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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH – NATURE,
CHARACTERISTICS, SIGNIFICANCE,
CRITIQUE
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Qualitative Research
1.3 Nature of Qualitative Research
1.4 Characteristics of Qualitative Research
1.5 Significance of Qualitative Research
1.6 Critique of Qualitative Research
1.7 Summary
1.8 Questions
1.9 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES 1. To understand the meaning of Qualitative Research
2. To learn about the nature, characteristics, significance of qualitative
research
1.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter you would learn about meaning of Qualitative Research its
nature, characteristics, significance and critique. Learning this subject of
qualitative research methodology would help you fetch jobs in NGOs or
even in higher studies right up to PhD and beyond. Qualitative Research is
an interesting, relatable topic as it emphasis on doing sociology and it’s a
practical in nature.
1.2 MEANING OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH The word "qualitative" suggests an emphasis on the character istics of
things as well as on actions and meanings that are not empirically
investigated or measured. In qualitative research the social construction of
reality, the close bond amongst the researcher and the subject of the study
exists. The focus is also upon understanding the context by qualitative
researchers. These researchers emphasise how value -laden research is.
They look for responses to queries like how social interaction is produced
and given meaning in day -to-day life. Quantitative studies, on th e other
hand, place more emphasis on measuring and analysing the causal
connections between variables than on processes. Many social and munotes.in

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2 behavioural scientists view qualitative modes of inquiry as a perspective
on how to approach examining a research as we ll (Denzin, et.al. 2005).
The goal of qualitative research, is to understand why individuals act,
react, and think the way they do. Interview method is used massively
within the qualitative research. These interviews can last from one sitting
which could b e 2 -3 hours or even could be conducted at periodic intervals
like twice a week. Participant observation is also one of the key tool which
is used in qualitative research. Hence, Qualitative interviewing and even
focus groups is used to create concepts, ta ctics, or, for instance, an
appreciation of processes of the groups or institutions. In qualitative
research the samples are typically small. In the gathering and analysis of
data, the focus of qualitative research is typically on words rather than
quantit ative. Almost any research scenario that doesn't revolve around
determining "how many" can be adapted to qualitative research. The
advantage of using a qualitative technique is that you need not begin with
a rigid "hypothesis" that needs to be proven. Inst ead, the quality of the
data and insights produced is improved by the open -ended methodology,
which may be modified and changed as the research is being conducted. In
a way, the quality of the data and insights produced is improved by the
open -ended method ology, which may be modified and changed as the
research is being conducted. Flexible, open -ended procedures are used to
collect data for qualitative research, and the variety of participant
responses is valued. Interaction between the researcher and the subject of
the study is emphasised in qualitative research. It acknowledges how
connections and human interaction are constantly evolving.
Using microanalytic inquiry, Qualitative researchers investigate, assess,
and diagnose mechanisms, behaviors, systems , or organisations in areas
like problem -solving (such as drug errors), teaching and learning (such as
delivering bad news, patient noncompliance), "natural" interactions (such
as bonding or sensitive issues like abuses), indicators (such as pain
expressio ns), or situations. (e.g., systems of drug administration or the
operations of patient care).
The qualitative research is very important and unquestionably adds to our
understanding of the effectiveness, costs, morbidity, and mortality of
healthcare.
• It investigates the subjective according to standards of merit. It helps
in understanding the perceptions, beliefs, and values.
Qualitative research provides more than just explanation, illumination, or
comprehension. This knowledge enables us to acknowledg e our humanity
in both good and bad circumstances, to offer healthcare, and to structure
organizations, programs, and policies appropriately. Any crucial
information is easily provided by qualitative research. Morse, J. M.
(2004).
Using first -hand experie nce, genuine reporting, and quotations from real
conversations, qualitative research seeks to gain a deeper understanding. It munotes.in

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3 Qualitative Research – Nature, Characteristics, Significance, Critique tries to comprehend how participants interpret their environment and how
that interpretation affects their behaviour.
In qualitati ve research, data is gathered through observation. Choosing and
documenting human activities as they occur in their environment is called
observation. When other techniques are ineffective, observation can be
used to do research, create detailed descriptio ns of groups or events, and
find information that would otherwise be inaccessible.
Researchers from the fields of psychology, anthropology, sociology, and
programme evaluation frequently use observation in their work. Direct
observation minimises distortio n caused by an instrument between the
observer and what is being observed (e.g., questionnaire). It takes place
outside, not in a lab or under well controlled conditions. When observing
people and their surroundings, the context or backdrop of conduct is t aken
into account. Also, it can be applied to people who have trouble speaking,
including children or people who are reluctant to do so.
Some of the major types of qualitative research designs are – Case study,
ethnography, ethnomethodology, symbolic inter actionism,
phenomenology, narrative analysis, grounded theory, participatory Action
research, cultural studies, Gender studies.
1.3 NATURE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH The nature of Qualitative Research has been inspired by several earlier
scholars who belong from both Sociology and Anthropology. These
scholars developed the methods wrote books about them. Like Weber,
Schutz, Geertz, Malinowski, William Whyte. All these people directly or
indirectly influenced the nature of Qualitative Research. Let’s take the
example of Data collection. Social scientists have long used the data
collection techniques that are associated with qualitative research. The
most well -known of these techniques is participant observation, which
requires the researcher's prolonged immers ion among individuals they are
trying to understand, in order to produce a comprehensive, in -depth
description of the group, organisation, or whatever they are trying to
understand.
Malinowski expressly argued for the fieldwork method just after the turn
of the century when he urged the social anthropologist to leave the
verandah and mingle with the locals. The term "ethnography" is frequently
used to describe qualitative research and it suggests that participant
observers and qualitative researchers in ge neral are related to
anthropology.
The method of data collection that qualitative research is most likely most
strongly connected with is participant observation. Unstructured
interviewing is where the researcher has no direction and gives the
subjects a lot of freedom and this is a preferred strategy while conducting
interviews. Although most participant observers engage in some degree of
such interviewing, it is qualitative researchers who do so almost munotes.in

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4 exclusively. These interviews have a very different goal than the common
survey method. Some work with a loose collection of subjects they aim to
cover, while some qualitative researchers employ an interview timetable.
The subject is given a significantly more thorough treatment in both cases.
Different per spectives are associated with the development of qualitative
research like -
One of the philosophical forerunners of the qualitative research approach
is frequently considered to be Max Weber's concept of verstehen (see, for
instance, Filstead, 1970, p. 4 ). Meaning "to understand". Weber prioritised
Sociology as a comprehension in the twentieth century, stating that it was
a science that sought to interpretively grasp social action in order to arrive
at a causal explanation for its causes and effects (Webe r, 1947, p. 90).
Weber identified two types of understanding: "explanatory" or
"motivatory" understanding, in which "the particular act has been put in an
intelligible sequence of action, it is the knowledge which can be gained
from direct observation of t he meaning of a given act" (p. 94).
Phenomenological research aims to comprehend and characterise a
phenomenon's fundamental elements. The methodology examines human
experience in daily life while putting aside the researchers' prior notions
about the phen omenon.
Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theoretical perspective that
examines how meaningful, regular face -to-face encounters between people
help to create and maintain society.
Naturalism encompasses two interconnected themes i.e a dislike of
artificial research methods that are seen to produce distorted images of
social reality and a desire to expose the social world in a way that is
congruent with the perception that its participants have of that world.
travelling with them (Bryman, 2016).
Henc e the nature of qualitative research has been influenced by several
theories, concepts, disciplines, thinkers and school of thought. Qualitative
research can answer why a respondent has answered in a specific way for
a question asked. Rich descriptive dat a and an all -encompassing image of
the subject under study are obtained with the aid of qualitative research. It
provides a holistic description of people, systems, situations, interactions,
and processes that enables interpretation and theory development.
Participants in qualitative research are viewed as equal members of the
research. Therefore, qualitative research is a suitable option for giving the
voiceless a voice. It aids in the growth of new places that would have
otherwise gone undeveloped for a v ery long time.
Check your progress
1. What is unstructured interviewing? munotes.in

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2. Write the meaning of qualitative research in few lines.
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 1. The natural world (natural setting):
Field data are gath ered by qualitative researchers in the areas where
participants are confronted with the problem or subject under study.
Researchers using qualitative methods don't alter the individuals' daily
routines or surrounding conditions. Direct conversations with i ndividuals
and observation of their actions in a natural setting are used to obtain
information.
2. Using researchers as a crucial tool (researcher as key instrument):
The primary methods used by qualitative researchers to gather their own
data include par ticipant observation, documentation, and direct participant
interviews. Since they are the only source of data for the study, these
researchers typically don't use any instruments or questionnaires created
by other researchers.
3. Multiple data sources:
Instead of depending solely on one source of data, qualitative researchers
typically opt to gather the necessary information from a variety of sources,
including interviews, documentation, and observations.
4. Inductive analysis of data:
qualitative research ers construct categories, patterns, and themes to get a
comprehensive conclusion.
5. The participants' meaning:
Instead of focusing on the meaning that previous authors or researchers
have transmitted in specific works of literature, the researcher must de vote
their complete attention to understanding the meaning that they have
learned about the subject or research problem from the participants.

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6 6. Developing design :
Qualitative researchers contend that their field is dynamic and always
changing. This cou ld imply that the initial plan is not a requirement that
must be followed and that, once the researcher enters the field and begins
to gather data, all phases of the research may vary. As long as the
modifications remain consistent with attaining the resea rch goals, namely
learning more about the problem or research issue helps.
7. A theoretical viewpoint (theoretical lens):
When doing their research, qualitative researchers frequently draw on
certain viewpoints, including ethnography, cultural ideas, gend er
disparities, ethnicity, and others.
8. Interpretive:
The observations, perceptions, and understandings of qualitative
researchers are often interpreted. Since researchers, readers, and
participants frequently interpret qualitative research differently, it may
appear that diverse perspectives on a topic or issue are presented.
9. A comprehensive account:
A nuanced picture of a study, issue or problem is often what qualitative
researchers aim to create. The viewpoints and elements involved with the
issue as a whole are described by researchers.
It can also answer why a respondent has answered in a specific way for a
question asked. The methodology used in quantitative research needs to be
complementing the topic matter. In qualitative research, the data ga thered
has a predictive quality. It mostly functions within fluid structures. The
results drawn from qualitative research might take into account the
complexity of the data and encourages a thorough comprehension of
human personality and behaviour characte ristics in their natural
environments.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH The significance of Qualitative Research is very vast. Qualitative research
tackles the "how" and "why" research questions and allows for a deeper
knowledge of experiences, ph enomena, and context. To better
comprehend human experience, qualitative research enables you to pose
questions that are difficult to answer. It is incredibly effective at bringing
about constructive social change. Respect for each person's uniqueness is
upheld throughout the qualitative research. The best way to interpret and
comprehend societal interactions is through research. Qualitative research
increases the researcher's enthusiasm for a certain topic. Multiple, cutting -
edge methods for assessing and gathering information about a topic are
available through qualitative research. Qualitative research reveals the
attitudes, perceptions, and feelings of a subject. munotes.in

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7 Qualitative Research – Nature, Characteristics, Significance, Critique Additionally, it encourages the interpersonal and interdependent nature of
human connections . Since qualitative research encourages the cooperation
of the researchers as well, all the information is accurate and trustworthy.
By examining the rankings and counts of the feelings, attitudes, and
behaviors, it also provides a thorough and deep unders tanding of a subject
and his way of thinking and working. It can also answer why a respondent
has answered in a specific way for a question asked.
Three main categories can be used to group the qualitative research
techniques that are most frequently empl oyed: (1) person or group
interviews, (2) observation techniques, and (3) document reviews. The
goal of the qualitative research interview is to identify and comprehend
particular themes that are present in the interviewees' daily lives.
Depending on the s ubject being studied, the cultural environment, and the
project's objectives, interviews might be conducted alone or in groups
(focus groups). In order to understand behaviours and interactions in
natural contexts, observational data collecting in qualitat ive research
entails close observation of individuals and events. Qualitative study
approaches are advantageous when the objective is to comprehend cultural
features of a setting or phenomena, when the situation of interest is
concealed or when the subjec ts in the setting seem to hold opinions that
are noticeably different from those of other groups. In addition to being a
great source of secondary data, written resources such as institutional
records, personal diaries, and historical public papers can she d light on the
experiences and lifestyles of the group. Qualitative research is useful to
gain a thorough grasp of a topic, especially when the issue is delicate.
Several fields let it be gender studies, Lgbtq individuals, queer studies,
feminists have bee n using qualitative research tools like oral history,
narrative to express and under the different women and social issues. As it
helps them to document their voices, life experiences and provides a space
to express themselves in the real life situation an d their trauma, injustice
done to them both in the academia as well as in real life situations.
1.6 CRITIQUE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: 1. Subjective:
Qualitative research is overly impressionistic and subjective, say
quantitative researchers, who occasiona lly criticise qualitative study. This
criticism typically refers to the fact that the researcher's often illogical
perceptions of what is essential and important, as well as the frequent deep
personal relationships the researcher develops with the subjects of the
study, which can overly influence qualitative findings.
2. Difficult to duplicate:
Qualitative researchers frequently claim that these tendencies are even
more of a problem because it is so difficult to repeat studies, however
replication in the so cial sciences is by no means an easy task independent
of this specific issue. Because it is unstructured and frequently depends on munotes.in

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8 the creativity of the qualitative researcher, it is nearly impossible to carry
out a real replication because there are few s et methods to follow. In
qualitative research, the researcher is the primary data collector, therefore
what is seen and heard as well as what the researcher chooses to focus on
are very much a result of his or her preferences.
2. Generalization issues:
It is frequently suggested that the findings of qualitative research have a
narrow scope. They contend that it is impossible to know how the results
can be applied to different situations when participant observation is
employed or when unstructured interview s are conducted with a small
number of people in a particular organisation or locale. How are just a few
cases able to represent all cases?
2. Lack of transparency:
In qualitative research, it can be challenging to determine what the
researcher actually co nducted and how the study's conclusions were
reached. For instance, the data from qualitative research are sometimes
ambiguous regarding issues like how individuals were picked for
observation or interview. This shortcoming stands in stark contrast to the
sometimes -tedious descriptions of sampling techniques in qualitative
research papers. The idea of particularization in detail through qualitative
research does not appear achievable.
3. Analysing the data:
Proper analysis of data becomes very much difficu lt. In addition, someone
who is experienced in the domain is required. The amount of time which
takes to understand and find the patterns is huge. Specially if the study has
been vast, hence one can find researchers spending years. This makes the
amount of resources, in terms of time, money, human energy becomes
more. With too much human interference there is at times chances of bias
which the researcher has to be constantly be aware of while writing
otherwise the writing can be biased. Specially when the r esearcher is
studying his or her society it would be a difficult task for him/her to
critique one’s own society due to the socialization practices and there
could be also unknown bias.
4. Statistics do not accurat ely depict qualitative research:
The repli es provided are not measured because qualitative research is a
perspective -based methodology. Although comparisons can be performed
and this may result in duplication, most situations that call for statistical
representation and are not covered by qualitat ive research process call for
quantitative data. This becomes a big problem as in large scale study
qualitative cannot be used.

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9 Qualitative Research – Nature, Characteristics, Significance, Critique Check your progress
1. Discuss two critiques of Qualitative research.
2. List out some qualitative research design .
1.7 SUMMARY In this chapter we learnt about qualitative research methodology. Like the
name suggest qualitative focusses upon a limited quantity of subjects,
topic and studies it in in -depth, in detail. The word "qualitative" also
suggests an emphasis on the characteristics of things as well as on actions
and meanings that are not empirically investigated or measured. In
qualitative research the social construction of reality, the close bond
amongst the researcher and the subject of the study e xists. The focus is
also upon understanding the context by qualitative researchers. These
researchers emphasise how value -laden research is. They look for
responses to queries like how social interaction is produced and given
meaning in day -to-day life. Qu antitative studies, on the other hand, place
more emphasis on measuring and analysing the causal connections
between variables than on processes. Many social and behavioural
scientists view qualitative modes of inquiry as a perspective on how to
approach e xamining a research as well (Denzin, et.al. 2005). The goal of
qualitative research, is to understand why individuals act, react, and think
the way they do. It helps the society to move forward in a positive way by
bringing out details which otherwise wou ld not be visible. Using first -
hand experience, genuine reporting, and quotations from real
conversations, qualitative research seeks to gain a deeper understanding. It
tries to comprehend how participants interpret their environment and how
that interpret ation affects their behaviour. Qualitative research though has
some negative points like its time consuming, expensive, the researcher
bias could occur and the interviewer has to be well trained to collect,
analyse data. Thus, qualitative research has it o wn uniqueness whereby it
is useful to document people who are indigenous, where interviews are to
be conducted. Qualitative researcher often are seen spending lot of time
conducting the fieldwork which helps then a better understanding of the
topic and to come up with interesting insights which a quantitative study
would not be able to get. Several prominent works in Indian Sociology
like that of M.N. Srinivas - Religion among Coorgs, Remembered village, munotes.in

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10 Mythili Krishnaraj study of Mumbai has been conducted through
Qualitative research.
1.8 QUESTIONS 1. Write a note on the meaning of Qualitative Research
2. Discuss in brief the significance of Qualttative research
3. Explain the nature of Qualitative research
4. Discuss the characteristics of Qualitative r esearch.
1.9 REFERENCE • Pathak V, Jena B, Kalra S. Qualitative research. Perspect Clin Res.
2013 Jul;4(3):192. doi: 10.4103/2229 -3485.115389. PMID:
24010063; PMCID: PMC3757586.
• Cleland JA. The qualitative orientation in medical education research.
Kore an J Med Educ. 2017 Jun;29(2):61 -71. doi:
10.3946/kjme.2017.53. Epub 2017 May 29. PMID: 28597869;
PMCID: PMC5465434.
• Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford university press.
• Lewis -Beck, M., Bryman, A. E., & Liao, T. F. (2003). The Sage
ency clopedia of social science research methods. Sage Publications.
• Goode, W. J., & Hatt, P. K. (1952). Methods in social research.
• Carter, M.J., Montes Alvarado, A. (2019). Symbolic Interactionism as
a Methodological Framework. In: Liamputtong, P. (eds) H andbook of
Research Methods in Health Social Sciences. Springer, Singapore.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978 -981-10-5251 -4_62
• Matsuda, M.. (2015). Ethnogenesis in Anthropology. 10.1016/B978 -
0-08-097086 -8.12064 -1.
• https://lp2m.uma.ac.id/2020/11/21/qualitativ e-research -methods -
objectives -characteristics -and-strategies/
• https://planningtank.com/market -research/importance -qualitative -
research
• Morse, J. M. (2004). Qualitative significance. Qualitative Health
Research, 14(2), 151 -152.
• Denzin, Norman. K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. “Introduction: The
Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research.” In The Sage
Handbook of Qualitative Research. Norman. K. Denzin and Yvonna
S. Lincoln, eds. 3rd edition. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005), p. 10.
• https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/qualitative

