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1 MODULE - I
1
ACADEMICS VS. COMMON SENSE
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is academic knowledge?
1.3 What is common sense knowledge?
1.4 What is more reliable and why ?
1.5 Questions
1.6 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the difference between Academics and Common
Sense .
 To familiarize students with the significance of academic knowledge
over the common sensical knowledge .
1.1 INTRODUCTION Sociologists have long advocated a sociological approach to explanation
by contrasti ng it with common sense. All human beings are some types of
researchers who give meaning to, interpret, and predict their social world.
We may be concerned with both the micro and the macro issues that are
happening in our village and to those happening at the global level. We are
interested in understanding and explaining our everyday experiences. This
basic sense of curiosity is the foundation of social science research.
The social reality, which is always changing, poses many questions to
humans to unde rstand, interpret give meaning and predict to this changing
social reality. Research in social sciences holds a special place. In such
situation scientific research becomes an important tool in understanding
the reality and the causes that are leading to c hanges as well as resisting
changes. Therefore, social research is a systematized effort to gain new
knowledge. Social or academic/scientific research helps us in adding new
knowledge by supporting or disagreeing with the existing forms of
knowledge.
1.2 W HAT IS ACADEMIC KNOWLEDGE? According to Collins dictionary, Academic is used to describe things that
relate to the work done in schools, colleges, and universities, especially
work which involves studying and reasoning rather than practical or munotes.in

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2 technical sk ills. Academic knowledge is a specific form of knowledge that
has characteristics that differentiate it from other kinds of knowledge, and
particularly from knowledge or beliefs based solely on direct personal
experience.
In other words, academic knowledg e is a second -order form of knowledge
that seeks abstractions and generalizations based on reasoning and
evidence. Fundamental components of academic knowledge are:
 Transparency
 Codification
 Reproduction
 Communicability
Transparency means that the source o f the knowledge can be traced and
verified. Codification means that the knowledge can be consistently
represented in some form (words, symbols, video) that enables
interpretation by someone other than the originator. Knowledge can be
reproduced or have mul tiple copies. Lastly, knowledge must be in a form
such that it can be communicated and challenged by others.
Academic knowledge shares common values or criteria, making academic
knowledge itself a particular epistemological approach.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is academic knowledge?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
1.3 WHAT IS COMMON SENSE KNOWLEDGE? Many things that we know today are learned through an alternative to
social research. A great part of our knowledge is based on what our
parents and others have told us. You may also have knowledge based on
personal experiences. In Social Sciences, individual can acquire
information/knowledge through research and also by using common sense.
Whereas, the social research is more structured, organized and systematic
process, these alternatives are not. Some o f the alternatives that we
encounter in our daily lives are common sense, media myths and personal
experiences.
Sociology draws a great deal from common sense as the former touches
the everyday experiences of lay persons. As a result, there is a tendency t o
use one in place of the other. Sociological knowledge tends to be general,
if not universal, on the other hand common sense knowledge is particular
and localized. Common sense is not only localised it is also unreflective
since it does not question its o wn origin and presuppositions. Further, munotes.in

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Academics vs. Common Sense
3 sociology also helps us to show that common sense is highly variable.
Sociology helps us to understand a society and this could be deepened and
broadened by systematic comparison between one society with other
wherea s common sense is not in a position to reach such an understanding.
This becomes possible because sociology makes use of its tools and
techniques for systematic investigation of the object while common sense
involves preconception, which is rejected by so ciology. Common sense
easily constructs imaginary social arrangements which is utopian whereas
sociology is anti -utopian in its central preoccupation with the disjunction
between ideal and reality in human societies. Sociology is also anti
fatalistic in it s orientation. it does not accept the constraints taken for
granted by common sense as eternal or immutable.
It provides a clearer awareness than common sense of the range of
alternatives that have been or may be devised for the attainment of broadly
the s ame ends. Sociology is further value neutral and free of all forms of
biases and value judgments but common sense is often a source of biases
and errors. Common sense knowledge is the routine knowledge people
have of their everyday world and activities.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is common sense?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
1.4 WHAT IS MORE RELIABLE AND WHY ? The explosion in academic knowledge is the basis of the knowledge
society. It was academic development in sciences, medicine, and
engineering that led to the development of the internet, bio technology,
digital financial services, computer s oftware, and telecommunications.
Indeed, it is no coincidence that countries most advanced in knowledge -
based industries were those that have the highest participation rates in
university education.
Thus, w hile academic knowledge is not ‘pure’ or timeless or objectively
‘true’, it is the principles or values that drive academic knowledge that is
important. Although it often falls short, the goal of academic studies is to
reach for deep understanding, general principles, empirically -based
theories, timelessness, etc., even if knowledge is dynamic, changing, and
constantly evolving. Academic knowledge is not perfect but does have
value because of the standards it requires. Nor have academic knowledge
or methods run out of st ream. There is evidence all around us: academic
knowledge is generating new drug treatments, new understandings of
climate change, better technology, and certainly a new knowledge
generation.
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4 Check Your Progress:
1. Explain why academic know ledge is important?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________ ____
1.5 QUESTIONS 1) Differentiate between academic knowledge and common -sense
knowledge.
2) How to relate academic knowledge and common -sense knowledge.
1.6 REFERENCES  May, T. (2001). Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process, (3rd
edn). Buckingham: Open U niversity Press.
 Mills, C.W. (1970). The Sociological Imagination. Harmondsworth:
Penguin; originally published in 1959.
 Laurillard, D. (2013). Rethinking University Teaching: A
Conversational Framework for the Effective Use of Learning
Technologies: Taylo r & Francis.
 Williams, M. (2000). Science and Social Science: An Introduction.
London and New York: Routledge.

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5 2
ACADEMIC GENRE VS . JOURNALISTIC
WRITING
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Meaning of Academic Genre
2.3 Understanding Journalistic Writing
2.4 Differences between Academic Genre Vs . Journalism Writing
2.5 Summary
2.6 Questions
2.7 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES  To learn about the meaning of Academic Genre and Journalistic
Writing .
 To understand the difference between Academic Genre and
Journalistic Writing .
2.1 INTRODUCTION Many students continue to pursue a career in academics af ter completing
Graduation, Post -Graduation or even after PhD in Sociology. Some
students also build up their career as content writers, reporters work in the
different field related to journalism. If you are also planning to build your
career on lines of a cademics and journalism then this chapter would help
you to get a broader picture, nature of work in these areas specially with
the view of the types of literature being produced. Though both the
disciplines cannot be isolated from one another as both the disciplines
interact and even merge at times as both discusses about society specially
while studying social sciences and sociology. This chapter would discuss
the basic introduction towards Academic Genre and thereafter we would
look into its comparison.
2.2 MEANING OF ACADEMIC GENRE Academic refers to how well a student does in courses of study that are
based on formal education, particularly in a higher education institution. a
college, academy, school, or other educational facility, particularly one fo r
higher education, or having to do with one. Merriam -Webster Dictionary
states that “Academic is a member of an institution of learning”. The
meaning of genre is often associated with form, style, category. The genre munotes.in

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Reading and Writing in Social Science
6 becomes popular when other scholars fi nd it useful and convincing. Genre
is how writers frequently use language to address recurring circumstances
(Hyland, 2008). There are several popular genres like folk tale, poetry,
fiction, non -fiction, action, comedy, social issues based, mystery, thrill er.
Academic Genres, have guidelines and have certain common formats,
used in academic publishing (such as abstracts, conference presentations,
book reviews, bibliographical essays, journal articles, book chapters,
monograph proposals, book -length studies , edited collections, conference
proceedings, etc.). Examples of Academic genre are textbooks, thesis,
review, published and unpublished research papers. Academic genre also
needs evidence through citation while presenting an argument as this helps
in brin ging about credibility to the existing work and as research is not
carried out in isolation. It also helps for others to know the amount of
work carried out in the existing topic and what are the gaps which are left.
Citation also acts as evidence to prese nt the view. Hence, citation is very
important in academic genre. Academic genre writing is also at times
monitored recognized through ranking of journals, classification of
journals and even through agencies like UGC List of Journals.
Additionally, there are several academic publishing and intellectual
pursuits (such as podcasts, grant writing, bibliographical entries, writing
for non -profits, editing, blogging, annotating bibliographies, etc.) that
offer additional avenues to start conducting and advancin g research and
this can be seen as academic genre. Academic genre is more of formal in
nature . Academic genre contains published material which can be used for
reference, citation to solve problems, it also includes scholarly work which
is written for expa nding literature on a given topic. In Academic writing,
if any slang, context is used one has to explain and clear its specific use
and at times even the reason behind it. Many a times italics are also used
in that context. Additionally, the writing has t o be clear with whole
phrases and in a specific order. It's likely that academic writing in English
differs from academic writing in regional language ( Oshima, A., & Hogue,
2007).
The language English has certain politics within it, which overall affects
the academic writing and access to literature to a large group. Several texts
are still in English and the accessibility to common audience is difficult as
the writing is technical , includes jargons and caters to an audience who is
majorly from that of acad emic background. Lack of translation of
academic text into regional language is still a problem even today even in
the field of sociological literature where vernacular students still find it
difficult to get books. For instance, nearly 95% of indexed natu ral science
journals and 90% of social science articles, respectively, use all or some
English, according to the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI)
(Thomson Reuters 2008a). Similar to this, 4,654 or 50% of social science
articles use English as the ir primary language. (UNESCO DARE 2009).
The Politics of Geolocation in Academic Genre :
Many a times the politics of academic text production are often shaped by
the geopolitical location of researchers, texts, and languages (see Belcher munotes.in

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Academic Genre Vs. Journalistic Writing
7 2007; Flowerdew 1999a, Swales 1990, 2004; Salager -Meyer 1997; 1999b;
2002a). Certain texts are considered more seriously or get more coverage
when it is produced in specific regions or under popular institutions like
Cambridge, Oxford etc. In a way, leading to the geopoli tical and
academics politics. This is a kind of academic dominance even today by
the powerful institutions and elite groups. These locations could be
anywhere from West like Europe, America, Central America, Eastern
Europe, Portugal, Spain to name a few co untries. Even in countries where
English is spoken as second language there too this problem exists. Infact,
there are two circles existing the Inner circle countries are Australia,
United States, United Kingdom , influencing the countries on the outer
circles like India, Singapore, Nigeria which were colonised to a large
extent and for longer period (Kachru 1992, 2001). Through writings and
publications, the centre circle countries are able to influence policies and
decisions of other countries too. To use Wallerstein theory (1991) World
Systems theory, centre and periphery whereby the centre countries
influence the periphery countries ( Lillis, Curry, 2010).
Check Your Progress :
1. List out some examples of Academic Genre .
_________________________________ ___________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Academic genre needs evidence through citatio n. do you agree or
disagree ?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________ ______________
2.3 UNDERSTANDING JOURNALISTIC WRITING Journalism is the process of gathering, preparing, and disseminating news,
as well as related commentary and feature materials, through print and
electronic media like newspapers, magazines, books, blo gs, webcasts,
podcasts, social networking and social media sites, as well as radio,
movies, and television. Newspapers were the primary medium for
reporting on current events when the term "journalism" was first used, but
as radio, television, and the Inte rnet became more widely used in the 20th
century, the phrase came to refer to all printed and electronic
communication that covered current affairs (Britannica).
Journalistic Writing is that aspect of communication that informs us about
the evolving event s, problems, and people in the outside world. The main
purpose of news is to inform the public, even if it is engaging or
entertaining. In order for citizens to make the best decisions for their lives,
communities, societies, and governments, journalism mu st therefore give munotes.in

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8 them the knowledge they need (American Press). There are different types
of journalistic writing like :
Investigative journalism :
Investigative reporting necessitates that journalists embrace their inner
investigator. This type of journal ism exposes hidden truths in every sphere
of life —political corruption, accusations of fraud, you name it —and
encourages readers to consider the facts more thoroughly. Many field can
benefit from investigative journalism because it can spark peoples'
interests and curiosities. Facts, intrigue, and reader interest are crucial
components of this kind of journalism. The headline is the most crucial
component of investigative journalism. After all, it serves as writing's
primary hook to have reader's attention.
News Journa lism:
This form of journalism that most closely resembles earlier forms of the
profession is arguably news journalism. These articles just deliver a bit of
news and should be brief and to the point. Nothing is hidden, no opinions
are added, no thing. Because some news is too difficult to handle, they
might contain a small amount of understatement, but they always tell the
truth. The news itself, and how you present it, are at the heart of this kind
of journalism.
Review writing :
Reviews are a we ll-balanced mixture of truth and opinion. In simple terms
a review simply states: Here are the facts regarding this establishment or
product that we cannot alter or dispute. In reviews, authors present an item
or location, give the readers a description of it, and then state whether or
not they would suggest it and why. Reviews can be challenging since there
is a sharp line between being subjective and being objective, and a review
should fall somewhere in the middle. It shouldn't read like a sponsored
adve rtisement, but it also shouldn't sound like a journalistic article. A
well-timed review can become widespread, and keeping that balance is the
key to a successful review.
Column writing :
In the present day, a column is popular and an important part of
journalistic writing. There are followers of columnist who read it without
missing it. A columnist takes ownership of a space in a newspaper, which
could be as tiny as a box or as large as a full page, and writes anything
they want in it. The author, who occas ionally even selects the name for the
column, is given complete credit for it. It is the columnist's personal place
in the newspaper or magazine where he or she can express views or
thoughts. The primary focus of a column is the personality of the author —
basically, what they like, what they do, and what they write about. Charles
Bukowski, Stephen King, and Mitch Albom are a few well -known authors
who have written or currently write columns. Many authors eventually
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9 Feature writing :
Feature writing is basically taking a topic and increasing the focus on it to
capture every single detail (at least in terms of word count). The
journalist's creative mind is unlocked by a feature piece, which a llows
them to unleash their creative monster and delve deeply into the subject
they are covering. The goal of feature articles is to provide you with every
detail and every angle on a subject. A feature article is the longest of the
previously mentioned ar ticle genres.
2.4 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACADEMIC GENRE VS JOURNALISM WRITING Academic genre is many a times written for a section of group who are
academicians or students. Those certain texts could go beyond academics
and influence people at a long run too . Journalistic writing can be market
driven many a times. As what is needed, relevant, what the sponsors
need s. However, the serious journalism also involves bringing light to the
social issues which are ignored, it also acts as a watcher of the system in
the pursuit of truth justice. It also influences and creates opinion among
people. Academic writing is backed by theories, facts and accuracy to the
closest. Published material are viewed as serious work and even scholarly
journals work are viewed as relia ble and valid.
Journalist writes for common people. On the other hand, the academic
writers write for a group who are studying or in a specific profession.
There are several courses which are offered by Institutes like Indian
School of Journalism, Asian S chool of Journalism, is a course which is
offered in Journalism where there are professional colleges, institutes
offering the courses, especially in copywriting, writing.
The Regional media is more preferred as it develops a proximity to the
reader. The tone of the language is also something which is local than that
of academic and filled with jargon. The funders interfere is least in terms
of academic writing. On the other hand, journalists have to act according
to the news, timing, competition, filled w ith sensationalism.
Writing investigative reports is a difficult undertaking since the reporters
must be very careful to avoid provoking legal action and stick strictly to
the facts. These reports are likely to spark controversy because they
involve a we ll-known person, a misuse of authority, money, or some form
of corruption. Investigative pieces are more challenging to create because
several reporters must do months -long investigations to find one such
story. Thus, it is a difficult to tie together all the information and
interviews obtained throughout the procedure. On the other hand,
academic writing as such there is no course offered. The skill is picked up
the student through the course of his academic. Any field student can get
by the student into a cademic writing of his or her own discipline. The case
is same with that of academic researcher, the decision is often taken by a
committee or the guide/ supervisor when the to pic needs to be continued if
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10 academicians, they speak on the basis of facts many a times and they face
actions, boycotts from people specially if the topics are sensitive. But both
whether its journalism or academics ethics plays a n important role in
directing the writings. Journalistic writing relies largely on fieldwork and
field investigation and thereby reporting the news. This may not be to a
large extent in terms of academic genre also many a times here,
compilation of secondary sources, review is also ca rried out. Academic
materials are most frequently found in journals and textbooks. As a result
of their extensive practice utilizing this writing style during their college
years, you will discover that pupils are more at ease using it. When
composing an a rticle, journalists follow the process, but they have a short
deadline. These articles should be succinct, simple to grasp, and free of
jargon, especially when it comes to creating news pieces. As the readers
are from different background.
Journalistic wr itings use many a times the anthropological methods of
qualitative researchers like storytelling, narrative, interviewing. This helps
to connect them with audience at a deeper level and creates relatability to
the audience. There are also emotions being us ed to a large extent with
words which invoke fear, happiness, anger, frustration to attract the
readers attention in the title of the news article, newspapers. This may not
be the case to that of an academic writing where the content plays an
important rol e and the tone of the language too. Being more formal in
nature. Even a tiny abstract works on the same formulae of discussing the
introduction, methods and findings of the study. However, certain
common’s themes exist in both academic and journalistic wr iting like both
have to maintain objectivity while writing, recording the information of
the co -participants. Th is would help in limiting the bias developed while
studying or learning about the issue/ problem/ topic. There also needs to
be balance while wr iting about any topic this would help in understanding
the problem in a better way. Like all the aspects of the topic should be
considered. Academic Genres are also many a times subject specific, for
example Chemistry or Biology texts would be easily under stood by
Chemistry or Biology student while, Philosophy student will find it
difficult to understand. This would not be the case with that of Journalistic
writing where the focus is for common audience who speak simple
language and even are speaking multil ingual or bilingual words like mixed
with English.
Article in Academic Genre vs . Journalistic Writing :
An Academic research article is often published in a journal or presented
in a conference, Seminar which could be in National, International, State
or even regional level. In the opening section of the research article, one
should provide a description of the research problem and an introduction
to it. At times, the title of the research piece is frequently followed by an
abstract. The research article consists of review of earlier literature on the
topic related to the problem studied and written. There are also the
arguments which the research paper is trying to address. The main body of
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11 problem. The scholar or writer even uses /employ data from various
sources like primary and secondary. At the end of the article the researcher
presents his/her views through findings and recommendations. There is
also referencing, citation of the sour ces used in the text and is documented
at the end of the text. The referencing style could be APA, MLA etc
whereby the place of publication, name of the author, year of publication,
article title, book title mentioned .
A journalistic article is entirely d ifferent from that of the Research based
academic article. Here, there are several other factors which determine the
article’s publication like news quality, time, content, relevance etc. The
audience who are reading the article are common people who belon g to
different professions, occupations, students, children’s hence it has to be
written in a simple language. Due to the increasing competition from new
media forms like social media, twitter, there is less time to research and
produce or even create deta iled material among print houses. The aim of
the article is also to describe and inform than to always solve problems,
though some articles can lead to solving problems through addressing and
highlighting a particular issue. Many a times, higher authoritie s or
government authorities get the information about certain issues through
newspaper articles and thereafter the problem is resolved. The editorial
articles are the one’s which are presented in detail and with references.
The references pattern unlike th e research is not followed. As many a
times people are interested in the news than the references. Also there is
space crunch in the newspaper as there are articles to be published on
several topics right from entertainment to sports to location -based news to
global news.
The format of journalistic writing has been evolving specially with the
emergence of social media. People have even started reading news in their
mobile. Catchy phrases are also used to attract the reader’s attention. The
dual language is also used or what can be said as the SMS language. This
is done to retain the attention of readers and to create a oneness or
relatability for the news article to the people.
To summarize the writing process, there are four steps. The phases are as
follo ws: 1.the news topic/ issue/ event 2. Gathering information on the
idea or topic (Collection) 3. Organizing the concept and creating related
subheadings or sub -themes (Construction) 4. Verifying comprehensibility
and consistency during editing, polishing, and proof reading (Correction).
Check Your Progress :
1. What is Column Writing in Journalism Writing ?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________ ___________________________
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12 2. Discuss Investigative Journalism.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________ ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2.5 SUMMARY In this chapter we discussed about the meaning of Academic Genre and
that of Journalistic writing. Academic writers are many a time s
researchers, students who write for publication, thesis etc. They also use
theories and arguments. On the other hand, journalistic writing is many a
times about fieldwork and reporting the news from the ground level. They
form writings related to investi gation , news, feature writing, columns etc.
Though both are different certain common patterns are found in both
academic and journalistic writings like they involve methods like
storytelling, narrative methods. Both try to raise problems, report about
issues concerned about common public.
We also saw some differences like - in majority of cases , academic papers
take weeks or months to write since they require substantial research.
Academic writers can cite literature from other authors in addition to their
own earlier work to support their writing. Writing an academic article
requires extensive study, therefore the work is seen as being more reliable.
It is crucial to remember that all the data should be carefully reviewed
before being written.
Academic mat erials are most frequently found in journals and textbooks.
As a result of their extensive practice utilizing this writing style during
their college years, you will discover that pupils are more at ease using it.
When composing an article, journalists fol low the process, but they have a
short deadline. These articles should be succinct, simple to grasp, and free
of jargon, especially when it comes to creating news pieces. As the readers
are from different background.
In contrast to academic writing, the f undamental distinction in this form of
writing is that texts are not mentioned, and the piece lacks a bibliography.
Quotes only occur when the journalist is reading through scholarly scripts.
Journalistic writing frequently uses unnamed sources when quotin g them.
2.6 QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the meaning of Academic Writing Genre and the politics
associated within it.
2) Write a note on the differences between Academic Genre and that of
the Journalistic writing.
3) Discuss in brief the Article process difference in A cademic Genre and
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Academic Genre Vs. Journalistic Writing
13 2.7 REFERENCES  Hyland, K. (2008). Genre and academic writing in the
disciplines. Language Teaching, 41(4), 543 -562.
 Bruce, I. (2008). Academic writing and genre: A systematic analysis.
Bloomsbury Publishing.
 Paltrid ge, B. (2004). Academic writing. Language teaching, 37(2), 87 -
105.
 https://blog.ureed.com/2019/06/02/types -of-journalism -an-
introduction/
 https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/journalism -essential /
 https://www.americanpre ssinstitute.org/journalism -essentials/what -is-
journalism/purpose -journalism/
 https://www.uniquenewsonline.com/academic -writing -vs-journalistic -
writing/
 Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2003, March 31). journalism
summary. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/summary/journalism
 Gaillet, L.L., Guglielmo, L. (2014). Understanding Acade mic Genres.
In: Scholarly Publication in a Changing Academic Landscape: Models
for Success. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137410764_3
 https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000005427

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14 3
DEBATES ON ACADEMIC WRITING
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 What is academic writing?
3.3 Debates/issues in academic writing
3.4 Summary
3.5 Questions
3.6 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand what constitutes academic writin g.
 To familiarize students with the debates in academic writing .
3.1 INTRODUCTION Academic writing refers to a particular style of expression that scholars
use to define the boundaries of their disciplines and their areas of
expertise. Characteristics of aca demic writing include a formal tone, use of
the third -person rather than first -person perspective (usually), a clear focus
on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice.
Like the specialist languages adopted in other professions such as law .
Academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex
ideas for a group of scholarly experts.
3.2 WHAT IS ACADEMIC WRITING? The linguist and educator James Britton, drew on the work of the linguist
Edward Sapir, in developing his the ory of language use. Sapir, like
Bruner, classified all language into “two distinct orders”: “expressive
language,” exemplified by everyday speech; and “referential language,”
exemplified by scientific discourse.
Unlike fiction or journalistic writing, th e overall structure of academic
writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logical
flow of ideas, which means that the various parts are connected to form a
unified whole. There should be links between sentences and paragraphs so
the reader is able to follow your argument. In academic writing, the author
is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point
of view. One should, therefore, confidently state the strengths of your
arguments using language that is neu tral, not confrontational, or
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Debates on Academic Writing
15 Clear use of language is essential in academic writing. Well -structured
paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of
thinking without difficulty. The language should be concise, forma l, and
express precisely what you want it to mean. Vague expressions are to be
avoided in academic writing completely. Citing sources in the body of
your paper and providing a list of references are very important aspects of
academic writing. It is essenti al to always acknowledge the source of any
ideas, research findings, or data that you have used in your paper. To do
otherwise is considered plagiarism.
Interestingly, what is valued in academic writing is that the opinions are
based on a sound understandi ng of the pertinent body of knowledge and
academic debates that are currently being debated in your discipline. One
need to support its opinion with evidence from academic sources. It should
be an objective position presented as a logical argument.
One o f the main functions of academic writing is to describe complex
ideas as clearly as possible. Often called higher -order thinking skills, these
include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems,
and express concepts or that describe ab stract ideas that cannot be easily
acted out, pointed to, or shown with images.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a brief note on academic writing.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ ________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3.3 DEBATES/ISSUES IN ACADEMIC WRITING 1. Lexical difficulties:
The problem with words is among the biggest ones a first -year s tudent
may encounter. Proper linking of words and phrases is not that simple for
many people, to say nothing of inexperienced people who have to write
essays, reports, labs, etc. Each of these papers requires linking one idea or
argument to another and developin g coherence within a paragraph.
Therefore, even if people write academic papers themselves, they still may
need professional proof reading and editing services.
2. Grammar and punctuation:
It’s not a secret that errors in grammar and punctuation are one of the main
reasons why people lose their marks in academic papers. This is a great
problem for students who may use wrong words, confuse prepositions and
conjunctions, miss auxiliary verb or simply are not familiar with
punctuation rules. In such a case, hir ing a professional proof reader can
solve lots of problems indeed.
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16 3. Plagiarism:
While some students find it hard to get their thoughts and ideas down on
paper, others just do not know how to properly incorporate quotations into
sentences. Trying to do th e assignment, they simply borrow passages from
articles, books and even websites without identifying them; hence the
problem of plagiarism. Professional academic writing services can help
such students by showing them how a well -written non -plagiarized pap er
should look like.
Another common obstacle comes when students have not yet understood
the importance of avoiding plagiarism. It is very difficult to integrate
researched text into one’s own style of writing, and it’s something that can
also be affected by one’s level of proficiency in English. A writer cannot
just directly quote a source all the time – paraphrasing text is an important
skill to master, and one that takes ongoing commitment and practice to be
competent in. Strategies to combat this includ e using a dictionary and
thesaurus to find alternative words, rearranging the phrases in a sentence,
modifying the word form, changing between active and passive voice, and
condensing or extending the original. In addition to this, a student must
use a ref erencing system like APA, which takes even more time to master.
4. Text structure:
Whether it comes to a thesis, essay or article – each of them has a certain
structure. Typically, they all are based on three main components:
introduction, main body and co nclusion. Many students have problems
with structuring their works for a variety of reasons, the main of which is
the inability to draw up every single part considering the singularity of all
other. To ask for professional paper h elp in such a case is reasonable and
even necessary for obvious reasons.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are issues for the students while writing academically?
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________ _______________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3.4 SUMMARY Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life. To
summarize, academic writing is a special genre of writing that prescribes
its own set of rules and practices. 1. These rules and practices may be
organized around a formal order or structure in which to present ideas, in
addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by author citati ons in the
literature. 2. Further, academic writing adheres to traditional conventions
of punctuation, grammar, and spelling. 3. Finally, in contrast to many
other personal writing contexts, academic writing is different because it
deals with the underlyin g theories and causes governing processes and munotes.in

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Debates on Academic Writing
17 practices in everyday life, as well as exploring alternative explanations for
these events.
3.5 QUESTIONS 1) How is academic writing different from personal writing?
2) What are the main aspects of academic writing?
3) State the debates within the discourse on academic writing.
3.6 REFERENCES  Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue
University;
 Academic Writing Style. First -Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer
University;
 Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Jour nal Article. Cornell
University;
 College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina;
 Sapir, Edward. Culture, Language and Personality. Berkeley and Los
Angeles: U of California P, 1961.
 WHITLEY, E. A., & GROUS, A. (2009). Academic writing by
“international” students in the internet age: studying diversity in
practice. International Journal of Innovation in Education, 1(1), 12 –
34.

