -west
monsoons.
During October, easterly depressions occur at the head of
Bay of Bengal which move southwards and in November getmunotes.in
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58sucked into Orissa and Tamil Nadu coasts causing heavy rain,
sometimes with destructive cyclonic winds in coastal and interior
areas. The depressions weaken southwards and towards the
interiors.
Winter Monsoons:
The stable, dry anti -cyclonic winds prevailing over the
subcontinent after the retreat of the south -west monsoons are not
capable of causing precipitation because they are free of moisture.
Instead, these winds produce dry and fine weather. However,
certai n areas in the north and the north -western parts of India i.e.
Punjab and Ganga plains get winter rainfall, from sources far away.
These areas are invaded by shallow cyclonic disturbances moving
from west to east which have their origin in the Mediterranea nS e a .
These are called “Westerly Disturbances’ which travel across West
Asia and Afghanistan before they reach India. These disturbances
come with cloudiness and rising temperature in the front and cold
wind in the rear. These disturbances cause up to 5 c mr a i n f a l li n
Punjab and Kashmir and up to 2.5 cm over the Uttar Pradesh
plains.
Rainfall Regions of India
Rainfall Regions mean an area receiving uniform
distribution of rainfall. Based on the variation in rainfall distribution
India may be divided into five Rainfall Regions. They are as
follows:
a. Very Heavy Rainfall Region (annual rainfall more than 200
cm) –Western Slope of Western Ghats, Eastern Himalaya,
Mizoram, North Bengal, Andaman Nicobar Islands belong to this
region.
b. Heavy Rainfall Region (ann ual rainfall 100 -200 cm) –The
states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, north -
eastern Uttar Pradesh, hills of Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and
south Bengal belong to this region.
c. Medium Rainfall Region (annual rainfall 60 -100 cm) –
Punjab, Haryan a, East Rajasthan, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and
Maharashtra belong to this region.
d. Low Rainfall Region (annual rainfall 20 -60 cm) –The rain
shadow region of the Western Ghats, Western part of Punjab and
Haryana and Central part of Rajasthan belong to this reg ion.munotes.in
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59e. Very Low Rainfall Region (annual rainfall below 20 cm) –
Rajasthan Desert, Ladakh Plateau and Kashmir belong to this
region.
Fig: India rainfall
1.15. SUMMARY:
India forms a unique physiographic unit distinguished by
its diversity in south Asia, generally referred to as the Indian sub -
continent. There are high mountain peaks in some areas while in
others, lie the flat plains formed by rivers.
In this chapter you have learnt about origin and the
phys iography of The Himalayas, which stretch some 2,500
kilometres between India, Pakistan, China, and Nepal —having
many mountain peaks over 8000 m, the runner -up being the
mountain range in South America, whose tallest peak is just 6,962
meters tall.
The Pe ninsular highlands, rises to 100 metres (330 ft) in
the north, and to more than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) in the south,
forming a raised triangle within the downward -pointing triangle of
the Indian subcontinent's coastline. The north -western part of themunotes.in
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60platea u is made up of lava flows or igneous rocks known as the
Deccan Traps . The thick dark soil (called regur) found here is
suitable for cotton cultivation.
On the other hand Coastal plains are the waved platforms
and the raised beaches above the water mark .These are mainly
the emerged floors from the seas that are adjacent to the land. The
Plateau of Indian Peninsula is fringed by narrow coastal plains of
varied width from north to south, known as the West -Coastal Plains
on the west and the East Coastal Plai ns on the east.
In this chapter you have also learnt about the different kind
drainage patterns. The Rivers that originate in Himalayas and
beyond the Great Himalayas have also been learnt. These are the
Indus, the Sutlej, the Brahmaputra Ganga, the Yamuna and their
tributaries rivers. They flow through the Northern Plains. These
rivers are useful for irrigation and navigation and the lowlands
drained by them have fertile alluvial deposits.
The Peninsular Rivers originate in the Western Ghats. They
have a large seasonal fluctuation in volume as they are solely fed
from rainfall. These rivers flow in valleys with steep gradients. Major
rivers of the Peninsula are Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery,
Narmada, and Tapti.
Apart from the River Basins an d Drainage Patterns the
different Types of Seasons prevailing in India and the Mechanism
of Monsoon have been taken into consideration.
1.16. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a)Major Geological Formations of the Peninsular India was about
3600 million years ago.
b)The Himalayas consist of four parallel ranges from East to
West.
c)Highest peak of Zanskar is Leopargel.
d)The height of the Mount Everest was measured 8,848 meters.
e)Meghalaya Plateau is an extension of the Ganga Plain.
f)Great Plains of Indi a, also known as the Indus -Ganga -
Brahmaputra plains, extends for a distance of about 13200 km
and its width varies from 150 km to 300 km
g)The vast Indo -gangetic plain has been formed as a result ofmunotes.in
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61filling of a deep depression lying between the Coastal and the
Himalayan region.
h)The Great Plains of India are actually alluvial fertile plains,
almost featureless, formed mostly by the depositional process of
the Himalayan and Vindhyan rivers.
i)The eastern part of the Northern Plain is called the Rajasthan
Plain.
j)Flood Plain is known as “Dhaya”and the eroded Plain is known
as ”Chos
k)The Luni drains into the Rann of Khambat
l)The highest point is mount Girnar (1117m) of the Gir Range in
central Kathiawar.
m)Most of the Himalayan rivers are perennial.
n)Tapti is an east fl owing river.
o)The Himalayan rivers are rain fed as well as snow fed.
p)Narmada originates from the Yamunotri Glacier in the
Himalayas.
q)Famous city Leh lies on banks of the Luni.
r)The intensity of rainfall decreases from east to west and from
north to south i n the northern plains.
s)The Arabian Sea Branch of the south -west monsoons strikes
the highlands of the Eastern Ghats at almost right angles
2. Fill in the blanks :
a.Encircling the ------------ -------------------- the Himalayan Ranges
take a sharp bend to the south and run in north –eastern border
of India.
b.According to the plate tectonics the collision of the ------------------
---------------------------- with its Asian counterpart has given rise
of the Himalayas.
c.To the north east of Ladakh range lies the La dakh plateau
(above 4000m), the -------------------- -------------------------------------
--, which is a cold desert.
d.The Himalayas consist of ---------------- -------------------- ranges
from South to North.
e.Longest tunnel of Asia (23/5Km long), --------- ------------- -----------
lies in this region.
f.------------------ is a grassland located to the east of the
Marusthali.munotes.in
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62g.The new alluvium deposited near the banks of the Sutlej, Beas,
Ravi, and Chenub River forming a plain is called __________.
h.The highest peak of Peninsular India -__________________ is
2695 metres above sea level.
i.The_________________ is one of the oldest fold mountains of
the world that runs from north -east to south -west.
j.The west coast has_______________rivers coming down
swiftly from the western slopes of the Western Ghats, the
draining into the Arabian Seawithout forming any __________.
k.The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent
and_______________
l.Krishna is the _______________ largest east flowing river of
peninsular Ind ia.
m.In West Bengal the river Ganga flow east ward and near
_________________ it is divided into two distributaries, Padma
and Bhagirathi.
n.When Padma is joined by the _____________________ it is
known as Meghna.
o.Chambal, Betwa and Son, the major tributaries of Yamuna
come from the _________ _________.
p.Deccan Plateau receives less rainfall (60 cm), forms a________
_______ region.
3. Multiple choice question
a.The North -Eastern Himalayas run North to South
I.through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,
Tripura and eastern Assam.
II.through Andhra Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura
and eastern Assam
III.through Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Madhya Pradesh,
Mizoram, Tamil Nadu.
b.Kanchenjunga, which belong to the Sikkim Himalaya,
i.is the highest peak of the world and the highest peak of
Himalaya in India.
ii.is the second highest peak of the world and the highest peak of
Himalaya in India.munotes.in
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63iii.is the third highest peak of the world and the highest peak of
Himalaya in India.
c. The old alluvium is known as
i.“Bhangar”
Ii. Kader
Iii. Bet
d.The whole of West Bengal except the one district and the
northern mountains comprises the Lower Ganga Plain. The district
is:
i.Puruliya
ii.Bardhaman
iii.Malda
e.The Malwa plateau is located to the north
i.of Aravalli and is composed of pink granite
ii.of Vindhya and is composed of pink granite
iii.of Anaimudi and is composed of pink granite
f.The highest peak of Aravalli is
i.Guru -Sikhar
ii.AnaiMudi
iii.NandaDevi
g.Mount Girnar (1117m) is the highest point of the
i. Aravalli
ii. Gir Range
iii.Western Ghats
h.Yamuna originates from the.
i.Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas.
ii.Gangotri Glacier in the Himalayas
iii.Baltora Glacier in the Himalayas.
i.Two Peninsular Rivers which flow westwards and make
estuaries are
i.The Narmada and Betwa.
ii.The Narmada and Tapti
iii.The Narmada and Luni.
.Ganga turns to the south east and enters West -Bengal near
i.the Rajmahal Hills
ii.Satpura Hills
iii.Pareshnath Hillsmunotes.in
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644.Answer the Following Questions
1.Write the names of the ranges of the Himalayas.
2.Mention the names of the countries in which the Greater
Himalayas are situated.
3.Identify two purvanchal hills.
4.Write in short the origin of the Ganga Plain.
5.What are the salient features of the Sutlej Plain?
6.Describe Chhotanagpur Plateau.
7.Describe Malwa Plateau.
8.Compare the Ea stern and Western Coastal Plains.
9.Classify Western coastal Plains and describe each division.
10.Write the names of the major rivers of the Himalayas.
11.Describe the course of the Indus river.
12.What are the characteristics of the Himalayan rivers?
13.Compare the Himalayan and Peninsular rivers.
14.Write in short the Mechanism of Monsoon.
1.17. ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING
QUESTIONS .
1. a) True
1. (b) False, South to North.
1. (c) True1(d) True
1(e) false, Deccan Plateau.
1(f) false, 3200 km
1(g) false, Peninsular
1(h)True
1(i)false, western
1(j) true
1(k)false, Kutch
1.(l) true
1. (m) True
1. (n) False, West.
1. (o) True
1. (p) False, Yamuna
1.(q) False, Indus
1.(r) True
1.(s) False, Western Ghatsmunotes.in
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652 .a.Namcha Barwa
2. b.Indian plate
2. c. highest plateau of India
2.d. four parallel
2e. Jawahar tunnel
2.f. Bagar
2.g.“Bet”
2.h.Anai -Mudi (Nilgiris),
2.i. Aravallis
2. j. short, deltas
2.k. submergent .
2 .l.second
2. m. Dhulian
2. n.Brahmaputra
2.o. peninsular uplands four parallel
2.p .r a i ns h a d o w
3. a.i.
3.b.iii
3.c.i.
3.d.i
3.e.ii.
3.f.i.
3.g.ii
3. h.i.
3. i.ii
3.j.i.
1.18. TECHNICAL WORDS:
1.Pass : It is a natural gap or a route between a ridges, hill.
2.Range : large landmass consisting of mountains, ridges and
peaks.
3.Peak :h i g h e s tp o i n to rt i po fa mountain range.
4.Valley : a depression or a flat land between two elevated areas.
5.Dun:L o n g i t u d i n a lv a l l e y se x i s t i n gb e t w e e nH i m a c h a la n d
Siwaliks.
6.Emergence -Coastline of emergence is formed either by an
uplift of the land or by the lowering of the sea l evel. Coastline of
submergence is an exact opposite case.munotes.in
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667.Atributary is the river that meets the main river. Its base level
is higher than the main river
8.A distributary is a small river that branches out from the main
river and then never meets it again
9.River system –It is a river along with its tributaries.
10.Estuary -An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along
the coast where fresh water from rivers and streams meets and
mixes with salt water from the ocean. Estuaries and the lands
11.Ferrel’s L aw–states that winds in the northern hemisphere are
deflected to the right of its course.
1.19. TASK
1.Ina map of India show the different ranges of Himalaya from
south to north.
2.In a chart compare the characteristics of Western coastal plain
andeastern coastal plain.
3.In a map of India point out
(i)Nanga Parbat and ii. Nanda Devi
4.Ina map of India show the different river systems of the
Himalaya
5.In a chart compare the characteristics of Northern and Southern
rivers of India.
6.In a map of India point o ut
i.River Kaveri and ii. River Narmada
7.In a map of India show the two branches of South West
Monsoon.
1.20. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
Economic and Commercial Geography of India by Sharma &
Coutinho
Geography of India -Majid Husain
Oxford School Atlas -Oxford
Certificate Physical and Human Geography -Goh Cheng Leong
Economic and Commercial Geography of India by C.B. Mamoria
A Geography of India by Gopal Singh
Resources: Economical Geography -A Study of Resources by
Guha and Chat toraj (NCERT books).munotes.in
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67Physical Geography by Strahler & Strahler
Principles of Geomorphology by W.D. Thornbury
Physical Geography -Made Simple, Rupa Publisher
Physical Geography in Diagrams by Bunnett
Physical Geography by Savindra Singh
Geomorphology by Savindra Singh
Climatology by D.S.Lal
General Climatology by Critchfield
Physical Geography -Made Simple, Rupa Publisher.
munotes.in
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682
SOIL AND FOREST OF INDIA
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features.
Unit Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Subject -Discussion
2.4 Soils of India
2.5 Forest of India
2.6 Summary
2.7 Check your Progress/ Exercise
2.8 Answers to the self learning questions.
2.9 Technical words and their meaning
2.10 Task
2.11 References for further study
2.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
understand the characteristics of Indian soil
know the classification and distribution of soils of India
understand the problems of Indian soil
know the methods of soil conservation
understand the Functions of forests
know about the classification and distribution of Indian forest
know about the prob lems of Indian forestry
understand the National Forest Policy
2.2. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will discuss on the followings
1.The characteristics of Indian soil, and its classification
2.The distribution of soils of India will also be studied.
3.Problems of Indian soil and different methods of soil
conservation have also been taken into consideration.munotes.in
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694.After soil comes Functions of forest, its classification and
distribution in India.
5.Problems of Indian forestry and National Forest Policy are
anoth er important feature which has been discussed in this
chapter.
2.3. SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Soil can be simply defined as a mixture of small rock
particles/debris and organic materials/ humus which develop on the
earth surface and support growth of plants. In dia has a wide variety
of land, rock, climate and natural vegetation and hence presents a
large variety of soils. Major classification of Indian soils
include, Alluvial soil, Red soil, Black or regur soil, Arid or desert
soil, Laterite soil, Saline soil, Peaty or marshy soil, Forest soil,
Mountain soil.
Indian soils suffer from a number of problems like, soil
erosion, fertility loss, desertification, water logging, salinity and
alkalinity, wasteland, urbanisation and trans port development, and
interferen ce of man. Various methods have been followed to
conserve soil degradation.
On the other hand, forests constitute an essential natural
heritage. They are important economic assets, and essential for
sustaining the global environment. Forests provide a wide range of
goods, such as food, wood and fibre. The ecosystem services,
such as climate regulation, water catchment protection, poverty
reduction, spiritual fulfilment and aesthetic enjoyment are also
some important functions of forest. Everyone depends on these
goods and services, and many millions depend on forest -based
employment for their livelihoods.
Depending on the climatic zones or location of the continents
they have a wide variety of growth and hence are classified into
different categories. T his chapter is going to present a complete
idea on the different types of forests of India.
2.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOIL
India has a wide variety of land, rock, climate and natural
vegetation hence exhibits a large variety of soils. Soil is our prime
natural and economic resource. Soils in India differ in compositionmunotes.in
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70To analyse the characteristics of Indian s oil, it has been divided
it into two essentially different sets, i.e.
(1) North Indian soil and
(2) Peninsular or South Indian Soil .
Fig: India showing Types of soilmunotes.in
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711.North Indian Soil
Features of North Indian Soil are as follows:
Soils of the Great Plains of India are transported and deposited.
The Northern India plains are mostly formed of deep alluvial
soil.
The topsoil varies in texture from sand to clay, the greater part
being light loam, porous in texture, easily worked and naturally
fertile.
The great depth of the alluvium keeps down the soil
temperature.
This soil is supposed to be naturally very rich in the plant -
nourishing food, and is consequently very good for our rabi and
kharif crops.
Level plains, formed by this soil, have enabl ed the easy
construction of railways and a network of canals.
Last but not the least, the level character of the plains facilitates
a more even distribution of rainfall in Northern India, having no
barriers to check the flow of the monsoon currents.
2.Peninsular or South Indian Soil
Features of South Indian Soil are as follows:
The soils in the Peninsular India are the soils formed by the
decomposition rocks in situ.
The hilly tracts are naturally unsuitable for cultivation.
Some highlands are very hot.
The river valley, are suitable for agriculture.
The soil in the valleys is deeper, cooler and moisture retaining.
In the rains, some of these tracts become sticky, in the dry
weather hard and crumby, holding the moisture at lower levels.
Millets and puls es are well grown in slopes.
Thicker, dark -coloured, and more fertile valleys are rich in
chemical properties favourable for plant life, and are very
suitable for cotton, wheat, linseed and other rabi and kharif
crops.munotes.in
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723.Rest of India
The rest of the I ndian soils cannot be grouped under any
one head. Lowlands are sufficiently fertile and grow products like
rice. Soils of Coastal India are composed of sediments deposited
by rivers and the waves.
2.5. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS OF INDIA
The Indian Agriculture Research Institute has divided
the soils of the country into 27 types according to their colour,
texture, mineral matter and retentive capacity of moisture.
However, for the convenience of the discussion, the Soils in India
are classified into the followin g10 categories:
Major classifications of Indian soils are as follows:
1. Alluvial soil [46%]
2. Red soil [18.5%]
3. Black / regur soil [15%]
4. Arid / desert soil
5. Laterite soil
6. Saline soil
7. Peaty and Marshy soil
8. Mountain Soil
9. Terai Soil
10. Alpine Grassland soil
1.Alluvi al Soils:
Alluvial soil is the mostly available soil in India (about 46%)
which covers an area of 143 sq. km.
They are depositional soil, as they are transported and
deposited by rivers, waves etc. and is fine grained.
It is widespread in northern plains and river valleys. In
peninsular -India, they are mostly found in deltas and estuaries.
Indus -Ganga -Brahmaputra plain, Narmada -Tapti plain etc are
the regions where alluvial soil is mostly found.
Humus, lime and organic matters are present. This type of so il
is highly fertile.munotes.in
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73New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed
asBhangar .
Colour ofalluvial soil:Light Grey to Ash Grey.
Texture ofalluvial soil:Sandy to silty loam or clay.
Sand content decreases from west to east of the country.
Rich in: potash
Poor in: phosphorous.
Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed etc are
cultivated mainly.
These soils are renewed every year.
Alluvial soils are of two types :
a) Riverine Alluvial Soils: formed by the deposition of silt,
sand and clay in the river valleys. These are two types: New
alluvium soil or Khadar and Old alluvium soil or Bhangar .
b) Coastal Alluvial Soils: these types of soils are formed by
the deposits of sea waves. It is rich in sa nd and salt. It is
moderately fertile.
2. Red Soil
Formation : Red soils in India are mainly formed due to the
decomposition of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks like
granites and gneisses and from rock types rich in minerals such as
iron and magnesium .. It is red in colour because of ferric oxide.
Area covered: This soil covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, S.E. Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh,
parts of Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand.
Nature of the soil : Seen mainly in l ow rainfall area. These soils
have a mixture of sand and clay. Red Soil is generally deficient in
nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in potash. Red soil is
porous. It is deficient in lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen,
humus and potash. Texture is sandy to clay and loamy.
Influence on Agriculture : They are relatively less fertile, but are
capable of growing good crops with the help of irrigation and
fertilizers. It is suitable for rice, wheat, millet, gram, pulses,
sugarcane, oilseeds, tobacco and vegetables and cotton. Also
groundnuts and potatoes are cultivated on these soils at higher
elevationsmunotes.in
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743. Black Soil / Regur Soil:
Black soils are black in colour owing to high content of
humus, calcium, magnesium, carbonate and iron oxide. These are
made u po fv o l c a n i cr o c k sa n dl a v a -flow. It is concentrated over
Deccan Lava Tract which includes parts of Maharashtra,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu. As they are most suited for raising cotton crops, they
are known as Blac k-Cotton Soils. Locally, they are known as Regur
Soils. (Regur means cotton) .It is a mature soil and has high water
retaining capacity. It swells and becomes sticky when wet and
shrink when dried. These soils are clayey in t exture and contain
mineral subs tances. These are also r ichinIron, lime, calcium,
potassium, aluminium and magnesium and d eficient innitrogen,
Phosphorous and organic matter. These soils are fertile and
suitable for the production of cotton, jowar, sugarcane, wheat and
groundnut. Oran ges, onion and green skinned bananas grow here
in abundance.
4. Laterite Soil:
Formation :Laterite Soils are formed due to in tense
leaching. They occupy the slopes of the mountains of peninsula, in
the Vindhyas, the Eastern Ghats, and the southern portion of
Western Ghats. They are commonly found in Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Chotanagpur, Karnataka and hilly
areas of Orissa and Assam. They are red in colour and coarse with
ah i g hc o n t e n to fi r o n -oxides. It becomes soft when wet and hard
when dried. It is rich in iron and aluminium but d eficient innitrogen,
potash, potassium, lime and humus. Agriculture is practised only by
the application of fertilizer and irrigation water. Rice, Ragi,
Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are cultivated mainly. Ot her than
these, rubber, tea, coffee etc. are also grown in some areas.
5.Desert Soils:
These soils are formed due to scarcity of rainfall and
excessive evaporation in arid and semi -arid regions in India. Desert
Soils are found in the desert regions of R ajasthan, where soils are
not well developed. It is also found in the southern parts of the
Punjab and Rann of Kutch. As evaporation exceeds rainfall, the soil
has a high salt content and saline layer forms a hard crust. These
soils contain coarse brown sa nds and are very porous having low
nitrogen and humus content. Desert soil lacks moisture and humus.
In this type of soil kankar or impure calcium carbonate content is
high which restricts the infiltration of water. It has a sandy and
relatively coarse texture as the fine top soils are blown away bymunotes.in
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75winds. These soils are not suitable for agriculture due to scanty
rainfall. However, agriculture can be carried on with the help of
irrigation. Bajra, jowar, wheat, oilseed, ground nut can be grown on
these soils.
6. Saline and Alkaline Soils
In the drier parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab,
Rajasthan and Maharashtra alkaline soils are found. It is known by
different names: Reh, Kallar, Usar, etc. The accumulation of salts
makes the soil infertil ea n dr e n d e r si tu n f i tf o r agriculture .
7. Peaty and Marshy soil
Peaty and Marshy soils, contain considerable amounts of
soluble salts and 10 –40% of organic matter. Peaty soils are found
in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called
Kari. Marshy soils are found in a reas of heavy rainfall and high
humidity like N orthern Bihar, coastal parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu
and West Bengal and parts of U.P. Al a r g eq uantity of dead organic
matter/humus makes the soil alkaline. Growth of vegetation is less
in this soil.
8. Mountain Soil:
a) These soils are formed as a result of the accumulation of
organic matter derived from forest growth. The remains of the
leaves of tr ees enrich the soil with humus. They are found in the
mountain regions of the country, i.e. Himalayan region. These soils
vary in different regions according to altitude. Mountain Soil is
immature soil with low humus and acidic. These soils are of various
types such as Brown soils, Podzols, etc. They are fertile and
suitable for cultivation of potatoes, rice, wheat, fruits and tea. These
are good for the growth of Oak trees. Tea is grown in those areas
which receive sufficient rainfall. Very good for orchar dc r o p .T h e r e
are two types Mountain Soil, a. Forest Soils b.Glacial Soil
9. Tarai Soils:
These soils are found on the foot -hill regions of the
Himalayas in India and are composed of gravels and coarse
grained sand. They are popularly known as ‘bhabar’.
10. Alpine Grassland Soils:
These soils are found on higher altitudes of the Himalayas
where alpine grasses grow. These soils are acidic and are of
medium fertility. On these soils barley, maize, potatoes and wheat
are grown.munotes.in
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762.6. PROBLEMS OF SOILS IN INDIA
The problems of Indian Soils are discussed below:
1.Soil Erosion -
The removal of the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust either by
physical causes or by anthropogenic causes is known as soil
erosion.
The main agents of soil erosion are water, wind, sea -waves,
glaciers, and shifting cultivation among which water is the most
important and pronounced one. Lakhs of tons of fertile soil are
washed away by running water due to heavy downpour
during rainy sea sons.
Water erosion may be classified under three categories like
surface erosion, rill erosion and gully formations. For example
prominent gully erosion is viewed in the Chambal valley in
Madhya Pradesh.
On the other hand in arid and semi -arid regions o fn o r t h -western
India, loose particles of top soil are blown by wind.
The adverse effects of soil erosion are reflected in the
following points :
1.Erosion of top soil leads to loss of soil fertility and fall in
agricultural productivity.
2.Flooding and leaching result in loss of mineral nutrients.
3. Ground water level is lowered and there is decrease in soil
moisture.
4.With the drying up of Natural vegetation cover, arid lands
expand.
5.Frequency and intensity of floods and drought increases.
6.Rivers, canals and tanks are silted and their water holding
capacity decreases.
7.The incidence and damaging power of landslides increases.
8.Economy as a whole suffers a great setback.
2.Declining Soil Fertility:
India being an agricultural country soil is utilised for
cultivation since time immemorial. Multiple cropping without
fallowing the agricultural land is practised for centuries. But the
natural fertility of soil is declining very fast. The unscientific rotation
of crops (wheat and rice) ove r several decades has depleted the
soil fertility in the Great Plains of India substantially. The cultivationmunotes.in
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77of leguminous crops after a soil exhaustive crop can improve the
soil fertility affected regions.
3.Water -Logging:
When the water table rises to the extent, that soil pores in the
root zone of a crop become saturated that area is said to be
waterlogged. This results in the restriction of normal circulation of
the air, decline in the level of oxygen, and an increase in the level
of carbon dioxide. Water logging has affected substantial tracts of
land along the Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan) and the canals of
Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh. Water logged areas may be
reclaimed by adequate development of drainage and l ining of the
canals to reduce water seepage.
4.Soil salinity and alkalinity
Soil salinity and alkalinity are found in the relatively less rainfall
recording areas where the rate of evaporation is generally higher
than the rate of precipitation. Cultivation is not possible on saline
soils unless they are flushed out with large quantities of irrigation
water to leach out the salts. So, when soil fertility is reduced it
results in crop failure.
5.Desertification:
The spread of desert like conditions in arid or semi -arid areas
due to man’s influence or climatic change may be defined as
desertification. The process of desertification is attributed to various
causes like uncontrolled grazing, reckless felling of trees and
growing population and climate changes.
6.Urbanisation and Trans port Development
Due to urbanization, water holding capacity of the soil
decreases and runoff rate increases which in turn led to soil
erosion.
7.Interference of Man:
Human activity on the earth’s surface is known to cause soil
degradation ten times more than naturally occurring processes.
Agriculture and construction are the two ways in which humans
cause erosion. Construction when unnecessarily conducted can be
quite damaging to soil. Agriculture is also another cause of erosion
because humans move the top soil and make it prone to erosion.
Over -fertilization of soils used for agricultural and horticultural
purposes is a growing environmental concern.
2.7. METHODS OF SOIL CONSERVATION
Soil conservation includes all those measures which help in
protecting the soil from erosion and exhaustion. Several Methods ofmunotes.in
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78Soil conservation have been adopted in India. More than 40 million
hectares of land in India have been reclaimed from water erosion,
wind erosion and gully erosion. Raindrop erosion has been
checked by creating grassland cover. Following methods are
generally adopted for soil conservation:
Afforestation: Thebest waytoconserve soilistoincrease area
under forests .By afforestation soil erosion may be checked as the
trees keep the soil tight with their roots. In this method unplanned
cutting of trees has also been checked.
Checking Overgrazing :Overgrazing offorests andgrass lands
byanimals, especially bygoats and sheep, should beproperly
checked, because animals grazing freely inthefields spoil thesoil
bytheir hoofs leading tosoilerosion.
Scientific methods of cultivation: This method has been
implemented in a number of areas to check soil erosion by
unscientific cultivation. Contour farming is also introduced.
Educating the tribal people :T oc h e c ks o i le r o s i o nb y Jhum
cultivation , a programme of educating the tribal people has been
taken by the govt. of India.
Changes in our agricultural practices: We can save lot of our
valuable soil by bringing about certain changes in our agricultural
practices such as (i) Crop Rotation, (ii) Strip Cropping, iii.)Use
of Early Maturing Variet ies seed, (iv) Contour Ploughing, (v)
Terracing and Contour Bunding, (vi) Checking Shifting
Cultivation, (vii) Ploughing the Land in Right Direction.
Ploughing the Land in Right Direction : Ploughing the land in
a direction perpendicular to wind direction also reduces wind
velocity and protects the top soil from erosion.
One of the important methods of Soil Conservation planned in
India is to check wind erosion by planting of trees in the opposite
direction of the wind.
Planned development of roads and railway: With the help of
planned development of roads and railway, injudicious removal of
soil has been checked in India.
Constructing Dams: constructing dams across the rivers
checks the speed of water and saves soil from erosion .munotes.in
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792.8. FOREST OF INDIA
Definition of Forest: Forests are one of the most important natural
resources of the earth and about 1/3rd of the earth’s total area is
covered by the same. In India 02% of the country's geographical
area is now under green cover (as per 2009 data) whereas the total
forest cover in India is 6,90,899 km2. Sustainably managed forests
fulfil a range of functions to the benefit of both man and nature.
Forests are not only important as supplier so fw o o db u ta l s op l a ya
vital role as protectors of soil, water, and climate. Forest’s role as a
protector flora and fauna is important too. As areas for recreation
and relaxation for human beings, forests are indispensable.
Functions of Forests : The functions of forest may broadly
classified into following categories:
1.Protective Function -Forest provide protection against Soil
erosion, Droughts, Floods, Noise, Radiations
2.Productive Function –Forest provide various products like,
gum, resins, medic ines, katha, honey, pulp, bamboo, timber, and
fruits
3.Regulative Function –The Forest regulates the level of
Oxygen and carbon dioxide in atmosphere. The forests also help in
regulating temperature conditions
4.Accessory Function -Forest provides aestheti cs, habitat to
various flora and fauna besides that it also has a recreational value.
Fig: functions of forestmunotes.in
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802.9. CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTS IN INDIA
Introduction :
India has ad i v e r s er a n g eo ff o r e s t s , from the rainforest of
Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures of Ladakh in the north in
one hand and from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to the
evergreen forests in the northeast on the other. While classifying
the forests into different types, the main factors that have been
taken into consider ation include soil type, topography, and
elevation .
Primarily, there are 5 major groups, namely :
1) Tropical Evergreen Forests
2) Tropical Deciduous Forests
3) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
4) Montane Forests
5) Mangrove Forests
Fig: Types of vegetation in Indiamunotes.in
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811)TROPICAL EVERGREEN FORESTS
Characteristics:
These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas receiving
more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season.
The areas include are the Western Ghats and the island
groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar, upper parts of
Assam and Tamil Nadu coast.
Thetrees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above.
Since the region is warm and wet throughout the year, it has a
luxuri ant vegetation of all kinds –trees, shrubs, and creepers
giving it a multilayered structure.
There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves. As such,
these forests appear green all the year round.
Some of the commercially important trees of th is forest are
ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona.
The common animals found in these forests are elephants,
monkey, lemur and deer. The one horned rhinoceros are found
in the jungles of Assam and West Bengal. Besides these
animals plenty of bir ds, bats, sloth, scorpions and snails are
also found in these jungles.
2)Tropical Deciduous Forests or Monsoon Forest
Characteristics:
These are the most widespread forests of India.
These forests are found in the region receiving rainfall
between 200cm and 70 cm.
Trees of this forest -type shed their leaves for about six to eight
weeks in dry summer.
On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further
divided into:
a.Moist Deciduous And
B.Dry Deciduous
a.Moist Deciduous -
This type of forest is found in areas receiving rainfall between
100 and 200 cm
These forests exist mostly in the eastern part of the country –
north eastern states, along the foothills of the Himalayas,
Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern
slopes of the Western Ghats. munotes.in
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82Teak is the most dominant species of this forest. Bamboos,
sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun, mulberry are
other commercially important species.
b.Dry Deciduous .
The dry deciduous forests are found in areas having rainfall
between 100 cm and 70 cm .
These forests are found in the rainier parts of the pe ninsular
plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neemare the important species that grow in
these forests.
Thecommon animals found here are lion, tiger, pig, deer and
elephant. A huge variety of birds, lizards, snakes, and t ortoises
are also found here.
3. THE THORN FORESTS AND SCRUBS
Characteristics:
The natural vegetation consists of thorny trees and bushes in
the regions which receive less than 70 cm of rainfall.
This type of vegetation is found in the north -western pa rt of the
country including semi -arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant
species.
Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into
thesoil in order to get moisture. The stems are succulent to
conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize
evaporation. These forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs
in arid areas.
In these forests, the common animals are rats, mice, ra bbits,
fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and camels.
4. MONTANE FORESTS
Characteristics:
In mountainous areas, temperature decrease with the increase
in altitude. This leads to the corresponding change in natural
vegetation also.
As a result, a su ccession of natural vegetation belts in the same
order is observed from the tropical to the tundra region.
The classification of Montane forests are as follows:
a.The wet temperate type of forests –
These are found between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres.munotes.in
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83b.Evergreen broad -leaf trees -
Between 1500 and 3000 metre trees like oaks and chestnuts
predominate.
c.Temperate forests –
These types of forests contain coniferous trees like pine,
deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar.
These forests cover mostly the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, places having high altitude in southern and north -
east India.
d.Temperate grasslands -
These are common at higher elevations.
e.Alpine vegetation –
At high altitudes, more than 3,600 metres above sea -level,
exists the Alpine vegetation.
Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common trees of
these forests. However, they get progressively stunted as they
approach the snow -line.
f.Alpine grasslands –
By gaining altitude and through shrubs and scrubs, Alpine
vegetation merges into th eA l p i n eg r a s s l a n d s .
