Psychology-of-Cognition-And-Emotion-Englsih-Version-munotes

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COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE,
ATTENTION AND PERCEPTION
Unit Structure
1.1 Cognitive Neuroscience: Neuronal Structure and Function;
Intelligence and Neuroscience; Methods of cognitive neuroscience
1.1.1 Cognitive Neuroscience
1.1.2 Neuronal Structure and Func tion
1.1.3 Intelligence and Neuroscience
1.1.4 Methods of cognitive neuroscience
1.2 Visual Perception: Visual Object Recognition, Face perception
1.2.1 Visual Object Recognition
1.2.2 Face perception
1.3 Attention and Consciousness: Attention Processes, Theories of
Attention, Consciousness of Mental Processes; Preconscious
Processing
1.3.1 Attention Processes
1.3.2 Theories of Attention
1.3.3.Consciousness of Mental Processes
1.3.4 Preconscious Processing
1.4 Neuropsychological basis of Attention and Visual Perception
1.1 COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE: NEURONAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION; INTELLIGENCE AND
NEUROSCIENCE; METHODS OF COGNITIVE
NEUROSCIENCE 1.1.1 Cognitive Neuroscience :
Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain
structur es on mental processes, done through the use of brain scanning
techniques such as fMRI. A cognitive neuroscientist is primarily a
researcher, on a quest to find out how our brains contribute to our
cognitive function. These professionals might conduct rese arch a few
different ways. With today‘s technological boom, scientists and
researchers are using computers more and more. Cognitive neuroscience
deepens the understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge. Cognitive
neuroscience contributes to the solu tion of problems found in
contemporary philosophy of science.
Cognitive Neuroscience refers to the study of how brain structures and
biology affect mental processes. Specific brain areas have been found to munotes.in

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2 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception be associated with particular actions, moods and emotions, which have
been tested through brain -scanning techniques. There are some important
differences between cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology.
While cognitive psychology focuses on thinking processes, cognitive
neuroscience is focused on finding connections between thinking and
specific brain activity, Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system,
including the brain. Much of neuroscience focuses on molecular and
cellular processes. Cognitive neuroscience is the study of how cognitive
operations (and at CWRU, especially human higher -order cognitive
operations) might be illuminated by the study of neurobiology.
Cognitive neuroscience deepens the understanding of the nature of
scientific knowledge. Cognitive neuroscience contributes to th e solution of
problems found in contemporary philosophy of science.
Historical origins :
Cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary area of study that has
emerged from neuroscience and psychology.[4] There are several stages in
these disciplines that h ave changed the way researchers approached their
investigations and that led to the field becoming fully established.
Although the task of cognitive neuroscience is to describe the neural
mechanisms associated with the mind, historically it has progressed by
investigating how a certain area of the brain supports a given mental
faculty. However, early efforts to subdivide the brain proved to be
problematic. The phrenologist movement failed to supply a scientific basis
for its theories and has since been reje cted. The aggregate field view,
meaning that all areas of the brain participated in all behavior,[5] was also
rejected as a result of brain mapping, which began with Hitzig and
Fritsch‘s experiments[6] and eventually developed through methods such
as posit ron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI).[7] Gestalt theory, neuropsychology, and the
cognitive revolution were major turning points in the creation of cognitive
neuroscience as a field, bringing together ideas and tec hniques that
enabled researchers to make more links between behavior and its neural
substrates.
Origins in philosophy :
Philosophers have always been interested in the mind: ―the idea that
explaining a phenomenon involves understanding the mechanism
respons ible for it has deep roots in the History of Philosophy from atomic
theories in 5th century B.C. to its rebirth in the 17th and 18th century in
the works of Galileo, Descartes, and Boyle. Among others, it‘s Descartes‘
idea that machines humans build could work as models of scientific
explanation.‖ For example, Aristotle thought the brain was the body‘s
cooling system and the capacity for intelligence was located in the heart. It
has been suggested that the first person to believe otherwise was the
Roman phy sician Galen in the second century AD, who declared that the
brain was the source of mental activity,[9] although this has also been munotes.in

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3 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion accredited to Alcmaeon.[10] However, Galen believed that personality and
emotion were not generated by the brain, but rathe r by other organs.
Andreas Vesalius, an anatomist and physician, was the first to believe that
the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and
emotion.[11] Psychology, a major contributing field to cognitive
neuroscience, emerged from philo sophical reasoning about the mind.
Combining neuroscience and cognitive science :
Before the 1980s, interaction between neuroscience and cognitive science
was scarce.[25] Cognitive neuroscience began to integrate the newly laid
theoretical ground in cogniti ve science, that emerged between the 1950s
and 1960s, with approaches in experimental psychology, neuropsychology
and neuroscience. (Neuroscience was not established as a unified
discipline until 1971[26]). In the very late 20th century new technologies
evolved that are now the mainstay of the methodology of cognitive
neuroscience, including TMS (1985) and fMRI (1991). Earlier methods
used in cognitive neuroscience include EEG (human EEG 1920) and MEG
(1968). Occasionally cognitive neuroscientists utilize o ther brain imaging
methods such as PET and SPECT. An upcoming technique in
neuroscience is NIRS which uses light absorption to calculate changes in
oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin in cortical areas. In some animals Single -unit
recording can be used. Other methods include microneurography, facial
EMG, and eye tracking. Integrative neuroscience attempts to consolidate
data in databases, and form unified descriptive models from various fields
and scales: biology, psychology, anatomy, and clinical practice.
Adaptive r esonance theory (ART) is a cognitive neuroscience theory
developed by Gail Carpenter and Stephen Grossberg in the late 1970s on
aspects of how the brain processes information. It describes a number of
neural network models which use supervised and unsuperv ised learning
methods, and address problems such as pattern recognition and
prediction.[28]
In 2014, Stanislas Dehaene, Giacomo Rizzolatti and Trevor Robbins, were
awarded the Brain Prize ―for their pioneering research on higher brain
mechanisms underpinni ng such complex human functions as literacy,
numeracy, motivated behaviour and social cognition, and for their efforts
to understand cognitive and behavioural disorders‖.[29] Brenda Milner,
Marcus Raichle and John O‘Keefe received the Kavli Prize in
Neuros cience ―for the discovery of specialized brain networks for memory
and cognition‖[30] and O‘Keefe shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in the same year with May -Britt Moser and Edvard Moser ―for
their discoveries of cells that constitute a posi tioning system in the
brain‖.[31]
In 2017, Wolfram Schultz, Peter Dayan and Ray Dolan were awarded the
Brain Prize ―for their multidisciplinary analysis of brain mechanisms that
link learning to reward, which has far -reaching implications for the
understan ding of human behaviour, including disorders of decision -munotes.in

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4 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception making in conditions such as gambling, drug addiction, compulsive
behaviour and schizophrenia‖
1.1.2 Neuronal Structure and Function :
A neuron or nerve cell is an electrically excitable cell that com municates
with other cells via specialized connections called synapses. The neuron is
the main component of nervous tissue in all animals except sponges and
placozoa. Plants and fungi do not have nerve cells.
Figure: Structure of Neuron

Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function.
Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that
affect the cells of the sensory organs, and they send signals to the spinal
cord or brain. Motor ne urons receive signals from the brain and spinal
cord to control everything from muscle contractions to glandular output.
Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of
the brain or spinal cord. When multiple neurons are connected t ogether
they form what is called a neural circuit.
A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and a single
axon. The soma is a compact structure and the axon and dendrites are
filaments extruding from the soma. Dendrites typically branch p rofusely
and extend a few hundred micrometers from the soma. The axon leaves
the soma at a swelling called the axon hillock and travels for as far as 1
meter in humans or more in other species. It branches but usually
maintains a constant diameter. At the farthest tip of the axon‘s branches
are axon terminals, where the neuron can transmit a signal across the
synapse to another cell. Neurons may lack dendrites or have no axon. The
term neurite is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly
when the cell is undifferentiated.
Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out
signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the
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5 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can
connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.
The signaling process is partly electrical and partly chemical. Neurons are
electrically excitable, due to maintenance of voltage gradients across their
membranes. If the voltage changes by a large en ough amount over a short
interval, the neuron generates an all -or-nothing electrochemical pulse
called an action potential. This potential travels rapidly along the axon and
activates synaptic connections as it reaches them. Synaptic signals may be
excitat ory or inhibitory, increasing or reducing the net voltage that reaches
the soma.
In most cases, neurons are generated by neural stem cells during brain
development and childhood. Neurogenesis largely ceases during adulthood
in most areas of the brain.
Neur ons vary in shape and size and can be classified by their morphology
and function.[12] The anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two
types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and
type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type
I cells can be further classified by the location of the soma. The basic
morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons,
consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by a
myelin s heath. The dendritic tree wraps around the cell body and receives
signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching axon
terminals that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the synaptic cleft
between the terminals and the dendrites of th e next neuron.
Structural classification :
Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as:
 Unipolar : single process
 Bipolar : 1 axon and 1 dendrite
 Multipola r: 1 axon and 2 or more dendrites
 Golgi I: neurons with long -projecting axonal processes; examples are
pyramidal cells, Purkinje cells, and anterior horn cells
 Golgi II: neurons whose axonal process projects locally; the best
example is the granule cell
 Anaxonic : where the axon cannot be distinguished from the
dendrite(s)
 Pseudounipolar : 1 process whic h then serves as both an axon and a
dendrite
Some unique neuronal types can be identified according to their location
in the nervous system and distinct shape. Some examples are: munotes.in

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6 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception  Basket cells, interneurons that form a dense plexus of terminals
around the s oma of target cells, found in the cortex and cerebellum
 Betz cells , large motor neurons
 Lugaro cells , interneurons of the cerebellum
 Medium spiny neurons , most neurons in the corpus striatum
 Purkinje cells , huge neurons in the cerebellum, a type of Golgi I
multipolar neuron
 Pyramidal cells , neurons with triangular soma, a type of Golgi I
 Renshaw cells, neurons with both ends linked to alpha motor neurons
 Unipolar brush cells , interneurons with unique dendrite ending in a
brush -like tuft
 Granule cells , a typ e of Golgi II neuron
 Anterior horn cells , motoneurons located in the spinal cord
 Spindle cells, interneurons that connect widely separated areas of the
brain
Functional classification :
Direction :
 Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the
central nervous system and are also called sensory neurons.
 Efferent neurons (motor neurons) transmit signals from the central
nervous system to the effector cells.
 Interneurons connect neurons within specific regions of the central
nervous system .
 Afferent and efferent also refer generally to neurons that, respectively,
bring information to or send information from the brain.
Action on other neurons :
A neuron affects other neurons by releasing a neurotransmitter that binds
to chemical receptors. T he effect upon the postsynaptic neuron is
determined by the type of receptor that is activated, not by the presynaptic
neuron or by the neurotransmitter. A neurotransmitter can be thought of as
a key, and a receptor as a lock: the same neurotransmitter can activate
multiple types of receptors. Receptors can be classified broadly as
excitatory (causing an increase in firing rate), inhibitory (causing a
decrease in firing rate), or modulatory (causing long -lasting effects not
directly related to firing rate). munotes.in

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7 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion The two most common (90%+) neurotransmitters in the brain, glutamate
and GABA, have largely consistent actions. Glutamate acts on several
types of receptors, and has effects that are excitatory at ionotropic
receptors and a modulatory effect at metabotrop ic receptors. Similarly,
GABA acts on several types of receptors, but all of them have inhibitory
effects (in adult animals, at least). Because of this consistency, it is
common for neuroscientists to refer to cells that release glutamate as
―excitatory ne urons‖, and cells that release GABA as ―inhibitory
neurons‖. Some other types of neurons have consistent effects, for
example, ―excitatory‖ motor neurons in the spinal cord that release
acetylcholine, and ―inhibitory‖ spinal neurons that release glycine.
The distinction between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters is not
absolute. Rather, it depends on the class of chemical receptors present on
the postsynaptic neuron. In principle, a single neuron, releasing a single
neurotransmitter, can have excit atory effects on some targets, inhibitory
effects on others, and modulatory effects on others still. For example,
photoreceptor cells in the retina constantly release the neurotransmitter
glutamate in the absence of light. So -called OFF bipolar cells are, like
most neurons, excited by the released glutamate. However, neighboring
target neurons called ON bipolar cells are instead inhibited by glutamate,
because they lack typical ionotropic glutamate receptors and instead
express a class of inhibitory metabot ropic glutamate receptors.[13] When
light is present, the photoreceptors cease releasing glutamate, which
relieves the ON bipolar cells from inhibition, activating them; this
simultaneously removes the excitation from the OFF bipolar cells,
silencing them.
It is possible to identify the type of inhibitory effect a presynaptic neuron
will have on a postsynaptic neuron, based on the proteins the presynaptic
neuron expresses. Parvalbumin -expressing neurons typically dampen the
output signal of the postsynaptic neuron in the visual cortex, whereas
somatostatin -expressing neurons typically block dendritic inputs to the
postsynaptic neuron.[14]
Discharge patterns :
Neurons have intrinsic electroresponsive properties like intrinsic
transmembrane voltage oscillatory patterns.[15] So neurons can be
classified according to their electrophysiological characteristics:
 Tonic or regular spiking. Some neurons are typically constantly
(tonically) active, typically firing at a constant frequency. Example:
interneurons in neuro striatum.
 Phasic or bursting. Neurons that fire in bursts are called phasic.
 Fast spiking. Some neurons are notable for their high firing rates, for
example some types of cortical inhibitory interneurons, cells in globus
pallidus, retinal ganglion cells.[1 6][17]
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8 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception 1.1.3 Intelligence and Neuroscience :
Neuroscience and intelligence refers to the various neurological factors
that are partly responsible for the variation of intelligence within species
or between different species. A large amount of research in t his area has
been focused on the neural basis of human intelligence. Historic
approaches to study the neuroscience of intelligence consisted of
correlating external head parameters, for example head circumference, to
intelligence.[1] Post -mortem measures o f brain weight and brain volume
have also been used.[1] More recent methodologies focus on examining
correlates of intelligence within the living brain using techniques such as
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional MRI (fMRI),
electroencephalography (EEG), positron emission tomography and other
non-invasive measures of brain structure and activity.[1]
Researchers have been able to identify correlates of intelligence within the
brain and its functioning. These include overall brain volume,[2] grey
matter volume,[3] white matter volume,[4] white matter integrity,[5]
cortical thickness[3] and neural efficiency.[6] Although the evidence base
for our understanding of the neural basis of human intelligence has
increased greatly over the past 30 years, even more research is needed to
fully understand it.[1]
The neural basis of intelligence has also been examined in animals such as
primates, cetaceans, and rodents.
Brain volume :
One of the main methods used to establish a relationship between
intelligence and the brain is to use measures of brain volume.[1] The
earliest attempts at estimating brain volume were done using measures of
external head parameters, such as head circumference as a proxy for brain
size.[1] More recent methodologies employed to study thi s relationship
include post -mortem measures of brain weight and volume. These have
their own limitations and strengths.[8] The advent of MRI as a non -
invasive highly -accurate measure of living brain structure and function
(using fMRI) made this the pre -dominant and preferred method for
measuring brain volume.[1]
Overall, larger brain size and volume is associated with better cognitive
functioning and higher intelligence.[1] The specific regions that show the
most robust correlation between volume and intell igence are the frontal,
temporal and parietal lobes of the brain.[9][10][11] A large number of
studies have been conducted with uniformly positive correlations, leading
to the generally safe conclusion that larger brains predict greater
intelligence.[12][1 3] In healthy adults, the correlation of total brain
volume and IQ is approximately 0.4 when high quality tests are used.[14]
A large scale study (n = 29k) using the UK Biobank found a correlation of
.275. The strength of this relationship did not depend o n sex, contradicting
some earlier studies.[15] A study using a sibling -design in two medium
sized samples found evidence of causality with an effect size of .19.[16] munotes.in