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PREOCCUPATIONS OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCHERS
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Meaning of researcher
2.3 Understanding Qualitative researcher
2.4 Preoccupations of Qualitative researchers
2.5 Summary
2.6 Questions
2.7 References
2.0 OB JECTIVES  To learn about the pre occupations of qualitative researchers
 To learn about the process involved in it.
2.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter we are going to learn about the preoccupations of
Qualitative researcher. Qualitative research is a signif icant methodology
for comprehending social phenomena, which involves examining the
personal experiences of individuals and groups within a specific context. It
is particularly useful when dealing with complex social issues that are not
easy to measure or q uantify, such as attitudes, beliefs, and cultural
practices. Qualitative researchers put a lot of emphasis on subjective
interpretation and understanding. They aim to understand the meaning and
importance that participants attach to their experiences rathe r than
gathering objective data. To gather this rich and comprehensive data,
researchers use various techniques such as observation, open -ended
interviews, and focus groups. In addition, qualitative research adopts an
adaptable approach to data analysis. R ather than starting with fixed
hypotheses, researchers begin with a broad research question and let the
data guide them. They review and categorize the data to identify patterns
and themes, which are then used to develop theories and explanations
about the social phenomena being studied. Qualitative research has
various applications across several fields such as sociology, anthropology,
psychology, and education. It is helpful in exploring a wide range of social
phenomena, including cultural practices, soci al inequality, and individual
identity. Furthermore, qualitative research has the potential to provide
insights and perspectives that quantitative research methods often
overlook, making it a valuable tool for social scientists who seek to munotes.in

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12 comprehend compl ex social issues more profoundly. Before going further
let us learn about researcher, the most important person.
2.2 MEANING OF RESEARCHER A person who conducts organized studies and research with the purpose of
uncovering or verifying new information, f acts, or concepts is known as a
researcher. Researchers work in diverse fields, such as science, medicine,
technology, social sciences, and humanities, among others. They employ a
range of research methods, such as experiments, surveys, observations,
interviews, and data analysis, to collect and analyze data and make
inferences based on their findings. The primary objective of a researcher is
to advance knowledge in their field and provide significant contributions
to society.
2.3 UNDERSTANDING QUALITATIVE RESEARCHER A qualitative researcher is someone who uses qualitative research methods
to gather and analyze non -numerical data, including text, images, and
observations. The purpose is to achieve a more profound understanding of
a specific research questio n or phenomenon. Qualitative research methods
are usually applied to investigate intricate social and human issues that are
not easily quantifiable and highlight the importance of context,
subjectivity, and the personal significance attached to experiences .
To gather data, qualitative researchers employ various techniques, such as
conducting interviews, holding focus groups, observing behaviors, and
scrutinizing documents. Data analysis involves identifying patterns,
themes, and categories, and often involv es using coding and categorization
strategies to sort and interpret the data. Qualitative research aims to
provide a comprehensive and detailed account of the research question or
phenomenon being studied and to gain insight into the experiences and
meanin gs of those involved.
Qualitative researchers have several distinguishing characteristics that set
them apart from other types of researchers. The primary difference is that
they utilize qualitative research methods to collect and analyze non -
numerical dat a, such as words, images, and observations, in order to gain a
deep understanding of a particular phenomenon or research question.
These researchers also place a significant emphasis on the importance of
context, subjectivity, and the meaning people attrib ute to their
experiences. To understand human behavior and social phenomena,
qualitative researchers often use an interpretive approach. Furthermore,
qualitative researchers tend to adopt a more adaptable and iterative
approach to research, where the resea rch questions and methods can
evolve and change as the research progresses. They may also include the
participants in the research process, giving them the opportunity to
provide feedback and influence the research.
Another unique aspect of qualitative res earch is the researcher's role.
Qualitative researchers may become personally involved with the munotes.in

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13 Preoccupations of Qualitative Researchers participants, and their own biases and perspectives can have an impact on
the research. To avoid influencing the research findings, qualitative
researchers enga ge in self -reflection and reflexivity. Overall, the
distinguishing characteristics of a qualitative researcher include their use
of qualitative research methods, emphasis on context and subjectivity,
adaptable and iterative approach to research, and their self-awareness in
recognizing and managing their personal biases.
Check Your Progress
1. Who is a researcher?
2. Qualitative researcher give emphasis on interpretation and
understanding. Do you agree or disagree.
2.4 PRE OCCUPATIONS OF Q UALITATIVE RESEARCHERS 1. Seeing the world through the eyes of the subjects :
The idea that the subjects of social science and natural science do vary is
one of the basic assumptions of many qualitative researchers. One
significant distinction is that the analytical objects of natural science
(atoms, molecules, gauges, chemistry, etc.) are unable to assign
significance to the events taking place in their surroundings. But
individuals do. In Schutz's work, this argument is extremely clear. Schutz
draws atten tion to the fact that, in contrast to the subject of natural science,
the subject of social research —people —can ascribe meaning to their
surroundings. As a result, many qualitative researchers declare a
dedication to seeing things from the perspective of t he people who were
studied. Instead of assuming that the participants of the study are unable to
reflect on the social world for themselves, it is important to view it from
their point of view.
The goal of qualitative research is to see the world and the events through
the perspective of the subjects being studied. It is important to view the
social world from the viewpoint of the subjects being researched rather
than assuming that they are unable to form their own opinions about it.
The epistemology guid ing qualitative research as having two main tenets: munotes.in

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14 "Face -to-face interaction which is the prerequisite for learning about
another person's thinking, and (2) you must engage in this interaction and
be in the place of other and learn about the experiences o f the people (Lofl
and Lofl,1995). So, it is not unexpected that many researchers claim to
have attempted to consider the opinions of the people they have
interviewed in their reports of their investigations.
Abductive reasoning is a type of reasoning that is commonly utilized in
qualitative research. In qualitative research, the starting point for inquiry is
often the viewpoints of the subjects being studied. Abductive reasoning
involves constructing a theoretical comprehension of the people and
contexts u nder examination based on their language, meanings, and
perspectives, which shape their worldview. In the process of abduction, it
is crucial for the researcher to develop a scientific understanding of the
social world from the participants' viewpoints, wi thout losing touch with
the way in which the world is perceived by those who provided the data.
While it follows a broadly inductive approach, abduction is distinct in that
it emphasizes explanation and comprehension of the participants'
worldviews.
2. Hav ing Empathetic View point :
Empathy is crucial for researchers as it enables them to comprehend the
viewpoints and encounters of their subjects at a deeper level. By
attempting to view things from their subjects' perspectives, researchers can
develop a bet ter understanding of the social and cultural context of their
subjects and comprehend their beliefs, values, and behaviors. In
qualitative research, understanding the subjective experiences and
meanings of individuals is prioritized over measuring objectiv e facts and
figures, making empathy essential. Empathy can also aid researchers in
building rapport and trust with their participants, resulting in more
meaningful and accurate data and a smoother research process.
The empathetic perspective of attempting to view the world through the
eyes of the individuals being studied is a crucial component of qualitative
research. This empathetic stance is aligned with interpretivism and reveals
epistemological connections with phenomenology, symbolic
interactionism, a nd Verstehen. However, it is not without practical
difficulties. For example, there is a danger of "going native," where the
researcher becomes too involved in the subject matter and loses sight of
their research. Moreover, there is the issue of determinin g how far the
researcher should go, especially if the researcher is studying an in illegal
or hazardous activities. This could pose a risk in studies and to the
researcher too. Not only the present researcher but the for the future
researcher too. It is al so possible that the researcher may only view the
social scene from the perspective of certain individuals.
3. Understanding the context:
Qualitative researchers need to prioritize gaining insight into the
subjective experiences of individuals and their cultural and social context.
This is why they often include a great deal of descriptive detail in their munotes.in

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15 Preoccupations of Qualitative Researchers reports. They not only focus on description - they also ask "why" kind of
questions to explain their findings. These details, while seemingly
significan t, are actually crucial to understanding behavior, values, and
beliefs. The emphasis on context is key in qualitative type of research.
Descriptive detail is used to create a map of the context and to make sense
of behaviour that might otherwise seem irrat ional. However, there is a risk
of getting too caught up in details, which could potentially hinder data
analysis.
In addition to contextual understanding, another reason why qualitative
researchers emphasize descriptive detail is that it can help to chall enge
preconceived notions or stereotypes about a particular group of people or
phenomenon. By providing rich, nuanced descriptions of the experiences
and perspectives of research participants, qualitative researchers can paint
a more accurate and complex p icture of the social world under
investigation.
However, there is also a risk of becoming too caught up in descriptive
detail and losing sight of the larger research question or theoretical
framework. Qualitative researchers must strike a balance between
providing enough descriptive detail to understand the context and
experiences of their participants, while also keeping a clear focus on the
research question and larger theoretical concerns. Overall, the emphasis on
descriptive detail and contextual unders tanding is a key feature of
qualitative research. By providing rich, detailed accounts of the social
world under investigation, qualitative researchers can gain a deeper
understanding of the experiences and perspectives of research participants
and challen ge preconceived notions about social phenomena.
Qualitative researchers put great emphasis on descriptive detail as it helps
to understand the context and experiences of research participants. This
rich, nuanced description can provide a more accurate and complex
picture of the social world being studied and challenge stereotypes or
preconceived notions about a particular group or phenomenon. However,
it is important to maintain a balance between providing enough descriptive
detail while also keeping the la rger research question and theoretical
framework in mind. The emphasis on descriptive detail and contextual
understanding is a crucial aspect of qualitative research as it provides a
deeper understanding of research participants and can challenge pre -
exist ing ideas about social phenomena.
While emphasizing descriptive detail is crucial for qualitative researchers
to comprehend the social and cultural context and gain insight into the
subjective experiences of individuals, it is equally important for them no t
to forget about the bigger picture of the research question and theoretical
framework. Qualitative research is distinguished by its emphasis on
descriptive detail and contextual understanding, which helps researchers to
develop a comprehensive understand ing of the social world under
investigation and debunk preconceived notions and stereotypes about
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16 Qualitative Social Research
16 4. Emphasis on the process :
The emphasis on process is a central aspect of qualitative research,
particularly in ethnographic studies. Rese archers seek to reveal how social
life develops and changes over time, often through participant observation
and in -depth interviews. By providing a nuanced and dynamic
understanding of social phenomena, this approach challenges simplistic
and static views of social reality.
The emphasis on social processes is a significant feature of qualitative
research, which seeks to illustrate the way events and patterns change over
time. Ethnographic research, in particular, places an emphasis on process
as researche rs immerse themselves in a social setting for an extended
period. Through observation, researchers can identify the development of
events and the interconnectedness of various elements within a social
system. Semi -structured and unstructured interviewing c an also provide a
sense of process by encouraging participants to reflect on the events
leading up to or following a particular situation. While there is a risk of
presenting a static picture of social reality, qualitative research can provide
a sense of p rocess by viewing social life in terms of streams of
interdependent events and elements. The life -history approach is one
method of qualitative research that can be used to detail an individual's life
processes.
Qualitative research places a great deal of emphasis on social processes,
aiming to demonstrate how events and patterns change over time. This
emphasis on process is particularly pronounced in ethnographic research,
as researchers engage with social settings for extended periods. Through
participant observation, researchers can observe the development of events
and the interconnectedness of social system elements. Similarly, semi -
structured and unstructured interviews can create a sense of process by
allowing participants to reflect on events leading up to or following a
particular situation. Despite the possibility of presenting a static view of
social reality, qualitative research can generate a sense of process by
understanding social life in terms of interdependent events and elements.
The life -history approach is a qualitative research technique that can
provide an in -depth account of an individual's life processes.
5. Flexibility in working :
Qualitative research is characterized by a flexible and unstructured
approach that avoids predetermined f ormats. Researchers prefer this
approach because structured methods may limit their ability to adopt the
worldview of those being studied. The goal is to minimize structure and
ask general questions to avoid imposing a researcher's frame of reference
on pa rticipants. Ethnography is a good fit for this approach, as it allows
researchers to gradually formulate a narrower focus based on observations.
This approach may reveal important aspects of social worlds that might be
missed by an unfamiliar researcher. F or example, a study of food habits
among teenagers needs to be studied using a qualitative approach to gain a
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17 Preoccupations of Qualitative Researchers imposing a particular framework on them. In qualitative research,
researc hers rely on their observations and insights gained through
immersion in the social setting to formulate specific research questions.
This approach is flexible lacks a strict structure, allowing for a more
genuine understanding of the worldview of the peop le being studied.
Qualitative research is a valuable tool for exploring complex social
phenomena and generating new insights. It is particularly useful when
studying areas where little is known or when traditional research methods
may be inappropriate. Th is is because qualitative research methods are
flexible and can be adapted to suit the needs of a particular study. For
example, focus groups, interviews, and observation are all commonly used
qualitative research methods, each of which has its strengths a nd
weaknesses.
One of the key benefits of qualitative research is its ability to capture the
nuances of human behavior and experience. By engaging with participants
in their natural environment, researchers can gain a deeper understanding
of the social and cultural factors that shape their lives. This approach
allows researchers to explore topics that may not be easily quantifiable,
such as emotions, beliefs, and attitudes.
However, qualitative research is not without its challenges. It can be time -
consumin g and labor -intensive, and data analysis can be complex and
difficult. Additionally, the subjective nature of qualitative research means
that findings may not be generalizable to other populations or contexts.
Nonetheless, the insights generated by qualita tive research can be
invaluable for informing policy and practice in a wide range of fields,
from healthcare to education to social policy.
In other words, In qualitative research, an unstructured approach to data
collection is typically used, offering mor e flexibility in the research
process compared to structured approaches used in quantitative research.
Qualitative researchers prefer less structured methods of interviewing that
are more open -ended and allow for a more nuanced understanding of the
topic b eing studied. This approach permits changes in direction during the
investigation, potentially leading to new avenues of inquiry. For example,
O'Reilly's study on British expatriates in Spain shifted its focus from the
elderly to a broader age range and fr om permanent residents to more
temporary forms of migration. Similarly, Gerson's research on changing
family structures was redirected after an interview with a young man,
prompting her to concentrate on processes of change in families rather
than their st ructures. The unstructured nature of qualitative research can
produce unexpected insights and novel areas of investigation.
The use of structured methods of data collection, like structured
interviewing and observation, has its advantages but also its limi tations. In
survey investigations, interviews need to be as comparable as possible,
which restricts the researcher's ability to change course in their
investigation. On the other hand, most qualitative research involves an
unstructured approach, which prov ides greater flexibility, allowing the munotes.in

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18 Qualitative Social Research
18 researcher to easily shift direction during the investigation. This flexibility
can result in a more in -depth and contextualized understanding of the
phenomenon being studied. Blumer (1954) suggests that qualitative
researchers should employ sensitizing concepts, which are more open -
ended, unlike the definitive concepts used in quantitative research. Such
concepts allow for an exploratory approach that is better suited to the
unstructured nature of qualitative research .
Overall, the unstructured nature of qualitative research provides greater
adaptability and flexibility, leading to the discovery of unexpected insights
and novel areas of investigation. It also allows for an exploratory approach
to data collection, leadi ng to a more nuanced comprehension of the topic
being studied.
6. Ethics in research :
Irrespective of whether one is conducting quantitative or qualitative
research one of the important thing an researcher has to practice is that of
being ethical at every stage of research, whether it be data collection, data
analysis, choosing the sample. The researcher has to convey the truth to
the subject like where the data would be used post the study. How it is
used for academic purpose or what purpose it is collect ed. Identity of the
individual has to be kept safe so that once the researcher leaves the place
the informant doesn’t face any trouble. In sensitive cases where there is
risk, violence, abuses involved sudo (fake) names of the respondents is
better to use by informing both the committee, supervisor or by taking
own decision. As that would be protecting the person specially in cases of
children, women.
The principles and guidelines that dictate the proper conduct of research
are collectively known as ethics in research. The main objective of ethical
guidelines is to guarantee that research is conducted in a manner that
safeguards the dignity, rights, safety, and well -being of research
participants while also promoting scientific integrity. Informed consent,
confidentiality, risk minimization, respect for participants, scientific
integrity, institutional approval, and continuing review are some of the key
principles of ethics in research. The ultimate aim of ethical guidelines is to
protect the rights and well -being of research participants, as well as to
promote scientific integrity and public trust in research. Failure to follow
ethical principles in research may have serious consequences, including
harm to participants, loss of trust in research, and legal o r professional
penalties.
To ensure that ethical guidelines are being followed, many institutions
require researchers to obtain approval from an institutional review board
(IRB) which many organizations, universities have, before conducting
research involv ing human participants. The IRB evaluates the research
proposal to ensure that it meets ethical standards, and may require changes
or modifications to the study design before approval is granted. In
addition, researchers must periodically review and assess the conduct of
their research to ensure that it continues to meet ethical standards. This munotes.in

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19 Preoccupations of Qualitative Researchers ongoing review process helps to ensure that any issues or concerns that
arise during the study can be addressed in a timely manner.
Adherence to ethical principles i n research is crucial for maintaining the
trust and credibility of the scientific community. It is the responsibility of
researchers to prioritize the well -being and rights of research participants
above their own interests, and to conduct research in a tr ansparent, honest,
and responsible manner. By doing so, they can contribute to the
advancement of knowledge while upholding the highest ethical standards.
Check Your Progress
1. Do you think ethics needs to be followed in research.
2. Do you thin k qualitative researchers are flexible while studying a topic -
comment.
2.6 SUMMARY In conclusion, qualitative research is a flexible and unstructured approach
that allows researchers to gain a deep understanding of complex social
phenomena. B y minimizing structure and avoiding predetermined formats,
qualitative research can provide nuanced and contextualized insights that
may be missed by more traditional research methods. While there are
challenges associated with this approach, the benefits are clear, and
qualitative research has become an essential tool for understanding the
social world. The chapter also discussed about the different
preoccupations of qualitative research like seeing from people’s eyes,
being flexible, ethical etc.
2.7 QUE STIONS 1. Discuss the empathetic view point of researcher
2. Write a note on the context in qualitative research
3. Discuss in brief the process in qualitative research.
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20 Qualitative Social Research
20 2.8 REFERENCES  Given, L. M. (Ed.). (2008). The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative
research methods. Sage publications.
 Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford university press.
 Lewis -Beck, M., Bryman, A. E., & Liao, T. F. (2003). The Sage
encyclopedia of social science research methods. Sage Publications.
 Mason, J., Lewis -Beck, M. S., Bryman, A., & Liao, T. F. (2004). The
SAGE encyclopedia of social science research methods. Michael S.
Lewis --Beck & Alan Bryman & Tim Futing Liao.
 Sandelowski M. The call to experts in qualitative research. Res Nurs
Health. 1998 Oct;21(5):467 -71. d oi: 10.1002/(sici)1098 -
240x(199810)21:5<467::aid -nur9>3.0.co;2 -l. PMID: 9761143.