These are used extensively for grazing by nomadic tribes like
the Gujjars and the Bakarwals.
g.Tundra Vegetation –
At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of tundra
vegetation.
The common animals found in these forests are Kashmir stag,
spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak,
snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare
red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.
5.MANGROVE FORESTS
Characteristics:
The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts
influenced by tides.
Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the
plants submerged under water.
The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishana, the
Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such vegetation.
In the Ganga -Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found,
which provide durable hard timber.munotes.in
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84Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the
delta.
Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests.
Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and sna kes are also found in these
forests.
The various types of forests in India as recognised by
Champion are discussed below:
Champion (1936) recognized 13 major types of forest in
India .
Champion and Seth (1968) recognized sixteen types of
forest which a re listed below.
The following types of forests are found in India which
covers nearly 17 per cent of the total area of Indian territory.
1. TROPICAL FOREST:
A great majority of the forests found in India are of this type.
Tropical forests are of two typ es
(A) Tropical moist forests.
(B) Tropical dry forests.
(A). Tropical moist forests :
These are further classified into the following types on the basis of
relative degree of wetness:
(i)Tropical moist evergreen forests,
(i) Tropical moist semi -evergreen forests, and
(iii) Tropical moist deciduous forests.
(iv) Littoral and swamp forests include the following types:
a.Beach forests
b.Tidal forests or Mangrove forests
c.Fresh water swamp forests.
(B). Tropical dry forests. These are classified into the following
three types:
I.Tropical dry evergreen forests,
II.Tropical dry deciduous forests, and
III.Tropical thorn forests.munotes.in
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852. SUBTROPICAL MONTANE FORESTS:
These forests are found in the region of fairly high rainfall but where
temperature differences between winter and summer are less
marked.
I.Wet hill broad leaved forests,
II.Dry evergreen forests, and
III.Pine forests.
3. TEMPERATE MONTANE FORESTS:
These forests occur in the Himalayas at the altitude from
1800 to 3800 metres where humidity and temperature are
comparatively low.
Montane forests have been classified into the following three
types on the basis of moisture regime:
I.Montane Wet temperate forest,
II.Himala yan Moist temperate forest, and
III.Himalayan Dry temperate forest
1.SUB-ALPINE FORESTS:
The sub -alpine forests are found throughout Himalayas from
Ladakh in the west to Arunachal in the east at the altitude from
2800 m to 3800 m.
Champion (1939) has recogniz ed the following two types of
forests in sub -alpine zone :
(a) Sliver Fir -Birch forests which are found on glacial moraines
(b) Birch -Rhododendron forests which grow on rocky substrata.
5. ALPINE FORESTS:
Alpine vegetation has been classified into the following three
types:
I.Alpine forests,
II.Moist Alpine scrubs, and
III.Dry Alpine scrubs.munotes.in
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862.10. PROBLEMS FACED BY THE INDIAN FORESTRY
Although Indian subcontinent exhibit varied types of forests
ranging from the rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine
pastur es of Ladakh in the north and from the deserts of Rajasthan
in the west to the evergreen forests in the northeast, it face a
number of problems which are both natural and manmade. Here
one point must be noted that India has 99 National Parks, 513 wild -
lifesanctuaries and 14 Biosphere Reserves.
The main problems faced by the Indian Forestry are stated
under:
1.Inadequate andDwindling Forest Cover:
The forest cover in India is only 21 per cent as against the world
average of about 35 per cent. It is noted that the National
Forest Policy of India 1952 , has recommended that the overall
desired forest area in India should be 33 per cent (25 per cent in
plains and 60 per cent in hilly regions) of the total geographical
area of the country.
Unequal Distribution -The distribution of forests is uneven. On
the one side, in Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Assam and M.P.,
about 33% area is under forests. In the mor ep o p u l a t e da r e a s
like Punjab, only 5% forest area.
Vast forest tracts have been cleared for agriculture ,a n di n
this case Shifting Cultivation in the wet mountainous regions of
the country, has played a pivotal role.
Over grazing is very much responsib le for serious damage to
forests.
2.Low Productivity:
Productivity of Indian forests is very low as compared to some
other countries. For example, annual productivity of Indian
forest is only 0.5 cubic metres per hectare while it is 1.25 cubic
metres per hectare in the USA, 1.8 cubic metres per hectare in
Japan and 3.9 cubic metres per hectare in France.
The reasons for low productivity are as follows:
a.Uneven distribution and inaccessibility of forest causes
difficulty in exploitation of the same.
b.Uncontrolled felling, without regenerating the forest covers
through compensatory forestry, is still primitive and indigenousmunotes.in
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87in most of the forests. This damages the ecosystem, leads to
more soil erosion and delays the regeneration of forests.
c.Lack of pr oper transport and infrastructure facilities.
d.Over -utilisation due to unregulated grazing.
e.Depletion o f forests through fire is the result of inadequate
protection against forest fire.
f.Lack of protection also lies in insects, pests and plant diseases.
g.Poor and unscientific methods of felling, fashioning and
seasoning.
h.Unscientific economic activities like slash and burn manner
of agriculture which destroy the fragile forest cover of slopes.
i.Reliance on static conservancy , i.e., natural growth, rather
than regenerating through Afforestation.
j.Lack of information on forest resources and inadequate
research facilities.
k.Degradation of forest covers due to industrial and irrigation
projects, illegal felling or ‘ poaching’ etc.
l.There are inadequate trained personne l in forestry.
3.Nature ofForests andtheir Uneconomical Utilisation:
The forests are thick, inaccessible, slow growing and lack in
gregarious stands in many parts of the country. These factors make
their utilization uneconomical because there is a good deal of
wastage and this makes it very expensive in spite of the cheap
labour available in India.
4.Lack ofTransport Facilities:
About 16 per cent of the forest land in India is inaccessible
and does not have proper transport facilities.
The major product of the forests is timber which is cheap
but a bulky commodity. So, it cannot afford high freights charged by
the railways and roadways. Therefore, Indian forests cannot be
economically exploited without the availability of cheap and effi cient
transport facilities.
5.Forest Fires:
Large tracts of vegetal cover are destroyed every year by forest
fires.
Forest fires in India are most destructive in dry season.
Insufficiency of properly trained personnel is a big handicap.munotes.in
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886.Plant Diseases, Insects andPests:
Large tracts of forest cover suffer from plant diseases,
insects and pests which lead to considerable loss of forest wealth.
For example, thousands of hectares of sal forests in Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh are being threate ned by sal borer for
which no remedial measures have been adopted so far.
7.Obsolete Methods ofLumbering andSawing:
In most of the Indian forests, obsolete methods of lumbering,
sowing etc. are practised. This system leads to a lot of wastage and
low forest productivity.
8.Lack ofCommercial Forests:
In India most of the forests are meant for protective
purposes and commercial forests are badly lacking.
9.Lack ofScientific Techniques:
Only natural growth of forests takes place in India whereas
in many developed countries new scientific techniques are being
used through which tree growth is quickened.
10.Undue Concessions toTribals andLocal People:
In vast forest tracts, tribals and local people have been
granted customary rights and concessions for free -grazing as well
as removing timber fuel and minor forest products. They are also
allowed to continue with age -old shifting cultivation.
11.Growing Demand for Agricultural Land
With the tremendous increase in population during the last 50
years, the demand for cereals and agricultural raw materials has
increased significantly.
12. Urbanisation and Industrialisation
Fast urbanisation and industrialisation in the forest and hilly
areas has also caused forest degradation. Hill stations like Shimla,
Mussoorie, Dehra -Dun, Nainital, Ranikhet, Chamba, Dalhousie, etc.
has increased over ten times during the last thirty years at the cost
of the natural vegetation.
13. Construction of M ulti-Purpose Projects
The construction of reservoirs of big dams like Bhakra -
Nangal, Rihand, Hirakud, Tehri, Sardar -Sarovar, etc. has resulted
in the submergence of large forest tracts.
14. Commercial Activities
Commercial activities like resin extracti on, mining, quarrying,
oil-extraction, plantation, orchard development have also led to
large scale deforestation.munotes.in
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8915.Low perAcre Productivity -Theperacre productivity offorest
islow.Itis1/10 ofFrance, 1/21 ofJapan and1/6ofUSA.
16.Low PerCapita Forest Area -The percapita forest area in
India is0.2hectare, which isvery low due torapid growth of
population.
Remedies:
The following remedial measures may be suggested against the
problems faced by the Indian forestry: -
1.Intensive development schemes for afforestation should be
adopted. High yielding varieties should be planted in suitable
areas.
2.Improved techniques of logging and extraction should be used.
3.Proper transport facilities should be provided to remote and
inaccessible fo rest areas.
4.Saw mills should get uninterrupted power supply.
5.Latest techniques of seasoning and preservation are necessary
to avoid wastage.
6.Proper arrangements to save forests from fires and plant
diseases can go a long way to solve several problems.
7.A thorough inventory of forest resources is necessary to make
an accurate assessment of our forest resources and make plans
for their proper use.
8.Shifting cultivation should be discouraged and tribals depending
on this type of cultivation should be provided wi th alternate
sources of livelihood.
9.People associated with forest protection should be properly
trained.
2.11. THE NATIONAL FOREST POLICY OF INDIA
Introduction:
Very few countries in the world have forest policy. India is
one of them having forest policy in operation since 1894 .T h ep o l i c y
was revised in 1952 and again in 1988 .
Since 1947 , India government has been quite concerned
about the necessity of developing forestry in the country. In 1950 ,
Van Mahotsava was inaugurated. Moreover, a Central Board of
Forestry was set up, to evolve an all India forest policy.munotes.in
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90There are two forest po licies in the history of Independent
India, 1952 and 1988.
National Forest policy of 1952:
According to the National Forest policy of 1952 ,i tw a s
decided to raise the area under forest upto 100 million hectares
steadily. This policy recommended that the country should aim
at coverage of one -third of the total land area under forest i.e.
60 per cent in hilly and mountainous areas, and 25 per cent in
the plains. It has suggested the extension of tree -lands on
river/canal banks, roads, railways, culturable w aste and in such
areas which are not suitable for cultivation.
To achieve this goal, it was necessary to reduce the long range
development of forest resources and meet the growing demand
for timber and firewood.
The National Forest Policy 1952 classified the Indian
forests into four categories:
1.Protected forests essential for physical and climatic needs.
2.National forests to be utilised for the economic needs of the
country.
3.Village forests to meet the fuel and domestic needs of villages
and neig hbouring towns.
4.Tree lands . The policy envisaged the annual organisation of
Van Mahotsava and tree plantation week in the month of July -
August.
The National Forest Policy 1952 lays emphasis on:
a)Weaning the tribal people by persuasion to desist from shifti ng
cultivation.
b)Implementation of forest laws more effectively as well as
awakening people’s Interest -The forest policy stressed that it
would be the duty of the forester to awaken the interest of the
people in the development, extension and establishment of tree
law wherever possible and to make them tree minded.
c)To provide adequate facilities for the management of forest
resources.
d)Tocontrol grazing of cattle, sheep and goats in forest areas.
e)Providing fuel -wood to rural areas.
f)To improve the availabili ty of timber wood for industrial
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91g)To increase the area under social forestry .
h)To promote research in forestry.
i)Indiscriminate Extension of Arable Land -It is advocated that
indiscriminate extension of land, through deforestation, should
be discour aged because it not only deprives the local population
of wood, grass, etc. but also deprives the land of its natural
defence.
The National Forest Policy 1988:
The main emphasis of the revised forest policy of 1988 is on
protection, conservation regeneration and development of
forests. According to the Forest Policy Resolution of 1988,
forest cover of country should not be less than 33% of the total
geographical area. Replacing old forest policy of 1952, Govt. Of
India announced new forest policy in December 1988.
The main points of the National Forest Policy 1988 are:
I.Maintenance of environmental stability through the
preservation and restoration of ecological balance.
II. Conservation of forests as a natural heritage with vast
varieties of flora and fauna.
III. Control of soil erosion and denudation in catchment
areas of rivers, lakes and reservoirs.
IV. Check on the extension of sand -dunes in desert areas of
Rajasthan and along sea -coasts.
V. Substantial in crease in forest cover through massive
afforestation and social forestry programmes.
VI. Tomeet the needs of fuel -wood, fodder and minor forest
products for the rural and tribal people.
VII. Augment the productivity of the forests to meet national
needs.
VIII. Encourage ment of efficient utilisation of forest produce
and optimum substitution of wood.
IX. Steps to create massive movement of people with the
involvement of women folk to achieve these objectives and
to minimise pressure on existing forests.
X. Involvement of people inforest management under joint
forest management.
XI. Withdrawing the System of Private Forest Contract -The
forest policy states to cancel totally the system of forest
contractors working in the forests.munotes.in
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92XII. This policy also stresses upon the need to distribut e the
minor forest products through state -run depots.
XIII. Discouraging Forest Based Industries -No forest based
enterprises would be permitted to establish in future unless
the projects have been cleared after a thorough assessment
of the availability of raw m aterials from the forests.
2.12. SUMMARY
Soil is a natural resource like water and minerals which
occurs on earth’s surface. It is the unconsolidated mineral and
organic matter mixed with liquids and gasses. It is a medium
capable of supporting growth of rooted plants and differs
substantially from the material from which it is derived. Its
composition includes inorganic material, organic material, water,
and air. The colour of soil varies from light yellow, red to black.
Each colour indicates the constitu ent of soil, like, Black: high
organic content, Yellow/red/orange: iron content, Light gray -white:
content calcium or silica.
The characteristics of soils result from the proportion of silt,
clay and sand, and the interactions with air, water and living things.
Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into various sizes
and shapes.
Although Natural vegetation, as the name goes grow
naturally, are considered as one of the most valuable gifts of
mother nature. Forests supply us fruits, timber, medicines, etc. from
the trees. They are found in different parts of the world, in different
climatic zones, different continents.
A wide range of natural vegetation grows in India and these
vary according to climate, soil and altitude. A study of the
distribution of the forests in India reveals that there is a marked
relation between the rainfall zones and their belts of natural
vegetation.
The principal types of natural vegetation in India: like (1)
Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests, (2) Dry and Wet Dec iduous Type
of Forests, (3) Semi Desert and Desert Vegetation, (4) Tidal or
Mangrove Forests and (6) Mountain Forests., have been discussed
in this chapter.
2.13. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1.True and false
a)Rill erosion in one kind of erosion in which the running water
makes finger -shaped grooves in the land.munotes.in
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93b)The Northern India plains are mostly formed of deep alluvial
soil.
c)Erosion of top soil increases soil fertility and agricultural
productivity.
d)Soil salinity and alkalinity are found in the h eavy rainfall
recording areas.
e)Low Mangrove Forests grow on soft tidal mud near estuaries,
which is flooded by salt water.
f)Tropical Evergreen Forests are restricted to very low rainfall
areas.
g)Fast urbanisation and industrialisation in the forest and hilly
areas has caused forest degradation.
4.Fill in the blanks :
a)Laterite soils are ___________ in colour and coarse with a high
content of ____________.
b)________erosion is significant in the arid and semi -arid areas.
c)New alluvium soil is known as _____________.
d)__________ is the most dominant species of dry deciduous
forest.
e)There are two forest policies in the history of Independent India,
__________ and _______.
5.Multiple choice question
a.Old alluvium soil is known as
I.Bhangar
II.Khadar
III.Bet
IV.Kankar
b.When the water table rises to the extent that soil pores in the
root zone of a crop become saturated, that area is said to be
I.alkaline
II.waterlogged
III.flooded
IV.wasteland
c.The soils that are formed by the deposits of sea waves are
known as
I.Mountain soils
II.Coastal Alluvial Soils
III.Riverine Alluvial Soils
IV.Red Soilsmunotes.in
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94d.Tropical moist semi -evergreen forests are found
I.along the eastern coasts, northern Orissa and upper Meghalaya
where annual rainfall is between 200 and 250 cm.
II.along the western coasts, eastern Assam and upper Bihar
where annual rainfall is between 200 and 250 cm.
III.along the eastern coasts, eastern Kerala and upper Assam
where annual rainfall is between 200 and 250 cm.
IV.along the western coa sts, eastern Orissa and upper Assam
where annual rainfall is between 200 and 250 cm.
2.14. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTION
1.What are the different types of soils found in India? Describe
any two of them.
2.What is soil erosion?
3.What methods have been taken into consideration to combat
soil erosion?
4.Write short notes on
a)Alluvial Soil
b)Black Soil
c)Mountain Soil
5.Describe in short the problems of water logging in Indian soil.
6.What are the effects of Gully erosion on Indian soil?
7.What are the major forest types of India? Describe any three of
them.
8.Write in short the problems faced by Indian forestry.
9.Write in short the aims of the National Forest Policy of 1988.
2.15. TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
1. Aggregates Soil -aggregates are soil ‘lumps’ of a range of
sizes.
2. Alluvium -Alluvium is a deposit made by a river or running
water. This leads to an ‘alluvial deposit’ forming in the water.
Alluvial soils are rich agricultural lands. Glaciers may also
deposit sedimentary material, see ‘glacial till’.
3. Erosion -Erosion i s the wearing away of land or soil through
one or more processes. The main causes of erosion include
the actions of water, wind translocation, and geological.munotes.in
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95Erosion can also be increased by poor land management such
as overgrazing, deforestation or inapp ropriate use of
mechanisation.
4. Humus -Organic matter, also called ‘humus’, forms from the
decay of leaves, plants and other life.
5. Loam -Loam is a soil which contains clay, silt and sand as
well as organic material. Keen gardeners love loam -it’s the
best soil for potting plants and growing seeds in the
greenhouse. Loamy soils are ideal also for agricultural crops.
6. Parent material -Soil parent material refers to the rocks which
were weathered to form the soil in the first place. Usually the
parent materi al is below the soil, but it can be distant if
glaciers translocated the soils during the ice ages. Parent
material is the focus of the study of geology.
7. Photosynthesis -Photosynthesis is a process in plant cells in
which the sun’s energy is used to join carbon dioxide and
water to make sugar, the food of green plants.
8. Pores -A soil pore is the hole in -between particles of soil that
can become filled with air or water.
9. Precipitation -Precipitation means water reaching the ground
from rainfall, snow and ha il.
10. Saline soil -Soil containing sufficient soluble salts to interfere
with plant growth.
11. Sand -That mineral fraction of the soil with particles from
0.063 -2.0 mm in diameter -fine sand: 0.063 -0.212 mm in
diameter -medium sand: 0.212 -0.6 mm in dia meter -coarse
sand: 0.6 -2.0 mm in diameter.
12. Sediment -Sediment is a deposit of ‘alluvium’ laid down in
water (such as lakes or the sea). Sediments can, over time,
form rocks such as chalk and limestone.
13. Soils Acidity -Most soils are of a pH from about 5 .5 to 8, this
is a large range but some soils can be pH 3 (see pH), which is
very acidic.
14. Topsoil -Topsoil is the surface layer of soil containing partly
decomposed organic debris, and which is usually high in
nutrients, containing many seeds. Topsoil is u sually a dark
colour due to the ‘organic matter’ present. In arable land,
‘topsoil’ refers to the soil down to plough depth.
15. Water holding capacity -Can the soil hold lots of water like a
sponge? If so it has a large ‘water holding capacity’. Soil
organic matter increases the water holding capacity. Pure
running sand has a low water holding capacity.munotes.in
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962.16. TASK
1.In a map of India show the major soil regions of India.
2.In a chart show the classification of Indian forest made by
Champion.
3.In a map of India show five major forests of India.
2.17. KEY TO THE ANSWER
1.a. true
1.b. true
1.c. false, leads to loss of soil fertility and agricultural productivity
1.d. false, relatively less rainfall areas
1.e. true
1.f. false, heavy rainfall
1.g. true
2.a.red, iron -oxides
2.b. Wind
2.c. Khadar
2.d.Teak
2.e.1952 and 1988.
3. a.i.
3.b.ii.
3.c.ii.
3.d.iv.
2.18. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
1.Economic and Commercial Geography of India by Sharma &
Coutinho
2.Geography of India -Majid Husain
3.Oxford School Atlas -Oxfor d
4.Economic and Commercial Geography of India by C.B. Mamoria
5.A Geography of India by Gopal Singh
6.Resources : Economical Geography -A Study of Resources by
Guha and Chattoraj (NCERT books)munotes.in
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977.Velayutham, M. and Pal, D. K., Classification, Indian. In
Encyclop edia of Soil Science (ed. Lal, R.), Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York, 2004, pp. 1 –3.
8.Vishwanath, B. and Ukil, A. C., Soil Map of India, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 1943.
9.Raychaudhari, S. P., Aggarwal, R. R., Datta Biswas, N. R.,
Gupta, S. P. and Thomas, P. R., Soils of India, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1963.
10.“Nature and Properties of Soils” by Braddy N.C
11.“Studies of Soils of India” by Govinda Raja n S.V. and Gopala
Rao K. H.G.
12.AF o r e s tH i s t o r yO fI n d i a :Richard P Tucker, Sage
Pub, 2011
13.Encyclopaedia of Forestry :Satyavir Singh, Anmol, 2006.
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3
AGRICULTURE, FISHERY, MINERALS
AND POWER RESOURCES OFINDIA
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand
the following features.
Unit Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Subject -Discussion
3.4 Agriculture
3.4.1 Land Utilisation
3.4.2 Characteristics and Problems of Indian Agriculture
3.4.3 Cropping Pattern
3.4.4 Livestock Resources
3.4.5 White Revolution
3.5 Fisheries
3.5.1 Development and distribution of Fisheries
3.5.2 Blue Revolution
3.5.3 Problems and solutions related to fishing
3.6 Major Minerel India Resources of
3.7 Power Resources of India
3.8 Summary
3.9 Check your Progress/ Exercise
3.10 Answers to the self learning questions.
3.11 Technical words and their meaning
3.12 Task
3.13 References for further st udy
3.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
Understand the characteristics and problems of Indian
agriculture, cropping pattern of Indian agriculture and livestock
resources
Understand the definition of Blue Revolution.munotes.in
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Know the Development and distribution of Fisheries
Understand Blue Revolution
Know the classification, distribution and problems Mineral
resources of India
Understand the classification, distribution and problems of
Power resources of India.
3.2. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will learn about Indian Agriculture,
Fisheries, Minerals and Power Resources. Agriculture is the
backbone of Indian economy and prosperity. India has a total land
area of approximately 328 million hectares. Mostly, land utilisation
statistics are obtainable for almost 93 % of the entire area that is
around 306 million hectares.
3.3. SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy .T o
maintain ecological balance there must be sustainable
development of agriculture sect ors. The 11th Five year plan (2007 -
2012) emphasizes that agricultural development is necessary for
rapid economic development of the country.
Most parts of India have subsistence agriculture, where the
Indian farmer owns a small piece of land. He cultiva tes the land and
grows crops with the help of family members.
Agriculture has to provide employment to a large section of
work force and has to feed the teeming millions.
In spite of the large scale expansion of irrigation facilities
since Independence ,o n l yo n e -third of the cropped area is provided
by perennial irrigation and the remaining two -third of the cropped
area has to bear the brunt of the vagaries of the monsoons. Indian
agriculture also faces various problems like, Fragmented land
holding, Irrigation problems, Seed problems, Sustainability
problems .
Multiplicity ofcropping systems has been one ofmain
features ofIndian agriculture and itisattributed torain fed
agriculture and prevailing socio -economic situations offarming
community.munotes.in
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India has numerous potentials in the fisheries sector like one
of the longest coastlines of the world at 7500km, which has helped
her to flourish in the field of fishery irrespective of several problems.
Moreover, India is rich in many mineral resources.
India’s power resources are also enviable.
3.4.AGRICULTURE
3.4.1.Land Utilization inIndia
Introduction:
Land use has been an important subject of geography since
the 1930s, when the first land utilization survey was carried out by
L. D. Stamp in Britain. The utilization of land depends upon physical
factors like topography, soil and climate as well as upon human
factors such as the density of population, duration of occupation of
the area, land tenure and technical levels of the people. Land use
pattern depending on such phenomenon is no exception in India
and relates to the physical characteristics of land, the institutional
and other resources framework like labour, capital available. All
these aspects are associated with the economic development.
1. Reporting and Non -Reporting Land
The land for which the data on classification of land -use is
available is known as Reporting Land. On the other hand, the
lands where no data is available are known as Non -Reporting
Lands.
2. Net sown area: Cropped area in the year under
consideration is called net sown area . Although there is not much
scope for increasing area under this category but an urgent need to
increase the net sown area to meet the food and other
requirements of rapidly increasing po pulation in India is always felt.
Around 1.3 % of the land is under fruit trees. Nearly 5 % of the land
falls in the category of uncultivated land which is cultivated once
every 2 to 3 years. The uncultivated lands are subsidiary lands and
are kept so to r e-establish their richness. Its use depends upon
high-quality and timely rains also. Madhya Pradesh has the largest
net sown area of 19.89 million hectares which is about 13.89 per
cent of the total reporting net sown area of India. Large parts of the
Satluj, Ganga plains, Gujarat plains, Kathiawar plateau
Maharashtra plateau and West Bengal basin have high proportion
of cultivated area. This is largely due to gentle slope of the land,
fertile alluvial and black soil, favourable climate, excellent irrigati on
facilities and high density of population. In contrast, mountainous
and hilly areas in the Himalayan region and some of the drier tracts
are not much suited to farming because of rugged topography,
unfavourable climate and infertile soils.munotes.in
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3. Area sown morethan once: Under this category, the area
is used to grow more than one crop in a year accounting for over
34. 3 per cent of the net sown area and 16.6 per cent of the total
reporting area of the country. This type of area comprises of land
with rich fer tile soils and regular water supply. Large tracts of the
Indo-Ganga plain in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and
in coastal regions have large percentage of area sown more than
once.
4. Forests: For a self -sufficient economy and accurate
ecological steadiness, at least one third of the total land area must
be kept under forests and natural vegetation but forested land in
India is far less in scientific norm. It should be noted that, 22.23 per
cent of forest land to the total reporting area is not su fficient for a
tropical country like India where about 33 per cent of the total land
should be under forests. Massive tree plantations and vigorous
restrictions on the reckless felling of trees is required to fulfil this
criteria,
5. Land notavailable forcultivation: Two types of land come
under this class i.e.
a. land put to non agricultural uses and b. barren and
unculturable waste.
Land put to non agriculturaluses includes land occupied by
villages, towns, roads, railways or under water i.e. rivers, lakes,
canals, tanks, ponds, etc. On the other hand the barren land
covers all barren and uncultivated lands in mountains and hill
slopes, deserts and rocky areas. Thes ea r e a sc a n n o tb eb r o u g h t
under plough except at high input cost with possible low returns.
The amount of this land has been variable right from 1950 -51 to
1999 -2000, the data for which are available.
6. Permanent pastures andother grazing lands:
The area s eparated as cultivable waste, has remained stationary at
around 6.4 % for several decades. Land under permanent pastures
is despondently low and suggests a remarkable population
pressure on the land. A total area of 11 million hectares is
devoted to perman ent pastures and other grazing lands. This
amounts to about 4 per cent of the total reporting area of the
country. Grazing takes place mostly in forests and other
uncultivated land wherever pasturage is available. About one -third
of the reporting area in Himachal Pradesh is under pastures. The
proportion varies from 4 to 10 per cent in Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Orissa. It is less
than 4 per cent in the remaining parts of the country.munotes.in
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7. Land under miscellaneous tree crops andgroves include
all cultivable land which is not included under net area sown, but is
put to some agricultural use .Land under casuarina trees, thatching
grass, bamboo, bushes, other groves for fuel, etc. are not included
under orchard but are classed under this category. Orissa has the
largest area of 7.74 lakh hectares in this category followed by Uttar
Pradesh (5.47 lakh hectares), Bihar (3.44 hectares), Karnataka (3 -
05 lakh hectares), Andhra Pradesh (2.43 lakh hectares), Assam
(2.36 lakh hectares) a nd Tamil Nadu (2.43 lakh hectares).
8. Culturable waste:
According to the “wasteland survey and reclamation committee”,
“culturable waste” is the land available for cultivation but not used
for cultivation for one reason or the other. Characteristics of
culturable waste is that, this land was used in the past but has been
abandoned at present due to such constraints as lack of water,
salinity or alkalinity of soil, soil erosion, water -logging, an
unfavourable physiographic position, or human neglect. Reh, bhu r,
usar, and khola tracts of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana as
well as in several other parts of the country were used for
agriculture in the past but had to be abandoned due to some
deficiencies in the soil resulting from faulty agricultural practices.
9. Fallow lands: Fallow lands include all that land which was
once used for cultivation but is temporarily out of cultivation. Fallow
land is of two type i.e., (a). current fallow -Fallow of one year is
called ‘current fallow’, (b). fallow other than curr ent fallow -fallow of
2 to 5 years is classified as ‘fallow other than current fallow’. Fallow
land is left uncultivated from 1 to 5 years to help soil recoup its
fertility in the natural way depending upon the nature of soil and the
nature of fanning. Th e largest area of over 2.5 million hectare of
‘fallow land other than current fallow’ is in Rajasthan followed by 1.4
million hectares in Andhra Pradesh and over one million hectares in
Maharashtra. The distribution of the current fallow on the other
hand presents a slightly different picture. Andhra Pradesh with
about 2.8 million hectares has the largest area as current fallow.
This is followed by over 2.6 million hectares in Rajasthan, 1.8
million hectares in Bihar, 1.4 million hectares in Karnataka, 1.08
million hectares in Tamil Nadu.
3.4.2. Characteristics and Problems of Indian Agriculture
Agriculture refers to all those activities which are related to
cultivation of land for the production of crops. India is essentially an
agricultural country where agriculture plays a pivotal role in
dominating the economic, social and cultural life of the people.
After independence in1947 ,t h e r eh a sb e e nap r o g r e s si na l l
fields of agricultural activities. More land has been brought undermunotes.in
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irrigation, use of fertilizers and pesticides has increased and high -
yielding varieties have been introduced in many parts of In dia.
Following are some of the broad characteristics and
problems of the Indian agriculture :
1. Subsistence agriculture:
Indian agriculture is subsistent type of agriculture whose
prime aim is to meet the food and other requirements of its vast
population .
The farmer owns a small piece of land grows crops with the
help of his family members and consumes almost the entire farm
produce. They select the crops with major objective of meeting their
domestic needs rather than generating surplus for national an d
international markets.
It is only in the controlled irrigated parts of the country like
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and Kaveri delta where
agriculture has become an agri -business or is market oriented.
2. Mixed Cropping
Mixed cropping, a characteristic of subsistent agriculture is a
common practice especially in the rain fed areas of India .The
farmers mix millets, maize and pulses in the kharif season and
wheat, gram and barley in the Rabi season. In the areas of shiftin g
cultivation, ten to sixteen crops are mixed and sown in the same
field.
3. Small and Fragmentation of holding:
Due to physical, economic and social factors the
landholdings are tiny, fragmented and not suitable for modern
methods of agriculture. The ma in reason for fragmented land
holdings is our inheritance laws, and other socio -cultural and
economic factors. The land belonging to the father is equally
distributed among his sons but this distribution does not entail a
collection or consolidated one, bu t its nature is fragmented. As a
result the holdings become smaller and more fragmented with each
passing generation. The problem of small and fragmented holdings
is more serious in densely populated and intensively cultivated
states like Kerala, West Beng al, Bihar and eastern part of Uttar
Pradesh where the average size of land holdings is less than one
hectare and in certain parts it is less than even 0.5 hectare.
Problems caused by Sub -division and fragmentation of the
holdings:
a)Low agricultural productivity and backward state of our
agriculture.munotes.in
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b)Al o to ft i m ea n dl a b o u ri sw a s t e di nm o v i n gs e e d s ,m a n u r e ,
implements and cattle from one piece of land to another.
c)Irrigation becomes difficult on such small and fragmented fields.
d)A lot of fertile agricultural land is wasted in providing
boundaries.
e)Under such circumstances, the farmer cannot concentrate on
improvement.
The only solution to this problem is the consolidation of
holdings which means the reallocation of holdings whic ha r e
fragmented, the creation of farms which comprise only one or a few
parcels in place of multitude of patches formerly in the possession
of each peasant.
4. Pressure ofpopulation onagriculture :Itis increasing at a
rapid pace with a rising trend in urbanization. About 70 per cent of
the coun try's population derives its livelihood from agricul ture and
allied occupations.
5. Predominance and over dependence on traditional
crops like rice and wheat:
Since Indian agriculture has to feed a large population, it has
the predominance of the cultivation of food grains so production of
food crops is the first priority of the farmers almost everywhere in
the country. These cereals include rice, wheat, millet, gram, maize
and pulses which are grown to me et the food require ments of
India's vast population (1027 millions in 2001). In both the Kharif
(summer) and the Rabi (winter) seasons, grain crops occupy the
greater proportion of the cropped area. In fact, rice, maize, millets,
bajra, ragi, and pulses a re the dominant crops in the kharif season,
and wheat, gram and barley occupy over three -fourth of the total
cropped area in the rabi season. Moreover, if the farm output is
skewed towards crops like rice, irrigation and ground water facilities
are misused by farmers, which lead to a host of other problems.
6. Variety of crops:
India is a vast country with varied types of relief, climate and
soil conditions. Therefore, there is a large variety of crops grown in
India. Both the tropical and temperate crops ar es u c c e s s f u l l yg r o w n
in India. Very few countries in the world have a variety of crops
comparable to that produced in India.
7. Primitive Technology and Importance ofanimals
Indian agriculture utilises a number of draught animals like
bullocks, he buffaloes, camels etc. in agricultural operations such
as ploughing, irrigation, threshing and transporting the agricultural
products. The health and efficiency of draught animals is low which
often retards the timely operations of sowing, weeding, andmunotes.in
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harvesting. Although the use of agricultural machinery is replacing
animal and human power but the pace of progress is very slow and
confined to rich sections of the cultivators.
8.Indian Agriculture is Labour Intensive; Lack of
mechanisation:
In India, agric ulture is a labour based enterprise in which
most of the agricultural operations, like ploughing, levelling, sowing,
weeding, spraying, sprinkling, harvesting, and threshing are carried
on mainly by human hands. The use of machinery is still confined
only to the rich farmers of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar
Pradesh, plains of Uttarakhand, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,
and Maharashtra. In spite of the large scale mechanisation of
agriculture in some parts of the country, most of the agricultural
opera tions in larger parts are carried on by human hand using
simple and conventional tools and implements like wooden plough,
sickle, etc.