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9 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion This study design rules out confounders that vary between families, but
not those that var y within families.
Less is known about variation on scales less than total brain volume. A
meta -analytic review by McDaniel found that the correlation between
intelligence and in vivo brain size was larger for females (0.40) than for
males (0.25).[17] The same study also found that the correlation between
brain size and Intelligence increased with age, with children showing
smaller correlations.[17] It has been suggested that the link between larger
brain volumes and higher intelligence is related to variat ion in specific
brain regions: a whole -brain measure would under -estimate these links.[9]
For functions more specific than general intelligence, regional effects may
be more important. For instance evidence suggests that in adolescents
learning new words, vocabulary growth is associated with gray matter
density in bilateral posterior supramarginal gyri.[18] Small studies have
shown transient changes in gray -matter associated with developing a new
physical skill (juggling) occipito -temporal cortex [19]
Brain volume is not a perfect account of intelligence: the relationship
explains a modest amount of variance in intelligence – 12% to 36% of the
variance.[8][9] The amount of variance explained by brain volume may
also depend on the type of intelligence measure d.[8] Up to 36% of
variance in verbal intelligence can be explained by brain volume, while
only approximately 10% of variance in visuospatial intelligence can be
explained by brain volume.[8] A 2015 study by researcher Stuart J.
Ritchie found that brain si ze explained 12% of the variance in intelligence
among individuals.[20] These caveats imply that there are other major
factors influencing how intelligent an individual is apart from brain
size.[1] In a large meta -analysis consisting of 88 studies Pietschn ig et al.
(2015) estimated the correlation between brain volume and intelligence to
be about correlation coefficient of 0.24 which equates to 6% variance.[21]
Taking into account measurement quality, and sample type and IQ -range,
the meta -analytic associat ion of brain volume in appears to be ~ .4 in
normal adults.[14] Researcher Jakob Pietschnig argued that the strength of
the positive association of brain volume and IQ remains robust, but has
been overestimated in the literature. He has stated that ―It is tempting to
interpret this association in the context of human cognitive evolution and
species differences in brain size and cognitive ability, we show that it is
not warranted to interpret brain size as an isomorphic proxy of human
intelligence difference s‖.[21]
Grey matter :
Grey matter has been examined as a potential biological foundation for
differences in intelligence. Similarly to brain volume, global grey matter
volume is positively associated with intelligence.[1] More specifically,
higher intellige nce has been associated with larger cortical grey matter in
the prefrontal and posterior temporal cortex in adults.[3] Furthermore,
both verbal and nonverbal intelligence have been shown to be positively
correlated with grey matter volume across the pariet al, temporal and munotes.in

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10 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception occipital lobes in young healthy adults, implying that intelligence is
associated with a wide variety of structures within the brain.
There appear to be sex differences between the relationship of grey matter
to intelligence between men an d women. Men appear to show more
intelligence to grey matter correlations in the frontal and parietal lobes,
while the strongest correlations between intelligence and grey matter in
women can be found in the frontal lobes and Broca‘s area. However, these
differences do not seem to impact overall Intelligence, implying that the
same cognitive ability levels can be attained in different ways.
One specific methodology used to study grey matter correlates of
intelligence in areas of the brain is known as voxel -based morphometry
(VBM). VBM allows researchers to specify areas of interest with great
spatial resolution, allowing the examination of grey matter areas correlated
with intelligence with greater special resolution. VBM has been used to
correlate grey matt er positively with intelligence in the frontal, temporal,
parietal, and occipital lobes in healthy adults. VBM has also been used to
show that grey matter volume in the medial region of the prefrontal cortex
and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex correlate positively with intelligence
in a group of 55 healthy adults. VBM has also been successfully used to
establish a positive correlation between grey matter volumes in the
anterior cingulate and intelligence in children aged 5 to 18 years old.
Grey matter has also been shown to positively correlate with intelligence
in children Reis and colleagueshave found that grey matter in the
prefrontal cortex contributes most robustly to variance in Intelligence in
children between 5 and 17, while subcortical grey matter is related to
intelligence to a lesser extent. Frangou and colleagues examined the
relationship between grey matter and intelligence in children and young
adults aged between 12 and 21, and found that grey matter in the
orbitofrontal cortex, cingulate gyr us, cerebellum and thalamus was
positively correlated to intelligence, while grey matter in the caudate
nucleus is negatively correlated with intelligence. However, the
relationship between grey matter volume and intelligence only develops
over time, as no significant positive relationship can be found between
grey matter volume and intelligence in children under 11.
An underlying caveat to research into the relationship of grey matter
volume and intelligence is demonstrated by the hypothesis of neural
efficiency. The findings that more intelligent individuals are more efficient
at using their neurons might indicate that the correlation of grey matter to
intelligence reflects selective elimination of unused synapses, and thus a
better brain circuitry.
White matter :
Similar to grey matter, white matter has been shown to correlate positively
with intelligence in humans. White matter consists mainly of myelinated
neuronal axons, responsible for delivering signals between neurons. The
pinkish -white color of whit e matter is actually a result of these myelin munotes.in

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11 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion sheaths that electrically insulate neurons that are transmitting signals to
other neurons. White matter connects different regions of grey matter in
the cerebrum together. These interconnections make transport more
seamless and allow us to perform tasks easier. Significant correlations
between intelligence and the corpus callosum have been found, as larger
callosal areas have been positively correlated with cognitive performance.
However, there appear to be diff erences in importance for white matter
between verbal and nonverbal intelligence, as although both verbal and
nonverbal measures of intelligence correlate positively with the size of the
corpus callosum, the correlation for intelligence and corpus callosum size
was larger for nonverbal measures than that for verbal measures.
Anatomical mesh -based geometrical modeling has also shown positive
correlations between the thickness of the corpus callosum and Intelligence
in healthy adults.
White matter integrity h as also been found to be related to Intelligence
White matter tract integrity is important for information processing speed,
and therefore reduced white matter integrity is related to lower
intelligence. The effect of white matter integrity is mediate enti rely
through information processing speed. These findings indicate that the
brain is structurally interconnected and that axonal fibres are integrally
important for fast information process, and thus general intelligence.
Contradicting the findings describ ed above, VBM failed to find a
relationship between the corpus callosum and intelligence in healthy
adults. This contradiction can be viewed to signify that the relationship
between white matter volume and intelligence is not as robust as that of
grey matt er and intelligence.
Cortical thickness :
Cortical thickness has also been found to correlate positively with
intelligence in humans. However, the rate of growth of cortical thickness
is also related to intelligence. In early childhood, cortical thickness
displays a negative correlation with intelligence, while by late childhood
this correlation has shifted to a positive one. More intelligent children
were found to develop cortical thickness more steadily and over longer
periods of time than less bright chil dren. Studies have found cortical
thickness to explain 5% in the variance of intelligence among individuals.
In a study conducted to find associations between cortical thickness and
general intelligence between different groups of people, sex did not play a
role in intelligence. Although it is hard to pin intelligence on age based on
cortical thickness due to different socioeconomic circumstances and
education levels, older subjects (17 - 24) tended to have less variances in
terms of intelligence than when compared to younger subjects (19 - 17).
dubious – discuss.
Cortical convolution :
Cortical convolution has increased the folding of the brain‘s surface over
the course of human evolution. It has been hypothesized that the high
degree of cortical convolution may be a neurological substrate that munotes.in

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12 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception supports some of the human brain‘s most distinctive cognitive abilities.
Consequently, individual intelligence within the human species might be
modulated by the degree of cortical convolution.
An analysis published in 2019 found the contours of 677 children and
adolescent (mean age 12.72 years) brains had a genetic correlation of
almost 1 between IQ and surface area of the supramarginal gyrus on the
left side of the brain.
Neural efficiency :
The neural efficiency hypot hesis postulates that more intelligent
individuals display less activation in the brain during cognitive tasks, as
measured by Glucose metabolism. A small sample of participants (N=8)
displayed negative correlations between intelligence and absolute region al
metabolic rates ranging from -0.48 to -0.84, as measured by PET scans,
indicating that brighter individuals were more effective processors of
information, as they use less energy.[6] According to an extensive review
by Neubauer & Fink[40] a large number of studies (N=27) have confirmed
this finding using methods such as PET scans. EEG and fMRI.
fMRI and EEG studies have revealed that task difficulty is an important
factor affecting neural efficiency. More intelligent individuals display
neural efficienc y only when faced with tasks of subjectively easy to
moderate difficulty, while no neural efficiency can be found during
difficult tasks. In fact, more able individuals appear to invest more cortical
resources in tasks of high difficulty. This appears to b e especially true for
the Prefrontal Cortex, as individuals with higher intelligence displayed
increased activation of this area during difficult tasks compared to
individuals with lower intelligence. It has been proposed that the main
reason for the neura l efficiency phenomenon could be that individuals
with high intelligence are better at blocking out interfering information
than individuals with low intelligence.
Further research :
Some scientists prefer to look at more qualitative variables to relate to the
size of measurable regions of known function, for example relating the
size of the primary visual cortex to its corresponding functions, that of
visual performance.
In a study of the head growth of 633 term -born children from the Avon
Longitudinal St udy of Parents and Children cohort, it was shown that
prenatal growth and growth during infancy were associated with
subsequent IQ. The study‘s conclusion was that the brain volume a child
achieves by the age of 1 year helps determine later intelligence. G rowth in
brain volume after infancy may not compensate for poorer earlier growth.
There is an association between IQ and myopia. One suggested
explanation is that one or several pleiotropic gene(s) affect the size of the
neocortex part of the brain and ey es simultaneously.[51] munotes.in

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13 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Parieto -frontal integration theory :
In 2007, Behavioral and Brain Sciences published a target article that put
forth a biological model of intelligence based on 37 peer -reviewed
neuroimaging studies (Jung & Haier, 2007). Their review of a wealth of
data from functional imaging (functional magnetic resonance imaging and
positron emission tomography) and structural imaging (diffusion MRI,
voxel -based morphometry, in vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy)
argues that human intelligence ar ises from a distributed and integrated
neural network comprising brain regions in the frontal and parietal lobes.
A recent lesion mapping study conducted by Barbey and colleagues
provides evidence to support the P -FIT theory of intelligence.
Brain injuries at an early age isolated to one side of the brain typically
results in relatively spared intellectual function and with IQ in the normal
range.
1.1.4 Methods of cognitive neuroscience :
Psychophysics :
Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relations hip between
physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they produce.
Psychophysics has been described as ―the scientific study of the relation
between stimulus and sensation‖ or, more completely, as ―the analysis of
perceptual processes by studyin g the effect on a subject‘s experience or
behaviour of systematically varying the properties of a stimulus along one
or more physical dimensions‖.
Psychophysics also refers to a general class of methods that can be applied
to study a perceptual system. Mod ern applications rely heavily on
threshold measurement, ideal observer analysis, and signal detection
theory.
Psychophysics has widespread and important practical applications. For
example, in the study of digital signal processing, psychophysics has
infor med the development of models and methods of lossy compression.
These models explain why humans perceive very little loss of signal
quality when audio and video signals are formatted using lossy
compression.
Eye tracking :
Eye tracking is the process of mea suring either the point of gaze (where
one is looking) or the motion of an eye relative to the head. An eye tracker
is a device for measuring eye positions and eye movement. Eye trackers
are used in research on the visual system, in psychology, in
psycholi nguistics, marketing, as an input device for human -computer
interaction, and in product design. Eye trackers are also being increasingly
used for rehabilitative and assistive applications (related,for instance, to
control of wheel chairs, robotic arms and prostheses). There are a number
of methods for measuring eye movement. The most popular variant uses munotes.in

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14 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception video images from which the eye position is extracted. Other methods use
search coils or are based on the electrooculogram.
Functional magnetic resonance i maging or functional MRI :
Functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI (fMRI)
measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow.
This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal
activation are coupled . When an area of the brain is in use, blood flow to
that region also increases.
The primary form of fMRI uses the blood -oxygen -level dependent
(BOLD) contrast, discovered by Seiji Ogawa in 1990. This is a type of
specialized brain and body scan used to ma p neural activity in the brain or
spinal cord of humans or other animals by imaging the change in blood
flow (hemodynamic response) related to energy use by brain cells. Since
the early 1990s, fMRI has come to dominate brain mapping research
because it doe s not involve the use of injections, surgery, the ingestion of
substances, or exposure to ionizing radiation. This measure is frequently
corrupted by noise from various sources; hence, statistical procedures are
used to extract the underlying signal. The r esulting brain activation can be
graphically represented by color -coding the strength of activation across
the brain or the specific region studied. The technique can localize activity
to within millimeters but, using standard techniques, no better than wi thin
a window of a few seconds. Other methods of obtaining contrast are
arterial spin labeling and diffusion MRI. Diffusion MRI is similar to
BOLD fMRI but provides contrast based on the magnitude of diffusion of
water molecules in the brain.
In addition t o detecting BOLD responses from activity due to tasks or
stimuli, fMRI can measure resting state, or negative -task state, which
shows the subjects‘ baseline BOLD variance. Since about 1998 studies
have shown the existence and properties of the default mode network, a
functionally connected neural network of apparent resting brain states.
fMRI is used in research, and to a lesser extent, in clinical work. It can
complement other measures of brain physiology such as
electroencephalography (EEG), and near -infrared spectroscopy (NIRS).
Newer methods which improve both spatial and time resolution are being
researched, and these largely use biomarkers other than the BOLD signal.
Some companies have developed commercial products such as lie
detectors based on fMRI techniques, but the research is not believed to be
developed enough for widespread commercial use.
Electroencephalography (EEG) :
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method to record an electrogram of
the electrical activity on the scalp that has been shown to represent the
macroscopic activity of the surface layer of the brain underneath. It is
typically non -invasive, with the electrodes placed along the scalp.
Electrocorticography, involving invasive electrodes, is sometimes called
―intracranial EEG‖. munotes.in