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18 4
WRITING IN THE DIGITAL AGE
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Meaning of Digital Age
4.3 Different aspects of writing in Digital age
4.4 Problems associated with writing in Digital age
4.5 Summary
4.6 Questions
4.7 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the writing process .
 To learn about different aspects related to writing in the digital age.
4.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter we will learn about the interaction of writing and
technology specially in terms of the digital age. This chapter, would be
useful in several ways, like as students you are expected to write essays
for exams. Later while doing Master’s, you may or may not be writing a
dissertation, preparing reports, writing letters or any other form of write
ups where y ou would be making use of technology.
In the present digital era it has become easier to write and publish work.
As every day we tend to write online. Like we write YouTube comments,
we also text each other on WhatsApp. We also tend to expr ess ourselves
through emojis, like anger, frustration etc. We use different messenger
service platform where we express our emotions, anger, frustration. So
much so that it has replaced, in person meeting. An app controlling our
physical movement. So, all of u s are writing more than ever, only thing is
we have put it into a shape and give a direction and make it suitable to
social science and academic writing. Even during the Covid -19 pandemic
exams were conducted online through multiple choice questions. With
access t o internet, the amount of information available for a student is very
large. Additionally, we are overloaded with information and this is often
confusing. The recent pandemic too changed the formal communication
happening in the classroom into social media platforms like WhatsApp,
whereby informal communication was exchanged through groups, chats,
etc. Details about lecture s were being shared o n WhatsApp or Telegram.
This shows how technology can bring about change from the form al
method of writing a notice and having a special notice board dedicated to
it where a student was expected to visit the notice board and learn the munotes.in

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Writing in the Digital Age
19 information discussed in it and even make a note of it. The point to draw is
technology has brought new ways of doing things.
Writing is a way of recording a periodic history, which otherwise the later
generation may not know about how the past was. Apart from this , writing
helps to understand the growth of human kind. Due to the different texts
written by variou s Anthropologists, Sociologists, we are able to
understand the world in a better way, at the same time it helps us to learn
about the past in order to help us learn about the present. Let us now learn
about the meaning of Digita l age before understanding further about the
topic. As the chapter title is Writing in the Digital age.
4.2 MEANING OF DIGITAL AGE The Information Age, is a historical era of the 21st century marked by the
quick transition from the earlier modes of tradi tional age . It needs to be
noted that the industrial age led to the information technology. The speed
at which the Information age spread was far more than the earlier
historical period. With the widespread usage of the Internet , the digital age
officially started. The computers were been made around 1970s, with the
debut of the personal computer there was free and speedy flow of
information.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is Digital Age?
___________________________________________ _________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. How does the work of earlier Anthropologists and Sociol ogists help us
today?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________ ______
4.3 DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF WRITING IN DIGITAL AGE Writing in the digital age is different from that of the olden times unlike
using a typewriter or a pen and paper. There are different problems which
one faces like being disturbed by one’s own habits like lack of discipline,
fear of rejection, use of mobile phones . Let us look into this in detail.
Student and Writing:
In the traditional learning system of Gurukul the ‘learner s were required to
learn about wisdom, knowledge by residing with the teacher. Here, they
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20 with the arrival of digital age, the tools in the classroom , the authority of
textbooks grew and with time even the use of technology (Cope &
Kalantzis, 2000; Gee, 2000; Lank -shear & Knobel, 2003; Rostvall &
Selander, 2008; Selander & Kress, 2010; Säljö, 2010).With time the
writing practices also changed for learners.
Writing by hand appears to be b ecoming rarer and rarer in daily life as a
result of the recent rapid changes in writing practises (Neef, 2010). Digital
gadgets are used in its place even for day to day tasks, like for making
grocery lists, jotting down a number, and even for texting our loved ones.
Thereby, effecting even the classroom interaction. These modern
technologies are effective and give us the ability to communicate and store
data, as well as manipulate it in different ways than the older ones could
not, like editing and revisi ng texts, some students today use computers in
schools to write essays, reports, home assignments, and other types of
writing (Skol -verket1, 2013a). Students also use internet to write project,
assignments, essays than visiting the library and making notes by
themselves. As internet become convenient, no procedures to follow and is
handy.
Numerous investigations on various writing technologies and their effects
on the writing process have been conducted by Haas (1996). She looked at
the amount and type of planning under three different scenarios: pen and
paper, word processing alone, and word processing in addition with the
use of pen and paper permitted (Haas, 1996). She discovered that word
processor users depended more on the prospect of text revision an d had
less of a plan for their content than writers who wrote on paper.
Some scholars have also asked the question like how do college students
in the twenty -first century write so much more? Students can write more
quickly with computers. The writing spee d increased due to the
technological change between 1917, 1930, and 1986. Students could write
more quickly using ballpoint pens and manual or electric typewriters than
they could with ink pens or fountain pens. The internet has also been a
useful thing. A ccording to study, K –12 children who have access to the
internet on their computers "write more, rewrite more, publish more,
receive more feedback on their writing. They also write in a wider variety
of genres and forms, and generate higher quality writing ."
Writing and Career:
Writing is an important skill which one has to develop as a student of
social science. This skill helps in getting quicker jobs like content writing.
One can begin one’s career by writing about different issues, topics and
building a profile. Starting with small publications and later one can join a
newspaper too. Earlier writing a blog used to be more of a hobby, but it is
now an essential component of content marketing. Today, blogging mostly
focuses on informing potential clients about a business or product.
Additionally, there are a ton of opportunities.
Writing is also need for email advertising. Email marketing/ advertising
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21 action from potential customers. It is a practice focused on results. It aids
in developing data analytics abilities for ongoing development and also is
used for commercials.
Journals and Digital Technology:
Good quality write ups help in solving generating new ideas which in turn
could solve several problems faced by one’s society and surrounding.
Hence journals are very much important as they are published quickly and
are more accessible. Digital technology has changed how the academic
writing for journals is done, as well as how academ ic work is shared and
preserved. Additionally, it has facilitated the evaluation of the influence of
academic journal, publications and increased authors' access to different
data. With digital age, the sharing of research materials has been accepted
for p ublication, methods for storing and distributing academic work has
also changed. The usage of citation management software is also very
important. The introduction of the digital technologies, including
plagiarism detection tools, have helped in the assess ment of the quality of
journal papers. With the emergence of open -access journals there is access
to a wide variety of research material available for free. The growth of
online publishing of journals has also led to a vast number of resources
being saved like time, printing papers, manpower etc.
Writing and Research:
Writing is a integral part of several research methods like Ethnography
where we record every single detail, case study etc. Social science writing
could be issue based and while studying a certain problem one has scope
to even recording one’s own emotion and experiences. Those things can
be noted down into a personal diary and later it could be used as a
reference for recording some important personal experiences to write
down as a memoir or to publish it as an independent article. The personal
experiences can also be used as a reflexive writing as used in disciplines
like Anthropology. Being sensitive in terms of language content is very
important specially towards the co -participants of the study and while
writing about them.
The digital age has become a boon for the researcher as it has helped to
store the massive information collected. There are several software’s
which even assist the researcher to analyze the data like SPSS, if its
quantitative.
Writing and Academics:
Academic writing and academic literature are undergoing several changes
as a result of digitization. The three characteristics of academic writing
that constitute are formal reference, collaborative principles, and read er
interaction. The first trend relates to the increasing significance of
identifiers, citation styles, key words, and other information that support
the development of data bases enabling academic institutions and
scientific centers to make operational an d organizational decisions.
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22 transition from individual to collective authorship as well as from thematic
to functional authorship distribution. Finally, marketing techniques and
tools have been incorporated into academic writing to better convey
scientific knowledge to readers.
There are newer problems associated with the online journals. There is
still lack of awareness among several scholars who publish in predatory
journals, which charge large publication fees and accept manuscripts
without a rigorous peer review procedure (Renandya, 2014). The ease of
digital publication has led to an increase in the number of such unhealthy
or dubious publications (Paltridge, 2020). Yeo et al. (2 021) It is advised to
publish in a reputable journal that is listed in well -known reliable
databases like Web of Science (WOS) or SCOPUS, UGC List in order to
avoid being taken advantage of by these profit -driven journals.
Both in terms of Research and Ac ademics the language plays a very
important role. As the internet is majorly used in the language of English
there is still scarcity of literature, texts on certain topics issues on regional
languages. This leads to restricted knowledge being spread out an d only to
a certain class of people who speak English. Hence, there is urgent need
for writers and literature in regional languages. As an individual thinks,
connects through one’s own language better. The higher the connection
there is a closer to reality and enough literature being produced and the
problems could be exchanged. This would lead to healthy information
being passed on from one generation to another and as a result, knowledge
increases. This would also help in creation of ‘We’ feeling or oneness
among the diverse groups and appreciation of other cultures and identities.
Specially in a country like India. Hence, one can see even the global
platforms like Wikipedia inviting regional audiences to contribute and
share.
One of the major problems whic h even sociology students face is the lack
of regional language textbooks and reference material which we all need
to overcome. There is another problem of who’s text or article is more
taken seriously, often it is the article printed in the western press is still
carry credibility and reputation, we have to work on this area too and
consider the quality as important than the location and publisher ’s name.
Ways to begin writing:
Writing for general people like newspapers, blogs, websites is
comparatively d ifferent in terms of social sciences. There can be use of
technical language, words, concepts which are specific to the field of
sociology, anthropology. You can begin as a student by building your own
blog and documenting your experiences, views about dif ferent issues. This
would help you to learn new skills sets like digital marketing too which is
a full -fledged career in itself. This can help you to get jobs related to that
of content writing in the future. Many journals also have their own blogs
too for people to share, respond and when everything is moving online
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Writing in the Digital Age
23 Weekly Journal has its own blog called https://www.epw.in/blog. One can
be a part of this journal by writing, commenting, wri ting reviews etc.
Plagiarism has to be kept in mind while writing. There is a individual
chapter on plagiarism in this paper hence we are not discussing about it in
detail here. Citation helps in recognizing other scholars and thinkers, let it
be verbal inte rviews or recordings or published or unpublished sources
like Ph .D thesis. This brings credibility to the work and helps the other
individuals who read your material to go back to the original sources and
read on the topic if they are interested.
After all , research and knowledge, cultures are accumulative, and
collective in nature.
One of the ways, to begin writing is also by making book reviews. You
can read a book and you could analyze the characters, the narrative style,
content if it’s a fiction or semi fiction. If it’s a nonfiction book then you
could see the portrayal of statistics, facts, arguments.
Developing Arguments is one of the important things one has to do when
writing an article or research paper. However, this is not need ed when i t’s
a blog, fictional writing, it could be just narrati ng a story. One can even
write a case study research paper and you could publish it online. There
are several news channel, newspapers inviting citizen journalists to
particip ate and report about local issues and one can begin one’s writing
through that.
While writing one has to clear with the stand and language. Let us look
with the example of Tylor’s classic titled primitive culture. Imagine if he
was alive and published it at present. The title itself would have come to
lot of criticism like whose primitive, how can be say someone primitive.
So, the present times the words and meanings have changed now such
cultures are called as indigenous.
One of the important points to r emember is while writing, one has to
remember that in the digital era specially things can be taken out of the
context. Hence, one has to write anything based on the facts and data
which are reliable and credible. At the same time, voice out one’s opinion
is healthy way . In addition, there needs to be base built in the writing
through other writers or research carried out so far in the similar topic.
This would help building reliability and the readers would view that the
author has presented his/her view with some reading.
4.4 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH WRITING IN THE DIGITAL AGE The digitalization of writing has also brought about newer issues like
access to writing and text easily, at times this could also be taken out of
the context and the writers are opposed, criticized and even humiliated.
There is a artistic freedom curb could be through powerful agency or by
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Reading and Writing in Social Science
24 not always the technology helping the writers an d scholars but it could
even reverse and suppress them.
There is too much of information on the internet that it becomes difficult
to distinguish between reality and fake. Reliability of the information
becomes tricky. This can be the case with even prominent websites .
However, this is not the case with that of the books in the library. Hence, a
student has to be aware about what sites are reliable and the information
which is less credible.
Organizing oneself takes time with the vast number of resources avail able.
One has to know the right key works to use while searching a article to get
quicker results. Many a times, it could happen that you began writing with
the available sources, later on you may find the exact source which you
were searching hence, rewri ting would take time and mental strength.
Writing itself is an isolated work. While writing any work one of the
biggest problems is distraction through platforms like YouTube, phone or
any other electronic gadgets. Just by visiting one website and later a nother
one could spend whole day without realizing how much of time has passed
away and even feeling guilty at the end of the day for being unable to
produce any work, Hence, writing and printing the material written helps.
Self-discipline is required to a large extent to sit at one place and not even
checking any social media platforms before writing, as that could
influence one’s thought process, mood and even self -image and this could
affect over all the work or oneself to a large extent – one could pass o n
through several emotions in one second because of the media hence to
produce a good work balance of isolation and clarity of thought becomes
difficult specially in the digital time. As a laptop provides several things
like entertainment, gaming, video ca ll the multiplicity of use makes it
difficult to work and concentrate.
Writing in the digital age with a laptop has also helped in creating a
sedentary lifestyle and a isolation from a community. This in turn effects
both body and mind and hence balancing it out and regular exercise is
needed. In the modern times the social change with technology has
brought several health problems among youngsters like neck pain, spinal
pain, back pain etc.
Check Your Progress:
1. Discuss two problems associated with writing in the digital age.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________ ______
2. List out two free resources which can be used for writing
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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Writing in the Digital Age
25 4.5 SUMMARY In this chapter we began by understanding what is digital age. The age
developed with the advancement of computers and technology can be
called as digital age. This era has been one of the speediest events in the
history of human kind which has impacted massive groups and brought
about massive social change. Every sector has been impacted by that of
digital technology so is writing. In the chapter we have looked into
different areas related to writing like researcher, academicians and their
point of views. Students who have been writing more through usage of
Ms. Word or through use of internet. Several positive aspects associated
with writing are also discussed like exchange of inf ormation, storing,
saving of resources like time, money, paper etc. The chapter also discusses
the problems associated with writing in the digital age like lack of
concentration, sedentary lifestyle. We also learnt about how could one
begin a career through wr iting in different journals, content writing and
journalism etc. Thus, through this chapter we learnt about the different
aspects and interaction of technology, digital age and writing in detail.
4.6 QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the meaning of Digital Age and th e problems associated with
writing in the digital age.
2) Discuss some of the ways to begin writing
3) Write a note on the different aspects in the writing process due to the
use of digital technology.
4.7 REFERENCES  https://www.deccanherald.com/supple ments/dh -education/the -art-of-
writing -in-the-digital -age-982427.html
 Lauren L. Foxworth, Andrew Hashey & Diana P. Sukhram (2019)
Writing in the Digital Age: An Investigation of Digital Writing
Proficiency Among Students With and Without LD, Reading &
Writi ng Quarterly, 35:5, 445 -457, DOI:
10.1080/10573569.2019.1579011
 https://daily.jstor.org/student -writing -in-the-digital -age/
 https://www.igi -global.com/dictionary/resource -sharing/7562 writing
in digital age
 https://techcrunch.com/2016/06/23/the -three -ages-of-digital/
 Åkerfeldt, Anna. (2014). Re -shaping of Writing in the Digital Age - a
Study of Pupils’ Writing with Different Resources. Nordic Journal of
Digital Literacy. 2014. 172 -193. 10.18261/ISSN1891 -943X -2014 -03-
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Reading and Writing in Social Science
26  Paltridge, Brian. (2020). Writing f or Academic Journals in the Digital
Era. RELC Journal. 51. 1 -11. 10.1177/0033688219890359.
 Safonova, M. & Safonov, A.. (2021). Transformation of Academic
Writing in the Digital Age. Vysshee Obrazovanie v Rossii = Higher
Education in Russia. 30. 144 -153. 10 .31992/0869 -3617 -2021 -30-2-
144-153.
 G. Hatano, K. Takahashi, 2001, Cultural Diversity, Human
Development, and Education, Editor(s): Neil J. Smelser, Paul B.
Baltes, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral
Sciences, Pergamon, Pages 3041 -3045, ISBN 9780080430768,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B0 -08-043076 -7/02322 -6.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B00804307670232
26)
 Pérez -Llantada, Carmen. (2016). How is the digital medium shaping
new research genres? Some cross -disciplinary trends. 4. 22 -42.

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27 MODULE - II
5
TECHNIQUES OF THEMATIC READING
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Theoretical Understanding of Thematic Reading and Learning
5.3 Application of Thematic Reading and Learning
5.4 Effects of Thematic Reading and Learning
5.5 Summary
5.6 Questions
5.7 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the aspects of thematic reading .
 To familiarize students with ways in which thematic reading can be
undertaken .
5.1 INTRODUCTION Thematic units and integration are student -centered appro aches that align
with the learner -centered ideology of curriculum pedagogy. A thematic
unit is the organization of a curriculum around a central theme. It is a
series of lessons that integrate subjects across the curriculum, such as
math, reading, social s tudies, science, and language arts that all tie into the
main theme of the unit. Each activity should have a focus toward the
thematic idea They are well compatible with differentiated instruction and
students are appropriately challenged, resulting in les s boredom or feelings
of overwhelming difficulty. Thematic reading and learning are inherently
connected to thematic teaching. Thematic teaching is about students
actively constructing their own knowledge, drawing on real -life
experiences and incorporating issues of social justice that they face in their
everyday lives. In classrooms where successful thematic work is in
progress, ownership of learning is in the hands and minds of the students
and children learn more from thematic, integrated teaching than f rom
traditional single -subject curriculum.
5.2 THEORETICAL UNDERSTANDING OF THEMATIC READING AND LEARNING Thematic reading, teaching and integration are aligned to the constructivist
theory of learning. Constructivists believe that it is impossible to iso late munotes.in

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28 units of information or divide up knowledge domains according to a
hierarchical analysis of relationships. Theorists Piaget and Vygotsky were
strong proponents of this constructivist approach. Piaget (1926) believed
that knowledge is built in a slow, continuous construction of skills and
understanding that each child brings to each situation as he or she matures.
His development theory emphasized the cognitive growth that takes place
when students cooperate and interact with one another. This process i s
enhanced by integration.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses
not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on
understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are: Sensorimotor
stage: birth to 2 years Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7 ; Concrete
operational stage: ages 7 to 11 and Formal operational stage: ages 12 and
up.
The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foun dation of much
research and theory in cognitive development over the past several
decades, particularly of what has become known as Social Development
Theory. Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social
interaction in the development of cogni tion, as he believed strongly that
community plays a central role in the process of making meaning.
Thematic teaching and integration provide a great level of student
interaction and community.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a note on Piaget’s theory.
_____ _______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5.3 APPLICATION OF T HEMATIC READING AND LEARNING Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist
model in which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In
contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students
play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are
therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her students in
order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning
therefore becomes a reciprocal experience f or the students and teacher.
Using broad themes (which students can help to formulate) students can
apply their own real -life experiences thus making thematic teaching, also
called interdisciplinary teaching or integrated instruction, a good vehicle
for st udents to utilize otherwise fragmented knowledge and thought
processes to help make connections and solve problems in the real world
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29 Studies have shown that the human brain struggles with isolated pieces of
information that are not perceived to be important or relevant and that the
brain seeks patterns to create meaning and naturally connects facts and
ideas to make sense of the world. The very structure of thematic
instruction serves to tie ideas together around a larger who le (theme,
concept, and problem).
Thematic reading helps students stay focused and excited about what they
are learning. More current research has shown that thematic instruction
can also play a key role in boosting student motivation and improving
academ ic achievement. Curriculum integration is an effective means of
accomplishing the goal of teaching the content and skills children will
need to solve the problems that occur in real life and the
interconnectedness of these occurrences.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is the usefulness of thematic reading?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________ ________________________________
5.4 EFFECTS OF THEMATIC READING AND LEARNING The thematic learning is more accommodating to differences in students'
reading ability because it provides the conditions that encourage students
to develop the ability to read. This learning makes students active and
engaged no matter how their reading ability is. This leads to students’
increased interest in reading, thus leading to increasing reading skills. As
previously noted, theoretically, there is a relationship between r eading and
reading skills. The higher interest in reading is, the better a person's ability
to read. In the thematic learning, learning strategies lead to increased
students' interest in reading, which will then lead to increased reading
ability, and ultim ately lead to better learning outcomes. This also applies
to the interaction between the learning styles and the reading ability.
Based on the findings, the important effects are summarized into
seven points, they are as follows:
1) There is a difference in the learning outcomes for the students who
use the thematic learning model and the students who use the
conventional learning model. The learning outcomes of the students
who take the thematic learning are higher than the students who
follow the conven tional teaching;
2) There is a difference between the learning outcomes of students who
learn with visual style and ones with auditory learning style. The
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30 3) There is a difference in the learning outcomes between the students
with high reading ability and the students with low reading ability.
The learning outcomes of students who have high reading ability are
better than students who hav e low reading skills;
4) There is an interaction between the learning models and students'
learning styles in the learning outcomes;
5) There is no interaction between the learning models and the reading
ability in the students' learning outcomes;
6) There is no interaction between learning style and the reading ability
in the students' learning outcomes .; and
7) There is no interaction between among the learning models, learning
styles and reading ability in the students' learning outcomes.
Based o n the conclusions, as an empirical implication, several
suggestions can be put forward as follows:
1) The importance of the thematic learning is to apply the learning in
elementary school, especially the lower class;
2) The importance of attention to indi vidual differences of students, in
particular learning styles;
3) Reading ability should also be a concern, considering the elementary
students, in general, are still in the early stages of learning to read or
early reading.
Check Your Progress:
1. Expla in the advantages of having themes in reading.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________ _______________________________
5.5 SUMMARY In connection with the model of learning, the thematic models can
accommodate differences in students' reading ability. The thematic
learning models make all students active and engaged, regardless of
reading abi lity. By using a more -focused student -centred approach, the
thematic learning provides opportunities for a variety of potential
involvement in the learning process, as well as accommodating students’
individual differences including their reading ability.
Thematic units can result in a lot of creativities, colorful centers,
thoughtful conversation and fun read aloud. There are so many reasons
why using integrated thematic units can benefit your learners.
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31  Allows students to apply content throughout curricula
 Learners are able to make connections
 Draws from past experiences and prior knowledge
 Develops vocabulary and comprehension skills
5.6 QUESTIONS 1) What are thematic units?
2) Why are themes significant for r eading?
5.7 REFERENCES  Ary D Jacobs LC & Razavieh, A 2002 Introduction to research in
education Edisi keenam Stamford: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
 Bell, L. C. (1988). Let Them Read: Using a Thematic Approach to
Teaching Reading. Middle School Journal, 19( 2), 16 -17.
 Grisham,DL 1995 Integrating the curriculum: The case of an award -
winning elementary school Paper presented at the annual meeting of
the American Educational Research Association, Berkeley, CA.
 Tudor L S 2013 Primary school skills development th rough integrated
activities Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 127 pp 722 —27.