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21 3
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS -
INTERPRETIVISM
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Theoretical Underpinnings
3.3 Meaning and Significance
3.4 Advantages & Disadvantages
3.5 Summary
3.6 Questions
3.7 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the philosophical position of Interpretivism
 To familiarize students with its meaning, significance, advantages and
disadvantages
3.1 INTRODUCTION Sociological theory is often broadly divided
into positivism and interpretivism . Interpretivists argue that the study of
human society must go beyond empirical and supposedly objective
evidence to include subjective views, opinions, emotions, values: the
things that cannot be directly observed and counted. They are phenomena
that requi re interpretation. Indeed, most interpretivists would go further
and suggest that research cannot really establish social facts, that society is
all about subjective values and interpretations and cannot be understood
just through facts and figures.
Simply put, positivism and interpretivism are two very different
perspectives on how we can obtain knowledge about the world. The
positivist approach was heavily endorsed by early sociologists such as
Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim. Whereas, Interpretivism is a
theoretical approach which directly opposes the positivist approach by
stating that knowledge about society and human beings cannot be
objectively known. As opposed to positivism, the underlying premise of
interpretivism is that we cannot use scientific methods to obtain
knowledge about the world.

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22 Qualitative Social Research
22 3.2 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS Recognition of the subjective component in human action has had a long
history in understanding the social world, and a far longer history before
sociologists arrived on the his torical scene. Historically, this recognition
could be traced back in the thoughts of the ancient Greek stoic philosopher
and sociologist Epictetus who stated that, “it is not actions that alarms or
disturbs man, but it is their opinions and fancies about actions”. This
notion has been in continuation since then by the philosophers and
sociologists in understanding and interpreting the social world. For
instance, in the early eighteenth century, Schopenhauer observed that
people became happy or unhappy beca use of the way they look at things,
or for what things were for them; not because of what things objectively
were.
In the early 19th century, through the establishment of Thomas Theorem –
“If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequen ces”,
William Isaac Thomas further validated Schopenhauer’s thought. Thus,
this tapestry of studying the social world through a subjective thought and
ideas confirms the significance of interpretivism which is to see the world
through the eyes of the peopl e being studied, allowing them multiple
perspectives of reality, rather than the “one reality” of positivism.
Interpretivism has its roots in the philosophical traditions of hermeneutics
and phenomenology, and the German sociologist Max Weber is generally
credited with being the central influence. Interpretivists look for meanings
and motives behind people’s actions like: behaviour and interactions with
others in the society and culture. Similarly, cultures can be comprehended
by studying people’s ideas, t hinking, and the meanings that are important
to them. This school of thought of cultural study through human actions
was founded by Franz Boas in his modern anthropological conception.
Boas viewed culture as an integrated system of symbols, ideas and valu es
that should be studied as a working system, an organic whole where he
observed people’s mental content as being judgement minded in relation
to individuals. Boas’s thought is reflected in anti -positivism or
interpretivism and understanding verstehen soc iology in the social science
study advocated by Max Weber and Georg Simmel. In the view of
interpretivism, it is argued that value free data cannot be obtained, since
the enquirers use their own preconceptions in order to guide the process of
enquiry, and furthermore, the researcher interacts with the human subjects
of the enquiry, changing the perceptions of both parties.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a note on the background of Interpretivism. munotes.in

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23 Theoretical Considerations - Interpretivism 3.3 MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE Interpretivists believe th at the correct way to obtain knowledge about the
world is to explore the meanings that people attach to it. Knowledge is
most valuable when it is in -depth, and when it incorporates people's
individual points of view. The main aim of interpretivism is not t o
discover object facts, but to understand the meanings that people attach to
certain behaviours and experiences. They recognize that these insights are
subjective, but see more value in them when it comes to obtaining
knowledge about the world.
Interpreti vism refers to the approaches which emphasize the meaningful
nature of people’s character and participation in both social and cultural
life. It denotes that the methods of the research which adopt the position
that people’s knowledge of reality is a socia l construction by human
actors, and so it distinctively rules out the methods of natural science.
Thus, Interpretivism, by its nature promotes the value of qualitative data in
pursuit of knowledge.
To understand the contemporary social world from an interp retivist point
of view, it is important to explain how verstehen distinguishes
human/social action from the movement of physical objects. It is similarly
necessary to know how can people access and accommodate “meaning”?
Verstehen is a German term that mea ns to understand, perceive, know, and
comprehend the nature and significance of a phenomenon. Interpretivists
use this to comprehend the meaning intended or expressed by people.
Weber used the term to refer to the social scientist’s attempt to understand
both the intention and the context of human action.
In general interpretivist approach is based on the following beliefs:
1. Relativist ontology .
This approach perceives reality as intersubjectively that is based on
meanings and understandings on social and experiential levels.
2. Transactional or subjectivist epistemology :
According to this approach, people cannot be separated from their
knowledge; therefore, there is a clear link between the researcher and
research subject.
Check Your Progress
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24 Qualitative Social Research
24 3.4 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES As is the case with all theoretical approaches in sociology, there are
significant advantages and disadvantages that we need to consider when it
comes to interpretivism.
Advantages :
By us ing qualitative research methods, interpretivists can ensure a high
level of validity in their research findings. This is because they can clarify
certain concepts with the respondent, and seek out information that they
might have missed out on if they wer e asking closed -questions.
Furthermore, the interpretivist approach considers the social context of
the phenomena they are studying, which is particularly relevant in
sociology.
Another key benefit of interpretivist research methods is that they allow
the researcher to find out, in depth, the meanings and interpretations which
people attach to the world around them.
Disadvantages :
Just as interpretivists critique the positivist approach, there are several
criticisms of interpretivism put across by positivists as well.
The qualitative research methods that interpretivists value, are expensive
and time -consuming to implement. The conducting of in -depth interviews,
for example, takes much longer than administrating a simple, closed -
question survey online. Research which seeks to use interviews as a main
method will also require skilled interviewers, many of whom must be
specifically trained.
Furthermo re, information that is collected using the interpretivist approach
cannot be generalized to the wider population, but only represents a small
fraction of it. The lack of a standardized approach means that interpretivist
research methods are not replicable - they can't be repeatedly conducted to
confirm the initial results.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are the advantages of Interpretivist approach?

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25 Theoretical Considerations - Interpretivism 3.5 SUMMARY Interpretivism is “associated with the philosophical position of idealism,
and is used to group together diverse approaches, including social
constructivism, phenomenology and hermeneutics; approaches that reject
the objectivist view that meaning resides within the world independently
of consciousness”. Moreover, interpretivism studies usually focus on
meaning and may employ multiple methods in order to reflect different
aspects of the issue.
3.6 QUESTIONS  What are the disadvantages of Interpretivist approach?
 Compare Positivism and Interpretivism.
 What is the significance of Interpretivism?
3.7 REFERENCES  Albrow, M. (1990). Max Weber’s Construction of Social Theory.
Basingstoke: Macmillan.
 Chowdhury, M. (2014) Interpretivism in Aiding Our Understanding
of the Contemporary Social World. Open Journal of Philosophy , 4,
432-438.
 Schwartz -Shea, P., & Yanow, D., (2020). Interpretivism, In P.
Atkinson, S. Delamont, A. Cernat, J.W. Sakshaug, & R.A. Williams
(Eds.), SAGE Research Methods Foundations.
 Weber, M. (1949). The Methodology of the Social Sciences. New
York: Free Press.

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26 UNIT II
4
DISTINCTION BETWEEN QUALITATIVE
AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative research
4.3 Mixed methods
4.4 Summary
4.5 Questions
4.6 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES  To learn about the distinction between qualitative and Quantitative
research
 To learn the differences through some examples of real -life situations.
1.1 INTRODUCTION Data for research is obtained through a wide range of approaches and
arrives in a vari ety of formats. Many people believe that data -driven
research occurs mostly in the sciences. It is frequently pictured as
involving a spreadsheet containing numerical data. Both of these
assumptions are false. All academic disciplines gather and use resear ch
data, which might be in the form of numbers in a spreadsheet or a variety
of other media like videos, photos, artifacts, and diaries. Scholarly
research in all academic subjects is becoming more data -driven, whether
it's a psychologist gathering survey data to better understand human
behavior, an artist using data to create images and sounds, or an
archaeologist using audio recordings to record observations about diverse
cultures.
In the last chapter we had discussed in detail about Qualitative Research
like understanding its nature, characteristic, usefulness. In this chapter we
will further look into the distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative
research as both stand as unique. Through this chapter the idea is to
introduce you to both these meth odologies and help you in making choice
so that whenever you are having a project, dissertation to write you can
choose the best one which suits both the topic and based on your comfort.
Both Quantitative and Qualitative are multidisciplinary topics which is
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27 Distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative Research for understanding research but also in day -to-day life. Like the research
skill sets can help you understanding human behavior in a better way, help
you to frame better questions to ask to people of authority like in a job
interview etc.
When a researcher wants to answer the "what" or "how many" questions
in a research topic, they use quantitative data. It consists of information
that may be compared numerically or counted. For in stance, it may be the
proportion of first -year students at college or the evaluations of the calibre
of the food at Cafe Mac on a scale of 1 -4. This information is typically
acquired utilising tools, such as a questionnaire with a rating scale or a
thermom eter to capture meteorological information. Quantitative data
analysis frequently involves the use of statistical analysis tools like SPSS.
Qualitative information describes traits or attributes. It is gathered by
observation, interviews, or questionnaires and frequently takes the shape
of stories. For instance, it might be the answers to an open -ended survey
or notes from a focus group on the calibre of the food at Cafe Mac.
Qualitative data may be challenging to measure and analyse with
accuracy. The info rmation could take the form of descriptive words that
can be coded or otherwise analysed for patterns or significance. The
researcher can undertake quantitative analysis and categorise qualitative
material using coding to find themes that relate to the res earch topics.
Qualitative information describes traits or attributes. It is gathered by
observation, interviews, or questionnaires, and it frequently appears in
narrative (Source – Libguide).
Qualitative research has some key differences from quantitative research.
Most obviously, qualitative research prefers to focus on words than
numbers, but three more characteristics stood out as particularly notable.
1. An inductive view of the relationship between research and theory, in
which the latter is generate d from the former;
2. An interpretivist epistemological position, where the emphasis is on
gaining knowledge through an examination of how its respondents
interpret it, as opposed to using a natural scientific model in
quantitative studies.
3. A construc tionist ontological stance, which holds that social qualities
result from interactions between people rather than being independent
realities. It suggests that social phenomena are outcomes of the
interaction between people.
Instead of providing a cursory account of a wide sample of a population,
qualitative research seeks to get a thorough insight of a particular
organisation or event. It seeks to give a clear representation of the
organisation, sequence, and overarching trends among a group of
participant s. Field research or ethnomethodology are other names for it. It
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28 In qualitative research, no interventions are used, variables are not
changed, and participants are not forced to use the operational d efinitions
of the variables. Instead, it allows the participants to create the meaning. It
is more adaptable since it can change to the environment. As the research
develops, concepts, data collection instruments, and data collection
techniques can be chan ged.
Methods of Qualitative research :
Qualitative research can be conducted in a variety of ways, each with its
own philosophical underpinnings. For certain projects, various strategies
work well. For instance: For solitary people, case studies and narrat ive
studies work best. These entail a thorough examination of every facet of a
person's life. The goal of phenomenology is to explain phenomena. This
kind of writing tries to examine and describe various occurrences as they
are consciously and personally e xperienced. Models and processes are
developed and described using grounded theory. Using this method,
scientists can build a theory from evidence that is gathered, examined, and
compared to make new discoveries. Cultural groups are described in
ethnograph y. This strategy involves researchers becoming fully
assimilated into a community or group in order to study behaviour.
Methods of Quantitative Research :
For Auguste Comte's positivist theory, is the one that holds that factual
knowledge which is gained by observation and is reliable, that it
eventually became recognized as a "scientific method."
An investigator must:
 Create a theory or hypothesis to explain what might occur in an
experiment and identify the variables required to provide the answer
to thei r query.
 Create tools to measure the phenomenon. (Such as a survey etc.)
 Construct tests to alter the variables
 assemble empirical (measurable) data
 data analysis
 measurable methods
4.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE Quantitative Qualitative Keywords Complexity, contextual, inductive logic, discovery, exploration Experiment, random assignment, independent/dependent variable, causal/correlational, validity, deductive logic munotes.in

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29 Distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Purpose Understand a phenomenon Discover causal relationships or describe a phenomenon Sample Purposive sample, small Random sample, large Data Focus groups, interviews, field observation Tests, surveys, questionnaires Methods/Design Phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic, case study, historical/narrative research, participatory research, clinical research Experimental, quasi -
experimental, descriptive,
methodological, exploratory,
comparative, correlational,
developmental (cross -sectional,
longitudinal/prospective/cohort,
retrospective/ex post facto/case
control)
Source – Stevenson website
Work vs. Numbers:
 Qualitative researchers are perceived as employing words to convey
analyses of society, whereas quantitative researchers are frequently
represented as being focused with applying measuring techniques t o
social life.
 Participants' perspectives vs. those of the research - The investigator is
in charge of quantitative research. The investigation is framed by the
collection of concerns the subject brings. In other words, in qualitative
research, the point of direction is determined by the perspective of the
subjects —what they value and consider meaningful.
 Relationship between researchers and research participants - In
quantitative research, researchers have little interaction with their
subjects and, in some situations, none at all, especially if the study is
based on postal surveys or paid interviewers. Because they believe
that their neutrality can be affected if they become very engaged with
the persons they study. Quantitative researchers occasionally view
this lack of a relationship with the investigation's participants as
desirable. Though this is not the case with that of qualitative
researcher’s they tend to reside in a place, learn the language of the
people upon the study is conducted and try to becom e one of them
and then write about the society. In other words, in order to truly
grasp the world through the perspective of the persons being studied,
the qualitative researcher aims for close connection with them.
 In qualitative research, concepts and theoretical reasoning develop
from the data gathering process. While in quantitative researchers
frequently apply pre -established concepts to the research equipment
they use.

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30 Qualitative Social Research
30 Static vs. Process:
Due to its emphasis on the relationships between variables, quantitative
research is frequently portrayed as offering a static depiction of social
reality. Change and links between events rarely appear in a non -
mechanistic way throughout time of research in quantitative method. In
many cases, qualitative research is portrayed as being attentive to how
things develop through time and how people interact in social settings.
 Highly structured vs. unstructured research: Quantitative research is
frequently highly structured in order to examine the precise concepts
and i ssues that are the study's focus. Qualitative research approaches
are invariably unstructured in order to increase the possibility of
understanding actors' meanings and of concepts emerging from data
collection.
 Generalization vs. Contextual understanding -While investigators
conducting quantitative studies want their findings to be transferable
to the relevant people. Qualitative researchers strive to understand
behavior, values, beliefs, and other aspects of subjects' lives in the
context of their study.
 Due to the accuracy provided by measurement, quantitative data are
frequently portrayed as "hard" in the sense of being robust and
unambiguous. This contrasts with rich, deep data. Contrarily,
qualitative researchers assert that the rich data they acquire comes
from their contextualize approach and frequently long involvement in
a situation.
Macro vs. Micro:
Quantitative researchers are frequently portrayed as active in identifying
broad social trends and connections between variables, whereas qualitative
researchers are perceived as focused on minute details of social reality,
such as interaction.
 It has been suggested that the qualitative researcher is concerned with
the meaning of action, whereas the quantitative researcher is linked to
people's actions .
 Artificial vs. natural environment: Quantitative researchers study
people in artificial settings, whereas qualitative researchers study
people in real -world settings.
Inside vs Outside :
Researchers that use either quantitative or qualitative inquiry app roach
empirical research in a different way, even though both are valid
techniques to study. Everet and Louis (1981) describe the presumptions
that underpin each both "inquiry from the inside" and "inquiry from the
outside," which are frequently carried ou t through qualitative
investigations. The level of the researcher's immersion in terms of
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31 Distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative Research physical involvement in the location varies among these methodologies.
The researcher seeks to pro vide a comprehensive picture using the
"inside" or qualitative technique from historically specific circumstances,
when peculiarities are crucial for meaning. Utilizing an inductive
approach, the researcher lets the data speak. Traditional "outside" or
quantitative researchers, on the other hand, seek to isolate the
phenomenon, to simplify the analysis, and to test already developed
assumptions (Ospina, 2004).
Check Your Progress
1. Write in your own words Qualitative research
2 Does quantitative research use in depth interview comment? Quantitative Qualitative Numbers Words Point of view of researcher Point of view of participants Researcher distant researcher close Theory testing Theory emergent Static Process Structured Unstructured Generalization Contextual Understanding Hard, reliable data Rich, deep data Macro Micro Behaviour Meaning Artificial Setting Natural Setting Large sample Small sample
Usefulness of Quantitative and Qualitative for Industries :
In the fields like Market research the Quantitative research is used for the
examination of a brand's position, services, or potential offerings through
marketing tactics. It used for recognising the dynamics of the choice to
buy. It is used for investigating ma rket segments such a particular munotes.in