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15 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion EEG m easures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current within the
neurons of the brain. Clinically, EEG refers to the recording of the brain‘s
spontaneous electrical activity over a period of time, as recorded from
multiple electrodes placed on the scal p. Diagnostic applications generally
focus either on event -related potentials or on the spectral content of EEG.
The former investigates potential fluctuations time locked to an event,
such as ‗stimulus onset‘ or ‗button press‘. The latter analyses the typ e of
neural oscillations (popularly called ―brain waves‖) that can be observed
in EEG signals in the frequency domain.
EEG is most often used to diagnose epilepsy, which causes abnormalities
in EEG readings. It is also used to diagnose sleep disorders, dep th of
anesthesia, coma, encephalopathies, and brain death. EEG used to be a
first-line method of diagnosis for tumors, stroke and other focal brain
disorders, but this use has decreased with the advent of high -resolution
anatomical imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) and computed tomography (CT). Despite limited spatial resolution,
EEG continues to be a valuable tool for research and diagnosis. It is one of
the few mobile techniques available and offers millisecond -range temporal
resolution which is not possible with CT, PET or MRI.
Derivatives of the EEG technique include evoked potentials (EP), which
involves averaging the EEG activity time -locked to the presentation of a
stimulus of some sort (visual, somatosensory, or auditory). E vent-related
potentials (ERPs) refer to averaged EEG responses that are time -locked to
more complex processing of stimuli; this technique is used in cognitive
science, cognitive psychology, and psychophysiological research.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) :
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a functional neuroimaging technique
for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by
electrical currents occurring naturally in the brain, using very sensitive
magnetometers. Arrays of SQUIDs (superconductin g quantum
interference devices) are currently the most common magnetometer, while
the SERF (spin exchange relaxation -free) magnetometer is being
investigated for future machines.[1][2] Applications of MEG include basic
research into perceptual and cognitiv e brain processes, localizing regions
affected by pathology before surgical removal, determining the function of
various parts of the brain, and neurofeedback. This can be applied in a
clinical setting to find locations of abnormalities as well as in an
experimental setting to simply measure brain activity.
Electrocorticography (ECoG) :
Electrocorticography (ECoG), or intracranial electroencephalography
(iEEG), is a type of electrophysiological monitoring that uses electrodes
placed directly on the exposed s urface of the brain to record electrical
activity from the cerebral cortex. In contrast, conventional
electroencephalography (EEG) electrodes monitor this activity from
outside the skull. ECoG may be performed either in the operating room
during surgery (i ntraoperative ECoG) or outside of surgery (extraoperative munotes.in

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16 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception ECoG). Because a craniotomy (a surgical incision into the skull) is
required to implant the electrode grid, ECoG is an invasive procedure.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) :
Transcranial magne tic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive form of brain
stimulation in which a changing magnetic field is used to cause electric
current at a specific area of the brain through electromagnetic induction.
An electric pulse generator, or stimulator, is connecte d to a magnetic coil,
which in turn is connected to the scalp. The stimulator generates a
changing electric current within the coil which induces a magnetic field;
this field then causes a second inductance of inverted electric charge
within the brain itse lf.
TMS has shown diagnostic and therapeutic potential in the central nervous
system with a wide variety of disease states in neurology and mental
health, with research still evolving.
Adverse effects of TMS are rare and include fainting and seizure. Other
potential issues include discomfort, pain, hypomania, cognitive change,
hearing loss, and inadvertent current induction in implanted devices such
as pacemakers or defibrillators
Mathematical model :
A mathematical model is a description of a system using m athematical
concepts and language. The process of developing a mathematical model
is termed mathematical modeling. Mathematical models are used in the
natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, chemistry) and
engineering disciplines (such a s computer science, electrical engineering),
as well as in non -physical systems such as the social sciences (such as
economics, psychology, sociology, political science). The use of
mathematical models to solve problems in business or military operations
is a large part of the field of operations research. Mathematical models are
also used in music, linguistics, and philosophy (for example, intensively in
analytic philosophy).
A model may help to explain a system and to study the effects of different
compon ents, and to make predictions about behavior.
1.2 VISUAL PERCEPTION: VISUAL OBJECT RECOGNITION, FACE PERCEPTION Visual perception, or sight, is the ability to interpret the surrounding
environment through photopic vision (daytime vision), color vision,
scotopic vision (night vision), and mesopic vision (twilight vision), using
light in the visible spectrum reflected by objects in the environment. This
is different from visual acuity, which refers to how clearly a person sees
(for example ―20/20 vision‖). A person can have problems with visual
perceptual processing even if they have 20/20 vision. munotes.in

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17 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion The resulting perception is also known as vision, sight, or eyesight
(adjectives visual, optical, and ocular, respectively). The various
physiological components in volved in vision are referred to collectively as
the visual system, and are the focus of much research in linguistics,
psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and molecular biology,
collectively referred to as vision science.
Visual system :
In humans and a number of other mammals, light enters the eye through
the cornea and is focused by the lens onto the retina, a light -sensitive
membrane at the back of the eye. The retina serves as a transducer for the
conversion of light into neuronal signals. This transduction is achieved by
specialized photoreceptive cells of the retina, also known as the rods and
cones, which detect the photons of light and respond by producing neural
impulses. These signals are transmitted by the optic nerve, from the retina
upstream to central ganglia in the brain. The lateral geniculate nucleus,
which transmits the information to the visual cortex. Signals from the
retina also travel directly from the retina to the superior colliculus.
The lateral geniculate nucleus sends signal s to primary visual cortex, also
called striate cortex. Extrastriate cortex, also called visual association
cortex is a set of cortical structures, that receive information from striate
cortex, as well as each other. Recent descriptions of visual associati on
cortex describe a division into two functional pathways, a ventral and a
dorsal pathway. This conjecture is known as the two streams hypothesis.
The human visual system is generally believed to be sensitive to visible
light in the range of wavelengths b etween 370 and 730 nanometers
(0.00000037 to 0.00000073 meters) of the electromagnetic spectrum.
However, some research suggests that humans can perceive light in
wavelengths down to 340 nanometers (UV -A), especially the young.
Under optimal conditions the se limits of human perception can extend to
310 nm (UV) to 1100 nm (NIR).
1.2.1 Visual Object Recognition :
Visual object recognition refers to the ability to identify the objects in
view based on visual input. One important signature of visual object
recognition is ―object invariance‖, or the ability to identify objects across
changes in the detailed context in which objects are viewed, including
changes in illumination, object pose, and background context.
Basic stages of object recognition :
Neuropsychol ogical evidence affirms that there are four specific stages
identified in the process of object recognition. These stages are:
 Stage 1 Processing of basic object components, such as color, depth,
and form. munotes.in

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18 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception  Stage 2 These basic components are then grouped on the basis of
similarity, providing information on distinct edges to the visual form.
Subsequently, figure -ground segregation is able to take place.
 Stage 3 The visual representation is matched with structural
descriptions in memory.
 Stage 4 Semantic attri butes are applied to the visual representation,
providing meaning, and thereby recognition.
Within these stages, there are more specific processes that take place to
complete the different processing components. In addition, other existing
models have prop osed integrative hierarchies (top -down and bottom -up),
as well as parallel processing, as opposed to this general bottom -up
hierarchy.
1.2.2 Face perception :
Facial perception is an individual‘s understanding and interpretation of the
face. Here, perceptio n implies the presence of consciousness and hence
excludes automated facial recognition systems. Although facial
recognition is found in other species, this article focuses on facial
perception in humans.
The perception of facial features is an important p art of social cognition.
Information gathered from the face helps people understand each other‘s
identity, what they are thinking and feeling, anticipate their actions,
recognize their emotions, build connections, and communicate through
body language. Dev eloping facial recognition is a necessary building
block for complex societal constructs. Being able to perceive identity,
mood, age, sex, and race lets people mold the way we interact with one
another, and understand our immediate surrounding.
Though faci al perception is mainly considered to stem from visual intake,
studies have shown that even people born blind can learn face perception
without vision. Studies have supported the notion of a specialized
mechanism for perceiving faces
Early development :
Despite numerous studies, there is no widely accepted time -frame in
which the average human develops the ability to perceive faces.
Ability to discern faces from other objects :
Many studies have found that infants will give preferential attention to
faces in their visual field, indicating they can discern faces from other
objects.
While newborns will often show particular interest in faces at around three
months of age, that preference slowly disappears, re -emerges late during
the first year, and slowly declin es once more over the next two years of
life. munotes.in

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19 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion While newborns show a preference to faces as they grow older
(specifically between one and four months of age) this interest can be
inconsistent.
Infants turning their heads towards faces or face -like images su ggest
rudimentary facial processing capacities.
The re -emergence of interest in faces at three months is likely influenced
by a child‘s motor abilities.
Ability to detect emotion in the face :
At around seven months of age, infants show the ability to disce rn faces
by emotion. However, whether they have fully developed emotion
recognition is unclear. Discerning visual differences in facial expressions
is different to understanding the valence of a particular emotion.
7-month -olds seem capable of associating emotional prosodies with facial
expressions. When presented with a happy or angry face, followed by an
emotionally neutral word read in a happy or angry tone, their event -related
potentials follow different patterns. Happy faces followed by angry vocal
tones produce more changes than the other incongruous pairing, while
there was no such difference between happy and angry congruous
pairings. The greater reaction implies that infants held greater expectations
of a happy vocal tone after seeing a happy face t han an angry tone
following an angry face.
By the age of seven months, children are able to recognize an angry or
fearful facial expression, perhaps because of the threat -salient nature of
the emotion. Despite this ability, newborns are not yet aware of th e
emotional content encoded within facial expressions.
Infants can comprehend facial expressions as social cues representing the
feelings of other people before they are a year old. Seven -month -old
infants show greater negative central components to angry faces that are
looking directly at them than elsewhere, although the gaze of fearful faces
produces no difference. In addition, two event -related potentials in the
posterior part of the brain are differently aroused by the two negative
expressions tested. These results indicate that infants at this age can
partially understand the higher level of threat from anger directed at
them.[20] They also showed activity in the occipital areas.
5-month -olds, when presented with an image of a fearful expression and a
happy expression, exhibit similar event -related potentials for both.
However, when seven -month -olds are given the same treatment, they
focus more on the fearful face. This result indicates increased cognitive
focus toward fear that reflects the threat -salient nature of the emotion.
Seven -month -olds regard happy and sad faces as distinct emotive
categories.
By seven months, infants are able to use facial expressions to understand
others‘ behavior. Seven -month -olds look to use facial cues to understand munotes.in

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20 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception the mo tives of other people in ambiguous situations, as shown in a study
where infants watched the experimenter‘s face longer if the experimenter
took a toy from them and maintained a neutral expression, as opposed to if
the experimenter made a happy expression. When infants are exposed to
faces, it varies depending on factors including facial expression and eye
gaze direction.
Emotions likely play a large role in our social interactions. The perception
of a positive or negative emotion on a face affects the way that an
individual perceives and processes that face. A face that is perceived to
have a negative emotion is processed in a less holistic manner than a face
displaying a positive emotion.
While seven -month -olds have been found to focus more on fearful face s, a
study found that ―happy expressions elicit enhanced sympathetic arousal
in infants‖ both when facial expressions were presented subliminally and
in a way that the infants were consciously aware of the stimulus.
Conscious awareness of a stimulus is not connected to an infant‘s reaction.
Ability to recognize familiar faces :
It is unclear when humans develop the ability to recognize familiar faces.
Studies have varying results, and may depend on multiple factors (such as
continued exposure to particular f aces during a certain time period).
Early perceptual experience is crucial to the development of adult visual
perception, including the ability to identify familiar people and
comprehend facial expressions. The capacity to discern between faces,
like langu age[how?], appears to have broad potential in early life that is
whittled down to the kinds of faces experienced in early life.
The neural substrates of face perception in infants are similar to those of
adults, but the limits of child -safe imaging technol ogy currently obscure
specific information from subcortical areas like the amygdala, which is
active in adult facial perception. They also showed activity near the
fusiform gyrus,
Healthy adults likely process faces via a ret inotectal (subcortical)
pathway :
Infants can discern between macaque faces at six months of age, but,
without continued exposure, cannot do so at nine months of age. If they
were shown photographs of macaques during this three -month period, they
were more likely to retain this ability.
Faces ―convey a wealth of information that we use to guide our social
interactions‖.[30] They also found that the neurological mechanisms
responsible for face recognition are present by age five. Children process
faces is similar to that of adults, but adu lts process faces more efficiently.
The may be because of advancements in memory and cognitive
functioning. munotes.in

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21 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Interest in the social world is increased by interaction with the physical
environment. They found that training three -month -old infants to reach f or
objects with Velcro -covered ―sticky mitts‖ increased the attention they
pay to faces compared to moving objects through their hands and control
groups.
Ability to ‘mimic’ faces :
A commonly disputed topic is the age at which we can mimic facial
expressio ns.
Infants as young as two days are capable of mimicking an adult, able to
note details like mouth and eye shape as well as move their own muscles
to produce similar patterns.
However, the idea that those infants younger than two could mimic facial
expres sions was disputed by Susan S. Jones, who believed that infants are
unaware of the emotional content encoded within facial expressions, and
also found they are not able to imitate facial expressions until their second
year of life. She also found that mimi cry emerged at different ages.
1.3 ATTENTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS: ATTENTION PROCESSES, THEORIES OF ATTENTION,
CONSCIOUSNESS OF MENTAL PROCESSES;
PRECONSCIOUS PROCESSING Attention :
Attention is the behavioral and cognitive process of selectively
concentrati ng on a discrete aspect of information, whether considered
subjective or objective, while ignoring other perceivable information.
William James (1890) wrote that ―Attention is the taking possession by
the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what s eem several
simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization,
concentration, of consciousness are of its essence.‖ Attention has also
been described as the allocation of limited cognitive processing resources.
Attention is manifested by a n attentional bottleneck, in term of the amount
of data the brain can process each second; for example, in human vision,
only less than 1% of the visual input data (at around one megabyte per
second) can enter the bottleneck, leading to inattentional blind ness.
Attention remains a crucial area of investigation within education,
psychology, neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology.
Areas of active investigation involve determining the source of the sensory
cues and signals that generate atte ntion, the effects of these sensory cues
and signals on the tuning properties of sensory neurons, and the
relationship between attention and other behavioral and cognitive
processes, which may include working memory and psychological
vigilance. A relativel y new body of research, which expands upon earlier
research within psychopathology, is investigating the diagnostic symptoms munotes.in