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32 6
UNDERSTANDING THE MAIN
ARGUMENTS IN AN ACADEMIC
PRODUCTION
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Argument vs. Opinion
6.3 Elements of Academic Arguments
6.4 Summary
6.5 Questions
6.6 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the impor tance of academic arguments .
 To familiarize students with the skills of critical academic production .
6.1 INTRODUCTION At school, at work, and in everyday life, argument is one of main ways we
exchange ideas with one another. Academics, business people, sci entists,
and other professionals all make arguments to determine what to do or
think, or to solve a problem by enlisting others to do or believe something
they otherwise would not. Not surprisingly, then, argument dominates
writing, and training in argume nt writing is essential for all students. So,
what is an argument? All people, including you, make arguments on a
regular basis. When you make a claim and then support the claim with
reasons, you are making an argument.
The two main models of argument de sired usually as part of the training
for academic or professional life are rhetorical argument and academic
argument . If rhetoric is the study of the craft of writing and speaking,
particularly writing, or speaking designed to convince and persuade, the
student studying rhetorical argument focuses on how to create an
argument that convinces and persuades effectively. To that end, the
student must understand how to think broadly about argument, the
vocabulary of argument, and the logic of argument. The c lose sibling of
rhetorical argument is academic argument, argument used to discuss and
evaluate ideas, usually within a professional field of study, and to
convince others of those ideas. In academic argument , interpretation and
research play the central r oles. However, it would be incorrect to say that
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Understanding the Main Arguments in an Academic Production
33 6.2 ARGUMENT VS. OPINION Argument is often confused with opinion. Indeed, argu ments and opinions
sound alike. Someone with an opinion asserts a claim that what he/she
thinks is true. Someone with an argument asserts a claim that what he/she
thinks is true. Although arguments and opinions do sound the same what
he/she, there are two important differences:
1. Arguments have rules; opinions do not :
To form an argument, you must consider whether the argument is
reasonable. Is it worth making? Is it valid? Is it sound? Do all its parts
fit together logically? Opinions, on the other hand, have no rules, and
anyone asserting an opin ion need not think it through for it to count as
one; however, it will not count as an argument.
2. Arguments have support; opinions do not :
If you make a claim and then stop, as if the claim itself were enough to
demonstrate its truthfulness, you have a sserted an opinion only. An
argument must be supported, and the support of an argument has its own
rules. The support must also be reasonable, relevant, and sufficient.
Check Your Progress:
1. Compare argument with an opinion with examples.
_____________ _______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
6.3 ELEMENTS OF ACADEMIC ARG UMENTS Although every piece of academic writing is unique, they all aim to
persuade the reader of one main idea or of the integrity of a central
finding. This central claim is often referred to as the argument. The key
elements of an argument include the:
1. statement of the problem
2. literature review
3. the precise focus of the research stated in the form of an hypothesis,
question, aim, or objective
4. method and methodology
5. results/evidence
6. discussion and conclusion
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34 Lets understand this in detail:
1. The 'problem' :
Like other academic writing, journal papers open with an unresolved
problem or paradox, or an explanation of something important that we
need to know. This is done in order to get the reader's attention, establish
the significan ce of the research, and signal the literature/s that the research
will contribute to. In some papers, this is accomplished in a few sentences
or paragraphs. In others it may take several pages.
2. The 'gap' in the literature':
The statement of the problem is followed by a statement of the 'gap' in the
field/s of literature that the research aims to address. The 'gap' could refer
to an unresolved question, a paradox, a missing piece of information, a
theoretical inconsistency or to some other weakness withi n existing
understandings of the phenomenon under study. Writing about the gap in
the literature is often referred to as the 'literature review' although
'literature review' is also used to refer more generally to writing that
critically engages with the i deas of others. When we talk about the
literature review in this resource, we are referring specifically to that part
of the journal article whose task is to outline the 'gap' in the literature that
defines the significance of the research.
3. Hypothesis, question, aim, objective:
Classically, the literature review is followed by a statement of the precise
focus of the research. This can take many forms including an hypothesis, a
question or, more commonly, a statement of the aims or objectives of the
research. In order to avoid repetition and to keep the focus precise, it is
important to use only one of these forms. Since research aims to produce
knowledge, as opposed to directly changing the world in some material
way (with the possible exception of actio n research), the statement of the
research objectives should use the language of knowledge production.
4. Method and methodology:
The method and methodology explains how you will answer the question,
or how you arrived at your conclusions. A concise state ment of the
method and methodology is usually provided in the introduction, and/or
the abstract. This statement should explain what you did to achieve the
research aims, or reach your conclusions, and why this approach was
appropriate for your research. Yo u are aiming for a statement that carries
the critical information with as few words as possible.
5. Results/evidence:
The next step in the story line is the provision of the results or discussion
of the evidence to answer the question or support the argu ment stated in
the introduction. Here you are telling the reader what you found. Evidence
might be organized around elements of the method, central themes,
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Understanding the Main Arguments in an Academic Production
35 context, geograph ical area or other grouping. The important thing is that
the discussion is clearly tied to the question or argument of the thesis.
6. Discussion and conclusion:
The final step in the story line is to provide the answer to the question, or
to summarize the argument and the main evidence used to support it. This
is followed by a discussion of the significance of the research and the
implications that arise from the research. The goal of the conclusion is to
highlight the importance of the argument, to draw t ogether the discussion
into a final point, and to leave a lasting impression on the reader. In the
same way that the paper opens with a statement of a problem that is of
broad concern, it should close with commentary that highlights the take
home message. The aim in the conclusion is to make this message as clear
and accessible as possible.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are the elements of academic arguments?
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________ ____________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
6.4 SUMMARY Argumentation is a key requirement of the essay, which is the most
common genre that students must writ e. Various researches show that
students have only partial or incorrect concepts of argument. Many
problems they encounter are caused by their lack of knowledge of what an
argumentative essay requires, particularly of the need to develop their own
position in an academic debate. The advice they receive does not make the
requirements explicit and refers to argumentation inconsistently and
vaguely.
Notwithstanding the current deficiency in terms of understanding on the
arguments in academic production of know ledge, it continues to be seen as
extremely important for the authentic and reliable production of
knowledge.
6.5 QUESTIONS  State the importance of academic arguments.
 What are the consequences of having mere opinions in academic
writing?
6.6 REFERENCES  Andrews, R. (2005). Models of argumentation in educational
discourse. Text – Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse,
25(1), 107 -127. munotes.in

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36  Bacha, N. N. (2010). Teaching the academic argument in a university
EFL environment. Journal of English for A cademic Purposes, 9(3),
229-241.
 Hyland, K., & Sancho Guinda, C. (Eds.) (2012). Stance and voice in
written academic genres. Palgrave Macmillan.
 Toulmin, S. E. (2003). The uses of argument. Cambridge University
Press. (Original work published 1958).
 Wolfe, C. R. (2011). Argumentation across the curriculum. Written
Communication, 28(2), 193 -219.


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37 7
ACADEMIC READING SKILLS IN SOCIAL
SCIENCES
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Critical Reading
7.3 Prepara tory Steps t o Reading
7.4 Reading Approaches
7.5 Improvement o f Reading Efficiency
7.6 Reading a nd Analysing Academic Texts
7.7 Conclusion
7.8 Summary
7.9 Questions
7.10 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES  To acquaint the learner with the concept of academic reading.
 To study the steps and approaches in order to build critical reading
skills.
7.1 INTRODUCTION Reading academic texts is a difficu lt intellectual task. To maximise
comprehension and memory, it takes time, effort, patience, and reading
strategies. In the social sciences, critical reading entails actively reading
with the goals of identifying arguments, weighing evidence, evaluating
sources, identifying conflicts of interest, and challenging underlying
assumptions. It is distinct from the passive reading associated with leisure
reading, which many students apply incorrectly to academic texts. Critical
reading is a valuable skill that he lps students become more aware and,
hopefully, more effective citizens, regardless of discipline. It entails a
certain process before, during and after the reading process which involves
evaluation of the information at hand. Having a grasp on the concepts and
vocabulary of the language of the article written is essential to decode
what the author is trying to convey. Reading skills have an irrefutable
connection with academic success. Hence this section will introduce
patterns of reading which would provid e the students with meaningful and
positive results.
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38 7.2 CRITICAL READING Critical reading in the social sciences entails being aware of how a reading
fits into an analytic lineage. This means determining what has been said
about the question and what the current author is adding to the analysis.
Social science texts have their own distinct characteristics and challenges.
There are many strategies that can be used to read general texts as well as
social science texts. There are some strategies that are spe cifically used for
accurate comprehension of academic texts of the social sciences.
The word ‘critique’ often has a negative connotation to it as it refers to
providing feedback. Hence, students may be misled to believe that to
critique a piece of work usi ng the tool of critical thinking necessitates the
need of providing negative feedback alone; when in reality, it signifies the
capacity to appreciate as well as point out the shortcomings of the work.
Others may confuse critical engagement with a text with the hopeless task
of distinguishing the objective and factual aspects from the opinion -based,
biased, or false portions. This misunderstanding stems from a high -school
teaching model that teaches students to memorise answers that have been
taught as "fact s" for one -time testing.
Students have been taught that since the information is presented by an
educated figure who seems to portray a command over the subject, by this
virtue alone the findings and information presented hence must be true.
They have bee n conditioned to accept information without assessing or
verifying it. Students in general, have not been prepared to critically
engage with their texts, understand how the texts are part of an intellectual
lineage, or question the assumptions that have be en developed into
specific models of understanding which are unique to every discipline.
Hence developing critical thinking is an essential function to assess the
facts, figures or opinions presented and thereby critique them. As a result,
by urging studen ts to become critical readers in a variety of disciplines at
the college level, they are being motivated to develop a skill set that is
diametrically opposed to the one they learned in high school. This requires
unlearning the old way of comprehension and relearning techniques to see
information from various perspectives to analyse them.
7.3 PREPARATORY STEPS TO READING There are several factors which must be considered before, during, and
after the reading process. Following the steps mentioned will help i n
providing pragmatic insight. It will allow for an understanding that runs
deeper than just words that meet the eye.
1. Before the reading process:
It is imperative for the learner to collect information based on the
background of the author, their other works, the year in which they have
written and how the ideologies present back then impact the work.
Usually, the author’s life impacts the work that they have written. Try to
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39 materi al. Take into account the importance of the title and if it lends itself
well the information the article is trying to convey. Note your observation
about the title. In the presence of an abstract, note the expectations it sets
within the limited number of words. Gather context through the social,
cultural, economic and political events which may influence a piece of
writing. Make a note of the nature of the source; if it is a journal, primary
source, book, etc. Remember to question as to who is the target audience
of this text; if it has been written keeping in mind the general public,
students, or academicians.
A quick browsing of the text without gaining into the details will allow
better comprehension of the topics covered in the article. This process i s
called previewing the text. It involves quickly glancing over details on
pages such as note headings, graphs, images, bold words, subtitles, etc.
Reading the abstract, introduction, or summary if present can provide
greater understanding of the text in a shorter period of time. It can save the
reader the trouble of reading in detail and then realising that the
information is irrelevant to their interest. Based on all these steps, the
reader will obtain a fair idea to predict the areas which are important and
need in -depth reading.
2. During the reading process:
When reading an article for academic purposes, it can be especially
daunting as it is important to have a basic understanding of the jargon,
theory and concepts. Even then, it is imperative to read the text a few
times in order to truly understand what the author is trying to say. In order
to understand the author’s point of view, posing certain questions helps in
the elimination of confusion and gathering appropriate information. It is
necessary to assess if an argument is being posed. This argument is often
called a thesis. Words such as ‘claim’, ‘contend’, ‘demonstrate’, ‘show’,
etc. signify the existence of an argument within the work. In the presence
of an argument, one must evaluate the author’ s standpoint; contrast it with
what other scholars argue by determining if the author agrees or disagrees
with the literature that has already been published; and how do the claims
made by the author aid in research evolution.
Following are a few steps the reader must cultivate in order to develop
critical thinking. Firstly, ask if the arguments posed in the content written
by the author are convincing. This has no inherent right or wrong answer
to this. It is based on the intuitive quality of the reader to critically analyse
and point out the places in the work to which they agree or disagree. This
ability is sharpened over a period of time and needs practice. Secondly,
critical analysis includes understanding the vocabulary and concepts
present within the work. Writing down important words or phrases and
locating their definitions forms a vital step to reading academic material.
Techniques such as re -reading the sentence and using the new word in a
relevant sentence will help retain the new word and help bu ild vocabulary.
Thirdly, creation of visuals in the form of a map, index, flow chart will
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40 3. After the reading process :
Use other sources which have been cited or referenced to clarify doubts or
questions. Talk about the topic aloud to gauge if there are any errors in the
flow of the work or if there is a need for a citation. A form of self -testing
can be used to assess how well the topic has been understood by the use of
a study guide or flas h cards.
7.4 READING APPROACHES 1. Surface approach:
This approach refers to reading the text by passive reception of the content
presented. The information is viewed in isolation and not as in connection
to other pieces of work. This type of reading lead s to a surface level
approach by allowing retention of the information only for a short -term
goal such as an examination. There is a risk of forgetting everything that
has been read. The reader while reading using the surface approach
focuses on the sign, which is the text itself.
2. Deep approach:
In this approach, the reader not only reads the words presented, but applies
the element of pragmatism to analyse the text. This requires a higher order
of cognitive skills which promote meta -cognitivity. This a pproach engages
the reader as they try to negotiate the significance of a word and to
construct the true sense of all the words put together. Here, there is an
emphasis on the message of the author, the ideas being conveyed, the
argument presented, and the argument’s structure. The puzzle of new
concepts are deciphered in context to the knowledge of the already studied
concepts. The signified is focused on when reading using the deep
approach, which referes to the meaning of the text.
3. The Four Step Appr oach :
The four step approach is a helpful instrument in overcoming the initial
inhibitions and difficulties with regards to critical reading of text. These
steps involve reading a text several times in order to obtain as much
context as possible.
First re ading: Previewing
This step involves glossing over the contents of the text and noting the
important aspects such as the role of the introduction, the opening
sentence of paragraphs, section headings, etc. It provides an overview of
what can be expected wh ile reading the text.
Second reading: Annotating and Analyzing
The second reading is meant to be slow and thorough. It is important to
have a pencil handy to make observations which can be placed as tiny
notes next to the word, sentence, or phrase which is being clarified. This
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41 understanding their true meaning . This aid in the analysis of the text by
providing a frame of reference, pushing one closer to understanding what
the author is trying to convey.
Third reading: Review
This reading must address the questions which may have cropped up in the
reader’s mind. The questions will usually be added as an annotation
wherever the doubt exists. It also entails the clarification of the
complicated sections of the text if any by sorting it out into tables, flow -
charts or maps.
Fourth reading: Responding
Taking into consideration all the material which has been read several
times, the last step involves responding to the material read. In oth er
words, it refers to the process of writing down your reaction and
observations with regard to the text at hand. It can also be implemented by
speaking to others about it. The last step helps in assuring that clarity has
been achieved and the reader has been able to assess the material from
their own unique perspective.
7.5 IMPROVEMENT OF READING EFFICIENCY A free -writing exercise helps in overcoming inhibitions and writer's block.
It is suggested to reflect on the text after reading for about fifteen min utes.
When writing freely, it is not essential to concern oneself with logic, style,
punctuation or any structure of correctness that may have been taught.
This exercise helps in promoting a flow of thoughts by paraphrasing or
summarising what has just bee n read into original words. Observing the
title, try writing to satisfy the following elements such as what does the
title wish to convey, what according to the reader might the article focus
on based solely on the title, and to predict what the argument m ay revolve
around. This same exercise can also be conducted with the abstract. One
must write these observations down and then compare these notes after
finishing reading the whole article.
The reader must locate the central argument of the text and identi fy if the
points being made are able to convince them. Free -writing these notes
helps in analysing the text by assessing what criterias are met and those
which remain unsatisfied in persuading the reader to be in favour of the
argument. The technique of fr ee-writing can also be employed to see if the
current text resembles or has common or interconnected topics to the
works which may have been read previously. If any such information is
retrieved, one can evaluate how the texts are different from each other or
where they overlap in the form of similarities.
The reader should list the theoretical approaches used, specify authors
cited, and list key concepts. It should also be noted how the author
presents the arguments as opposed to the works from which he h as
referenced his material. A set of questions can be prepared in order to
direct the flow of the presentation being made during a viva or a
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42 7.6 READING AND ANALYSING ACADEMIC TEXTS How the text which is being read will be perceived will depen d mainly on
two factors: first is the background of the reader and secondly, the
environment in which the text is being read. When reading academic texts,
it is unlikely that all the information that needs to be found will be found
in the text alone. There needs to be a deep approach to the reading where
meaning and concepts are being understood, knowledge is being
broadened by access to other related literature. This implies that the
strategies used to navigate this method will have to be sought from both
the di scipline in which the text has been written as well as from outside it.
There are several general categories of analysis that can be applied to
academic writings, including
(i) the aim of reading ,
(ii) the context,
(iii) the thesis,
(iv) deconstr uction of assumptions,
(v) assessment of arguments, and
(vi) implications of arguments.
The expert reader approaches an academic text with a specific goal in
mind, such as coming up with deep learning activities, contrasting ideas,
delving into the im agery, or exploring the social, psychological or
economic perspectives, to name a few. Analysis of the text can be aided
by reading about the author and also referring to two or three of their
previous works.
The argument or the thesis can be identified b y asking the question, ‘What
does the author intend to do?’. Is the author wanting to confront and
challenge existing concepts? Are they trying to evaluate a variable which
has been missed by the previous researchers? Or are they attempting to
apply a theo ry or concept in a novel process. It then becomes imperative to
locate the stand of the author on various ideas. Do they advocate them or
do they provide a counter -argument? When authors write a piece of work,
a lot of the concepts, ideas, theories used ar e assumed to be understood by
the target audience. In case if the person is a novice, it is going to take a
few attempts at reading the literature first which the author mentions and
then hold into account the new knowledge and insights gained. While
readi ng, the arguments should be tested by checking for any contradictions
or irregularities. By following the above suggestions, critical thinking can
be fostered by using a deep approach to reading.
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43 7.7 CONCLUSION In order to be an efficient reader, it is imp ortant to use skills such as
prediction to anticipate what the author is trying to say and contrast it with
the final meaning of the text. Visualisation helps in mapping out how the
text has been constructed which will allow the information to sustain itse lf
in the long -term memory. Making connections between multiple texts and
also between the text and the world is an essential skill in order to be a
critical reader. Questions must be framed and all that has been read needs
to be summarized for better comp rehension. And lastly, inferring the
meaning by reading in between the lines is a crucial strategy which will
help in completing deep learning about the text.
7.8 SUMMARY To maximise comprehension and memory, it takes time, effort, patience,
and reading st rategies.
Critical reading is a valuable skill that helps students become more aware
and, hopefully, more effective citizens, regardless of discipline.
Developing critical thinking is an essential function to assess the facts,
figures or opinions presented and thereby critique them.
Take into account the importance of the title and if it lends itself well the
information the article is trying to convey.
A quick browsing of the text without gaining into the details will allow
you to comprehend the topics cov ered in the article.
Words such as ‘claim’, ‘contend’, ‘demonstrate’, ‘show’, etc. signify the
existence of an argument within the work.
Use other sources which have been cited or referenced to clarify doubts or
questions.
The information viewed in isolati on and not in connection to other pieces
of work is called surface approach.
In a deep approach, the reader not only reads the words presented, but
applies the element of pragmatism to analyse the text.
Previewing, annotating, analysing, reviewing, and res ponding are steps to
critical reading.
The reader should list the theoretical approaches used, specify authors
cited, and list key concepts.
There are several general categories of analysis that can be applied to
academic writings, including (i) the aim of reading , (ii) the context, (iii)
the thesis, (iv) deconstruction of assumptions, (v) assessment of
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44 7.9 QUESTIONS 1) What is critical reading? Discuss the steps needed in order to prepare
oneself to read aca demic text .
2) Explain the approaches for critical reading? Examine their
contribution towar ds improving reading efficiency .
3) Discuss the guidelines that need to be followed while readi ng and
analysing academic texts .
7.10 REFERENCES  Hermida, Julian (2 009): ‘The Importance of Teaching Academic
Reading Skills in First -Year University Courses’
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228176003_The_Importanc
e_of_Teaching_Academic_Reading_Skills_In_First -
Year_University_Courses
 Kucukoglu, H. (2013): ‘Impro ving Reading Skills Through Effective
Reading Strategies’, Procedia – Social and Behavioural Sciences,
70:709 -714
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257718591_Improving_Rea
ding_Skills_Through_Effective_Reading_Strategies/link/551bd6d30c
f2fe6cbf75f12b /download
 Banditvilai, Choosri (2020): ‘The Effectiveness of Reading Strategies
on Reading Comprehension’, International Journal of Social Science
and Humanity, Vol.10, No. 2
 http://www.ijssh.org/vol10/1012 -CH06.pdf
 Reading Skills :
https://www.jmu.edu/ valleyscholars/files/studyreadingskills.pdf
 Vallee, Manuel: ‘Critical Reading in Social Science’
 https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi -guide -contents/critical -reading -
intro/social -science/

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45 8
DISCURSIVE ANALYSIS
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Understanding Discursive Analysis
8.3 Michel Foucault
8.4 Steps for conducting Discursive Analysis
8.5 Summary
8.6 Questions
8.7 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES  To learn abou t the meaning of Discursive .
 To understand how discursive analysis is used in social sciences.
8.1 INTRODUCTION Discursive analysis has been used in several disciplines’ areas like to
understand the marginalization of female work force, to understand
tourism, violence, psychological aspects, interviews, conversations,
transcripts etc. In other words it has been used in multiple disciplines
across social sciences. Let us look into it in detail.
The dictionary meaning of Discursive is that of moving from one to pic to
another without a proper order. Discursive writing is distinctive in that it
presents both sides of an argument while eventually presenting a certain
stance on the issue. Discursive writing is not an aggressive or loud piece
of writing; rather, it c onsiders both sides of the issue before coming to a
conclusion. It focusses an essay's structure effectively in order to explore a
range of concepts and subjects, hence discursive text is crucial. The
introduction, discussion, and summary of the subject ar e all included in
order to persuade the listener to continue reading in a discursive text.
Depending on the subject, a discursive writing piece can have both serious
and lighthearted tones. Many individuals who would have been turned off
by a narrow -minded , one -sided argument now find it simpler to engage
with discursive writing . Additionally, by demonstrating that the decision
was reached after carefully considering all the available information, it
serves to support the main point. There are different types of Discursive
writing like Argumentative and Persuasive.