9.Dependent upon Monsoon:
In the greater parts (over 56%) of the country, agriculture is
mainly dependent upon monsoon which is uncertain, unreliable and
irregular. Its variability in time and place has adverse effect on
agricultural output. That is why when rain fails agricultural
production is badly affected, scarcity prevails and prices reach sky
high.
10.Inadequate Irrigation Facilities :
Irrigation is the most important agricultural input in a tropical
monsoon country like India where rainfall is uncertain, unreliable
and erratic in time and space. India can achieve sustained progress
in agriculture if only more tha n half of the cropped area is brought
under assured irrigation. This is testified by the success story of
agricultural progress in Punjab Haryana and western part of Uttar
Pradesh where over half of the cropped area is under irrigation.
However, ill effect s of over irrigation especially in areas irrigated by
canals must be taken care of as large tracts in Punjab and Haryana
have been rendered useless (areas affected by salinity, alkalinity
and water -logging), due to faulty irrigation.
11.Insignificant place togiven fodder crops :
India has the largest population of livestock in the world but
Indian agriculture puts minimum attention on fodder crops. This
together with lack of good pastures has detrimental effect over the
development of dairy farming. Only four per cent of the reporting
area is devoted to permanent pastures and other graz ing lands. As
the domestic animals are not properly fed their productivity is very
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12.Seasonal pattern ofagriculture: India has three major crop
seasons.
Kharif season starts with the onset of monsoons and continues till
the beginning of winter. Rabi season starts at the beginning of
winter and continues till the end of winter or beginning of summer.
Zaid is summer cropping season in which crops like rice, maize,
groundnut, vegetables and fruits are grown.
13.Use of HYV Seed :T oa c h i e v eh i g h e rc r o py i e l d sa n ds u s t a i n e d
growth in agricultural production seed is considered as a basic
input. Good quality seeds often do not reach small and marginal
farmers because of exorbitant prices of better seeds. To solve this
proble m the Government of India established the National Seeds
Corporation (NSC) in 1963 and the State Farmers Corporation of
India (SFCI) in 1969. High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP)
was launched in 1966 -67 as a major thrust plan to increase the
production of food grains in the country.
14.Highest percentage of its geographical area under
cultivation:
India has the highest percentage (53%) of its geographical
area under cultivation in comparison to many countries (USA
16.3%, China 11.8%, Japan 14.9%, Canada 4.3%, etc.) of the
world.
15.Intensive farming is carried on in limited areas:
In India intensive farming is carried on in limited areas and
as a result per hectare yield of diff erent crops is much lower than
other countries of the world and India's total agricultural production
is not very satisfactory and rewarding.
16.Low Productivity
One of the main problems of Indian agriculture is its low
productivity compared to the other agricultural countries. The main
cause of low yield per hectare is the low fertility of soil and less care
to replenish it through green -manure, fertilisers, fallo wing, scientific
rotation of crops.
17. Lack of Definite Agricultural Land Use Policy
In the absence of a definite land use policy, the farmers grow
crops according to their convenience which leads to excess of
production and sometimes scarcity.
18. Lack of S torage Facilities
Storage of food grains is a big problem as a result nearly 10
per cent of our harvest goes waste every year in the absence of
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19. Lack of Marketing Facilities
Lack of marketing facilities and the role of broke rs deprive
the farmers to fetch remunerative prices for their agricultural
products.
20. Inadequate transport:
One of the main handicaps with Indian agriculture is the lack
of cheap and efficient means of transportation. Most roads in the
rural areas are Ku tcha (bullock -cart roads) and become useless in
the rainy season. Under these circumstances the farmers cannot
carry their produce to the main market and are forced to sell it in
the local market at low price.
21. Scarcity of capital:
Agriculture is an imp ortant industry and requires capital. The
role of capital input is becoming more and more important with the
advancement of farm technology.
22. Low Status of Agriculture in the Society
In greater parts of India, agriculture is not considered as a
dignified and honourable profession which leads to disappointment
and lack of enthusiasm among most of the farmers. The younger
generation of farmers prefer a petty government job to agriculture.
Rich farmers invest their agricultural profits in non -agricultural
sectors which are more remunerative.
23. Land Tenancy
In many parts of the country, there are absentee land lords
and the tillers are not having the rights on agricultural land.
24. Poverty and Indebtedness of the Farmers
Cultivators’ indebtedness is universal in subsistent farming.
Its impact is very crushing in India. Over 85 per cent of all the
cultivating families are under debt.
25. Inadequate Agricultural Research and Education,
Training, and Extension
Though enough pr ogress has been made in the field of
agricultural research, there is no co -ordination between the farm
and research laboratories in the different agro -climatic regions of
the country. Hence, gains of new agricultural researches are not
reaching the common cultivators, especially the marginal and small
farmers
3.4.3. Cropping Pattern in India
Introduction
A cropping system refers to a set of crop systems, making
up the cropping activities of a farm system. Multiplicity of croppingmunotes.in
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systems has been one of main features of Indian agriculture and it
is attributed to rain fed agriculture and prevailing socio -economic
situations of farming community.
Factors Affecting Cropping Pattern in India
The cropping patterns differ f rom region to region . It is
highly influenced by climatic, personal, social, cultural and
economic factors of the farmers .The major factors are:
i)Size of the Land Holding
In India marginal and small farmers represents the majority
of farming community.
So the mono crop paddy has become predominant as it
fulfils the household needs and perpetuates the subsistence
agriculture with little scope for commercial crop husbandry.
ii) Literacy
Majority of the farmers are ignorant of the scientific methods
involved in mixed -cropping, mono cropping and other technological
knowhow for practicing better.
iii) Disease and pest
The cropping pattern also depends on the possibility of
disease and pest infections.
iv) Ecological Suitability
The cropping pattern of a particular region is highly
dependent on the ecological condition (temperature, rainfall,
humidity, etc.).
v)Moisture Availability
The source of irrigation greatly determ ines the type of the
cropping pattern to be practiced.
For example, in low rainfall area, dry land farming is best
possible way to profit maximisation.
vi)Financial Stability
The economic condition of the farmers also affects the
cropping pattern.
As the cash crops (for example, cotton) involve high capital
investments, these are practised only in estate farming.
The marginal section of the farms community adopts low
cost crops.munotes.in
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Changes in the Cropping Patterns
I. The trend in the land use pattern and cropping pattern over
last 50 years in India has shown increasing use of land for
the purpose of cultivation with slight variations .
II. Vastly affected by rapid urbanization :T h eh i g h e r
cultivable area has been achieved by bringing large acreage
of uncul tivable land into cultivation.
III. Influence of economic factors: Indian agriculture
isincreasingly getting influenced more and more by
economic factors as factors like irrigation expansion,
infrastructure development, penetration of rural markets,
developmen t and spread of short duration and drought
resistant crop technologies have all contributed to minimize
the role of non -economic factors in crop choice.
IV. The major change in cropping pattern that has been
observed in India is a substantial area shift from cereals
to non -cereals .
V. As we consider the share of individual crops within cereals,
although the share of cereals as a group has declined,
thearea share of rice has increased continuously over all
the four periods.
VI. Thus, the area loss of cereals can be attributed entirely to
thedeclining area share of coarse cereals ,e s p e c i a l l y
sorghum, pearl millet, barely and small millets.
VII. Within oilseeds, the crops showing steady improvement in
their area share are: rapeseed and mustard, soybean and
sunflower.
Prevalent Cropping Systems
Variation in cropping pattern has been one of the main
characteristics of Indian agriculture.
In India, the cropping pattern follows two distinct seasons ;
1. Kharif season from July to October and
2. Rabi season from October to Mar ch.
3. The crops grown between March to June called Zaid.
1. The Kharif Season Cropping Patterns
The kharif season cropping patted comprises mainly rice and
non-rice-based crops.
a) Rice based cropping pattern
Rice is the best crop in this category and 9% of the area in
India comes under rice -based cropping pattern. The eastern and
southern regions, comprising Assam, West Bengal, Coastal Orissa,munotes.in
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Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala come
under this cropping pattern.
b) Kharif cereals other than the rice -based cropping pattern
Maize, jowar, bajra form the main kharif cereals. Maize is
grown in high rainfall areas, jowar in medium rainfall areas and
Bajra in low rainfall areas.
It is mainly c oncentrated in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh. These states account for more than 60% of the
total area under this crop.
c) Maize -based cropping pattern
The largest areas under kharif maize are: Uttar Pradesh(14
mha), Madhya Pradesh (0.58 mha) a nd Punjab (0.57 mha).
d) Kharif jowar -based cropping pattern
The area under Kharif jowar in lndia is highest
inMaharashtra (7.5 ha) closely followed by Madhya Pradesh 2.3
mha. Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Gujarat, are other
states under this cropping pattern.
e) Bajra -based cropping pattern
The area under bajra crop is about 12.4 mha. Rajasthan has
about two -third of the total area. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Uttar
Pradesh together constituting the remaining one -third area under
the bajra crop.
f) Groundnut based cropping pattern
Groundnut is sown over an area of about 7.2 mha mostly in
five groundnut producing states: Gujarat (24.4%), Andhra Pradesh,
(20.2%), Tamil Nadu (35.5%), Maharashtra (12.2%) and Karnataka
(12%). Five other states, viz , Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, Rajasthan and Orissa together have about 17.3% of the
total area under groundnut as base crop.
g) Cotton -based cropping pattern
Cotton is grown over 7.6 mha in India.
Maharashtra shares 36%(2.8mha), follows by Gujarat with
21% (1.6 mha), Karnataka with 13% (1 mha) and Madhya
Pradesh with 9%(.6mha) of the area. The other cotton growing
states are Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Haryana and
Rajasthan.
2. Rabi -season Cropping Patterns
The major cropping patterns prevalent in India during the
rabi season are: a) Wheat and gram based cropping pattern, and b)
jowar -based cropping pattern.munotes.in
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a) Wheat and gram based cropping patterns
These two crops are grown under identical climate and can
often be substituted for each other. On the all -India level, about 19
cropping patterns have been identified with wheat and 7 cropping
patterns with gram.
b) Rabi -Jowar based cropping patterns
On the all India level about 13 cropping patterns have been
identified with the rabi jowar.
Maharashtra has the largest number of these cropping
patterns wherein starting with the exclusive rabi jowar, bajra,
pulses, oilseeds and tobacco are grown as alternative crops.
There are different ways of growing crops.
Mixed Cropping: Growing of two or more crops
concurrently and blend together on the same piece of land without
row arrangements is called Mixed Cropping .T h i sl e s s e n sr i s ka n d
gives some insurance against failure of one of the crops.
Intercropping: Another way is inter cropping. It is growing
two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in a definite
pattern. A few rows of one crop alternate with a few rows.
Crop Rotation: The growing of different crops on a piece of
land in a pre -planned succession is called crop rotation .
The area under each crop in a given region may be
classified under four groups :
1. High yield, high spread
2. High yield, low spread
3. Low yield, high spread
4. Low yield, low spread
It is apparent that there is countless micro dissimilarity in
thecropping patterns. The most important element of farming in
India is the production of grains and the dominant food -chain is
grain man. On this basis, the country may be divided broadly into
five agricultural regions.
i. The rice region extending from the ea stern part to include a
very large part of the north -eastern and the south -eastern
India, with another strip along the western coast.
ii. The wheat region , occupying most of the northern, western
and central India.munotes.in
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iii. The millet -sorghum region ,c o m p r i s i n gR a j a s t h an, Madhya
Pradesh and the Deccan Plateau in the centre of the Indian
Peninsula.
iv. The temperate Himalayan region of Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh and some adjoining areas. Here
potatoes are as important as cereal crops (which are mainly
maize and rice), and the tree -fruits form a large part of
agricultural production.
v. The plantation crops region of Ass am and the hills of
southern India where good quality tea is produced.
Current Cropping Patterns
With the new concepts of multiple -cropping and
accumulation of useful scientific information, work on different crop
combinations and sequential growth of t he crops are coming up. In
this respect, cultivated areas in the country can be broadly
classified into three categories based on rainfall pattern:
1.Area Where Annual Rainfall is above 1150 Mm
Most of the areas in Assam, Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal can
be included in the first category. Basic problems in these areas
pertain to limited irrigation and poor drainage. Most of the farmers
are engaged in rice cultivation.
2.Area Where Rainfall Ranges from 750-1150 Mm
Large parts of Tamil Nadu, Uttar Prade sh and Andhra Pradesh fall
in the second category and occupy about one third of the total
cultivated area in the country. In these areas there is large potential
for creating minor irrigation facilities.
3.Area Where Rainfall is below 750 Mm
The third c ategory also occupies nearly one third of the
cultivated area, comprising parts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Rajasthan. In these areas, unless major and
medium irrigation facilities are provided, there is little hope for
raising cropping i ntensity to a substantial extent.
It is clear that there are innumerable micro variations in the
cropping patterns, which cannot be described in this note, some
broad contours of farming emerge. The most important element of
farming in India is the production of grains and the dominant food -
chain is grain -man.
3.4.4. Livestock Resources of India
Livestock are integral part of farming system in Indian
Agriculture . It contributes manifold to the growth and development
of agricultural sector.munotes.in
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Livestock includes animal husbandry, dairy and fishery
sectors. It plays an important role in the national economy and in
the socio -economic development of the country. Its role in the rural
economy is also very important. It is an integral component of
Indian agriculture supporting livelihood of more than two -thirds of
the rural population, as supplementing family incomes and
generating gainful employment in the rural sector, particularly
among the landless labourers, small and marginal farmers and
women's .
India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world .
It has 56.7% of world’s buffaloes, 12.5% cattle, 20.4% small
ruminants, 2.4% camel, 1.4% equine, 1.5% pigs and 3.1% poultry.
In 2010 -11livestock generated outputs worth Rs 2075
billion (at2004 -05 prices) which comprised 4% of the GDP and
26% of the agricultural GDP. The total output worth was higher than
the value of food grains
Animals provide nutrient -rich food products, draught power,
dung as organic manure and domestic fuel, hides & s kin, and are a
regular source of cash income for rural households.
They are a natural capital, which can be easily reproduced to
act as a living bank with offspring as interest, and an insurance
against income shocks of crop failure and natural calamitie s.
Driven by the structural changes in agriculture and food
consumption patterns, the utility of livestock has been undergoing a
steady transformation.
The non -food functions of livestock are becoming weaker.
Importance of livestock as source of ‘draugh tp o w e r ’h a sd e c l i n e d
considerably due to mechanization of agricultural operations and
declining farm size.
Use of dung manure is increasingly being replaced by
chemical fertilizers. On the other hand, their importance as a
source of quality food has increased.
Sustained income and economic growth, a fast -growing
urban population, burgeoning middle income clas s, changing
lifestyles, increasing proportion of women in workforce,
improvements in transportation and storage practices and rise of
supermarkets especially in cities and towns are fuelling rapid
increases in consumption of animal food products.munotes.in
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Between 1983 and 2004, the share of animal products in the
total food expenditure increased from 21.8% to 25.0% in urban
areas and from 16.1% to 21.4% in rural areas.
Population of Livestock and Its Importance
According to 17th censes of the livestock, their ex isting
population is 485002. The day by day increase of the same
indicates its importance as an alternative source of income and
food .
It is an important source of draught power, manure for
crop production and fuel for domestic use . It minimizes the use
of non renewable energy.
Livestock make a positive contribution to the economic
development .N e a ra b o u t7 0 %o fl i v e s t o c km a r k e ti nI n d i ai s
owned by 67% of small and marginal farmers and by the land less.
So, Livestock sector is an important source of in come for the
farmers and rural poor peoples.
This sector contributed important share in export of
Indian international trade . The livestock sector contributed over
5.26 per cent to the total GDP during 2006 -07. According to
estimates of the Central Stati stical Organization (CSO), the value of
output from livestock and fisheries sectors together at current
prices was about Rs.2,82,779 crore during 2007 -08 which is about
31.6 per cent of the value of the output of Rs.8,94,420 crore from
agriculture & allied Sector.
Production of Milk
India produced 13.1 per cent of the total milk produced in the
world attaining the first rank in milk production in the world. In 1950 -
51 production of milk in India was only 17 million tonnes (MT),
which has increased to 108.5 million tonnes in 2008 -09. A lthough
there is a higher growth rate, the per capita availability of milk in
India, 252 grams per day, is lower than the world average of 265
grams per day.
Concentrated dairy products such as skimmed milk
continues to be the largest item of export, whi ch together accounts
for nearly 78% of net milk and milk product exports during 2007 -08.
Poultry and Egg
Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of the
agricultural sector in India today. Their growth rate has been rising
at 8 to 10 percent per ann um.munotes.in
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India is now the world's fifth largest egg producer and the
eighteenth largest producer of broilers. Table eggs and broiler meat
are the major end products of the poultry sector in India.
The organized sector of poultry industry is contributing
nearly 70% of the total output and the rest 30% in the unorganized
sector in India.
The Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra
producing nearly 70% of the country's egg production.
Poultry exports are mostly to Maldives and Oman. Indian
poultry meat p roducts have good markets in Japan, Malaysia,
Indonesia and Singapore.
Fish Production
India has about 5.70 million ha of fresh water area suitable
for fisheries production. Fishing, aquaculture and allied activities
are reported to have provided livelihood to over 14 million persons
in 2006 -07.
In 2001 overall fish production was 5666 thousand tonnes it
gradually increasing continuously. At present, India's total fish
production is about 76.21 thousand tonnes.
This sector has great potential to export their fish and fish
product.
Meat and Me at Products
Although with rapid urbanization, higher income levels and
changes in lifestyle, market for scientifically produced and
hygienically packed meat and meat products are expanding rapidly
but in India the meat products industry is very much in the un-
organized sector. Cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat, pigs and poultry
are the types of animals, which are generally used for production of
meat.
There is an increasing demand of meat and meat products in
domestic as well as in the foreign market, particu larly to the Gulf
and West Asia and neighbouring countries.
The country has 3,600 slaughterhouses, 9 modern abattoirs
and 171 meat -processing units licensed under the meat products
order. The production of meat has increased 1.9 million tonnes to
23 mill ion tonnes from 2001 to 2007.
In meat and meat processing sector, poultry meat is the
fastest growing animal protein in India.munotes.in
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Benefits of Livestock Sector Developments in India
Animal Husbandry sector provides large self -employment
opportunities. This sector is playing very important role in the rural
economy as support sector of the economy. Especially 70 million
rural households primarily, small and marginal farmers and landless
labourers in the country are getting employment opportunities in
dairy. Dairying has become an important secondary source of
income for millions of rural families. Poultry is also another way of
getting food and food security in India. Apart from food security it
has provides employment to about 1.5 million people. This provid es
subsidiary occupation to a large section of the society particularly to
the people living in the drought prone, hilly, tribal and other remote
areas where crop production on its own may not be capable of
engaging them fully.
Livestock Sector not only p rovides essential protein and
nutritious human diet through milk, eggs, meat etc but also plays an
important role in utilization of non -edible agricultural by -products.
Livestock also provides raw material/by products such as hides and
skins, blood, bone, fat etc.
3.4.5. White Revolution in India
Introduction:
White Revolution in India is the package programme
adopted to increase the production of milk. It made our country self -
sufficient in milk and this was achieved entirely through the
cooperative structure. Today around 12 million farmers in more
than 22 states across the country own around 250 dairy plants
handling around 20 million litres of milk a day.
Prof. Verghese Kuerin was the father of White
Revolution in India . The White Revolution in In diaoccurred in
1970 , when the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) was
established to organise the dairy development through the co -
operative societies. Operation Flood has been spearheaded by
the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB).
The dairy dev elopment programme through co-operative
societies was first established in the state of Gujarat .T h ec o -
operative societies were most successful in the AnandDistrict of
Gujarat .T h ec o -operative societies are owned and managed by
the milk producers. These co-operatives provided financial help as
well as consultancy.
Objectives of the co -operative society are as follows:
1. The main objective of the co -operative society is the
procurement, transportation, storage of milk at the chilling
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2. To provide cattle feed.
3. The production of wide varieties of milk products and their
marketing management.
4. The societies also provide superior breeds of cattle (cows and
buffaloes), health service, veterinary treatment, and artificial
insemination facili ties.
5. To provide extension service.
The technology of White Revolution
The technology ofWhite Revolution is based on an extensive
system of co -operative societies.
Milk, after being collected at a village collection centre, is
promptly transported to the dairy plant at the milk chilling centre.
Timing of collection is rigidly maintained by the village society,
truck operators, and the quick transport to the dairy plants. Milk
tankers, each, normally carry 14,000 litres of milk.
The chilling centres are managed by producers' co -operative
unions to facilitate the collection of milk from producers who live
at some distance from the chilling centres and thus, the
middlemen are eliminated.
Phases of the White Revolution
The White Revolution may be examined under the following
three phases:
1.Phase I (1970 -81)
Phase I of Operation Flood was financed by the sale within India
of skimmed milk powder and butter oil gifted by the EC
countries via the World Food Program.
As fou nder-chairman of the National Dairy Development Board
(NDDB) of India, Dr Kurien finalized the plans and negotiated
the details of EEC assistance.
During this period, the dairy development programme was set
up in ten states to provide milk to the cosmopol itan cities, i.e.
Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, and Chennai.
The important step in this phase was the setting up of 4 Mother
Dairies in Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, and Chennai.
2.Phase II (1981 -85)
Milk powder production went up from 22,000 tonnes in the pre
project year to 1,40,000 tonnes in 1989, thanks to dairies set up
under Operation Flood.munotes.in
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Direct marketing of milk by producers' cooperatives resulting in
the transfer of profits from milk contracts --increased by several
million litres per day.
During this phase, the dairy development programme was
extended in the states of Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and
Rajasthan.
In this phase, within 25 contiguous milk -shed areas (in 155
districts) a cluster of milk producers' union was established.
The Research Institute at Hyderabad developed a vaccine
called “Raksha” to control cattle diseases. The programme also
involved the improvement in milk marketing in 144 more cities of
the country.
The Dairy Co -operative societies were set up in 35,000 villages
and the membership e xceeded 36 lakhs.
3.Phase III (1985 -2000)
An u m b e ro fc o -operative societies were set up in most of the
major states of the country and the number of co -operatives
went up by 73,000 with a membership of 10 million.
Some of the important achievements of the White
Revolution are as under:
The importance of White Revolution in the dairy development
is similar to that of Green Revolution to grain production. Today,
India ranks first in milk production , accounting for 18.5 % of
world production, achieving an ann ual output of 146.3 million
tonnes during 2014 -15. Gujarat, Maharashtra, U.P., Punjab,
Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu are the main milk -
producing states of the country.
The import of milk and milk production has been reduced
substantially.
The per capita availability of milk in India has increased from
176 grams per day in 1990 -91 to 322 grams per day by 2014 -
15. This represents a sustained growth in availability of milk
and milk products for the g rowing population.
Dairying has become an important secondary source of income
for millions of rural households engaged in agriculture.
To ensure the success of Operation Flood Programme,
research centres have been set up at Anand, Mehsana, and
Palanpur (B anaskantha). Moreover, three regional centres are
functioning at Siliguri, Jalandhar, and Erode. Presently, there
are metro dairies in 10 metropolitan cities of the country, beside
40 plants with capacity to handle more than one lakh litres of
milk.munotes.in
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Livest ock Insurance Scheme was approved in February 2006
and in 2006 -07 on a pilot basis in 100 selected districts across
the country. The scheme aims at protecting the farmers against
losses due to untimely death of animals. In most of the villages
the cattle a re kept under unhygienic conditions.
Toimprove the quality of livestock, extensive cross breeding
has been launched.
For ensuring the maintenance of disease -free status, major
health schemes have been initiated.
To conclude it may be said that the succe ss of the dairy industry
has resulted from the integrated co -operative system of milk
collection, transportation, processing and distribution,
conversion of the same to milk powder and products, to
minimize seasonal impact on suppliers and buyers, retail
distribution of milk and milk products, sharing of profits with the
farmer, which are ploughed back to enhance productivity and
needs to be emulated by other farm produce/producers.
Problems and Prospects
Some of the important problems of the White Revolu tion
are as follows:
1. Collection of milk from the remote areas is expensive, time
consuming, and not viable economically.
2. In most of the villages the cattle are kept under unhygienic
conditions.
3. The marketing infrastructure needs much improvement, as there
are inadequate marketing facilities.
4. The cattle breed is generally inferior.
5. The extension service programme is not effective.
Conclusion
India now has a surplus of milk and is ge aring up to export
milk powder. In India, dairy development has a great future. Many
corporate sector firms like Indana (plants at Nagpur, Hyderabad,
and Bangalore), The Sheel International and Milk and Food, and
the Amrut Industries are taking advantage o f the existing situation
of liberalisation and globalisation. The government has constituted
Technology Mission for dairy development and Amul Model Co -
operatives are being promoted to cover about 60 per cent of the
total area of the country.munotes.in
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3.5. FIS HERIES
3.5.1. Development and Distribution of Fishery
It is known that in eastern India the traditional practice of fish
culture in small ponds existed for hundreds of years. Fish culture
received notable attention in the state of Tamil Nadu as early as
1911, and subsequently, states such as Bengal, Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Baroda, Mysore and Hyderabad initiated fish culture
through the establishment of Fisheries Departments and support to
fishers and farmers for expansion of the sector.
Development of Fis heries
Fishery sector occupies an important place in the socio -
economic development of the country as it plays an important
role in the economic activity. It is a flourishing sector with varied
resources and potentials. It stimulates growth of a number of
subsidiary industries and is a source of cheap and nutritious
food, at the same time it is an instrument of livelihood for a large
section of economically backward population of the country.
More than 6 million fishers in the country depend on fisheries
and aquaculture for their livelihood.
Fish production in the country has been showing an increasing
trend and has reached a record level of 5.65 million tonnes in
1999 -2000.
India has a coastline of 8118 km and an EEZ (Exclusive
Economic Zone) of 2.02 mil lion sq km. About a million people
are involved in fishing operations.
India is the third largest producer of fish in the world and
second in inland fish production (FAO 1998). India’s share in
theworld production of fish has increased from 3.2% in
1981 to 4.5% at present.
India is also an important country that produces fish through
aquaculture in the world. India is home to more than 10 percent
of the global fish diversity.
During the Tenth five Year Plan it is proposed to give
thrust to the followin ga r e a s :
Integrated development of riverine fisheries
Habitat restoration and fisheries development of upland waters
Development of reservoir fisheries
Vertical and horizontal development of aquaculture productivity
Management of coastal fisheriesmunotes.in
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Deep -sea fisheries with equity participation
Infrastructure development and improved post -harvest
management
Management and policy intervention including monitoring,
control and surveillance
Implementation of the code of conduct for responsible fishe ries
Gender programmes
Strengthening of database and information networking
Distribution Of Fishery
In India every state and union territory have some contribution
towards fish production but it is observed that over two-third of
the output is mainly obtained from five states of West
Bengal, Kerala, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu .
In case of marine fisherie s Gujarat (22.07%) occupies the first
place followed by Kerala (20.16%), Maharashtra (14.33%), and
Tamil Nadu (3.09%).
These four states together provide over 70 per cent of the
marine fish production of the country.
State wise distribution of Fishery in India
1.KERALA
Kerala is the third largest producer of fish accounting for
11.52 per cent of the total fish pro duction of the country and
includes Kochi, Thiruvanathapuram, Kollam, Calicut, Baypore,
Azhikode, Ponnani, Kannur,BaliapaUiam and Vizhinjam as the
leading production centres in the state.
Matinees include oil sardines, prawns, horse macken soles,
shark an d lactations in marine fisheries and barbus, mullet,
clarius, prawns, merrels and e tropins in inland fisheries.
The state has cold storage facility at Kochi, Calicut, Quilon,
Thiruvanathapuram, Baypore, Azhikode, Emakulam, Kozhikode,
Kayankulam and Tanur;
A liver oil extraction plant at Kochi, and fish canning
facilities at a number of places.
There is regular transport of fish through refrigerated railway
wagons from Kochi to Chennai.
2.WEST BENGAL
Importance of West Bengal lies in inland fisheries accoun ting
for 30.89% of the total produc tion of the country.munotes.in
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Pisciculture is carried on in numerous ponds, tanks, rivers,
lakes and estuaries covering a total area of about 20,720 sq.km.
The important fish varieties include rohu, catia, mrigal, hilsa,
catfish ,m a c k e r e l ,s h r i m pa n dp e r c h e s .
3.GUJARAT
Gujarat being the second largest producer of fish in the country,
contributes 22.07 per cent of the total production of marine
fisheries and 1.41 per cent of the inland fisheries.
The fishing area is largely located along die 1650 km long
coastline from Lakhapat in the north to Umbargaon in the south
consisting of 51 fishing ports and cover ing a total area of about
67,300 sq. km.
Kandla, Dwarka, Poibandar, Navabandar, Bharuch, Jafferabad
and Umbargaon are th e main fishing centres.
Bulk of the production is handled through 69 co -operative
societies
4.MAHARASHTRA
Maharashtra is the third largest producer (14.33%) of
marine fisheries in the country. It contributes 9.30 per cent of
the total production for fish i n the country.
Fishing activity is carried on all along the720km coastline with
Mumbai, Ratnagiri, Alibag, Kolaba and Bassein as leading
centres of production.
Important fish varieties include Bombay duck, white pomfret,
black pomfret, jew fish, Indian sa lmon, tummies, grey mullet,
mackerel, eel, sardine, ribbon fish, shrimp, tuna, shark and
prawn etc. Estuarine fisheries are well developed in Mahim and
other creeks. The state has four fish farms in Bhandara, Kolaba,
Pune and Parbhani districts. The cold -storage and canning
facilities are available in Mumbai, Ratnagiri and Kolaba districts.
5.TAMIL NADU
Tamil Nadu with a total coast line of 1,000 km occupies fourth
(13.09%) and ninth (3.99%) place in respect of marine and
inland fish -production of the count ry respectively.
Chennai, Tuticorin, Ennore, Cuddalore, Mandapam,
Kanniyakumari, Nagapattinam, and Cuddalore are main fishing
ports.
Main fish varieties include mackerel, soles, sardine, cat fish,
ribbon fish, silver bellies and Jew fish.munotes.in
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6.ANDHRA PRADESH
Andhra Pradesh is the fourth largest fish pro ducing state of
the country .
It has important role both in terms of inland (second place) and
marine (fifth place) fish production in India.
The state with a total coastline of966 km has a total fishing area
of 31,000 sq km. Vishakhapatnam, Kakinada, Machilipatnam,
Bimlipatnam and Narasapatnam are the main fishing ports
besides 350 fishing villages located along the coast.
fish species include Jew fish, ribbon fish, mackerel, cat fish,
sardine, silver bellies and soles.
7.KARNATAKA
Karnataka contributes 11.52 per cent of the total fish production
(marine fish 20.16% and inland fish 4.48%) of India.
Mangalore, Karwar, Kumta, Ankola, Honavar, Malpe,
Udiayawar, Bingi, Majali, Bhatkal, Chendia, Gangolli and
Bokapa tnam are main centres of fish production.
Inland fishery is well devel oped in the creeks of the Netravati,
Sharavati and Kali rivers. Main fish varieties are sardines,
mack erel, seer fish, shark and prawn.
.
8.ORISSA
Orissa is an important producer of inland (4.87%) and
marine (4.31%) fisheries in the country.
The river mouths of Mahanadi, Brahmani, and Swarnarekha, the
brackish waters of the Chilka Lake and large number of tanks
and ponds are the main areas of the fish production.
Rohu, mrigal, perch , mackerel, prawn, hilsa, elopes; pomfrets,
shrimp and croakers are the main fish varieties caught
.
9.BIHAR
Bihar is the third largest producer of inland fish (7.81%) in
the country.
The bulk of the supply comes from the rivers (Ganga and its
tributaries), reservoirs, ponds and tanks. Bhagalpur, Munger,
Nalanda, Begusarai, Patna, Bhojpur, Saran, Siwan, Hazaribag,
Giridih districts are the major producers.
Apart of the fish production is sent to the neighbour ing state of
West Bengalmunotes.in
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10.ASSAM
Brahmaputra river and its tributaries
11.MADHYA PRADESH
Rivers, tanks and ponds
12.UTTAR PRADESH
Ganga and its tributaries, ponds and lakes
13.Goa
Creeks of the Zuari, M Sal and Arachol
14.OTHERS
The other important producers of fish in the country are stated
under:
I. Punjab ;
II. HimachalPradesh ;
III. JammuandKashmir;
IV. Dam Diu etc.
3.5.2 Blue Revolution in India
Introduction
The term " blue revolution " refers to the remarkable emergence
of aquaculture as an important and highly productive agricultural
activity. Aquaculture refers to all forms of active culturing of
aquatic animals and plants, occurring in marine ,brackish ,o r
freshwaters. It is the ado ption of a package programme to
increase the production of fish and marine products.
The Blue Revolution in India was started in 1970 during the
Fifth Five -Year Plan when the Central Government sponsored
theFish Farmers Development Agency (FFDA).
Subsequently, the Brakish Water Fish Farms Development
Agency was set up to develop aquaculture. The Blue Revolution
has brought improvement in aquaculture by adopting new
techniques of fish breeding, fish rearing, fish marketing, and fish
export.
There a re more than 1800 species of fish found in the sea and
inland waters of India, of which a very few are commercially
important.
The important sea fish include catfish, herring, mackerels,
perches, mullets, Indian salmon, shell fish, eels, anchovies, and
dorab. Similarly, the main fresh water fish include catfish,
loaches, perches, eels, herrings, feather backs, mullets, carps,
prawns, murrels, and anchovies.munotes.in
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The fish production in the country has increased from 0.75
million tonnes in 1950 -51 to 68.69 millio n tonnes in 2006 -2007.
Fishing, aquaculture and a host of allied activities, a source of
livelihood to over 14 million people as well as a major foreign
exchange earner, in 2005 -06 contributed about one per cent of
the total GDP and 5.3 per cent of the GD P from agriculture
sector.