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22 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception associated with traumatic brain injury and its effects on attention.
Attention also varies across cultures.
The relationships betwe en attention and consciousness are complex
enough that they have warranted perennial philosophical exploration. Such
exploration is both ancient and continually relevant, as it can have effects
in fields ranging from mental health and the study of disorder s of
consciousness to artificial intelligence and its domains of research.
Consciousness :
Consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience or awareness of internal and
external existence.Despite millennia of analyses, definitions, explanations
and debates by p hilosophers and scientists, consciousness remains
puzzling and controversial, being ―at once the most familiar and [also the]
most mysterious aspect of our lives‖. Perhaps the only widely agreed
notion about the topic is the intuition that consciousness ex ists. Opinions
differ about what exactly needs to be studied and explained as
consciousness. Sometimes, it is synonymous with the mind, and at other
times, an aspect of mind. In the past, it was one‘s ―inner life‖, the world of
introspection, of private th ought, imagination and volition. Today, it often
includes any kind of cognition, experience, feeling or perception. It may
be awareness, awareness of awareness, or self -awareness either
continuously changing or not. There might be different levels or order s of
consciousness, or different kinds of consciousness, or just one kind with
different features. Other questions include whether only humans are
conscious, all animals, or even the whole universe. The disparate range of
research, notions and speculations raises doubts about whether the right
questions are being asked.
Examples of the range of descriptions, definitions or explanations are:
simple wakefulness, one‘s sense of selfhood or soul explored by ―looking
within‖; being a metaphorical ―stream‖ of con tents, or being a mental
state, mental event or mental process of the brain; having phanera or
qualia and subjectivity; being the ‗something that it is like‘ to ‗have‘ or
‗be‘ it; being the ―inner theatre‖ or the executive control system of the
mind.
1.3.1 Attention Processes :
Right now, as you are reading these lines, you are exercising attention.
Often studied by cognitive psychologists, attention has been found to play
vital role in every aspect of human behaviour. Ross (1951) has defined it
as ―the pro cess of getting an object or thought clearly before the mind‖.
Whereas, according to William James, ―attention is focusing of
consciousness on a particular object. It implies withdrawal from some
things in order to deal effectively with others. It is takin g possession of
one, out of several simultaneous objects or trains of thought by the mind,
in clear and vivid form‖. There are broadly four forms of attention:
selective attention, divided attention, sustained attention, and executive
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23 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Selective attention :
When bombarded with numerous attention grabbing environmental factors
or stimuli, our brain selectively focus on particular stimuli and block out
other stimuli consciously. This term of attention is known as selective
attention.
Divided attentio n:
It refers to the ability to maintain attention on two or more tasks
simultaneously. For example, texting while talking to someone. According
to some psychologists it is the ability to multi -task.
Executive attention :
This form of attention helps us in b locking out unimportant features of the
environment and motivates us to attend only those features that are
important of our goal accomplishment.
Sustained attention :
This form of attention helps us in maintaining focus or concentration on
one task for a p rolonged period of time.
1.3.2 Theories of Attention :
Chun et al. [5] distinguished attention according to the types of
information that attention operates over. Therefore, external attention
refers to the selection and modulation of sensory information (p erceptual
attention), whereas internal attention includes cognitive control as well as
the contents of working memory, long -term memory, task sets or response
selection (central/reflective attention). Cognitive control mechanisms
prioritize, independent of sensory modality, which perceptual information
to select, encode and maintain in working memory, while suppressing
distraction. Moreover, executive processes and working memory influence
perceptual processes and guide eye movements. However, perceptual
attention can also influence what gets maintained in working memory.
Unattended objects or events can be processed if the primary target task is
easy, indicative of late selection. On the contrary, if the primary task is
very difficult, all of attention beco mes devoted to the target, revealing
patterns of early selection. Increased central load, such as increased
working memory load or task switching, increases interference from
distractors and results in full perceptual identification of ignored items
(late selection). Finally, overt training of attention represents a highly
promising area for interdisciplinary and translational research.
Kerr et al. [14] proposed a neural framework to explain how body -focused
attention could exert ―upward‖ influence on metac ognition and on
cognitive and emotion regulation. More specifically, body -focused
attentional practice enhances localized attentional control over the 7 -14 Hz
alpha rhythm that is thought to play a key role in regulating sensory input
to sensory neocortex as well as enhancing signal -to-noise properties across
the neocortex. The generalization of top -down, attentional alpha rhythm munotes.in

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24 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception modulation to other thalamocortical circuits could enhance one‘s ability to
filter and prioritize the flow of information through out the brain, such as
selective attention and working memory. Somatic attentional modulation
proved to bring about a more generalized improvement in selective spatial
attention both in visual and auditory modalities. Moreover, increased
alpha power facili tated working memory processes through suppressing
irrelevant, internal stimuli by attending to a sensory stimulus such as
breadth. Furthermore, somatotopically focused attention enabled the
broader modulation of the sensory field, which in turn enabled a more
sustained, yet homeostatically, regulated attention to distressing thoughts,
feelings and sensations.
Finally, working through the sequence from mindfulness of the body to
mindfulness of thoughts evoked one‘s ability to maintain greater
attentional fl exibility and thus, be present, but non -reactive to his internal
experiences, such as negative cognitions and strong negative emotions.
Tsuchiya et al. [27] made a review study on the relationship between
consciousness and attention. There is a common beli ef, originating from
the pre -frontal parietal network (PPN) that consciousness in different
senses is always interrelated with a type of attention. Moreover, the pre -
frontal parietal network (PPN) is also associated with working memory,
executive control a nd chunking, thus, attention complements the set of the
core psychological components of consciousness. However, others are in
favor of attention and consciousness following an independent path in
their route to decision making processes. Except from the v ariable types of
attention and consciousness and, possibly, their separable function,
researchers point to the intermodal effects of attention on consciousness.
Conscious auditory perception, olfactory consciousness as well as
conscious retrieval of memori es were all found to be influenced by
attention.
Notwithstanding, there is an ample field for empirical investigation
regarding the effects of top -down attention on the conscious perception of
an isolated stimulus that is either dominant (visual input or i nput present in
time) or non -dominant (olfaction and memory or past memory/future
planning). Therefore, peripheral vision, unexpected strong olfactory
stimuli as well as the feeling of familiarity may all interfere with top -down
attention and its interrela tion with conscious experience.
1.3.3. Consciousness of Mental Processes :
Consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience or awareness of internal and
external existence.[1] Despite millennia of analyses, definitions,
explanations and debates by philosophers and scientists, consciousness
remains puzzling and controversial, being ―at once the most familiar and
[also the] most mysterious aspect of our lives‖. Perhaps the only widely
agreed notion about the topic is the intuition that consciousness exists.
Opinio ns differ about what exactly needs to be studied and explained as
consciousness. Sometimes, it is synonymous with the mind, and at other
times, an aspect of mind. In the past, it was one‘s ―inner life‖, the world of munotes.in

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25 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion introspection, of private thought, imagi nation and volition. Today, it often
includes any kind of cognition, experience, feeling or perception. It may
be awareness, awareness of awareness, or self -awareness either
continuously changing or not. There might be different levels or orders of
conscio usness, or different kinds of consciousness, or just one kind with
different features. Other questions include whether only humans are
conscious, all animals, or even the whole universe. The disparate range of
research, notions and speculations raises doub ts about whether the right
questions are being asked.
Examples of the range of descriptions, definitions or explanations are:
simple wakefulness, one‘s sense of selfhood or soul explored by ―looking
within‖; being a metaphorical ―stream‖ of contents, or be ing a mental
state, mental event or mental process of the brain; having phanera or
qualia and subjectivity; being the ‗something that it is like‘ to ‗have‘ or
‗be‘ it; being the ―inner theatre‖ or the executive control system of the
mind.
Mental processes :
Mental processes encompass all the things that the human mind can do
naturally. Common mental processes include memory, emotion,
perception, imagination, thinking and reasoning. Since the human mind is
constantly active, mental processes are continuously relevant and affecting
or intaking events from daily life. Cognitive psychology is defined as the
study of individual -level mental processes such as information processing,
attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, decision -
making, and thinking.
The 8 basic psychological processes are: (a) perception, (b) learning, (c)
language, (d) thought, (e) attention, (f) memory, (g) motivation, and (h)
emotion. Let‘s look at each process individually. All are closely related to
each other.
1.3.4 Preconscious Processing :
Preconscious processing, a term coined to design a neural process that
potentially carries enough activation for conscious access, but is
temporarily buffered in a nonconscious store,
Hypnosis :
There may be a connection between hy pnosis and creativity because they
both involve the preconscious. As Krippner (1965) put it, ―hypnosis …
may aid the breakdown into the preverbal realm where the creative
inspiration has its origin‖ (p. 94). The preverbal realm is the preconscious.
In this light there may be a connection because creative persons and
creative processes do sometimes draw from the preconscious (Rothenberg
1990; Smith & Amner 1997Rothenberg, 1990Smith and Amner, 1997)
and because they tend to be open to experience (McCrae 1987) . Openness
may allow them to consider ideas in the preconscious —and the possibility
of being hypnotized —as reasonable and feasible. Note the wording, munotes.in

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26 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception however: some creative persons, some creative processes, and some of the
time. Not all creativity relies o n the preconscious. Some creative acts are
intentional and tactical instead. Furthermore, differences among creative
persons suggest that whereas some employ certain paths in their creative
efforts, others take other paths.
Bowers (1979) also reported an a ssociation between hypnotizability and
creativity. It is difficult to interpret this particular study, however, because
of its only moderate sample size (N = 32) and the use of a composite index
of creativity. That composite did include a divergent thinkin g test (i.e.,
consequences), but scores were combined with ratings from a measure of
creative activities. She also reported moderate but statistically significant
correlations between creativity and absorption, and between what she
called effortless experi encing and creativity. Effortless experiencing
would seem to parallel Langer‘s (1989) concept of mindfulness, as well as
absorption and flow (Csikszentmihalyi 1999). Indeed, we have a set of
parallel processes, with these and absorption (also see Bowers 19 67,
1978Bowers, 1967Bowers, 1978).
It may be that the relationship between hypnosis and verbal creativity is
different from that between hypnosis and nonverbal material (Ashton &
McDonald 1985).
Manmiller et al. (2005) found certain creative styles to be r elated to
absorption more than hypnotizability. They did not, however, administer
EEG, PET, or MRIs (Ashton & McDonald 1985; Bowers 1968, 1971;
Bowers & van der Meulen 1970; P. Bowers 1967; Gur & Reyher
1976Ashton and McDonald, 1985Bowers, 1968Bowers, 1971 Bowers and
van der Meulen, 1970Bowers, 1967Gur and Rayner, 1976).
Visual Masking :
Visual masking is an experimental paradigm widely used in different
domains of cognitive research such as studying preconscious processes
(e.g., priming), neural correlates o f consciousness, spatiotemporal limits of
visual discrimination, perception -related endophenotypes associated with
psychopathology, etc. However, a comprehensive review of the state of
the psychological science of visual masking has not been published
recently. Masking research can be categorized into two mutually related
varieties. In a broader sense masking is an experimental tool for the
precise control over the availability of visual information used in a wide
variety of studies of sensory, perceptual, cognitive, and affective processes
and the set of studies belonging to this category is virtually limitless. In a
more narrow sense masking research focuses on studying the sensory,
perceptual, decision - and consciousness -related mechanisms responsible
for the emergence of the phenomenon of masking itself and on the
description of the varied effects subsumed under the concept of masking.
The present book gives an overview of the recent research in visual
masking specifically in terms of the latter above -mentioned aspect. Special
emphasize is put on the novel aspects having emerged just recently that
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27 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion 1.4 NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF ATTENTION AND VISUAL PERCEPTION Attention in Neuroscience and Psychology :
The scie ntific study of attention began in psychology, where careful
behavioral experimentation can give rise to precise demonstrations of the
tendencies and abilities of attention in different circumstances. Cognitive
science and cognitive psychology aim to turn these observations into
models of how mental processes could create such behavioral patterns.
Many word models and computational models have been created that posit
different underlying mechanisms (Driver, 2001; Borji and Itti, 2012).
The influence of sing le-cell neurophysiology in non -human primates along
with non -invasive means of monitoring human brain activity such as EEG,
fMRI, and MEG have made direct observation of the underlying neural
processes possible. From this, computational models of neural ci rcuits
have been built that can replicate certain features of the neural responses
that relate to attention (Shipp, 2004).
In the following sub -sections, the behavioral and neural findings of several
different broad classes of attention will be discussed.
Attention as Arousal, Alertness, or Vigilance :
In its most generic form, attention could be described as merely an overall
level of alertness or ability to engage with surroundings. In this way it
interacts with arousal and the sleep -wake spectrum. Vigilan ce in
psychology refers to the ability to sustain attention and is therefore related
as well. Note, while the use of these words clusters around the same
meaning, they are sometimes used more specifically in different niche
literature (Oken et al., 2006).
Studying subjects in different phases of the sleep -wake cycle, under sleep
deprivation, or while on sedatives offers a view of how this form of
attention can vary and what the behavioral consequences are. By giving
subjects repetitive tasks that require a level of sustained attention —such as
keeping a ball within a certain region on a screen —researchers have
observed extended periods of poor performance in drowsy patients that
correlate with changes in EEG signals (Makeig et al., 2000). Yet, there are
ways in which tasks can be made more engaging that can lead to higher
performance even in drowsy or sedated states. This includes increasing the
promise of reward for performing the task, adding novelty or irregularity,
or introducing stress (Oken et al., 2006) . Therefore, general attention
appears to have limited reserves that won‘t be deployed in the case of a
mundane or insufficiently rewarding task but can be called upon for more
promising or interesting work.
Interestingly, more arousal is not always benefi cial. The Yerkes -Dodson
curve (Figure 1B) is an inverted -U that represents performance as a
function of alertness on sufficiently challenging tasks: at low levels of
alertness performance is poor, at medium levels it is good, and at high munotes.in