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32 Qualitative Social Research
32 demographic, age range, and many others. It is also used for gaining
access to the usability of numerous interactive services or goods on the
internet. To design a quantitative survey, the most crucial stage is to
ascertain the customer's language. To creation and development of a fresh
product idea. To create Brands' and products' weaknesses and strengths.
To study public attitudes, feelings, and concerns relating to social affairs
and to have a complete comprehension of how the business views a
particular brand, product, or category.
While Qualitative research may be able to explain something that numbers
alone are unable to do so, if the replies do not match the researchers'
assumptions. With qualitative research, the resea rchers have more scope in
deciding which segments to focus on and how to investigate them. It
enables prompt data collection in line with the researcher's intuitive or gut
thoughts, where valuable information may be provided. Qualitative
research records t he changing attitudes of the target group, such as the
attitudes of office workers or the service or product for consumers.
Qualitative research provides a method that is more adaptable.
Researchers can modify their queries to change the settings or variab les if
the findings are not useful.
Nature of questions :
Imagine you have to conduct a study of a consumption patterns of a
particular junk food. The below given are based on quantitative in nature.
 Does a market exist for your goods and services?
 How po pular is your product or service in the market?
 How many individuals are considering acquiring your good or
service?
 What kind of folks make up your ideal clients?
 What sort of things do they buy?
 What changes are there in the needs of your target market?
 How long are people browsing your website for, and which page do
they leave from?
As many answers for these questions can be answered in the yes or no or
can be rated in a single scale. One could observe that the common word
about all these is that questio ns is how, what. In a way one is talking about
quantity.
Now look at the questions of Qualitative research for the same topic
 Why do you think this product outperforms its rivals, in your opinion?
Why do you believe it isn't?
 What changes would you make t o this new service to increase your
interest in it? munotes.in

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33 Distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative Research  How do you feel about this new business logo?
 How would you describe the layout of this website? How user -
friendly and simple to use is it?
 How do you feel about this print advertisement?
The nature of qu estions here is that of descriptive, asking the experience,
opinion. In a way, you can see the difference that the answers are more
personal in nature than objective and distance.
(Source – hartford website)
Example -Survey (Quantitative method) vs Interv iew (Qualitative
method)
Imagine you have to study a domestic abuse. The first step would be to
select the people whom you have to study. Do you think it would be wise
to take a questionnaire and going to the people who have faced domestic
abuse? The imme diate reaction is that the respondent would immediately
close the door. As in this instance, there is lot of emotional issues
involved, trauma too exists.
During census you must have witnessed where a census interviewer comes
at your door, asks you few set of questions and you are expected to answer
them. The whole interview lasts for two to three minutes. Rarely someone
invites these officers inside the home. They asks questions like do you
have fridge, washing machine in your home.
Do you think in the sa me way one can speak to a person who has
undergone through abuse. The answer is no. As its unethical and lack of
empathic behavior. The researcher has to spend enough time for the
person to open up, develop a sense of rapport, bond with the person. A
sense of trust has to be developed only in that the participant would trust
and then reveal the details. Enough confidence has to be developed among
the participant, as every time she is narrating her story, she might have to
recall her experiences which is pai nful in nature. Hence, even though
quantitative research method is a effective method in its own but in
sensitive issues qualitative approach like in -depth interview helps.
However, the same quantitative method can be used to large scale survey
like to ch eck the records, large scale mapping to see which areas there are
large scale abuses taking place, whether it is slums, any specific age
groups, type of relations. Based on the qualitative data too further
quantitative research can be applied. In a way, t he point here is that both
methods are distinct but each has its relevance.
4.3 MIXED METHODS In today’s time several research has been using the mixed methods let us
look into it in detail. Mixed methods systematically combine quantitative
and qualita tive research methods. In the Postpositivist times quantitative
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34 to analyse numerical data. With a focus on narrative data collection and
analysis employing open -ended (holistic) method ologies, qualitative
researchers adopt a more constructivist perspective. Mixed -methods
investigators are realistic, gather both narrative and numerical data, use
both structured and emergent designs, analyse their data using both
statistical as well as co ntent analysis, and then combine the inferences
drawn from both their qualitative and quantitative findings to come up
with meta -inferences as answers to their research questions
(Tashakkori,2010).
Case study of Spotify :
Spotify is a podcast application which is very much popular these days.
This application works in an android mobile which one downloads
through a google play store app. Spotify is used for listening to songs
which are by different artists or you also can create your own songs, talks,
discussions, record your own voice and use it. In today’s time though for
an lay person Spotify looks like a social media application but for you as a
research student one can see it how it collects data – large scale
throughout the world. This data is used by researchers further to
understand culture, discussions, topics, languages etc. These data are
called as Big data. Below given is the diagram as to how Spotify collects
data. It uses both Quantitative and Qualitative.

One of the first step an individua l does to open an account is uses his or
her email id - now the email id which is often Gmail. This Gmail account
consists details like your name, place of birth, birth date, location. Further,
Spotify uses both quantitative methods like
At present Spotify has more than over 100,000 hours of audio, and over 1
billion transcribed words and 100,000 episodes. The episodes span a
variety of lengths, topics, styles, and qualities. The estimated size is 2 tb
which is available for research. So the actual amount o f data that Spotify
would have is far larger. The method to bring customers is through
machine learning, advertisement, and then using statistical models i.e.,
quantitative methods. Yet they could periodically interview, questions to
understand user experi ence of both applications. This draws to the point
that companies today is often using both quantitative and qualitative
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35 Distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Check Your Progress
1. List out some methods of Qualitative research
2. List out some methods of Quantitative
4.4 SUMMARY In this chapter we learnt about the difference between qualitative and
quantitative research. Both have its unique characteristics like quantitative
is useful for large scale study, while qualitative is useful for micro in -
depth studies. Quantitative is more cheap while conducting qualitative
research is expensive in nature. A process called qualitative research is
made for gathering non -numerical data in order to achieve understanding.
It is unstructured or semi -structured and non -statist ical. It is based on data
gathered using a research design that provides an explanation for why.
Information that aims to describe a topic rather than measure it is collected
using qualitative data. Instead of using precise data that would be
displayed in a graph or chart, this form of research evaluates opinions,
perspectives, and characteristics.
To gather numerical data that can be utilised to measure variables,
quantitative research techniques are developed. Quantitative data is
statistically organi zed, and its findings are certain and conclusive. It
employs a approach that depends on gathering and carefully analysing
evidence. Quantitative research is an approach that offers assistance when
you need to extrapolate broad findings and forecast consequ ences from
your investigation. Surveys are an excellent instrument for quantitative
research because they are flexible, affordable, and enable data collection
from very large sample sizes. Qualitative research can be conducted in a
variety of ways, each wi th its own philosophical underpinnings. For
certain projects, various strategies work well. For instance: For solitary
people, case studies and narrative studies work best. These entail a
thorough examination of every facet of a person's life. The goal of
phenomenology is to explain phenomena. This kind of writing tries to
examine and describe various occurrences as they are consciously and
personally experienced. Models and processes are developed and
described using grounded theory. Using this method, sci entists can build a
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36 new discoveries. Cultural groups are described in ethnography. This
strategy involves researchers becoming fully assimilated into a community
or group in order to stu dy behaviour. While the methods used by that of
Quantitative is that of survey, structured questionnaire etc.
4.5 QUESTIONS 1. Write a note on some differences of qualitative and quantitative
2. Discuss mixed methods
3. Discuss the usefulness of Quant itative and Qualitative for Industries
4.6 REFERENCES  https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/Home/ViewSubject?catid=sP9KhysDemvb
qPHPOAmaYw==
 https://planningtank.com/market -research/importance -qualitative -
research
 Ospina, S. (2004). ARTICLE Qualitative Research. E ncyclopedia of
leadership, 1 -13.
 LoBiondo -Wood, G., & Haber, J. (2010). Nursing research: Methods
and critical appraisal for evidence -based practice (7th ed.). St. Louis,
MO: Mosby Elsevier
 Mertens, D. M. (2010). Research and evaluation in education and
psychology (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE
 https://stevenson.libguides.com/c.php?g=236343#:~:text=In%20gener
al%2C%20quantitative%20research%20seeks,use%20of%20intervie
ws%20and%20observation.
 https://www.thehartford.com/business -insurance/strategy/market -
researc h/quantitative -qualitative
 https://podcastsdataset.byspotify.com/
 Tashakkori, I. Newman, Mixed Methods, Editor(s): Penelope
Peterson, Eva Baker, Barry McGaw,
 International Encyclopedia of Education (Third Edition), Elsevier,
2010, Pages 514 -520,
 https://w ww.verywellmind.com/what -is-the-difference -between -
quantitative -and-qualitative -research -4588136
 https://libguides.macalester.edu/c.php?g=527786&p=3608639

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37 5
MAIN STEPS IN QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 What is Qualitative Research?
5.3 Steps in Qualitative Research
5.4 Significance
5.5 Summary
5.6 Questions
5.7 References and Further Readings
5.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand what it means to do qualitative research
 To familiarize students with its main steps
5.1 INTRODUCTION Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks an in -
depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural set ting. It
focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and
relies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning -making
agents in their everyday lives. Rather than by logical and statistical
procedures, qualitative researchers use m ultiple systems of inquiry for the
study of human phenomena including biography, case study, historical
analysis, discourse analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, and
phenomenology.
Seen in an historical light, what is today called qualitative, or sometim es
ethnographic, interpretative research – or several other terms – has more
or less always existed. At the time the founders of sociology – Simmel,
Weber, Durkheim and, before them, Marx – were writing, and during the
era of the Methodenstreit (“dispute a bout methods”) in which the German
historical school emphasized scientific methods, we can at least speak of
qualitative forerunners.
5.2 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? Qualitative research aims to address questions concerned with developing
an understandin g of the meaning and experience dimensions of humans’
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38 research participants’ subjective meanings, actions and social contexts, as
understood by them, are illuminated.
Qualitative research is about interpretation, or Verstehen [understanding].
It is “multi -method,” involving the collection and use of a variety of
empirical materials and approaches. It focuses not only on the objective
nature of behavior but also on its subjective m eanings: individuals’ own
accounts of their attitudes, motivations, behavior, events and situations –
what people say and do in specific places and institutions in social and
temporal contexts. For this reason, following Weber, it can be described as
an in terpretative science.
There are many definitions of research, but what they all have in common
is the notion of inquiring into, or investigating something in a systematic
manner. In everyday life we talk about “ doing research ” to inform our
decisions and to decide on a particular course of action. Qualitative
researchers are interested in understanding how people interpret their
experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they
attribute to their experiences. The key concern is understan ding the
phenomenon of interest from the participants’ perspectives, not the
researcher’s. This is sometimes referred to as the emic or insider’s
perspective, versus the etic or outsider’s view.
Qualitative research is concerned with developing explanatio ns of social
phenomena. It aims to help us to understand the social world in which we
live and why things are the way they are. It is concerned with the social
aspects of our world and seeks to answer questions about:
• Why people behave the way they do
• How opinions and attitudes are formed
• How people are affected by the events that go on around them
• How and why cultures and practices have developed in the way they
have
Check Your Progress
1. Write a note on qualitative research.
5.3 STEPS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Drawing from the philosophies of constructionism, phenomenology, and
symbolic interactionism, qualitative researchers are interested in how
people interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds, what
meani ng they attribute to their experiences. The overall purposes of munotes.in

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39 Main Steps in Qualitative Research qualitative research are to achieve an understanding of how people make
sense out of their lives, delineate the process (rather than the outcome or
product) of meaning - making, and describe h ow people interpret what
they experience.
It is important to remember that there are no standard or specific steps in
doing qualitative research. Of course, there are broad guidelines that need
to be followed. One source of potential confusion is that ther e are many
different approaches to doing qualitative research. This is because not all
qualitative research questions are of the same type, and because different
qualitative researchers come from a wide range of researching traditions.
It is important to u nderstand this because different approaches imply
different “world views”,
1. Research Questions:
Research questions are important because they guide the whole research
process. A qualitative research project usually begins with a general
overall area of inv estigation. All the areas can involve identifying what is
happening or being experienced, rather than measuring how much of
something exists, or focusing on the way changing one thing produces a
change in another, which is why qualitative approaches are ap propriate. At
this stage, review of literature is very important.
For the research to proceed, it is crucial to become more precise. A
qualitative research question is unlike a quantitative research experimental
hypothesis in that it does not make the same type of prediction, but in both
approaches the research question and method are intimately linked: the
method needs to be selected so as to address the question, while fitting
with the resources and expertise of the researchers.
2. Qualitative Approaches:
The research process will reflect the methodological approach which a
team of researchers decides to adopt. Many methodological approaches
are described in terms of the type of analysis they imply, as can be seen
from the list of approaches below. Different approaches also involve
different sets of assumptions about what sorts of information (or
knowledge) are important. At this stage, the most useful message to
remember is that there are many different types of qualitative research.
• Ethnography
• Ground ed theory (or some component of this, such as constant
comparative approaches)
• Interpretative phenomenological analysis
• Discourse analysis
• Conversation analysis
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40 Qualitative Social Research
40 • Narrative ana lysis
• And others
3. Qualitative Data Collection Methods:
The main methods are:
1) interviews
2) focus groups
3) observation
4) collection of documented material such as letters, diaries, photographs
5) collection of narrative
6) open ended qu estions in questionnaires.
4. Qualitative Sampling and Selection:
In qualitative research, sampling can occur at several stages, both while
collecting data and while interpreting and reporting on it. Sampling while
collecting data for qualitative researc h is not the same as sampling in
quantitative research because researchers are not interested in being able
to generalize at a statistical level – instead the key is purposive or strategic
sampling. Many would therefore argue that probability -based samplin g
(e.g. random sampling) is inappropriate. Sampling strategies can be
determined in advance and/or evolve during the research process (gradual
definition of sample structure). Sampling issues differ depending on the
approach being adopted.
5. Qualitative Analysis:
Analysis of data in a research project involves summarizing the mass of
data collected and presenting the results in a way that communicates the
most important features. In qualitative research we are interested in
discovering the big picture bu t use different techniques to find it. For the
most part we are interested in using the data to describe a phenomenon, to
articulate what it means and to understand it. Different approaches require
different types of analysis.
Most types of analysis invol ve the categorization of verbal or behavioural
data, for purposes of classification, summarization, and tabulation. The
content can be analysed on two levels. The basic level of analysis is a
descriptive account of the data: this is what was said, document ed or
observed with nothing read into it and nothing assumed about it. Some
texts refer to this as the manifest level of analysis. The higher level of
analysis is interpretative: it is concerned with what was meant by the
response, what was inferred or imp lied. It is sometimes called the latent
level of analysis.
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41 Main Steps in Qualitative Research 6. Record Keeping and Being Organized:
Whatever qualitative approach is involved, it is very important to be
organized when keeping records of data or reflexive notes or memos, or
documents. As i n all (qualitative or quantitative) research it is crucial to
maintain a good audit trail which could in theory be inspected by others. It
is also important to ensure that any saved records are kept in accordance
with data protection regulations. This ofte n involves careful
anonymization procedures in labelling digital or analogue recordings or
documents and text.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are qualitative data collection methods?
5.4 SIGNIFICANCE Qualitative research attempts to broaden and/or dee pen our understanding
of how things came to be the way they are in our social world. If the
research question involves exploring how people experience something, or
what their views are, exploring a new area where issues are not yet
understood or properly identified, assessing whether a new service is
implementable, looking at ‘real -life’ context, or a sensitive topic where
you need flexibility to avoid causing distress, then probably qualitative
methodology is required.
Qualitative research has a rich tra dition in the study of human social
behaviour and cultures. Its general aim is to develop concepts which help
us to understand social phenomena in, wherever possible, natural rather
than experimental settings, to gain an understanding of the experiences,
perceptions and/or behaviours of individuals, and the meanings attached to
them. The effective application of qualitative methods to other disciplines,
including clinical, health service and education research, has a rapidly
expanding and robust evidence ba se. Qualitative approaches have
potential in most social research, singularly and in combination with
quantitative methods.
Check Your Progress:
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42 5.5 SUMMARY Thus, qualitative methods are designed to reveal what is going on by
describing and interpreting phenomena; they do not attempt to measure
how often an event or association occurs. Research conducted using
qualitative methods is normally done with an intent to preserve the
inherent complexities of human behaviour as opposed to assuming a
reductive view of the subject in order to count and measure the occurrence
of phenomena.
Qualitative researchers utilize purposive sampling, whereby research
participants are selected deliberately to test a partic ular theoretical
premise. The p urpose of sampling here is not to identify a random
subgroup of the general population from which statistically significant
results can be extrapolated, but rather to identify, in a systematic way,
individuals that possess relevant characteristics for the q uestion being
considered. Qualitative research has been established for many decades in
the social sciences and encompasses a valuable set of methodological tools
for data collection, analysis and interpretation.
5.6 QUESTIONS  What are the steps in quali tative research?
 Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative research design.
 What is qualitative research analysis?
5.7 REFERENCES • Aspers, P., & Corte, U. (2019). What is qualitative in qualitative
research. Qualitative sociology, 42, 139 -160.
• Fossey, E., Harvey, C., McDermott, F., & Davidson, L. (2002).
Understanding and evaluating qualitative research. Australian & New
Zealand journal of psychiatry, 36(6), 717 -732.
• Hancock, B., Ockleford, E., & Windridge, K. (2001). An introduction
to quali tative research. London: Trent focus group.
• Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing qualitative
research. Sage publications.
• Merriam, S. B. (2002). Introduction to qualitative research.
Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis,
1(1), 1 -17.
• Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide
to design and implementation. John Wiley & Sons.
• Vishnevsky, T., & Beanlands, H. (2004). Qualitative research.
Nephrology Nursing Journal, 31(2), 234.
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43 6
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research
6.3 Strategies for Creditability
6.4 Summary
6.5 Questions
6.6 References and Further Readings
6.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand what entails reliability and validity in research
 To familiarize students with these aspects for qualitative research
6.1 INTRODUCTION “Reliability and validity are tools of an essentially positivist
epistemology” (Watling, as cited in Winter, 200, p. 7). The use of
reliability and validity are common in quantitative research and now it is
reconsidered in the qualitative research paradigm. Since reliability and
validity are rooted in positivist perspective then they should be re defined
for their use in a naturalistic approach.
Insofar as the definitions of reliability and validity in quantitative research
reveal two strands: Firstly, with regards to reliability, whether the result is
replicable. Secondly, with regards to validit y, whether the means of
measurement are accurate and whether they are measuring what they are
intended to measure. However, the concepts of reliability and validity are
viewed differently by qualitative researchers who strongly consider these
concepts defi ned in quantitative terms as inadequate. In other words, these
terms as defined in quantitative terms may not apply to the qualitative
research paradigm. The question of replicability in the results does not
concern them, but precision, credibility, and tr ansferability provide the
lenses of evaluating the findings of a qualitative research. In this context,
the two research approaches or perspectives are essentially different
paradigms.