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46 Discursive argumentative writing :
An argumentative essay often employs evidence to support its claims and
logical reasoning to support its main points.
Here are some pointers for crafting a well -rounded argument.
The argument is introduced in the first paragraph.
 Both pro and con arguments are covered.
 Your argument is well -supported by enough evidence.
 Jargon is avoided but technical and formal language is used.
Writing discursive persuasive :
A persuasive essay w here the writer's feelings and emotions are expressed.
Typically, it has less factual support and more opinion than an
argumentative essay.
Texts intended to persuade should include:
 A title that expresses the viewpoint.
 Arguments in favor of the position.
 Words that connect concepts like (however, furthermore, therefore).
 Rhetorical inquiries
 A summary and position statement in the conclusion.
Discursive is a multidisciplinary subject that is utilized in psychology,
sociology, and literature. Discourse ana lysis has also been used in regard
to understand various issues of psychological significance.
8.2 UNDERSTANDING DISCURSIVE ANALYSIS Discursive analysis is a great educational tool as well for improving
understanding of systemic processes and observing h ow relational
negotiations take place between psychological and interpersonal
processes. Discursive analysis can enhance supervision by supplying a
more thorough understanding of critical awareness of what works and
what doesn't in written or spoken form o f communication. There are
several advantages to discursive analysis as a method and as a field of
study. For professionals, academics, researchers and teachers.
Professionals can use it to evaluate their work and to resolve some
problems. While using disc ursive analysis one needs to pay attention and
listen to the talks, exchange, not unnecessarily privileging their own
internal monologue. For example – Listen from the actor’s view point that
one’s own assumption, thoughts. The researcher can also focus on the
unchecked presumed (and assumed) information about the client, qualities,
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47 evaluating one’s work, the analyst can take help of a team through which
there is encouragement devel opment of many viewpoints, criticisms, and
discussions.
There are certain preconditions before carrying out any subject, topic
discursive analysis. Like one should not look at any topic in isolation but
within the history, location and the context of the d iscourse. Discourse can
be verbal spoken communication or that of a text. While discussing the
benefits of discursive analysis the researcher should view and try to
deconstruct a discourse, body of knowledge as a key and researchable
element of human affa irs, rather than seeing construction as a taken -for-
granted start point. In other words, researcher has to give importance to
the constructions about individual identity too which are created,
maintained, or modified rather than reacting to previously acce pted
established and unique psychological notions. One should also look into
how certain discourse becomes dominant while certain do not receive so
much attention. How people create meanings to certain discourse and to
some they don’t.
It is crucial to fi rst establish a theoretical framework for comprehending
interaction before giving methodologies and recommendations for
discursively studying conversation. Theories help in learning certain
relationship and manner of being with language in use in addition to
providing a conceptual framework (Stancombe, & White, 1997). This
needs to be made clear while doing discursive analysis. As theories help to
give a direction, framework, research approach. Three characteristics of
discursive analysis needs to be adopte d like responsibility, relational
positioning, and structured structures and sequences.
Additionally, it's crucial for analysts to reflect on the conclusions which
they draw from their work are genuinely supported by the conversation
that they interact wit h. The analyst can also question each assertion about
how they interpret the participants' ongoing production of meaning while
using the phrase "how do I know this?" like a mantra. This helps in letting
go of one's chosen sets of interpretations and values that are based on
certain theories, therapeutic models, and ideologies. It involves learning to
shift one's perspective and being receptive to what one hears and sees in a
way that values each speaker's orientation and ways of producing
meaning, focusing on what each utterance means to the speaker, in their
context, not what it means to you in your context.
Let us take an example :
To understand a organisation setup one needs to know what are the
underlying issues. Like to know the deep -rooted power relati ons the
researcher can take into account if he/she wanted to do a discourse
analysis of a certain nation's occupational health and safety legislation.
Therefore, to draw details the researcher thereafter can enquire as to how
workplace health, safety, and rules are produced discursively. Which
viewpoints on workplace safety are accepted, and which ones are
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48 how authority is used in respect to this regulation? In other words, a
discourse anal ysis that is in line with Foucauldian concepts does not point
to the genuine meaning of what is said or left unsaid. Because "discourses
are not only what they say," it examines assertions in terms of what they
really do. As "discourses are not objects but rules and procedures that
make objects thinkable and governable, and they do not "determine"
things but rather interfere in the relations of what may be known, spoken,
or practiced," it examines statements in terms of what they do rather than
what they sa y (Arribas -Ayllon & Walkerdine, 2008, p. 120).
There are several discourses specially the one’s which are communicated
verbally. In such discourse transcribing is needed. Transcribing is an
important component of discursive analysis and practice for cultiv ating a
critical and non -judgmental attitude. It is not a prerequisite for analysis.
The value of the study is in part due to the long and careful nature of
transcription. The researcher has to be fully immersed in the talk -in-
interaction by having to pay close attention to each word, rhythm, and
emphasis, as well as pauses, interruptions, overlaps, repetitions, and breath
intakes and exhales. During carrying out research one needs to watch the
video for visual cues and any pertinent movement, and yo u must do all of
this repeatedly. The process of transcription entails both the recording of
clinical discourse and the meticulous transcription of the talk -in-
interaction. This entails mastering and using detailed transcribing
notations that are crucial f or illuminating the specifics of how distinct
phenomena are co -constructed. Finding out patterns is also a part of
discursive analysis. This is done by looking into repetition and nuisances
of the issue. Finding out patterns takes time and there is requiremen t of
classification so that the patterns emerge. This could be done on verbal
text or even nonverbal texts.
Check Your Progress :
1. Discuss the Discursive persuasive writing .
____________________________________________________________
____________________ ________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Write about Discursive argumentative
______________________________________________________ ______
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
8.3 MICHEL FOUCAULT The primary focus of Foucault's writing is disco urse, or the structured
forms of knowing that are both produced exchanged and have an impact
on society. Discourses are more than just verbal exchanges they also take
the form of institutionalized activities and are restricted with power. For
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49 set of terms or signifiers; it also considers how medical care is
institutionally structured as well as how much influence the doctor has
over how the patient perceives the situation.
Michel Fo ucault writings try to document how power is used in society.
He uses discourse analysis to explain it. According to Michel Foucault
(1978), power is a relational concept. Power, according to Foucault
(1978), is also productive which shapes how society con structs its
members and ourselves. For Foucault (1978), power produces "discursive
practices" or "discursive knowledge" in which people are expected to
behave in certain ways supported by common sense truths. Through
Discipline power is followed, which inc ludes both bio -power (e.g., and via
through the subjugated physical body) and disciplinary power (e.g., via
school, religion), plays a part in this. As a consequence, a person's worth is
determined by how closely they conform to the established norms.
The History of Sexuality, is a important text of Foucault published in
1978, is a striking example of Foucault's genealogical analysis. Rather
than merely analysing truth, Foucault was more interested in the functions
of power and in describing the "history of the present," which included the
processes by which truth is formed and the circumstances under which
some utterances, statements, propositions, and a particular version of
knowledge come to be seen as truth. Consequently, this truth -making
process is dis cursive, grounded in power relations, and involves the
construction of a subject's subjectivity (Waitt, 2005).
Foucault points out that through the processes of normalization, power is
what shapes who we are. Foucauldian power is, to put it simply, all -
universal, productive (rather than only destructive), diffused, performed,
discursive, rooted in discourse, knowledge, and regimes of truth, forming
(the subject), embodied, and consensual rather than coercive. According to
Foucault (1978), power is relationa l, and resistance is an essential part of
and overlaps with power relations. Power is diffuse; thus, Foucault
demonstrates that in order to fight it, it must be dispersed across social
structures and ingrained in daily life. Both the power of hegemony and the
strength of resistance are "fragmented and inconsistent, each always
possessing components of the other" (Raby, 2005, p. 161).
It is crucial for a discourse analyst to move outside of hegemonic
discourses as one of the main goals of any discourse analy sis is to try to
find hegemonic discourses in action. This may be viewed as an effort to
read a text "with new eyes and ears," as well as a step in the reflective
analysis process when the analyst considers their own place in the
discourse and how that pla ce contributes to unique understandings of the
problems they are analysing. Interestingly, the greatest approach to
develop the abilities to reject hegemonic discourses like liberalism is
probably to immerse oneself in readings in critical social theory.
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50 8.4 STEPS FOR CONDUCTING DISCURSIVE ANALYSIS 1) Learning about the context:
Before making Discursive Analysis one can write out the details about the
source material and how it fits into the overall scheme. The researcher
should also consider the social an d historical background of the production
of each of your materials. Note the language, origin, and publication
information for your source, as well as the author(s), publication
information, and country of origin (and when) it was published.
Additionally, make an effort to keep track of when and how you acquired
your materials, as well as one has to describe where others could get
copies. Check your sources' comments to any significant events, whether
they relate to larger discussions, and how they were pe rceived at the time
of the publication.
2) Gather your research materials :
It is advisable to set up the text for analysis in a way that will enable you
to interact with the source, focus on particulars, and create accurate
references afterwards. Making m ore copies of the source material, if one is
working from a hard copy, make points and highlight crucial details. Try
to digitize your source or get a digital copy if you haven't already. Then
provide references so that readers can follow your work later: include
numbers for lines, headings, paragraphs, figures, or any other elements
that will help you stay on track.
3) Making note of the text's organization :
After gathering your resources and coding the discourse strands, it is
necessary to examine the tex ts' structural elements. Exist any sections that
focus primarily on a single argument? Exist any instances in the text when
various discourse threads overlap one another? Try to recognize the
argument's structure: does the text move over many concerns one at a
time? Does it present a counterfactual situation first, then present a
refutation of that case and the primary argument? At this stage, you should
also think about how the argument is guided by the headers and other
layout elements, as well as how the introduction and conclusion fit into the
bigger picture.
The following stage of your research will probably be the most time -
consuming, but it will also be the most instructive in terms of examining
how a discourse functions in depth. You will need to det ermine how each
statement operates linguistically. You might need to make different coding
categories for your digital files or employ numerous copies of your text for
each work -step in order to do this. Some of the things to watch out for
include the foll owing:
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51 Word groups:
Are there any words in the text that have a contextual background? For
instance, the terminology may be taken straight from corporate, military,
or excessively informal youth lingo. Look more closely
Modalities:
Look for any assertio ns about what "should" or "could" be in the text.
These words might convey hypothetical situations, a sense of urgency, or
a call to action.
Evidentialities:
Lastly, are there any words or phrases that imply factuality in the text?
The words "of course," "clearly," or "as everyone knows" are a few
examples. What types of "facts" the book actually delivers to support its
thesis is a related subject. Does the text state factuality, actively support it,
or just make it seem obvious? One of discourse's main ch aracteristics is
the way it "naturalizes" some claims as "facts" or "common sense," even
when they are in reality debatable (and in discourse theory, all statements
are controversial).
4) Compile and evaluate discursive assertions :
You can focus on the sp ecific assertions or discourse fragments once you
have a clear understanding of the text's major elements. Collecting all
statements with a certain code and analysing what they have to say about
the relevant discourse strand is an effective technique to ac complish this.
You may use this list of assertions to chart the "truths" the text establishes
for each important subject.
5) Identify any cultural connections :
The source material's context has to be clearly described. Make a note of
how the argument is in fluenced by the context. Does your writing include
references to outside sources or indicate that you are an expert on a
different field? What significance does the text provide to this other? All
these points have to be taken into consideration while maki ng a discursive
analysis.
6) Interpretation:
The entirety of your study is now complete, but the key issue is left
unanswered: what does it all mean? To explain what the discourse is about
and how it functions, you must bring together all of your findings in your
interpretation. This entails combining your understanding of structural
elements and specific claims, setting your results in the larger framework
that is created at the beginning, and then moving forward. Other questions
like Who was the author o f the content you are analysing? What is their
stance on the subject you looked into? In what ways do their arguments
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52 7) Present your conclusions :
It's time to communicate your findings to your target audience after which
you have the answer to your initial query. If your analysis was successful,
you now have a ton of notes on which to base your presentation, paper, or
thesis. Be careful to emphasize the relevance and organize your analysis
depending on the points you wish to make. Always ask yourself: Why
should anybody care about my discoveries, and what makes them
interesting? Try to concentrate on developing a strong argument rather
than merely listing discourse features in a lecture or paper. When
necessary, you may then add your work's supporting documentation, such
as by including
Limitations :
Although discourse analysis is an effective technique for analysing
political communication, it is not without its drawbacks. The notion that
you simply need to follow a particular number of steps to attain your
outcomes might be deceiving in addition to being quite labour -intensive.
Every approach is only as good as its underlying question. Create a
strategy that works for your project if your q uestion doesn't lend itself to
this kind of research or if many of the procedures, don’t be a
methodologist —someone who, in a fit of activism, leaps at a set of
methods and applies them to everything. Never stop evaluating your own
effort.
Avoid making sta tements that your evidence does not support the topic,
this means being aware of the flaws in your methodology. One typical
error is to assert that a discourse analysis reveals what individuals believe
or think (or what entire societies think or believe). Discourse analysis will
never yield sufficient proof of what goes on inside people's thoughts.
A discourse analysis may teach us how particular actors put together an
argument and how that argument fits into broader social practices. More
significantly, we can confidently show the kind of claims actors make in
an effort to make them seem accurate and self -evident. We can clearly
demonstrate the rhetorical strategies they used to convey those realities in
ways they believed would be convincing, successful, o r even natural.
Through discursive analysis we can show how communication strategies
spread their claims and the conceptual frameworks they rely from through
discursive analysis.
Check Your Progress :
1. Discuss few discursive analysis steps.
___________ _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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53 2. Write about limitation s of D iscursive analysis in few lines .
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________ _______________________
8.5 SUMMARY The chapter discusses the dictionary meaning of Discursive is that of
moving from one topic to another without a proper order. Discursive
writing is distinctive in that it presents both sides of an argument while
eventu ally presenting a certain stance on the issue. Discursive writing is
not an aggressive or loud piece of writing; rather, it considers both sides of
the issue before coming to a conclusion. Further the chapter discusses
meaning of Discursive analysis Discur sive analysis is a great educational
tool as well for improving understanding of systemic processes and
observing how relational negotiations take place between psychological
and interpersonal processes. Discursive analysis can enhance supervision
by suppl ying a more thorough understanding of critical awareness of what
works and what doesn't in written or spoken form of communication.
Foucault uses Discursive analysis in his writing. He notes Discourses are
more than just verbal exchanges; they also take th e form of
institutionalized activities and are restricted with power. For example,
medical discourse takes into consideration more than simply a set of terms
or signifiers; it also considers how medical care is institutionally
structured as well as how muc h influence the doctor has over how the
patient perceives the situation. He documents how power plays a role in
dominant discourse and uses the institution. The chapter discusses the
different procedure one can use to make a discursive analysis like
focuss ing on context, transcribing texts, communication, Interpretation
drawing out conclusion, raising important questions, reading the sources
and making enquiry into the topic or text under study.
8.6 QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the different steps to carry out d iscursive analysis .
2) Write a note on Michel Foucault on discursive analysis .
3) Write a note on Discursive.
8.7 REFERENCES  Gale, J. (2010). Discursive analysis: A research approach for studying
the moment -to-moment construction of meaning in systemic practice.
Human Systems: The Journal of Therapy, Consultation & Training,
21(2), 7 -37.
 https://www.twinkl.co.in/teaching -wiki/discursive -writing munotes.in

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54  https://www.apa.org/pubs/books/essentials -discursive -psychology -
sample -chapter.pdf
 McMullen, L. M. (2021). Ess entials of discursive psychology.
American Psychological Association.
 Andersen, N. Å. (2003). Discursive Analytical Strategies:
Understanding Foucault, Koselleck, Laclau, Luhmann. Policy Press.
 Khan, T. H., & MacEachen, E. (2021). Foucauldian Discourse
Analysis: Moving Beyond a Social Constructionist Analytic.
International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20.
https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069211018009
 http://www.politicse astasia.com/studying/how -to-do-a-discourse -
analysis/


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55 MODULE - III
9
CONTEXTUALIZING ACADEMIC
WRITING
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Importance of Positioning arguments
9.3 Contextualization
9.4 Significance of contextualization
9.5 Types of contexts in writing
9.6 Academic text versus c ontext
9.7 Networking and writing process
9.8 Conclusion
9.9 Summary
9.10 Questions
9.11 References
9.0 OBJECTIVES  To examine the relevance of context in academic writing .
 To understand the relation between academic discourse and
knowledge production .
9.1 INTRODUCTION When writing a research topic, apart from reading texts to understand the
scope of the research and analyzing it, one also needs to string together
words to express complicated concepts and the methodology of the
research. Using the technique of contextualization allows the reader to
gain an understanding of the information surrounding the subject that
validates that analysis. Such information is crucial to justify how certain
conclusions are made. Relevant information needs to be presented in a
detailed manner in order to satisfy these criteria. Conceptualization allows
researchers to elucidate on the topic and write in great detail which can
add depth to the dissertation. The author who writes research must be able
to clarify specialized, narrow or sometimes even obscure topics. In the
following section we will be dealing with the importance of
contextualizing in order to provide depth to the topic of research.
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56 9.2 IMPORTANCE OF ‘POSITIONING’ ARGUMENTS If one is to observe the research material that has been written on in the
past, one can see that the information mentioned may not be detailed or
even about the specific chosen topic. Rather information is provided
regarding the topics that are connected to the topic chosen which may also
have an impact on it. Scholars also take time to explain to the reader the
importance of the research and how it impacts the fabric of society at
large. They try to present the clarity that can be obtained by studying this
niche topic. This is also termed as “pos itioning” the argument.
9.3 CONTEXTUALIZATION Contextualization refers to the setting in which a work of writing is being
situated. Contextualizing in writing is meant to give intended information
the needed significance and clarity. It also seeks to es tablish a link
between the writer and the reader and gives the better understanding of the
author’s goal and direction. It refers to information that helps reading to
interpret the meaning of a text. Contextualising in writing may take
several forms such as: background information of the story, or specifics of
the phenomenon under observation, setting or timeline in which work is
being performed. Thus contextualizing helps in clarification of a work’s
meaning.
9.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF CONTEXTUALIZATION Conte xtualizing in academic writing gives depth to a work of literature
and allows readers to get immersed in the material. Context adds richness
to a research work and helps to engage readers in the text, thus it is
important to writers and readers alike. It is essential to accurately convey
and understand the meaning of a work of writing. When writers ‘write in
context’, they incorporate contextual information which will help readers
digest and accurately interpret the text. Readers may consider factors or
variables relevant to the context of the work. This will help the readers to
look through the lens of relevant perspective when they examine variables
related to the setting of the research work. Without context, a book or an
essay or any other text will not be able to provide the reader a framework
for interpreting the concepts or ideas presented in the work, thereby
depriving the reader of a rich reading experience.
9.5 TYPES OF CONTEXTS IN WRITING There are several types of context in writing which wi ll help readers to
gain better insights into the material.
Historical context:
Here the researcher provides the time period and its current events can
provide more information regarding the era, thus, setting the stage for the
tone of the researcher’s pi ece of writing. It involves factors like economic
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57 landmarks, etc. This will also help to create an understanding of the
society at the time. Historical context can create a clear picture of the
atmosphere to the reader, giving them context for how people felt and
behaved during that period of history, their lives and clothing styles or use
of language specific to that era.
However, historical analysis entails more than merely examining th e
social context of the research subject. Additionally, it entails examining
how the researcher’s background may influence biases, perspectives, and
worldview as a scholar. Scholars will also often disclose their ideologies
through their writings.
Physical context:
The specific attributes of a place can provide clarity on how a topic
unfolds and how each dimension develops. The extra information on the
physical environment will help readers to see how actors interact with
their environment. The environme nt will dictate how the topic evolves, but
it is important to provide readers with sufficient details for them to
understand why.
Cultural context:
Varied elements of culture such as; beliefs, religion, marriage, food and
clothing, etc. need to be intro duced in order to fully understand the topic.
Sometimes readers may be unfamiliar with the traditions of certain groups,
which is a vital and integral part of the traditions and belief systems of the
group under study. Without expressing the fears or expe ctations embedded
in the culture which is written about, a culture divide may be created
which would further impact the connection between the reader and writer.
As a result the reader may lose a potential audience.
Situational context:
Situational con text is the reason why a phenomenon occurs based on the
event itself. Within situational context, the readers are able to understand
how the circumstances of the event occurring affect those involved.
9.6 ACADEMIC TEXT VERSUS CONTEXT Text structure and m eaning are social constructions that adapt to the
demands of the present moment and cultural tradition. Thus, context and
text can predict each other. Students can place their writing in the system
of genres that shape academic interactions by being aware of this bi -
directionality between text and context. This will help them understand the
connection between the text they write and the research activity.
Academic discourse is the linguistic expression and construction of shared
concepts, values, and practi ces among members of an institution. It is
distinguished by the use of technical language. Language is a "system of
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58 which means that meaning is "the result of the interrelations among the
parts" of the system of language and context.
Register and genre are geared toward the context. Genres are the
intersubjective representations of the types of situations and texts that
frequently co -occur in that social group and set it apart from ot her social
groups and their respective cultures, according to "Context of Culture". It
is defined by the actions and meanings (and the values attached to them)
produced by the members of a social group.
Register is "the configuration of semantic resourc es that the member of the
culture associates with a situation type". "Context of Situation" means the
environment of the text, the set of meanings that are possible/probable in a
given situation. For example a research article can be considered as a
genre as opposed to a book review or a dissertation. The differences can
be seen consistently with reference to content, format, and style especially
when compared to the format used to report research in applied linguistics
or rural sciences. Hence, these can be considered as two different registers.
The "Context of Culture" is recognized to be the ideas, ideals, and
principles associated with academic life that students, teachers, and staff
interact through written materials. It is possible to think of each s tudent's
experience with a discipline as a cultural context as a unique "Context of
Situation" for texts. These SFL variables that correlate to linguistic factors
that specify the situation's register can be used to construct these "Contexts
of Situation" which are as follows:
Field:
The characteristics of social practice: the activity, the acts taken by
participants in a certain circumstance or event with a communication goal
in mind.
Tenor:
Participant roles, relations, and interactions: the nature of t he connections
between participants in the event, as well as their roles and relations. It is
represented by lexicogrammatical phrases (verb, noun, adjective, adverb);
Mode -Text organisation:
The type of semantic unit being used, its coherence and cohesio n, the type
of transmission medium being used, and its written/oral format. It is
reflected by the mood and modality elements of the text.
Each genre is thus actualized as a certain register that finds concrete
expression in a specific text. Understanding the nature of social practice,
the activities taking place in the pertinent context, the participants' roles
and relationships, and the way these conditions are construed in the text
with a particular organisation will help us get insight into how a text i s
configured. By presenting language as a socio -semiotic system that
comprises each social group's practices rather than a collection of separate
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59 9.7 NETWORKING AND WRITING PROCESS Motta Rot h prescribes the use of the ‘Academic writing cycle’ which has
been developed by her on the basis of previous research work on the
subject. It is based on the concept that “the text and concept are two sides
of experience that can be pedagogically explored in writing courses in
order to foster students’ critical awareness of the kairos (a decisive
moment) of a text, the adequacy in content, form and style of a text to a
rhetorical moment.”
Text v/s context:
According to the Academic writing cycle, it is impera tive for the student
to analyze discourse before attempting to write in their fields. This can be
done by reading, analyzing the linguistic elements, the use of specific
vocabulary, the context of the content, and the interaction the text has with
its stru cture. Students also need to be aware of how the text could interact
with other fields with reference to cross -disciplinary setups or even how
the language can form a sociointeractionist perspective in the subject they
are attempting to analyze. In simpl e words, the social practices applied
with regards to grammar and text structures are different to those used in
rigorous academic writing and those should be taken into consideration
when making an analysis. The student needs to read and deconstruct the
elements of language in academic works in order to write, revise and edit
the text they are attempting to write. Adhering to this framework will help
students avoid ‘writing -in-the-vacuum syndrome’ which is writing without
holding in mind the target audien ce and the purpose.
Three principles of Context Exploration, Text Exploration and Text
Production must be adhered to, which are as follows:
1. Context exploration:
It entails interaction with the environment, observation of research
practices and compreh ending the role language plays in producing
knowledge. In order to initiate students into this cycle, it is important for
them to participate in finding relevant material to engage with that refers
to their academic context. Exploratory questions must be p resented to the
students and they must attempt to respond to these through the knowledge
they have gained with the material. Questions such as “Which approach to
a specific topic seems interesting?”, “What research practices are used in
your area?” are imp ortant to content exploration.
2. Text Exploration:
It requires analysis to be used to forge the relation between the text and the
context. It indicates the construction of context with the help of language
and vice versa. The concept of Genre Systems is used to process the
knowledge production by researchers, peers, students, departments,
editors, etc. It emphasizes the interaction the text has with the audience in
the oral or written forms such as research proposals, articles, talks, etc.
The concept of Genre Systems on the other hand is crucial as it helps to
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60 Students will need to look into the following aspects: type of information
that is currently in circulation, number of pages written on average on the
topic, information that may seem crucial to the student, speech acts that
have been used, lexicogrammatical patterns, choices made and distinctive
style of the author.
3. Text Production:
Revising and editing with the understanding of h ow language plays an
integral part in this process is a part of text production. There is an
emphasis on the writing process. Textual features of writing, revising, and
editing are central. Linguistic features, analytical competencies of textual
language could be a starting point. Answering the following questions can
help gain insight. What is the structure of the text? What points of
connection are being utilized? Are the connectors expressing addition,
opposition, cause, consequence, etc.? What are the stages of the writing
process? How is the definition of the concept taking place? What tone is
being used by the author? Is there a use of passive voice or active voice?
etc.
4. A discussion of the creation, dissemination, and consumption of texts
is par t of genre pedagogy. By asking questions like those listed above,
teachers and students can better understand the social context of each
target community's relevant genres. In order to effectively teach
students how language is used in particular academic situations, it is
important to clearly identify the links between the text and the context
in which they are reading it. There appear to be three major issues in
academic writing instruction that genre pedagogy can address: the
need for novice writers to c omprehend what a genre is and how it
works; the need for teachers to successfully instruct students on how
to engage in the genres that make up academic life; and the
requirement that novice writers participate in the discourse of science.
9.8 CONCLUSION Contextualization can be applied by students to serve their own interests
based on the conditions they identify in their immediate research context.
For this, they should become aware of how the language system operates
in terms of semantic field, interpers onal relations, and text structure. This
system will help novice academic writers in developing writing skills by
guiding them through the exploration of social and discursive practices
within their disciplinary culture. As new writers learn to write, they must
consider contextual regulations as well as social, and thus dynamic,
collective discursive practices. The important task for students is to
observe their academically rigorous environment in order to develop a
framework for better understanding how a cademic discourse and
knowledge production practices are dialectically built. By doing so, texts
can be viewed as socio -rhetorical processes and artefacts, i.e., tools that
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61 9.9 SUMMARY Contextualiza tion refers to the setting in which a work of writing is being
situated. Contextualizing in writing is meant to give intended information
the needed significance and clarity.
Contextualizing in academic writing gives depth to a work of literature
and al lows readers to get immersed in the material.
There are several types of context in writing which will help readers to
gain better insights into the material such as; historical, physical, cultural,
situational contexts.
Text structure and meaning are so cial constructions that adapt to the
demands of the present moment and cultural tradition. Thus, context and
text can predict each other.
The text and concept are two sides of experience that be pedagogically
explored in writing courses in order to foster students’ critical awareness
of the kairos (a decisive moment) of a text, the adequacy in content, form
and style of a text to a rhetorical moment.
9.10 QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the significance of context in academic writing .
2) Differentiate the relation be tween Academic text and Academic
context.
3) Elucidate on the concept of Academ ic Network and writing process.
9.11 REFERENCES  Nystrand M. (2006): The social and historical context for writing
research,
file:///C:/Users/Lenovo/Downloads/NystrandSocialH istorical.pdf
 Desiree Motta -Roth: The Role of Context in Academic Text
Production and Writing Pedagogy (pp.321 -340)
 https://wac.colostate.edu/docs/books/genre/chapter16.pdf