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28 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception levels it becomes poor again. The original study used electric shocks in
mice to vary the level of alertness, but the finding has been repeated with
other measures (Diamond, 2005). It may explain why psychostimulants
such as Adderall or caffeine can work to increase focus i n some people at
some doses but become detrimental for others (Wood et al., 2014).
Attention and Visual Perception :
Saccades are small and rapid eye movements made several times each
second. As the fovea offers the highest visual resolution on the retina,
choosing where to place it is essentially a choice about where to deploy
limited computational resources. In this way, eye movements indicate the
locus of attention. As this shift of attention is outwardly visible it is known
as overt visual attention.
By tracking eye movements as subjects are presented with different
images, researchers have identified image patterns that automatically
attract attention. Such patterns are defined by oriented edges, spatial
frequency, color contrast, intensity, or motion (I tti and Koch, 2001).
Image regions that attract attention are considered ―salient‖ and are
computed in a ―bottom -up‖ fashion. That is, they don‘t require conscious
or effortful processing to identify and are likely the result of built -in
feature detectors in the visual system. As such, saliency can be computed
very quickly. Furthermore, different subjects tend to agree on which
regions are salient, especially those identified in the first few saccades
(Tatler et al., 2005).
Salient regions can be studied in ―free-viewing‖ situations, that is, when
the subject is not given any specific instructions about how to view the
image. When a particular task is assigned, the interplay between bottom -
up and ―top -down‖ attention becomes clear. For example, when instruct ed
to saccade to a specific visual target out of an array, subjects may
incorrectly saccade to a particularly salient distractor instead (van Zoest
and Donk, 2005). More generally, task instructions can have a significant
effect on the pattern of saccades generated when subjects are viewing a
complex natural image and given high -level tasks (e.g., asked to assess the
age of a person or guess their socio -economic status). Furthermore, the
natural pattern of eye movements when subjects perform real world task s,
like sandwich making, can provide insights to underlying cognitive
processes (Hayhoe and Ballard, 2005).
When subjects need to make multiple saccades in a row they tend not to
return to locations they have recently attended and may be slow to respond
if something relevant occurs there. This phenomenon is known as
inhibition of return (Itti and Koch, 2001). Such behavior pushes the visual
system to not just exploit image regions originally deemed most salient
but to explore other areas as well. It also me ans the saccade generating
system needs to have a form of memory; this is believed to be
implemented by short -term inhibition of the representation of recently -
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29 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion While eye movements are an effective means of controlling visual
attention, they are not the only option. ―Covert‖ spatial attention is a way
of emphasizing processing of different spatial locations without an overt
shift in fovea location. Generally, in the study of covert spatial attention,
subjects must fixate on a central poin t throughout the task. They are cued
to covertly attend to a location in their peripheral vision where stimuli
relevant for their visual task will likely appear. For example, in an
orientation discrimination task, after the spatial cue is provided an orien ted
grating will flash in the cued location and the subject will need to indicate
its orientation. On invalidly -cued trials (when the stimulus appears in an
uncued location), subjects perform worse than on validly -cued (or uncued)
trials (Anton -Erxleben an d Carrasco, 2013). This indicates that covert
spatial attention is a limited resource that can be flexibly deployed and
aids in the processing of visual information.
Covert spatial attention is selective in the sense that certain regions are
selected for f urther processing at the expense of others. This has been
referred to as the ―spotlight‖ of attention. Importantly, for covert —as
opposed to overt —attention the input to the visual system can be identical
while the processing of that input is flexibly sele ctive.
Covert spatial attention can be impacted by bottom -up saliency as well. If
an irrelevant but salient object is flashed at a location that then goes on to
have a task relevant stimulus, the exogenous spatial attention drawn by the
irrelevant stimulus can get applied to the task relevant stimulus, possibly
providing a performance benefit. If it is flashed at an irrelevant location,
however, it will not help, and can harm performance (Berger et al., 2005).
Bottom -up/exogenous attention has a quick time course, impacting covert
attention for 80 –130 ms after the distractor appears (Anton -Erxleben and
Carrasco, 2013).
In some theories of attention, covert spatial attention exists to help guide
overt attention. Particularly, the pre -motor theory of attention posits that
the same neural circuits plan saccades and control covert spatial attention
(Rizzolatti et al., 1987). The frontal eye field (FEF) is known to be
involved in the control of eye movements. Stimulating the neurons in FEF
at levels too low to evo ke eye movements has been shown to create effects
similar to covert attention (Moore et al., 2003). In this way, covert
attention may be a means of deciding where to overtly look. The ability to
covertly attend may additionally be helpful in social species , as eye
movements convey information about knowledge and intent that may best
be kept secret (Klein et al., 2009).
To study the neural correlates of covert spatial attention, researchers
identify which aspects of neural activity differ based only on diffe rences
in the attentional cue (and not on differences in bottom -up features of the
stimuli). On trials where attention is cued toward the receptive field of a
recorded neuron, many changes in the neural activity have been observed
(Noudoost et al., 2010; M aunsell, 2015). A commonly reported finding is
an increase in firing rates, typically of 20 –30% (Mitchell et al., 2007).
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30 Cognitive Neuroscience, Attention And Perception studied, with later areas showing stronger changes (Luck et al. , 1997;
Noudoost et al., 2010). Attention is also known to impact the variability of
neural firing. In particular, it decreases trial -to-trial variability as measured
via the Fano Factor and decreases noise correlations between pairs of
neurons. Attention has even been found to impact the electrophysiological
properties of neurons in a way that reduces their likelihood of firing in
bursts and also decreases the height of individual action potentials
(Anderson et al., 2013).
In general, the changes associate d with attention are believed to increase
the signal -to-noise ratio of the neurons that represent the attended
stimulus, however they can also impact communication between brain
areas. To this end, attention‘s effect on neural synchrony is important.
Withi n a visual area, attention has been shown to increase spiking
coherence in the gamma band —that is at frequencies between 30 and 70
Hz (Fries et al., 2008). When a group of neurons fires synchronously, their
ability to influence shared downstream areas is e nhanced. Furthermore,
attention may also be working to directly coordinate communication
across areas. Synchronous activity between two visual areas can be a sign
of increased communication and attention has been shown to increase
synchrony between the neu rons that represent the attended stimulus in
areas V1 and V4, for example (Bosman et al., 2012). Control of this cross -
area synchronization appears to be carried out by the pulvinar (Saalmann
et al., 2012).
In addition to investigating how attention impact s neurons in the visual
pathways, studies have also searched for the source of top -down attention
(Noudoost et al., 2010; Miller and Buschman, 2014). The processing of
bottom -up attention appears to culminate with a saliency map produced in
the lateral int raparietal area (LIP). The cells here respond when salient
stimuli are in their receptive field, including task -irrelevant but salient
distractors. Prefrontal areas such as FEF, on the other hand, appear to
house the signals needed for top -down control of spatial attention and are
less responsive to distractors.
While much of the work on the neural correlates of sensory attention
focuses on the cortex, subcortical areas appear to play a strong role in the
control and performance benefits of attention as wel l. In particular, the
superior colliculus assists in both covert and overt spatial attention and
inactivation of this region can impair attention (Krauzlis et al., 2013).
And, as mentioned above, the pulvinar plays a role in attention,
particularly with re spect to gating effects on cortex (Zhou et al., 2016).



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31
2
MEMORY AND LANGUAGE
Unit Structure
2.1 Memory: Models and Research Methods; Metacognition
2.1.1 Models and Research Methods
2.1.2 Metacognition
2.2 Memory Processes; Mental Images, Maps, and Propositions
2.2.1 Memory Processes
2.2.2 Mental Images, Maps , and Propositions
2.3 Language and language in context
2.3.1 Language
2.3.2 Language in context
2.4 Neuropsychological basis of Memory and language
2.4.1 Neuropsychological basis of Memory
2.4.2 Neuropsychological basis language
2.5 Questions
2.6 Refe rences
2.1 MEMORY Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is
encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of
information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past
events could not be remember ed, it would be impossible for language,
relationships, or personal identity to develop. Memory loss is usually
described as forgetfulness or amnesia.
Memory is often understood as an informational processing system with
explicit and implicit functioning t hat is made up of a sensory processor,
short -term (or working) memory, and long -term memory. This can be
related to the neuron. The sensory processor allows information from the
outside world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli
and at tended to various levels of focus and intent. Working memory serves
as an encoding and retrieval processor. Information in the form of stimuli
is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the
working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves
information from previously stored material. Finally, the function of long -
term memory is to store data through various categorical models or
systems.
Declarative, or explicit, memory is the conscious storage and recollection
of data.[10] Un der declarative memory resides semantic and episodic
memory. Semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific munotes.in

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32 Memory And Language meaning, while episodic memory refers to information that is encoded
along a spatial and temporal plane. Declarative memory is usual ly the
primary process thought of when referencing memory. Non -declarative, or
implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of
information. An example of a non -declarative process would be the
unconscious learning or retrieval of informatio n by way of procedural
memory, or a priming phenomenon. Priming is the process of subliminally
arousing specific responses from memory and shows that not all memory
is consciously activated, whereas procedural memory is the slow and
gradual learning of ski lls that often occurs without conscious attention to
learning.
Memory is not a perfect processor, and is affected by many factors. The
ways by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be
corrupted. Pain, for example, has been identified as a physical condition
that impairs memory, and has been noted in animal models as well as
chronic pain patients. The amount of attention given new stimuli can
diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage.
Also, the storage process can become corrupted by physical damage to
areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage, such as the
hippocampus. Finally, the retrieval of information from long -term memory
can be disrupted because of decay within long -term memory. Normal
functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and
capacity of the memory
2.1.1 Models and Research Methods :
To assess infants :
Infants do not have the language ability to report on their memories and so
verbal reports cannot be used to assess very young children’s memory.
Throughout the years, however, researchers have adapted and developed a
number of measures for assessing both infants’ recognition memory and
their recall memory. Habituation and operant conditioning techniques
have been used to assess infants’ recognition memory and the deferred and
elicited imitation techniques have been used to assess infants’ recall
memory.
Techniques used to assess infants’ recognition memory include the
following:
Visual paired comparison proced ure (relies on habituation): infants are
first presented with pairs of visual stimuli, such as two black -and-white
photos of human faces, for a fixed amount of time; then, after being
familiarized with the two photos, they are presented with the “familiar”
photo and a new photo. The time spent looking at each photo is recorded.
Looking longer at the new photo indicates that they remember the
“familiar” one. Studies using this procedure have found that 5 - to 6-
month -olds can retain information for as long as fourteen days.
Operant conditioning technique: infants are placed in a crib and a ribbon
that is connected to a mobile overhead is tied to one of their feet. Infants munotes.in

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33 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion notice that when they kick their foot the mobile moves – the rate of
kicking increases dr amatically within minutes. Studies using this
technique have revealed that infants’ memory substantially improves over
the first 18 -months. Whereas 2 - to 3-month -olds can retain an operant
response (such as activating the mobile by kicking their foot) for a week,
6-month -olds can retain it for two weeks, and 18 -month -olds can retain a
similar operant response for as long as 13 weeks.
Techniques used to assess infants’ recall memory include the
following:
Deferred imitation technique: an experimenter shows i nfants a unique
sequence of actions (such as using a stick to push a button on a box) and
then, after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions. Studies using
deferred imitation have shown that 14 -month -olds’ memories for the
sequence of actions can last for as long as four months.
Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to the deferred imitation
technique; the difference is that infants are allowed to imitate the actions
before the delay. Studies using the elicited imitation technique have sho wn
that 20 -month -olds can recall the action sequences twelve months later.
To assess children and older adults :
Researchers use a variety of tasks to assess older children and adults’
memory. Some examples are:
Paired associate learning : When one learns to associate one specific
word with another. For example, when given a word such as “safe” one
must learn to say another specific word, such as “green”. This is stimulus
and response.
Free recall : During this task a subject would be asked to study a list of
words and then later they will be asked to recall or write down as many
words that they can remember, similar to free response questions. Earlier
items are affected by retroactive interference (RI), which means the longer
the list, the greater the interfer ence, and the less likelihood that they are
recalled. On the other hand, items that have been presented lastly suffer
little RI, but suffer a great deal from proactive interference (PI), which
means the longer the delay in recall, the more likely that the items will be
lost.
Cued recall : One is given a significant hints to help retrieve information
that has been previously encoded into the person’s memory; typically this
can involve a word relating to the information being asked to remember.
This is similar to fill in the blank assessments used in classrooms.
Recognition : Subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures,
after which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words
or pictures from among a list of alternatives that we re not presented in the
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34 Memory And Language Detection paradigm: Individuals are shown a number of objects and
color samples during a certain period of time. They are then tested on their
visual ability to remember as much as they can by looking at testers and
pointing out whether the testers are similar to the sample, or if any change
is present.
Savings method : Compares the speed of originally learning to the speed
of relearning it. The amount of time saved measures memory.
Implicit -memory tasks : Information is drawn from memory without
conscious realization.
2.1.2 Metacognition :
Metacognition about memory, sometimes called metamemory, refers to
the self -monitoring and self -control of one’s own memory in the
acquisiti on and retrieval of information. It is a relatively new topic, having
been investigated by psychologists for approximately forty years. Before
then, researchers viewed learners as passive, as blank slates onto which
new ideas were etched through repetition . By contrast, subsequent
researchers viewed the learner as an active controller of his or her
learning, whether acquiring new or retrieving old information. Moreover,
researchers now know that people can monitor their progress during both
learning and ret rieval. For example, imagine a student who is studying for
an examination that will occur tomorrow in French class, say on French -
English vocabulary such as “ chateau/castle” and “ rouge/red.” Let us keep
that student in mind as we consider the monitoring and the control of the
student’s learning of the new vocabulary and his or her attempts to retrieve
the answers during the test the next day.
A theoretical framework that integrates all of these processes into an
overall system can be found in Nelson and N arens (1990). Different kinds
of monitoring processes can be distinguished in terms of when they occur
in the learning/retrieval sequence and whether they pertain to the person’s
future performance (in which case the focus is said to be on prospective
moni toring) or to the person’s past performance (in which case the focus is
said to be on retrospective monitoring).
2.2 MEMORY PROCESSES; MENTAL IMAGES, MAPS, AND PROPOSITIONS 2.2.1 Memory Processes :
Memory is a fundamental component of daily life and life wi thout
memory would be close to impossible. Our very survival depends on our
ability to remember who we are, who others are, our past experiences, our
learning to cope with our environment, skills that we have learned. what is
dangerous, what is safe, etc. If we don’t have memory then everyone else
would be a stranger to us, in fact, we will not be able to recognize
ourselves also when we look into a mirror, every day every task will be
new for us, every place will be new for us and living a normal routine l ife munotes.in

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35 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion will be impossible. We use memory at every moment of our lives, either
consciously or unconsciously. For example, right now, while typing the
words I’m writing, I’m using my memory of the alphabets, words and
their meanings that I have learned in my c hildhood. My brain is focused
on the content, but while I’m doing that, I’m not recalling how to type on
a conscious level. So, let us explore together this fascinating subject.
David Myers (2013) refers to memory as the persistence of learning over
time t hrough the storage and retrieval of information.
Baron defined memory as “an ability of the brain to retain and later
retrieve information”.
“Memory is an active system that receives information from senses,
organizes and alters that information as it sto res it away, and then retrieves
the information from storage” Ciccarelli & Meyer (2008)
Psychologists use three ways to find out that learning has taken place and
memory’s dominant role in these three ways i s obvious. These three ways
are:
1. Recall: This process involves retrieving or bringing back previously
learned information, thought or idea, that is not in our immediate
conscious awareness but that we had stored in our memory. For
example, when you are answering an essay type of question or fill in
the blank type of question in exam, you are recalling information that
you have stored in memory previously.
2. Recognition: In recognition, you only need to identify previously
learned information, e.g., while answering multiple choice questions
in exam , various possible answers are given along with the question
and you are merely recognizing the correct answer out of those
various options. Recognition is much easier than recall.
3. Relearning: Relearning refers to learning something more quickly
when you learn it a second time. It is a way of measuring retention of
information stored in memory. For example, while preparing for
exam, it may take you two hours to learn this lesson. After a gap of
two months, suppose you feel that you need to learn it aga in as you
are not able to recall it perfectly. This time, it will take you much less
time to relearn it because it is already there in your memory.
Psychologists have conducted many empirical studies to understand the
phenomenon of memory. For instance, psychologists have been intrigued
to find that memory gets affected by biological and environmental
occurrences such as stroke, accidents, traumas, etc. For instance, Myers
(2013) observed that people who suffer stroke may have warm personality
as before a nd may be able to do every day routine work, they may indulge
in enjoyable recollection of past events but they can’t remember new
memories of everyday happening. Such a person may not be able to recall
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36 Memory And Language half an hour back. Similarly, there are others, who cannot remember past
events from their lives after an accident or a trauma.
Another interesting observation brought up by empirical research is that
though most of the people have to put in considerable effort to learn a
series of information or notes, on the other hand, there are few people,
who can remember such details even by listening it or seeing it just once.
Moreover, such people, might be able to recall these numbers or words,
backward as easily as forward. Studies showed that such people could
recall correctly the series of these numbers or words and the details of the
setting in which they were first exposed to these series(such as the room
layout and the clothes worn by the expe rimenter), even after many years.
However, even in case of people with ordinary memory, Konkleet.al.
(2010) reported that people who were exposed to 2800 images for only 3
seconds each, could spot the repeats with 82% accuracy. In another
experiment, Mi tchell(2006) found that people who had seen a picture, 17
years back, could recognize the that picture correctly even when they were
shown that picture in fragmented form.
Every day, we are exposed to countless images, voices, sounds, tastes,
smells, textu res, places, faces, etc. The question arises, how does our brain
choose information out of this vast expanse of information and store that
information away for later use? How can we recollect information we
have not thought about for years? How exactly mem ories are formed and
stored? Let us try to get answers for some of these questions in the further
part of this unit.
Computer functioning and human memory:
This information processing model is based on the assumption that human
memory can be compared to a computer’s operations. Like the computer,
the human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to change
its form and content, stores the information and retrieves it when it is
needed. This entire operation is done in three step processes :
1. Encoding: The information gets in our brain in a way that allows it to
be stored.
2. Storage: The information is held in a way that allows it to be
retrieved later.
3. Retrieval: This refers to getting back the information at a later stage,
through reactiv ating and recalling that information and producing it in
a form similar to what was encoded.
However, there is a difference between comput er functioning and
human memory:
I. Our memories are less literal, more fuzzy and fragile than a
computer’s. That mean s that computer encodes the words without
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37 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion II. Most computers process information sequentially, even while
alternating between tasks. Our dual track brain processes many things
simultaneously, some o f them unconsciously, by means of parallel
processing. In other words, computers process one piece of data at a
time, while human memory can process a lot of information at the
same time.
III. In computer, once a piece of information is stored, it will no t change
one bit over the years. But in case of human memory, memories will
be continuously changed and reconstructed in response. Unlike a
computer, we are not dealing with a physical limit of size. Humans
are constantly removing some of their stored info rmation through
disuse and adding some more information as they come across new
information.
Encoding and Effortful Processing:
Automatic processing happens so effortlessly that it is difficult to shut off.
For example, you automatically wake up at 5 O’cl ock in the morning,
even if you forget to set up the alarm. Automatic processing does not
require attention or effort. Things happen subconsciously. However,
effortful processing requires conscious processing. The learning requires a
lot of effort and thou ght so that it can be stored. Most new or complex
tasks require undivided attention and utilize effortful processing. Once the
task is learned, it becomes part of automatic processing. For example,
consider learning to drive a car; at first, drivers intens ely grip the steering
wheel and pay undivided attention to the road ahead. But with experience
and practice, as they get used to driving, they relegate some part of
driving, such as when to press brake or hour much to press accelerator to
automatic process ing. This helps the driver to do other tasks such as
changing the music CD.
Same is true for other skills such as learning to read, write or speak a new
language, singing, playing cricket, gymnastics, etc. The basic principle
being that when the task is n ew we need to use effortful processing to put
it in memory and once it is learned properly, we use automatic processing
and perform that task without paying conscious effort to it.
Effortful Processing Strategies:
Committing new information to memory requ ires efforts just as learning a
concept from a textbook. Empirical studies have shown that many
strategies can be used to increase our ability to form new memories.
Whether we will be able to recall this new information from our long -term
memory depends up on how successfully we have used these strategies. If
these strategies are used effectively, they lead to durable and accessible
memories. Let us look at some of the strategies that can be used to
remember new information.