The geographic base of Indian marine fisheries has 8118 km
coastline, 2.02 million sq of Exclusive Economic Zone including
0.5 million sq km of continental shelf, and 3937 fishing villages.
About 50 per cent of the country's to tal fish production comes
from the inland fisheries including the freshwater fisheries like
ponds, tanks, canals, rivers, reservoirs, and fresh water lakes.
Marine fisheries contribute about 50 per cent of the total fish
production of the country.
Kerala is the leading producer followed by Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Gujarat, and Goa. The Nellore District of Andhra
Pradesh is known as the 'Shrimp Capital of India' .
The fishing season extends from September to March. The
higher fish production in the Arabian Se a is due to the broader
continental shelf. The important fish varieties include sardines,
mackerel and prawn.
The East Coast contributes about 28 per cent of the total
production of marine fish in the country. The fishing activity
along the East coast is mainly carried on from Rameswaram in
the south to Ganjam in the north, with fishing season from
September to April along the Coromandal Coast.
The National Fisheries Development Board has been set up to
realise the untapped potential of fishery sector with the
application of modern tools of research and development
including biotechnology.
3.5.3. Problems and solutions of Indian Fisheries
To put things in perspective, India is world's third largest
producer of fish and comes next only to its neighbour China in
terms of fish production. Current key management problems
include:
Problems :
1.Overexploitation of the fishing resources of the territorial
waters.
2.Underutilization of the deep sea resourcesmunotes.in
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3.Low levels of mechanisations as dominated by unorganised
sector and poor fisherman community
4.Conflict between fishing community and foreign trawlers over
loss of livelihood hindering development.
5.Loss of biodiversity
6.Depletion of fish stocks
7.Theadverse impact of climate change
8.No well -planned strategy ,w h i c hh a sp u tt h e fishermen and the
industry in some serious problems.
9.Any change in the ocean areas along the water table is bound
to affect the produce. Consistent degradation of shorelines
and loss of coral reefs have been major problems faced by
India.
10.The rise ofsea surface temperature even one degree will
have a devastating impact on fisheries.
11.Lack of a reliable database relating to aquatic and fisheries
resources Limited number of species grown / cultured, mainly
due to weak linkages between research and developmen ta n d
fish farmers community.
12.Weak multi -disciplinary approach in fisheries and
aquaculture.
13.Inadequate attention to the environmental, economical,
social and gender issues in fisheries and aquaculture.
14.Inadequate HRD and specialized manpower in differen t
disciplines.
15.Weak marketing and extension network Decline in fish catch
and depletion of natural resources due to over exploitation of
coastal fisheries.
16.Water pollution ; unscientific management of aquaculture and
contamination of indigenous germ plasm resources.
17.Poor yield optimization ,p r o b l e m si nh a r v e s ta n dp o s t -harvest
operations, landing and berthing facilities for fishing vessels and
issues in welfare of fishermen.
18.Security of fishermen is under stress especially who get
arrested by neighbouring countries such as Sri Lanka and
Pakistan, remain a bone of contention between countries.
19.Heavy challenges faced in terms of innovation, expansion and
regularisation of aspects related to fishing and trading.
20.Prevalence of antibiotic residues in Indian fisheries stocks is
ac a u s eo fw o r r yf o rt h o s ew h oa r el o o k i n ga tc r e a t i n g
infrastructure to keep fishing sustainable, safe and healthy.munotes.in
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Solution :
1.Adopting responsible and sustainable fishery practices :
Experts have been suggesting that the country should stop
taking pride in production capacity and look at sustainable
methods to reach better commercial success with regard to the
fishing industry.
2.Future growth : Experts opine that the fisheries sector should
look at future growth, rather than just enjoying the catch with
every passing year.
3.Establishing agro -aqua farms :Bringing together agriculture
and aquaculture farms to create agro -aqua farms ,
4.Improving selling efforts: Improving selling efforts inland
should be taken care of.
5.Spreadingfish quality literacy :Spreading fish quality literacy
among fishermen for improving quality which has been a cause
for worry in the context of discovery of antibiotic residues in
Indian fisheries stock.
6.Shifting o ff o c u s : Unless focus shifts to a comprehensive
method of fishery , India stands the threat of losing its brownie
points on this front.
7.Establishing Aqua shops and fishery estates for better
commercial success.
8.Developing facilities: Facilities should be d eveloped for fish
landing and handling at harvest and post -harvest stages.
3.6. MINERALS OF INDIA
Definition of minerals: Geologists define mineral as a
“homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable
internal structure.” Minerals are found in varied forms in nature,
ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.
India has vast deposit of minerals .O u rm e tallic ores are very rich
and of a very high quality. They are sufficient for maintaining most
of our key industries. The major minerals produced in India are
Iron-ore, Bauxite, Mica, Coal and Petroleum .T h ep r i n c i p a l
minerals found in the country along wi th their estimated
reserves/resources are given below:
1.IRON -ORE:
Presently, India is ranked third in Iron ore production. A large
quantity of world’s iron ore reserves is possessed by India. With
the total resources of over 28.5 billion tonnes of hematitemunotes.in
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(Fe203) and magnetite (Fe304), India is one of the leading
producers as well as exporters of iron ore in the world.
The resources of very high -grade ore are limited and are
restricted mainly in the Bailadila sector of Chhattisgarh and to a
lesser extent i nB e l l a r y -Hospet area of Karnataka and
Barajamda sector in Jharkhand and Orissa.
Haematite resources are located in Odisha, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya
Prade sh, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
India's 97% magnetite resources are located in its four states,
namely, Karnataka -(73%) followed by Andhra Pradesh -(14%),
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu -(5% each). Assam, Bihar, Goa,
Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Nagaland
together account for the remaining 3% resources.
State wise Iron Ore Deposit
a)Odisha -5,930 million tonnes (33%) –in Gurumahisini,
Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj District), Barabil, Gurda,
Kurband, Joruri, Kiriburu, Meghahatabur u( l a r g e s ti r o no r em i n e
of the world), (Keonjhar district), Mahagiri and Tomka ranges in
Sukinda area (Cuttack district) and Bonai (Sundargarh district)
b)Jharkhand ,-4,597 million tons (26%)
c)Chhattisgarh ,3,292 million tonnes (18%),
d)Karnataka –2,159 mill ion tonnes (12%) Bellary, Hospet and
Sandur (Belary District), Babbudan Hills, Kudremukh,
Gangamula (Chickmagalur District)
e)Goa –Goa-927 million tonnes (5%), Quepem, Satari, Ponda,
and Bicholim
f)Maharashtra –Chandrapur, Ratnagiri and Bhandara districts
g)AndhraPradesh –Yerabati area(Karimnagar and Warangal
districts), Veldurti (Kurnool district), Rajampet area(Cuddapah
district), Obalapuram –Siddapuram area (Anantapur district)
h)Rajasthan –Sikar, Udaipur and Jaipur districts.
i)Madhya Pradesh –Dhallirajhara (Durg district), Bailadila (
Bastar district)
j)Tamil Nadu –Tirthamalai hills (Salem districts), Yadapalli area
and Killimalai area (Nilgiri district).
Iron-ore contributes a major share the total value of metallic
minerals that is produced in India. It is also a good foreign
exchange earner next only to tea, sugar, jute and cotton.munotes.in
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2. BAUXITE:
India is the fifth largest producer of Bauxite in the world.
Bauxite is the ore of aluminium. The total in situation reserves is
3.076 million tonnes. About 84 per cent of this reserve is of
metallurgical grade. Important bauxite deposits are as follows:
a.Bihar –Lohardaga in Ranchi district, Palamou district
b.Goa-Quepem and Konkan areas
c.Gujarat –Kutch district, Mewasa, Habardi, Nandana and
Lamb a in Jamnagar district
d.Jammu and Kashmir -Raisi and Udampur areas
e.Karnataka –Belgaum district
f.Madhya Pradesh –Amarkantak area of Shahdol district by far
the largest known deposit of bauxite in India.
g.Maharashtra –Kolhapur, Kaira, Thana, Kolaba, Ratnag iri, and
Satara
h.Odisha –Kalahandi district, Koraput district, Sambalpur district.
Odisha leads in raising bauxite in India.
i.Tamil Nadu –Nilgiri Hills, Palni Hills, Shevaroy Hills,
Kollaimallai Hills region.
j.Major reserves are concentrated in the East Coast Bauxite
deposits of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh
3.MICA:
India is one of the largest mica -producing countries of the world,
ranked first in sheet mica production and accounts for about 60
per cent of global mica trade.
Important mica -bearing pegmatite occurs in Andhra Pradesh,
Jharkhand Bihar and Rajasthan.
The in situ reserves of mica in Andhra Pradesh are 42,626
thousand tonnes, Bihar 12,938 tonnes, Jharkhand 1,494 tonnes
and in Rajasthan 2,007 tonnes.
The Bihar mica is of the very high quality. In In dia, the largest
supply of Mica comes from Bihar. In Bihar the most important
areas are Gaya and Hazaribagh in the ‘mica belt’ 150 km. long
and 32 km. wide.
It is used in electrical industry.
Due to poor development of electrical industries at home, India
exports most of the output contributing 75% of the world’s
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4. COAL:
Generally the following varieties of coal are recognised
I.Anthracite –ranks highest among the coal
II.Bituminous –is a common commercial rank coal
III.Lignite -is inferio r in calorific value
IV.Peat –practically has got no fuel value
Coal is unevenly distributed in India.
India is one of the principal producers of coal in the world.
Coal mining regions :T h e r ea r et w ot y p e so ff o r m a t i o no fc o a l
in India -
a.Gondwana formation
b.Tertiary formation
Gondwana formation coal are found in the following states
Bihar and WestBengal which produce the largest and good
quantity of coal in India.
Jharia, Giridih, Bokaro, Karanpura, etc. in Bihar and Raniganj in
West Bengal are the most important mining centres.
Bihar along supplies 44% of India’s total output.
Besides these areas, coal is found at Talcher in Odisha ,
Tendur and Singareni in Andhra Pradesh,
Pench Valley and Umaria in Madhya Pradesh ,
Tertiary formation coal are found in the states of
i.Meghalaya,
ii.Assam,
iii.Arunachal Pradesh,
iv.Jammu and Kashmirmunotes.in
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Fig: Coal reserves in India
Important mines are found in the following regions:
1.Damodar valley region :R a n u g a n j ,W e s tB e n g a l( o l d e s tf i e l d ) ,
Jharia, Bokaro, Daltonganj, Karanpura, Ramgarh of Bihar
2.Son-Mahanadi -Brahmani Valley Region - Umaria,
Singrauli,Korba of Madhya Pradesh and Talcher of Odisha
3.Satpura Region –Mohpani, Pench Valley, Bisrampur,
Lakhanpur, Jilmili, Chirimiri and Kasdo -Arand of Madhya
Prades h
4.Wardha -Godavari -Indravati valley region -Wardha Valley,
Chandrapur, Kamptee, Ballarpur of Maharashtra and Singareni,
Kothagundem, Tandur and Yallandu of Andhra Pradesh
5. PETROLEUM:
Petroleum is known as rock oil
Oil fields of India are of two types:
1. On-shore fields –
2. Off-shore fieldsmunotes.in
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Fig: Oil fields
1.On-shore fields are located in the following regions
A.North -eastern India –
I.Assam:
Assam is the oldest oil producing state in India. The main oil
bearing strata extend for a distance of 320 km in upper Assam
along the Brahmaputra valley.
Oilfields of Assam are relatively inaccessible and are distantly
located from the main consuming areas. Oil from Assam is,
therefore, refined mostly in the refineries located at Digboi,
Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni and Nomaligarh.
Following are some of the important oilfields of Assam:
i.The Digboi field:
Located in the north -east of Tipam hills in Dibrugarh district of
Upper Assam,
Digboi is the oldest oil field of India.munotes.in
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The oil bearing strata cover an area of about 13 sq km where oil
is available at 400 to 2,000 metre depth.
Over 800 oil wells have been drilled so far. Before the opening
of the oil fields of west India, Digboi used to account for three -
fourths of the total oil production of India.
The most important centres are Digboi, Bappapang, Hassapang
and Paintola. Most oil is sent to oil refinery at Digboi.
ii.The Naharkatiya field:
It is located at a distance of 32 km southwest of Digboi at the
left bank of Burhi Dibing river.
Out of the 60 successful wells drill ed so far, 56 are producing oil
while the remaining 4 are producing natural gas.
The annual production is 2.5 million tonnes of oil and one million
cubic metre natural gas.
Oil from this area is sent to oil refineries at Noonamati in Assam
(443 km) and Ba rauni in Bihar (724 km) through pipeline.
iii.The Moran -Hugrijan field:
It is located about 40 km south -west of Naharkatiya.
Drilling has proved an oil bearing Barail horizon at a depth of
3,355 metre.
Other fields have been discovered at Rudrasagar, Sibsagar,
Lakwa, Galeki, Badarpur, Barholla and Anguri.
II.Arunachal Pradesh -found inTirap District.
Arunachal Pradesh has oil reserves at Manabhum, Kharsang
and Charali.
III.Tripura –has promising oilfields discovered at Mamunbhanga,
Baramura -Deotamura Subhan g, Manu, Ampi Bazar, Amarpur -
Dambura areas.
IV.Nagaland –Nagaland also has some oil bearing rock strata.
Borholla on the border between Assam and Nagaland.
B.Western India
I. Gujarat –
Explorations by Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) have
yielded valuable findings of oil bearing rock strata over an area
of about 15,360 sq km around the Gulf of Khambhat.
The main oil belt extends from Surat to Amreli.
Kachchh, Vadodara, Bharuch, S urat, Ahmedabad, Kheda,
Mehsana, etc. are the main producing districtsmunotes.in
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Ankleshwer (Largest field in the Khambat Basin), Kalol,
Nawagam, Lunej, Kosamba, Kathana, Wavel, Barkol, Dholka,
Mehsana, Kadi, Ahmedabad and Sanand fields of these
regions.
a.Ankleshwa r:
The first major oil -find came in 1958 with the discovery of
Ankleshwar field located about 80 km south of Vadodara and
nearly 160 km south of Khambhat.
Ankleshwar anticline is about 20 km long and 4 km wide. Oil is
available at depths varying from 1,00 0 to 1,200 metres.
It has a capacity of 2.8 million tonnes per annum.
b.Khambhat orLunej field:
The oil and Natural Gas Commission drilled test wells in 1958 at
Lunej near Ahmadabad and confirmed the occurrence of a
commercially exploitable oil field.
c.Ahmedabad andKalol field:
It lies about 25 km north -west of Ahmedabad.
This field and a part of Khambhat basin contain ‘pools’ of heavy
crude trapped in chunks of coal.
Nawgam, Kosamba, Mehsana, Sanand, Kathana, etc. are
important producers.
Oil has als o been struck in Olkad, Dholka, Kadi, Asjol,
Sandkhurd, Siswas, Nandesan, Bandrat, Sobhasan and
Vadesar areas.
d.Rajasthan:
One of the largest on land oil discoveries was made in Banner
district of Rajasthan in 2004. The oil block covers an area of
approximately 5,000 sq km.
C.Southern India –
Kaveri Basin ; oil fields are at Narimanam, Kovilappal etc.
Off-shore fields –
I.The Mumbai High Region –the biggest oil field in India
The greatest success achieved by the ONGC with respect to
offshore surveys for oil was that of Mumbai High in 1974.
It is located on the continental shelf off the coast of Maharashtra
about 176 km north -west of Mumbai.
The discovery of Mumbai High has rev olutionised the oil
production in India.munotes.in
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The share of Mumbai High in the total oil production of India has
shot up considerably.
This area produced 85 lakh tonnes of oil in 1982 which rose to
over 189 lakh tonnes or over 62 per cent of all India in 1991 -92.
II. Bassein:
Located to the south of Mumbai High, this is a recent discovery
endowed with reserves which may prove to be higher than
those of the Mumbai High.
Huge reserves have been found at a depth of 1,900 metre.
Production has started and is expected to pick up fast.
III. Aliabet:
It is located at Aliabet Island in the Gulf of Khambhat about 45
km off Bhavnagar.
Huge reserves have been found in this field.
A sum of Rs. 400 crore has already been spent on this field.
Commercial production is expected to start soon.
Probable Areas :
There are vast possibilities of finding oil from about one lakh
sq km area of sedimentary rocks in different parts of the country.
Some of the outstanding areas which hold possibilities of oil are:
i.Jawalamukhi, Nurpur, Dharamsala and Bilaspur in Himachal
Pradesh.
ii. Ludhiana, Hoshiarpur and Dasua in Punjab,
iii. The Gulf of Mannar off the Tirunelveli coast.
iv. The off -shore area between Point Calimere and Jaffna
peninsula
v. Off-shore deep water area in Bay of Bengal between 12°N —
16°N latitudes and 84°E —86°E longitudes.
vi. The marine delta region of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
and Cauvery rivers.
vii. Stretch of sea between South Bengal and Baleshwar coast.
viii. Off-shore area of the Anadaman and Nicobar Islands.
6CHROMITE:
Total in situ reserves of chromite are estimated at 114 million
tonnes. The largest share (about 96 per cent) in the total
geological resources is accounted by the Cuttack district in
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Deposits of economic significance occur in Orissa, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Tamil Nadu and Manipur .
7.COPPER:
a.The total in situ reserves of copper ore in the country are 712.5
million tonnes, equivalent to 9.4 million tonnes of metal
content.
Major and important copper ore deposits are located in
Singhbhum district (Jharkhand), Balaghat district (Madhya
Pradesh) and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts (Rajasthan).
In addition, there are small copper ore deposits in Gujarat,
Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim,
Meghalaya, Maharashtra and West Bengal.
8.GOLD:
There are three important gold fields in the country, namely,
a.Kolar Gold Fields , Kolar district, in Karnataka
b.Hutti Gold Field in Raichur district in Karnataka) and
c.Ramgiri Gold Field in Anantpur district (Andhra Pradesh).
Total in situ reserves of gold ore are estimated at 22.4 million
tonnes, with 116.50 tonnes of metal.
9.LEAD -ZINC:
Lead -Zinc Resources are located in Rajasthan, West Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Orissa, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu and Sikkim.
10MANGANESE:
Next to Russia, India has the largest supply of Manganese.
State wise distribution:
a.Odisha tops the total resources with 44% share
b.Karnataka 22%,
c.Madhya Pradesh 13%,
d.Maharashtra 8%,
e.Andhra Pradesh 4% and
f.Jharkhand & Goa 3% each.
g.Rajasthan, Gujarat and West Bengal together shared about 3%
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11.TUNGSTEN:
The main reserves are at Degana, Rajasthan. It also occurs in
Maharashtra, Haryana, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
12.DIAMOND:
The main diamond bearing areas in India are the Panna belt in
Madhya Pradesh, Munimadugu -Banganapalle conglomerate
in Kurnool district, Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe in Anantapur
district and the gravels of Krishna river basin in Andhra
Pradesh.
The new kimberlite fields are discovered recently in Raichur -
Gulbarga districts of Karnataka.
13..DOLOMITE:
Dolomit e occurrences are widespread in almost all parts of the
country.
The major share of about 90 per cent reserves is distributed in
the states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Gujarat,
Karnataka, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.
14.GYPSUM:
The production of gypsum is confined to Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
Jammu and Kashmir, and Gujarat. Rajasthan is the main
producer of gypsum followed by Jammu and Kashmir.
15.GRAPHITE:
The in situ reserves of graphite are 16 million tonnes.
Orissa is the major producer of graphite .
Almost the entire reserves of Tamil Nadu under the proved
category are in Ramanathapuram district.
Deposits of commercial importance are located in Andhra
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.
16.LIMESTONE:
The total in situ reserves of limestone of all categories and
grades are placed at 1, 69,941 million tonnes. The total
conditional reserves have been estimated at 3,713 million
tonnes.
The major share of its pr oduction comes from Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat: Rajasthan,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh,
Orissa, Bihar, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh. The remaining
part comes from Assam, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, K er
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17.MAGNETITE:
Major deposits of magnetite are found in Uttaranchal, Tamil Nadu
and Rajasthan while minor deposits are in Jammu and Kashmir,
Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala.
18.OTHER MINERALS:
a.Other minerals occurring in significant quantities in India are
betonies (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Jharkhand and Jammu and
Kashmir),
b.corundum (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Chhattisgarh),
c.calcite (Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, Haryana, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat),
d.fuller’s earth (Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Karnataka),
e.garnet (Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Kerala),
f.pyrites (Jharkhand; Rajasthan, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh
and Andhra Pradesh),
g.steatite (Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh),
h.wollastonite (Rajasthan and Gujarat),
i.zircon (beach sand of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Orissa) and
j.Quartz and silica minerals are widespread and occur in nearly
all states.
k.Granite is mainly mined in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Rajasthan;
l.marble in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh;
m.Slate in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh. Haryana and A ndhra
Pradesh;
n.Sandstone is found in Rajasthan.
3.7. POWER RESOURCES OF INDIA
Electricity has such a wide range of applications in today’s
world that, its per capita consumption is considered as an index of
development.
It is the most convenient and vers atile form of power and
may be classified into four broad categories depending on its
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1.Thermal power –generated from coal, mineral oil, natural gas ,
to drive turbines to produce thermal power.
2.Hydel power –generated from running water which drives
hydro turbines to generate hydro electricity
3.Nuclear or Atomic power –generated from Uranium and
Thorium
4.The non -conventional sources of energy which includes
i. Geothermal Energy
ii. Solar Energy
iii. Wind Energy
iv. Tidal Energy
v. Wave Energy
vi. Bio Gas Energy
vii. Urban Waste Energy
Hydro electricity is one of the most common forms of power
generation where power is generated from a renewable
resource, water. It is considered as one of the most economic
and non -polluting sources of energy.
The potential for hydro -electric potential in terms of installed
capacity in India is estimated to be about 148,700 MW out of
which a capacity of 30,164 MW (20.3%) has been developed
so far and 13,616 MW (9.2 %) of capacity is under
constructio n.
India has a number of multi -purpose projects like the Bhakra
Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation, the Kopili Hydel
Project etc.producing hydroelectric power.
Disadvantages of Hydro power
I.Building a dam
a.The land that would otherwise be available for use,
b.alters the landscape,
c.affects the local community that would have lived and worked
on the flooded land,
d.alters the character of the river,
e.prevents the free movement of fish.
II.Diverting a river affects the nature of the countryside and does
not lend itself to use on a large scale.
III.Permanent complete or partial blockage of a river for energy
conversion is adversely affected by variations in flow.
IV.Building large -scale hydro power plants can be polluting a nd
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V.Changing the course of waterways can also have a
detrimenta l effect on human communities, agriculture and
ecosystems further downstream.
VI.Hydro projects can also be unreliable during prolonged
droughts and dry seasons when rivers dry up or reduce in
volume.
1.THERMAL ELECTRICITY
Thermal electricity is generated by using coal, petroleum and
natural gas.
The thermal power stations use non -renewable fossil fuels for
generating electricity.
There are over 310 thermal power plants in India.
Major Thermal power plants are as follows:
A.Mundra Thermal Power Station, Gujarat
Mundra Thermal Power Station located in the Kutch district of
Gujarat is currently the second biggest operating thermal
power plant in India.
It is a coal -fired power plant
B.Talcher Super Thermal Power Station, Odisha
Talcher Super Thermal Power Station or NTPC Talcher Kaniha,
located in the Angul district of Odisha,
It is a 3,000MW coal -fired power plant owned and operat ed by
NTPC.
The power station currently ranks as the fourth largest
operational thermal power plant in India.
C.Sipat Thermal Power Plant, Chhattisgarh
The 2980MW Sipat Super Thermal Power Plant located at Sipat
in the Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh.
Itranks as the fifth largest thermal power station in India.
It is a coal -based power plant owned and operated by NTPC.
D.NTPC Dadri, Uttar Pradesh
NTPC Dadri or National Capital Power Station (NCPS) owned
and operated by NTPC is located in the Gautam Budh Nagar
district of Uttar Pradesh, about 48km from the Indian capital
New Delhi.
E.NTPC Ramagundam, Andhra Pradesh
NTPC's Ramagundam thermal power plant is located in the
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It ranks as the seventh largest thermal power plan tin India
and the largest in south India.
F.Korba Super Thermal Power Plant, Chattisgarh
Korba Super Thermal Power Plant located in the Korba district
of Chhattisgarh
G.Rihand Thermal Power Station, Uttar Pradesh
Rihand Thermal Power Station at Rihandnagar is located in the
Sonebhadra district of Uttar Pradesh
It ranks as the ninth largest thermal power plant in India.
The coal -based power plant with an installed capacity of
2,500MW is owned and operated by NTPC.
H.Jharsuguda Thermal Power Plant, Odisha
Jharsug uda Thermal Power Plant, is in the Jharsuguda district
of Odisha.
It is currently the tenth largest thermal power plant operating in
India.
2.NUCLEAR OR ATOMIC ENERGY:
Nuclear or Atomic Energy It is obtained by altering the
structure of atoms.
When such an alteration is made, much energy is released in
the form of heat and this is used to generate electric power.
Uranium and Thorium, which are available in Jharkhand and the
Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for generating atomic or
nuclear power. The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in
Thorium.
3. NON -CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY:
The growing consumption of energy has resulted in the country
becoming increasingly dependent on fossil fuels such as coal,
oil and gas. Increasing use of fossil fuels also causes serious
environmental problems. Hence, there is a pressing need to use
renew able energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass
and energy from waste material.
These are called nonconventional energy sources.
India is blessed with an abundance of sunlight, water, wind
and biomass.
It has the largest programmes for the deve lopment of these
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The non -conventional energy sources are as follows:
i.Geo Thermal Energy
Geo thermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced
by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.
Geothermal energy exists because, the Earth grows
progressively hotter with increasing depth. Where the
geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures are found at
shallow depths. Groundwater in such areas absorbs heat from
the rocks and becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to the
earth’s surface, it turns into steam. This steam is used to drive
turbines and generate electricity. There are several hundred hot
springs in India, which could be used to generate electricity.
Two experimental projects ha ve been set up in India to harness
geothermal energy. One is located in the Parvati valley near
Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other is located in the
Puga Valley, Ladakh.
ii.Solar Energy
India is a tropical country. It has enormous possibilities of
tapping solar energy.
Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity.
Solar energy is fast becoming popular in rural and remote
areas.
Some big solar power plants are being established in different
parts of India which will minimise the dependence of rural
households on firewood and dung cakes, which in turn will
contribute to environmental conservation and adequate supply
of manure in agriculture.
iii.Wind power
India has great potential of wind power.
The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from
Nagarcoil to Madurai . Apart from these, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep
have important wind farms. Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well
known for effective use of wind energy in the country.
iv.Tidal Energy
Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. Floodgate
dams are built across inlets.
During high tide water flows into the inlet and gets trapped
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gate, the water retained by the floodgate flows back to the sea
via a pipe that carries it through a power -generating turbine.
In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat on
the western coast and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of
West Bengal provide ideal condit ions for utilising tidal energy.
v.Biogas
Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to
produce biogas for domestic consumption in rural areas.
Decomposition of organic matter yields gas, which has higher
thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosen e, dung cake and
charcoal. Biogas plants are set up at municipal, cooperative and
individual levels.
The plants using cattle dung are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in
rural India. These provide twin benefits to the farmer in the form
of energy and improved quality of manure.
Conservation of Energy Resources :
Energy is a basic requirement for economic development. Every
sector of the national economy –agriculture, industry, transport,
commercial and domestic –needs inputs of energy. There is an
urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy
development. Promotion of energy conservation and increased
use of renewable energy sources are the twin planks of
sustainable energy. After all, “energy saved is energy
produced”.
3.8. SUMMARY
The physical, econo mic and institutional framework taken
together determines the pattern of land use of a country at any
particular time. In other words, the existing land use pattern in
different regions in India has been evolved as the result of the
action and interaction of various factors taken together, such as the
physical characteristics of land, the structure of resources like,
capital and labour, available and the location of the region in
relation to other aspects of economic development, e.g. those
relating to tran sport as well as industry and trade. The area, for
which data on the land use classification are available; is known as
the reporting area.
Animal husbandry is an integral component of Indian
agriculture supporting livelihood of more than two -thirds of the rural
population. Animals provide nutrient -rich food products, draught
power, dung as organic manure and domestic fuel, hides & skin,
and are a regular source of cash income for rural households. They
are a natural capital, which can be easily reproduc ed to act as amunotes.in
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living bank with offspring as interest, and an insurance against
income shocks of crop failure and natural calamities. Following the
sustained economic growth and rising domestic incomes, the
demand for livestock products has increased treme ndously.
India has one of the longest coastlines of the world at
7500km, large river system with untapped freshwater aquaculture,
component of agriculture diversification to ensure secure livelihood,
could addresses nutritional security concerns which are the
potentials in the fisheries sector.
India is fortunate to have fairly rich and varied mineral
resources. However, these are unevenly distributed. Broadly
speaking, peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves of coal,
metallic minerals, mica and many other non -metallic minerals.
Sedimentary rocks on the western and eastern flanks of the
peninsula, in Gujarat and Assam have most of the petroleum
deposits. Rajasthan with the rock systems of the peninsula, has
reserves of many non -ferrous minerals. The vast alluvial plains of
north India are almost devoid of economic minerals. These
variations exist largely because of the differences in the geological
structure, processes and time involved in the formation of minerals.
3.9. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1.State whether the following statements are true or false .
a.Hydel electricity is generated by using coal, petroleum and
natural gas.
b.Bihar is the third largest producer of inland fish (7.81%) in the
country.
c.Consistent degradation of shorelines and loss of coral reefs
have been major problems faced by India
d.There are over 310 thermal power plants in India
e.Rihand Thermal Power Station, Odisha.
f.Aquaculture is the backbone of Indian economy.
g.The co -operative societies were most successful in the Anand
Distr ict of Gujarat.
h.India ranks first in juice production, accounting for 18.5 % of
world production
i.India is now the world's fifth largest egg producer and the
eighteenth largest producer of broilers
j.Livestock includes animal husbandry, dairy and fishery sectorsmunotes.in
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2. Fill in the blanks
a.The thermal power stations use ________________ fossil fuels
for generating electricity.
b.Talcher Super Thermal Power Station is in __________.
c.There are two types of formation of coal in India -Gondwana
formation and _________ ___________formation.
d.Bauxite is the ore of ________________.
e.“Energy saved is energy ___________”.
f.Cropped area in the year under consideration is
called__________________
g._______ _________ energy refers to the heat and electricity
produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.
h._________________delta in Sunderban regions of West Bengal
provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.
i.The technology of White Revolution is based on an extensive
system of ________________ societies.
j.The gro wing of different crops on a piece of land in a pre -
planned succession is called ___________
k.____________season starts with the onset of monsoons and
continues till the beginning of winter
l.Growing of two or more crops concurrently and blend together
on the same piece of land without row arrangements is called
_______ Cropping
3.Multiple choice questions .
I.Korba Super Thermal Power Plant is in
a)Chhattisgarh
b)Odisha
c)West Bengal
d)Maharashtra
II. The Nellore District of Andhra Pradesh is known as the
a)”Orange Cap ital of India”
b)”Fashion Capital of India”
c)”Power Capital of India”
d)'Shrimp Capital of India'
III. The largest wind farm cluster is located in
a)Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai
b)West Bengal from Baj Baj to Andul
c)Assam from Kamrup to Dibrugarh
d)Odisha from Bhubaneswar to Purimunotes.in
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IV. The term "blue revolution" refers to the remarkable emergence
of
a)agriculture as an important and highly productive agricultural
activity
b)aquaculture as an important and highly productive agricultural
activity
c)milk productio n as an important and highly productive
agricultural activity.
d)irrigation as an important and highly productive agricultural
activity
V. The two states which produce the largest and good quantity of
coal in India are
a)Bihar and Odisha
b)West Bengal and Odisha
c)Bihar and West Bengal
d)West Bengal and Tamil Nadu
VI. Prof. Varghese Kuerin was the father of
a)White Revolution in India.
b)Blue Revolution in India
c)Pink Revolution in India
d)Green Revolution in India
VII. The land for which the data on classification of land -use is
available is known as
a)Reporting Land
b)Non-Reporting Land
4.Answer the Following Question
1.State five characteristics and problems of Indian Agriculture.
2.Write a short note on White Revolution.
3.What are the reasons behind the development of fisheries in
India?
4.What is Blue Revolution?
5.What are the major minerals found in India? State distribution of
any one mineral.
6.What are the major power resources of India?
3.10. ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING
QUE STIONS
1.a. False, Thermal electricity
1.b. True
1.c.True
1.d. True
1.e. False, Uttar Pradesh
1.f. False, Agriculturemunotes.in
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1.g.True
1.h. False, Milk
1.i. True
1.j.True
2.a. non -renewable
2.b. Odisha
2.c. Tertiary
2.d. aluminium
2.e. produced
2.f. net sown area.
2.g. Geo thermal
2.h. Gangetic
2.i. co -operative
2.j. crop rotation
2.k. Kharif
2.l. Mixed
3.I.a.
3.II.d.
3. III. a.
3.IV. b.
3.V.c.
3.VI. a.
3.VII. a.
3.11. TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
alkaline : containing sodium and/or potassium in excess of the
amount needed to form feldspar with the available silica. an
alkaline rock, for example, contains more than average amounts
of potassium -and sodium -bearing minerals.
abundance -is a measure of how many fish are in a population
or a fishing ground. see relative abundance and absolute
abundance.
agriculture -the art or science of cultivate, cultivating the
ground, including the harvesting of crops, and the rearing and
managemen t of livestock; tillage; husbandry; farming
cereal grains -plants of the grass family that produce grain
(seeds) that provide human food. they include wheat, rice,
barley, oats, corn (maize), rye and triticale.
deposition : earth material of any type that has
accumulated by some natural process and is large enough to
invite exploration, such as a mineral or ore.
fishery -the activities leading to and resulting in the harvesting
of fish. it may involve capture of wild fish or raising of fish
through aquacu lture. a fishery is characterised by the species
caught, the fishing gear used, and the area of operation.munotes.in
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fallow -idle crop land.
breed : it is groups of animal that are result of breeding &
selection have certain distinguishable characteristics
beef: the meat of -cattle past calf stage.
mineral : a naturally occurring inorganic substance having an
orderly internal structure and characteristic chemical
composition, crystal form, and physical properties.
mutton : the meat of sheep & goat.