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44 6.2 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative re search uses a naturalistic approach that seeks to understand
phenomena in context -specific settings, such as real -world setting [where]
the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon of interest.
Unlike quantitative researchers who seek causa l determination, prediction,
and generalization of findings, qualitative researchers seek instead
illumination, understanding, and extrapolation to similar situations.
However, both qualitative and quantitative researchers need to test and
demonstrate that their studies are credible.
Guba and Lincoln (1981) stated that while all research must have "truth
value", "applicability", "consistency", and "neutrality" in order to be
considered worthwhile, the nature of knowledge within the rationalistic (or
quantit ative) paradigm is different from the knowledge in naturalistic
(qualitative) paradigm. Consequently, each paradigm requires paradigm -
specific criteria for addressing "rigor" (the term most often used in the
rationalistic paradigm) or "trustworthiness", th eir parallel term for
qualitative "rigor". They noted that, within the rationalistic paradigm, the
criteria to reach the goal of rigor are internal validity, external validity,
reliability, and objectivity. On the other hand, they proposed that the
criteri a in the qualitative paradigm to ensure "trustworthiness" are
credibility, fittingness, auditability, and confirmability.
While the credibility in quantitative research depends on instrument
construction, in qualitative research, “the researcher is the ins trument".
Thus, it seems when quantitative researchers speak of research validity
and reliability, they are usually referring to research that is credible while
the credibility of a qualitative research depends on the ability and effort of
the researcher. Although reliability and validity are treated separately in
quantitative studies, these terms are not viewed separately in qualitative
research. Instead, terminology that encompasses both, such as credibility,
transferability, and trustworthiness is used.
Although the term ‘Reliability’ is a concept used for testing or evaluating
quantitative research, the idea is most often used in all kinds of research. If
we see the idea of testing as a way of information elicitation then the most
important test of any q ualitative study is its quality. A good qualitative
study can help us “understand a situation that would otherwise be
enigmatic or confusing”. This relates to the concept of a good quality
research when reliability is a concept to evaluate quality in quant itative
study with a “purpose of explaining” while quality concept in qualitative
study has the purpose of “generating understanding”.
Reliability can be described as ‘the consistency or constancy of a
measuring instrument’, or ‘the degree of consistency or dependability with
which an instrument measures the attribute it is designed to measure’.
There seems to be a growing popular movement within qualitative circles
to insist that ‘dependability’ is a more appropriate term than reliability for
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45 Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research the same as that for reliability: to ensure that data collection is undertaken
in a consistent manner free from undue variation which unknowingly
exerts an effect on the nature of the data.
The concept of validity is described by a wide range of terms in qualitative
studies. This concept is not a single, fixed, or universal concept, but rather
a contingent construct, inescapably grounded in the processes and
intentions of research methodologies and projects. Although some
qualitative researchers have argued that the term validity is not applicable
to qualitative research, but at the same time, they have realized the need
for some kind of qualifying check or measure for their research.
The tradit ional criteria for validity find their roots in a positivist tradition,
and to an extent, positivism has been defined by a systematic theory of
validity. Within the positivist terminology, validity resided amongst, and
was the result and culmination of oth er empirical conceptions: universal
laws, evidence, objectivity, truth, actuality, deduction, reason, fact and
mathematical data to name just a few.
Some scholars argue that the quality of a study in each paradigm should be
judged by its own paradigm's te rms. For example, while the terms
Reliability and Validity are essential criterion for quality in quantitative
paradigms, in qualitative paradigms the terms Credibility, Neutrality or
Confirmability, Consistency or Dependability and Applicability or
Transf erability are to be the essential criteria for quality.
The concept of validity is described by a wide range of terms in qualitative
studies. This concept is not a single, fixed, or universal concept, but
“rather a contingent construct, inescapably ground ed in the processes and
intentions of particular research methodologies and projects”. Although
some qualitative researchers have argued that the term validity is not
applicable to qualitative research, but at the same time, they have realized
the need for some kind of qualifying check or measure for their research.
Check Your Progress
1. What is ‘reliability’ in research?
Assessing the reliability of study findings requires researchers and health
professionals to make judgements about the ‘soundn ess’ of the research in
relation to the application and appropriateness of the methods undertaken
and the integrity of the final conclusions. Qualitative research is frequently
criticized for lacking scientific rigour with poor justification of the
methods adopted, lack of transparency in the analytical procedures and the
findings being merely a collection of personal opinions subject to
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46 Qualitative Social Research
46 Unlike quantitative researchers, who apply statistical methods for
establishing validity and reliability of research findings, qualitative
researchers aim to design and incorporate methodological strategies to
ensure the ‘trustworthiness’ of the findings. There will be some concerns
or issues that one might need to anticipate or tackle, and thereby develop
some strategies to overcome these, which include:
1. Accounting for personal biases which may have influenced findings;
2. Acknowledging biases in sampling and ongoing critical reflection of
methods to ensure sufficient depth and relevance of data collecti on and
analysis;
3. Meticulous record keeping, demonstrating a clear decision trail and
ensuring interpretations of data are consistent and transparent;
4. Establishing a comparison case/seeking out similarities and differences
across accounts to ensure different perspectives are represented;
5. Including rich and thick verbatim descriptions of participants’ accounts
to support findings;
6. Demonstrating clarity in terms of thought processes during data
analysis and subsequent interpretations;
7. Engagi ng with other researchers to reduce research bias;
8. Respondent validation: includes inviting participants to comment on
the interview transcript and whether the final themes and concepts
created adequately reflect the phenomena being investigated;
9. Data triangulation, whereby different methods and perspectives help
produce a more comprehensive set of findings.
In summary, it is imperative that all qualitative researchers incorporate
strategies to enhance the credibility of a study during research desi gn and
implementation, although there is no universally accepted terminology and
criteria used to evaluate qualitative research.
Check Your Progress
1. What are the strategies one can use to ensure creditability in
qualitative research?
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47 Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research 6.4 SUMMARY There is general agreement that all research studies must be open to
critique and evaluation. Failure to assess the worth of a study – the
soundness of its method, the accuracy of its findings, and the integrity of
assumptions made or conclusions reached – could have dire consequences.
Evaluation of studies, then, is an essential pre -requisite of the application
of findings. Traditionally, such evaluation has centred on assessment of
reliability and validity.
Although the tests and measures used to establi sh the validity and
reliability of quantitative research cannot be applied to qualitative
research, there are ongoing debates about whether terms such as validity,
reliability and generalizability are appropriate to evaluate qualitative
research. In the br oadest context these terms are applicable, with validity
referring to the integrity and application of the methods undertaken and
the precision in which the findings accurately reflect the data, while
reliability describes consistency within the employed a nalytical
procedures.
6.5 QUESTIONS 1. What is ‘validity’ in qualitative research?
2. What are the arguments against having reliability and validity in
qualitative research?
6.6 REFERENCES • Franklin, C., & Ballan, M. (2001). Reliability and validity in
qualitative research. The handbook of social work research methods,
4(273 -292).
• Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in
qualitative research. The qualitative report, 8(4), 597 -607.
• Kirk, J., Miller, M. L., & Miller, M. L. (198 6). Reliability and validity
in qualitative research. Sage.
• Long, T., & Johnson, M. (2000). Rigour, reliability and validity in
qualitative research. Clinical effectiveness in nursing, 4(1), 30 -37.
• Noble H, Smith J. Issues of validity and reliability i n qualitative
researchEvidence -Based Nursing 2015;18:34 -35.

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48 UNIT III
7
ETHNOGRAPHY
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Past and Present of Ethnography
7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
7.4 Significance
7.5 Summary
7.6 Questions
7.7 References and Further Readings
7.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the significance of ethnography
 To familiarize students with its strategies and aspects
7.1 INTRODUCTION Ethnography strives to understand the interaction of individuals not just
with others, but also with the culture of the society in which they live. O f
the various types of qualitative research, ethnography is likely to be the
most familiar to researchers. Its history can be traced to late nineteenth -
century anthropologists who engaged in participant observation in the
“field”. Anthropologists “do” et hnography, a research process, as well as
write up their findings as an ethnography, a product.
Thus, ethnography is both a process and a product. Although ethnography
originated in the fi eld of anthropology, nowadays researchers from many
fi elds and di sciplines might engage in an ethnographic study. Further,
there are now many forms of ethnography, including life history, critical
ethnography, autoethnography, and feminist ethnography. The factor that
unites all forms of ethnography is its focus on huma n society and culture.
Ethnography has a background in anthropology. The term means “portrait
of a people” and it is a methodology for descriptive studies of cultures and
peoples. The cultural parameter is that the people under investigation have
somethin g in common. Examples of parameters include:
• Geographical - a particular region or country
• Religious munotes.in

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49 Ethnography • Social / familial
• Shared experience
Ethnographic studies entail extensive fieldwork by the researcher. Data
collection techniques include both formal and informal interviewing, often
interviewing individuals on several occasions, and participant or non -
participant observation. Ethnography is extremely time -consuming
because it involves the researcher spending long periods of time in the
field.
The researcher attempts to interpret data from the perspective of the
participants, at the same time as acknowledging that it is difficult to know
just how far it is possible to give a “true” account of a perspective other
than one’s own. In order to underst and the culture of a group, one must
spend time with the group being studied. In terms of data collection
methods, immersion in the site as a participant observer is the primary
method of data collection. Interviews, formal and informal, and the
analysis o f documents, records, and artifacts also constitute the data set
along with a fieldworker’s diary of each day’s happenings, personal
feelings, ideas, impressions, or insights about those events.
At the heart of an ethnography is “thick description” — a term popularized
by Geertz (1973). “Culture,” Geertz writes, “is not a power, something to
which social events, behaviors, institutions, or processes can be causally
attributed; it is a context, something within which they can be intelligibly
— that is, thick ly — described” (p. 14). The write - up of an ethnography
is more than description, however. While ethnographers want to convey
the meanings, participants make of their lives, they do so with some
interpretation on their part.
7.2 PAST AND PRESENT OF ETHNO GRAPHY The description of other ways of life is an activity with roots in ancient
times. Herodotus, the Greek traveler, and historian of the 5th century BC,
wrote of some 50 different peoples he encountered or heard of, remarking
on their laws, social cus toms, religion, and appearance. Beginning with the
age of exploration and continuing into the early 20th century, detailed
accounts of non -European peoples were rendered by European traders,
missionaries, and, later, colonial administrators.
Modern anthrop ologists usually identify the establishment of ethnography
as a professional field with the pioneering work of both the Polish -born
British anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski in the Trobriand Islands of
Melanesia (c. 1915) and the American anthropologist Margaret Mead,
whose first fieldwork was in Samoa (1925). Ethnographic fieldwork has
since become a sort of rite of passage into the profession of cultural
anthropology.
Contemporary ethnographies usually adhere to a community, rather than
individual, focu s and concentrate on the description of current
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50 Qualitative Social Research
50 among members of the group have been emphasized, though recent
ethnography has begun to reflect an interest in the importance of varia tion
within cultural systems. Ethnographic studies are no longer restricted to
small primitive societies but may also focus on such social units as urban
ghettos. The tools of the ethnographer have changed radically since
Malinowski’s time. While detailed notes are still a mainstay of fieldwork,
ethnographers have taken full advantage of technological developments
such as motion pictures and tape recorders to augment their written
accounts.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a note on the history of ethnography.
7.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES As like any other research methods, Ethnography has its own advantages
and disadvantages. Some of these include -
Advantages:
• The main aim of the participatory observation is to be immersed
within the society un der study and then record everything. This
experience may open people under study in a more comfortable
manner to the anthropologist which enables him to see more than an
etic perspective of the way of life.
• It is a highly accurate and the data collected is absolutely first hand.
• Also, while conducting research in participatory mode, you can get
unexpected results and observation which were never perceived by
the researcher.
• This methodology allows the cultures to speak for themselves. It
provides the m a voice.
• Ethnographies can also help the policy makers to think in an alternate
way about having the social perspective of various actions.
Disadvantages:
• The task to be both participant and researcher may lead the analysts to
be subjective.
• Anothe r important drawback is the length of time required to conduct
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51 Ethnography • Fieldwork demands more effort, commitment, and sincerity from the
researcher and as such participant observation is the most personally
demanding and analytically di fficult method of social research to
undertake.
• The wellbeing of the researcher could be at risk.
• Another important aspect of adverse repercussion is the breach of
privacy.
• One more criticism of the ethnographic approach is related to the
quality of the research conducted and the effectiveness of the
methodology. It remains highly questionable.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are the advantages of ethnography?
7.4 SIGNIFICANCE It might also be pointed out that just as is the case with phenomenol ogical
qualitative studies, sometimes studies are labeled “ethnographic” because
of qualitative research’s historic link to ethnography. However, to be an
ethnographic study, the lens of culture must be used to understand the
phenomenon.
Ethnography, descr iptive study of a particular human society or the
process of making such a study. Contemporary ethnography is based
almost entirely on fieldwork and requires the complete immersion of the
anthropologist in the culture and everyday life of the people who ar e the
subject of his study.
Ethnography, by virtue of its intersubjective nature, is necessarily
comparative. Given that the anthropologist in the field necessarily retains
certain cultural biases, his observations and descriptions must, to a certain
degree, be comparative. Thus, the formulating of generalizations about
culture and the drawing of comparisons inevitably become components of
ethnography.
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52 Qualitative Social Research
52 7.5 SUMMARY Next to basic qualitativ e studies, ethnographic studies are quite common
and examples can be found in many journals and fields of practice. Hence,
ethnography is research precisely about individuals, societies, and their
culture. It aims to study social and cultural aspects of a society and the
researcher focusses to collect information for that. It focusses on
behaviour of people with respect to the social setup they live in. The
outcome of a field study mirrors the learning and the arrangement of
implications in the lives of a s ocial gathering.
7.6 QUESTIONS  Explain ‘ethnography’ as a qualitative research method.
 What are the pros and cons of ethnography?
 Why is ethnography useful?
7.7 REFERENCES • Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2023, January 18).
ethnography. Encyclop edia Britannica.
• Hancock, B., Ockleford, E., & Windridge, K. (2001). An introduction
to qualitative research. London: Trent focus group.
• Khan, M. H. (2018). Ethnography: An analysis of its advantages and
disadvantages.
• Merriam, S. B. (2002). Introdu ction to qualitative research.
Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis,
1(1), 1 -17.
• Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide
to design and implementation. John Wiley & Sons.
• Vishnevsky, T., & Beanlands, H. (2004). Qualitative research.
Nephrology Nursing Journal, 31(2), 234.


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53 8
CASE STUDY METHOD
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Definition of case study
8.3 Characteristics of a case study
8.4 Case study technique
8.5 Assumptions
8.6 Sources of data for case study
8.7 Significance of case study
8.8 Limitations
8.9 Summary
8.10 Questions
8.11 Reference
8.0 OBJECTIVES • To acquaint student with method of investigation and importance of
Case study in research paper
• To familiarize students with the purpose to understand the life cycle
or an important part of the life cycle of the unit
8.1 INTRODUCTION In social science research, the case study method is Widely adopted one in
carrying our research in the field. The credit for introducing case study
goes to Fredrick replay. The English social philosopher, her bert Spencer,
was among the first to adopt case study method in comparative studies of
different cultures, The comparative studies of different culture, the
problem of juvenile delinquency was complex to understand simply on the
basis of available statistical da ta. It was Healey, who supported the case
study method which afforded a deeper understanding of the juvenile
delinquency phenomena. Later, sociologists, psychologists, anthologist,
technologists and educationists interested in the study of primitive as
well as modern cultures by case study method. H. Gisbrians have had
restored. To this method while portraying historical character of a
particular historical period and describing the developments today, many a
novelist and dramatist have used some resembla nce of the case study
method for presenting a word picture of character.