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62 10
CITATIONS, NOTES, REFERENCES AND
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Citation
10.3 References
10.3.1 Approach
10.3.2 Referencing Methods
10.4 Notes
10.5 Bibliography
10.5.1 Branches of Bibliography
10.5.2 Types of Bibli ography
10.6 Conclusion
10.7 Summary
10.8 Questions
10.9 References
10.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the importance of citations, references, notes, and
bibliography in academic writing.
 To familiarize the learner with the skills needed for academic reading
and writing.
10.1 INTRODUCTION Research in any field allows for the subject to evolve through collective
input. It allows for information gaps to be filled. In order to do research,
the first step is to review the literature that has already been studied in that
field on the subject that is being worked upon. In the process of doing so,
one needs to provide information about the sources being accessed. This
ensures steering clear from plagiarisation and giving credit to the original
researcher whose work the n becomes a foundation on which further
research is conducted. In order to do so, there are various aspects such as
references, citation, notes, and bibliography that can be incorporated to
refer the readers of the research to the resources accessed during the
process.
Journals, publishers, and institutions encourage using these methods as a
part of ethical academic writing. A researcher can therefore find this
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63 such as term papers, essays, articles, research projects, blogs, videos, etc.
are used to substantiate the material and create a contextual background
for the research. Apart from these, print media in the form of books,
journals, magazines, newspaper reports, etc. can also se rve to broaden the
review process. Keeping a track of this information is an essential part
which will enable us in citing the references.
This process of citation, references and noting materials is to be conducted
from the beginning of the research rath er than waiting to collate the data at
the end of the project. The researcher is expected to make notes of the
important information as well as the page number and project title from
where the references are being taken. In case if physical copies are bein g
referenced to, it is recommended to make a copy of the cover page along
with all the other details. In this section the learner will be introduced to
the varied skills needed in reading, jotting down important information
and making relevant citations so as to make the academic endeavor more
robust.
10.2 CITATION A citation allows the readers of the research to know where the material
used for the project is being sourced from. It also gives the original author
credit by letting the readers know that thi s piece of information has been
taken from someone else's work and is not an original idea. In doing so, it
provides the reader information about the author, date of publication, the
title of the work and in which journal the article was published.
Import ance:
Citing sources is an indication that the ideas are not just based on opinion.
It concludes that the author has done substantial research and has used
facts to support the ideas. Citing sources introduces an element of
authenticity and gives a firm th eoretical foundation to the process of
knowledge production. When work has been cited, the reader can verify
facts and figures for themselves which increases the dependability and
credibility of the research findings. The readers are further encouraged to
cite the new research and critique the findings of the research. Plagiarism
can be avoided by the use of citation. If the work referred to has not been
cited, the researcher can be reprimanded by denial of bonus, promotion,
grade, certificate, etc.
Usage:
The first step in citation of material is to deliberate the requirement of the
journal, publisher, or institute. Each department has different requirements
and formats. The Harvard Method is used by the departments of Language
Studies, History, Arts, Lite rary Studies, Theology, Sociology,
Criminology, etc. The APA Method is used for social and behavioral
sciences such as Education Library and Information Science, Management
Sciences, Nursing, etc. The Vancouver Method is used by the fields of
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64 Plant and Biotechnology Departments, etc. The MLA Method is used by
Linguistics and the Literary Subjects.
Quotations:
Indirect: Indirect quotations are used to summarise the ideas of the author
and apply them by paraphrasing the content in our own words. The
synthesis of information from two or more sources demands a certain level
of command over language and subject knowledge while paraphrasing and
summarising. When such a difficulty obstructs orig inality, one is plagued
with the possibility of plagiarism. Methods of citation, notes, references
and bibliographies help solve this dilemma by providing the credit to the
work that has been used as a foundation to continue with further research.
Quotatio ns serve the six functions of providing support, exemplify action,
introduction, conclusion, explanation, and definition of the text.
Direct: Direct quotation can be used if the words of the author cannot be
paraphrased and must be used as they are in orde r to express the idea as
clearly as possible. In this case, less than 40 words can be incorporated
into grammatically sound sentences and need to fit within a coherent
paragraph. Quotes longer than 40 words are indented and placed in a
separate paragraph w ithout quotation marks. Citations made in the text are
systematically included as references at the end of the essay, or as a
bibliography if it includes a list of other pertinent works that were not
consulted and/or cited.
10.3 REFERENCES A reference pro vides an “address” of the information which is being
sourced. It helps the reader locate the work as it mentions important
details about the title, author, year of publication, etc. The reader is then
able to cross -check the details from the original sourc e and use it if needed
in further research.
10.3.1 Approaches:
1. Source Referencing:
When referencing a source, the citation is put in brackets right after the
passage that contains the borrowed information.
2. Secondary Referencing:
The citation used i n the secondary source which has been quoted from the
primary source is being referenced and cited by the researcher which is
used in the third article written by the researcher. In such a case, the
primary and secondary sources have to be cited together. Ex. “Men are
stronger than women. (Uzuegbu, 2012, cited in Ibegwam, 2014).” Here
Uzuegbu’s citation is being referenced to even though it was originally
taken by him from the work of Ibegwam. The first name in the citation
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65 3. Cross -Referencing:
It is the practice of direct referencing details and specifications such as
chapter, section, table, paragraph, etc. It focuses on the number of the item
and not the page number. For ex. “(See Table A.), (see Figure 3.4), (see
Chapter 6)”. When a sentence is being cross -referenced to, one must make
sure that the reference forms a part of the sentence. For ex. “…is called a
killer (see Chapter 10).” But when a whole paragraph is bei ng referenced
to, the reference will be placed after the paragraph. Here, the word “see”
which is used to reference will start with a capital letter as opposed to the
examples mentioned thus far. For ex. “…is called a killer. (See Chapter
10.)
4. Content R eferencing:
This type of referencing is used when the reader is to be provided with
supplementary information regarding the topic. According to M. Burger
(1992), content referencing can be used to:
(a) permit access to additional sources of information to the reader that
will help gather data and context to the article at hand,
(b) provide clarification for the content present in the text such as
explanation of foreign words or information on people or places,
(c) avoid the obstruction to the continu ity of a sentence by providing vital
information that corresponds to the current sentence separately,
(d) elucidate on a topic, and
(e) make provision for the primary wording (possibly in a foreign
language) of a translation which is being used in the work.
10.3.2 Referencing Methods:
1. Harvard Method:
Term papers, essays, articles, projects, etc written by the students or
faculty of Humanities, often use the Harvard method. It is also called the
“author-date method”. The distinctions of this method are as follows:
 The author(s) name(s), date of publication and page in the text (ex.
Patil, 2015:26). For plural authors (Patil, 2015:26; Mohanty,
2011:46), etc.
 Add the date and page number in brackets if the author’s name(s) is
mentioned in the sentence.
 Page number(s) must be mentioned only if the work is paginated.
 A comma (,) should be used to distinguish an author and the date, a
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66  The last punctuation mark comes after the closing bracket of the
following citation if the quote is a part of the sentence.
 Ellipses are used to denote missing words in quote marks (…)
 References are listed in an alphabetical order
 Solely headings for works that have been only published are
italicised. Titles of non -published work are not italicised.
 The work’s title is used as the author in the text and reference list
when the author is not listed or the work is anonymous.
2. APA Method:
The social and behavioural sciences utilise APA method. The most recent
edition was released in 2010 mentioning the rules to be closely adhered to
in the APA’s 6th edition (2nd printing) when writing sample articles. The
guidelines are as follows:
 Only the name(s) of the author and date of publication is to be cited.
 Direct quotations and following citations for paginated books need to
include the page number(s).
 When entering a page, the page number is written as “p.5” or “pp. 12 -
17,”
 The date should be the only detail enclosed in brackets if the
author(s)’ name(s) ap pears in the phrase.
 When a page number is required, separate the author from the date
and page using a comma, as in the following example: (Uzuegbu,
2012, p.5).
 Less than 40 word quotations are grammatically included into the
sentence as a paraphrase or as a quotation that should conform into a
coherent paragraph.
 The last punctuation mark appears after the closing bracket of the
following citation if the quote is a part of the sentence.
 Ellipses are used to denote missing words in quote marks (. . .)
 The letter "and" serves the same purpose in in -text citations as the
conjunction "&," which is used in reference lists where it is required.
 Only the names of the works appear in italics at the reference entries.
3. MLA Method:
The Modern Language Associa tion prescribes this method for linguistics
and literary subjects in the humanities. The characteristics are as follows:
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67  The date is not mentioned in the text because it is not as signi ficant
when using this referencing style.
 The titles of the works are crucial and should be mentioned in the text
whenever it is possible. Using the ellipses symbol, some lengthy titles
can be condensed (...).
 A list of works at the end of the work accom panies every citation
found in the text. "Works cited" is the title of the list.
 The list of Works Cited is categorized alphabetically by the authors'
last names or the sources' titles.
 The second and following lines in the list of "Works referenced" are
indented, and a space is left between each entry.
 No initials are used in the "Works cited" section when using the MLA
style; only the full names of the authors are listed.
 With regard to punctuation, the first author's surname is written first,
followed by their entire names. A comma is put before the word "and"
and the name(s) and surname of the second author are given in the
usual order (first the name(s), then the surname), for example,
Uzuegbu, Chimezie, and Cletus Okafor.
4. Vancouver Method:
The Vancouver method is a form of numerical referencing technique that
is mostly employed in the fields of mathematics, computer science, and
medicine. The Vancouver technique frequently includes the following:
 When a source is cited for the first time, a num ber is assigned to it.
 The assigned number is displayed in the text in square brackets or
superscript.
 The number designates the specific source and is used to refer to that
source throughout the text.
 The assigned number is still used while the researc her still cites the
authors' names.
 A list of all cited sources is included at the conclusion of the text and
is arranged numerically. Only the sources listed in the text are
included in this list, which is referred to as the reference list.
 There are no indented lines in the reference list, but there is a blank
line between each entry.
10.4 NOTES There exist some common writing tool features that are implemented
when using various citation styles. They provide writers with a clear
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68 and additional citations. Though the terms are sometimes used
interchangeably, footnotes and endnotes have a few differences. Thus
content referencing can be applied using two formats:
1. Endnotes:
These can be accessed at the end of the written material on a separate
page. They are placed before the references and bibliography. The page
should be titled as “ENDNOTES” or “NOTES”. Superscript is used to
indicate that the reference is mentioned in the en dnotes. Superscript refers
to raised Arabic numerals; numbers which are placed slightly above or
below the regular baseline of the alphabets. Endnotes are less convenient
than footnotes as the reader often has to traverse back and forth through
pages, whic h may need a longer attention span and take up time.
2. Footnotes:
They can be accessed at the bottom of the page. There is a line or
additional space which separates the major written text from the footnote
which forms a small section at the bottom. The footnotes are written in a
tinier font. It also uses superscript like Endnotes for signification. The
superscript is placed after the word or sentence which requires elaboration.
The referencing techniques mentioned are not permanently associated with
a particular subject, rather a method that is inclined to facilitate the
understanding of the reader by highlighting the most relevant details a
10.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY A Bibliography not only refers to the works which have been cited and
referenced to in the rese arch, but also the works which may not have been
directly quoted. It addresses the works which have been read and have
helped shape the idea and hypothesis even if they haven’t been
paraphrased or quoted. A Bibliography serves to function as a selection
tool for collection of resources for reading material. It helps in tracing
specific titles of books. It provides a systematic guide on the literature that
can be found relating to subject matter at hand or for conducting
retrospective research. It saves a lo t of the researcher’s crucial time and
effort by assisting with a selection of topics which are pertinent to the
subject. It provides the researcher a bird’s eye view with regards to the
overall status and progress of the research. It is also helpful in av oiding the
duplication of research areas which have already been researched. A
Bibliography is listed in alphabetical order just like references.
10.5.1 Branches of Bibliography:
1. Analytical / Descriptive:
It studies the physical factors of a document. Aspects such as structure,
description, and history are taken into consideration. It helps to define the
data and facts regarding a publication. It takes into account the process of
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69 under stand the impact of materials and production on the book. Such a
bibliographic report will include information like the author's name, the
work's title, and published specifics like the format, pagination,
typographical features, illustrations, characteris tics, and the type of paper
and binding used. It is a type of bibliography that analyses the signatures,
catchphrases, cancels, and watermarks of a publication to determine its
facts and data before recording the findings in an authorised format.
2. System atic of Enumerative:
This format classifies research topics and places them using systems of
alphabetical order or logic. This arrangement is useful in order to locate
the material without wasting time sifting through individual material. This
system focu ses primarily on effective access to the data. Types of
systematic bibliographies include physical form, intellectual form, inner
form; language; subject; geographical area; factor of time; and producing
agency.
3. Textual:
Textual bibliographies aid in d etermining the impact of writing or printing
processes on the text's validity. This type of bibliography is concerned
with textual differences between a manuscript and a printed book, which
means that the concern of this type of bibliography is to determin e the
exact words that the author intended to convey in his work. It is also the
study and comparison of texts and how they have been transmitted
through various printings and editions.
10.5.2 Types of Bibliography :
 The majority of enumerative bibliographi es are subject bibliographies.
It deals with the information pertaining to a specific topic, which can
be a thing (such as Solid State Physics), a place (such as the United
States), a person (Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru), a broad subject (such as
the Social S ciences or Computer Science), or a small subfield of any
subject ( Computers). A subject bibliography, according to
Ranganathan, is a document bibliography that is restricted to a single
subject area as opposed to covering all possible themes. The subject
bibliographies may appear as standalone works or as fragments within
other sources. They will be constrained in terms of the type of
content, the length of time, the origins of the sources, and the
language. They can be either current or retrospective and are often
either selective or comprehensive. Subject bibliographies can be
categorised into a number of groups according to their content such as
reference bibliographies, bibliographical reviews, reading lists,
subject indexes and abstracting services.
 National bibliographies contain a series of publications within a
particular country. A set of books, documents, pamphlets, serials,
theses, dissertations or other materials which have been printed in the
country by the citizens will be categorised here. It archives the
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70 (INB), British National Bibliography, Cumulative Book Index; are
few examples.
 A trade bibliography is a list of publications that are printed and
offered for sale through pu blishers, booksellers, or trade organisations
in a particular nation. Their main duty is to encourage book sales.
They contribute by increasing sales because they are used for business
purposes. A catalogue of books and other reading materials that are
offered for sale by bookstores, printers, publishers, and distributors of
such publications is known as a trade bibliography. They may have a
local, national, or even global reach. Unpriced books, government
books, dissertations, theses, publications of socie ties, etc. that have
not been published are typically not included in trade bibliographies.
 A universal bibliography is one that covers all knowledge -related
publications, issues, and processes from the beginning to the present.
It must contain all publish ed works, including books, excerpts from
books, magazines, essays, and combinations thereof, on all topics, in
all languages, across all continents, at all times. It is a list of all
publications made in all languages and in all nations without regard to
subject matter. For the past several years, bibliographers have been
working toward this goal. Due to the enormous growth of information
and literature over the past 30 to 40 years and language barriers, there
are several complications in creation of such a bibliography.
10.6 CONCLUSION Techniques of providing citation, notes, references and bibliography all
form a part of the ethical practice of academic writing. Each of them have
their own set of rules which must be followed in order to maintain
cohesion a nd uniformity to enhance comprehension of a subject.
Plagiarism is also avoided by providing credit where it is due. It helps
outline the contribution of others on whose works further research is based
on. These techniques help the reader access details wh ich would have
otherwise been eliminated.
10.7 SUMMARY Research in any field allows for the subject to evolve through collective
input.
The process of citation, references and noting materials is to be conducted
from the beginning of the research rather t han waiting to collate the data at
the end of the project.
A citation allows the readers of the research to know where the material
used for the project is being sourced from. It also gives the original author
credit by letting the readers know that this p iece of information has been
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71 A reference provides an “address” of the information which is being
sourced. It helps the reader locate the work as it mentions important
details about the title, auth or, year of publication, etc.
There exist some common writing tool features that are implemented
when using various citation styles, such as endnotes and footnotes.
A Bibliography not only refers to the works which have been cited and
referenced to in the research, but also the works which may not have been
directly quoted.
10.8 QUESTIONS 1) Examine in detail the skills needed for academic reading and writing.
2) What is a citation? Explain the uses, importance, and the concept of
quotations.
3) Which ar e the approaches and methods used for referencing? Explain
the role of notes within referencing.
4) What is bibliography? Explain in detail about the branches and types
of bibliographic representation.
10.9 REFERENCES  Reference/research skills (1997, Febr uary 13): English for Academic
Purposes, 208 –218. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511733062.016
 Uzuegbu, C. (2015): ‘Bibliographic Citation and Referencing
Method’,
 https://aliah.ac.in/upload/media/04 -04-20_1585985599.pdf
 https://link.springer.com/chapter /10.1007/978 -0-387-95901 -
6_1?noAccess=true
 https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/33139/1/Unit -3.pdf

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72 11
DESCRIPTION, ANALYSIS, CRITIQUE
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Meaning of Description
11.3 Steps to begin with Descriptive writing
11.4 Analysis
11.5 Critique
11.6 Summary
11.7 Question
11.8 References
11.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the meaning of Description and how to use it writing in
social sciences.
 To learn about the critique and analysis in a text and while writing .
11.1 INTRODUCTION Writing a research paper or project is a piece of art, it takes time to shape
up and there are lots editing and drafts involved. There are certain
steps /tool which one needs to use to complete the final product. Some of
them are description, analysis, critique which we will discuss in this
chapter. As Sociology students you will be wri ting your dissertation,
writing research papers, or reading them, here the topics discussed in the
chapter would help. This chapter would be also useful whenever you are
asked to write essays in competitive exams, you can expect to learn some
useful techni ques which you can apply later whenever you are writing on
your own and publishing or submitting any article for higher studies.
11.2 MEANING OF DESCRIPTION Regardless of the discipline, all academic writing will contain some level
of description. Whethe r you are writing an essay, paper, dissertation,
critique, or literature review, there will always be items that need to be
discussed. For example, you can be asked to present a summary of recent
research findings on a certain topic. Description is used sp ecially in terms
of ethnographical work. Every detail is recorded which is observed in the
field. This helps the reader to get an overall picture. However, the
description has to be focused with reference to the study location and in
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73 Descriptive writing is defined as writing that portrays images using
precise, sensory language. The field story comes to mind when we read
the phrase in the descriptive writing. As we read, the location is made to
feel real to u s by the foreground, landscape, passages, actions, and voice
of the characters. There is a narrative writing element included in this kind
of writing as well. It gives descriptions of at least two characters, as well
as details about their behavior and bod y language. (McCarthy, Tara,1998).
Description precisely, methodically listing the characteristics of a certain
population or subject of interest. In order to create an accurate picture or
account of characteristics of a certain person, circumstance, or gr oup,
these studies are a way of discovering new meaning, explaining what
already existing, determining how frequently something occurs, and/or
categorizing information. In order to highlight the characteristics of
individuals, situations, or groups as well as the frequency with which
particular events occur, these studies observe, describe, and document
numerous aspects of a scenario as it occurs spontaneously. establishing
relationships or correlations between various factors to respond to
inquiries with information based on recent events. (Dulock, 1993).
Description can be about a particular issue or circumstance (e.g., medical,
environmental, psychological). It can be about a particular instance (e.g.,
historical event, natural disaster, eme rgency) or it could be about a review
or profile of a particular person or group (e.g., for social work, nursing or
education). or it can be about an event, symbol, ritual. In other words,
description pertains to describing anything and everything. Descrip tion
many a times need not contain a argument or that of taking a stand by the
writer. It’s more of documenting what one can observe in the field or text.
Here field refers to fieldwork and text could be written sources like books,
thesis, publish ed or unpublished material.
11.3 STEPS TO BEGIN WITH DESCRIPTIVE WRITING Before making any description certain things one needs to keep in mind.
Like think about things for a while before writing. You begin with writing
down on a piece of paper about th e different ideas related to the topic. Let
us take an example that you need to write about pizza. You can begin with
describing what is pizza, what are ingredients used in it like sauce, cheese,
crust, pepperoni, sausage, spices, spicy, melted, etc. You c an begin
compiling lists of descriptions for each word once you have a list of terms.
You can write about the history of pizza. How it originated and how it
spread across other countries. Make sure to use clear, concise language.
This suggests that your ch oice of words was deliberate, with special
consideration paid to how well they applied to the topic of your intended
description.
Always bear in mind that you must appeal to the reader's senses when
describing something. Describe the object's appearance, sound, taste,
and/or sensation. To make the moment better, use your senses. What made
you believe that? If you can express the feelings or emotions related to
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74 Excruciating loss, ecstat ic joy, or calm complacency are all common life
experiences. Draw from this emotional reservoir to the fullest extent
possible to describe. Evoking emotions to a large extent are carried out
through writing is mainly carried out in literary kind of work like novels.
Make an impactful statement for the reader. Making the reader feel a
strong sense of familiarity and appreciation should be one of your goals.
Writing a descriptive essay can easily devolve into a meaningless jumble
of sensations. However, you must attempt to provide a systematic and
logical description if you want the reader to leave the essay knowing what
you are trying to convey.
You might occasionally be speaking about isolated occurrences or events.
A chronology of events with cause and ef fect may also be presented at
other periods, with a focus on tracking patterns, changes, and
developments across time. While doing this, you might need to interpret
and describe graphical or statistical data. For the reader to fully
comprehend each of thes e scenarios, clarity is essential.
In description one needs to record (dates, locations, prominent persons,
documents, and events) but also Why it happened (causes, consequences,
underlying issues, theoretical perspectives,). It can also consist of opinion
(subjective, interpreted), but the higher focus is upon facts which are
(objective, verifiable), and has critical analysis. You can also discuss,
analyze the relevance of the significant facts, dates, events, and procedures
and can even provide informatio n in response to a question or title using
published research and the most recent theoretical perspectives on the
subject.
When it comes to writing description about a text it is better to use own
language. Simply repeating the author's words, phrases, or sentences does
not demonstrate understanding; rather, it demonstrates your ability to copy
and paste. Furthermore, if you use the language of the original too closely,
you could be charged with plagiarism, which is something you should
avoid at all costs.
11.4 ANALYSIS Analysis has been used to a large extent in research and in text. Analysis
in simple words means detailed examination , this could be of a research
problem or a material which could be written or verbal. Once the data
have been gathered, Anal ysis is carried out so that the researcher is able to
draw the findings and conclusion.
The six primary data analysis techniques used in quantitative research are
as follows. Researchers who use narrative analysis, commonly referred to
as narrative inquir y, analyse texts or visual data that have a storied form.
The primary focus of grounded theory (GT), which employs a structured
but adaptable technique, is typically social processes or behaviors.
Some of the steps involved in making analysis are as follow s. These steps
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75 Data exploration :
Here the data is categorized based on the responses obtained. The
important interviews are probed further in terms of context, language,
stressing on certain words etc. At this level, we examine the infor mation
and present the connected responses collectively.
Data communication :
Here the data is presented in order to help readers understand the meaning
of the collected data. The data is sorted out in a presentable way like
tables, graphical rep resentations, and summaries of statistics. Even pie -
charts are made if needed. There is also use of pie chart, bar chart,
histogram and additional tables.
Analysis :
In this step of the analysis of the data, text is made either through use of
software or manu ally like classification, coding, repeating words during
interview, even by observing commonly found statements, themes etc.
Quantitative Researc h and Qualitative Data Analysis:
Quantitative data must first be prepared using the following three
procedures before it can be analyzed:
 The first step is data validation, which is the act of comparing
acquired data to predetermined rules to make sure it is within the
necessary quality parameters and free of bias. Typically, it entails
looking for fraud, screenin g, protocol, and completeness.
 In the second step Editing Data is carried out. Data editing is the
process of analyzing and altering after examining the data records for
any gaps, errors, or inconsistencies.
 The third step is data coding, which entails der iving codes from
observable data as the name suggests. It describes the method of
arranging obtained data into a collection of relevant and coherent
categories.
In quantitative research, there are two primary methods of data
analysis used:
 Descriptive stat istics: This quantitative approach of data analysis
provides straightforward summaries of the measures and sample and
is used to highlight the fundamental characteristics of data in a study.
It assists researchers in comprehending the specifics of a sample
group rather than attempting to infer anything about the complete
population. Before moving on to inferential statistics, descriptive
analysis is typically the first set of statistics studied. Mean, median,
mode, skewness, and standard deviation are a few frequent statistical
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76  Statistics using inference : As opposed to descriptive statistics,
inferential statistics seeks to draw conclusions about the population as
a whole rather than just a particular data set or sample. As a result, it
enables researchers to draw conclusions and forecasts about a whole
population. Predictions about the disparities between groups within a
population and predictions about the relationships between variables
significant to a population are two of the basic types of predictions
generated using inferential statistics.
 Researchers can also concentrate on a wide range of topics thanks to
quantitative data analysis, which aids in a larger generality of the
findings. Compared to qualitative data a nalysis, results are more
accurate and objective. Quantitative data analysis is challenged,
nevertheless, because it tends to concentrate on much smaller and
frequently contradictory datasets.
Check Your Progress :
1. What are the few steps to follow while making an Analysis?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________ _____
2. Make a description note of a social issue you observed in your local
area.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________ __________
____________________________________________________________
11.5 CRITIQUE Critique, criticism is not new in the times of social media. All of us have
now a space to express o ur opinion through various mea ns and platforms
like twitter, instagra m or the legal means like filing complaint or even
giving feedback. We have in fact started expressing our views and
negative experiences more and specially with the cheaper internet plans in
the country to a large extent. This can be seen from y outube comments to
that of any comments or emojis used. Even as a student you must also
have had criticism from parents, teachers related to your writing or
working process or style. In other words, you are aware of what is critique
in simple words. In tod ay’s time Critique can be that of an article in a
journal, or a writeup in a newspaper or that of a thesis, dissertation. At
times a single article brings scope for discussion and critique. In a way,
developing different perspective. Critique in social sci ences is very much
essential. As Sociology students who are observing studying about
society, critiquing also becomes a part of the process. Critique helps the
problems to be questioned, it helps in raising the voice of the marginalized
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77 The word, Critique in Greek is known as kritike tekhne ("the critical art").
This shouldn't come as a huge surprise because the Greeks are responsible
for giving us critics like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. We continue the
legacy of the critique today through book reports, argument papers, and
critical essays, which is one of the most significant talents we'll ever learn
in school.
Writing a critique about a problem is very important this helps in knowing
the flaws and addressing them. As social science students one of the
important question while studying a problem is it to asking why? What
lead to the given situation and even criticizing the system, events which
lead to it. Infact, there is a school of thoug ht which is dedicated to the
critical approach, which discusses about inclusion of ideas from different
disciplines and even question the hierarchy, thereby providing voice to the
voiceless.
The dictionary meaning of critique means questioning the unreal choices.
Analyze, appraise, and assess something's strengths and weakness is also
Critique. Critique is a review or commentary that is critical, particularly
critique when it concerns literary , artistic works or a critique of a certain
subject. Critique is a skill . Criticism looks for issues/structure. Criticism
focuses on what is lacking while also highlighting what is effective.
Criticism demands clarification and rejects what it doesn't grasp. Criticism
is delivered with a harsh wit, but praise is kind, sincer e, and unbiased.
Criticism is constructive, especially when it focuses on things that don't
work. While criticism is general and nebulous, criticism is concrete and
precise. Criticism lacks humor and demands on laughing as well. Critique
searches for weakn esses. Criticism needs to be that of scientific in nature.
i.e., there needs to be discussion on the methods used by the researcher,
there needs to be enough proof by the critiquing individual about the issue
with the text or problem under study. It would be more credible if the
criticism is backed up with a theory. Methodological critique has also been
an important part of researching and writing process in social sciences.
Every theory emerges after criticism. Hence, in terms of academic
scholarship too critique is very much essential for the growth of
knowledge. For example, in Anthropology itself, after the theory of
evolution was criticised and some scholars found flaw in it and hence the
other schools like cultural relativism, functionalism and cultu re and
personality, marxian school etc . to name few schools emerged. In terms of
Sociology – when the positivism school emerged it was critiqued for being
following one method, leaving no scope for meanings, symbols and hence
the qualitative, symbolic inter actionism similar other schools of thought
tried to fill that gap.
To critique others, work firstly one has to start reading. The more one
individual reads the more is the clarity about the arguments one could
present be there. Consider all of the ideas e xpressed and then reach an
informed conclusion that either agrees with or disagrees with what is
being said. It is not so much to disagree with what is being said (as munotes.in

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78 perhaps a common sense understanding of "critical" might lead you to
believe) (or indeed agrees to some extent, but not entirely). The process of
how you interact with the argument, not whether you agree or disagree at
the end, is what matters most in this situation. Connected to critique there
is a theory too called Critical Theory. Although several thinkers have
criticized several institutions time and again like Karl Marx critiquing the
Capitalist system.
Critical theory is a social and political philosophy movement with Marxist
roots that was first connected to the work of the Frankfurt Sc hool. Critical
theorists contend that one important aim of philosophy is to comprehend
and aid in dismantling the social structures through which individuals and
rules are oppressed, drawing primarily on the works of Karl Marx and
Sigmund Freud. They warn against an uncritical faith in scientific
advancement because they think that science, like other forms of
knowledge, has historically been a tool of oppression and should not be
sought as an aim in and of itself without consideration of the pursuit of
human emancipation. Critical theory has had a significant impact on the
study of history, law, literature, and the social sciences since the 1970s
(Britannica). Critical thinking is also a n important thing in sociology.
Critical thinking is the ability to:
(1) dissect a problem into its component parts to reveal its underlying
logic and assumptions,
(2) it also recognizes and account for one's own biases in judgment and
experience,
(3) gather and assess pertinent evidence from either personal observation s
and experimentation or by gathering external information, and
(4) adjust and reevaluate one's own thinking in response to what is
learned from other sources.
Beginning Critique:
One has to remember in mind the condition of others specially when you
are criticizing. Here working like a cultural relativist helps i.e., looking
from the other person’s point of view. Remember if someone is criticizing
your work, they are just criticizing your idea or thought but not you as a
person hence one has to be objective and learnt to separate career and that
of work. Structuring critique helps – discussing the themes in the work.
One can even discus about the similar works and thereafter discussing the
critical points which could be worked upon. While writing critique one has
to be professional in writing or while one is speaking too.
As an author or as a reader you can even recommend some other points,
resources which one could use in the research or writing. Criticism can
help you to improve and develop good piece of work. For example –
during the process of Ph.D. you would be writing many drafts, and present
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79 develop certain fears, negative feelings but the criticism is to make you a
better writer hence have to be taken positively.
Check Your Progress :
1. Discuss critical thinking.
__________ __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Discuss how to begin c ritique writing in your own words.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________ ____________________
11.6 SUMMARY We began the chapter by understanding the meaning of description.
Descriptive writing is defined as writing that portrays images using
precise, sensory language. Description precisely, methodically lists out the
character istics of a certain population or subject of interest. In order to
create an accurate picture or account of characteristics of a certain person,
circumstance, or group, these studies are a way of discovering new
meaning, explaining what already existing, d etermining how frequently
something occurs, and/or categorizing information. In order to highlight
the characteristics of individuals, situations, or groups as well as the
frequency with which particular events occur, these studies observe,
describe, and d ocument numerous aspects of a scenario as it occurs
spontaneously. Analysis has been used to a large extent in research and in
text. Analysis in simple words means detailed examination this could be of
a research problem or a material which could be writte n or verbal. Once
the data have been gathered, analysis is carried out so that the researcher is
able to draw the findings and conclusion. The chapter also talks about
Critique. The dictionary meaning of critique means questioning the unreal
choices , analyze, appraise, and assess something's strengths and weakness
is also Critique. Critique is a review or commentary that is critical,
particularly when it concerns literary or artistic works , a critique of a
certain subject. Critique is a skill. Criticism lo oks for issues/structure.
Criticism focuses on what is lacking while also highlighting what is
effective. The chapter also discussed about critical thinking, criticism.
Every theory emerges after criticism. Hence, in t erms of academic
scholarship to o critique is very much essential for the growth of
knowledge. For example, in Anthropology itself, after the theory of
evolution was criticised and some scholars found flaw in it and hence the
other schools like cultural relativism, functionalism and culture an d
personality, marxian school etc to name few schools emerged. In terms of
Sociology – when the positivism munotes.in

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80 11.7 QUESTION 1) Explain in brief the meaning of Description .
2) Discuss the steps to begin with descriptive writing .
3) Discuss the Analysis in Qua litative and Quantitative research.
4) Write a note on Critique .
11.8 REFERENCES  Dulock, H. L. (1993). Research Design: Descriptive Research. Journal
of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, 10(4), 154 –157.
https://doi.org/10.1177/104345429301000406
 McCarthy, Tara. Descriptive writing. Scholastic Inc., 1998.
 https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/essay_
writing/descriptive_essays.html
 https://libguides.uos.ac.uk/academic/writing/DescriptiveWriting
 https://blogs.ed.ac.uk/criticalturkey/what -does-critical -mean -in-
social -science -writing -and-how-can-i-be-critical -in-my-essay/
 Juan Ignacio Staricco (2020) Reclaiming critique in social sciences –
or why ‘non -normative critique’ constitutes a contradiction in terms,
Distinktion: Journal of Social Theory, 21:2, 195 -213, DOI:
10.1080/1600910X.2019.1658614
 Fakir, A N M Asaduzzaman. (2016). Quantative Data Analysis in
Social Science Research.
 https://www.voxco.com/blog/data -analysis -for-social -research -using -
qualitative -and-quantitative -techniques/
 Juszczyk, Stanislaw. (2018). Methodological Critique in Social
Sciences – Chosen Aspects. Athenaeum Polskie Studia
Politologiczne. 59. 67 -81. 10.15804/athena.2018.59.05.
 Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopedia (2022, September 5). critical
theory. Encyclopedia Britan nica.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/critical -theory
 Gosner, W. (2022, September 19). critical thinking. Encyclopedia
Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/critical -thinking
 https://style.mla.org/critique -versus -criticize/
 http://abacus.bates.edu/~rrichar2/learn/ui/critique . html Difference
between critique and Criticism, Taken from Writing Alone, Writing
Together; A Guide for Writers and Writing Groups by Judy Reeves.