3.12. TASK
1. In a map of India locate the 6 nuclear power stations and find out
the state in which they are located.
2. In a chart state the problems of Indian fisheries.
3. In a map of India point out
(i) Iron ore region and ii. Coal field
3.13. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
Economic and Commercial Geography of India by Sharma &
Coutinho
Geography of India -Majid Husain
Oxford School Atlas -Oxford
Certificate Physical and Human Geography -Goh Cheng Leong
Economic and Commercial Geography of India by C.B. Mamoria
AGeography of India by Gopal Singh
Resources : Economical Geography -A Study of Resources by
Guha and Chattoraj (NCERT books)
Ayyappan, S. & Jena, J.K. 2003. Grow -out production of carps
in India. J. Appl. Aqua., 13(3/4): 251 –282
Bhatta, R. 2003 .Socio -economic Issues in fisheries sector in
India. In: Anjani, K., Pradeep, K.K. & Joshi, P.K. (Eds.), A Profile
of People, Technologies and Policies in Fisheries Sector in
India. pp.17 –42
FAO. 2005. Aquaculture production, 2003. Yearbook of Fishery
Statistics -Vol.96/2. Food and Agriculture organization of the
United Nations, Rome, Italymunotes.in
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Gopakumar, K. , Ayyappan, S. , Jena, J.K. , Sahoo, S.K. ,
Sarkar, S.K. , Satapathy, B.B. & Nayak, P.K. 1999 . National
Freshwater,
Handbook of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2013, I ndian Council of
Agriculture Research publication (ICAR), India
Rao, G.R.M. & Ravichandran, P. 2001: Sustainable Brackish
waterAquaculture. In: Pandian, T.J. (Eds.), Sustainable Indian
Fisheries, National Academy of Agricultural Science, New Delhi,
pp. 134 –151
Strategies and Options for Increasing and Sustaining Fisheries
and Aquaculture Production to Benefit Poor Households in
India, ICAR -ICLARM project, 2004.
Tripathi, S.D. 2003. Inland Fisheries in India. In: Fish for All
National Launch, 18 –19 December 2003, Kolkata, India, pp.
33–57
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4
INDUSTRIES, TRANSPORT AND
COMMUNICATION AND TRADE
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features.
Unit Structure
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Subject -Discussion
4.3 Role of Industries in Economic development
4.4 Factors of Industrial Location
4.5 Major Industrial Regions of India
4.6 Iron and Steel Industry of India
4.7 Cotton Textile Industry of India
4.8 Engineering Industry of India
4.9 Special Economic Zone
4.10 Need ,Importance and development of Transportation
4.11 Road Transport
4.12 Rail Transport
4.13 Water Transport
4.14 Air transport
4.15 Comparison between different modes of Transportation
4.16 Cost of Transportation
4.17 Communication
4.18 Problems of transport
4.19 Internal Trade
4.20 International Trade
4.21 Balance of Trade
4.22 Summary
4.23 Check your Progress/ Exercise
4.24 Answers to the self learning questions.
4.25 Task
4.26 Glossary
4.27 References for further studymunotes.in
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4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to -
•understand the economic importance of industries.
•know India’s Industrial Regions.
•examine the advantages and disadvantages of industrial
location.
•know the problems of industries.
•understand the comparison of location of various industries
•understand th e cost of production
•know about the special economic zones of India
•know the meaning and importance of transportation
•know India’s road and rail, water and air routes.
•examine the advantages and disadvantages of types of
transportation.
•know the communi cation system in the world.
•comparison of various modes of transportation
•cost of transportation
•International and internal trade
•Balance of trade
4.2 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter you are going to study factors for industrial
location as well as the major industries of India, its problems and
solution. Moreover, we will learn about Special Economic Zone
(SEZ) also. Special Economic Zone (SEZ )i sas p e c i a l
geographical region which has completely different laws when
compared to other reg ions.
In this chapter we will also study the major transport routes
i.e. land, water and air routes of the world. The advantages and
disadvantages of different modes of transportation have also been
discussed in the following chapter. Transportation hel ps both the
production, distribution as well as consumption processes.
On the other hand Communication is the process of
receiving and sending messages between two persons or agencies
located at different places whereas Trade involves exchange of
goods among people living in different regions or countries of the
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4.3 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
It is observed that a combination of various factors like land,
raw materials, government policy, water, transportation etc are
important for the establishment of industry .
Transportation and communication is a tertiary economic
activity. With the advan cement of human society, the need of
transportation and communication has increased. It is observed
that transportation is highly developed in the advanced countries. In
short carrying of commodities or people from one place to means
transportation.
Comm unication is the process of receiving and sending
messages between two persons or agencies located at different
places. Radio and Television are the means of mass -
communication which provide information, news and entertainment
to the people spread over vas td i s t a n c e s .T e l e p h o n ea n dt e l e g r a p h
services bring the people closer to one another. Their contribution
in promoting business and trade is incalculable.
Trade involves exchange of goods among people living in
different regions or countries of the world . It plays a vital role in
accelerating the progress of agriculture and industry of a country.
4.4. ROLE OF INDUSTRIES IN ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT OF A COUNTRY
Industries play a vital role in the development of a country’s
economy. India is rich in natural resources, such as minerals,
forests, fisheries, there is abundant supply of commercial crops,
such as sugar -cane, raw cotton, raw jute, tobacco, oil seeds, etc.;
the country is fairly rich in power resources, such as coal, hydro -
electricity, and atomic en ergy. Also India is rich in human resources
and there is wide market available in the country. All these factors
have accelerated the development industries in India.
With the development of industry, modernisation in the
agricultural field has been possi ble. Initially in countries, like
India where agriculture is traditional and backward the cost of
production is high and the productivity is low. To increase
productivity and modernise agriculture we need chemical
fertilisers, pesticide and tractors, pump sets respectively. These
are all industrial products and without all these, agricultural
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Industrialisation has played a pivotal role in the field of science
and technology. The industrial enterprises conduct r esearch and
develop new products. Ethanol in the form of bio -fuel is an
example of industrial development. The progress in atomic
science, satellite communication etc. are the sign of progress in
this field.
Urbanisation follows industrialisation .G r o w t ho ft r a n s p o r ta n d
communication in a particular area are the effects of
industrialisation.
In large scale industries where surplus is very high, profits can
be re -invested for expansion and development. So, industries
help in capital formation.
By applying advanced technology, division of labour and
scientific management in the industries, production and
employment increase rapidly. This again results in the economic
growth and capital formation.
Industrialisation plays a vital role in the promot ion of trade .T h e
developed countries gain in trade compared to the developing
ones. The underdeveloped countries export primary products
and import industrial products. Agricultural products command
lower prices but their demand is elastic where as indust rial
products command higher values but their demand is inelastic.
Industrialisation plays an important role in resource utilisation .
Industrial development helps in the fast growth of national and
per capita income.
With the progress of industries a count ry can produce high
quality goods and services and attainhigher standard of living .
Industries are either manufacture or service oriented, and
provide employment opportunities. Poverty and unemployment
can be eradicated with the fast growth in the industr ial sector
which enables employment of surplus labour from the villages.
Industrialisation is needed to provide for a country’s security.
This consideration becomes all the more critical when some
international crisis develops. In such situation, dependenc eo f
foreign sources for defence materials is a risky affair. It is only
through industrial development the national objective of self -
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An u m b e ro f public and private companies operate in an
industry, which ma y manufacture the same goods or provide the
same services, but follow different strategies and guidelines to
operate their businesses. Most public and private limited
companies sell shares in order to generate funds to start up or
run their business, and t hese shareholders are the legal owners
of a company. Generally, the ones who own the majority of
shares have more influence on decision making of a company.
When in an industry the rights of minority shareholders are
eliminated or differentiated from the majority shareholders, it
creates a management problem, which then results in
operational inefficiency of the company .
Industrialisation initiates a proper balance of rights of majority
and minority shareholders for the welfare of a company.
4.5 FACTORS I NFLUENCING INDUSTRIAL LOCATION
There are several factors which pull the industry to a
particular place. Some of the major factors influencing location are
discussed below:
According to Jones and Darkenwald the manufacturer must
have easy access to raw m aterials power, labour, capital and
markets. Access to these essentials of manufacturing depends
largely upon well developed transportation facilities. These six
essentials are the basic factors in the development of modern
manufacturing. The significance of each of them varies with time,
from industry to industry and from region to region.
1.Availability of raw materials :
In determining the location of an industry, nearness to sources
of raw material is of vital importance. Nearness to the sources of
raw materials would reduce the cost of production of the
industry. For most of the major industries, the cost of raw
materials forms the bulk of the total cost. Therefore, most of the
agro-based and fores t-based industries are located in the
vicinity of the sources of raw material supply.
For those industries in which unprocessed commodities are
primary input, however, the source and characteristics of the
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When raw materials are bulky, undergo great weight loss in the
processing, or are highly perishable attract the industries that
process them. For example Copper smelting and iron ore
beneficiation are weight reducing industries are localised by
their ore s upplies. Pulp, paper, and saw mills are logically found
in areas within or accessible to timber.
Fruit and vegetable conning in California and Florida and
Orange juice concentration and freezing are various examples
of raw material orientation.
The reaso n is simple it is cheaper and easier to transport to
market a refined or stabilized product than one filled with waste
material or subject to spoilage and loss.
Multiple raw materials might dictate an intermediate plant
location. Least cost may be determi ned not by a single raw
material input but by the spatially differing costs of accumulating
several inputs.
But now a days raw materials have become much less
important as a location factor for a number of reasons :
a) as transport has developed and spec ial handling facilities have
become available, the movement of raw material has become
easier.
b) industries have become more complex, fewer and fewer firms
are now only material based.
c) technological improvements have intensified the use of materials
sothat there is less waste in manufacture.
d) other factors like markets and labour have gained importance so
raw materials have declined relatively.
2.Availability of Labour :
Adequate supply of cheap and skilled labour is necessary for an
industry and hen ce an important determinant of industrial
location.
Three major considerations: price, skill and amount of labour
may be determinant singly or in combination.
The attraction of an industry towards labour centres depends on
the ratio of labour cost to the total cost of production whichmunotes.in
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Weber calls ‘Labour cost of Index’ .T h ea v a i l a b i l i t yo fs k i l l e d
workers in the interior parts of Bombay region was one of the
factors responsible for the initial concentration of cotton textile
industry in the region.
3.P r o x imity to Markets :
Goods are produced to supply a market demand. Therefore
access to markets, its size, nature and distribution are important
factors which the entrepreneur must take into consideration.
Industries producing perishable or bulky commodities which
cannot be transported over long distance are generally located
in close proximity to markets.
Industries located near the markets could be able to reduce the
costs of transport in distributing the finished product as in the
case of bread and bakery, ice, tins, cans manufacturing, etc.
Accessibility of markets is more important in the case of
industries manufacturing consumer goods rather than producer
goods.
4. Transport Facilities :
Transport fac ilities, generally, influence the location of industry.
The transportation with its three modes, i.e., water, road, and
rail collectively plays an important role.
The junction points of water -ways, roadways and railways
become humming centres of industri al activity.
Further, the modes and rates of transport and transport policy of
Government considerably affect the location of industrial units.
The heavy concentration of cotton textile industry in Bombay
has been due to the cheap and excellent transport ation network
both in regard to raw materials and markets.
5. Power :
Another factor influencing the location of an industry is the
availability of cheap power .
Water, wind, coal, gas, oil and electricity are the chief sources of
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Both water and win dp o w e rw a sw i d e l ys o u g h ta ts o u r c e so f
power supply before the invention of steam engine.
During the nineteenth century, nearness to coal -fields became
the principal locating influence on the setting up of new
industries, particularly, for heavy industri es.
With the introduction of other sources of power like electricity,
gas, oil, etc. the power factor became more flexible leading to
dispersal and decentralization of industries.
6. Site and Services :
Existence of public utility services, cheapness of the value of the
site, amenities attached to a particular site like level of ground,
the nature of vegetation and location of allied activities influence
the location of an industry to a certain extent.
The government has classified some areas as backward areas
where the entrepreneurs would be granted various incentives
like subsidies, or provision of finance at concessional rate, or
supply of power a cheaper rates and provision of education and
training facilities. Some entrepreneurs induced by such
incen tives may come forward to locate their units in such areas.
7. Finance :
Finance is required for the setting up of an industry, for its
running, and also at the time of its expansion.
The availability of capital at cheap rates of interests and in
adequate amount is a dominating factor influencing industrial
location.
For instance, a review of locational history of Indian cotton
textile industry indicates that concentration of the industry in and
around Bombay in the early days was mainly due to the
presenc e of rich and enterprising Parsi and Bhatia merchants,
who supplied vast financial resources.
8. Natural and Climatic Considerations :
Natural and climatic considerations include the level of ground,
topography of a region, water facilities, drainage facil ities,
disposal of waste products, etc. These factors sometimes
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For instance, in the case of cotton textile industry, humid climate
provides an added advantage since the frequency of yarn
breakage is low. The humid cl imate of Bombay in India and
Manchester in Britain offered great scope for the development
of cotton textile industry in those centres.
9.Personal Factors :
In deciding location of industrial units, sometimes an
entrepreneur may have personal preferences a nd prejudices
against certain localities.
For instance, Mr. Ford started to manufacture motor cars in
Detroit simply because it was his home -town. In such cases,
personal factor dominates other considerations. However, this
kind of domination is rare.
10.Strategic Considerations:
In modern times, strategic considerations are playing a vital role
in determining industrial location.
During war -time a safe location is assuming special
significance. This is because in times of war the main targets of
airattacks would be armament and ammunition factories and
industries supplying other commodities which are required for
war. T
he Russian experience during the Second World War provides
and interesting example.
11. External Economies :
External economies also exert considerable influence on the
location of industries.
External economies arise due to the growth of specialized
subsidiary activities when a particular industry is mainly
localized at a particular centre with port and shipping facilities.
External economies could also be enjoyed when a large number
of industrial units in the same industry were located in close
proximity to one another.munotes.in
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12. Miscellaneous Factors:
Historical incidents also play a dominating role in determining
the location of indu stries in certain cases.
The development of cotton -textile industry in Lancashire
provides an interesting example for this.
Further, the size of an industrial unit would also have much
influence in choosing location. This is because the size of
industria l units depends upon the radius of the circle within
which they can profitably distribute their goods and upon the
density of population living within the circle.
4.6. MAJOR INDUSTRIAL REGIONS OF INDIA
Following are the 8 major industrial regions of India
1. Mumbai -Pune Industrial Region
2.Hugli Industrial Region.
3. Bangalore -Tamil Nadu Industrial Region
4. Gujarat Industrial Region
5. Chotanagpur Industrial Region
6. Vishakhapatnam -Guntur Indu strial Region
7. Gurgaon -Delhi -Meerut Industrial Region
8. Kolfam -Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region.
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Fig: Industrial Regions of India
4.6.1 Mumbai -Pune Industrial Region :
This region owes its origin to the British rule in India. It extends
from Thane to Pune and in adjoining districts of Nasik and
Sholapur. In and around this region, industries have grown at a
rapid pace in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Jalgaon
districts also.
When the islan d-site was obtained for construction of Mumbai
port in 1774 the seeds of its growth were sown. The opening of themunotes.in
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first railway track of 34 kms between Mumbai and Thane in 1853,
opening of the Bhor and Thai Ghats respectively to Pune and Nasik
and that of Suez Canal in 1869 led to the development of Mumbai.
The growth of this industrial region is fully connected with the
growth of cotton textile industry in India. As coal was not available
nearby, hydel power was developed in Western Ghats. Cotton was
cultivated in the black cotton soil area of the Narmada and Tapi
basins.
Cheap labour -force came from the hinterland, the port facilities
for export -import and communication links with the peninsular
hinterland made Mumbai the ‘Cottonopolis of India’. With the
development of cotton textile industry, the chemical industry
developed too.
Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field and erection of
nuclear energy plants added additional magnetic force to this
region. Now the industrial centres have developed, from Mu mbai to
Kurla, Kolaba, Thane, Ghatkopar, Ville Parle, Jogeshwari, Andheri,
Thane, Bhandup, Kalyan, Pimpri, Pune, Nashik, Manmad, Solapur,
Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli.
In addition to cotton textile and chemical industries, engineering
goods, leather, oil refineries; petrochemicals, synthetic and plastic
goods, chemicals, drugs, fertilizers, electricals, electronics,
software, ship -building, transport and food industries have also
developed here.
The partition of the country in 1947 adversely affected this
region because 81% of the total irrigated cotton area growing long
staple cotton went to Pakistan. Mumbai, the nucleus of this
industrial region, is facing the current limitation of space for the
expansion of the industry. Dispersal of industries is essent ial to
bring about decongestion.
4.6.2. The Hugli Industrial Region :
The Hugli Industrial Region located in West Bengal ,e x t e n d sa s
a narrow belt running along the river Hugli for a distance of about
100 km from Bansbaria and Naihati in the north to Birlan agar in the
south. Industries have also developed in Midnapur district in the
west. The river Hugli offered the best site for the development of an
inland river port as nucleus for the development of Hugli industrial
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Kolkata -Haora forms the nucleus of this region. It is very well -
connected by the Ganga and its tributaries. The rich hinterland of
Ganga -Brahmaputra plains plays an important role in this regard.
Moreover the navigable rivers, roads and the railways provided
subsequent links to the gre at benefit of Kolkata port.
The discovery of coal and iron ore in Chotanagpur plateau, tea
plantations in Assam and northern parts of West Bengal and the
processing of deltaic Bengal’s jute led to the industrial development
in this region.
Cheap labour could be found easily from the thickly populated
states of Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand and eastern part of U.P. Kolkata,
having been designated capital city of the British India (1773 -1912)
attracted large scale British investment of capital.
Establishment of f irst jute mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the
era of modem industrial clustering in this region. A chain of jute
mills and other factories could be established on either side of Hugli
River with the help of Damodar valley coal. The port site was best -
suited for export of raw materials to England and import of finished
goods from that country.
Kolkata’s industries have established by drawing in the raw
materials from adjoining regions and distributing the finished goods
to consuming points. Thus, the role of transport and communication
network has been as important as the favourable locational factors
in the growth of this region. By 1921, Kolkata -Hugli region was
responsible for two -thirds of factory employment in India.
The region faced the problem of sho rtage of raw jute just after
the partition of India in 1947 as most of the jute -growing areas went
to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). The problem was solved by
gradually increasing home production of jute. Cotton textile industry
also grew along with jute industry.
Paper, engineering, textile machinery, electrical, chemical,
pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and petrochemical industries have also
developed in this region. Factory of the Hindustan Motors Limited at
Konnagar and locomotive -diesel engine factory at Chittaranjan are
landmarks of this region.
Location of petroleum refinery at Haldia has facilitated the
development of a variety of industries. The major centres of this
industrial region are Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampur, Rishra,munotes.in
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Shibpur, Naihati, Kak inara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge
Budge, Birlanagar, Bansbaria, Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.
Problem in this region
Old and obsolate machinery :The industrial growth of this
region has slowed down as compared to the other regions. There
are several reasons for this sluggish growth but decline in jute
industry is said to be one of the main reasons. Most of the jute
mills, cotton textiles and the engineering industries of this region
were developed during the British rule in India. The mac hineries are
old dated and obsolete.
Lack of modern touch in the production :There is lack of
modern touch in the production to match the changes in the
consumer preferences.
Decadence of the Kolkata Port :Most of the industries of this
region are port bas ed.Alarming rate of silting of the Hugli River is a
very serious problem. The depth of water in the channel from bay
head to Kolkata docks must be kept at 9.2 metres for big ocean
ships to come in. Dredging out of the silt rapidly filling up the water
channel was very costly and not a permanent solution to save the
life of Kolkata port.
Labour unrest.
Paucity of capital.
Solutions to the above stated problem of this belt are as
follows :
The construction of Farakka barrage about 300 kms upstream
on Ganga and flushing of the channel are the only possible
answers.
The construction of Haldia port in the lower reaches of Hugli to
the south of Kolkata is another landmark in relieving the great
pressure of cargo ships on the port of Kolkata.
Change of old machineries with the introduction of modern
ones.
Increase of power supply.
Reduction of export duty of jute goods.
Arrangements of Public Awareness Programmes regarding the
use of eco -friendly nature of jute products.munotes.in
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4.6.3. Bangalore -Tamil Nadu Industrial Region :
Spread in two states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu , this region
experienced the fastest industrial growth in the post -
independence era. Till 1960, industries were confined to
Bangalore district of Karnataka and Salem and Madurai districts
of Tamil Nadu. But now they have spread over all the districts of
Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram.
This region has flourished in a cotton -growing tract and hence is
dominated by the cotton -textile industr y.In fact cotton textile
industry was the first to take roots in this region. But it has large
number of silk -manufacturing units, sugar mills, leather industry,
chemicals, rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, light engineering
goods, rubber goods, medicin es, aluminium, cement, glass,
paper, cigarette, match box and machine tools, etc.
This region is away from the main coal -producing areas of the
country but cheap hydroelectric power is available from Mettur,
Sivasamudram, Papanasam, Pykara and Sharavati da ms.
Cheap skilled local labour.
Proximity to vast local market.
Good climate has also favoured the concentration of industries
in this region.
Coimbatore has grown rapidly mainly owing to its industrial
growth based on Pykara power, local cotton, coffee mills,
tanneries, oil presses and cement works. Coimbatore is known
as Manchester of Tamilnadu because of its large -scale cotton
textile industry.
The establishment of public sector units at Bangalore like
Hindustan Aeronautics, Hindustan Machine Tools, Indian
Telephone Industry and Bharat Electronics etc. has further
pushed up the growth of industries in the region.
Madurai is known for its cotton textiles .
Visvesvarayya Iron and Steel Works is located at Bhadravati.
The other important centres of this region are Sivakasi,
Tiruchirapalli, Madukottai, Mettur, Mysore and Mandya.
Petroleum refinery at Chennai and Narimanam and iron and
steel plant at Salem a re recent developments.
4.6.4. Gujarat Industrial Region :
As the nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and
Vadodara it is also known as Ahmedabad -Vadodara industrial
region. This region extends up to Valsad and Surat in the south
and Jamnagar in th e west. The region corresponds to the cotton
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region is associated with the location of textile industry since
1860s.
With the decline of cotton textile industry in Mumbai this region
became a n important textile region.
Mumbai has the disadvantage of paying double freight charges
for first bringing the raw cotton from the peninsular hinterland
and then despatching the finished products to inland consuming
points in India. But Ahmedabad is near er the sources of raw
material as well as the marketing centres of the Ganga and
Satlui plains.
Availability of cheap land, cheap skilled labour and other
advantages helped the cotton textile industry to develop. This
major industrial region of the country , mainly consisting of cotton
textile industry, is expanding at a much faster rate in providing a
greater factory employment.
The discovery and production of oil at a number of places in the
Gulf of Khambhat area led to the establishment of
petrochemical i ndustries around Ankleshwar, Vadodara and
Jamnagar. Petroleum refineries at Koyali and Jamnagar provide
necessary raw materials for the proper growth of petrochemical
industries .
The Kandla port , which was developed immediately after
independence, provides the basic infrastructure for imports and
exports and helps in rapid growth of industries in this region.
The region can now boast of diversified industries.
Besides textiles (cotton, silk and synthetic fibres) and
petrochemical industries, other industrie sare heavy and basic
chemicals, dyes, pesticides, engineering, diesel engines, textile
machinery, pharmaceuticals, dairy products and food
processing. The main industrial centres of this region are
Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali, Anand, Khera,
Suren dranagar, Surat, Jamnagar, Rajkot and Valsad. The
region may become more important in the years to come.
4.6.5. Chotanagpur Industrial Region :
This region is located on the Chotanagpur plateau and extends
over Jharkhand, Northern Orissa and Western part of West
Bengal. The discovery of coal in Damodar Valley and iron ore in
the Jharkhand -Orissa mineral belt is responsible for the birth
and growth of this region. As both are found in close proxi mity,
theregion is known as the ‘Ruhr of India’ .
Besides raw materials, power is available from the dam sites in
the Damodar Valley and the thermal power stations based on
the local coa l.munotes.in
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This region is surrounded by highly populated states of
Jharkhand ,B i h a r ,O r i s s aa n dW e s tB e n g a lw h i c hp r o v i d e cheap
labour.
Well developed transport and communication facilitated
industrial development in this area. A good road network
complemented by an efficient network of broad gauge double
track electrified railway s facilitates the movement of raw
materials, finished products and workers.
Government patronage has helped in acquiring many tracks of
land for further industrial development.
Although Tropic of Cancer passes through this region the
climate is cool owing to higher elevation compared to the
neighbouring plains.
Abundant water supply from the Damodar and Subarnarekha
river system.
The Kolkata region provides a large market for the goods
produced in the Chotanagpur region . It also provides the port
facility t o the region. It has the advantages for developing
ferrous metal industries. The Tata Iron and Steel Company at
Jamshedpur, Indian Iron Steel Co., at Bumpur -Kulti, Hindustan
Steel Limited at Durgapur, Rourkela and Bokaro are the
important steel plants loca ted in this region.
Heavy engineering, machine tools, fertilizers, cement, paper,
locomotives and heavy electricals are some of the other
important industries in this region. Important nodal centres of
this region are Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa, Sindri, Haz aribagh,
Jamshedpur, Daltonganj, Garwa and Japla.
4.6.6. Vishakhapatnam -Guntur Industrial Region:
This industrial region extends from Vishakhapatnam district in
the north -eastern part of Andhra Pradesh to Kurnool and
Prakasham districts in the south -east and covers most of the
coastal Andhra Pradesh. The industrial development of this
region mainly depends upon Vishakhapatnam and
Machilipatnam ports.
Developed agriculture and rich mineral resources in the
hinterlands of these ports provide solid base to th ei n d u s t r i a l
growth in this region. Coal fields of the Godavari basin are the
main source of energy. Hindustan Shipyard Ltd. set up at
Vishakhapatnam, set up in 1941 is the main focus.
Petroleum refinery at Vishakhapatnam facilitated the growth of
several petrochemical industries. Vishakhapatnam has the most
modern iron and steel plant which have the distinction of being
the only plant in India having coastal location. It uses high
quality iron ore from Bailadila in Chhattisgarh.munotes.in
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One lead -zinc smelter is functioning in Guntur district. The other
industries of this region include sugar, textiles, paper, fertilizers,
cement, aluminium and light engineering. The important
industrial centres of this region are Vishakhapatnam, Vijaywada,
Vijaynagar, Rajahmundry , Kurnool, Elum and Guntur. Recent
discovery of natural gas in Krishna -Godavari basin is likely to
provide much needed energy and help in accelerated growth of
this industrial region.
4.6.7. Gurgaon -Delhi -Meerut Industrial Region :
Although this region has developed after independence it is one
of the fastest growing regions of India consisting of two
industrial belts adjoining Delhi. One belt extends over Agra -
Mathura -Meerut and Saharanpur in U.P. and the other between
Faridabad -Gurgaon -Ambala in Haryana.
The industries in this region are light and market oriented as
they are located far away from the mineral and power
resources. The region owes its development and growth to
hydro -electricity from Bhakra -Nangal complex and thermal
power from Harduaganj, F aridabad and Panipat.
Sugar, agricultural implements, vanaspati, textile, glass,
chemicals, engineering, paper, electronics and cycle are some
of the important industries of this region. Software industry is a
recent addition, Agra and its environs have gl ass industry.
Mathura has an oil refinery with its petro -chemical complex. One
oil refinery has been set up at Panipat also.
This will go a long way to boost the industrial growth of this
region. Gurgaon has Maruti car factory as well as one unit of the
IDPL. Faridabad has a number of engineering and electronic
industries. Ghaziabad is a large -centre of agro -industries.
Saharanpur and Yamunanagar have paper mills. Modinagar,
Sonipat, Panipat and Ballabhgarh are other important industrial
nodes of this regi on.
4.6.8. Kollam -Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region:
This is comparatively small industrial region and spreads over
Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alwaye, Emakulam and
Allapuzha districts of south Kerala. The region is located far
away from the mineral bel t of the country as a result of which
the industrial scene here is dominated by agricultural products
processing and market oriented light industries.
Plantation agriculture and hydroelectricity provide the industrial
base to this region. The main industri es are textiles, sugar,
rubber, match box, glass, chemical fertilizers, food and fish
processing, paper, coconut coir products, aluminium andmunotes.in
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cement. Oil refinery set up in 1966 at Kochi provides solid base
to petrochemical industries. Important industrial centres are
Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kochi, Alappuzha and
Punalur.
Besides the above mentioned eight major industrial regions, India
has 13 minor industrial regions and 15 industrial districts .T h e i r
names are mentioned below:
4.6.9 Minor Indus trial Regions :
1. Ambala -Amritsar in Haryana -Punjab.
2. Saharanpur -Muzaffamagar -Bijnaur in Uttar Pradesh.
3. Indore -Dewas -Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh.
4. Jaipur -Ajmer in Rajasthan.
5. Kolhapur -South Kannada in Maharashtra -Karnataka.
6. Northern Malabar in Kerala.
7. Middle Malabar in Kerala.
8. Adilabad -Nizamabad in Andhra Pradesh.
9. Allahabad -Varanasi -Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh.
10. Bhojpur -Munger in Bihar.
11. Durg -Raipur in Chhattisgarh.
12. Bilaspur -Korba in Chhattisgarh.
13. Brahmaputra Valley in Assam .
4.7. MAJOR INDUSTRIES OF INDIA
4.7.1 IRON STEEL INDUSTRY
Introduction:
India being a developing country, the basic need of Indian
economy today is rapid industrialization, for her economic
upliftment. As important industries like Railway locomotive, S hip
Building, Heavy and Light Machine, Construction, etc. depend on
the availability of iron and steel, iron and steel industry accelerates
industrialization and is, therefore, called the backbone of all
industries .
As on 2013, with crude steel production of 81.2 million metric
tons, India is ranked as the fourth largest steel producing country in
the world. It is estimated that India would produce 86 million metric
tons of steel in 2015.munotes.in
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Raw materials needed for Iron and Steel Industry
The raw materials for Iron & Steel Industry includes iron ore,
fuels (coal, coke), limestone, dolomite, silica, refractories,
manganese, nickel, tungsten, etc. are also used.
The industry is, therefore, located either near coal producing
areas or iron -oreproducing areas.
Iron ores are found all over the country. For the production of
one tonne of iron and steel, generally 1.5 tons of iron -ore, 0.45
tons of coke, 0.5 tonnes of limestone and 0.5 tonnes of
manganese, nickel, dolomite, etc. and nearly 60 tonn es of water
are required.
Iron ores and ancillary materials like manganese and mica are
found in very large quantities in many parts of India, particularly
in Jharkhand, Odisha and Chotanagpur. We are equally rich in
the supply of coking coal required for steel manufacture.
Large amount of water is required to cool the smelt iron, which
is heated to very high temperatures with the help of coal. The
factories are generally located near rivers or lakes and near coal
or iron -ore mines.
Other factors affecting the location of the steel plants are :
1. Availability of cheap labou r near the steel plant,
2.Good communication
3.Market
4.Ports
5.Huge amount of capital is required for setting up of iron and steel
plant.
The major Iron Steel Plants in India are as follows :
1. Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO):
Tata Steel Limited (Formerly Tata Iron and Steel Company –
TISCO) is the oldest iron and steel centre of India. This Iron & Steel
Industry, a private sector enterprise, started on August 25, 1907 by
aParsi businessman Jamshedji Tata at Sakchi village in
Singhbhum district of Bihar (now Jharkhand). Later on, it was
renamed as Jamshedpur after Jamshedji. It started producing pig
iron in 1911 and steel in 1912.munotes.in
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Tata Steel has a very large productive capac ity for finished steel
per year. Today, Tata Steel is a multi -national steel maker and has
operations in more than 25 countries including India, China, United
Kingdom, Singapore, Thailand, etc. In 2007, Tata Steel acquired
the UK based steel maker –Corus. Based on 2013 data, Tata Steel
is the eleventh largest steel producing company in the world . Its
global crude capacity is little over 25 million tonnes.
The plant initially had capacity of producing 1.21 million
tonnes of pig iron and 1.1 million tonnes of steel per annum. This
capacity has been enhanced to 3.9 million tonnes of pig iron, 2
million tonnes of ingot steel and 3 million tonnes of saleable steel.
Currently it produces about 3 million tonnes of saleable steel.
The facilities available to thi s centre are as follows :
(i)High grade haematite iron ore is available from Noamundi mines
of Singhbhum in Jharkhand and Gurumahisani mines of
Mayurbhanj in Orissa. These mines are located at a distance of
75-100 km from Jamshedpur.
(ii)Coal is available from Jharia and Raniganj coal mines located
160 to 200 km from Jamshedpur.
(iii)Manganese comes from Joda mines of Kendujhar district in
Orissa.
(iv)Dolomite, limestone and fire clay used as flux material are
available from Sundargarh district of Orissa .
(v)K o l k a t a , located at a distance of 250 km, provides port facilities
and its industrialised hinterland provides market for the
products.
(vi) Sufficient water for cooling purposes is obtained from
Subarnarekha River. In addition to this, the storage da mo n
Kharkai River also provides water.
(vii) Jamshedpur is well connected with Kolkata, Mumbai and
Chennai by road and rail and enjoys good transport facilities.
(viii) Densely populated regions of Jharkhand, Bihar and Orissa
provide cheap labour .M a j o rp art of labour is drawn from tribal
areas of Chota Nagpur plateau.munotes.in
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The shortage of space in Jamshedpur and some other allied
factors persuaded TISCO to locate a second steelworks at
Gopalpur in Orissa, about 170 kms south -east of Bhubaneswar.
The favoura ble factors are as follows:
coastal location,
proximity to a rich iron ore belt
availability of sparsely settled land for the project
an e a r b ys o u r c eo ff r e s hw a t e ri nt h ef o r mo far i v u l e t
proximity to the trunk rail line and a national highway
the presence of a minor deep water port which could be
expanded.
Tata Steel acquired land near Gopalpur to set up a shore
based steel plant in 1997 but shelved the project later due to slow
pace of development of Gopalpur port and a resistance movement
by local people. Consequently the Tata Steel decided to build a six
million tonne plant at Dubari.