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38 Memory And Language 1. Chunking:
George Miller wa s the first one to use the concept of chunking in 1950s to
increase STM. People can group information into familiar manageable
units to expand their short -term memory capacity called “chunking”. In
other words, chunking is a term referred to the process o f taking individual
pieces of information (chunks) and grouping them into larger units. A
chunk is a collection of elements having strong association with elements
of other chunks of information. Chunking usually occurs so naturally that
we take it for gra nted. We can remember information best when we can
organize it into personally meaningful arrangements.
Chunking can be based on:
 Language patterns, for example, RATSHOELACE can be chunked as
RAT SHOE LACE. A paragraph can be chunked into phrases and
sentences. To learn a song or a poem, you break it into pieces of three
lines or four lines and learn it, once you have mastered each piece you
link it again in proper sequence. A shopping list can be broken down
into smaller groupings based on whether the tim es on the list are
vegetables, fruits, dairy or grains.
 Random digits are best chunked into groups of about three items. The
most common example of chunking occurs in phone numbers. For
example, if you think of a telephone number as one large piece of
information, then to easily remember this number such as
8082892988, you can break it down to 808 289 29 88
In nutshell, to use chunking technique effectively, you must use practice,
look for connections, associate groups of items to things from your
mem ory and of course use other memory strategies, such as mnemonics,
along with chunking.
2. Mnemonics:
Ancient Greek scholars and orators used Mnemonics to encode lengthy
passages and speeches. Mnemonics are memory aids (such as images,
maps, peg – words, etc.) that use vivid imagery. We are good at
remembering mental pictures. It is easier to remember concrete,
visualizable words than abstract words. Human mind more easily
remembers spatial, personal, surprising, physical humorous or otherwise
relatable i nformation rather than abstract or impersonal information.
Acronyms, rhyme or a jingle are other mnemonics often used.
An acronym is a word formed from the first letters or groups of letters in a
name or phrase. For example, UNICEF is an acronym for The U nited
Nations Children’s Fund, OCEAN is an acronym for the big five
personality traits - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness and neuroticism.
A rhyme is a saying that has similar terminal sounds at the end of each
line. Rhymes are easi er to remember because they can be stored by munotes.in

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39 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion acoustic encoding in our brains. For example, in fourteen hundred and
ninety -two Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue.
A peg word system refers to the technique of visually associating new
words with an existing list that is already memorized along with numbers.
A peg system is a technique for memorizing a list of words that must be
recalled in a particular order. One can use several types of pegs together
such as rhymes, numbers, shapes and alphabets. So, a peg is a m ental hook
on which you hang information. For example, to learn numbers, you
associate each number with a word that rhymes with that number – one-
sun, two -shoe, three -tree, four - door, five - hive, etc.
3. Hierarchies:
Fig.7.3


Hierarchy is a way of organizing information for encoding. When
complex information is broken down into broad concepts and further
subdivided into categories and subcategories, it is called hierarchy system.
We are more likely to recall a concept if we e ncode it in a hierarchy. For
example, see the hierarchy of the topic that we are studying right now (Fig
7.3)
Gordon Bower et.al.(1969) conducted an experiment in which words were
presented either randomly or grouped in categories such as minerals,
animal s, clothing, and transportation. These words were presented for one
minute each. It was found that participants could recall two to three times
better when words were organized in categories rather than when
presented randomly.
4. Distributed Practice:
More than 300 experiments over a century have shown that we can
memorize better, that is have better long - term retention, when our
encoding is distributed over time rather than concentrated at one particular
time. This is called spacing effect. The spacing effect was first noted by
Herman Ebbinghaus in the late 1800s.
For memorizing any information, we use two types of practices – mass
practice and distributed practice.
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40 Memory And Language Mass practice: Mass practice refers to a practice schedule in which the
amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is very short. Mass
practice is essentially cramming. Mass practice can produce speedy short -
term learning and feeling of confidence. But Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885)
said that those who learn quickly also forget quickly.
Distributed Practice: Distributed practice refers to a practice schedule in
which the amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is relatively
long. As distributed practice takes longer in absolute terms, individuals
using this technique often fals ely feel that they are being less efficient.
Distributed practice is more likely to result in success; however, it takes
some maturity to be able to do a little bit each day. For example, let us say
there are two students preparing for exam, having similar intelligence and
abilities. One student studies whole night before exam while another
student has studied one hour per day over six months, the second student
will do better in the exam than the one who studies for the whole night one
day before exam.
However, this does not mean that you need to study every day. Memory
researcher Harry Bahrick noted that the longer the time between study
sessions, the better the long -term retention will be and the fewer sessions
will be needed. After you have studied lon g enough to master the material,
further study becomes inefficient. In other words, over learning or over
memorizing is of no use. It is better to use that extra reviewing time a day
later if you need to recall that information after 10 days or a month lat er if
you need to recall that information after 6 months. In other words, to
prepare for annual exam, it is better to study and memorize material in
consistent manner over the months rather than studying in a crammed
manner, in a month immediately before t he exam.
In fact, Harry Bahrick along with his three family members conducted a 9 -
year long experiment. His conclusion was that if you spread your learning
over several months, rather than over a short period, you can retain
information for a life time.
Testing Effect: One effective way to distribute practice is repeated self -
testing. Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke (2006) called self -testing as
testing effect. They stated that it is better to practice retrieval (that is try to
answer the questions abou t the material as in exam) than merely to reread
material. Just rereading material will lull you into a false sense of mastery.
Levels of Processing:
Memory researchers believe that we process verbal information at
different levels, and the depth of our p rocessing affects our long -term
retention of the information. The levels of processing can be shallow and
deep processing. Let us discuss each one of them.
Shallow Processing: It encodes information at a very basic level that is
memorizing the appearance o r sound of words. munotes.in

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41 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Deep Processing: It encodes semantically. That means it :
 Attaches meaning of the words,
 Links them to existing memories, and
 Uses self -reference effect, that is, people remember things that are
personally relevant to them.
The deeper ( more meaningful) the processing, the better our retention will
be. Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) conducted an experiment to
investigate the effects of different types of processing on recall.
Participants were presented with words that either were written in capital
letters (appearance) or rhymed with other words (sound) or fitted in a
sentence (semantic). Results showed that processing a word deeply, by its
meaning(semantically) produced better recognition of that word at a later
time than the shal low processing of words by attending to their appearance
or sounds. This clearly shows that deeper levels of processing based on
meaning of information is better than shallower recall method. It means
that learning by rote or cramming without understandin g a lesson will not
help in retaining it in long term. To retain it in long term, you need to
understand the meaning of the material that you are studying and to related
it with other information that you already have.
Making Material Personally Meaningfu l:
We have difficulty in processing and storing the information that does not
appear meaningful to us or does not relate to our experiences. Ebbinghaus
(1850 -1909) believed that compared to learning material that appears to be
nonsense to us, learning mean ingful material takes just 1/10th of the effort.
Wayne Wickelgren (1977) said “The time you spend thinking about
material you are reading and relating it to previously stored material is
about the most useful thing you can do in learning any new subject
matter”.
People remember information significantly better when they process that
information in reference to themselves. The more it is personalized, the
better will be recall of that information. This is called the self -reference
effect. This tendency of self-reference effect is especially strong in
members of individualistic western cultures (Symons & Johnson, 1997).
There can be three explanations for self -reference effect :
1. Information relevant to self is processed more deeply and rehearsed
more often . May be due to better elaboration, such information
remains more accessible.
2. Information relevant to self leads to high arousal and that may
enhance memory.
3. People have special mechanism for encoding information relevant to
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42 Memory And Language 2.2.2 Menta l Images, Maps, and Propositions :
Communicating Knowledge: Pictures versus Words :
Knowledge can be represented in different ways in your mind: It can be
stored as a mental picture, or in words, or abstract propositions. In this
chapter, we focus on the di fference between those kinds of knowledge
representation. Of course, cognitive psychologists chiefly are interested in
our internal, mental representations of what we know. However, before we
turn to our internal representations, let’s look at external rep resentations,
like books. A book communicates ideas through words and pictures. How
do external representations in words differ from such representations in
pictures? Some ideas are better and more easily represented in pictures,
whereas others are better represented in words. For example, suppose
someone asks you, “What is the shape of a chicken egg?” You may find
drawing an egg easier than describing it. Many geometric shapes and
concrete objects seem easier to represent in pictures rather than in words.
However, what if someone asks you, “What is justice?” Describing such
an abstract concept in words would already be very difficult, but doing so
pictorially would be even harder. As Figure 7.3(a) and Figure 7.3(b) show,
both pictures and words may be used to represent things and ideas, but
neither form of representation actually retains all the characteristics of
what is being represented. For example, neither the word cat nor the
picture of the cat actually eats fish, meows, or purrs when petted. Both the
word cat and the picture of this cat are distinctive representations of
“catness.” Each type of representation has distinctive characteristics. As
you just observed, the picture is relatively analogous (i.e., similar) to the
realworld object it represents. The picture shows concrete attributes, such
as shape and relative size. These attributes are similar to the features and
properties of the realworld object the picture represents. Even if you cover
up a portion of the figure of the cat, what remains still looks like a part of
a cat. Under typical circumstances, most aspects of the picture are grasped
simultaneously; but you may scan the picture, zoom in for a closer look, or
zoom out to see the big picture. Even when scanning or zooming,
however, there are no arbitrary rules for looking at the picture —you may
scan the picture from the left to the right, from the bottom to the top, or
however it pleases you. In contrast, the word cat is a symbolic
representation, meaning that the relationship between the wor d and what it
represents is simply arbitrary. There is nothing inherently catlike about the
word. If you had grown up in another country like Germany or France, the
word “Katze” or the word “chat,” respectively, would instead symbolize
the concept of a cat to you. Suppose you cover up part of the word “cat.”
The remaining visible part no longer bears even a symbolic relationship to
any part of a cat.
Pictures in Your Mind: Mental Imagery :
Imagery is the mental representation of things that are not current ly seen
or sensed by the sense organs (Moulton & Kosslyn, 2009; Thomas, 2003).
In our minds we often have images for objects, events, and settings. For
example, recall one of your first experiences on a college campus. What munotes.in

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43 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion were some of the sights, sounds, and smells you sensed at that time —cut
grass, tall buildings, or tree -lined paths? You do not actually smell the
grass and see the buildings, but you still can imagine them. Mental
imagery even can represent things that you have never experienced. For
example, imagine what it would be like to travel down the Amazon River.
Mental images even may represent things that do not exist at all outside
the mind of the person creating the image. Imagine how you would look if
you had a third eye in the center of your forehead! Imagery may involve
mental representations in any of the sensory modalities, such as hearing,
smell, or taste. Imagine the sound of a fire alarm, your favorite song, or
your nation’s anthem. Now imagine the smell of a rose, of fried bacon, or
of an onion. Finally, imagine the taste of a lemon, pickle, or your favorite
candy. At least hypothetically, each form of mental representation is
subject to investigation (e.g., Kurby et al., 2009; Palmieri et al., 2009;
Pecenka & Keller, 2009). Nonetheless , most research on imagery in
cognitive psychology has focused on visual imagery, such as
representations of objects or settings that are not presently visible to the
eyes. When students kept a diary of their mental images, the students
reported many more visual images than auditory, smell, touch, or taste
images (Kosslyn et al., 1990). Most of us are more aware of visual
imagery than of other forms of imagery. We use visual images to solve
problems and to answer questions involving objects (Kosslyn & Rabin ,
1999; Kosslyn, Thompson & Ganis, 2006). Which is darker red —a cherry
or an apple? How many windows are there in your house or apartment?
How do you get from your home, apartment, or dormitory room to your
first class of the day? How do you fit together t he pieces of a puzzle or the
component parts of an engine, a building, or a model? According to
Kosslyn, to solve problems and answer questions such as these, we
visualize the objects in question. In doing so, we mentally represent the
images. Many psychol ogists outside of cognitive psychology are
interested in applications of mental imagery to other fields in psychology.
Such applications include using guided -imagery techniques for controlling
pain and for strengthening immune responses and otherwise promo ting
health. With such techniques, you could imagine being at a beautiful
beach and feeling very comfortable, letting your pain fade into the
background. Or you could imagine the cells of your immune system
successfully destroying all the bad bacteria in y our body. Such techniques
are also helpful in overcoming psychological problems, such as phobias
and other anxiety disorders. Design engineers, biochemists, physicists, and
many other scientists and technologists use imagery to think about various
structur es and processes and to solve problems in their chosen fields.
Dual -Code Theory: Images and Symbols :
According to dual -code theory, we use both pictorial and verbal codes for
representing information (Paivio, 1969, 1971) in our minds. These two
codes orga nize information into knowledge that can be acted on, stored
somehow, and later retrieved for subsequent use. According to Paivio,
mental images are analog codes. Analog codes resemble the objects they
are representing. For example, trees and rivers might be represented by
analog codes. Just as the movements of the hands on an analog clock are munotes.in