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81 12
USE OF SOFTWARE AND WRITING IN
THE DIGITAL AGE - BLOGOSPHERE
Unit Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Meaning of Digital age
12.3 Writing in Digital age
12.4 Meaning of Blogosphere
12.5 Summary
12.6 Questions
12.7 References
12.0 OBJ ECTIVES  To learn about the use of software in research and writing .
 To get acquainted with the concept of blogosphere.
12.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter we will discuss about how computer and software’s help in
writing. Writing here could be creating rese arch papers, assignments,
blogs etc. The chapter also discusses about Blogosphere. Studying these
topics are very much useful in the present time where we ourselves are in
a digital technology, relying heavily on internet for information,
connecting with each other, work, doubts, maps etc. Specially in the
pandemic we witnessed the whole of our education system running
completely with the help of digital medium. In the future, too we could
witness more of blended learning opportunities. As student’s this chapte r
could be very much useful for you and even as individuals who have
witnessed and is a part of digital age where every day you use mobile
phones as a part of one’s life . Here we would have discussions about how
software’s, digital age has brought about part of social change in the
society .
12.2 MEANING OF DIGITAL AGE According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, the meaning of Age is that
cultural period in the history. Digital age is that period in the history when
the usage of digital technology became widespread and common at a
global scale. With the widespread usage of the Inter net, the digital age
officially started. The introduction to the age was even shared in schools
by teaching students how to use computers. The Digital age is also known
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82 marked by the quick transition from the old industry to that of the
Industrial Revolution. The digital age also made use of the
industrialization and information technology. The impact of
Industrialization and that of digital age is far more than another other age
in the history of human beings. In fact, the speed at which the digital age
spread out was more than that of any other age in the society. The digital
age though can be seen to be developing around that of 1970s with the
invention of the personal computer and technologies which helped in the
free flow of information.
One of the important phases of digital age is that of social media. Studies
like Pew Data Centre have shown that social media users are more
regularly the young than older generations. This tr end has statistically
been stable since 2018. With approximately 70% of individuals reporting
the use of media, Facebook is the most widely used platform across
demographics, however Instagram and Snapchat are especially popular
among millennials. Over 75% of Facebook users check in daily, the report
finds, while 80% of young adults use Snapchat and Instagram often or
daily.
Social media provide users the opportunity to have their opinions heard
more broadly, yet this voice can easily be lost in the onli ne space. The
share function must be used by a community in order to spread a message
and get momentum. This technique of signal boosting takes place when
other social media users share a single message. When done properly,
signal amplification may help in formation become viral. Social media may
be utilized in many different ways ; to network, raise awareness, and spark
online discussions, but it's important to bear in mind that businesses and
colleges also monitor online accounts. Participants should always act
professionally and with etiquette since they can increase the credibility of
a debate or movement. In a way, writing has increased through social
media.
Social media now reaches a broader audience because of the Internet's
universal use. ICTs have app arently been utilized by some social
movements to reach wider audiences more rapidly and inexpensively than
they could have done with more traditional methods (Bennett, 2003).
More recently, social networking sites like MySpace, Facebook, and
Twitter have had an impact on political mobilization (Greengard, 2009;
Gueorguieva, 2008). In order to fight a powerful corporation (Shirky,
2008) or organize massive protests throughout the globe (Pérez, 2008),
these technologies began to offer efficient means to mobi lize forces.
With the greater number of users and the access to internet and mobile
during pandemic has led the next generation that is children’s to be more
technology and gadget friendly , this would help in the growth of people
using a greater number of d evices. This use of device starts from the
childhood onwards where some parents tend to give their own mobile to
infants when they are crying or busy to retain the attention. Even children
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83 12.3 WRITING IN DIGITAL AGE The availability of a wide range of information, the global networking of
like-minded individuals and groups, and the electronic promotion of a
movement's stances, goals, and tactics have all transformed the digital age
and wri ting. The fast growing worldwide mobilizing forces and advocacy
networks have gathered dozens of social activist organizations (e.g.,
Arquilla & Ronfeldt, 2001; Gillan, 2009; Kahn & Kellner, 2004).
Resources, tools for mobilization, spaces created for soci al movements,
the promotion of collective identity, and the use of ICTs as a framing
strategy all help the social movements. In the modern era, when people are
connecting to one another and more and more globally, writing and
sharing has grown to a large e xtent. We spend more time online browsing
than previous generations.
Student Population:
Students are using the digital platform more than that of the traditional
physical library. This is the case of several universities and a concern too.
Many a times th e expensive Britannica, Encyclopaedia which are physical
in form are untouched by any reader for years. The replacement is seen
from that of Digital platforms, websites and even open and free sharing
platforms like that of Wikipedia. Students now in ever y course specially in
India, with semester pattern and grading systems have to complete
assignment , here several of these free and open resources are used which
is easy to copy, paste, cite, refer. Hence, enough encouragement,
orientation towards library al so has to be made. There are cases where the
libraries in Institutions are very small in this case access to digital libraries
and softwares can help the students.
Advantages of Writin g Online:
In the olden times, when printing machine was not available one had to
travel to copy a material and if students stays in suburbs and the copy
material was available in metropolitan city it took longer time to travel. As
a result, the amount of time the student would spend in the library would
be very less. All this could affect the writing produced by that of the
student. It is here that the online materials help and comes to rescue which
saves both travel time and that of accessibility. At a click of a button one
can even check whether the book, material is available in a specific library
or not. This has become a mass cultural practice specially in countries
because of the access to internet which makes communication quick,
handy, easy which can be passed on from one person to another in matter
of seconds or even real time basis.
Software’s for writing:
There is several software like Mendeley, endnotes which are these days
used for citation or to build reference bank. Howev er, certain sections of
the software are free to use. There are also tools like Grammarly for
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84 All these software’s have certain sections which are free to use. These are
also simple so ftware’s which one can use for writing, editing, proof
reading etc. The use of this software is that it would speed up the writing
process. There are software’s today to convert voice to written material.
Software’s or application which one uses in writing can be used as a aid it
cannot complete the entire work. For example – A software cannot think a
new idea, but you can search whether similar ideas have been used by
others. Notes application are useful tool to make notes of the important
points which arises at any point of time in any place and day.
The language dilemma is also taken care by the computer like transcribing
software, devices and even devices to translate the field notes. One can
even use google translate to find the close by or translate the w ell-known
or popular words. This could have taken lot of time in the earlier times.
Here both time, energy, resources is saved. One has to proof read with
someone who knows to read and write that language as in this case one
cannot trust the google transla te completely because several words have
context which the application won’t understand hence human intervention
becomes necessary. There are also free Software’s to translate material
from one language to another. Even typing platforms are there where one
can use the sms language and get it converted to the regional language.
For example – Kidhar jaa rahe ho – this can be in Hindi as िकधर जा रहे हो.
Though the content is not exact the translation but it is closer to that of the
needed form many a times. Platforms like easytyping.com provide such
options. This would have been tedious in the olden times where a
language expert, several y ears would have taken to translate manually
large number of materials like textbooks, field notes. Hence, writing in the
digital age has become more simpler with etc the advancement of
technologies and accessibility of it. Those who are digitally not aware or
not literate are in a way marginalized from knowledge. Let it be the case
of less developed countries or parents and students who cannot afford
internet or laptop. Hence, techn ology is also creating a knowledge divide.
There are platforms like Google Doc which is very much helpful for
writing. For example - If you make some notes in a piece of paper, and
after some days if you can misplace it anywhere. This may not be the case
with that of the Google doc. Once you type a material here, it gets
automatically saved, plenty of files you can open here. Any given period
of time you can edit. It ’s even easier than saving in a single computer,
once its stored you can open your file from an ywhere. There are other
advantages too like collaboratively from different parts of the world one
can work on the same file. It ’s not just google doc but google slides,
google excel. All these platforms are free to use. Same is the case of
google drive wher e one could upload all the research papers and can refer
it whenever one needs it. Instead of having a physical book , a downloaded
book is handier as one could always use control find command and can
search a particular word or even edit it. This would have been very
difficult to search in a physical book.
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85 For example :
A first world country researcher has access to wide range of journals
because the university he/ she is enrolled to has access to those journals on
the other hand the third world country lib rary do not have access to them.
The same can be said within metropolitan cities and rural areas.
Let us take the example of video vlog in a platform like YouTube where
big concepts are explained in simple language for individuals. In other
words, media has helped in developing the informal communication
through that of text and even localizing it to suit one’s needs.
Check Your Progress :
1. Discuss meaning of Digital age in few lines.
______________ ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. List out few platforms of google through which one can use while
writing.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________ __________________________________
12.4 MEANING OF BLOGOSPHERE The word Blogosphere was coined by that of Brad L. Graham. He passed
away at the age of forty -one. In 1999, he had created the word just as a
joke. He called the word as that of ‘blogosphere’. He used to work as a
publicist for a theatre. In the worlds of technology and social media,
Repertory Theatre of St. Louis is regarded as a pioneer in the field. He was
renowned for fostering a feeling of community online. During Austin's
SXSW, he organiz ed the annual "Break Bread with Brad" event and
searched for methods to harness the potential of social media. He launched
a personal blog Brad Lands in 1998 (Al.com). We can observe that he had
forecasted the power of social media and digital tools ahead of time.
In the social network the platform that people have built utilizing web log
publishing tools is known as the blogosphere. Simply described, the word
"blogosphere" refers to all of the websites with blogs. Because any
participant in the blogospher e is free to publish on any subject that
develops their own interest, the blogosphere is sometimes compared to
grassroots journalism. The Britannica describes blogosphere as that of all
the blogs which are written and the bloggers who express, write their
stories, view points over the Internet as a single group belonging to the
larger community.
The blogosphere is an effective social network since many well -known
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86 is incredibly varied, but it also does not represent a single social group,
despite the fact that some of its social sub -groups do. Despite the shorter
post lengths, post -based messaging systems like Twitter are sometimes
seen as being a component of the blogosphere (Technoped ia). By utilizing
blogs, companies can increase online sales too. Numerous blogs are
devoted to subjects that either touch on or entirely cover e -commerce,
demonstrating how successful bloggers may build an audience. While
many bloggers unintentionally prom ote (or disparage) specific online
shops and product categories, some have a close connection to the
companies they write about. All e -commerce shops should think about
utilizing bloggers and, at the very least, maintaining awareness. In other
words, a grou p of people who create and maintain personal blogs on the
internet is referred to as the blogosphere. (Big Commerce). There are
several blog platforms one of them is Wordpress. It is free to use. Here
one writes long articles and publishes it online. These posts can be read by
fellow bloggers, or even available through google searcher. There are
other sites like Blogger.com, Rediff.com, Google blogs too where
individuals can write on difficult issues and topics. One of the popular
sites where blog format is us ed is Medium.
Blogs in education :
The educational blogosphere is always growing. Sifry's Alerts estimates
that approximately 120,000 new weblogs and 1.4 million new entries are
published per day (April 2007). In the subject of education, the number of
educator blogs is continuing to increase, this tendency is evident.
Interactivity and collaboration are two key characteristics of blogs that
may appeal to educators (Godwin -Jones, 2003). The usage of comments
and hypertext, which promote linkages to relevan t information and
provide users a place to respond, both demonstrate the potential for
interaction. Both blog posts and comments are saved for later access. Blog
postings are also linked, cited, and disputed.
Godwin -Jones (2006, p. 13) refers to blogs as " one, huge, loosely
connected net of information." As readers have the opportunity to
reference, link, respond to, or add material, they may also be rich sources
of collaborative activity, helping to shape the blog's content and foster a
sense of virtual co mmunity. Readers even share the blogs quickly or even
cite it out in their works.
Blogs are described by Oravec (2003) as a "middle place" that exists
between traditional and online learning environments (p. 225). In the
context of education, blogs can se rve as social and student -owned learner
spaces. Kadjer and Bull (2003), stated that blogs are "engaging, rich
writing spaces that need minimal technical understanding of HTML while
offering access to an instant printing press". Blogs provide a favorable
setting for social constructivism because of its accessibility, interaction,
simplicity, and social advantages (Vygotsky, 1978). Social connection
becomes essential to studying a second language because students engage
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87 their contacts, kids might form friendships or even feel a sense of
community with other readers or writers (Murray & Hourigan, 2006).
Sharing one’s work :
Sharing experiences allows us to highlight pressing needs or moveme nt
victories in addition to transferring knowledge. allowing for the freedom
to tell a story that can demonstrate to the audience that there is still work
to be done but that it is also having an effect. Along with raising
awareness, these stories might en courage continued support for the
organization's or campaign's ongoing work.
In today’s time several platforms help ones written work to share to others
like google scholar, academia.com. Here, the researcher can make one’s
own profile and thereafter the material could be shared. With sharing there
is wider audience who is able to read and cite the paper and furthering the
information and knowledge about a particular area or topic.
Blogs help the students to connect with fellow students, learners,
researc hers from other discipline, from other country and provides them a
platform to exchange their knowledge and expertise. Many a times
students tend to ask questions which they are he sitant to ask their own
teacher or supervisor. They also discuss about emotion al problem which
they themselves face and seek advice. In a way, this blog provides a sense
of community, group and develops a feeling of fellowship. One of the
important things about these online spaces is that there is vast scope,
ranging from networking to job opportunities to that of building one’s own
team. There are also range of scope like to collaborate
Prior to the development of computers, a Ph .D thesis was presented to
universities in handwritten formats specially the thesis on regional
languages . With time came the typewriter and then the material were
presented in that of typed format. With time the thesis has been presented
in printed copy. Now, universities are asking for soft bound copies without
the black book an d even just E -copy to save th e space and flexibility of
using it. This shows how systems and technology kept on evolving with
time.
At times student find it difficult to search from the wide range of
information available. As in today’s time the information availability is
massive in nature. In fact, narrowing down information is the skill which
the student has to know or even there could be massive confusion and
delay in writing. Right keywords have to be used while searching any
material. This would help in generating quicker result s and proper sources
and material.
There is some difference between blogging and writing. Writing is a part
of blogging. Writing can be seen as something which is written in a diary,
paper, exams etc. However, blogging has a proper structure like that of an
introduction, it s written online over a web page or a website.
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88 Check Your Progress :
1. List out names of few blogging sites.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________ __________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Which method is more convenient for you to write, pen and paper or
that of typing online? share your observations.
________________________ ____________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
12.5 SUMMARY In this chapter, we learn t about the meaning of blogosphere and Digital
age and we also saw how internet has helped students and learners to
improve writing. The word Blogosphere was coined by that of Brad L.
Graham. He passed away at the age o f forty -one. In 1999, he had created
the word just as a joke. With the widespread usage of the Internet, the
digital age officially started around 1970s. The digital age has been one of
the speediest age which has impacted billions of lives at a short span of
time. Clubbed with that of industrialization and the digital technology
today the mass media has impacted millions of lives and cultures. The
chapter discusse d how the digital age has changed the amount of
information available and the real time where information is available and
shared. It also discusses how students, researchers, academicians are able
to use vast number of resources anywhere anytime. There are several
important discussions made like that of different e -platforms like google
drive , google doc which is useful for writing, sharing, collaborative work
in the present times. The chapter also discusse d the advantages of the
online world where writing has become easier, quicker both in terms of
storing the data and sharing the data.
12.6 QUESTIONS 1) Write a note on the meaning of Blogosphere.
2) Discuss the use of software in Writing.
3) Explain the meaning of digital age and sharing one’s work in the
digital age.
12.7 REFERENCES  Lara, C.D. & Anderson, Lara. (2008). Adventures in the Blogosphere:
From Blog Readers to Blog Writers. Computer Assisted Language
Learning. 21. 9 -28. 10.1080/09588220701865474. munotes.in

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89  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233050700_Adventures_in_
the_Blogosphere_From_Blog_Readers_to_Blog_Writers
 https://www.merria m-webster.com/dictionary/blogosphere
 https://www.everydaysociologyblog.com/about_the_site.html
 https://www.igi -global.com/dictionary/resource -sharing/7562
 https://www.techopedia.com/definition/4862/blogosphereMerchant,
G. (2007). Writing the future in the digital age. Literacy, 41(3), 118 -
128.
 https://www.bigcommerce.com/ecommerce -answers/what -is-the-
blogosphere/
 https://www.al.com/scenesource/2010/01/brad_l_graham_coined_the.
html
 https://www.bigcommerce.com/ecommerce -answers/what -is-the-
blogosphere/
 https://www.merriam -
webster.com/dictionary/age#:~:text=%3A%20a%20period%20in%20
history%20or,prominence%20of%20a%20particular%20item

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90 MODULE - IV
13
DEBATES ON SCIENTIFIC WRITING
Unit Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Elements of Scientific Writing
13.3 Debates in Scientific Writing
13.4 Importance of Debates in Scientific Writing
13.5 Summary
13.6 Questions
13.7 References
13.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the what is scientific writing .
 To familiarize students with the debates in scientific writing .
13.1 INTRODUCTION Scientific writing is not just writing about science; it is the technical
writing that scientists do t o communicate their research to others.
Scientific writing is predicated on the rigors of scientific inquiry, so it
must reflect the same precision as that demanded in the research process.
Scientific communication demands precision (the precise use of wor ds and
phrases), clarity, and economy. This distinction is an important one
because the writer is communicating highly technical information to
others who might, or might not, be as knowledgeable; they may be from a
different discipline; they may, or may n ot, be a native speaker of the
language used.
Many journals have international audiences, so precise communication
helps prevent misunderstandings and mistranslations in other contexts.
Communicating facts, figures, and methods used in research ––as well a s
the description of the results ––must be precise and exact. Scientific
writing is an important and precise type of technical writing that requires
an understanding of technical document structure and the information you
are presenting. Learning scientific writing skills can help you craft more
informative, engaging scientific documents.

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91 13.2 ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC WRITING Scientific writing has certain features/elements that help set it apart from
other technical documents and styles of writing. These fe atures typically
include:
1. Precision :
Scientific writing relies on unequivocal accuracy, as the mission of a
scientific document is to provide relevant information to the scientific
community. Precision in scientific literature can take the form of t he
following writing elements:
 Objectivity: A scientific paper takes an objective viewpoint toward
the subject, meaning that it doesn’t offer the author’s opinion. Instead,
the author focuses on presenting and analyzing facts.
 Thoroughness: Scientific wr iters offer as many details in their
publications as are necessary for their readers to thoroughly
understand the subject.
 Exact language: A scientific paper minimizes the use of figurative or
imaginative language. Scientific writers use words and phrases that
convey their literal meaning.
2. Clarity :
Scientific writers typically write for their peers, but even scientists expect
clarity in the writing. The writer clarifies the meaning of any uncommon
terms and summarizes the results of the writing in a way that anyone can
understand. Writers explain any experimentation and its results, using the
metric system for measurements to ensure consistency and readability for
a worldwide audience. Clarity also helps the writer establish a trusted
voice within the sci entific community.
3. Peer reviews :
Some scientific documents contain peer -reviewed changes or information
directly within the document. Colleagues in the same industry often
review one another's work to verify the results of experiments, confirm
hypothese s or hold one another accountable for honesty and clarity.
Typically, a writer includes any peer requests or findings in revised
versions of the document to uphold their commitment to honesty and
integrity in the face of new information.
4. Primary audienc e:
A scientific document is almost always for a specific audience. Good
scientific writing includes information that applies to the audience and is
easy to understand. For example, if a pharmaceutical scientist is creating a
scientific document for a drug in the approval stage, the primary audience
is the drug evaluation board. However, colleagues may also read the
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92 This requires a good balance of scientific terms and common language t o
ensure readability.
5. Formal language :
Keeping language formal in scientific writing helps maintain
professionalism on behalf of the writer. Using common language can help
appeal to a larger audience, but be mindful of the words and phrases you
use in y our writing. You can use synonyms for simple words and avoid
things such as slang or idioms. Formal language also includes proper
punctuation and grammar, so check your work before you submit it.
6. Organization :
Scientific papers follow a clear organizati onal structure. Here’s the
standard organizational system for a scientific paper: introduction,
methods, results, discussion and conclusion.
7. Awareness of existing scientific literature :
Most scientific authors express their awareness of the existing bod y of
scientific literature and knowledge pertinent to their studies. Science is a
continually evolving field where professionals continually make new
discoveries, studies, connections and experiments based on the findings of
previous scientists. A scientif ic author references the existing studies or
experiments related to their findings and explains how their research
connects to, revises or builds upon previous knowledge.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a note on the language component of the scientific wri ting.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
13.3 DEBA TES IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING Decades of academic research have proven that the benefits that accrue as
a result of engaging in debate are numerous. Debate provides experiences
that are conducive to life -changing, cognitive, and presentational skills. In
addit ion, through debate debaters acquire unique educational benefits as
they learn and polish skills far beyond what can be learnt in any other
setting.
At the very least, debate helps learners to see the power of deploying
rational, reasoned arguments and com pelling evidence in action. It enables
them to elucidate their standpoint through utilizing rhetorical eloquence. It
instills in debaters a great sense of poise and confidence. It teaches them
the skills of researching, organizing, and presenting informati on in a
compelling fashion.
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93 In general, the benefits of debate include:
 Gaining broad, multi -faceted knowledge cutting across several
disciplines outside the learner’s normal academic subjects.
 Increasing learners’ confidence, poise, and self -esteem.
 Prov iding an engaging, active, learner -centered activity.
 Improving rigorous higher -order and critical thinking skills.
 Enhancing the ability to structure and organize thoughts.
 Enhancing learners’ analytical, research and note -taking kills
 Improving learners’ ability to form balanced, informed arguments and
to use reasoning and evidence.
 Developing effective speech composition and delivery.
 Encouraging teamwork.
With the long history of academic debate, it is important that one is clear
on what form of debate is being discussed. ‘‘Debate is a competitive
speaking activity between two or more people arguing about a proposition
of policy or judgment under mutually agreed -upon rules in front of a
listener(s) who has the responsibility to decide who did the better job of
debating, using whatever criteria the listener deems important.” Debate
also entails, ‘‘the joint presentation of the best available evidence and
reasoning, on both sides of a proposition, under established rules.
Importantly, the term proposition, often referred to as the solution being
tested, may also be an alleged truth, belief, or value that is being subjected
to critical study.” Under these broader definitions academic debate takes
on more specific forms.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is the pos ition of debates in scientific writing?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________ ________________________
13.4 IMPORTANCE OF DEBATES IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING Debates are structured discussions about specific topics, with the purpose
of presenting positions for and against, arguing and, finally, drawing
conclusions. The academic debate is considered a teaching and learning
tool in the classroom. Many authors have stated the capability of helping
opening minds and promoting critical thinking and the power of in -class
debates. Debates usually focus on the reasoning of controversial
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94 dialectal battle, participants must invest some effort in strengthening their
positions. Hence, debates are also a good instrument to increase
knowledge.
Scientific debate provides the added val ue of requiring that the ideas,
arguments, and explanations have to be evidence -based. Therefore,
although possessing good oratory skills and being fast, clever and
articulate are good qualities, they should never be enough to win an
argument. An in -depth knowledge of the scientific literature on the topic,
as well as of the methods that are suitable to study it is a most needed
requisite for an scientific debate. Science is based on demonstrable and
reproducible data, and aims for measurable results throug h testing and
analysis. It is based on facts, not opinions or preferences and the process
of science is designed to challenge ideas through research.
Although these very basic concepts are generally accepted among
academics and students from the so -called «hard -science» disciplines such
as Physics, Chemistry or Biology, among many others, it is debatable that
they constitute a commonly accepted ground for scholars in other
academic disciplines, especially in the field of Humanities and Social
Sciences. The risk of studying, accepting and sharing full bodies of
theoretical knowledge which have not been derived from a serious and
rigorous empirical research gets higher when the audience (the students)
are not trained to challenge, question and subject to a th orough analysis
the content that is offered to them in academic contexts.
An important difference between ideological and science -oriented debates
is the ability to reach conclusions, not just through agreement and
consensus but also through the proper sci entific tools of stating hypotheses
and searching for evidence that could prove them false or get them
provisionally accepted. To that effect, a bibliographical search may be an
excellent tool and may provide a solid basis to start and direct a discussion
whenever all contenders have had the opportunity to examine it
beforehand.
Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the importance of debates in scientific writing.
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________ ____________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
13.5 SUMMARY Thus, scientific writing is a technical form of writing that communicates
scientific information to ot her scientists in a document, book or
presentation in written form. It requires a lot of research and exact
wording and can include grant requests, peer reviews and summarized
findings. While there are many documents that fall under the category of munotes.in

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95 scienti fic writing, typically anything written in a research environment is
scientific writing.
13.6 QUESTIONS 1) What are the elements of scientific writing?
2) How does debates contribute in scientific writing?
13.7 REFERENCES  David S. Egilman (2013) The imp ortance of scientific debate,
International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health,
19:3, 157 -159.
 Patterson, J.W. & Zarefsky, D. (1983). Contemporary debate.
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.) 313.
 Freeley, A. & Steinberg, D. (2000). Argumentation a nd debate:
Critical thinking for reasoned decision making (10^ ed.). Belmont,
California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
 Nencel, L & Pels, P. (1991). Constructing Knowledge: Authority and
critique in social science. Newbury Park, California: SAGE
Publicatio ns.