Dubari Steelworks :
The infrastructure included development of the Dhamra port
andar a i l w a yl i n eb e t w e e nD h a m r aa n dB h a d r a k h .T h ep r o j e c ti sa
part of Tata Steel’s plan to reach 15 million tonne capacity by 2010.
This plant will use the latest technology and will be cost competitive
with the most efficient steel plants in the world.
2. Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) :
Three plants at Kulti, Hirapur and Bumpur in West Bengal
which were set up in 1864, 1908 and 1937 respectively have been
merged together and are known as Indian Iron and Steel Company
(IISCO).
It was brought under government control and management in
July 1972.
The three plants are linked by Kolkata -Asansol railway line.
Hirapur plant produces pig iron which is sent to Kulti for making
steel.
The rolling mills are located at Bumpur.munotes.in
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The following advantages have facilitated the growth of IISCO in
this region :
(i)Iron ore is available from Guna mines in Singhbhum district of
Jharkhand located at a distance of 285 km. Some iron ore is
also obtained from Mayurbhanj area of Orissa.
(ii) It used to receive coal f rom Jharia , located at a distance of 137
km but now the power from the Damodar Valley Corporation is
extensively used.
(iii)Dolomite and limestone are obtained from Sundargarh district of
Orissa which is 327 km away. Limestone is also available from
Gangp ur and Paraghat areas of Orissa.
(iv)Rail and road links connect it to Kolkata which is just 200 km
away.
(v)Cheap labour is readily available from the neighbouring areas.
IISCO has annual capacity of producing 10 lakh tonnes of steel.
Currently it prod uces over 4 lakh tonnes of pig iron, more than
3.5 lakh tonnes of crude steel and around 3.8 lakh tonnes of
saleable steel.
3. The Visweswaraya Iron and Steel Ltd :
Located at Bhadravati on the banks of river Bhadravati in
Shimoga district of Karnataka The Visweswaraya Iron and Steel Ltd
was established as Mysore Iron and Steel Company (MISCO) in
1923. This plant was brought under state control in 1962 and was
renamed as Visveswaraya Iron and Steel Ltd. after the name of
great engineer Dr. Visweswaraya. Thi sp l a n th a sg o tac a p a c i t yo f
1.38 lakh tonnes of steel. There are plans to raise its capacity to
two lakh tonnes.
This centre enjoys the following advantages .
(i) Bhadravati valley is 13 km wide as a result of which enough land
is available.
(ii)High gr ade haematite iron ore is brought from Kemmangundi
mines in Chikmaglur which is just 40 km away.
(iii) At the time of the setting up of the plant in 1923 the charcoal
obtained from the forest -wood was used for smelting because
coal was not available. Now ituses hydroelectric power
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(iv)Limestone is available from Bhundiguda just 25 km away.
(v) Shimoga and Chitradurga supply manganes e. These areas are
just 50 km away.
(vi)Dolomite andchromites are also available within a radius of 45 -
50 km.
(vii) It lies on the main Bim -Shimoga railway line and makes use of
railway facilities .
In order to increase the production of iron and steel, the
Government of India established The Hindustan Steel Limited in
public sector. Consequently, three plants under the public sector,
i.e. Bhilai, Rourkela and Durgapur came into operation during the
Second Five Year Plan. Capacity of each plant was fixed at 10 lakh
tonnes of steel which was expanded during the Third Five Year
Plan and a proposal of setting up a steel plant at Bokaro was also
made.
4. Bhilai:
In 1957 with the technical and financial support of the then
Soviet Union Bhilai iron and steel centre was set up in Durg district
of Chhattisgarh. It started production in 1959. I ts initial capacity was
10 lakh tonnes which has been raised to 52 lakh tonnes.
As Durg happened to be a backward area the purpose of
setting this plant was to bring prosperity to this area. This plant
produced 41.87 lakh tonnes of crude steel, 38.32 lakh tonnes of
saleable steel and 2.43 lakh tonnes of pig iron in 1996 -97.
It enjoys following geographical advantages :
(i) It procures rich haematite iron ore from Dalli -Rajhara range
which is 80 km south of Bhilai.
(ii)Coali so b t a i n e df r o mK o r b aa n dK a r g ali fields of Chhattisgarh
located at 225 km away. Bokaro and Jharia (720 km) also
supply coal.
(iii)Limestone comes from Nandini mines hardly 24 km away.
(iv) Bhandara of Maharashtra and Balaghat of Madhya Pradesh
supply manganese.
(v) The Korba Thermal Power station is the main source of power.
(vi) It is connected with Kolkata -Nagpur railway line .
(vii) Dolomite comes from Bilaspur.
(viii) Cheap labour is available from the nearby areas.munotes.in
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5. Rourkela :
Plant of Hindustan Steel Limited at Rourkela is situ ated in
the Sundargarh district of Orissa It was set up with the help of the
then West German firm, Krupps and Demang, during the Second
Five Year Plan (West Germany and East Germany have united to
form one country now). It became operative in 1959. It pro duced
12.40 lakh tonnes of crude steel, 11.80 lakh tonnes of saleable
steel and 0.54 lakh tonnes of pig iron in 1996 -97.
This plant has the following facilities for its successful
operation :
(i) This plant uses iron ore obtained from Sundargarh and Keonjhar
districts. These iron ore sources are located within a distance of
77 km from the site of the plant.
(ii) Coal is obtained from Jharia coalfields located at a distance of
225 km and Talcher, located at a distance of 169 km.
(iii) Hydro -electric power is obtained from Hirakud Power Project,
located at a distance of 150 km.
(iv) The plant receives manganese from Barajmda, dolomite from
Baradwar and limestone from Pumapani. These materials are
located within a radius of 222 km in Orissa.
(v) It is l ocated on the main Nagpur -Kolkata railway line and enjoys
facilities of railway transport.
(vi) Kolkata provides the port facilities and its hinterland serves as
market.
6. Durgapur:
Durgapur Steel Plant of The Hindustan Steel Ltd. is located
at Durgapur in Bardhaman district of West Bengal. It was set up in
1959 with the help of the United Kingdom. The production started in
1962. It has a total capacity of 35 lakh tonnes. It produced 12.45
lakh tonnes of crude steel, 10.93 lakh tonnes of saleable steel an d
1.14 lakh tonnes of saleable pig iron in 1996 -97.
The Alloy Steel Plant at Durgapur has a capacity to produce
1.6 lakh tonnes of ingots steel which has been expanded to 2. lakh
tonnes of crude steel.munotes.in
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The following geographical factors favour its loca tion and growth:
(i) Iron ore comes from Bolani mines. Mayurbhanj also supplies iron
ore. These areas are located within a radius of 320 km.
(ii) Coal comes from Jharia and Raniganj.
(iii) Limestone is obtained from Birmitrapur in Sundargarh and
manganese from Keonjhar district of Orissa.
(iv) Dolomite is supplied by Birmitrapur.
(v) Hydroelectricity is available from Damodar Valley Corporation.
(vi) Plenty of water is available from Durgapur Barrage built across
Damodar River.
(vii) The Kolkata -Asansol rai lway line links it with other parts of the
country.
(viii) Cheap labour is readily available from the surrounding areas.
7. Bokaro :
The Bokaro Steel Ltd, a new public sector company, was
formed in 1964 to erect a steel plant with the collaboration of the
erstwhile Soviet Union at Bokaro near the confluence of the Bokaro
and Damodar rivers in Hazaribagh district of Jharkhand. It is the
second plant set up with the Soviet help. It started production in
1972. Its initial capacity was 10 lakh tonnes which was raised to 40
lakh tonnes.
There are plans to raise its capacity to 100 lakh tonnes
making it the largest iron and steel making centre in India. It
produced 36.44 lakh tonnes of crude steel, 30.46 lakh tonnes of
saleable steel and 2.6 lakh tonnes of pig iron in 1996 -97.
The followi ng geographical factors have facilitated the development
of this plant:
(i) It receives iron ore from Kiriburu mine in Orissa.
(ii) Coal is obtained from Jharia coalfields located at a distance of
65 km.
(iii) Limestone comes from Palamu district of Jharkh and.
(iv) Hydroelectricity is obtained from Damodar Valley Corporation.
(v) Kolkata is just 300 km from here and provides port facilities.
Three more steel plants were planned during the Fourth Five -
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These plants are located at :
Salem in Tamil Nadu
Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh
Vijayanagar in Karnataka.
8. The Salem Steel Plant :
The plant has been set up at Salem in the Salem district of T amil
Nadu.
This plant has the following facilities for its successful operation :
1.Advantage of rich iron ore and limestone, which is readily
available in the adjoining areas.
2.It also enjoys the facilities of cheap power, charcoal and vast
market.
3.The iron ore available here has low sulphur and phosphorus
content and is suitable for producing special grade iron and
steel.
The plant started commercial production in 1982. Its capacity was
32 thousand tonnes of stainless steel sheets in the beginning. This
capacity was doubled in 1991 with the addition of another rolling
mill. This capacity was further raised to 80 thousand tonnes of
saleable steel in 1995 -96.
The Salem Steel Plant is a major producer of world class
stainless steel today. It is also in a p osition to export stainless steel
to some of the advanced countries such as the USA, Mexico,
Australia and some countries of South -East Asia.
In order to cater to the growing demand for coinage of the
Indian Government Mints, the management had also set u pa
banking facility in 1993 with a capacity of 3,000 tonnes per annum.
It also commissioned a hot rolling facility in November, 1995 which
has state -of-the-art technology with high level of automation. This
plant produced 48 thousand tonnes of saleable st eel in 1995 -96.
9. Vijayanagar Steel Plant:
This plant has been set up at Tomagal near Hospet in
Bellary district of Karnataka. It has the installed capacity of 30 lakh
tonnes. The production of mild steel will be its special feature.munotes.in
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This plant enjoys the following facilities :
(i) Iron ore is obtained from Hospet region located in close
proximity.
(ii) Coal comes from Kanhan valley in Chhattisgarh and Singareni
coal fields in Andhra Pradesh.
(iii) Good quality limestone and dolomite is available at a di stance
of about 200 km.
(iv) Water and power requirements are met by the Tungabhadra
hydel project located at a distance of about 36 km from the
plant.
10. Vishakhapatnam Steel Plant (VSP ):
This integrated steel plant is the first shore based steel plant
in the country and has a unique location on the sea port. Although
the foundation stone of the plant was laid in 1972, the construction
work could not start in the real sense till February 1982 when
Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited was incorporated as a publi c sector
company to implement the construction of the plant.
The project has been completed in two stages :
(a) the first stage was completed by March 1992 and
(b) second and final stage by July 1992.
This is the most sophisticated modem integrated steel plant
in the country. Though the production commenced in 1991 -92,
1993 -94 was the first full year of integrated operation.
In the year 1997 -98, this plant produced 32.14 lakh tonnes of
hot metal, 25.4 lakh tonnes of liquid steel, 22.5 lakh tonnes of
saleable steel and 7.7 lakh tonnes of pig iron. It is a major export
oriented steel plant and takes full advantage of its coastal location.
In 1995 -96, it exported 10.23 lakh tonnes of iron and steel worth
Rs.702 crore, mainly to China and south -east Asian cou ntries.
Currently holding 67th rank among 80 largest steel makers
on the globe, as certified by the Brussels -based International Iron
and Steel Institute, VSP is smooth -sailing towards reaching its goal
of turning into a ‘world class company in steel ind ustry’; as a result
of the effective turnaround strategy adopted by its management for
the last couple of years.
Buoyed by such a strong performance the VSP now intends
to accelerate on the expansion trajectory. Presently it is the secondmunotes.in
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largest producer of iron and steel in the country and the present
annual capacity of three million tonnes of liquid steel can be raised
to 5 million by 2006 -07 and to 10 million tonnes by 2010.
The plant management intends to go in for massive up
gradation of technology and skill of its personnel which will be
required if the natural gas from the Krishna -Godavari basin is to be
utilised to cut down cost. Import of metallurgical coal from Australia
can be reduced considerably if proper arrangements for utilising
natural ga sf r o mK r i s h n a -Godavari basin are made. The natural
gas requirement is placed at one billion cubic metres (BCM) a year
and negotiations are in progress with the Reliance Group in this
connection.
The plant has the following advantages :
(i) The coastal lo cation facilitates import of coal and export of iron
and steel.
(ii) It is well connected to coal fields of Damodar valley in
Jharkhand. Metallurgical coal is imported from Australia which
meets about 70 per cent power requirements.
(iii) The plant has a b right future with respect to its energy
requirements because there are plans to replace coal imported
from Australia by natural gas from the Krishna -Godavari basin.
(iv) High quality rich iron ore deposits are available in the Bailadila
area of Chhattisgar h.
(v) Most of the requirements of limestone, dolomite and manganese
are met by supplies from Chhattisgarh; Madhya Pradesh and
Orissa.
11. Daitari Steel Plant :
Ad e c i s i o nt os e ta n o t h e rs t e e lp l a n ta t Daitari near Paradwip
in Orissa has been taken.
12. T ata Steel Kalinganagar :
Tata Steel will set up a six million plant at Kalinganagar in
Orissa with an investment of Rs. 15,000 crore. Land for the project
has been acquired and detailed project report has been prepared.
The first phase of 3 million tonnes capacity will be completed in
three and a half years. With this project, Tata Steel is going to build
ap o r ta tD h a r m ai nO r i s s ai naj o i n tv e n t u r ew i t hL a r s e n&T o u b r omunotes.in
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to handle 3,00,000 tonne ship. A Rs. 1,500 crore investment has
been earmarked for the port to facilitate import of coal and export of
finished goods.
13. Dolvi Steel Plant :
An e ws t e e lp l a n ti sf a s tc o m i n gu pa tD o l v ii nR a t n a g i r i
district in Maharashtra. Being set up by the Ispat Industries Ltd., the
plant will use new technology in steel making. The 3 million tonnes
annual capacity hot rolled coil plant will be one of the most modern
plants in the world. It will require less space, less energy, high
labour productivity and will involve less cost of production.
Producing thin strips will b e a special quality of this plant.
14. Posco Steel, Paradwip :
Pohang Steel Company (Posco) of Korea has entered into a
Memorandum of Understand (MoU) with Orissa Government for
setting up a steel plant at Paradwip with a total investment of Rs.
51,000 crore.
International Trade :
India is both an importer and an exporter of iron and steel.
However, our imports are much higher than the exports.
Iron and Steel Production
India produced about 5 crore and 84 lakh m ton crude steel,
62.11 lakh m ton pig iron,5.72 crore m ton finished steel
4.7.2 COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Introduction : Cotton Textile Industry is one of the important
and the largest single industry in India. About 70% of the cotton
produced in India is used for making textiles. It accounts for a large
portion of the total industrial output in the country, nearly 16% of the
total industrial output each year. At present cotton textile industry
accounts for nearly 13% ofthe total foreign income of the country
and engage about 3 crore 50 lakh people . India is one of the
important cotton -manufacturing countries of the world. Both short -
staple and long -staple cotton is grown in the country .
Production and Trade :
India is th elargest producer and exporter of cotton textile products.
India ranks 1stin production as well as export of cotton goods. Indiamunotes.in
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exports cotton textiles to the countries like Russia, U.K., Australia,
Sri Lanka, Iran, Germany, Belgium, Italy, etc. In 2008 -09 India
produced nearly 290 crore kg, of cotton yarn and 2690 crore square
metre of cotton cloths. In 1985 per capita consumption of cotton
cloth in India was 15.35 metre. In 2008 -09 it increased to 39 metre.
(Ref: Economic Survey 2009 -10 page A 24)
History, Growth and Development
The production of cotton both by hand spinning and weaving
has been practiced in India from time immemorial. While the factory
production of cotton goods dates back to the middle of the 19th
century it used to be only a cottag e industry in the ancient and the
medieval times. India was famous worldwide for the production of
muslin, a very fine variety of cotton cloth, calicos, chintz and other
different varieties of fine cotton cloth.
Initially, the British did not encourage th e development of the
indigenous cotton textile industry. They exported raw cotton to their
mills in Manchester and Liverpool and brought back the finished
products to be sold in India.
The cotton textile industry in Indian was initiated with the
establish ment of the first cotton textile factory at Ghusuri near
Kolkata in 1818 . However, it was closed down very soon due to the
shortage of raw material.
Actual development of the industry had been taking place
since 1859 with the establishment of cotton mill at Mumbai which is
located in the cotton growing region of Western India .
Types of cotton Textile Industry
There are two types cotton textile industry
a. Mill–Mills are of three types :
Spinning mill
Weaving mill
Composite mill
b. Loom –Looms are two types :
Handloom
Power loommunotes.in
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The factors helped in the development of this industry in
India are as follows :
It is a tropical country and cotton is the most comfortable fabric
for a hot and humid climate.
Large quantity of cotton is grown in India in the black soil region.
The cotton growing regions are Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, etc. Gujarat ranks 1stposition in cotton
cultivation in India.
Cotton as a raw material is light weight and non -perishable.
When Cotton is spun to yarn or text ile there is hardly any weight
loss. Therefore, proximity to raw material site is not essential.
As a result other factors become more important in industrial
location i.e.
1. Nearness to market
2. Nearness to water body (for dyeing, bleaching)
3. Energy to run power looms and textile machines
4. Cheap labour supply.
5. Abundant skilled labour required for this industry is easily
available in this country
6. Availability of capital/finance
In some areas the people who were producing cotton texti les
for generations, transferred the skill from one generation to the
other and in this process perfected their skills.
Raw materials
The cotton textile industry requires raw cotton as principal
raw material and chemicals like caustic soda, dyes, arrowroot or
starch , etc. for its production.
Distribution:
Cotton textile centres of India are distributed in four regions :
1. Western Region,
2. Southern Region,
3. Northern Region and
4. Eastern Region.munotes.in
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1. Western Region :
Gujarat and Maharashtra are most advanced states of this
region. Mumbai in Maharashtra and Ahmedabad in Gujarat are two
principal centres of this region. Ahmedabad is known as the
‘Manchester of India‘. The other centres include Nagpur, Pune,
Sholapur, Jalgaon in Maharashtra and Sur at, Bharuch, Vadodara,
Bhavanagar, Rajkot in Gujarat.
Factors for the growth of the industry in this region are :
Black soil region of Gujarat and Maharashtra is the best cotton
growing region of India. So local raw cotton from Gujarat and
Maharashtra is ea sily available.
Availability of cheap hydel power from Bhira, Bhibpuri, Khopali,
Koyna of Maharashtra and Ukai, Kadana of Gujarat produced in
Western Ghats.
Three most important ports are located in this region. So, port
facilities of Mumbai, Kandla and J awaharlal Nehru are available
here which favours the import of raw material and machineries
and export of finished cotton products. Raw long staple cotton is
imported through the port Kandla and Mumbai from Egypt and
other foreign countries
This region bei ng adjacent to the Arabian Sea enjoys the humid
climate required for spinning of the yarn.
Large capital invested by Parsi and Bhatia businessmen.
Moreover, Mumbai is also the economic capital of India so,
money is affluent.
Locally available cheap and ski lled labour from Konkan, Satara,
Sholapur etc.
Well-knit transport system, through Western and Central
railways and many high ways.
Good demand for cotton garments and cotton textile products of
this region both inside and outside India.
We will now discuss about the important cotton producing
centres of this region. They are as follows:munotes.in
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1.AHMEDABAD
The black soil of Western India is favourable for cotton
cultivation. Ahmedabad has witnessed the growth of large number
of Cotton Textile Industries in recent years. The reasons are cited
below :
Ahmedabad, situated on the bank of the river Sabarmati, get s
water from it which is again used for dying thread.
It is near the Black -Cotton soil region —so it gets raw materials
from the neighbouring region.
The temperate climate of this region is suitable for spinning fine
thread.
Long staple cotton can be import ed through Mumbai and Kandla
ports from foreign countries like Egypt and Sudan
It gets power from the Ahmedabad thermal power station.
It gets cheap and skilled labour from the neighbouring region
which is densely populated.
It gets capital from the Gujara ti, Sindhi and Bhatra people who
are rich and are ready to invest huge sum of money.
The products have a wide market both inside and outside India.
The city is well -connected by means of roadways and railways
with other important parts of the country.
Cotton textile research institutes, situated here, carry
researches for the better production and development of the
industries.
Ahmedabad is called the “ Manchester of India” because it
has similarity with the famous cotton textile centre of Manchester,
Grea t Britain. Let us find out the reason for why is it called so .
Manchester is an industrially developed region in U.K. and is
particularly developed in cotton industries. Climate condition of
Manchester is temperate and is suitable for spinning fine thread .
The water of the river Mershey is good for dying thread. Just like
Manchester, Ahmedabad in India, is situated on the bank of
Sabarmati River. Its water is good for dying thread. Climatic
condition is also suitable for spinning fine thread.munotes.in
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2.MUMBAI
Mumbai is the leading centre of cotton textile industry in
India. Factors responsible for the growth of cotton textile industries
in Mumbai are as follows :
Raw materials :T h en e a r b yB l a c k -Cotton soil region produces
raw cotton. Mumbai gets raw materials from the neighbouring
region and is the collecting centre of raw cotton which is
imported.
Port Facilities : Mumbai port has excellent harbour facilities for
importing long staple cotton and machinery to meet the
requirements of the mill and export of the finis hed cotton
products to abroad.
Humid Climate : Mumbai situated in the western coastal region
of the Konkan in Maharashtra has humid climate essential for
spinning and weaving.
Soft Water :A b u n d a n t s u p p l i e s o f s o f t w a t e r a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r
dyeing and bleachi ng.
Labour: There are supplies of skilled and skilled workers in large
number.
Supply of Electricity : It has a favourable position to get cheap
hydel power and electricity at affordable rate.
Chemical s: Chemicals required for cotton textile industries are
easily available from the well developed chemical industries in
Mumbai -Pune industrial belt.
Market : There is a good market for the yarn and cotton fabrics
both in home and foreign countries.
Transport: Both Rail and road transport system are well
develo ped.
2. Southern Region :
In South India cotton mills are located in the states of Tamil
Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Important centres
are Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirapalli Chennai, Guntur, Mysore,
Pondicherry etc. Coimbatore i s the largest cotton textile centre of
this region. It is known as the ” Manchester of South India”.munotes.in
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The factors for the development of cotton textile industry in
this region are:
Supply of local raw cotton
Supply of cheap hydel power
Good transportation network
Port facility through the ports of Kochi, Chennai, Tuticorin etc.
Locally available cheap labour
Warm and humid climate
Dense population of the region providing large market.
3. Northern Region :
The region includes the states of Uttar Pradesh, Delhi,
Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. The principal centres are Kanpur,
Delhi, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Agra etc.
The factors for the development of the industry in this region are :
Long staple cotton is produced here
Cotton is grown with the help of irrigation
High demand for cotton goods in north India
Good transportation system
Plenty of local cheap labour.
4.Eastern Region :
This region includes the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa
and Assam. Maximum mills are located at Kolkata, Sodepur,
Belgharia, Shyamnagar, Ghus uri, Salkia, Sreerampur, Maurigram
etc.
The advantages for the growth of this industry are as follows:
Nearness to the Kolkata port
Coal of Raniganj mine
Cheap labour of West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand and Bihar
Good transportation system,
Humid climate and
High demand for cotton goods.
Problems of the Cotton Textile Industry
The cotton Textile Industry has confronted with a number of
problems among which the more important are as follows:munotes.in
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The production and supply of raw cotton is highly erratic.
Long s taple cotton is not well grown in many parts of India and
is imported from Egypt and Sudan.
Many of the factories are old, the plants and machinery
employed in many of our textile mills are obsolete. Moreover,
they were put to intensive use and have consi derably
deteriorated. All these have resulted into low productivity.
High cost of advanced machinery is an unavoidable hindrance
for the procurement of new machinery. For this reason, the
much -needed replacement had to be deferred for many years.
The high cost of production is also effectively retarding the
growth of this important industry. Prices of other raw materials
like dyes, chemicals and starch are soaring every year.
Irregularity of coal supply also affects the industry badly.
There is competition from synthetic fibres like polyester, etc.
There is competition in the International Market from
Bangladesh, Japan, China, and Britain, etc.
Great difficulties are being experienced by mill -owners in
obtaining the capital needed for modernization.
Manager ial inefficiency leads to strikes and lockouts of the
factories.
Localisation of cotton growing region.
Solutions
Plenty of problems are there in the field of cotton textile
industry in India. The following are the solutions:
The plant and machinery have to be replaced at an early date.
Introduction of the more up -to-date and modernized machinery
is very urgent and has to be done without any delay in the
interest of producers and consumers alike.
Easy loan facility should be e xtended to the industries intending
to modernize their plant and machinery.
Assured availability of raw -materials, labour, and power would
ensure steady supply.
Economies of large -scale production should be encouraged to
keep down the prices of finished pr oducts.munotes.in
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Prospects of Cotton Textile Industry in India
Modern day human beings are very conscious about health
a hygiene. So, demand for cotton goods is increasing rapidly. To
increase the production of cotton and to solve other problems
related to the in dustry “ National Textile Corporation ”a n d“ Cotton
Goods Export Development Organisation” have been set up by
the Government of India.
4.7.3 ENGINEERING INDUSTRIES
Engineering Industry is a largely diversified industry, which
produces a wide range of machineries and its associated steel
products. It also known as Mechanical or Public Work Industry.
Productions include engines, machines, cars, agricultural or mining
machineries. Primaril y it is based upon metal works, but now a
days other materials such as PVC, plastics, nylon rubber are
commonly used.
Growth and Development
This sector of the industry developed only after
independence . Before that the country totally depended on
imports .
Raw materials
Iron and Steel is by far the most important metals used in the
engineering industry, although non -ferrous metals especially
aluminium and copper are also required for certain industries.
Characteristics of engineering industries
1.Iron and steel and other metals are the basic requirements of
engineering industries.
2.Manufacturing leads to value addition in the product.
3.Electricity is used in small quantities.
4.There is an increase in the volume of manufactured products,
some of which need car eful handling, and, therefore the cost of
transportation is high.
5.Many engineering industries need assembling.
6.Raw materials and power are used in less quantity and the cost
of production is much higher and therefore market is the prime
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Classification of engineering industries:
The engineering industries may classified into two categories
based on the amount of raw material used, shape and size of the
products, number of labours engaged and the amount of capital
invested.
1.Heavy Engineering Industry
2.Light Engineering Industry
The engineering industries include the following major type
of manufacturers:
1.Machine tools, for cutting, grinding, rolling, drilling, welding etc.
which help in the manufacture of tools and machinery for motor
vehicles, locomotives, ship building, air craft etc.
2.Industrial machinery, such textile and mining machinery
3.Agricultural machinery such as tractors, combines, harrow -
implements
4.Locomotives, air crafts, ships, motor vehicles etc.
5.Electrical instruments and tools, printing machines and domestic
equipment.
4.8. A Special Economic Zone (SEZ)
4.8.1 Definition :
Special Economic Zone (SEZ )i sas p e c i a lg e o g r a p h i c a l
region which has economic laws that are more liberal than a
country's domesti ce c o n o m i cl a w s . India has specific laws for its
SEZs .
The category 'SEZ' covers a broad range of more
specific zone types, that includes :
Free Trade Zones (FTZ),
Export processing zones (EPZ),
Free Zones (FZ),
Industrial Estates (IE),
Free ports,
Urban Enterprise Zones and others.
Usually the goal of a structure is to increase foreign direct
investment by foreign investors, typically an international business
or a Multi National Corporation (MNC).munotes.in
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Category of SEZ
1. “Free trading and warehousing “is a special category sez with
a focus on trading and warehousing. The objective of such zone is
to create trade related infrastructure to facilitate import and export
and import of goods and services with freedom to carry out trade
transactions in free cu rrency.
2.“Special Economic Zone for multi -product”means aS p e c i a l
Economic Zone where Units may be set up for manufacture of two
or more goods in a sector or goods falling in two or more sectors or
for trading and warehousing or rendering of two or more services in
a sector or rendering of services falling in two or more Sector.
3.“Special Economic Zone for specific sector ”m e a n saS p e c i a l
Economic Zone meant exclusively for one or more products in a
sector or one or more services in a sector.
4.“Special Economic Zone in a port or airport ”m e a n saS p e c i a l
Economic Zone in an existing port or airport.
SEZs are controlled by a three tier Organizational Set -up
described as under:
•Supreme controlling body in the Department is known as The
Board of Approval
•At district level, The Unit Approval Committee tackles with SEZs
development and other associated issues
•Every district is led by a Development Commissioner, who also
controls the Unit Approval Committee.
Advantages:
15 year corporate tax holiday on export profit
Allowed to carry forward losses
No license required for import made under SEZ units.
Duty free import of goods for setting up of the SEZ units,
Exemption from payment of Service Tax.
Setting up Off -shore Banking Units (OBU) allowed in SEZs.
External Commercial Borrowings up to $500 million a year
allowed without any maturity restrictions 11 SEZ
Disadvantages:
Revenue losses because of the various tax exemptions and
incentives.
Acquire land at cheap rates and create a land bank.
May not match up to expectations
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4.8.2. Special Economic Zones in India
Special Economic Zones in India were established in an
attempt to accelerate foreign investment and endorse exports from
India and recognizing the need of a global platform to expose the
domestic firms and producers to the competitive world market.
The a nnouncement of formulating a Special Economic
Zones policy in India was made by the government in April
2000 and was anticipated to be an overseas province for trade
purposes, commercial operations, duties and taxes.
SEZs when equipped are anticipated toprovide premiere
infrastructure services and sustenance services, besides permitting
for the tariff free import of merchandize and raw materials.
Furthermore, attractive financial subsidiaries and trouble -free
custom tariffs, banking and other methods are provided in such
business zones. Establishing SEZs is also recognized as
communications development methods.
Salient features of Indian Special Economic Zones
Some of the salient features of Indian Special Economic Zones are
as follows:
•Indian SEZs are developed b y government, private and joint
sector, unlike its international counterparts where zones are chiefly
maintained by their respective governments. This provides equal
prospects to both Indian and global players.
•Government has allocated al e a s t favourable area of 1,000
hectares for greenfield SEZs. Although, there are no limitation in
context of favourable area in constructing sector specific SEZs.
•100% of Foreign Direct Investment is allowed for all endowments
in Special Economic Zones, apart f rom activities catalogued under
the unconstructive record.
•SEZ divisions are obligatory to be encouraging net foreign
exchange yielders and are not entitle to any least amount of value
addition guidelines or export responsibilities.
•Commodity surge from Domestic Tariff Area (DTA) into a SEZ is
recognized as exports and commodity surge into DTA from SEZ
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Benefits of SEZs
Besides offering high end infrastructure and availability to a
large skilled workforce, SEZ also offers attractive incentives and
advantages to firms and developers.
Some of the benefits of Indian Special Economic Zones are as
follows:
Full Income tax exe mption for a period of 5 years and an extra
50% tax relief for additional two years.
Manufacturing industry is allowed an FDI influx of 100% via
automatic channels excluding few industries.
Services to establish off -shore banking divisions in SEZs
Servi ce Tax and Central Sales Tax exemption
External commercial lending of up to US$500 million is allowed
for SEZ divisions in a year sans any maturity limitations via
certified banking networks.
No import authorization obligations.
Services to sustain foreign exchange proof of payments of up to
100% in Exchange Earners' Foreign Currency Account.
SEZ franchisees are allowed100% FDI in offering customary
telephone facilities in the areas.
No limitation of foreign endowments for small scale industry
reticent products.
Tax relief from sect oral authorization obligations for goods
reticent for SSI industry
Tax relief from custom tariff on import of merchandize, raw
products, spare parts etc
Tax relief from Central Excise tariff on acq uirement of
merchandize, raw products, spare parts etc from the local
market
No regular assessments by Customs for export and import
freight.
Capacity to comprehend and repatriate export advances within
ay e a r .
Revenues permitted to be repatriated sans an yd i v i d e n d
assessment needs
Authorization for Employment prospects on behalf of local
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Authorization for off -shoring of local and global players. This
service is accessible to jewellery sector also.
State -wise distribution of approved SEZs (As on 21st
January, 2015)
Here is the state wise distribution of SEZs.
State/Country Total Approved
(Formal + In principle)Total
NotifiedTotal
Operational
All India 523 352 196
Maharashtra 78 52 25
Telangana 60 42 24
Karnataka 59 39 25
Tamil Nadu 59 51 36
Andhra
Pradesh44 30 18
Gujarat 39 28 18
Haryana 37 25 6
Kerala 32 25 14
Uttar Pradesh 32 22 10
Madhya
Pradesh20 9 2
West Bengal 14 5 7
Rajasthan 10 8 4
Odisha 9 4 2
Punjab 8 2 2
Goa 7 3 0
Chhattisgarh 3 1 1
Delhi 3 0 0
Chandigarh 2 2 2
Nagaland 2 2 0
Puducherry 2 0 0
Jharkhand 1 1 0
Manipur 1 1 0
Uttarakhand 1 0 0munotes.in
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4.9. NEED IMPORTANCE AND DEVELOPMENTS OF
TRANSPORTATION
A reliable and efficient transportation system plays a pivotal
role in a region’s economic growth. A well developed transportation
system connects the distant part of the country, provides adequate
access to the region which in turn is a necessary conditio n for the
efficient operation of manufacturing, retail, labour and housing
markets.
There is the need therefore to maintain and improve the
existing transportation and build new infrastructures for a national
wealth. The national wealth is the growth dom estic products (GDP)
which is an indicator or measures of the rate of economic growth.
An international study found every 10 percent increase in travel
speed; labour market expands 15 percent and productivity by 3
percent (Barrister and Berechinan. 2000).
Therefore, transport, forms a key input for production
processes and adequate provision of transport infrastructure and
services helps in increasing productivity and lowering production
costs.