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44 Memory And Language analogous to the passage of time, the mental images we form in our minds
are analogous to the physical stimuli we observe.
In contrast, our mental representations fo r words chiefly are represented in
a symbolic code. A symbolic code is a form of knowledge representation
that has been chosen arbitrarily to stand for something that does not
perceptually resemble what is being represented. Just as a digital watch
uses ar bitrary symbols (typically, numerals) to represent the passage of
time, our minds use arbitrary symbols (words and combinations of words)
to represent many ideas. Sand can be used as well to represent the flow of
time, as shown in the hourglass in Figure 7 .4. A symbol may be anything
that is arbitrarily designated to stand for something other than itself. For
example, we recognize that the numeral “9” is a symbol for the concept of
“nineness.” It represents a quantity of nine of something. But nothing
about the symbol in any way would suggest its meaning. We arbitrarily
have designated this symbol to represent the concept. But “9” has meaning
only because we use it to represent a deeper concept. Concepts like justice
and peace are best represented symbolical ly. Paivio, consistent with his
dual-code theory, noted that verbal information seems to be processed
differently than pictorial information. For example, in one study,
participants were shown both a rapid sequence of pictures and a sequence
of words (Paiv io, 1969). They then were asked to recall the words or the
pictures in one of two ways. One way was at random, so that they recalled
as many items as possible, regardless of the order in which the items were
presented. The other way was in the correct sequ ence. Participants more
easily recalled the pictures when they were allowed to do so in any order.
But they more readily recalled the sequence in which the words were
presented than the sequence for the pictures, which suggests the possibility
of two diffe rent systems for recall of words versus pictures.
Storing Knowledge as Abstract Concepts: Propositional Theory :
Not everyone subscribes to the dual -code theory. Researchers have
developed an alternative theory termed a conceptual -propositional theory,
or propositional theory (Anderson & Bower, 1973; Pylyshyn, 1973, 1984;
2006). Propositional theory suggests that we do not store mental
representations in the form of images or mere words. We may experience
our mental representations as images, but these imag es are
epiphenomena —secondary and derivative phenomena that occur as a
result of other more basic cognitive processes. According to propositional
theory, our mental representations (sometimes called “mentalese”) more
closely resemble the abstract form of a proposition. A proposition is the
meaning underlying a particular relationship among concepts. Anderson
and Bower have moved beyond their original conceptualization to a more
complex model that encompasses multiple forms of mental representation.
Others, such as Pylyshyn (2006), however, still hold to this position.
What Is a Proposition? :
How would a propositional representation work? Consider an example. To
describe Figure 7.3(a), you could say, “The table is above the cat.” You munotes.in

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45 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion also could say, “The ca t is beneath the table.” Both these statements
indicate the same relationship as “Above the cat is the table.” With a little
extra work, you probably could come up with a dozen or more ways of
verbally representing this relationship. Logicians have devised a shorthand
means, called “predicate calculus,” of expressing the underlying meaning
of a relationship. It attempts to strip away the various superficial
differences in the ways we describe the deeper meaning of a proposition:
[Relationship between elemen ts]([Subject element], [Object element]) The
logical expression for the proposition underlying the relationship between
the cat and the table is shown in Figure 7.3(c). This logical expression, of
course, would need to be translated by the brain into a for mat suitable for
its internal mental representation.
Using Propositions:
It is easy to see why the hypothetical construct of propositions is so widely
accepted among cognitive psychologists. Propositions may be used to
describe any kind of relationship. E xamples of relationships include
actions of one thing on another, attributes of a thing, positions of a thing,
class membership of a thing, and so on, as shown in Table 7.1. In addition,
any number of propositions may be combined to represent more complex
relationships, images, or series of words. An example would be “The furry
mouse bit the cat, which is now hiding under the table.” The key idea is
that the propositional form of mental representation is neither in words nor
in images. Rather, it is in an a bstract form representing the underlying
meanings of knowledge. Thus, a proposition for a sentence would not
retain the acoustic or visual properties of the words. Similarly, a
proposition for a picture would not retain the exact perceptual form of the
picture (Clark & Chase, 1972). According to the propositional view (Clark
& Chase, 1972), both images [e.g., of the cat and the table in Figure
7.3(a)] and verbal statements [e.g., in Figure 7.3(b)] are mentally
represented in terms of their deep meanings, an d not as specific images or
words. That is, they are represented as propositions. According to
propositional theory, pictorial and verbal information are encoded and
stored as propositions. Then, when we wish to retrieve the information
from storage, the p ropositional representation is retrieved. From it, our
minds re -create the verbal or the imaginal code relatively accurately.
Some evidence suggests that these representations need not be exclusive.
People seem to be able to employ both types of representa tions to increase
their performance on cognitive tests (Talasli, 1990).
2.3 LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE IN CONTEXT 2.3.1 Language :
Language is a system of communication that is governed by a system of
rules (a grammar) and can express an infinite number of pro positions.
Language gives us the ability to communicate our intelligence to others by
talking, reading, and writing. As the psychologist Steven Pinker puts it,
language is the jewel in the crown of cognition (Pinker, 1994). munotes.in

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46 Memory And Language It is important to define langua ge precisely and particularly to distinguish
between language and communication. Although language is often used as
a communication system, there are other communication systems that do
not form true languages. For example, many bees use elaborate dances t o
tell other bees about a new found source of food. Although this dance
communicates where the food is, it can only communicate that kind of
message - the dance can’t inform the bees about an interesting sight to see
along the way to the food source. A natu ral language has two essential
characteristics.
1) Regular and Productive:
It is regular (governed by a system of rules, called grammar), and it is
productive, meaning that infinite combinations of things can be expressed
in it.
2) Arbitrariness and Disc reteness:
Other characteristics of human languages include arbitrariness (the lack of
necessary resemblance between a word or sentence and what it refers to)
and discreteness (the system can be subdivided into recognizable parts, for
example - sentences int o words (Hocket, 1960).
The Structure of Language :
When you have conversation, you first have to listen to the previous
sounds the speaker directs at you. Different languages have different
sounds (called phonemes). Phoneme is the smallest distinctive soun d unit
of a language. The study of the ways in which phonemes can be combined
in any given language constitutes the study of phonology. Next you put
the sounds together in some coherent way, identify the meaningful unit of
the language, an aspect known as morphology. Word ending prefix, tense
markers and the like are critical part of each sentence. Some of the
morphemes (smallest unit that carry meaning in a given language)are
words, and you also need to identify this and determine the role each word
plays in sentence. To do so, you need to determine the syntax, or structure,
of the sentence. A syntactically correct sentence does not by itself make
for a good conversation.
The sentence must also mean something to the listener. Semantics is the
branch of lin guistics and psycholinguistics devotes to the study of
meaning. Finally, for the conversation to work there must be some flow of
given - and-take. Listeners must pay attention and make certain
assumptions, and speakers must craft their contributions in ways that will
make the listener’s job feasible. This aspect of language, pragmatics, will
conclude our discussion on the Structure of language. Keep in mind
throughout that although the various aspects of language will be discussed
separately, in actual conve rsation they must work together.
We will repeatedly bring forth the ideas of the different linguistic rules
(such as phonological rules, syntactic rules) in this section. These rules
make up the grammar of the language and, taken together, define the ways munotes.in

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47 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion language works. It is important that linguists and psychologist used the
term grammar in the very restricted sense, here, meaning “the set of rules
for language”. In particular, grammatical in this context has nothing to do
with the “rules” of “good Englis h” such as “Don’t use ain’t” or “Use
punctuation at the end of the statement.” To a linguist or a psycholinguist,
the sentence “I ain’t going happily to it” is perfectly meaningful and
“legal”-that is, it follows the “rules” of English that native speakers
observe - and is therefore grammatical. (You understand it perfectly well,
right?). Here grammar refers not to polite ways of speaking but to ways of
speaking that form intelligible phrases or utterances recognizable as
examples of language that a native speaker of the language might produce.
Starting with the basic sound of speech, spoken language can be broken
down into these elements: phonemes, syllables, morphemes, word, Phrase,
and sentence. Apart from this there are many concepts in this topic. We
would discuss all this concepts in details.
 Phoneme:
Speech sounds, or phonemes, are made by adjusting the vocal cords and
moving the tongue, lips, and mouth in wonderfully precise ways to
produce vibrations in the airflow from the lungs. While hundreds of
speech sound can be distinguished on the basis of their frequency(the
number of vibrations per second), their intensity (the energy in the
vibrations) and their pattern of vibrations over time.
To illustrate phonemes, consider the k phoneme in the word key and cool.
Say these words to yourself, and you will realize that the k sound is
different in two words: simply notice the position of your lips when you
are saying them and the “sharper” sound of the K phones in the word key
here, they are two different ph onemes, but either K sounds can be used in
the word key without changing the meaning of the word; the same can be
said for cool. English speakers do not notice the difference in these k
sounds and, therefore, since they make up no difference in the meaning of
the words and can be substituted for the one another, they can be grouped
together as a single phoneme.
 Morpheme:
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a
part of a word (such as a prefix).Although syllables are the uni t of speech
perception, and some syllables have meanings, other language elements
are the perceptual units carrying the meaning of speech. These elements,
morphemes, are the smallest units of meaning in the speech perception.
Consider the word distasteful. It is composed of three morphemes, each of
which has meaning. The morphemes in this example are dis, taste, and ful.
Dis means “negation” taste is a meaningful word, ful and means “quality”.
Thus, morphemes can be prefixes, words, or suffixes. Each is com posed of
syllables, of course, but what makes them morphemes is that they convey
meaning. Morphemes are discovered by asking people to break words up
into the smallest unit that have meaning for them.
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48 Memory And Language  Semantics:
The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and
sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.
 Syntax:
The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a
given language.
 Grammar:
In language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate w ith and
understand others. Words are combined by the rules of grammar into
clauses, and clauses are formed into sentences. A clause consists of a verb
and its associated nouns, adjectives, and so on. Evidence indicates that
clauses, and not individual word s or whole sentences, are the major units
of perceived meaning in speech. When we hear a sentence with more than
one clause, we tend to isolate the clauses, analysing the meaning of each
(Bever, 1973).
 Language Development :
Childhood is the best time for language, no doubt about it. Young
children, the younger the better, are good at it; it is child’s play. It is a
onetime gift to the species. (Lewis Thomas, The Fragile Species, 1992).
Language development is a process starting early in human life. Anyone
who has tried to master a second language as an adult knows the difficulty
of language learning. And yet children learn languages easily and
naturally. Children who are not exposed to language early in their lives
will likely never learn one. Case studies, including Victor the “Wild Child,
who was abandoned as a baby in France and not discovered until he was
12, and Genie, a child whose parents kept her locked in a closet from 18
months until 13 years of age, are (fortunately) two of the only known
examples of these deprived children. Both of these children made some
progress in socialization after they were rescued, but neither of them ever
developed language (Rymer, 1993). This is also why it is important to
determine quickly if a child is deaf and to begi n immediately to
communicate in sign language. Deaf children who are not exposed to sign
language during their early years will likely never learn it (Mayberry,
Lock, & Kazmi, 2002).
Milestones in Language development? :
Receptive Language :
Children’s lang uage development moves from simplicity to complexity.
Infants start without language (infantis means “not speaking”). Yet by 4
months of age, babies can discriminate speech sounds (Stager & Werker,
1997). They can also read lips: They prefer to look at a f ace that matches a
sound, so we know they can recognize that ah comes from wide open lips
and from mouth with corners pulled back (Kuhl & Meltzoff, 1982). This munotes.in

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49 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion period marks the beginning of the development of babies’ receptive
language, their ability to co mprehend speech – what is said to them or
about them. At seven months and beyond, babies grow in their power to
do what you and I find difficult when listening to an unfamiliar language:
segmenting spoken sounds into individual words. Moreover, their
adept ness at this task, as judged by their listening patterns, predicts their
language abilities at ages 2 and 5 (Newman et al., 2006).
Productive Language:
Babies’ productive language is their ability to produce words, matures
after their receptive language.
Stages of Language Development:
There are mainly five stages of language development. We would discuss
in details all the stages :
1) Babbles Stage:
Beginning at about 04 months. It consists of babbles, many speech sounds.
Yet by 4 months of age, babies can discriminate speech sounds (Stager &
Werker, 1997). Many of these spontaneously uttered sounds are consonant
-vowel pairs formed by simply bunching the tongue in the front of the
mouth or by opening or closing the lips.
Beginning at about 10 months, babbl ing changes and a trained ear can
identify various sounds related to the household language. Without
exposure to other languages, babies lose their ability to hear and produce
sounds and tones found outside their native language. Babbling is not an
imitati on of adult speech - it includes sounds from various languages,
including the one not spoken at home. Deaf infants who observe their deaf
parents signing begin to babble more with their hands.
2) One -word stage:
Beginning at about 12 months. The stage in speech development, during
which a child speaks mostly in single words. They have already learnt that
sounds carry meanings. They now begin to use sounds - usually only one
recognizable syllable such as ma or da. But family members quickly learn
to unders tand. Across the world, baby’s first words are often nouns that
label objects or people. This one -word stage may equal a sentence.
3) Two -word, telegraphic speech:
At about 18 months, children’s words learning explodes from about a
word per week to a word per day. By their second birthday, most have
entered the two -word stage. They start uttering two -word sentences in
telegraphic speech: Like the old -fashioned telegrams (TERMS
ACCEPTED. SEND MONEY), this early form of speech contains mostly
nouns and verbs (Want juice). Alsolike telegrams, it follows rules of
syntax; the words are in a sensible order. English -speaking children
typically place adjectives before nouns —big doggy rather than doggy big. munotes.in