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54 Qualitative Social Research
54 8.2 DEFINITION OF CASE STUDY METHOD P. V. Young defines case study as “a comprehensive study of a social
unit, be it a person, a group of person, an institution, or an community is
called a case study”, According to Goode and Hatt,” it is an approach
which views any social unit as a whole. It is a way of organizing social
data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object being
studied.” In the word of charles Horfon Coolye, Case study depends our
perception and gives us a clear insight into life It gets at behaviour directly
and not by an indirect approach.” Bay the above definition, it is clear that
the case study method is qualitative, inclusive, intensive, insight
stimulating and comprehensive approach. The field study is comparatively
limited but has more of depth in it. It aims at studying everything rather
than something about everything as in case of statistical method. In other
words, it is study of Micro probl em at macro level.
The approach to a case study research may not be based on hypothecs is or
on any well established conclusions but the study itself may help in
formulating a well founded hypothesis for further investigation. This
approach to research is , therefore, an open and objective investigation of a
particular unit with a view to develop a hypothesis in character so the
researcher has complete freedom in selecting problem that be considered
as describe and fruit bearing. And it is used not necessar y for proving or
disproving a hypothesis. Thus, the case study methods work as a micro
scope in understanding the complex behaviour of social problem
8.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CASE STUDY 1) The case study method aims at deep and detailed investigation of a
unit.
2) It covers a sufficient wide cycle of time.
3) It is continuity in nature.
4) It is qualitative in character and it may equally be qualitative.
5) The number of units to be studied is small.
6) It is flexible with which the researcher has independe nce in selecting
the problem.
7) The data is to be scientifically synthesized which should be as much
prognostic as diagnostic.
8.4 CASE STUDY TECHNIQUE The case study is often termed as method, sometimes as technique and at
others an approach to social r eality. It is in fact, a technique which
considers all potential aspects of situation intensively investigating it. The
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55 Case Study Method 1) Choice of case
2) Recording of data
3) Data interpretatio n
The choice of case consists of two elements, first selection of
‘representative unit’. Representativeness of the case is important with a
view to studying as a specimen in a culture rather than as a definite entity,
for e.g - the factors which are influen cing the successful functioning of the
commercial bank, it is needless to say that a representative group of the
sample - Second, identifying the situation thought case unit has an outlook,
the problem must be selected carefully and well defined the situati on of
the case unit being studied.
Organizing the social data in such a way to preserve the unitary character
of the social aim which is the essential feature in recording of data. In
practical sense, the wholeness of case can be preserved as Goode and Hat t
started, in for headings namely,
1) Breadth of data,
2) Level of data,
3) Formation of index / indices,
4) Interaction in a time dimension
The breadth of data refer to the fact of data collection, level of data
concerns to many facts of life of the unit, and that is available, index
relates the various traits that are actually used in characterizing the unit
and time dimension emphasis upon the process and time, the time
provided may be short or long.
The interpretation of data is a equally and chall enging as the selection of
the case and gathering information about the case. The researcher must
closely guard against the subjective interpretation of the facts of a case
being studied.
8.5 ASSUMPTIONS In selection of a problem for research under case s tudy method one should
keep in mind. The following assumptions. They are -
1) The unit is indivisible and cannot be studied in piece meal and in
programmatic.
2) A Particular unit has its own uniqueness’ but it is not different from
other unit in all respe cts. In other words, it is representative of a group
and can be studied as a type rather a pure individual. This means
underlying unit. This underlying unit makes it possible to apply the
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56 Qualitative Social Research
56 this assumption, the case study method can be applied and possible to
predict and control of social phenomenon.
3) Social phenomena is a complex indeed, no - technique that can bring
in uniformity and consequently ensure the complex totality ie, huma n
life
4) The real motives behind the action is being influenced by time. So
that worker has to study the problem in its historical perspective.
5) Case study depends upon the efficiency of the ‘recall‘ of others as to
what has happened earlier
8.6 SOURCE S OF DATA FOR CASE STUDY Following are the main sources of data for case study research.
1) The personal documents, viz. dairies, autobiographies, memories,
letter, etc of an individual which contain the description of remarkable
events of the life of an individual as well as his reactions towards
them. Although they sufficiently subjective in nature but are
important for social research. In the words of P.N. Young “personal
documents represent continuity of experience which helps to
illuminate the indivi dual personality. Social relations and Philosophy
of life often expressed in objective reality or subjective appreciation.
2) Life history is another course for case study at reveals the respondent
life with the significance of social movements.
8.7 SIGNIF ICANCE OF CASE STUDY 1) Case study helps in formulating valid hypothesis A thorough study
and careful analysis can derive various generalizations which may be
developed into useful hypothesis. Infact, study of relevant literature
and case study are the t wo potent sources of hypothesis.
2) It helps in framing questionnaire or schedule Through case study, it
can be known the prolites of the unit of individual with which a better
and suitable questionnaire or schedule can be framed in order to get
rich respo nse.
3) It aids in sampling, by studying the individual units thoroughly it can
PST them in definite type or class.
4) It locate deviant cases. The deviant case are those units that behave
against the proposed hypothesis .The tendency is to ignore them bu t
for scientific analysis they are important.
5) Case study method is a process rather than an incident. The problem
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57 Case Study Method 6) Case study method enlarge the range of personal experience of the
researcher In statistical method, generally ,a narrow range of topic is
selected and the researcher’s knowledge is limited to the particular
aspect only. In case of case study, the whole of range of subjective
life is studied and the range of knowledge is naturally enlarged . with
this personal gain, he gets an intimate knowledge of many aspects of
the units.
7) Since the case study covers the entire life of the unit, it is inclusive
and intensive in nature. Under this, ther e is possibility of studding
the various aspects of a problem,
8) The significance of the case study is recorded this nature of recording
the data within the life of an individual and later on, within the life of
the class of individuals. This means the re searcher comes into contact
with different classes of people , a thief , a pick -pocket and a like.
8.8 LIMITATIONS The data collected in case study method is incapable of verification and
the generalizations down from it leads in unsystematic procedure.
Secondly, due to inaccurate observations and faculty inference, selection
of a case may not be typical of the group. In other words, the case study is
susceptible to post hoc failure in memory, unconscious omission or
repression of unpleasant facts which d escribes what is more imaginary
than real thirdly, the researcher thus to find some common sense
explanations to a particular phenomena. This is so happened as he is so
over confident to his intimate knowledge of the unit. This brings to
presume even his common sense or intuitive explanations are most
scientific, such explanation being in capable of verification which are
hardly reliable, four thing the case study method is qualitative in nature It
deals with only the psychologist aspects of a human being s. Quantitative
of the results may be difficult. In the case study method They are
1) The subject of study must be ‘representative’ as a specimen in a series
of similar problem.
2) The life -history material should be organized and properly
conceptualized.
3) The technique of elaboration of organic materials into social
behaviour must be properly specified.
4) The groups or institutions which are responsible for transmitting a
culture should be recognized.
5) A continues related experience from childhood sho uld be stressed if
the study is related to an individual.

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58 8.9 SUMMARY Important qualitative Information which may not be given any statistical
treatment but may be pressured and interrupted in a disruptive way be
survey and case study method. The surely agency should conduct the
surely in a completely objective fashion without pre -determined finding
case study method problem cases or abnormal situations for purposes
diagnosis and remedy. It studies normal situations to serve as the basis of
preventing di fficulties.
8.10 QUESTION 1. Explain case study and its advantages and disadvantage
2. Explain in your own words a case study method.
3. Define case study.
4. Discuss Characteristics of case study.
5. What are the significance of case study method?
8.11 REFERENCE  Saravnavel P Research Methodology, Kitab Mahal, 1987.
 Sharma B.A.V , Ravindra Prasad , D, Satyanarayana . P - Research
Methodology, in social sciences, sterling Publishers, 1984.

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59 9
FEMINIST APPROACH
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 What is Feminist Approach in Qualitative Research?
9.3 Significance of Feminist Qualitative Research
9.4 Summary
9.5 Questions
9.6 References
9.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the need for feminist research
 To familiarize students with critical understanding of feminist
research
9.1 INTRODUCTION Feminism refers to a worldwide movement for the redis tribution of power.
Feminism is :
a) a belief that women all over the world face some form of oppression
or exploitation,
b) a commitment to uncover and understand what causes and sustains
oppression and
c) a commitment to work individually and collectively in everyday life
to end all forms of oppression, whether bas ed on gender, class, race,
or culture.
The normative historiography of feminist theory and activism in the
United States is broken into three waves. First -wave feminism primarily
focused on women’s suffrage and women’s rights to legally exist in public
spaces. The second wave worked to extend some of the rights won during
the first wave. Activists of this time period focused on women’s rights to
enter the workforce, sexual harassment, educational equality, and abortion
rights . The third wave is often characterized as the intersectional wave, as
some feminist groups began utilizing Kimberlé Crenshaw’s concept of
intersectionality to understand that oppression operates via multiple
categories (e.g., gender, race, class, age, ability) and that intersecting
oppressions lead to different lived experiences.
Critical research often draws from feminist theory. Critical feminist
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60 politicizing of women’s experience is central in critical feminist research.
Feminist research focuses on the experiences of women in natural social
settings, where the aim is to ‘make women visible, raise their
consciousness and empower them’. Adopting a femi nist approach
influences what questions researchers ask and how they think about their
data, but it does not usually influence how data is managed or analysed.
Feminist influences to research undoubtedly have a contribution to make
in increasing our unders tanding of the world. These approaches to
research were a reaction against positivism and traditional research
strategies, which were perceived to be male -dominated and oppressive of
women. Feminist researchers focused on research endeavours that would
raise issues of power and oppression. The aim was to generate new
knowledge and understanding to empower women.
9.2 WHAT IS FEMINIST APPROACH IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? Feminist qualitative research begins with the understanding that all
knowledge is situated i n the bodies and subjectivities of people,
particularly women and historically marginalized groups. Feminist
qualitative research spans the range of qualitative methodologies, but
much early research emerged out of the feminist postmodern turn in
anthropol ogy, which was a response to male anthropologists who ignored
the gendered implications of ethnographic research.
However, just because research examines gender does not mean that it is
feminist. Simply using gender as a category of analysis does not mean the
research project is informed by feminist theory, ethics, or methods, but it
is often a starting point for researchers who are interested in the complex
ways gender is constructed and the ways it operates in social research.
Much of the theoretical wo rk that informs feminist qualitative research
today emerged out of second -wave feminist scholarship. Standpoint
epistemology, posits that knowledge comes from one’s particular social
location, that it is subjective, and the further one is from the hegemoni c
norm, the clearer one can see oppression. This was a major challenge to
androcentric and Enlightenment theories of knowledge because standpoint
theory acknowledges that there is no universal understanding of the world.
This theory aligns with the second -wave feminist slogan, “The personal is
political,” and advocates for a view of knowledge that is produced from
the body.
Crenshaw (1991) and Collins (2000) challenged and expanded standpoint
theory to move it beyond an individual understanding of knowledge to a
group -based theory of oppression. Their work, and that of other black and
womanist feminists, opened multiple spaces of possibility for feminist
scholars and researchers because it challenged hegemonic feminist
thought. They advocated for feminists t o attend to all aspects of
oppression rather than flattening them to one of simple gender -based
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61 Feminist Approach A To make it more precise, one can say that feminist research is one that
follows these three basic principles:
1. Putting women’s experiences at th e center of its investigation
2. Locating researcher within the research.
3. Transformation of gender relations.
Thus, feminist research centers around and problematizes women’s
diverse situations; and examines various institutions and structures that
frame those situations. With the aim of conducting transformative
research, feminist research approaches attempt to create non -hierarchical
and participatory relationship between the researcher and the participants
of the research.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is feminist methodology?
9.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF FEMINIST QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Feminist research methodology challenges the existing mainstream
knowledge and thereby represents an epistemological revolution which
asks for transformation of oppressi ve structures. Feminist research
paradigm is based in the recognition that knowledge is power, in
Foucauldian terms. It is an attempt to deconstruct existing mainstream
knowledges and claims to have the power to make new knowledge claims
arising out of wom an’s standpoint.
Feminist research promotes social justice and works to initiate social
change in women’s lives. Feminist research praxis emphasizes issues of
power and authority between the researcher and the researched, offsetting
the influence of these factors through the practice of reflexivity throughout
the research process. Feminist research seeks to create new knowledge,
challenge beliefs and practices that limit human potential, explore the lives
of women and other marginalized groups, and facilita te social critique and
action to reduce inequities. Further these can be qualitative, quantitative,
or mixed -methods; can use varied theories and strategies; and can address
diverse topics. Qualitative inquiry is a common approach feminists use to
study th e lived experiences of marginalized groups and the forces that
limit human potential.
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62 consciousness of gende r as a force that organizes social life and thought;
ethical and equitable research practices; and an action orientation focused
on personal, institutional, theoretical, and social transformation.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the significance of feminis t approach?
9.4 SUMMARY Although, too little is written in the methodological literature about
feminist influences on research decision making or how feminist theories
might influence the conduct of research, it remains a promising
methodology wit hin qualitative research. The questions that drive feminist
projects often emerge from women’s lived experiences, such as
childbearing or sexual harassment, from revisiting common assumptions
and practices through the lens of gender, and from considering t he
perspectives of diverse groups rendered invisible in history and research.
Just as feminism, the quest for gender equity, involves diverse groups,
beliefs, and practices, feminist research involves diverse researchers,
beliefs, and practices.
9.5 QUESTI ONS 1. What types of questions might lend themselves to a feminist
perspective?
2. Why is feminist approach significant?
3. Trace the history of feminism.
9.6 REFERENCES  Freeman, E. Feminist Theory and Its Use in Qualitative Research in
Education. Oxfor d Research Encyclopedia of Education.
 Gelling, L. (2013). A feminist approach to research. Nurse
Researcher , 21(1), 6.
 Maguire, P. (1987). Doing participatory research: A feminist
approach.
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63 UNIT IV
10
INTERVIEW: UNSTRUCTURED, SEMI -
STRUCTURED, IN -DEPTH
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Meaning of Interview
10.3 Different types of Qualitative Interviewing
10.3.1 Structured Interviews
10.3.2 Unstructured Interviews
10.3.3 Semi Structured Interviews
10.3.4 In-depth Interviews.
10.4 Steps for conducting Qualitative Interviews
10.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Interview.
10.6 Summary
10.7 Questions
10.8 References and Further readings
10.0 OBJECTIVES  To learn ab out the different process involved while conducting
interview.
 To understand the different types of interview method and to acquire
the necessary skill sets to conduct an independent interview.
10.1 INTRODUCTION After your Graduation/ Post Graduation yo u might be applying for jobs.
One of the first thing for getting selected for a job is clearing the interview
round. In other words, imagine you would be a job seeker and the
interviewer could be someone else. The process could last 10 to 15
minutes too. S o, this is an example of interview in terms of real -life
situation. However, in this chapter we are going to discuss about the
meaning of interview and the different process involved, from the point of
view of research, specifically as a tool of data colle ction. Imagine this
situation when you are travelling in the bus or train, due to some reason
you start talking to the other person who is a stranger, you speak few
questions, get clarified about certain details, this is interview. You share
some ideas and , the other person also shares somethings. In this situation
if you make some notes, inform the other person and even record it then it
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64 other words, everyday we interview, interact and are in the process of
interviewing consciously/ unconsciously. The aim of this chapter is to
equip you with the skill set required for conducting an interview
independently.
10.2 MEANING OF INTERVIEW According to Collins dictionary, interview is a t ype of formal meeting in
which someone asks questions in order to find out some answers.
Interview comprises of discussion on vocal answers between two people
or between multiple people, claims Lindman. Interview is a technique of
field study which is used to watch the behaviour of individuals, and an
attempt to document the tangible impacts of social group
interaction, writes Pauline Young. Young also notes that an interview may
be thought of as a methodical way for someone to enter more or less
imaginaril y into the life of other human being. It functions like a tape
recorder, replaying incidents, emotions, and responses from the past for
the interviewer to listen to while conducting a scientific interview. Asking
individuals questions during an interview i s important, but so is paying
close attention to their responses.
10.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWING Many types of interviews have been categorised in a variety of ways by
various individuals. S. Among the crucial categories are -
a) One o n interview (individual interview)
b) Group interview, in which a single interviewer conducts many
interviews with a large group of interviewees.
c) Classification based on the data gathered: Intense interview; simple
interview.
d) Interviews may even oc casionally be categorised according to the
tasks they complete or the aims for which they are used.
e) Diagnostic interviews.
f) Psychiatric interviews
g) Interviews for employment.
10.3.1 Structured Interviews:
A Structured interview is a very rigid type of a tool. The structured
interview as characterised by Gill et al. (2008) is a verbally delivered
questionnaire which do not use prompts and has very limited room for
follow -up questions. It has no scope for exploring replies that call for
further in -depth and detailed investigation.
They are also referred to as controlled guided interviews. These
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65 Interview: Unstructured, Semi-Structured, in-Depth closely adhered to. In structured interviews, closed -ended, predetermined
questions ar e frequently used. The interviewer does not change any order
of the questions or the language used. If the subject does not comprehend
the question, the interviewer is only free to repeat it or give more
explanation but cannot change the question. In these interviews the
researcher strictly follows the interview protocol. Only the questions listed
in the interview protocol are asked, which makes it more of a formal
interview approach.
In structured interview there is very few possibilities to delve further into
and to further examine the subjects that participants raise in response to
the interview questions. This approach can be helpful since it helps focus
on the particular phenomenon or experience that the researcher is
examining when they have a thorough set of interview questions. There
shouldn’t be much of a requirement for you to do follow -up interviews to
address omitted or forgotten questions because it speeds up interviewing
and ensures that you have the necessary information.
Check Your Progress :
1. Explain structured Interview in few lines.
2. List out the different types of Interview Method.
10.3.2 Unstructured interviews :
Uncontrolled, unguided, or non -direct interviews are other names for
unstructured interviews. With this k ind of interview, there is no set
structure for the questions. The researcher is given a list of general themes
to gather information on, and free talks are held to do so. This type of
interview is unique as it is a more adaptable method of questioning the
respondents. It is more popular too as it gives scope for respondents to
openly share their personal experiences. These interviews allow for an
open -ended description of the societal and personal circumstances of
beliefs and emotions.
The interviewer has far more latitude to vary the order of questions, ask
additional questions, or even provide classifications and explanations. In a
slightly different perspective, Gill et al. (2008) notes that unstructured
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66 performed with little or no organisation,” implying that the process of
conducting unstructured interviews can occasionally be a little chaotic
with little structure or planning.
Despite the fact that the talk is about the research unde r consideration,
they frequently proceed as a typical conversation would. Researchers
utilise this informal interviewing technique to build rapport and comfort
with participants. It is especially useful when discussing delicate subjects.
In order to gather the most detailed and rich information from participants,
the researcher is obliged to question them extensively. If you choose this
interview method, while conducting any study bear in mind that it can take
numerous rounds of interviews with your partici pants to get all the data
you require. Participants’ narratives may occasionally steer the discourse
away from other areas of the study topic you want to examine because you
do not follow a set interview methodology, hence the skilled interviewer
will brin g back the discussion to the topic.
10.3.3 Semi -structured interviews :
In a semi -structured interview, the researcher establishes the general
themes to be addressed, but the interviewee’s responses define the
direction in which the interview will go. The strategy in which a middle
ground between structured and unstructured interviews, is used is
described by Gill et al. (2008) as a Semi structured interview. There are
few key questions that help the researcher the option to pursue an idea in a
response in greater detail. In order to give researchers, the opportunity to
gain a thorough understanding of the subject of interest necessary for
developing pertinent and insightful semi -structured questions, semi -
structured interviews are frequently preceded by obs ervation, informal
interviewing, and unstructured interviewing.
The inclusion of open -ended questions and training of interviewers to
explore pertinent themes helps to uncover fresh perspectives on any
subject. Hence the researcher is guided through a inte rviewing process by
an interview protocol. Even while there may be some conversational
elements included, the focus is primarily on the researcher and
participant’s guided interaction. Although it does preserve some structure
(thus the name semi structured ), allows the researcher to prompt additional
information from the subject. Be aware that this interview technique
allows you as a researcher a great deal of options if you want to use it.
Hence, analysing data becomes bit difficult.
Here you don’t need t o conduct numerous rounds of interviews as long as
you stick to the interview protocol in order to gather all the information
needed to thoroughly address your research issue. The goal of an interview
procedure is to collect information from participants a bout their feelings,
thoughts, and opinions; however, you may need to ask more questions to
do so.