4.9.1 The commercial developments of transport are as
follows:
a.Makes available raw materials to manufacturers or
producers:
Transport makes it possible to carry raw materials from
places where they are available, to places where they can be
processed and assembled into finished goods.
b.Makes available goods to customers :
Transport makes possible movement of goods from one
place to another with great ease and speed. Thus, consumers
spread in different parts of the country have the benefit of
consuming goods produced at distant places.
c.Enhances standard of living :
Easy means of transport facilitates large -scale production at
low costs. It gives consumers the choice to make use of different
quantities of goods at different prices. So it raises the standard of
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d.Helps during emergencie s and natural calamities :
In times of national crisis, due to war or internal disturbance,
transport helps in quick movement of troops and the supplies
needed in the operation. For example in times of natural calamities,
like floods, famines, earthquake s, cyclones etc. and national
emergencies like wars transport plays a critical role
e.Helps in creation of employment :
Transport provides employment opportunity to individuals as
drivers, conductors, pilots, cabin crew, captain of the ship, etc. who
are directly engaged in transport business. It also provides
employment to people indirectly in the industries producing various
means of transport and other transport equipments.
f.Helps in labour mobility :
Transport helps a lot in providing mobility to workers. You
may be aware that people from our country go to foreign countries
to work in different industries and factories. Foreigners also come
to India to work. In India, people also move from one part to
another in search of work. Similarly, it is not always possible to
have workers near the factory. Most industries have their own
transport system to bring the workers from where they reside to the
place of work.
g.Helps in bringing nations together :
Transport facilitates movement of people from one country to
another. It helps in exchange of cultures, views and practices
between the people of different countries. This brings about greater
understanding among people and awareness about different
countries. Thus, it helps to promote a feeling of intern ational
brotherhood.
It is also necessary for connecting villages with towns,
market centres and in bringing together remote and developing
regions closer to one another.
4.9.2. Modes of Transport
According to the following features various means of transport are
used in different parts of the world :
topography,
geographical environment,
geographical location,
economic development and
technological level.munotes.in
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Various means of transport are as follows :
I. In extremely remote areas animals like mules, goats, yaks,
including man serve as means of transport
II. Inbackward rural areas bullock carts horse carts camel carts
serve as means of transport
III. Motor buses, trucks, tractors, cars popularly used as short
distance means of transport.
IV. Railways carry passengers and goods to distant places.
These are particularly useful for transportation over long
distances.
V. Ropeways are used in difficult hilly terrains ,n o w a d a y s .
VI. Pipelines carry oil gas and the liquid for distribution in distant
places.
VII. Inland waterways (canals, rivers and lakes) are still widely
used as they are the cheapest means of transport.
VIII. Oceans are by far the greatest carriers of commerce and
trade in the modern age as they handle nearly90% of the
total cargo of the world.
IX. Aeropla nes are the fastest means of transport. In fact the
number of quantity of air traffic is an indicator of economic
development of a country.
From the above discussion we have learnt that basically
transport is possible through land, air or water ,w h i c ha r e called the
different modes of transport in which several means play a distinct
role, each having a definite utility. On land we use trucks, tractors,
etc., to carry goods; train, bus, cars etc.to carry passengers.In air,
we find aeroplanes, helicopters t oc a r r yp a s s e n g e r s as well as
goods. Similarly in water we find ships, steamers, etc., to carry
goods and passengers. All these are known as various means of
transport.
4.9.3 The modes of transport can be broadly divided into three
categories :
I.Land trans port
II.Water transport
III.Air transport.
(I.)Land Transport:
Land transport means physical movement of goods and
passengers on land. This movement takes place on road, rail, rope
or pipe. So land transport may further be divided intomunotes.in
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1. Road transport,
2. Rail transport,
3. Ropeway transport,
4. Pipeline transport.
1. Road Transport has been the principle form of competition
for the railway. Its main features are as follows:
It offers flexibility , choice of routes and delivery at the door.
Roads are the means that connect one place to another on the
surface of the land. We have seen roads in our village, in towns
and cities. Not all of them look alike. Some of them are made of
sand and some may be of chips and cement or coal tar. We find
different vehicles plying on roads like bullock carts, cycles,
motorcycles, cars, truck, buses, etc. All of these constitute different
means of road transport.
The means of road transport may be divided into three types :-
i. Man driven :
We have seen individu als carrying goods on their head or
back, in bicycles or on thelas , move from one place to other.
People also ride a bicycle or use rickshaw to travel short distances.
ii. Animal driven :
We also find animal driven vehicles like carts (drawn by
bullocks, cam els, horses, donkeys, etc.) used in rural areas to carry
crops, straw, fodder and sometimes even In areas, which are
normally covered with snow throughout the year, we find sledges
pulled by dogs used to carry both passengers and goods.
iii. Motor driven:
Compared with man driven and animal -driven means of road
transport, motor driven means of transport have become more
important over the years. This is due to their speedy movement and
larger carrying capacity. Extension of roads to every corner of the
coun try has also enhanced the use of motor driven transport. The
types of motor vehicles used to carry goods and passengers
include auto -rickshaws, scooters, vans, buses, tempos and trucks,
etc. In Kolkata, tramway also forms part of road transport for
carryin gp a s s e n g e r s .munotes.in
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Advantages of Road transport
Road transport has the following advantages .
It is a relatively cheaper mode of transport as compared to other
modes.
Perishable goods can be transported at a faster speed by road
carriers over a short distance.
It is a flexible mode of transport as loading and unloading is
possible at any destination. It provides door -to-door service.
It helps people to travel and carry goods from one place to
another, in places which are not connected by other means of
transport like hilly areas.
Limitations of Road transport
Road transport has the following limitations:
Due to limited carrying capacity road transport is not economical
for long distance transportation of goods.
Transportation of heavy goods or goods in bulk by r oadinvolves
high cost.
It is affected by adverse weather conditions. Floods, rain,
landslide, etc., sometimes create obstructions to road transport.
2.Rail transport
Transportation of goods and passengers on rail lines through trains
is called rail trans port. It occupies an important place in land
transport system of our country.
Characteristics of Rail transport:
It is the most dependable mode of transport to carry goods and
passengers over a long distance.
Besides long distance, local transport of pas sengers is also
provided by local trains ormetro -railin some metropolitan cities.
Rail transport is available throughout the country except some
hilly or mountainous regions.
In India two types of trains are found .munotes.in
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(i.) One is passenger train and other is (ii). goods train. While
passenger trains carry both human beings and a limited quantity of
goods, the goods trains are exclusively used for carrying goods
from one place to another. These trains are driven by rail engines
and they use steam, diesel or electric power to move.
Let us now discuss the advantages and limitations of rail transport.
Advantages of Rail transport:
Rail transport has the following advantages
It is a convenient mode of transport for travelling long distances.
It is relatively faster than road transport.
It is suitable for carrying heavy goods in large quantities over
long distances.
Its operation is less affected by adverse weathers conditions like
rain, floods, fog, etc.
Limitations of Railway transport:
Railway transport has the following limitations:
It is relatively expensive for carrying goods and passengers over
short distances.
It is not available in remote parts of the country.
It provides service according to fixed time schedu le and is not
flexible for loading or unloading of goods at any place.
It involves heavy losses of life as well as goods in case of
accident.
3. Pipelines transport
In modern times, pipelines are used for various purposes.
Water supply to residential and commercial areas is carried on with
the help of pipeline. Petroleum and natural gas are also transported
from one place to another through pipelines. This is the most
convenient as well as economical mode of transport for petroleum
as well as natural gas i n comparison to road and rail transport,
provided the volume to be transported is large. But the cost of
installation and maintenance requires large capital investment.munotes.in
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4. Ropeway transport
Ropeway refers to a mode of transport, which connects two
places on the hills, or across a valley or river. In the hilly areas,
trolleys move on wheels connected to a rope and are used for
carrying passengers or goods, especially building materials, food,
etc. The famous “ Uran Khatola Jagdamba ” in Gujarat that carries
pilgrims to the temple is an example of ropeway transport, which
carries more than 100 passengers at a time.
(II) Water transport
Water transport refers to movement of goods and
passengers on waterways by using various means like boats,
steamers, launches, ships, etc. With the help of these means goods
and passengers are carried to different places, both within as well
as outside the country. Within the country, rivers and canals
facilitate the movement of boats, launches, etc. Since the goods
and passenger s move inside the country, this type of transport is
called inland water transport. When the different means of transport
are used to carry goods and passengers on the sea route it is
termed as ocean transport . Let us know further about these two
types of water transport.
Different Means Water Transport :
i.Inland transport
ii.Ocean transport
i. Inland water transport
Inland water transport use boats, launches, barges, streamers,
etc., to carry goods and passengers on river and canal routes.
These routes are called inland waterways.
These are used in domestic or home trade to carry bulky goods.
Passenger transports th rough waterways are not so popular in
our country.
Inland water transport system exists only in a few states like.
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Kerala etc.
ii. Ocean transport
Ocean transport refers to movement of goods and passengers
with the help of ships through sea or ocean waterways.
It plays an important role in the development of international
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It is also used for transporting goods and passengers in the
coastal areas.
Ocean transport has its fixed route, which links almo st all the
countries of the world.
Ocean transport may be of the following two types:
Coastal Shipping –
i.In this transport, ships ply between the main ports of a country.
ii.This helps in home trade, and also in carrying passengers within
the country.
Overseas shipping –
i.In this transport, ships ply between different countries separated
by sea or ocean.
ii.It is mainly used for promotion and development of
Internationaltrade .
iii.It is an economical means of transport to carry heavy machines
and goods in bulk .
Importance of Overseas transport :
Overseas transport is carried out on fixed routes, which
connect almost all the countries.
Ships used in Overseas transport are as follows :
In ocean transport, different types of ships are used to carry
passengers and goods.
These may be classified as under.
a)Liners -Al i n e ri sap a s s e n g e ro rc a r g ov e s s e l ,w h i c hb e l o n g st o
ar e g u l a rs h i p p i n gc o m p a n y .T h e s es h i p sp l yo v e raf i x e dr o u t e
according to a prescribed schedule or timetable.
b)Tramps -A tramp is a cargo ship, which does not make regular
trips but plies whenever cargo is offered to it. It does not follow a
fixed route or a prescribed timetable like that of liners.
Advantages of water transport
Water Transport has the following advanta ges:
a)It is a relatively economical mode of transport for bulky and
heavy goods.
b)It is a safe mode of transport with respect to occurrence of
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c)The cost of maintaining and constructing routes is very low as
most of them are naturally made.
d)It promo tes international trade.
Limitations of water transport
Water transport has the following limitations .
a)The depth and navigability of rivers and canals vary and thus,
affect operations of different transport vessels.
b)It is a slow moving mode of transport an d therefore not suitable
for transport of perishable goods.
c)It is adversely affected by weather conditions.
d)Sea transport requires large investment on ships and their
maintenance.
(III) Air transport
This is the fastest mode of transport .
Importance of Air Transport:
It carries goods and passengers through airways by using
different aircrafts like passenger aircraft, cargo aircraft,
helicopters, etc.
Besides passengers it generally carries goods that are less
bulky or of high value.
In hilly and mountaino us areas where other mode of transport is
not accessible, air transport is an important as well as
convenient mode.
It is mostly used for transporting goods and passengers during
natural calamities like earthquake and floods, etc. During war,
air transpor t plays an important role in carrying soldiers as well
as supplies to the required areas.
Air transport may be classified as
domestic and
international air transport.
Use of Air Transport :
Domestic air transport mainly used for movement within the
coun try,munotes.in
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International air transport is used for carrying goods and
passengers between different countries.
Air transport is carried out in fixed air routes, which connect
almost all the countries.
Advantages of Air transport
It has the following advantages:
It is the fastest mode of transport.
It is very useful in transporting goods and passengers to the
area, which are not accessible by any other means.
It is the most convenient mode of transport during natural
calamities.
It provides vital support to the n ational security and defence.
Limitations of air transport
It has the following limitations:
It is relatively more expensive mode of transport.
It is not suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods.
It is affected by adverse weather conditions.
It is n ot suitable for short distance travel.
In case of accidents, it results in heavy losses of goods,
property and life.
Different Means Air Transport :
Domestic and International air transport means:
Aeroplanes
Helicopters
4.9.4. Cost of transportation
The expenses involved in moving products or assets to a
different place, which are often passed on to consumers is known
as Cost of transportation
4.10. COMMUNICATION
Communication system contributes to the development of
the economy, social relationships and also helps in promoting
cultural unity. Internationally, diverse people of the world are
brought closer to one another by communication. In the event ofmunotes.in
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any impend ing calamity, accident or emergency instant means of
communication flash the news across the globe so that relief can
be rushed to the spot immediately.
Different means of Communication are as follows :
1. Postal Services
It is the most commonly used mode of communication in
India. The postal services play a vital role in the rural areas of the
country. About 99% of the villages enjoys postal services. At
present about 1.55 lakh post offices are providing postal services
covering every part of the country. To keep compatibility with the
rest of the world the Indian postal services are also being
modernised.
Various postal services are stated under:
I. Postal Index Number or PIN has facilitated the prompt
delivery of mail
II. Speed post service has been introduced f or fast and quick
delivery of post.
III. Quick Mail Service (QMS) is another step in this direction.
IV. Satellite money order scheme was introduced in 1994 as a
pilot project for providing services to hilly, backward and
remote areas from six principal cities.
V. International mail services carried by air and sea is an
important step in linking the foreign countries with India.
2. Telecommunication
It is the modern device for the communication at individual
and mass level.
Telegraph, Telephone; Talex and Fax are the m ain means of tele
communication.
I. Telegraph: is comparatively an old mean for providing quick
communication in event of any emergency. At present about forty
thousand telegraph offices have been working in the country.
II. Telephone: There has been a very fast progress in
telephone facilities. As on 31 March 2006, the network comprises
of 142.09 million telephone connections and over 2.34 (February,munotes.in
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2006) million Public Call Office (PCOs). There are over 62.90
million cellular subscribers in the country and the cellular
customer base is growing at the rate of over two million per
month. Telephone services have been expanding very rapidly in
the country. STD (Subscriber Trunk Dialling) facilities are
available to all the big and small towns of the country. Fully
automatic International Subscriber Dialling (ISD) service is
available to almost all the countries.
III. Telex: Telex services make possible to send information in
printed form. More than 200 cities of India enjoy the service. Use
of satellite has revolutionized the Tele communication system
today.
3. Mass -Communication
Radio and television are the electronic media of mass
communication .T h e yp l a ya ni m p o r t a n tr o l ei ni n d i v i d u a la n d
social life.
I. Radio is a powerful medium which provide all sorts of useful
information, news and variety of entertainment. There are about
223 radio broad casting stations in the country and provide
services to 91.42% of the area and 99.13% of the total population.
Now, FM Radio services have given a new face to radio
transmissio n.
II. Television service was started in 1959 in India. However,
the real expansion of T.V. Service began after 1980. Only recently
several channels on television have been made available to
private parties. This has promoted keen competition to improve
the qu ality of programme even of Doordarshan. Doordarshans
network consist of (i) 64 Doordarshan Kendra (studio centres);
1400 transmitters (1134 transmitters for DD1, 153 transmitters for
DD News, 109 transmitters for regional services and 1 digital
transmitter s each at Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata, and Mumbai). DD1
provide services 79% of area and about 91% of the total
population.
III. Cinema is yet another mean of mass communication. It
entertains millions of people every day.
IV. Print media
Newspapers, periodicals and journals fall in the category of
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There were 62,550 daily newspapers, periodicals and different
journals in Indian languages on 31st March, 2006. These were
6,800 dailies, 369 tri/bi -weekli es, 21,453 weeklies, 8,227
fortnightlies, 18,545 monthlies, 4,340 quarterlies, 584 annuals, and
2,232 of the other periodicity. The largest number of newspapers
and periodicals registered in any Indian language is in Hindi
(24,017), second is English (8,76 8).
4.11. PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORT
2. Faulty Planning of Transport system :
The heavy pressure on rail and road transport in certain
cities and regions has lead to the development of transport system
unbalanced. For balanced development alternative routes should
be developed as it is seen that he Delhi metro has decreased the
pressure on road transport. Moreover, lack of fast and adequate
public transport system in the metropolitans has encouraged the
explosion of personal transport which again put extra pr essure on
the roads. It is also observed that hilly and remote areas lack all
weather transport facilities.
3. Lack of rail -road co -ordination:
The main two means of transportation of India, Rail and
Road transport, should work in co -ordination. The present share of
road transport in freight and passenger traffic is 60% and 80%
respectively whereas the same share in 1951 was 11% and 26%
respectively. This growth is not desirable from the economic and
environmental point of view. The railways must be engaged i na
planned way for bulky goods and long distances while road
transport should be engaged for small goods and short distances.
4. Lack of Improved Technology:
We are using age old technology in our road and railway
transport system, like our engine design, s ignalling system, multi -
axle vehicles, and worn out tracks are the main problems in railway
system in India.
5. Worn -out and obsolete assets:
There is old and obsolete infrastructure in all modes of
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Road transport of the country is facing an u m b e ro f
problems. Some of these problems are discussed below:
1. Bad Roads:
The roads in India are not properly metalled(42.65%) and
many are even Kucha Roads. They are not suitable for use of
vehicular traffic. The vehicles have to bear more wear and tear and
the cost of operating them is unreasonably high. The poor
maintenance of the roads aggra vates the problem especially in the
rainy season.
2. Mixing of traffic:
One major problem on the Indian roads is the mixing of
traffic. Same road is used by hig h speed cars, trucks, two wheelers,
tractors, animal driven carts, cyclists and even by animals. Even
highways are not free from this malady. This in creases traffic time,
congestion and pollution and road accidents.
3. Slow Growth of Vehicles:
There is slow growth of commercial vehicles because of
higher operation costs. The increase in rates of fuel and the high
prices of vehicles due to heavy excise duties are the factors
responsible for the slow growth of commercial vehicles. To these
the exorbitant taxes on commercial vehicles may also be added.
4. Role of private sector
There is very little participation of private sector in road
development in India because of long gestation period and low -
returns.
5. Lacking stability in policy
There has been no stability in policy relat ing to highway
development in the country. It has changed with the change of
government. There are a number of agencies which look after the
construc tion and maintenance of different types of roads. Since
there is no co -ordination between these agen cies their decisions
are often conflicting and contra dictory.
6. Lack ofCo-ordination:
Lack of co -ordination between the centre and the states in
another major problem as the states and the centre try to shift the
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of main highways. It has resulted in the blocking of rapid
development of roads in India.
7. Shortage of Funds:
There is shortage of funds for the construc tion and maintenance of
roads.
8. Competition among Different Modes:
There is a competition among different modes of transport.
The transport policies of different states are different. Some
highways have more traffic while on others there are not sufficient
transport services.
4.12. INTERNAL TRADE
Buying and selling of goods and services within the
geographical boundaries of a country is known as internal trade,
domestic trade or home trade. This may take place among buyers
and sellers belonging to the same locality, village, town or city or
may be in d ifferent states. But the trade must be within the same
country. Features of Internal Trade :
(a) The buying and selling of goods takes place within the
boundaries of the same country.
(b) Payment for goods and services is made in the currency of the
home country.
(c) It involves transactions between the producers, consumers and
the middlemen.
(d) It consists of a distribution network of middlemen and agencies
engaged in exchange of g oods and services.
This may be sub -divided into two categories
a.wholesale and
b.retail
a.Wholesale trade
It is concerned with buying goods from manufacturers or dealers
or producers in large quantities and selling them in smaller
quantities to others who may be retailers or even consumers.
The wholesaler generally deals in one or few variety of items
such as machinery, textiles, medicines etc
Wholesale trade requires a large amount of capital to be
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It also requires large storage space
Wholesale traders are also involved in activities like packaging,
grading, advertising, market research, etc.
b. Retail trade
It refers to buying goods from the manufacturers or wholesalers
and selling the same to the ultimate consumers. Those who are
engaged in retail trade are called retailers.
The retail trader generally deals in a variety of goods.
A retailer makes pu rchases from producers or wholesalers in
bulk for sale to the consumers in small quantities according to
their requirements.
Retail trade is normally carried on in or near the main market
area.
Generally retail trade involves buying on credit from
whole salers and selling for cash to consumers.
A retailer has indirect relation with the manufacturer (through
wholesalers) but a direct link with the consumers.
4.13. GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS AFFECTING
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
The physical and biological factors that are tied to
geographic location, including climate, the distribution of wild plant
and animal species, soil and topography are called Geographical
factors.
4.13.1. International Trade
Definition
International trade is the exchange of commodities,
products, services, capital between people and companies in
different countries. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy,
in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by
global events. It form a significant part of many countries “GDP”.
International trade has existed for long. But trade has increased
hugely in the past few hundred years having major impact on
international economy. Trading globally gives consumers and
countries the opportunity to be exposed to goods and services like
food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewellery, wine, stocks, currenciesmunotes.in
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and water, not available in their own countries. Services like
tourism, banking, consulting and transportation are also traded: A
product that is sold to the global market is an export, and a product
that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and
exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the
balance of payments.
By the Measurement of Import Trade and Export Trade,
the International Trade may be classified as t he following
Trade Types
1. Balanced Trade :W h e nt h et r a d e -value of import and export
trade of a particular country is equal, it is known as balanced trade.
2.AdverseBalanced Trade : When the import trade -value is more
than the export trade value, it is kn own as adverse balanced trade.
3.Favourable Balanced Trade: When the import trade -value is
less than the export trade value, it is known as favourable balanced
trade.
The international trade can be between the two countries
(bilateral) or among the count ries more than two (multilateral).
Similarly, the trade can be visible or invisible in nature. In the visible
trade, the commodities are directly sold or consumed, while in the
invisible trade, the commodities are directly sold but they can be
economicall y benefited to a country i.e., tourism.
Importance of International Trade
The importance of international trade can be stated as:
A commodity can be consumed irrespective of its production in
the country.
The goods are available with the reasonable rates through
international trade.
A specialization in a particular production may be done.
Different commodities or goods may be chosen as per our
liking.
The calamities can be faced by importing the commodit ies in
such situations, i.e., earthquakes, draughts.
The ideas, thoughts may be exchanged.
An opportunity of enjoying the scarce resources may be
possible.
The benefits of division of labour are obtained by all.munotes.in
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Trade Affected due to Geographical Factor s
Any country’s bilateral or multilateral trade is affected by
A.geographical position,
B.natural resources,
C.economic development level and
D.political factors.
The Geographical Factors are as Follows
1.Climate : Geographical location is one of the most important
factors in trade development. It means the location of a country
controls its climate in one hand and trade on the other. The climate
on earth is not similar at all locations. The types of crops, animals,
vegetation depend on climate. Three clima tic zones are found on
the earth in general:
tropical,
temperate and
cold
The crops like tea, coffee, rubber, coco, coconut, sugarcane,
rice, etc, are grown in tropical zone; while a variety of vegetables,
maize, wheat, and different fruits are grown in t emperature zone. In
cold zone hairy leather is obtained. The trade of such commodities
is involved within the regions.
It is observed that the poorest locations are in the tropics,
where the climate is hot, the land is less fertile, water is scarcer,
and where diseases flourish, hence trade is hindered. Conversely,
Europe and North America profit from huge tracts of very fertile
land, a temperate climate, and good rainfall. In extremes of climate,
either hot or cold, too much energy goes into the simple bu siness of
survival for development.
Some countries are just at a natural disadvantage where rain
patterns may give a short growing season, while others can get two
harvests in one year.
2.Relief Conditions :
Earth’s surface is covered by mountains, platea us and plains. A
similar type of relief is not found all over the earth.
Sometimes agriculture is delimited in mountainous region but
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rise to the invisible foreign trade.
In plateau and plain region, different productions through the
occupations like agriculture, animal rearing, mining,
transportation and communication, manufacturing may be
obtained and the international trade may be increased.
But if the natural condition so np l a t e a ua n dp l a i n sa r e
unfavourable, the scope for producing commodities becomes
limited. i.e. regions with snow cover, desert region. Similarly, the
uneven distributions of natural resources like water, soils,
vegetation and animal, affects the inter national trade.
In mid -latitude moderate climate, coastal areas, the
transportation is convenient, good for development of
international trade.
High -latitude climate, cold, inland mountainous area cause
traffic block, which is adverse to the development of
international trade. Japan, with its island position has the
advantages to the development of bilateral trade between
neighbouring countries.
3.Location :
Geographical location plays a pivotal role in access to markets.
Since time immemorial, all the g reat empires have been based
around trade routes, and in most cases, almost always
maritime.
Trade suffered in many of the world’s poorest countries because
they are landlocked or situated in high mountains.
On the contrary, countries having long coastline so rg o o d
natural harbours have ourableconditionsforthe
development of trade.
Fromtheportsmoeycanberaisedthroughtollsandshipping
services.Chinahaseld’sbusiestports,andso
doestheUS.
Accesstothecoastsfavourstransportationandtradeas
transportationbyland,isexpensive.Russiabeingice-boundon
itsnortherncoastlines,hassquabbledforcenturiesoverthe
accesstoawarmwaterportandhence,theCrimeanwar.munotes.in
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Countries like Afghanistan, Rwanda, Malawi, or Bo livia are all
hindered by no access to ports.
Other countries like Ethiopia or Lesotho are not only landlocked,
but also mountainous, making trade even more expensive.
4. Resources:
Resources form the backbone of the economy of a nation.
Without land, water, forest, air, mineral one cannot develop
agriculture or industry.
Uneven distribution of national resources like land, climate,
water, minerals, vegetation and animal life controls international
trade.
The earth is a store -house of various minerals, but their
distribution over the earth is very uneven.
The countries, having rich deposits of minerals, develop mining
and export the minerals and the products produced out of
minerals i.e. the export of mineral oil from Middle -East
countries.
The minerals got greater importance after the industrial
revolution.
The industrial development was achieved due to the minerals,
which encouraged the international trade.
There must be proper infrastructure to capitalize on these.
But some places have a distinct advan tage over the other
regarding resource and its utilisation. In this case Mineral Oil is
the most obvious.
There is no doubt about how Saudi Arabia or UAE have made
money by trading oil. South Africa has the advantage of
resources like gold and diamonds whi ch have helped her build
the most successful economy on the continent.
Although these are all non -renewable resources, trading may be
continued till they last.
On the other hand the renewable resources, forests, fish, etc. if
correctly managed, will replen ish them, and trade based onmunotes.in
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them may flourish and continue. Many South American
developments based on the Amazon rainforest trade natural
rubber and timber.
Moreover, wind, tide and solar energy, known as “flow
resources’, are renewable and need no manage ment. The Earth
Policy Institute describes the American Great Plains as ‘the
Saudi Arabia of wind Energy’, while sunshine -rich places like
California, Sicily and Portugal are able to invest in solar power.
No natural resource is a license to print money, a nd there are
plenty of poor countries who are rich in resources, but it is a
factor.
The type and degree of a country’s natural resource directly
affect the country’s International Trade in primary products.
Such as Zaire is said the “Mid -Africa gem”, in the national export
commodities, Minerals (70% -80%).
5. Stability:
Mohammad Yunus in his book Banker to the Poor states that
environmental stability can be a factor in the development of
trade.
Some countries are more stable than others. Bangladesh, a
land of natural disasters, is unstable in this respect. So this
factor becomes important regarding development of trade in this
area.
Also regular beset of monsoons, floods and landslides, as it
happens in countries like Bangladesh or in Philippines, things
become harder.
Even an earthquake zone, hinders trade. And we’ve all seen
what a tsunami can do.
6. The Level of Economic Development :
Economic Development level of a country can directly affect the
foreign trade, commodity structure and the position of her in
international trade.
The United States, Japan and the European Union’s national
economic development level is high, the imports and exports
accounted for half of the world and the population of the country
accounts for only about 1/7 of the world.munotes.in
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Devel oping countries have a relatively backward economy; as a
result, foreign trade is relatively less.
7. Political Factors:
The world’s political relations and the policy of a country also
have big impact on international trade. The gulf war occurred
because Iraq’s oil exports plummeted due to political reasons.
Since the late 1970s, China adopted a policy of opening up its
economy to the outside world, hence foreign trade developed
quickly.
8.Other factors that affect trade are currency, technology,
labour, transportand communication .
4.13. 2. India’s Foreign Trade
History of Indian Trade
Trade means exchange of goods. Since time immemorial
India possesses arich and a long history of trade. From ancient
times till the establishment of theBritish Empire, India was famed
for enormous wealth. Even during the medievalperiod, the country
did not lose its prosperity despite facing frequent
politicaldisturbances. The trade in different phases of the Indian
history has beendiscussed below.
Trade during the Sultan ate Period
During the sultanate period, from the early 13th to the 16th
century, the economies of the towns flourished because of Indian
trade. This was due to the establishment of sound currency system
based on silver “tanka” and copper “dirham”. During this period
important caters of Indian trade and industry were Delhi, Lahore,
Bombay, Ahmedabad and Jaipur.
Trade During the Mughal Period
During the two hundred years of the Mughal era, from the
16th to 18thcentury, the Indian trade received a further g rowth. The
Mughal era witnessed the establishment of a stable centre and
uniform provincial government. During this age of relatively peace
and security trade and commerce flourished.
The prime urban centres of Indian trade during the Mughal
era were Agra , Delhi, Multan, Lahore and Srinagar in the north, and
Ahmedabad, Bombay, Surat, and Ujjain in the west. The trademunotes.in
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centres in the eastern part of the country were Dhaka, Patna,
Hooghly, Chittagong and Murshidabad. India was known widely for
is textiles, wh ich was one of the chief items of the export. The
Indian handicrafts were the most eye catching features in the trade.
Trade During the Medieval Period
Medieval India witnessed trade at domestic level. The most
superior quality of rice and sugar from Kann auj, wheat from Punjab,
betel leaves from Dharr in Madhya Pradesh found their way to the
markets of Delhi. Well -maintained roads connecting various parts
the country facilitated domestic trade.
Trade During the Present Period
Indian trade has not only rea ched its peak with almost all
countries of the world in the present century but also flourished in
the domestic trade as well. Now India exports both capital goods,
foreign trade goods.
4.13.3. Economic Liberalisation Heralded Indian Foreign
Trade1991 Econ omic Reform
Since the 1991 economic liberalisation, with the increase in
foreign trade, India’s economy has improved noticeably. Prior to
that, India was a closed economy and trade did not flourish
extensively due to the average tariffs exceeding 200 percent and
the extensive quantitive restrictions on the imports. Foreign
investment was strictly restricted, only to allow Indian ownership in
the businesses.
Exports and Imports
India exports approximately 7500 commodities to about 190
countries and impo rts around 6000 commodities from 140
countries.
India exported US$318.2 billion and imported $462.9 billion
worth of commodities in 2014.
According to the ministry of commerce the 15 largest trading
partners represent 60% of the total trade by India and 80 % of its
trade deficit in the financial year 2012 -13. In the year 2013 -14,
mineral fuels are the largest traded item with 58.465 billion US$
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Gold and its finished items are the second largest item traded
item with 58.465 billion US worth imports. T hese two
commodities constitute 53% total imports, 34%total exports and
nearly 100% of total defect.
4.13.4. Foreign Trade Policy 2009 -2014
The Government of India announced Its Foreign Trade
Policy in the Year 2009 when the world was facing recession. Th is
affected export of many countries. India’s trade also suffered.
Announcing a foreign trade policy by the government in this
economic situation was a very difficult task. Before defining the
objective of the new policy it would be useful to take stock of our
achievement in the foreign trade over the five years. The foreign
trade policy announced by the government in 2004 had set two
objectives namely,
1. To double our percentage share to global merchandise trade
within 5 years and
2. Use trade expansion a s an effective instrument of economy’s
growth and employment generation. Looking back, we can say with
satisfaction that the government has delivered on its promise.
Short Terms Objectives
The short term objective of our trade policy is to increase the
exports and to provide additional support especially to those
sectors which have been hit badly by recession in the developed
world. We would like to set a policy objective of achieving an
annual export growth of 15 percent.
Long Term Objectives
The government should follow a mix policy measure to
provide adequate confidence to our exporters to support
employment. The government wants to provide a stable policy
environment conductive for foreign trade. The government also
wants to enhance insurance co verage under foreign trade policy. It
was decided to take initiative to diversify the exports markets. We
have signed a comprehensive economic partnership agreement
with South Korea which will give enhanced market to Indian exports
We have also signed a tr ade in goods agreement with a season
which came in force from 1st January 2010. The government wants
to provide brand India through six or more “made in India” shows to
be recognized across the world every year. In the era of globalmunotes.in
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competitiveness, there is an urgent need for Indian exports to
upgrade their technology and reduce their costs. For up gradation
of export sector, infrastructure, “town of export excellence” and the
units located there in would be granted additional focused support
and incentive s exam bank will provide more finance to the
exporters in order to reduce the transaction costs and institutional
bottlenecks, the e -trade projects would be implemented.
4.14. BALANCE OF TRADE
Balance of trade, the difference in value over a period of time
betwe en a country’s imports and exports of goods and services,
usually expressed in the unit of currency of a particular country or
economic union (e.g., dollars for the United States, pounds sterling
for the United Kingdom, or Euros for the European Union). Th e
balance of trade is part of a larger economic unit, the balance of
payments (the sum total of all economic transactions between one
country and its trading partners around the world), which includes
capital movements (money flowing to a country paying hi gh interest
rates of return), loan repayment, expenditures by tourists, freight
and insurance charges, and other payments.
If the exports of a country exceed its imports, the country is
said to have a favourable balance of trade, or a trade surplus.
Conv ersely, if the imports exceed exports, an unfavourable balance
of trade, or a trade deficit, exists. According to the economic theory
of mercantilism, which prevailed in Europe from the 16th to the 18th
century, a favourable balance of trade was a necessar ym e a n so f
financing a country’s purchase of foreign goods and maintaining its
export trade. This was to be achieved by establishing colonies that
would buy the products of the mother country and would export raw
materials (particularly precious metals), w hich were considered an
indispensable source of a country’s wealth and power.
The assumptions of mercantilism were challenged by the
classical economic theory of the late 18th century, when
philosophers and economists such as Adam Smith argued that free
trade is more beneficial than the protectionist tendencies of
mercantilism and that a country need not maintain an evenmunotes.in
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exchange or, for that matter, build a surplus in its balance of trade
(or in its balance of payments).
A continuing surplus may, in fa ct, represent underutilized
resources that could otherwise be contributing toward a country’s
wealth, were they to be directed toward the purchase or production
of goods or services. Furthermore, a surplus accumulated by a
country (or group of countries) m ay have the potential of producing
sudden and uneven changes in the economies of those countries in
which the surplus is eventually spent.