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96 14
PLAGIARISM
Unit Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Intellectual Property
14.3 Ethical Writing
14.4 Plagiarism and Its Factors
14.5 Paraphrasing and Summarization
14.6 Copyright Law
14.7 Citation Practices
14.8 Guidelines
14.9 Conclusion
14.10 Summary
14.11 Questions
14.12 References
14.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the basis of ethical writing.
 To examine the challenges of plagiarism and assess its effects and
solutions.
14.1 INTRODUCTION Writing academic material can be a very challenging an d laborious task
because it must be exceptionally clear and concise. Additionally, precision
and transparency are crucial elements of the scientific process.
Unfortunately, a variety of restrictions and opposing forces are frequently
present during academi c study. Therefore, it is possible that some of the
academic literature, whether it is produced by young academicians or by
seasoned experts, is lacking in one or more of the aforementioned
elements. Faulty observations and incorrect interpretation of resu lts may
fall under accidental inaccuracy which can have negative effects. The
greatest threat to scientific endeavour comes from deliberate
transgressions of research integrity. These transgressions pose hurdles on
the path of the primary objective of sc ience, which is the pursuit of truth.
Therefore, Plagiarism is considered as the most serious and widely
acknowledged ethical lapse.
‘Plagiarisation’ according to the American Heritage Dictionary is defined
as “to steal and use the ideas or writings of an other as one’s own.” It is a
form of unethical and immoral behaviour. The author is robbed of their
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97 through public acknowledgment for work that is not original. They enjoy
several ad vantages such as: receiving grants, bonuses, salary hike,
compensation, promotions, patents, or other forms of recognition.
Plagiarism has posed a threat in academia as recent research shows that
over 70,000 abstracts of articles were plagiarised. In addit ion to being
unethical, plagiarism causes issues for the original author if they discover
their work has been used in another article. Even if a case is reported,
there is little possibility of the author getting justice.
There are several technical advanc ements related to plagiarism -detection
algorithms. However it is important to question whether overlapping alone
constitutes plagiarism, and if so, to what extent? Outlining what
plagiarism comprises and what makes it harmful are two different aspects
of o verlapping topics. It raises the question whether all forms of
plagiarisms are to be condemned or if there are legitimate methods of
plagiarisation.
14.2 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Intellectual property (IP) comprises original ideas, art, inventions, digital
programs, written works, etc. which impact cultural and economic life.
Intellectual Property Rights provide an opportunity for the creator to profit
from their own creation and take credit for it. Therefore, laws are
necessary to safeguard the intangible ori ginal creations in a world of
readily -available, one click -away access to information which can
endanger originality without consequences.
Forms of Intellectual Property:
1. Patent:
Once a patent is provided by the government, it allows the inventor to
control or exclude the use of their invention for the duration of twenty
years. Post this duration, the patent is open to the public for its use and
consumption. A patent is region specific, meaning that it does not ensure
international safety of the invent ion on the reception of a patent, rather, it
applies only within the confines of the country that grants it. Patents can
be shared amongst two or more individuals. A fee can be levied on the
licensing and selling of the patent. A patentee has the authorit y to bring
legal action against an infringer. Throughout the duration of the patent, the
patentee is free to use it commercially without worrying about imitation or
copying. Patents are applicable to new and useful inventions related to
machinery or the ma nufacture of substances or articles.
2. Trademark:
A distinctive marker or identifier used by an organisation or individual to
highlight the distinction in the goods and services provided by to the
consumers that sets their brand apart from their competit ors can be
described as a trademark. Certification markings which emphasise the
quality compliance of the goods and services can comprise a trademark
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98 phrases, logos, symbols, designs, ima ges are some of the elements which
can be trademarked.
3. Copyright:
Works of literature, art, drama, music, cinema, sound and recording,
software programming, performances, broadcasting, etc. can be subject to
copyright. The copyright belongs to the pers on who created the piece of
work and not the people who are a part of the project. For eg. The
copyright of a professionally created melody or song belongs to the music
record label company like T -series and not to the composer as the rights
have been purc hased. Hence the composer will not be able to dictate the
platforms on which his creation gets showcased on. A copyright lasts
usually for sixty years since the publication of the content; the period
varies depending on the nature of creation.
Intellectua l assets in the modern world are one of the most precious forms
of property that has enabled the possibility of immeasurable wealth and
fame. Inability to protect it may result in major financial losses as the
original work may be considered an imitation i f a plagiarised version is
protected first. Protection of IP is essential as it aids in the progress of
society and preservation of culture.
14.3 ETHICAL WRITING Ethical writing underlines the necessity of the author to be clear, fair and
honest in their article. It is an implied contract between the reader and the
writer of the article. It is assumed by the consumer of the article that the
author is the original creator of the work unless it is specified through the
use of quotation marks, footnotes, ind ented text, or other academic
conventions, indicating that the information is indeed loaned from another
creator.
Types of errors in ethical writing:
 Disregard for new or existing data which may contradict with current
line of research, hence, those counte r-arguments may not be taken
into consideration, leaving the reader with a biased point of view in an
attempt to avoid controversy.
 Failure in providing credit to a theoretical perspective or methodology
in the research.
 Claiming originality to ideas with out finding out if they have been
expressed before (possibility of similar ideas emerging independently
without contact of the other author or having read and forgotten the
idea of an established author previously, also known as cryptomnesia
or unconscious plagiarism).
 Failure to cite source from which the research information is
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99 14.4 PLAGIARISM AND ITS FACTORS Plagiarism can be equated to “literary kidnapping” which results in theft
and fraud of concepts, ideas, words, or phrases which are taken without
giving due credit. It can therefore mislead the consumers of this literary
work to assume that the effort to make certain analysis has been applied
by the plagiarist, hence awarding them accolades for their (unethical)
success.
Plagiarism of idea s:
Ethical writing in scientific research demands the acknowledgement of
any ideas which may be borrowed. In scientific writing literature review
citations can span up to one third of the written article. One can gather
information on a subject only throug h referring to the works already
written in order to gauge the extent to which research has been conducted
in the field. We may access information that may not adhere to the
parameters of scientific writing, but accessing their point of view makes it
imper ative for their acknowledgement when we cite our sources as any
piece of work may influence us in unknown ways. For example,
“We now have a promising lead to how the visual system determines the
shade of gray in these rooms, although we do not yet have a complete
explanation. (John Robinson helped me develop this lead.)” (p. 122;
Gilchrist, 1979).
One might consider John Robinson as a co -researcher on the topic
Gilchrist was working on; but that is far from the truth as John Robinson
was a local plumber wi th whom Gilchrist casually discussed his research.
Robinson provided his insight which proved to be an essential element in
taking Gilchrist’s research forward. In order to extend his gratitude and
give credit where credit is due, Gilchrist ensured that he did not plagiarise
his plumber’s ideas.
Cryptomnesia is an error which occurs as a form of unconscious
plagiarism of ideas. The author states an idea assuming that they have
originally brainstormed over it but it quite often has already been
published an d possibly read by the person who makes this error. Ideas are
exchanged during constant research and scholarly interactions. These
ideas lie dormant in the subconscious, frequently losing the details as to
where and when this idea has been acquired
Some in stances are intentional misappropriation of ideas. This is viewed
when dynamics of power are involved. According to Resnik, professors
often steal ideas from students and fail to give them due credit.
Sometimes, the process of plagiarisation can be subtle and stealthy as it
takes place by gaslighting the masses over a long period of time. For
example, Albert Schatz discovered an antibiotic called ‘streptomycin’
while he was a graduate student under the guidance of Selman
Waksman.Waksman began to take credit for the discovery over time even
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100 accepted the Nobel Prize for this discovery in 1952 at the expense of his
own student. Similarly, the perpetrator could also be a journal or a
confer ence referee who is part of a confidential peer review committee, in
which an article is read and rejected on the basis of negative assessment.
Although, at the same time, the individuals who have access to this paper
steal the idea or methodology and pub lish it as their own through another
granting agency.
Plagiarism of text:
There can be various ways in which plagiarism of text can present itself:
text that has been copied from one or more sources, edited —either by
adding or removing words, or by replac ing them with synonyms —without
referencing the original source or enclosing the quoted content in
quotation marks can be categorised as plagiarism of text. This method of
plagiarism has been termed as ‘patchwriting’ by Howard in 1999 and
‘paraphragiarism’ by Levin and Marshal in 1993. This pattern of mosaic
plagiarism leads to a creation of ‘confused plagiarised mass’ according to
Iverson as the plagiarist weaves the original author’s work with their own
opinion resulting in a corrupt version of the origina l idea. Material that has
been accessed during the research phase, even though thoroughly
paraphrased, must credit the original author and work which has been used
as a crutch to support the length and depth of the research.
Plagiarism and common knowledge :
When writing an academic article, it is necessary to distinguish common
knowledge from the ideas one may have picked up while researching the
topic. It is also important to address if the readers are aware of the facts
which are assumed to be part of com mon knowledge, which is an indicator
that citation may not be necessary. For example, if a college student is
writing an article on the subject of history and mentions that India was
freed from British rule on the 15th of August, 1947; this piece of
inform ation is assumed to be common knowledge to the people of India
and a widely accepted fact for which one need not provide citations.
Although, if in this same article, one was to mention the 15th President of
India, one will need to cite the details, as it is not common knowledge to
the general public. If a seasoned researcher was writing about the Bengal
famine, and this article was written for other seasoned researchers as the
target audience, in this case, the case of the Bengal famine during the
British rule will be considered as common knowledge. To an unseasoned
reader this information may seem new, and possibly even complicated.
The understanding of common knowledge is dependent on several facts
such as the background of the author, the background of t he readers, the
knowledge base and expectations of both of the groups which interact.
Self-plagiarism:
The process of self - plagiarism involves the re -use of material written
previously by the same author, and passing it off as new information
without cit ing the previous publication. One might wonder how we can
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101 assumed to be plagiarised as the reader accepts that the author’s material is
new and precise unless mentioned specifically by t hem. By plagiarising
one’s own work, this unwritten contract of trust between the author and
the reader is breached. It is possible that a paper that has been published
by one journal is used again with little or no changes made in the findings,
database o r images. There is also no acknowledgement of the paper being
published elsewhere. Although, this type of plagiarism has comparatively
lesser implications as the intellectual property continues to be owned by
the same person and is non -intrusive, it is sti ll considered to be an
unethical practice.
Plagiarism and the internet:
Having access to the internet makes plagiarism comparatively easy as the
information is available at the tap of a finger. Work that has already been
published in journals is usually av ailable to the public online either free of
cost or for a fee. Even though plagiarising with the material available
online is fairly unchallenging, the plagiarist also equally risks being
caught. The internet proves to be an open source to investigate if a ny
material has truly been stolen with the facility to find the source material
as well as making it a time efficient process. There are various plagiarism
checking websites that offer accurate results that indicate to what extent
plagiarism has taken plac e and whether the work has been credited
through citation.
14.5 PARAPHRASING AND SUMMARIZATION Summarization:
Sometimes there may be a compulsion to provide a general idea in a brief
and cohesive manner in order to create context for the new findings in th e
field. Hence, such a brief overview of a general idea can be achieved
through summarization of work that has already been published. A
summary is a shortened version of the text while retaining the essence that
the full length text is trying to convey. A summary helps the reader to
choose if the article they wish to refer to is worthy of accessing in a short
period of time. Phrases and sentences must not be copied from the article
in order to create a summary, but rather it should be condensed after a
thorough reading in our own words. A summary should avoid the use of
jargon as it should be accessible to novice as well as seasoned researchers.
An academic summary follows a framework: the search question, the
relevance of work, theoretical framework, metho dology, results or
arguments, and a conclusion.
Paraphrasing:
Paraphrasing roughly equates to the textual length of the original work
with changes in the sentence and paragraph structure. Paraphrasing any
material that is relevant to the article that is be ing written adds credibility
and provides foundation material necessary to begin the preliminary
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102 formed based on the work of others which has already been published.
Ethical writing take s into consideration to ensure that the text being
referred to is thoroughly modified in order for it to be categorised as a
fresh piece of work. Changing the structure of the paragraph with sentence
structure is necessary. However, it does not exempt the paraphraser from
the responsibility of citing the source from which the new article is
inspired. The inability to sufficiently modify a text by the use of synonyms
or retaining the structure can be termed as ‘near plagiarism’ or plagiarism
depending on wh o is assessing the work.
Unique perspective:
Adding the author’s unique perspective to the already paraphrased articles
is an essential element in filling a gap which may exist within a research
topic. This ensures that the new work is not just a montage o f existing
pieces of research, but in fact actually contributes to filling gaps of
knowledge in the area in which research is being conducted. It is
acknowledged that the foundational terminology pertinent to any
specialised subject may be retained as subs titutes to them may not do
justice to the perspective the article is trying to convey.
Paraphrasing jargon:
The author’s ability to paraphrase and summarize majorly depends on
their ability to comprehend the material at hand, simplify it and then
reconstru ct it in their own words. This exercise requires not only an expert
grasp on the subject, but also a comprehensive vocabulary and a mastery
over the language in which it is being written. The author may often be
posed with alien ideas or concepts which may take several readings to
comprehend its true meaning. The technical terminology used in academic
writing is called jargon. These words may translate differently from
subject to subject. For example, the word ‘sublime’ will mean beautiful or
excellent to c ritique art or literature, but in the field of chemistry it means
the ability of a specific solid substance to change directly into vapour
when heating by avoiding turning into a state of liquidation.
Academic writing can be complicated, as it uses specifi c stylistic
standards like passive voice, and uses jargon to express complicated ideas
and concepts. This can be specifically challenging to new academic
writers due to inexperience or to those who may not use English as their
first language. It can be a t ricky process as there is a great likelihood of
plagiarism. If a text proves to be impossible to paraphrase by substantial
modification or contains a complex process or methodology, it is ideally a
better option to encase it in quotation marks, block -quote d, or with an
indicator such as a footnote; all with a mentioned citation.
14.6 COPYRIGHT LAW Unrestrained use of copyrighted material can be subject to copyright
infringement even if such information is cited as per the citation
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103 provision along with necessary citations. It is not necessary for a piece of
work to be published for it to be copyrighted but even the final draft and
formation of this work entitles itself towards protec tion from theft in the
form of copyright. Hence, copyright infringement can take place if the
information is mentioned without credit from an unpublished manuscript
too. The ratio of information that can be used in the form of quotations
and citations corr esponds to the amount of text that has been written.
Some publishers mention the percentage or number of words that can be
quoted from other articles. In such cases, self -plagiarism is also
categorised as plagiarism as the ownership and copyright of the wr itten
material is in the hands of another publisher.
14.7 CITATION PRACTICES Application of quotation marks (“….”) is a universally accepted sign to
indicate that words have been copied as they are, i.e. verbatim from the
original text. Quotations must inc lude references to the cited material
which include the author’s name and the page number from which the
quote is borrowed. Large texts which cover more than four typewritten
lines need to be in a block -indented format. The style manual that guides
citatio n formats are Turabian, American Psychological Association
(APA), American Medical Association (AMA), etc.
When citing sources, it may be possible that the original work may not be
cited as the successive research based on the first one may contribute to a
more holistic finding by filling in the gaps of research and answering the
unanswered questions. Unless the first research is common knowledge in
the domain, the original work along with the following research must all
be cited. Sometimes, this may not be possible if the publisher has a word
limit for citations, in which case only, can this rule be an exception.
14.8 GUIDELINES  It is necessary to acknowledge the ideas contributed by others when
writing any kind of research.
 Any text that is borrowed verbat im must be enclosed in quotation
marks followed by a citation and page number to indicate where it
originated.
 Summarization entails condensation of ideas in our own words to
communicate the existing contributions made by others.
 Paraphrasing must contain use of our own words and a revision of
sentence and paragraph structure and syntax.
 Source of paraphrased material must always be cited.
 Command over language along with a foundational understanding of
concepts of the subject is essential in avoiding plagi arism. munotes.in

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104  It is safer to provide a citation when one is doubtful if the information
that one is providing is common knowledge.
14.9 CONCLUSION Plagiarism is when intellectual property that belongs to someone else is
used intentionally or unintentionally as on e's own. It entails unfair
acquisition of fame and academic credit which does not truly belong to the
plagiariser. It is possible for the plagiariser to fabricate evidence or data,
and replicate existing information. Researchers should be instilled with a
moral compass from the beginning of their education rather than coercing
and threatening them after the error has been made. If preventive measures
are taken, universities and publications can lower their guard and allocate
this time to ensure the quality of the papers published. The extent of the
punishment for plagiarism should be decided according to the severity of
the error made by classifying the intent, whether the material is a
wholesale copy without citation, or if citation is missing as it has bee n
presumed that the knowledge is common. The punishment usually
culminates into legal action, public humiliation, and penalty. Plagiarism is
an unethical practice as it encroaches upon someone else’s intellectual
property while the plagiarist receives reco gnition and credit for the
breakthrough and new findings.
14.10 SUMMARY ‘Plagiarisation’ according to the American Heritage Dictionary is defined
as “to steal and use the ideas or writings of another as one’s own”.
Intellectual Property Rights provide an o pportunity for the creator to profit
from their creation and take credit for it.
Ethical writing underlines the necessity of the author to be clear, fair and
honest in their article.
Plagiarism can mislead the consumers of the literary work to assume that
the effort to make certain analysis has been applied by the plagiarist,
hence awarding them accolades for their (unethical) success.
Claiming originality to ideas without finding out if they have been
expressed before (possibility of similar ideas emergin g independently
without contact of the other author or having read and forgotten the idea of
an established author previously, also known as cryptomnesia or
unconscious plagiarism)
The process of self - plagiarism involves the re -use of material written
previously by the same author, and passing it off as new information
without citing the previous publication.
Even though plagiarizing with the material available online is fairly
unchallenging, the plagiarist also equally risks being caught. munotes.in

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105 A summary is a shortened version of the text while retaining the essence
that the full length text is trying to convey.
Researchers should be instilled with a moral compass from the beginning
of their education rather than coercing and threatening them after the error
has been made.
14.11 QUESTIONS 1) Examine the interrelation between intellectual property and
plagiarism.
2) What is ethical writing? In what ways is ethical writing flouted
through plagiarism?
3) Discuss the key elements of paraphrasing and summarizati on?
14.12 REFERENCES  Bahadori, M., Izadi, M. et.al (2012): ‘Plagiarism: Concepts, Factors
and Solutions’, Iranian Journal of military Medicine, Vol. 14, No. 3,
(pp: 168 -177)
 Roig, M. (2015): ‘Avoiding plagiarism, self -plagiarism, and other
questionable w riting practices: A guide to ethical writing’
 https://ori.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/plagiarism.pdf
 Shahabuddin, Syed (2009): ‘Plagiarism in Academia’, International
Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Vol 21, No. 3,
353-359
 http://www. isetl.org/ijtlhe/
 Helgesson, G. and Eriksson, Stefan (2015): ‘Plagiarism in Research’,
Med Health Care and Philos, 18:91 -101
 https://www2.philosophy.su.se/carlshamre/texter/Helgesson_plagiaris
m.pdf