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67 Interview: Unstructured, Semi-Structured, in-Depth 10.3.4 In -depth interviews :
The goal of in -depth interviews is to gain a richer, more in -depth
understanding of the subject of interest. They typically inc lude an
anthropological approach and are a supplement to approaches like
participant observation or action research.
In-depth interviews allow the researcher to delve deeply into a
participant’s experience, behaviour, feelings, and/or attitudes to uncover
underlying concepts and develop a theory about the research issue. Since
the researcher will guide the conversation and it is less likely to feature
stories or personal histories, in -depth interviews are more structured than
narrative interviews. In -depth interviews, as opposed to semi -structured
interviews, do, however, give the participant a lot more freedom to speak
freely and to give more thorough details. Being in depth interview were
depending upon the conversation, flow the nature of questions are ma ny a
times asked
When conducting in -depth interviews, interviewers occasionally avoid
disclosing all the specifics of the research hypothesis since doing so might
“lead” or “affect” the qualitative data gathered. Instead, as part of
recruiting and permissi on, the overall area of interest is explained to the
participant, and the interviewer then directs the interview based on the
responses.
Focused, unstructured, or ethnographic interviews are other names for in -
depth interviews. The goal of this interviewin g technique is to engage the
interviewee in conversation in order to extract their understandings and
interpretations rather than using pre -set questions. These interviews are
distinguished by an intentional effort to engage the participant in
conversation about a particular subject or subject matter pertinent to the
research questions or issue under investigation. Participant observation
often serves as a complement to in -depth interviews since it gives insight
into daily living, while interviews give insi ght into expressing and
understanding social daily life.
Ten Interviewing Requirements :
Berg proposes the following ten points for conducting interviews based on
his significant experience as a qualitative interviewer:
1. Never start out stiff; instead, chitchat with a quick question.
2. Keep your goal in mind
3. Display the interest in learning
4. Display conscious hearing: Be present and appear to be such.
5. Consider your look
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68 7. Don’t settle for one -syllable responses; instead, use questions and
suggestions.
8. Practice
9. Be respectful
10. Be polite and suitable
10.4 STEPS FOR CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS While respondents may perceive qualitative interviews as more of a
discussion than an actual interview, the researcher actually guides the
dialogue while keeping the objective of learning as much as possible from
the respondent. The presence of open -ended questions in qualitative
interviews distinguishes them from quantitative interviewi ng in a
significant way. Open -ended questions are inquiries for which a researcher
does not offer possible solutions. Since participants must come up with
their own words, phrases, or sentences to respond, open -ended questions
place a greater burden on the m than closed -ended inquiries.
The first step in creating an interview guide is typically brainstorming .
Include any and all ideas and thoughts that occur to mind while you
consider your research question throughout the brainstorming phase. Once
you have a relatively decent list, you can start to narrow it down by
eliminating questions and topics that seem unnecessary and bundling
related ones. You might also wish to create question and topic titles for
your grouped categories if you haven’t already. To lea rn what kinds of
questions other interviewers have asked in investigations of related
themes, you should also look up the academic literature. It is best to avoid
using particularly sensitive data, much like with quantitative survey
research.
Planning before the interview is very much important. Specially in the
case of in -depth interview and if the subject is a key informant or an
important person who is powerful like a Lawyer, Police officer, Judge etc.
enough background reading helps. So, that if the sub ject asks any
question, then one is able to answer. This would also help in
understanding the context of the problem in more detail. There are
instances where individuals ask the interviewer ok tell me what you know
about the topic so far. This is done in order to save time of the interviewee
as well as the other person knows the interviewer is serious about the
interview.
It is better often to avoid including really delicate or potentially
conflict -ridden questions at the very start of your qualitative in terview
guide, and with quantitative survey research. You must give interviewees
a chance to become accustomed to the situation and feel at ease speaking
with you. Lastly, ask for input on your interview guide. Once you’ve
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69 Interview: Unstructured, Semi-Structured, in-Depth family, and professors for some advice and recommendations. They might
notice a few things that you missed.
There are a few rules worth remembering regarding the particular
questions you include on your guide. First, try to steer clear of questions
that can be answered with a straightforward yes or no, or if you must
include them, make sure to add follow -up inquiries. Remember, one
advantage of qualitative interviews is the ability to bring out additional
information f rom participants; make sure to do this. While asking follow -
up questions is a good idea, avoid asking “why,” as this specific inquiry
can come across as confrontational, even if that is not your intention.
Often times, people won’t know how to answer “why, ” perhaps because
they themselves don’t understand why answer and they must have not
even thought about it before. Instead of “why,” it is recommended that you
say something like, “Could you tell me a little more about that?”. Probing
the subjects even hel ps to bring out important information however,
depending upon the situation and timing the researcher has to carry this
out.
Use of proper language is essential while conducting interview. One has to
be aware both of verbal and nonverbal language. You can also use lines
like ‘can you say something like, ‘Could you explain me a bit more about
that?’ in place of “why.” This enables participants to elaborate further
without feeling doubted or interrogated in an aggressive manner. Also, try
to refrain from pos ing leading questions. For instance, you may inquire,
“What comes to mind for you when you hear that someone doesn’t want
kids,” as opposed to, “Don’t you believe that most people who don’t want
kids are selfish?” You may also ask, “How do you feel about u nderage
drinking,” as opposed to, “What do you think about juvenile offenders
who drink and drive?” or “How do you feel about driving when
intoxicated?”
Last but not least, keep in mind to leave most, if not all, of your questions
open -ended, as mentioned before in this section. Giving participants the
freedom to express themselves in their own words and in their own ways
is the key to a successful qualitative interview. The researcher choose how
to gather and keep track of the data that participants offer. Maybe most
frequently, qualitative interviewers record the interviews in an audio.
By recording interviews, researchers can avoid being sidetracked by note -
taking and instead concentrate on their engagement with interview
participants. Naturally, not ever y participant will feel comfortable having
their conversation recorded, and occasionally even the interviewer may
feel that the subject is too delicate to capture. If so, then it will be up to the
researcher to strike a balance between taking excellent not es, asking
excellent questions, and even better listening. Though doing all these
things at once is difficult. Hence, it is essential to prepare for the interview
whether you will be recording them or not (and especially if you won’t).
Hopefully, you can f ind a friend or two who will take part in a few trials
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70 Even better, you can meet a friend or two that at least resemble your
sample in some respects. They can provide you with the most useful
criticism regarding your interview questions and demeanor.
All interviewers should be aware of, considerate, and prepare for a number
of other aspects, including where to conduct interviews and how to make
interviewees as comfortable as feasible. Because of these issues, both
qualitative and quantitativ e interviewers should take them into account.
Although the focus of this article has been on interviews with a single
interviewer and a single responder, there are other ways to conduct
qualitative interviews. There may occasionally be more than one
interv iewer present in addition to multiple respondents. A focus group is a
situation in which numerous respondents take part in an interview at the
same time. Focus groups can be a great technique to obtain information
because other group members may bring up i ssues or queries that the
researcher had not considered.
A great technique to learn more about a subject is to have respondents
converse with and question one another. Not only might respondents offer
questions that the researcher had not considered, but t he researcher can
also learn through the respondents’ interactions and body language. Of
course, gathering data in a group context has some particular ethical
issues.
10.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW Although Interview method is one of the p rominently used method in
research there are certain advantages and disadvantages of this method let
us first look into the advantages -
1. Gives participants the freedom to express what is significant or
essential to them in their own words rather than be ing constrained to
predetermined categories; this may make participants feel more at
ease and open.
2. The results are enriching and there is high creditability and validity
reliability generated.
3. Compared to techniques like surveys, interviews might be more
responsive to the personalities, styles, and interpersonal interactions
between the interviewer and the interviewee.
4. Enables the evaluator to delve further and makes sure that participants
are answering questions as planned.
5. Interviews giv e participants the freedom to explore unanticipated
ideas or themes by using their knowledge, expertise, and interpersonal
skills.
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71 Interview: Unstructured, Semi-Structured, in-Depth Interview Disadvantages :
1. Interviews may be perceived as more intrusive than quantitative
methods; as participants may op en up more than they intended to and
later regret it.
2. As qualitative interviewing calls for expertise and experience, it can
be costly to train interviewers and perform interviews.
3. Qualitative interview analysis and interpretation takes a lot longer
than quantitative interview analysis and interpretation.
4. Qualitative interview is more subjective in nature than quantitative
interviews because the researcher or evaluator chooses which quotes
or particular examples to mention while documenting the rep ort
leading to a bias chance in the final results.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss two advantages and disadvantages of Interview Method.
2. Discuss Bergs any five points for conducting interviews based on his
significant experience as a qualitati ve interviewer.
10.6 SUMMARY Interviewing strategies use the conversation that results from research -
driven interactions to infer social life. When conducting a qualitative
interview, the researcher must pay close attention to the type of ques tions
they pose as well as the location and timing of their encounters. In this
chapter, there are four main types of interview discussed namely
structured where questions are fixed in nature, unstructured this is also
called as open ended questionnaire, t he third one is that of semi –
structured where few questions are fixed in nature and some one ended
question, the last one being in depth interview where depending upon the
conversation, flow the nature of questions are many a times asked. The
goal of in -depth interviews is to gain a richer, more in -depth
understanding of the subject of interest. They typically include an
anthropological approach and are a supplement to approaches like
participant observation or action research. We also discussed about cer tain munotes.in

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72 advantages like giving the participants the freedom to express what is
significant or essential to them in their own words rather than being
constrained to predetermined categories; this may make participants feel
more at ease and open. However, Inter view method also has certain
disadvantages like Qualitative interview analysis and interpretation takes a
lot longer than quantitative interview analysis and interpretation.
10.7 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the steps involved for Conducting Qualitative Intervie ws.
2. Discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of Interview
3. Explain Structured and Unstructured Interview method.
4. Discuss Semi structured and In -depth interview.
10.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS  Gubrium, J. F., & Holstein, J. A. (2 001). Handbook of interview
research: Context and method . Sage Publications.
 Alshenqeeti, H. (2014). Interviewing as a data collection method: A
critical review. English linguistics research , 3(1), 39 -45.
 Hollway, W., & Jefferson, T. (2000). Doing qualitat ive research
differently: Free association, narrative and the interview method .
Sage.
 McGehee, N. G. (2012). Interview techniques. In Handbook of
research methods in tourism . Edward Elgar Publishing.
 Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and
techniques . New Age International.
 Gupta, A., & Gupta, N. (2022). Research methodology . SBPD
Publications.
 https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/interview

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73 11
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Meaning of Focus group
11.3 Understanding Focus Group Discussion
11.4 Types of Focus Group Discussion
11.5 Major Steps involved in Focus Group Discussion
11.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus Group Discussion
11.7 Summary
11.8 Questions
11.9 References
11.0 OBJECTIVES  To learn about meaning of Focus Group Discussion
 To learn about the steps, limitations involved in Focus Group
Discussion helps in research.
11.1 INTRODUCTION Focus Group Discussion also known as FGD is a tool which is used in
research as well and it is used in different disciplines. Learning about this
tool would help you not only during conducting research but also for any
interviews which you may be participant yourself. For example – In day -
to-day situation after your studies when you are appearing for a job or
higher studies, there is often group discussion conducted like - a round
where a topic is given and one has to discuss about it. Befor e
understanding what is Focus group discussion let us first learn about the
meaning of Focus group.
11.2 MEANING OF FOCUS GROUP The term “focus group” means when people come together which has
many a times a small number of participants and a discussion -centred
objective. The group’s objective is not to come to a decision or
comprehend the topic. Instead, it seeks to understand and recognise
consumer perceptions of a brand, a product, or a service or even to discuss
a topic, social issue. Focus group is a small group of people who are asked
to participate in a conversation. Focus groups are frequently used to learn
how others with similar interests feel and perceive a problem, certain
goods, or a service, or a concept (1). In the field of Social Sciences, the
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74 Merton used focus group in real life social problems too. Like in the
Kenneth Clark’s historic brief in Brown v. Board of Education, the
Supreme Court case that resulted in the endin g the policy of segregation
on racial lines in the public schools, was influenced by his research on an
integrated neighbourhood. His use of the focused interview to extract the
responses of groups to texts, radio programmes and films led to the “focus
groups” that is used today even by politicians, their managers, marketers
and hucksters (small item sellers) now find necessary. Even after he had
contributed to the methodology’s development, Mr. Merton regretted its
abuse and misuse while also saying, “I wi sh I’d get a royalty on it.”
Merton spent a large portion of his professional life at Columbia
University, where Merton created the Bureau of Applied Social Research
with his 35 -year partner, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, who passed away in 1976 it is
this place whe re the early focus group began (2).
The goal of focus group research is to understand and discover the
spectrum of people’s opinions and preferences. Instead of assuming or
generalising about how respondents could respond. In most cases,
participants are a sked open -ended questions with no restrictions on their
responses in a relaxed and permissive setting, all overseen by a trained
moderator. Typically, questions are argumentative or provocative but also
simple, direct, and one -dimensional. The goal and nat ure of the study
dictates the focus group’s sample type and size. In order to match the
focus group with a particular target population, researchers frequently
employ purposeful sampling of participants. The ideal group size for
different types of social r esearch may range from 6 to 8 participants,
whereas a commercial issue group may require between 10 and 12.
Moderators play an important role in the focussed group discussion. It is
moderator who explains about the time of the discussion, instructions,
subjects. One can even list out the details of the discussion over a board.
The Moderator needs to also have some qualities like patience and even
proper training and having some expertise in the topic under discussion
helps. So, that if some participant is d iverting from the main topic, he/she
could direct the discussion.
Due to the spontaneity of responders and the setting of a focus group,
gathering data from them can be challenging. Some focus groups meet in
person, while others convey the information ove r the phone or online.
During group discussions, it’s common practise to use transcripts,
recordings, notes, and memory -based tools in order to gather important
information. The so -called long -table approach, in which researchers
analyse responses in terms of frequency, specificity, emotion, and
extensiveness, is a typical, well -liked strategy for assessing such
qualitative data. Computers have been used by researchers to manage data
and find significant terms since the late 20th century. Focus groups are a n
excellent tool for revealing people’s real attitudes and behaviours towards
subjective issues, but because it can be challenging to collect subjective
information from a small group of homogeneous participants, their
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75 Focus Group Discussion therefore still unknown if the opinions expressed in a focus group may be
extended to larger groups (Britannica).
Focus groups are a sort of group interview with the goal of capturing
participant interaction based on topics supplied by the researcher. Focus
group research’s main objective is to extract from participants attitudes,
feelings, beliefs, experiences, and reactions that would not otherwise be
available when using methods like observation or interviewing. Des pite
the fact that these opinions, feelings, and beliefs might be partially
independent of a group or its social environment, focus groups’ social
interactions and gatherings increase the likelihood a large amount of
information and insights are generated. Focus groups are particularly
useful when there are power differences between the participants and
decision -makers or experts, as it helps to learn about the cultural norms of
particular groups, and even details about a specific topic or subject. Hence,
many a times it also helps when the subjects have certain expertise or have
certain opinions/information about the subject. While using the focus
group method, there are normally at least four interviewers present. It is
basically a panel interview. The emp hasis of the focus group technique is
on group interaction and the collective construction of meaning. Questions
are posed regarding a certain, sometimes tightly defined issue.
Feminism and Focus Groups:
Group interviews or collective conversations are ot her names for focus
groups. Focus groups is also used in feminism research. According to
Kamberelis and Dimitriadis (2011) to reveal data from people who have
been subjected to oppression, as focus group participants share similar
accounts of wrath, frustr ation, and struggle, individual voices that had
previously been ignored by dominant discourses. Collins (2004) also
notes that group collectives are especially empowering for women because
they provide a safe environment for discussing their own experience s and
coming up with answers to issues relating to social justice. Relationships
between participants can also develop over time and trust is also built
easily. Due to the variety of perspectives, the subjects and researcher may
even become more self -reflective, thinking about their own background
and worldview. Even the research process, becomes engaging,
collaborative. Though there are scholars like Madriz (1998) who have a
different opinion. Madriz points out that the focus group participation
might not be reliable owing to cultural issues with moms being expected
to prioritise family needs as well as issues with housing, money, a job, and
transportation. The main feminist research philosophies, as well as their
stances on bias, bias measurement procedure s, and data collection
methods though needs to be followed while conducting focus group
discussion for better insights and data collection.
11.3 UNDERSTANDING FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION A focus group discussion (FGD) is held with participants who have
similar backgrounds or experiences to examine a particular topic of
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76 their perspectives, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or ideas. Focus group
discussions allow participants to interact with other group members,
which, in contrast to other research approaches, encourages participant
conversation. Group interviews are frequently used, with 8 to 12
participants each group. The debate is moderated by an interviewer and is
informally structured, covering a variety of intriguing topics. The group
should be carefully selected, and the discussion should be set up to
provide a laid -back environment that promotes open communication.
Focus groups encourage participants to actively participate in the
discussion by actively encouraging them to not only voice their own
opinions but also to respond to other group members’ ideas and questions.
This adds depth, richness, and diversity to the discussion that would not be
possible in polls. Because to its organi sation, direction, and
expressiveness, FGDs may also deliver a lot of information rapidly. FGDs
are a great way to get more detailed information about a community’s
perspectives on a topic. The direction of the debate is frequently
predetermined, and the m ajority of moderators utilise an outline or guide
to ensure that all essential topics are covered. Focus group involves
holding an organised discussion with a selected group of individuals to
find out more about their experiences and points of view on a su bject.
Focus group aids in gaining insights into people’s everyday common
knowledge and the ways in which people are affected by others in a group
setting. Particularly helpful for gathering several viewpoints on the same
subject. The moderator’s role is e ssential since guiding a discussion group
in the appropriate path requires good group leadership and interpersonal
skills.
11.4 TYPES OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION Depending upon the topic under study the type of focussed group is
chosen. Yet some of the diff erent types of focus group discussion are as
follows -
Dual moderated:
There are two moderators for this event, or dual moderator. One assures
efficient operation, while the other ensures that each question will be
discussed.
Two -way:
In a two -way group , the subject is discussed at various times by two
distinct groups. The other group listens in on the talk as one group
performs their research. The group that saw the first session performs the
dialogue at the conclusion. The second group can go more into the subject
and provide further perspective by drawing from observations made while
witnessing the first conversation.
Mini :
Participants in this kind of group are limited to 4 -5 persons as opposed to
the typical 6 -10. Utilize this group when consumers i nquire about it. Use munotes.in