Generally, the developing countries (unless they have a
monopoly on a vital commodity) have particular difficulty
maintaining surpluses since the terms of trade during periods of
recession work against them; that is, they have to pay relatively
higher prices for the finished goods they import but receive
relatively lower prices for their exports of raw materials or
unfinished goods.
4.14.1 India Balance of Trade
India recorded a USD 6542 million trade deficit in February
of 2016, lower than a USD 6742 million gap a year earlier and
below market expectations of a USD 6750 million shortfall. It is the
lowest deficit since September of 2013. Exports fell 5.66 percent
year-on-year to USD 20738 million, the 15th straight month of
decline as non -petroleum exports decreased 2.69 percent. Imports
dropped 5 percent year -on-year to USD 27280 million, the lowest
since August o f 2010. Oil purchases slumped 21.92 percent and
gold purchases shrank 29.49 percent. Balance of Trade in India
averaged -2105.38 USD Million from 1957 until 2016, reaching an
all time high of 258.90 USD Million in March of 1977 and a record
low of -20210.9 0 USD Million in October of 2012. Balance of Trade
in India is reported by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry,
India.
4.15 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
In this chapter we have learnt about the role of industries in
the Indian economy and how Industries have helped in the
urbanisation, industrialisation, use of resources, increase in per
capita income etc. Major industrial regions along with the minormunotes.in
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ones have also been taken into consideration. We have studied
three major industries of India i.e. Iron and st eel, Cotton Textile,
Engineering Industry, reasons behind their growth and
development, different centres of production, problems solutions
and future prospects.
The meaning and importance of transportation and
communication and the India’s road and rail , water and air routes
have been studied. We have also examined the advantages and
disadvantages of types of transportation. Comparison of various
modes of transportation, cost of transportation, significance of
transportation and its effects on economic developments of a
country has also been taken into consideration. The dependence of
occupations, like agriculture, industries, trade, and tourism on the
transport and communication system are very important and
therefore, the transport routesare known as the ‘life lines’ of human
life. Moreover, it is learnt that the information from any corner of the
world can be received through communication media which helps in
the economic development andglobalization.In this lesson, you
have learnt the relative impor tance of transport, communication and
trade in India.
4.16. GLOSSARY
Urbanisation –is the process of creating towns in country areas
Trade –activity of buying and selling
Per capita income –the total amount of income in a country
divided by the number of people in that country
Management –the control and organising of a business
Import –buying products from another country
Export –selling products from another country
Production –manufacturing something in large quantities
Resources -–land, water, air, minerals, animals, vegetation, etc.
Human resource –population: a source of development.
Transportation –Carrying of persons or commodities from one
place toanother.
Inadequate -not sufficient
Perishable –easily gets rotten
Topography -terrainrialwww.nuance.communotes.in
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4.17 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1.Fill in the blanks
a. _________________ has played a pivotal role in the field of
science and technology.
b. According to Jones and Darkenwald the manufacturer of an
industry must have easy access to ___________, power,
labour, capital and markets
c. The Hugli Industrial Region is located in _____________,
extends as a narrow belt running along the river Hugli.
d. The engineering industries may classified into two categories
Heavy Engineering Industry and __________ Engineering
Industry
e. The cotton textile industry in Indian was initiated with the
establishment of the first cotton textile factory at
__________________ near Kolkata in 1818.
f.Transportation and is a tertiary activity.
g.Transport is possible through , orwater.
h.It is also necessary for connecting villages with ,and market
centres.
i.Al i n e ri sac a r g ov e s s e l .
j.Different means water transports are _______, ocean transport.
2.True or False
a. Mumbai gets raw cotton from the neighbouring region of Alluvi al
soil that produces raw cotton.
b.Ahmedabad is called the “Manchester of India” because it has
similarity with the famous cotton textile centre of Manchester,
Great Britain.
c.Through the process of production analysis, Weber came to
know that there w ere certain costs in the total cost of production
which are directly influenced by geographical factors
d.Since steel is basic to the manufacture of automobiles, this
industry prefers its location near iron and steel centresmunotes.in
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e.Assured availability of raw -materials, labour, and power would
ensure steady growth of any industry.
f.Water supply to residential and commercial areas is carried on
with the help of pipeline.
g.For the economic development of a country means of transports
are not essential.
h.Adequate pr ovision of transport infrastructure and services
helps in increasing productivity and lowering production costs.
i.Transportation does not help during emergencies and natural
calamities.
j.Transportation makes available raw materials to manufacturers
orproducers.
3. Multiple choice questions
1. An industry’s production and employment increase rapidly by
i. Applying advanced technology, division of labour and scientific
management
ii. Creating marketing problems
iii. Creating Labour unrest
iv. Only abund ant supply of raw material
2. Jamshedpur, (TISCO) steel plant is well connected to coal fields
of,
i.Damodar valley in Jharkhand
Ii.Raniganj, West Bengal
Iii. Jahria mine
3. Ahmedabad cotton Textile region gets cheap hydel power from
i. D.V.C, West Bengal
ii. Ukai, Gujarat
iii.Raniganj, West Bengal
iv.Bokaromunotes.in
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4. The western cotton Textile region of India enjoys the humid
climate as it is adjacent to the.
i. Bay of Bengal
ii. River Ganga
iii. Arabian Sea
iv.Indian Ocean
5. Heavy engineering Industries manufacture
i. Watch
ii. Automobiles
iii. Cotton textile
Iv.jewellery
6. Transports are essential because
I. it connect different parts of the country
II. vast natural resources can be kept in reserve
III. it is cheap travelling by air
7. Inadequate transportation
I. provide s easy transportation of heavy goods
II. limits nation’s ability to utilise natural resources
III. helps in easy movement in the remote areas
8. Ropeway connects
I. two places on the hills or across the river
II. two places on the road
III. nothing
9. Railway transportation is relatively expensive for
I. short distances
II. long distances
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10. Name the trade carried between the countries:
I. National trade
II. free trade
III. international trade
IV. none of these.
11. Which is the world’s longest highway?
I.Moscow -Irkutsk trans Canadian
II.New York -San Francisco
III.Varanasi -Kanyakumari
IV.None of these
12. In which type of transportation ‘door to door’ service is
possible?
i. Road transport
ii Rail transport
iii Water transport
iv. Air transport
4.18 CHECK YOUR ANSWER
1. a. Industrialisation
1. b. raw materials
1 .c. West Bengal
1 .d. Light
1 .e. Ghusuri
1f. economic
1g. land, air
1h. towns
1i. passenger
1j. inland
2. a. False, black soil.
2. b. True
2. c. False, process of cost analysis
2. d. True
2. e. True
2f. true
2g .false
2h. truemunotes.in
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2i. false
2j. True
3.1.i
3.2.iii
3.3.ii
3.4.iii
3.5.II
3.6. I
3.7. II
3.8. I
3.9. I
3.10. Iii
3.11. I
3.12. I
4.19. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
1.What are the factors affecting the location of industries?
2.What are the problems of cotton textile industry of India?
3.State the reasons for the localisation of Iron Steel Industry in
Rourkela.
4.State how industrialisation has helped in the economic growth of
India.
5.Classify Engineering Industry. Describe any two of them.
6.What is the importance of transportation?
7.What are the various modes of transportation?
8.Write short notes on
a)Land transportation
b)Inland water transportation
9.What are the disadvantages of air transportation?
10.What are the advantages of land transport ation?
11.What are the merits of waterways?
12.How are bulky and heavy goods transported?
13.Compare the merits of land and air transportation system.
14.Analyse the cost of any two types of transportation system.
15.How has transportation helped in international trade?munotes.in
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4.20. TASK
1.In a mp of India point out the location of Iron Steel Plants of
India
2.In a map of India show the four major cotton textile regions.
3.In a map of India show the important rail routes.
4.In a map of India show the important rail route for raw material
collection for iron steel industry of TELCO.
5.Compare the advantages of land transportation against water
transportation in tabular form.
6.State the different modes of transportation in land , water and air
in tabular form.
4.21. REFERENCE BOOKS
•Choudhari, S.R.: Paryavaran Aani Arthik Kriya, Himalaya
Publishing House, Mumbai.
•Magar Jaikumar: Arthik Bhugol, Vidya Prakashan, Pune.
•Savadi & Kolekar (2007): Manvi Prayogic Bhugol , Nirali
Publications, Pune.
•Savdi, Hardikar and Kolekar (1986) : Arthik Bhogol, Tilak
Prakashan,Mumbai.
•Tawade and Sawant: Arthik Karyacha bhugol, phadke
prakashan, pune.
•Arunachalam, B: Economic and Commercial Geography, A.R.
Sheth and Co. Mumbai.
•Economic Geography –Jones and Darkenwald
•Economic Geography –Wheeler, J.O.
•Hartshorne and Alexander: Economic Geography, Prentice Hall
of India, New Delhi.
•Nimbalkar, Chaudhari: Commercial Geography, Himalaya
Publishing House. New Delhi.
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5
PRACTICALS
Concept of Statistical diagrams and Maps: Importance of
statistical diagrams in Geography
Statistical diagrams are a diagrammatic representation of
numerical form of statistical data .Statistical diagrams represent
numerical data into adiagrammatic form which is most illustrative.
Statistical diagrams are drawn to scale and so are proportional to
thequantity represent ed.
When these statistical diagrams are superimposed on maps it
is known located proportional distribution m ap which revea ls
spatial dimensions of location and variations of the given
phenomena .
A social scientist is required to represent various types of
statistical information on a map that helps to represent spatial
distribution and concentration of any particular phenome non under
study. For example ,s p a t i a ld i s t r i b u t i o n of world population. In the
contemporary era the field of social science has got specialized t
develop into various branches of Geography, History, Economic,
Sociology, Psychology, Political Science etc. T he representation of the
statistical information has therefore occupied more significance. The
real distribution of various spatial elements such as temperature,
precipitation, atmospheric pressure, production of agricultural
produce ,mines and minerals; i ndustries and industrial products,
concentration and distribution of population, nature of trade and areas
connected; traffic flow of mode of transport etc. on map can be shown
very effectively with appropriate statistical diagrams given the
availability o f data/information. Such maps in which a cartographic
representation of certain statistical information is made are more
illustrative and comprehensive in nature that creates better
understanding and are of great soci o-economic interest. They are
called a s‘Thematic maps’ .Such maps are extremely useful,
particularly from the view point of laymen, since they give a broad
overall picture of entire range of data inahighly compressed form that
become easy to compare and distinguish with anumber of elements
represented in the map.
Cartographic representation of statistical information has
however, some limitations. Though cartograms are more easily
understood and very impressive to the laymen, they are not so very
precise as tabulations. When a wide variety of inter -related data aremunotes.in
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to be represented by diagrams they become very complex and so are
difficult to interpret.
What is Cartography?
Cartography or mapmaking is the study and practice of
making maps. Map making involves the application of both
scien tific and artistic elements, combining graphic talents and
specialized knowledge of compilation and design principles with
available techniques for product generation.
Modern Cartography like many other fields of "information
technology" has undergone rap id changes in the last decade.
Rather than merely drawing maps the cartographic process is
concerned with data manipulation, data capture, image processing
and visual display. The International Cartographic Association
defines cartography as the discipline dealing with the conception,
production, dissemination and study of maps. Cartography is also
about representation –the map. Cartographic representations may
appear in printed form or as dynamic images generated on a
computer display screen. Computer ass isted mapping systems
have added a new and exciting dimension to cartographic
techniques and traditional methodologies have to be augmented
with new skills. The fundamental nature of cartography has
changed with the evolving technologies, providing cartogr aphers
with new methods for visualization and communication of spatial
information .
While representing various types of data on amap or with the
help of some diagrams, certain general rules must be observed.
Each map and diagram must be represented with suitable title in
few words, to give the main idea of the theme /topic given in a
map or a diagram. Besides other elements of a map or diagram
it includes:
i) Scale :i tr e p r e s e n t st h ep r o p o r t i o n st h a ta r eq u a n t i f i a b l e .
ii) Index :depicting various aspects show ni nt h em a p .
iii) Clarity and legibility: precaution is taken to avoid
overcrowding of information so that the given distribution
of information is clear and legible.
To represent statistical data a very wide range of diagrams
areused. Depending upon the ra nge of the given data ( that is difference
between the lowest and highest figure) different types of graphs/
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These are classified asfollows:
i)One dimensional or linear diagrams in which the data to be
represented is made proportio nal to the length of the bar. e.g.
Graphs and bars.
ii)Two dimensional or areal diagrams, such as
rectangles, squares and circles. In these diagrams, the area of
the rectangle /square or circle is made proportional to the
quantity rep resented. Here square roots are considered while
determining the scale.
iii)Three dimensional or volumetric diagrams, such as cubes
and spheres. In such diagrams, the volume of the cube or sphere
is made proportional to the quantity represented. Here cube roots
are considered while determining the scale.
2. LINEAR DIAGRAMS
2.1 Simple Line Graph: Data related to time variable (i.e.
Decades, years, months, weeks, days, hours etc.) is normally
represented with the help of simple linegraph to observe the trend
in the growth over a period. For example ,the decadal growth of
population in Maharashtra from 1961 -2011. (Please note one
decade = ten years time period).
Formula used is: DGR = ( pop.1961 –pop of 1971) *1 0 0
(Pop 1961)
Table 1.
Decadal Growth of Population in Maharashtr a( 1 9 6 1 -2011)
Year Total Population Pop. In millions Decadal
Growth rate
1961 39,553,718 39.6 -
1971 50,412,235 50.4 27.5
1981 62,784,171 62.8 24.5
1991 78,937,187 78.9 25.7
2001 96,878,627 96.9 22.7
2011 112,372,972 112.4 16.0
In this data (a) year &(b) population are the two
variables. Year (or time) is considered as anindependent
variable and is normally represented along 'X' axis ofthe graph.
Population isconsidered as adependent variable (as
population is dependent or related to time period /year )w h i c hi s
represented along 'Y' axis on graph. The simple graph (figure 1)
represents that the population in Maharashtra is growing over themunotes.in
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period from 1961 to 2011. However the decadal growth rate of
population is decreasing from 1991 to 2011. This may probably be
attributed to the fact of decreasing family size, as also may be
migration has slowed down due to socio -economic development in
earlier low performin gs t a t e so ft h ec o u n t r y .
Figure 1
2.2 Superimposed /M u l t i p l eL i n e Graph: In this case more
than one simple graph are drawn on same axis; hence is called
as the superimposed graph. Comparison of two or more graphs i s
possible in this type of graph.
Table 2.
Maharashtra: Rural –Urban composition of total population
(1961 -2011)
Year Maharashtra Population 1961 -2011 ( figures in millions)
Rural Urban Total
1961 28.4 11.2 39.6
1971 34.7 15.7 50.4
1981 40.8 22.0 62.8
1991 48.4 30.5 78.9
2001 55.8 41.1 96.9
2011 61.6 50.8 112.4munotes.in
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Sketch pens of different colours can be used to represent
lines representing total, rural and urban population on the graph
paper.
Figure 2
Multiple / superimposed line graph depicts the trend
(change) in the variables represented .Besides, we can also
compare the changes between them. It would thus help in
understanding the past and present status and predict the future
possible trend under the given conditions. It is important to kno w
the past, present and future for planning policies t omeet the
development goals in the related sectors. Table 2 depicts the
growth and composition of rural and urban population in
Maharashtra. It is clear that both rural and urban population is
increasi ng over the period from 1961 to 2011 in Maharashtra.
However the rate of growth in urban population is rapid compared
to rural population in the state. This proves that Maharashtra state
is getting highly urbanized over the period (figure 2).
2.3 Band Graph: Comparison of more than two variables as well
as total of any aspect (or variable) can be represented in this
diagram. For example following data (table 3) explains the concept
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Table 3:
Production of crops ( 1961 -1991 in ‘000 tons)YearProduction (in '000 tons)RiceWheatJowar1961306010197150302019817050301991408040
Time or independent variable is represented along "X' axis.
Dependent variable is represented along *Y' axis. Graph for the
first variable is drawn as simple graph. This graph line of first
graph is considered as base line for the second graph of second
variable. The graph line of second graph is considered as base line
for the third graph of third variable etc.
In this example graph of rice will be drawn first. This
graph line is considered as base line for the graph of wheat. To
simplify this process the original data is modified as follows:
Table 4:
Production of crops (1961 -1991 in ‘000 tons)YearProduction (in '000 tons)RiceWheatRice +WheatJowarRice + Wheat +Jowar19613060901010019715030802010019817050120301501991408012040160
The graph lines of this band graph are drawn in the
following sequence:
i)Graph for Rice
ii)Graph for Wheat is Rice + Wheat
iii)Graph for Jowar is Rice + Wheat + Jowarmunotes.in
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Figure 3
The advantage/significance of band graph is we can identify
the trend of change in individual element/variable represented in the
graph at a glance. Sec ondly, we can identify at a glance the dominant
variable in the given distribution. Thirdly, we can see total quantity
with its changing trend over a period of the given variables (here it is
total crop production)) by observing the topmost graph line of t he
band graph.
We thus notice from figure 3 that overall rice is the most
dominant crop followed by wheat while Jowar has relatively less
production. However it is also observed that from 1981 to 1991
wheat is dominant crop produce followed by Jowar w hile the
production of rice has decreased. This may be because wheat is
largely grown twice a year while rice is generally rain fed. Besides ,
thefailure of monsoon affects rice productivity as the crop needs
more water. Thirdly with increasing drought si tuation Jowar is most
suitable crop produce as it requires less rain.
MAP AND ITS MAIN ELEMENTS:
Map may be defined as "a conventional representation of the
earth or its part on plane surface with certain scale". Its main elements
are (1) Title / Theme, (2)Scale, (3)Direction, (4)Grid / Co-ordinates of
latitudes and longitudes (5) lettering size and shape and (5)
Conventional signs and symbols.
1)Title/Theme of the map: Any map is drawn (prepared) to
represent a particular aspect/theme/topic. The positi on of the
theme of the map is often given at central topmost part of the
map in big size bold letters forexample: World: Physical Map /
World: Political Map / World: Distribution of Population etc.munotes.in
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2)Scale: Actually a map is far smaller in size than the corresponding
area-of the earth it represents. Hence, even' map is drawn to the
scale, which determines the ratio between the distance of two points
on the map and corresponding points on the ground.
3)Direction :D i r e c t i o ni sa l s oa ne s s e n t i a le l e m e n to f map because it
helps in locating a particular place or feature with reference to a
known point.
4)Grid / Co-ordinates of Latitudes and Longitudes: A map is
drawn on a plane surface but the earth's surface is actually curved
hence ,t h ec o r r e c tr e p r e s e n t a tion of the earth is on a globe and not
on plane paper. The construction of map involves the problem of
transformation of spherical surface into a plane, which is solved
with the help of map projections that yield co -ordinates of
latitudes and longitudes. These co -ordinates help to find exact
location and extent of any place.
5)Lettering size ,s h a p e and spacing: Information depicted in the
map by words is based on the importance/ ranking/hierarchy of that
aspect represented on the map. Hence different siz e( f o n t )a n d
shape (bold /normal; italic or gothic etc.) of letters are used. For
example: World / Continent/ country/ capital place of country/
important cities/ places of historical importance etc. Thus here
‘World’ will be written in bigger size with bol dl e t t e r s w h i l e
continent name will be slightly smaller and country name will be still
smaller in size etc.
6)Conventional Signs and Symbols: Am a pi sac o n v e n t i o n a l
representation of the earth's surface. Various features of the
landscape are depicted with the help of conventional signs and
symbols on maps .U s e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l s i g n s a n d s y m b o l s
help us to depict maximum information of any given areas on
as m a l lp i e c eo fp a p e rw i t hc l a r i t ya n dl e g i b i l i t y .
5)Other Important Elements: The index, the t itle and subtitle of the
map, are the other important elements of the map. These elements
are very essential for a good map. In other words, these elements
arethe backbone of maps.
Please Note: You are requested to observe all these element of a
map whe never you are viewing any map. You will then
understand these map elements more clearly. It is necessary to
quote that Department of Geography, University of Mumbai at
Vidyanagari campus, kalina, Santacruz has National map
Reference Library that may be vis ited to see and know different
types and aspects of a map.munotes.in
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MAP READING
Man-environment relationships with reference to ever
increasing population an its complex use of resources, differential
levels of development and wide socio -economic disparities; in creasing
levels of pollution and deterioration of natural resources; scarcity of
energy in the world etc. all can be produced through maps. .
Geographers predominantly, as well as the planners, historians,
economists, agriculturalists, geologists, and othe rs working in the
basic sciences and engineering, long ago found the map to be an
indispensable aid to study these varying distributions an differences
at a glance.
As m a l lm a po fal a r g er e g i o n depicting its physical aspects
(land forms -relief ,g e o l o g y , drainage, climate, soils and natural
vege tation); and cultural aspects (such as distribution of population,
settlement patterns, transport and communication routes, agriculture,
industry, historical/religious features etc) make available the
information re quired to plan different policies and implement them
more effectively. Ecological complexities of the environment can be
easily understood with the help of maps. Any changes in the existing
landscape require a detailed study which is possible wit th help o f
physical maps. For example construction of dam site and creation of
water reservoir, Hydel power site / road route, ports, ropeway,
airports, industrial location settlements etc, requires maps to be
prepared to make development successful. Natural haza rds can also
be well depicted on the map and precautionary mitigation measures
can be adopted to minimize or avoid the losses due to disaster.
Besides, potential areas having resources can also be identified and
mapped for promoting overall sustainable dev elopment. Maps of the
whole earth indicate generalizations and relationships of broad earth
patterns with which we may intelligently consider the course of past,
present and future events.
MAP FILLING
Mapfilling /m a r k i n gt h ed e t a i l so nam a p isana r to f
representing spatial distribution of various natural, cultural ,e c o n o m i c
and social elements o nt h e outline map of theworld, continent, country
or any region, with the help of conventional signs, colours and symbols.
Generally, such distribution .sho wn with the help of point ( .)l o c a t i o n ,
line ( )location, or an area () location by using some
shades or co!ours. For example, location of a town, port, industry etc. are
point features shown by point location. A river, road, railways, water ways
etc. are linear features shown by line location and distribution of rice,
wheat, cotton etc. producing regions occupy area and so are shown by
arealfeatures and so are shown by areal diagrams .
In map filling use of certain colours for distribut ion of certain
elements is done conventionally .For example ,w a t e r bodies are shownmunotes.in
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in blue colour, natural vegetation in green colour, roads, and settlements
etc. in red colour ,a g r i c u l t u r a ll a n di ny e l l o wc o l o u r ,a n da r e a s of high
altitude in brown colou retc.These colours are used universally by all
the countries while representing these common features on the
maps.
Use of symbols is used in map filling to show some specific
aspects .These can be represented by symbolic pictures for example,
for engi neering industry a wheel, for automobile industry a sketch of an
automobile or for textile industry sketch of chimney and chemical industry
sketch of a drum etc.
.Sometimes first letter of a commodity is used to show its
distribution. For example ,rice pr oducing areas by ‘R' or wheat
producing areas by ‘W etc. Here letter becomes as y m b o l some time
instead of usin gletter as asymbol .
MAPS
Maps are our friends and guides .T h e yp r o v i d eu su s e f u l
information in a very attractive manner with the help o
conv entional signs and symbols. The subject of geography can be
well be understood with the help of study of maps. Hence it is
important to know methods and techniques used in the map for
reading and interpreting the map.
Map is a picture of the earth's sur face
Pictures, illustrations, diagrams and maps are th ev i s u a l
forms of communication which are far more effective than the
words or the verbal communication.
InChina, it is said that 'one picture is equivalent to
thousand words'. What you can not commun icate in thousands of
words can be effectively communicated with only on e picture or
map.
Map is considered as the mine of information which can
beunderstood through proper map reading and itsinterpretation.
How to remember locations represented on th em a p s ?
1)Direction: Determine the direction of the map. Generally the
top of the map is north and bottom is south, left side is east
and right side is west. Middle part is central .
2)Prominent landmarks/ features: Identify the prominent
features on the map .These may be:
i)Coastline and ports: Port locations are generally located near
the creeks or headlands along the coast, e.g. Dabhol ,Jaigad,munotes.in
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Ratnagiri, Deogad and hence we get small notch or
marking along the coastline which represents that creek or
head land. (Figure 4.)This peculiar shape' helps us to
remember locations.
ii)Alignment of the places/ Transport routes and major
stations/nodes. Some places are aligned in one straight line
hence it becomes easy to remember them if you consider their
alignment, e.g. Malad Mulund, Andheri Vikroli, Grant Road
Sandhurst Road. The dotted lines joining these places are in
theeast-west direction, or parallel to the X -axis. figure 5
iii)Midpoint locations: Certain places are situated exactly at
the mid -point between t he other two places, e.g. Harne is
midway between Alibag and Ratnagiri.
iv) Equal distances: Distance between Malvan Ratnagiri,
Ratnagiri Harne and Harne Alibag appear to be the same on
the map or Pophali is at equal distance from Harne and
Ratnagiri (Refer t o the Mid -point location map) figure 6.
v)XYa x i sl o c a t i o n s : If you consider the imaginary X and Y axis
from some prominent landmarks then you find that certain
places are situated at the point of intersection of *X' and
Y' axis. e.g. Saki Naka is at the p oint of intersection of
"X' and Y' axis drawn on the map of Mumbai. figure 7
vi) Capital place/ head quarter: is generally nodal place of
historical significance.
vii) Historical place :Palace/forts/battle fields etc. have unique
pattern of settlements. For examp le on river/coastal island/
confluence of a river, lake, hot spring ,h i l l-top etc.
In relation to these features one may be able to find/locate
and remember the places. If you are able to understand
and practice these techniques, you will be a ble to remember place
easily and so you will not have problems about the map reading
and then you will say IL o v em a p s .munotes.in
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figure 4
Figure 5 figure 6 figure 7
Use of conventional colours in the maps :Colours make maps
more attractive and memorable. Appropriate / representative
colours are used to represent various physical and cultural
features. These colours are more representative to the features
depicted. It is given in table 4. Besides, the densi ty, gradient,
distribution effect is represented by the colour -tin (colour -shades)
for that feature. For example the depth of water is shown in
different tints of blue shade (where shallow water is light blue
colour and blue shade becomes darker with incre asing depth of
water).
Colours play an important role in our life. World appears
more beautiful due to the various colours. Colours also convey
specific meaning e.g. red colour is used for traffic signal, which
means stop or danger. Green means you can cr oss the road.
Similarly on 'Rose day' roses of different colours are used for
different purposes. Conventionally following colours are used in
the maps.munotes.in
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Table 5.
Conventional colours used in map
Colour Natural
featuresColour Cultural /
Man -made
featur es
Sky
blueWater, river,
Sea etc.Yellow Agriculture
Green Vegetation Red Settlement
sa n dr o a d s
Brown Relief
featuresBlack Railway
Table 6.
Conventional Symbols used in map
Colour Natural
features
symbolCultural
Feature
SymbolCultural /
Man -made features
Sky blue for
perennial(+) Spring R.S. Railway Station
Black
Tidal riverP.S. Police Station
P.T.O. Post and Telegraph
Office
P.H.C Primary Health
Centre
R.H. Rest House
P.F. Protected Forest
R.F. Reserv ed Forest
Table 6 represents few conventional symbols used in the map.
Apart from these colours any type of colour can be used
in the thematic map by a cartographer (one who is specialized in
map -drawing) depending upon the specific purpose of a map.
Children love colouring pictures similarly grown ups like you
also like colouring. With this intension, various geometrical shapes
(symbols) are used in the maps to represent distribution. You are
free to select any appropriate colour for these symbols. Co louring
your own map makes the map more attractive and it increases your
involvement with the map which enhances knowledge and hence it
becomes easy to remember places represented on the map.munotes.in
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B.Distribution Maps: These maps depict spatial
distribution o fa n yp h e n o m e n o nu n d e rs t u d y . Different types
of cartographic techniques are used for such
representations. These are:
1)Choropleth Map :are drawn when the quantity specified
belongs to a particular administrative unit having its defined
boundaries.. For ex ample:
i) Continent wise distribution of population in the world
where continent is a boundary
ii) Country wise distribution of population in the world
where international border is a boundary
iii) State wise distribution of population in a country where
state border is a boundary .
iv) District wise distribution of population in a state where
district border is a boundary
v) Taluka wise distribution of population in a district
where Taluka border is a boundary .
Each of these maps has its own purpose and utility.
Accordingl y based on the study purpose a particular distribution is
adopted as the nature of work, time and cost vary with the type of
map used.
These data is generally taken from government published
census handbooks. The statistical data of the quantity of a
particular element is generally available at different levels ranging
from continent/ country/state/district/ Taluka / town/village level in
such government publications .Then a suitable scale, as shown in
the index of the map is selected to map the data ind icating
variation in densities for he given administrative unit with the help of
class -groups. The final data is represented on the map with
different colours or patterns. In order to differentiate between the
densities, it is desirable that the degree of darkness of
colour /shade or pattern should be proportionate to the density
represented. Generally higher the density darker the colour shade
and the shading effect go on decreasing with decreasing density.
Such Choropleth maps are also known as the "Densi ty Maps".
However the limitation of the Choropleth maps is it does
not give a true picture of the distribution because the density of
the element represented isuniform allover the respective
administrative unit Figure 8 and 9. In reality such distribu tion of
density is rarely uniform ,as water areas, communication lines,
steep slopes and peaks are devoid of any settlements.munotes.in
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Figure 8
Figure 9
2.Isopleth Maps :reveal the direction of and degree of extent
of variation of a given phenomenon. Isolines are drawn joining
the places having same value. These isolines are drawn by
deciding a certain interval 9 which is generally uniform interval /
class group) by observing th range ( difference between themunotes.in
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highest and the lowest value) in the given data. Isopleth maps
are thus drawn to show physical as well human phenomenon.
Different names are used to identify these phenomenons as
explained below:
Isopleth map
A] Physical Phenomenon B] Human Phenomenon
A] Physical P henomenon is as under that can be
represented by isopleths maps :
i)Atmospheric Temperature by ‘Isotherms ’(line joining places
having same temperature) figure 10
ii).Atmospheric pressure by ‘Isobars ’(line joining places having
same atmospheric pr essure).
iii)Precipitation/rainfall by isohyets (line joining places having same
rainfall amount) figure 11 .
iv)Relief height by‘Contours ’(line joining places having same
height).
v)Depth of water is Sea : -Line on a marine map or chart joining
points of equal d epth usually in fathoms below mean sea level is
represented by ‘ Isobaths’ .
B] Human Phenomenon :
i)Journey Time by isochrones (line joining places requiring
equal travel time by a particular transport .
ii)Transport cost by isophores (line joining pla ces requiring same
journey transport cost to transport a particular element from source
of supply point to place of destination –industry/ go down /market).
iii)Stages of development by isostades are the Isolines joining
thepoints o fsimilar stages of de velopment .munotes.in
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World -Distribution ofAverage Temperature by Isotherms
figure 1 0
World -Distribution of Average Rainfall by Isohyets
figure 1 1
Map of acid rain (figure 12)represents the location, intensity and
distribution of acid rain in the world by isopleth mapmunotes.in
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World -Distribution of Acid Rain) byIsopleth Map
Figure 12
The correctness of the isopleth map depends on the
isopleth interval. Least the interval most accurate is the
representation of the statistical data. In the isopleth map of world
distribution of the Acid Rain areas in Europe, N. America and Japan
are represented. (Fig. 1 2)Some times the belts between the
isopleths are coloured or tinted with a pattern and the degree of its
darkness depending on the quantity represented.
3.Dot Map :It is another cartographic technique used for
representing distribution of any phenomenon where ap a r t i c u l a r
size of dot is located at that point of place to represent a
particular value of that place. For example ,distribution of
population in a region / state. Location of dots representing
distribution of population is done by using base map of tha t
region (basic information). Base map contains the prominent
physical and cultural features. Taking these features into
consideration that influences the distribution and concentration of
population, number and size of dots are placed (located/ marked)
accordingly on the map. Care is taken that cluster or
overcrowding of dots is not preferred in a dot map. It is therefore
avoided by using different size sof dot sto represent different
values. When the exact figures of .the number of cattle, population,
areaunder, some crops etc. are available, the quantitative
distribution of these elements can be satisfactorily shown on the
map by dot method. In the map given below (Fig. 13) each dot
represents 500,000 catties. In the same way the statistics for each
country can be collected and the dot map showing the distribution
of catties country wise can be prepared. While preparing the dot
map, the following factors are generally taken into consideration .munotes.in
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i)The drawing of state borders is not necessary to show the
distribution
ii)A suitable value of each dot is selected so that the number of
dots required for each country will give a sound effect of the
distribution of the element. A few dots do not produce a good
effect, while too many dots become a crowd.
iii)A suitable size of the dot is to be selected. All the dots should be
of uniform size, iv) While putting the dots on the map one as to
keep in mind the physiography and hydrology of the region,
because the distribution of the element is more or less
govern ed by the above two factors.
World -Distribution of Cattle by Dot Map
Figure 1 4
4.Flow Maps :are drawn to represent the relationship between
the areas with respect to any phenomenon that involves
movement / transfer of living or non -living elements. Flow maps
can be drawn into two types:
i) Ray map: it represents only the connectivity or flow between the
areas. Here the amount transferred is not quantified in the flow
map.
ii) Flow Map: represents the flow between the areas of people /
good s/ services which is quantified . Here the width of the horizontal
line (bar) represents the value and the length shows the direction of
the areas connected with actual flow. For example movement of
crude oil in the world. Flow map helps us to reveal the ar eas of
importance of a region/country at a glance.munotes.in
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Figure 1 5
Traffic flow cartograms are really very illustrative and at
once bring home the vivid picture of business activity or
movement of people in the region. They look like the arterial syste m
of our body through which the vital energy continues to flow. This
method is also used in atlas maps to show the major shipping
routes in accordance with the volume of international trade moving
over them.
Figure 1 6
References;
http://www.ngi.gov.za/index.php/technical -
information/catography/what -is-cartography
http://cca -acc.org/resources/ what -is-cartography/
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