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106 15
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
AND INTELLECTUAL COMMONS
Unit Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Meaning of Intellectual Property Rights
15.3 Intellectual Property Rights History in India
15.4 Different aspects of IPR
15.5 Intellectual co mmons
15.6 Summary
15.7 Questions
15.8 References
15.0 OBJECTIVES  To learn about the Intellectual property Rights .
 To understand the intellectual commons and its relevance and
necessity .
15.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter we will learn about Intellectual Property Rights and
Intellectual commons. Both these topics are useful and intellectual
property Rights is in itself a specialized area. There are several diploma
and specialized courses which deals with Intellectual property Rights.
Studying Intellectual Property Rights could help you get jobs in corporates
and several law firms. In terms of Indian market Intellectual Property
Rights is an emerging area, and there is immense future as with time
people are getting aware about the intellectual property righ ts hence there
is requirement of awareness, professionals who can even fight out
litigations related to this. In this chapter you can expect an introduction to
the topic so that later if you are interested you can specialize on this area.
Understanding how patents, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secret’s
function and are created is essential to learning how to protect these
valuable firm assets.
15.2 MEANING OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS Intellectual property rights give the creators temporary, exclu sive rights to
commercially utilize one’s own ideas as well as ownership over the
creations. Intellectual Property Rights grant certain exclusive rights to the
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107 economically off of t heir creative activities. Trademark, copyright, and
patent are a few examples of intellectual property protection.
If the general public is ready to acknowledge ideas, innovations, and
creative works as property, then those things are said to be protected by
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR). IPR give the property's inventors or
developers specific exclusive rights so they can profit financially from
their artistic endeavors or reputation. Examples of intellectual property
protection include patents, trade marks, and copyright. IPR is an important
tool for defending time, money, and effort investments of the inventor.
IPR consequently plays a role in the economic development of a nation.
The Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights Agreement (TRIPS),
formed by World Trade Organization governs intellectual property, grants
rights such as patents, copyrights, trademarks, geographical indicators,
protection of undisclosed information, integrated circuit layout designs,
industrial designs, and traditional kno wledge (Lakshmana Prabu, et.al
2012).
15.3 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS HISTORY IN INDIA The concept of intellectual property rights (IPR) was brought to India
from the west. The Indian Trade and Merchandise Marks Act of 1884 was
the first Indian law ad dressing intellectual property rights. The first Indian
Patent Law was enacted in 1856, and more Acts were made after it. There
are different Acts like the Indian Patents and Designs Act from 1911 and
the Indian Copyright Act from 1914. With time, the Indi an Trade and
Merchandise Marks Act and the Indian Copyright Act have been replaced
by the Trade and Merchandise Marks Act of 1958 and the Copyright Act
of 1957, respectively.
The patent recognition in India has a long history. In 1948, the Indian
governmen t established the first committee to study the current design and
patent laws. The Justice Rajagobala Ayyangar Committee (RAC) was
constituted by the government in 1957 to draft the Patent Law. In its 1959
report, the Rajagobala Ayyangar Committee attempte d to strike a balance
of rights by taking into account the preamble's guarantee of economic and
social justice as well as other contending interests. (Lakshmana Prabu,
et.al 2012).
There are several periodically workshops being held for creating
awareness among people to assist them in filing quicker patents. One can
find events in this link. https://ipindiaservices.gov.in/events -
ipr/home/Home.aspx.
With time there were also different statutes which discussed the
Intellectual Property Rights have been cre ated like the Patents Act of
1970, the Trade Marks Act of 1999, the Designs Act of 2000, the
Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act of
1999, the Copyright Act of 1957, the Protection of Plant Varieties and
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108 The National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Policy, which will serve
as India's IPRs' future road map, was adopted by the Union Cabinet on
May 12, 2016. The Policy recognizes the abundance of imaginativ e and
creative energy present in India and the importance of exploiting and
channeling these energies toward a brighter and more promising future for
everybody.
A forward -thinking document that combines and integrates all IPRs under
one roof is the Nationa l IPR Policy. It takes a comprehensive approach to
IPRs, taking into consideration all relationships, and aims to create and
capitalize on synergies across all forms of intellectual property (IP),
pertinent statutes, and agencies. It creates a formal frame work for
implementation, management, and assessment. The phrase used in the
policy is "Creative India; Innovative India" “रचनाÂमक भारत ; अिभनव भारत”.
15.4 DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF IPR There are different subparts of the Intellectual property Rights like
Patents, Copyrights, Trademark let us look into it in detail.
Copyrights:
A subpart of the Intellectual Property Rights is C opyrights. Patent
applications are made for physical objects like equipment and crops. Many
times, copyright is granted for intangible items like music and textual
content. The World Trade Organization also highlights the fact that
copyright protects autho rs' have rights for at least 50 years after their
passing (such as books and other publications, musical compositions,
paintings, sculptures, computer programs, and films). The rights of
performers (such as musicians, actors, and singers), phonogram (sound
recording) makers, and media companies are likewise protected by
copyright and associated regulations (often referred to as "neighboring"
rights). To promote and value intellectual activity, copyright and related
rights protection is to encourage more cre ators. The Indian copyright
amendment Act 2012 is the latest one.
Patents:
A patent is an intellectual property right connected to an innovation. The
grant of the patent is contingent upon full disclosure of the innovation and
a restriction on the product ion, use, sale, and importation of the patented
good or processes that lead to the same good. The government gives the
patentee exclusive rights through a patent for a set amount of time. The
rights of the inventor are supported and protected by the patent .
Additionally, it aids in stressing the use of inventions and their promotion
to support industry growth, which in turn aids in the transfer and diffusion
of technology as well as the improvement of technological knowledge.
Trademark:
A trademark is any symbol or group of indicators that can be used to
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109 The use of such distinctive trademarks is protected. According to the
Agreement, both the initial registration and each renewal must be for a
minimum of seven years, and registrations must be continually renewed.
Trademark licenses cannot be made obligatory.
Plants variety:
Another facet of intellectual property rights is the defense of unusual plant
varieties, which aims to reward pl ant breeders for their accomplishments
by granting them a temporary exclusive right. For the new plant kinds to
be eligible for this protection, they must fulfill specific requirements. The
lowest known rank grouping of plants within a single scientific ta xon is
called a variation. As long as the plants are fresh, distinctive, dependable,
regular, and given a reputable denomination, the protection is also granted.
UPOV is the name of the organization in charge of managing the
protection of novel plant speci es. (The International Union for the
Protection of New Varieties of Plants) Lakshmana Prabu, et.al 2012)
The Turmeric Patent Case study:
Suman K. Das and Hari Har P. Cohly, two Indian -born American
researchers from the University of Mississippi Medical Cen ter, filed a
claim with the US Patent and Trademark Office, claiming to have
discovered haldi's therapeutic potential. And surprise, they received a
patent in March 1995 for something our ayurvedic systems have known
for millennia. This was chall enged by the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research, also known as CSIR —which houses all these large
government laboratories —applied to the US Patent Office for a
reexamination last year. As proof they provided massive literature based
on ayurvedic texts and historical records. After this, the US Patent office
recognized their mistake and withdrew the patent given to the American
researchers.
Basmati Rice:
Several multinational companies from first world countries like United
States patent products though the products are indigenous and used by a
large section of people in India. Due to the lack of knowledge of patent
laws, many a times, many countries and poor people suffer. With regard to
Basmati Rice a US based company named Ricetech filed patent claiming
it was their own rice variety in the year. The hybrid rice crop was covered
by patent number 5,663,484 ("Patent '484"), which was given to Ricetec
Inc., a US business with its headquarters in Texas, on September 2, 1997.
Only the United States ac cepts plant variety protection in the form of a
patent, despite the fact that all WTO members exclude plant variety
protection from patentability. In particular, US law allows plant breeders
to acquire exclusive rights to new plant varieties in one of thre e ways
(independently and without mutual exclusion): Utility patents, plant
patents, and plant variety protection certificates are listed in that order
(PVP) (paraphrased). Indian Government officers thereafter submitted
50,000 pages document. After seve ral protests from all over the world and
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110 section of their own patent due to opposition. Finally the patent has serial
no. as rice and they dropped Basmati in their patent claim as Rice line s
Bas 867, RT1117, and RT112 is the amended title of Patent '484".
However, there is still several developing countries whose indigenous
products are patented by US which has been used for generations by the
developing countries. After this incident the G overnment of India,
introduced the geotag system whereby the location of the product is also
mentioned which helps in getting the consumers and the exporters the real
value, recognition and in terms of customer they get the authentic product.
When one or more of a good's qualities can be connected directly to a
particular area, that location is designated as the source of the good via
geographic indications (GIs).
The protection of such distinguishing markers aims to stimulate and
ensure fair competition a s well as to safeguard consumers by enabling
consumers to make informed judgments about various goods and services.
Another Ancient Knowledge is Yoga, which Indian government said that
it is for the betterment of humanity living all over of the world and h ence
it is free to learn and share and hence its not patented.
There are several debates around the Intellectual property rights like many
a times, the access to capital makes the inventor produce innovation. As
some innovations need capital for creating and implementing. The lack of
capital leads to there by failure in innovation and thereby in the lack of
production and lack of patenting knowledge too. This leads to the poor
countries unable to take ahead their invention and fall behind.
Check Your Prog ress:
1. What is Trademark?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________ ____________
2. Explain meaning of Patent .
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________ ________________________
15.5 INTELLECTUAL COMMONS The intellectual commons are the ideal complement to markets supported
by intellectual property. They represent non -commercial sectors for the
production, exchange, and distribution of consumables that ta ke place
separately from the interchange of tangible and intangible goods. Culture,
non-aggregated data, language, and prior knowledge are only a few
examples of the common, common infrastructures provide for the creation
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111 generated information, online content are covered by Creative Commons
licenses, collaborative media, voluntarily crowdsourcing, and political
discourse are examples of new intellectual commons.
The Intellectual commons are social practices for exchanging intangible
resources and re -creating the bonds between individuals that surround
these positive behaviors. They are associated with areas of human activity
that largely use thought as opposed to manual labor. They are a rranged as
power blocs between societal forces that are opposed to each other,
commodification and commonization. The concept is a newly emerging
one and hence, the literature on intellectual common is limited. There is
further scope in research on intelle ctual commons.
Language, shared symbols, shared ideas, shared values, shared practices,
shared traditions, folk art, and social systems of care are just a few
examples of the commons in culture and technology that serve as the
cornerstone of our civilizat ion. Other examples include all of our earlier
scientific and technological advancements (Merges, 2004). According to
Hess, Ostrom Commons are those resource which groups share, these are
publicly available forms of knowledge.
Theories:
Within the greate r scientific community as well as among academics who
research the relationships between information and communication
technology and society, theorizing about the intellectual commons has
undoubtedly grown in popularity over the past twenty years. The rat ional
choice theory is one of the intellectual commons theories that focuses on
how people cooperate, form communities, and establish norms to protect
intellectual resources or seek desired outcomes. (Ostrom 1998; Hess and
Ostrom 2007b, 42).
Intellectual c ommon and Academic Work:
People have started to create open, unrestricted intellectual commons by
creating cooperative peer -to-peer methods of intellectual resource
development and management. The rapid development of new intellectual
commons, such as wik is, open -access publications in science, open
standards, and open hardware development have helped large sections of
people all over the world. There are several articles, photographs which
are having free licensing, no copyright required logo of late. Du e to the
global movement of open resources and open knowledge sharing.
The artistic endeavors of humanity throughout history have been
characterized by acts of collective cooperation and sharing. From the start
of civilization until the era of information and communication networks,
the greatest artistic achievements have sprung from the collaborative
creativity of many minds working together in community. Any new
cultural advances are constructed upon the immense common pool
resource of our cultural histor y, which has been accumulated over time by
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112 commons serve as both the foundation of human civilization and the
means through which sociocultural diversity is maintained.
Research is still needed to learn about recent discoveries of the links of
commonification in circulation of social value in order to comprehend the
actual formations of the intellectual commons, both offline and online, in
the current socio -historical context. Intel lectual commons are of academic
interest as well as general social interest because they have the potential to
increase access to information, knowledge, and culture support
independent creators and productive communities. They also help to
improve the qua ntity and quality of intellectual production and even
democratize creativity and innovation. They also support independent
creators and productive communities. As a result, the intellectual
commons ought to be controlled in a manner that considers the
aforementioned possibilities (Broumas, A. 2020). Intellectual commons
aided by increased scientific knowledge, resource conservation and
sustainability, and participation needs. fiscal equivalency for equity,
financial effectiveness, and equity in redistributi on.
Debate between Intellectual Rights and Intellectual Common:
Intellectual rights are given to individuals as reward, encouragement as
financial incentive for creativity and innovation in any field. Yet,
intellectual stands as different as it focusses o n knowledge and human
culture. There still exists the debate surrounding culture vs property and
freedom of knowledge. As many knowledge has be developed as
communities as a group like traditional knowledge of medicine among
tribes, development of crops ra ndomly through certain seed variety or
practices through trial and error historically. Hence, as a community the
knowledge has been passed on from one generation to another. For
example – In India context, herbal medicines, healing practices. At times
this cultural knowledge is also preserved through rituals and practices. If
certain scientists later on conduct experiment on already proven practices
followed by generations of people and patent it on their own name
claiming it as their own, it turns out to b e ethically not appropriate. Here,
even comes the question of it is morally right to own by certain scientists
knowledge of people who are living in forest, unaware of existence of
intellectual property rights drawn out by the first world countries.
Van d er Walt, A. J., & Du Bois, M. (2013) point out that both the
intellectual property and intellectual common should be enlarged and
preserved. In order for the commons to continue to be usable in creative
works in the future, it must be protected from excess ive propertization. At
the time for the creation of intellectual property the “raw ingredients" in
which the commons are found should be untouched so that more
innovations are there. This would help in the future too. At the same time
using resources that have been stolen from the commons for the
production of intellectual property should also be acknowledged.
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113 Check Your Progress:
1. Discuss the theory related to Intellectual common .
____________________________________________________________
____________ ________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Discuss intellectual property rights related to Plant varieties.
__________________ __________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
15.6 SUMMARY In this chapter we began with understanding the meaning of Intellectual
property rights. Intellectual property rights give the creators temporary,
exclusive rights to commercially utilize one’s own ideas as well as
ownership over the creations. Intellectual Property Rights g rant certain
exclusive rights to the creators or developers of that property in order for
them to make a profit economically off of their creative activities.
Trademark, copyright, and patent are a few examples of intellectual
property protection. The Trad e Related Intellectual Property Rights
Agreement (TRIPS), governed by World Trade Organization governs
intellectual property, grants rights such as patents, copyrights, trademarks,
geographical indicators, protection of undisclosed information, integrated
circuit layout designs, industrial designs, and traditional knowledge. The
concept of intellectual property rights (IPR) was brought to India from the
west. The Indian Trade and Merchandise Marks Act of 1884 was the first
Indian law addressing intellectual property rights. The first Indian Patent
Law was enacted in 1856, and more Acts were made after it. With time
there were also different statutes which discussed the Intellectual Property
Rights have been created like the Patents Act of 1970, the Trade Mar ks
Act of 1999, the Designs Act of 2000, the Geographical Indications of
Goods (Registration and Protection) Act of 1999, the Copyright Act of
1957, the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act of 2001,
and the Biological Diversity Act of 2002 . The National Intellectual
Property Rights (IPR) Policy, which will serve as India's IPRs' future road
map, was adopted by the Union Cabinet on May 12, 2016. We further
looked into different aspects of IPR like copyrights which is given for
intangible thi ngs like singing, poems, music, art forms, writing. Patents
which is given to inventor of objects, designs, materials, manufacturing
style etc. There was also discussion about Trademark like logos which is
again registered to protect the rights of the comp any or individual. In
addition, we also saw biodiversity like plants and species protection. In the
chapter, discussion of two case studies like Turmeric and that of Basmati
Rice whereby Western individuals and companies like Rice Tech was
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Reading and Writing in Social Science
114 providing documents and the patent was rectified, withdrawn by the
patentee.
The second section of the chapter discusses about Intellectual commons.
The intellectual commons are the ideal complement to markets supported
by intellectual property. They represent non -commercial sectors for the
production, exchange, and distribution of consumables that take place
separately from the interchange of tangible and intangible goods. Culture,
non-aggregated data, language, and prior knowledge are only a few
examples of the common, also common infrastructures provide for the
creation of ideas. Wikis, open scientific publications, publicly accessible
user-generated information, online content are covered by Creative
Comm ons licenses, collaborative media, voluntarily crowdsourcing, and
political discourse are examples of new intellectual commons. There are
different issues surrounding the Intellectual property rights like at times
this cultural knowledge is also preserved through rituals and practices. If
certain scientists later on conduct experiment on already proven practices
followed by generations of people and patent it on their own name
claiming it as their own, it turns out to be ethically not appropriate. Here,
even comes the question of it is morally right to own by certain scientists’
knowledge of people who are living in forest, unaware of existence of
intellectual property rights drawn out by the first world countries.
15.7 QUESTIONS 1) Write a brief note on m eaning of Intellectual Property Rights and IPR
in India.
2) Discuss two case studies related to IPR
3) Write a note on Intellectual Commons.
15.8 REFERENCES  Saha, C. N., & Bhattacharya, S. (2011). Intellectual property rights:
An overview and implicat ions in pharmaceutical industry. Journal of
advanced pharmaceutical technology & research, 2(2), 88 –93.
https://doi.org/10.4103/2231 -4040.82952
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3217699/#:~:text=Int
ellectual%20property%20rights%20(IPR)%20refers, a%20given%20p
eriod%20of%20time.
 World trade organization
https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel1_e.htm
 Broumas, A. (2020). Intellectual Commons and the Law: A
Normative Theory for Commons -Based Peer Production. University
of Westminster Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1g4rtsw
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bd322bqSJeY&ab_channel=MIT
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Intellectual property Rights and Intellectual commons
115  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346326180_The_Commons
_Economic_Alternatives_in_the_Digital_Age
 Broumas, A. (2020). Theor ies of the Intellectual Commons. In
Intellectual Commons and the Law: A Normative Theory for
Commons -Based Peer Production (pp. 27 –62). University of
Westminster Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1g4rtsw.8
 https://copyright.gov.in/documents/handbook.html #:~:text=The%20C
opyright%20Act%2C%201957%20protects,no%20copyright%20in%
20an%20idea.
 https://ipindia.gov.in/index.htm
 https://www.drishtiias.com/to -the-points/paper3/intellectual -property -
rights
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ClZEIQQjG6g&ab_channel=IIT
KharagpurJuly2018
 Lecture by Prof. Gauri explaining the Patent filing process in India.
 https://dpiit.gov.in/sites/default/files/national -IPR-Policy2016 -
14October2020.pdf
 Lakshmana Prabu, Sakthivel & Timmakondu, Suriyaprakash &
Kumar Chellappan, Dinesh. (20 12). Intellectual property rights and its
development in India. Pharma Times. 44. 19 -22.
 https://sciencebusiness.net/news/72228/The -story -of-the-basmati -rice-
patent -battle
 https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=3b46692a -8b13 -
416a -b35d -f766f69a52e2
 https://www.law -right.com/the -battle -between -intellectual -commons -
and-intellectual -property/
 Van der Walt, A. J., & Du Bois, M. (2013). The importance of the
commons in the context of intellectual property. Stellenbosch Law
Review, 24(1), 31 -54.

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116 16
THE POLITICS OF ACADEMIC WRITING
Unit Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Understanding the Politics of Location
16.3 Challenges of Academic Writing
16.4 Conclusion
16.5 Summary
16.6 Questions
16.7 References
16.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the importance of academic writing in a globalized
world .
 To examine the challenges to effective academic writing .
16.1 INTRODUCTION Academic writing for publication is a worldwide phenomenon, as it
involves millions of scholars, thousands of publishers and institutions of
higher learning. While research work takes place at the local level, no
academic text or publishing activity can be considered as isolated from the
many complex globalizing practices and systems. These have a powerful
impact on the way aca demic text are produced, evaluated and
disseminated. English plays a central role in a globalized world, and
therefore is considered as the global ‘language of Science’ by leading
educational institutions. All participants in the text production which
include; scholars, reviewers, translators, editors, consider English as a
default language of communication.
It is necessary then to understand the impact of the growing dominance of
English as the global medium of academic publications on the lives and
practices of multilingual scholars who work and live in a context where
English is not the official or dominant language of communication.
Developing insights into how scholars experience and practice in specific
context may help in contributing to debates a nd understanding about
academic production and knowledge creation in a globalized world. In this
section, students will gain insights into the challenges related to the forms
of production and reproduction of knowledge and the politics that shape
the trans mission of knowledge.
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117 16.2 UNDERSTANDING THE POLITICS OF LOCATION Several scholars argue that the geopolitical location of scholars, texts, and
language plays a central role in the politics of academic text production.
The book, “Academic Writing in a Gl obal Context – The politics and
practices of publishing in English” by Theresa Lillis and May Jane Curry
(2010) discusses this issue in depth. The book concentrates on specific
geopolitical sites described as European, Southern Europe, Central and
Eastern Europe and covers specific nation states such as Slovakia,
Hungary, Spain and Portugal. The four national sites can be described as
the ‘Expanding Circle’ of English language users, in which English is used
as a foreign language and increasingly as a med ium on instruction in
schools and colleges. This ‘Expanding Circle’ contrasts with the ‘Inner
Circle’ which includes nations such as United Kingdom, the United States
and Australia, as well as ‘Outer Circle’. The ‘Outer Circle’ represents
former colonies such as India, Singapore, Nigeria, where English is a
second or official language. In economic terms the relations between
these nations could be understood in terms of Centre -Periphery interface
as reflected in the World Systems Theory.
When trying to u nderstand politics of location and its role in academic text
production, three key dimensions are important:
1) the geographical: the immediate local context relating to the
department, institution, state, region, etc.
2) the geolingual: relates to the languages used or not used in writing
for academic publication and their differential status, and the
3) the geopolitical: relates to the policies influencing research and
evaluation systems at local, national and supranational levels.
All three are i mportant for understanding what is involved and what is at
stake in academic text production in the context of specific sites.
16.3 CHALLENGES OF ACADEMIC WRITING There are several challenges to effective academic writing. Here it would
be pertinent to u nderstand the challenges at the global level and move to
more student -specific level. There is a serious dearth of explicit
discussion of what constitutes ‘good’ writing. It is somehow assumed that
students will absorb a concept of what is ‘good’ through the painful
process of trial and error and practice. While these aspects play an
important role in the process, scholars observe that there is a lack of
explicit, clear -cut discussion of writing styles, strategies, forms and
genres. To write in an academi c way, it is necessary to become an
academic. Effective written communication is crucial for the students’
success at every level. Students need to articulate their thoughts and
observations in a way that their writing is recognizable as ‘academic’,
while retaining its distinctiveness. In the absence of any academic
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118 writing blogs, or paid editors. However, scholars and critics of academic
communication observe that students are no t introduced to the challenges
in the form of political issues in action that shape academic writing.
Students need to be encouraged to know about the implications of how
they choose to write. It is important to be aware of the context in which
they are communicating and the manner in which these influence their
choices.
Since the emergence of “Students’ Right to Their Own Language” in
1974, American teachers have struggled with varied means to represent,
characterize and teach “academic language”. The introduction of terms
such as “Pluralization” and “World Englishes” have reflected the tensions
that exist when valuing students’ multiple language varieties and ensuring
that they write in “standard English” which is considered suitable for
academic disc ourse. These tensions have increased as new research has
continued to draw a connection between language with identifying factors
like race, class and ethnicity. As more and more educational institutions
move towards translingualism movement, academicians and scholars have
advocated for classroom to be a pluralistic and diverse linguistic space.
This can ensure the establishing of a socially just and inclusive classroom.
Several scholars have recognized that the inherent politics of academic
language make s its necessary for make shifts in our writing pedagogies.
However, these do not often match our professional artifacts and
pedagogical materials. In other words, our scholarship may be
progressing, but our everyday materials are not necessarily progress ing
with it. In the late 1970s new approaches to writing instruction were being
introduced. The expressivist and social approaches to writing instruction
were branches or offshoots of the current -traditional approaches. Richard
Fulkerson worried that wr iting instructors may be using the classroom
practices of one pedagogical philosophy, while the assignment demands
another, and evaluation is done on the basis of still another approach.
This is a major lacuna which he calls as “value -mode confusion”.
Language and Identity:
It is seen that our professional artifacts and pedagogical materials can
perpetuate certain ideologies about academic language. These ideologies
may be in conflict with the academic field’s larger goals towards social
justice and in clusion. A precursory look into academic textbooks taught at
school and university level reflect value judgments about academic
language. Alisa Russel analyses and compares three popular First Year
Composition textbooks, The Norton Field Guide to Writing , Everyone’s
an Author, and They Say, I Say, represent academic language in seven
major categories: name, placement, definition, characterization, features,
examples and instruction. Throughout the analysis, the author uses the
vague term “academic langua ge” to refer to the language variety mostly
represented within different textbooks. It is important to understand the
politics of academic language and examine how any language variety,
including academic language, is tied to identity, values and ways of
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119 The Politics of Academic Language:
All languages are strongly linked to their user’s identities and community
membership. This fact is important to understand the politics of academic
language. In his work titled “3/5 of a Language?” David Bl oome begins
with the observation that, “A definition of language is always, implicitly
or explicitly, a definition of human beings in the world”. According to
Bloome , languages are not merely functional tools, but are connected to
histories, cultures and c ommunities. This means that language is not just a
means of communication but a reflection of community memberships.
Each of these communities does not simply require the understanding of
grammar, vowels or syntax, but also requires us to adopt ways of
speaking, thinking, feeling, acting and valuing. While identifying factors
like race, caste, class and ethnicity do not determine language varieties,
they are definitely markers of those varieties since languages reflect
community membership.
H. Samy Alim and Geneva Smitherman have effectively described the link
between language, being and community. They state that language is a
source of pleasure, entertainment, reflection and socialization. Language
is one of the first formative experiences of being a member of a family, a
community, and a culture. It helps an individual to understand and
develop the first notions of where he/she is and who they might become.
Thus language is always intertwined with community membership and
ways of being. Many speak ers shuttle between languages as they shuttle
between their communities. However, Bloome notes that some language/s
may be of crucial importance and are more compatible than others. Thus
which languages are valued by social institutions becomes an issue of
politics.
The Translinguism movement :
Sometimes students could be at a disadvantaged position if there is little or
no compatibility between their language varieties and academic language.
Most of the times, language policies give privilege to English as compared
to other languages. The language space is strongly linked to our cultural
histories and social identities. Scholars observe that by diversifying the
language varieties, there would be more space for including different
speakers, thinkers and writers who speak, think and write differently.
Diverse language varieties need to be valued as they help in cultivating
diverse knowledges. This has been the specific objective of the
translinguism movement, which states that the difference in language
should not be seen as a barrier to overcome or a problem to be managed.
Rather it should be used as a resource for producing meaningful writing,
speaking, reading and listening. This movement observes that increased
fluidity between and across all languag e practices can lead to ‘new ways
of knowing’ and ‘more peaceful relations’.
The norms and standards for language are not about language itself, but
are about ways of thinking and ways of valuing certain social identities or
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120 similar to the academic language may be able to make a slight shift to
meet the standards of academic language. However, for other students,
from vernacular backgrounds the shift is more dramatic. This may require
the student to leave behind cultural and social values in order to adopt the
academic language taught in institutions.
Academic language as Hegemonic:
Scholars such as Peter Elbow recognize the exclusive power of academic
language. The academic world makes it very clear that it will not hear
from the student unless the learner uses their language. There is an
inflexibility to accept other language varieties in academic writing. This
supports Asao Inoue’s observation that language can act as a “hegemonic
discourse”.
Academic language as a hegemonic discourse follows the general
hierarchal organization of most varieties of English. Bloome observes that
the varieties of English spoken by white, northern, middle and upper -class
communities (in this case Ameri ca) is considered to be superior to those
associated with groups such as African Americans, Mexican and other
Latino communities, Southerners and people from working -class
backgrounds. It is a fact that the blend of cultural and social values
enacted thro ugh language leads to new and enriched ways of knowing. If
this is true, then solely valuing academic language using monolingual
perspective could be unjust and disadvantageous to certain student
population (especially from the marginalized groups). This could lead to
the disastrous effects of homogenizing or silencing the voice of the
groups.
Since academic language as a hegemonic discourse places white, northern,
middle and upper -class varieties of English above other, it is ultimately
linked to whitene ss (Language of the whites as superior). This means
there is a tendency to link academic language as the only “correct”,
“proper”, or “right” variety for entering academic conversations. Doing so
goes against the goals of social justice and inclusion. In a recent blog post,
“Is Academic Writing White?”Andrea Lunsford writes about how writing
is aligned with power, and power is aligned to whiteness. She observed
that certain vernaculars struggled to be seen as legitimate, and examined
how academic languag e can act as a “form of submission” against those
struggles. A recent study has revealed how judgments on language are a
stand in for race. Criticizing language was seen as a lesser taboo than
criticizing race. But earlier researches have shown that lan guage and race
cannot be separated so easily.
Knowledge as Political:
Several scholars have tried to understand the political aspects of how
knowledge is shared. Linguist Steven Pinker, Harvard professor and
author of books such as ‘The Language Instinct’ and ‘How the Mind
Works’ has spoken about academic writing and its challenges. Pinker’s
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121 academic writing stating that it is too dense and uses complex language.
This is also true of w riting produced by eminent and acclaimed scholars.
Pinker draws our attention to some serious issues. The first point is that
writing is personal, but it is also a matter of professional identity. The
second point is that if knowledge is political, then writing is also political
because it is one way that knowledge is shared with the world. Academic
writing concerns with topics of a serious nature, which are referred to as
specialist topics, but may contain insights which are relevant to the
broader rea ders. The manner in which this knowledge is communicated
affects who ‘can’ access it and who ‘cannot’.
Since the importance of writing in academic work cannot be denied, it is
expected that such skills would be developed during the coursework for
the res earch scholars. While writing is an essential part of scholarship, it is
seen that students receive no formal instruction on how to write
academically. Professors generally assume that students already know
academic writing and therefore put more focus on developing and fine -
tuning content.
Professional Pressures of Academic Writing:
Generally universities expect research students to develop a style that
conforms to the guidelines put forth for academic success. Students can
use style to mark themselves as “insiders” who can begin to lay claim to a
professional identity. This is necessary if they desire to participate in
academic activities such as presenting papers at conferences and
publishing. While students may not mimic “bad writing”, scholars
observe that there are few incentives for writing well within the academic
world. This has a detrimental effect on the students as they make decisions
not just about how they write, but more about what work is “worth” doing.
Thereby academic writing may not b e taken seriously in the context of the
influences of such professional pressures.
16.4 CONCLUSION Several aspects are at play in the process of academic production of text.
A ‘social practice approach to literacy’ views reading and writing as basic
socia l activities. The individual is considered as a socially situated actor
who has both the ‘context of situation’ and the ‘context of culture’.
‘Practice’ signals that language use in the form of spoken and written texts
do not exist in isolation, but are bound up with what people do in the
material and social world. Academic writing is rarely an individual
process or product. It is pertinent to understand that besides the author,
there exists a number of people involved in text production, reception and
negotiation. Such activity is always refracted through political and
institutional conditions that govern academic text production in a global
context.
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122 16.5 SUMMARY Academic writing for publication is a worldwide phenomenon, as it
involves millions of scholars, thousands of publishers and institutions of
higher learning.
Several scholars argue that the geopolitical location of scholars, texts, and
language plays a central role in the politics of academic text production.
Students need to be encouraged t o know about the implications of how
they choose to write. It is important to be aware of the context in which
they are communicating and the manner in which these influence their
choices.
The inherent politics of academic language makes its necessary f or us to
make shifts in our writing pedagogies.
It is seen that our professional artifacts and pedagogical materials can
perpetuate certain ideologies about academic language. These ideologies
may be in conflict with the academic field’s larger goals to wards social
justice and inclusion
The translinguism movement states that the difference in language should
not be seen as a barrier to overcome or a problem to be managed. Rather
it should be used as a resource for producing meaningful writing,
speaking, reading and listening.
Academic language as a hegemonic discourse follows the general
hierarchal organization of most varieties of English.
It is pertinent to understand that besides the author, there exists a number
of people involved in text production, reception and negotiation. Such
activity is always refracted through political and institutional conditions
that govern academic text production in a global context.
16.6 QUESTIONS 1) Discuss the importance of academic writing in a globalized world.
2) Evaluate the politics of location with specific reference to academic
writing.
3) Examine the challenges to academic writing in English.
16.7 REFERENCES  Lillis, T. and Curry, M.J. (2011): Academic Writing in a Global
Context: The Politics and Practices of Publishing
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/42798576_Academic_Writi
ng_in_a_Global_Context_The_Politics_and_Practices_of_Publishing
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123  Melonie Fullick (2015): The Politics of (Academic) Style’ published
in Speculative Diction
 https://www .universityaffairs.ca/opinion/speculative -diction/politics -
academic -style/

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