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77 Focus Group Discussion this group when clients request that you hold a focus group and invite
those who request it.
Participant -moderated:
One or more participants appoint themselves as moderators temporarily.
Online:
These organizations use online platfor ms to obtain input and thoughts. An
online panel consists of three types of participants: observers, moderators,
and respondents.
Skills required for Conversations in a Focus Group:
 Like any research and study approaches, focus group talks require a
wide range of competencies, including:
 The researcher must be flexible and free of prejudice.
 A deep understanding of the problem, difficulty, or research topic.
This includes both practical knowledge and intellectual
comprehension.
 Proficiency in the language being spoken helps. A focus group
discussion cannot be conducted through an interpreter or by a third
party, regardless of the person’s skills.
 It takes a lot of group process expertise to lead and facilitate a focus
group interview. It’s critical to know how to conduct the interview so
that no one or two participants monopolize it and that those who are
less outspoken may express their opinions.
 Knowledge or practical experience leading group discussions. This is
crucial because an inexperienced moderator may unintentionally
restrict the flow of conversation and produce unjustified results.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the use of Focussed Group Discussion in terms of Feminist
research.
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78 Qualitative Social Research
78 11.5 MAJOR STEPS INVOLVED IN FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION Recruiting the Participants :
Participants selection has to be made keeping in view with the topic under
study. For example – If you are studying about senior citizens health issue
then inte rviewing children would be of no use.
Choose a Moderator :
Many a times, you as a researcher would be able to conduct the focus
group discussion if the participants -field area is nearby. In a way, you
would play the role of a moderator. However, if the su bjects are staying in
a different city and you are in a different city in that case, you will have to
either hire or appoint or request someone to become a moderator. The
moderator should be having a basic orientation of the researcher. If this
too is not available then the moderator should be briefed clearly about his
role, duties and dos and don’ts. He/ She should be someone who is
capable of handling the participants. In large scale data collection process,
there are several moderators required this woul d save the time. One can
take the help of college students from the local areas as this would have a
advantage of both the language and familiarity.
Use a Recorder :
It helps to use a recording device either in a phone or as a separate
electronic recorder. Many androids have inbuilt voice recorder. However,
before recording permission has to be taken from the participants. They
have to be informed about the recording prior in advance. A recorder
could help the researcher to make notes later on too as it’s n ot possible to
make physical notes at a high speed during the discussion.
Guidelines :
Discussing the guidelines prior to beginning of the discussion helps. This
gives a clear direction for the subjects.
Data Analysis :
Cleaning and analysing the data is i mportant, i.e., taking out what is
important and what is not should be done in this stage of research.
Making Report :
Making points, helps in generating report for the focus group discussion
which could be helpful while writing the report or thesis or wor k.
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79 Focus Group Discussion 11.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION The following are some advantages of focus group discussions:
• The responders’ free and open discussion results in the creation of
novel ideas that are extremely helpful for decision -making.
• The moderator is free to alter anything to better assist the discussion
during the group activity.
• Nonverbal expressions, such gestures and triggered activities, can
give researchers crucial information. Greater results in terms of focus
group info rmation are produced by this dynamic.
Focus groups have the following disadvantages when used for discussion:
• The degree to which the moderator directs the discussion relies on his
or her level of knowledge.
• Respondents could be reluctant to voice se nsitive opinions and
concerns in public, which could make it challenging for a novice
moderator to control some people who want to dominate the group.
• Due to the small sample size and individual variation, the results
might not be sufficient to make for ecasts or give a complete picture of
the situation.
• An FGD may be a highly manufactured scenario that causes
participants to behave and speak strangely. The outcomes might not
be entirely reliable.
Dos and Don’ts in Focus Group Discussion :
Let us first start with Dos in research
Be the uninformed spectator or listener; Wear attire that complements
theirs.
• Act as if you and the participants are on an equal footing.
• Present yourself as innocent, even if you know anything.
• Have all of your questi ons ready. You need to do nothing more than
organise the focus group. It should practically run itself once you have
it on track.
• Start by posing open -ended questions.
The first question should be wide to get everyone warmed up, such as
what the partici pants think about the subject. If someone brings up
something you’ve never heard of before, ask them to elaborate. When
someone responds with a general “motherhood” statement, ask them for
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80 Qualitative Social Research
80 • If someone has an opinion, see to it the group as a whole share it.
• Tell them what will happen to whatever information they furnish you
with and assure them that you will keep it secret. And invite them to
do the same. If there is a report, specify who will get it and how it will
be used.
• Explain that you will keep their information private, that you are
inviting them to do the same, and what will happen to any information
they provide you. Describe who will get the report and how it will be
used if there is one.
• Ask everyone to respond to your open ing question as you travel
around the room to get them involved.
• Keep expressing your gratitude and praising people for their efforts.
• Be understanding of the issues raised by the participants, even if you
believe some of them are using the focus gr oup as an outlet to
complain.
• To engage certain individuals, ask them questions frequently.
• If a topic is raised that connects to a later question, feel free to change
the questions.
• Keep thanking people for their contributions and showing your
appreciation.
• Even if you think some of the participants are using the focus group
as an occasion to vent, be understanding of the issues they raise.
• Ask specific people questions on a frequent basis to draw people in.
• Be free to rearrange the ques tions if a subject is brought up that
relates to a later one.
Don’ts
• It is better to avoid of asking for directions (ones that might suggest
you are looking for a particular answer).
• Avoid “yes or no” inquiries because they don’t stimulate discourse ;
but, if you do mistakenly ask one, you might follow up with “why”?
• Steer clear (avoid) two -part queries at once. One cannot reply to two
questions at once.
• Never correct a mistaken person. Don’t correct them.
• Avoid expressing any opinions.
• Avoid interrupting people in general. Accept whatever they provide,
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81 Focus Group Discussion • Avoid using the phrase “That’s something we’ll chat about later, not
now.”
• If you don’t understand something, don’t feel embarrassed; • If
someone seems truly shy , don’t force them to speak. If you want an
explanation, request one. It is your duty to make sense of the
enigmatic, hazy, and unclear.
• Avoid spreading misinformation regarding the focus groups after the
study.
After the focus group discussion one can also offer the results to the
participants of the discussion in a relaxed approach, explaining how the
session was valuable for the research
Limitations of Focus Group Discussions :
There’s no denying that focus groups have a lot of promise for research on
the joint production of meaning.
1. The researcher probably has less control over the procedure compared
to an individual interview.
2. Analysing the data is challenging. Data production may be really fast.
It is difficult to develop an analytical techn ique that takes into account
both themes in what individuals say and patterns of interaction.
3. They are challenging to arrange. In addition to getting participants to
agree to participate in your study, you also need to convince them to
show up at a spe cific time.
4. Because of changes in voice pitch and the requirement to account for
who says what, the recordings are likely to take longer to transcribe
than similar recordings of individual interviews.
5. Focus groups have problems that individual inte rviews do not, the
main one being the tendency for two or more people to speak at once.
The portions of recordings where this has occurred are frequently
extremely difficult to interpret and, as a result, impossible to
transcribe.
Check Your Progress
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82 Qualitative Social Research
82 11.7 SUMMARY Focus Group Discussion has its roots with the that of Merton the renowed
Sociologist. He used it to explain t he case of racial segration among
different communities by conducting interviews, observations. Focus
Group Discussion in simple words meaning discussion about a topic, issue
problem by a small group. This is carried out to generate better insights of
a given topic. Feminist research has used Focus group discussion as it
provides a safe space for the oppressed and marginalized group to open up
themselves and express themselves. There are several advantages and
disadvantages of FGD like that of better insigh ts , data are developed
through FGD but for collecting the data there needs to be a proper trained
moderator who is able to control and guide the discussion so that it saves
time and resources. In today’s time the field of psychology, marketing
research ha s been using the focussed group discussion to a large extent.
11.8 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the Do’s and Dont’s while conducting Focus Group
Discussion
2. Explain in brief the advantages and disadvantages of Focus Group
Discussion
3. Discuss the meaning of Focus Group Discussion
11.9 REFERENCES  https://www.questionpro.com/blog/focus -group
 Yun, H. Jung (2018, October 23). focus group. Encyclopedia
Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/focus -group
 https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table -of-contents/a ssessment/assessing -
community -needs -and-resources/conduct -focus -groups/main
 https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm -
binaries/39360_978_1_84787_909_7.pdf
 Morgan, David. (2021). Robert Merton and the History of Focus
Groups: Standing on the Shoulders of a Giant? The American
Sociologist. 53. 10.1007/s12108 -021-09500 -


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83 12
CONVERSATION ANALYSIS
Unit Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Conversation Analysis
12.2.1 Assumptions of Conversation Analysis
12.2.2 Basic tools of Conversation Analysis
12.3 Discourse Analysis
12.3.1 What is Discourse Analysis?
12.3.2 V ersion of DA
12.3.3 Themes in discourse analysis
12.3.4 Discourse analysis in action
12.3.5 Critical discourse analysis (CDA)
12.4 Summary
12.5 Questions
12.6 References
12.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the significance of language in qualitative research
 To identify approaches to describe language
 To comprehend conversation analysis from ethno -methodological
perspective
 To examine the central idea of indexicality and reflectivity in CA
 To analyse the importance of discourse analysis in qualitative
research
12.1 INTRODUCTION Language is important for social research. Understanding language is an
important component of research. There are two approaches that treat
language as that focal point viz:
1. Conversation Analysis (CA)
2. Discourse Analysis (DA)

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84 Qualitative Social Research
84 12.2 CONVERSATION ANALYSIS CA is analysis of the talk as it occurs in natural setting. The talk is
recorded and transcribed so that the detail analysis can be carried out. The
root of CA lies in ethnomethodology, a sociological position which
developed in USA under Harold Garfinkel and Harvey Sacks.
Ethnomethodology is the study of the methods employed in everyday life
through which social order is accomplished.
There are two ideas which are central to ethnomethodology and that find
expression in CA:
1. Indexicali ty:
It means the meaning of an act. In CA it essentially means spoken words
or utterances including pauses and sounds, depends upon the context in
which it is used.
2. Reflexivity :
It means that spoken words are constitutive of the social world in which
they are located. The talk is not mere representation of the social world; it
does much more than just stands for something else.
12.2.1 Assumptions of Conversation Analysis:
An initial route to CA begins with analysing and noticing something
significant o r striking about the way that a speaker says something.
Heritage has proposed three such assumptions:
1. Talk is Structured:
Talk comprises invariant patterns -i.e., it is structured. Participants are
implicitly aware of the rule that underpin these patterns. As a result CA
analyst forgo the attempts to infer the motivation of the speaker from what
they say or ascribe their talk to personal characteristics. Such information
is necessary, since the conversation analyst is oriented to the underlining
structures of action, as revealed in talk.
2. Talk is forged contextually:
Action is revealed in talk and such talk must be analysed in terms of its
context. This means that we must seek to understand what someone say in
term of the talk that has preceded it and theref ore talk is viewed as
exhibiting patterned sequences.
3. Analysis is grounded in data:
An analysis refuse all prior theoretical schemes and argue that
characteristic of talk and the nature of social order in empirical instances
must be induced out of data.
Heritage has written that it is assumed that social action works in detail
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85 Conversation Analysis represents the emphasis on fine -grained details (including the length of the
pauses, prolongation of sou nds and so on) that are the hallmark of CA.
12.2.2 Basic tools of Conversation Analysis:
The gradual accumulation of detail analysis of talk in interaction has
resulted in recognition of recurring features of the way in which that talk
is organized. These features can be regarded as the tools that be applied to
sequences of conversation.
1. Turn –taking:
One of the most basic ideas in CA is notion that one of the ways in which
order in everyday life can be achieved is through turn -taking. This is
importan t in CA as talk depends on shared codes. If such codes do not
exist, the smooth transition in conversation will not take place.
Hutchby and Wooffitt summarize this model as indicating that
a. Turn -taking occurs
b. One speaker tend to talk at a time
c. Turn s are taken with as little gap or overlap between them as possible
This is not to say that turn -taking ‘errors’ do not occur.
2. Adjacency pairs:
The idea of adjacency pair draws attention to the tendency in talk to
involve two linked phases: a question f ollowed by an answer, an invitation
followed by a response; or a greeting followed by a returned greeting.
The first phase implies that the other part of the adjacency pair will be
forthcoming -for example that an invitation will be respond to. The second
phase is of the interest to the conversation analyst not just because it is
springboard for a response but because compliance with the putative
normative structure of the pairing indicates an appreciation of how one is
supposed to respond to the initial pha se.
3. Preference organisation:
While it is true that the adjacency pair is always anticipated, some
responses are clearly preferential to others. An example is that, when an
invitation or a request is proffered, acceptance does not have to be
justified, whereas a refusal doesn’t has to be justified. A further example is
that, when an attempt to be self -deprecating is provided, it will be met
with disagreement rather than agreement. In each case the former
(acceptance, disagreement) is the preferred respon se and the later (refusal,
agreement) is the dis -preferred response. Thus the preference structure is
discovered by the conversation analyst through the response to an initial
statement.
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86 Qualitative Social Research
86 4. Accounts:
The important feature to note in the treatment of account s in CA is that
they are analysed in context -that is, the form that they assume is handled
as being occasioned by what precedes it (an invitation).
5. Repair mechanisms:
Things do go wrong in conversation, as occurs when turn -taking
conversations are not followed so that there is overlapping of people
talking. The repair mechanisms noted by Silverman are as follows:
 When someone starts to speak before someone alse has finished, the
initial speaker stops talking before completing his or her turn;
 When a tu rn transfer doesn’t occur at an appropriate point (e.g. when
someone doen’t responds to a question), the speaker may speak again,
perhaps reinforcing the need for the other person to speak(foe
example, by reinforcing the question).
The crucial point to not e about such mechanisms is that they allow the
rules of turn -taking to be maintained in spite of the fact that they have
been breached.
12.3 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS DA is an approach to language that can be applied to forms of
communication other than talk. It can be and has been applied to forms
like texts, such as news paper articles and is more flexible than CA. In DA
there is less emphasis on naturally occurring talk. However DA is not
totally opposite and contradicts to CA.
12.3.1 What is Discourse Analysis ?
DA incorporates insights from the work of Michel Foucault. For him the
term discourse denotes the way in which a particular set of linguistic
category depict its frame as we comprehend the object. The discourse
forms a version of it. Moreover, the versio n of an object comes to
constitute it. For example, a certain discourse concerning mental illness
comes to make up our concept of what mentally ill person are like, the
nature of their illness, how they should be treated and who is legitimately
entitled to treat them. The discourse than becomes a framework for the
justification for the power of practitioners concerned with mentally ill and
for their treatment regimes. In this way a discourse is much more than
language.
12.3.2 Version of DA :
DA has been desc ribed as exhibiting two distinctive features at the level of
epistemology and ontology .
1. It is anti realist ; in other words it denies that there is an external
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87 Conversation Analysis 2. It is constructionist ; the emphasis is placed on the version of reality
propounded by members of social setting being investigated.
12.3.3: Themes in discourse analysis:
Gill (2000) has drawn attention to four prominent themes in DA.
1. Discourse is a topic:
This means that discourse is a focus of inquiry itself and not just a means
of gaining access to aspects of social reality that lie behind it.
2. Language is constructive:
Discourse is a way of constituting a particular view of social reality.
3. Discourse is the form of action:
Language is viewed ‘as a practice in its own right’. Language is a way of
accomplishing acts, such as attributing blame, presenting oneself in a
particular way or getting an argument across. A person’s discourse is
affected by the context that he or she is confronting.
4. Discourse is rhetorically organized :
There is a recognition that we want to persuade others when we present a
version of events or whatever.
12.3.4: Discourse analysis in action:
The study representation of facts in the television programme Cancer :
Your Money or your Life, used a variety of different sources:
 A video recording of the programme;
 The observation on one of the members of the team making the
programme, who acted as a participant observer while it was being
made;
 Drafts of the script, shooting schedules and recordings of editin g
sessions;
 The entire interviews with the various people interviewed for the
programme
 Research interviews with some of the latter people;
 Research interviews with some people involved in making the
programme.
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88 Qualitative Social Research
88 12.3.5 Critical discourse analysis (CDA) :
Emphasises the role of language as a power resource that is related to the
ideology and socio -cultural change. Foucault uncovers the properties of
discourse as vehicle to exercise the power through construction of
disciplinary practice.
In an organisational c ontext, one of the things that CDA practitioners seek
to trace is how discourses are constructed and maintained in relation to
certain phenomena, such as globalization. Analysis seeks to reveal the
meaning of a particular phenomenon by explaining how:
 The discourse came to have a particular meaning today when 40 or 50
years ago it may has none or a quite different meaning;
 The discourse draws on and influences other discourse;
 The discourse is constructed through the text;
 The discourse gives meaning to soc ial life and make certain activities
possible, desirable or inevitable;
 Particular actors draw on the discourse to legitimate their positions
and actions.
12.4 SUMMARY CA is analysis of the talk as it occurs in natural setting. The talk is
recorded and transcribed so that the detail analysis can be carried out. The
root of CA lies in ethnomethodology, a sociological position which
developed in USA under Harold Garfinkel and Harvey Sacks.
Ethnomethodology is the study of the methods employed in everyday life
through which social order is accomplished.
DA is an approach to language that can be applied to forms of
communication other than talk. It can be and has been applied to forms
like texts, such as news paper articles and is more flexible than CA. In DA
there is less emphasis on naturally occurring talk. However DA is not
totally opposite and contradicts to CA.
12.5 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the concept of conversation Analysis.
2. Explain in detail discourse An alysis.
12.6 REFERENCES  Bryman Alan (2001) ‘Social Research Methods’, Oxford University
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89 Conversation Analysis  Cresswell,J.W, (2007) ‘Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design
Choosing among five approaches’Sage Publication: New Delhi
 Somekh Bridget &Lewin Cathy (ed), (2005) ‘Research Methods in
Social Science’
 Uwe Flick (2007), ‘Designing Qual itative Research’, The Sage
Qualitative Research Kit, Sage Publications.
 Uwe Flick (2007), ‘Managing Quality in Qualitative Research’, The
Sage Qualitative Research Kit, Sage Publications.

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Faculty of Humanities
TYBA
(Choice Based Credit System, CBCS) Semester V and Semester VI Question Paper Pattern for T.Y.B.A
(CBCS) applicable to all the papers from Paper IV to Paper IX.
As per University rules and guidelines With Effect From 2018 -2019 (Time: 3 Hours)

Note: 1. Attempt all questions
2. All questions carry equal marks
(Total = 100 marks)
Q.1 (Based on Module I) (20 marks)
a.
or
b.
Q.2 (Based on Module II) (20 marks)
a.
or
b.
Q.3 (Based on Module III) (20 marks)
a.
or
b.
Q.4 (Based on Module IV) (20 marks)
a.
or
b.
Q.5 Attempt any two short notes. (Based on Module I, II, III and IV)
(20 marks)
a.
b.
C.
d.
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