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50 Memory And Language 4) Language develops rapidly into complete sentences:
Once children move out of the two -word stage, they quickly begin uttering
longer phrases (Fromkin & Rodman, 1983). If they get a late start on
learning a particular language, for example after receiving a cochlear
implant or being an international adoptee, thei r language development still
proceeds through the same sequence, although usually at a faster pace
(Ertmer et al., 2007; Snedeker et al., 2007). By early elementary school,
children understand complex sentences and begin to enjoy the humour
conveyed by dou ble meanings: “You never starve in the desert because of
all the sand -which -is there.”
Table 10.1.: Summary of Language development Sr. No. Month (Approximate) Stage 1 4 Babbles many speech sounds 2 10 Babbling resembles household language. 3 12 One-word stage. 4 24 Two-word, telegraphic speech. 5 24+ Language develops rapidly into complete
sentences.
Explaining Language Development:
Noam Chomsky argued that all languages do share some basic elements
which he called universal grammar. For example, al l human languages
have nouns, verbs and adjectives as grammatical building blocks.
Chomsky believed that we human beings are born with a built -in
predisposition to learn grammar rules, that is why preschoolers pick up
language so readily and use grammar so well. It happens naturally. But no
matter what language we learn, we start speaking it mostly in nouns rather
than in verbs and adjectives.
Further, research shows that 7 month olds can learn simple sentence
structures. In an experiment, after repeatedly hearing syllable sequences
that follow one rule, infants listened to syllables in a different sequence.
They could detect the difference between two patterns later on. This
suggested that babies come with a built in readiness to learn grammatical
rules.
Childhood seems to represent critical(sensitive) period for mastering
certain aspects of language before the language learning window closes.
People who learn a second language as adults usually speak it with the
accent of their native language and have dif ficulty in mastering the second
language. The window on language learning closes gradually in early
childhood. By about age 7, those who have not been exposed to either a
spoken or a signed language gradually lose their ability to master any
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51 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Language communication :
A language is said to communicate when others understand the meaning
of our sentences, and we, in turn, understand their communications, of
course, this is not limited to language. We convey much information to
others nonverbally by ge sture. When we speak one of the thousands of
languages of the world, we draw on our underlining knowledge of the
rules governing the use of language. This knowledge about language, or
linguistic competence, as it is called, is used automatically and almost
effortlessly to generate and comprehend meaningful speech. Linguistic
competence seems to be universal human species -typical ability.
2.3.2 Language in context :
Living in a silent world :
The discussion so far has been about the use of vocal speech symbol s, or
verbal language, in thinking. Can other language system be used as tools
of thought? Studies of the deaf provide an approach to this question. Deaf
children with little verbal language ability score in the normal range on
standardized tests of cognit ive performance (Vernon, 1967), and their
cognitive and thinking abilities develop relatively normally (Furth, 1971).
Such findings have been interpreted as indicating that language plays little
or no role in the thinking or cognitive development of the de af. But many
of the deaf are taught sign language, and, even if they are not explicitly
taught such language, it has been found that deaf children will develop
their own (Goldin& Feldman, 1977). This may indicate that there is an
innate human program for l anguage be it verbal or gestural.
The standard visual -gestural sign languages learned by the deaf have many
features in common with auditory languages. For example, just as the
auditory -vocal languages use combinations of small number of basic
sounds, or p honemes, as they are called to generate meaningful language,
so, too, do the visual -gestural languages of the deaf make use of a
relatively small number of basic movement combinations for
communication. Thus, from combinations of the basic gestures, an inf inity
of ideas can be expressed in the visual -gestural languages. Some studies
suggest that deaf children who know sign language are better at a variety
of cognitive and thinking tasks than are those without this language
(Vornon & Koh, 1971; Stuckless & B irch, 1966).Thus, those deaf people
whose verbal languages skills are minimal seem to have a nonverbal
language tool of thought.
The challenge of life without hearing may be greatest for children. Unable
to communicate in customary ways, signing playmates find it difficult to
coordinate their play with speaking playmates. Their school achievement
may suffer because academic subjects are rooted in spoken languages.
Adolescents may feel socially excluded with a resulting low self -
confidence.
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52 Memory And Language Do other specie s have language? :
Language is considered to be a very complex form of communication that
occurs among the human race. It is a set of verbal and non -verbal
conventions that humans use to express their ideas and wants. Humans use
words while talking to expre ss their needs and wants and they cry, slouch
and make faces when they want to express feelings. Animals, or in other
words non -humans also show signs of communication such as a dog
wagging its tail when excited or a bird singing a song to attract the
oppo site sex. However, do animals have their language? Researchers say
that animals or non -humans, do not have a true language like humans.
However, they do communicate with each other through sounds and
gestures. Animals have a number of in -born qualities the y use to signal
their feelings, but these are not like the formed words we see in the human
language. Human children show these same forms of communication as
babies when crying and gesturing. But they slowly learn the words of the
language and use this as form of communication.
If human children were separated at birth away from humans they would
not learn the words of the language and would not be able to communicate
with other humans. They would resort to sounds and gestures as their
primary form of comm unication. However, in the animal kingdom if they
are reared alone from birth they are still able to behave and communicate
in the same way as other species of their kind.
So what about animals such as dogs that understand commands or birds
that can “talk” ? Dogs can be trained to follow certain commands such as
‘sit’, ‘come’ and ‘roll over’, but does this mean they understand language
and therefore can use it as well? Dogs are known to be experts at reading
their owners intentions and that they do not respo nd to actual words but
the tone in which it is said. So if you say “bad dog” in a cheerful tone, the
dog will wag its tail. If you say “good dog” in a harsh tone, the dog will
put his tail in between his legs. Birds that are in captivity are known to be
able to “talk” - it is believed that it does not mean anything to them and
they are merely copying sounds they hear. There is no doubt that animals
communicate with each other to one degree or another in response to
different stimuli such as hunger or fear. H uman language is creative and
consists of unique characteristics that give us the ability to engage in
abstract and analytical ways.
THINKING AND LANGUAGE :
Philip Dale very correctly said that thinking is more than language and
language is more than thinki ng, but thinking and language are related and
in this topic we will describe some of the ways in which they are related.
Every day we use language in our thinking. For many people, much of the
time, a good deal of thinking involves the use of word symbols and the
rules of grammar to join the words into phrases and sentences. The words,
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53 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion semantic long term memories. When we think with language, we draw on
this store of information to use lan guage as tool of thought.
Some theories take a more extreme view of the role language in thinking;
they claim that language can actually determine the thoughts we are
capable of having. But this linguistic relativity hypothesis, as it is called,
has been u nder increasing attack in recent years.
Because so much thinking involves language, the idea arose in psychology
that thinking was actually a kind of inner speech, a kind of “talking to
yourself under your breath.” According to this idea, people make small
movement of the vocal apparatus when they think and carry on their
thinking by talking to themselves. A number of experiments have
indicated that movements of the vocal apparatus may indeed accompany
thought, but other experiments have made it clear that such movements are
not necessary for thinking (Smith et al., 1947). In one heroic experiment,
the subject, a physician, was completely paralyzed by means of a drug. He
literally could not move a muscle, and his breathing was done for him by
an iron lung. T he paralyzing drug, however, did not affect the way his
brain worked; it merely acted on the drug, the subject was given certain
verbal problems to solve; he could not answer, of course, because the
muscles necessary for speaking were paralyzed. There is n o way to be
certain that, thinking whil e under the influence of the drug, but all
indications are that he was unable to do so because after the paralysis was
removed by a counteracting drug, he clearly remembered what had taken
place while he was drugged a nd promptly gave the answer to problems.
Language influences thinking:
There are at least 5,000 living languages in the world about 140 of them
are spoken by a million or more people. Is a particular language merely a
convenient set of symbols for the comm unication of our thoughts?
According to the linguist Benjamin L. Whorf, the answer is no. Whorf
argued that the higher levels of thinking require language and that the
characteristics of particular language actually shape the way that users of
the language think about things. There are two ideas here. One is that
thinking requires language, the other has come to be called the linguistic
relativity hypothesis . Most of the interest has focused on this hypothesis.
In its strongest form, it says that the partic ular language people used
determines how they see the world.
Whorf based his hypothesis on studies of North American Indian
languages, but his hypothesis is said to hold for all languages. He found
many differences between these languages and European ones and argued
that such differences predispose their users to think in different ways. For
example, the grammar of a language dictates how people describe changes
in the environment. Since the basic unit of English grammar are nouns and
verbs, English -speaki ng people commonly think in terms of “things” and
“actions” Whorf found that people using other languages do not
necessarily divide situation up this way. Furthermore, all languages have
some words for which no equivalents can be found in any other languag e. munotes.in

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54 Memory And Language The German word weltanschauungsfor instance, means something like “a
general world view, or a general philosophy of the world”. There is no
word with this precise meaning in English. In addition, languages
categorize events in various ways. Eskimos are said to use some four
different words for snow, while English has only one. According to the
linguistic relatively hypothesis. Eskimos can think about snow with
greater precision than English speaking can people and have different
conception of what snow i s, the Hopi language has single word for all
flying objects their than birds. The hypothesis states that Hopi speakers
thinks differently about flying objects than do speakers of languages that
do not categorize the world in this way. The Hanno people of t he
Philippine, islands are said to have names for 92 varieties of rice, but all
92 varieties are, for the English speaker, simply rice(Con, 1954 cited in
brown, 1965).
The linguistic relativity hypothesis is controversial. Many linguistic have
argued that the hypothesis is circular Whorf found that languages differ in
their grammar and in the concepts they can express from the hypothesized
that thinking must also differ among the users of this different languages.
However, the differences in the thinking ar e themselves assessed by the
way of the language is used. What is hidden are ways of assessing
conceptions of the word independently of language. The few experiments
that have attempted this have had inconclusive results. Perhaps it is not so
much a matter of what can be thought about by users of a language as it is
of how easy it is to think about certain things. English -speaking thinkers
can think about the concept of the “world view” even if they do not have a
convenient word for it. English speakers can think about different kinds of
snow, even have to use more words to describe it.
More recently, interest has shifted away from relativity to universals in
thinking perhaps the basic thought processes in thinking are similar, even
though languages differ widely. Colour perception provides an example of
the possible universality of thinking despite the different ways in which
different languages designate colours. It has been found that certain
“focal” colours -a maximum of 11 -are chosen from a colour chart by
speakers of widely differing languages. Furthermore, it has been shown
that thinking can be influenced by these focal colours even when the
language does not have names for them. This is contrary to what might be
expected from the linguistic relativity hypothesis. For example, Eleanor
Rrosch has done experiments with the Dani people of the New Guinea.
The Dani have only “black” and mola for “white”. The Dani subjects in
these experiments studies a colour chart arbitrary names were assigned to
eight of th e focal colours and eight of the non -focal colours on the chart.
The Dani learn the names assigned to the focal colours more rapidly and
remembered them better than they did those given to the other colors.
Thus even though the Dani do not have names for t he focal colors in their
language, their thinking is influenced by them.

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55 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Thinking in images :
To a large degree, the availability of the symbols that we use in thinking
are often words and language, and therefore thinking and language are
closely related. A language makes available hundreds of thousands of
potential language symbols is what makes human thinking so much more
sophisticated than the thinking of other animals. Although language is a
powerful tool in human thought, as when we “talk to ourselves ” internally,
images are another important type of symbol used in thinking.
People vary remarkable in how much they use images in their thinking. A
few report that they almost never use mental pictures, so they must be
doing their thinking with words, or v erbally; others that most of their
thinking is done in image form. When we use images to think, they are not
usually complete “pictures in the head”. They are usually incomplete.
Consider the imagery you use, if you use it at all, in solving the following
problems (Huttenlocher, 1973). Imagine that you are standing on a certain
street corner in a section of a city you know well. How would you walk or
drive from this point to some other part of the city?
Here is another problem in which you might use imagery : from where on
earth could you walk first 1 mile south, then 1 mile east, then 1 mile north,
and end up exactly where you began? Did you use imagery in trying to
solve this problem? If so, what was your imagery like?
When solving problems like these, most people report that their images are
incomplete. To solve the first problem, people usually make a visual map,
but it is a strange one. Although it shows turns, the lines connecting the
turns are of no particular length. In solving the second problem (the
answer is the north pole), people imagine a globe - but not the whole globe,
only the polar region. Such problem -solving images contain only a few
details - say, of sidewalks, roads, buildings, or color -although some people
may imagine snow when they think o f the north pole. In general, the
images are abstractions of certain features from previous experience.
The incomplete, abstract images most of us use in thinking seem to be
constructed from elements stored in long term memory. The constructive
process involved in imagery has been studied by means of experiment in
which people were asked to form images of various sizes. For example, an
elephant might be imaged as the size of a mouse, or mouse imaged as the
size of an elephant. Variations of this sort in the sizes of images indicate
that images are constructions. Even more interesting, however, are studies
indicating that the ease with which information is found in an image
depends on the size (and other aspects) of the image constructed (Kosslyn,
1983).
Differences among Languages :
Why are there so many different languages around the world? And how
does using any language in general and using a particular language
influence human thought? As you know, different languages comprise
different lexicons. They also use different syntactical structures. These munotes.in

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56 Memory And Language differences often reflect variations in the physical and cultural
environments in which the languages arose and developed. For example,
in terms of lexicon, the Garo of Burma distinguish among many kinds of
rice, which is understandable because they are a rice -growing culture.
Nomadic Arabs have more than 20 words for camels. These peoples
clearly conceptualize rice and camels more specifically and in more
complex ways than do people outside their cultural g roups. As a result of
these linguistic differences, do the Garo think about rice differently than
we do? And do the Arabs think about camels differently than we do?
Consider the way we discuss computers. We differentiate between many
aspects of computers, including whether the computer is a desktop or a
laptop, a PC or a Mac, or uses Linux or Windows as an operating system.
A person from a culture that does not have access to computers would not
require so many words or distinctions to describe these machi nes. We
expect, however, specific performance and features for a given computer
based on these distinctions. Clearly, we think about computers in a way
that is different than that of people who have never encountered a
computer. The syntactical structures of languages differ, too. Almost all
languages permit some way in which to communicate actions, agents of
actions, and objects of actions (Gerrig & Banaji, 1994). What differs
across languages is the order of subject, verb, and object in a typical
declarat ive sentence. Also differing is the range of grammatical inflections
and other markings that speakers are obliged to include as key elements of
a sentence. For example, in describing past actions in English, we indicate
whether an action took place in the past by changing (inflecting) the verb
form. For example, walk changes to walked in the past tense. In Spanish
and German, the verb also must indicate whether the agent of action was
singular or plural and whether it is being referred to in the first, seco nd, or
third person. In Turkish, the verb form must additionally indicate whether
the action was witnessed or experienced directly by the speaker or was
noted only indirectly. Do these differences and other differences in
obligatory syntactical structures influence —or perhaps even constrain —
the users of these languages to think about things differently because of
the language they use while thinking? We will have a closer look at these
questions in the next two sections, in which we explore the concepts of
linguistic relativity and linguistic universals.
Bilingualism —An Advantage or Disadvantage? :
Does bilingualism make thinking in any one language more difficult, or
does it enhance thought processes? The data are somewhat contradictory.
Different particip ant populations, different methodologies, different
language groups, and different experimenter biases may have contributed
to the inconsistency in the literature. Consider what happens when
bilinguals are balanced bilinguals, who are roughly equally fluen t in both
languages, and when they come from middle -class backgrounds. In these
instances, positive effects of bilingualism tend to be found. Executive
functions, which are located primarily in the prefrontal cortex and include
abilities such as to shift b etween tasks or ignore distracters, are enhanced
in bilingual individuals. Even the onset of dementia in bilinguals may be munotes.in

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57 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion delayed by as much as four years (Andreou & Karapetsas, 2004; Bialystok
& Craik, 2010; Bialystok et al., 2007). But negative effects may result as
well. Bilingual speakers tend to have smaller vocabularies and their access
to lexical items in memory is slower (Bialystok, 2001b; Bialystok &
Craik, 2010).
What might be the causes of this difference? Let us distinguish between
what might be called additive versus subtractive bilingualism (Cummins,
1976). In additive bilingualism, a second language is acquired in addition
to a relatively well -developed first language. In subtractive bilingualism,
elements of a second language replace elemen ts of the first language. It
appears that the additive form results in increased thinking ability. In
contrast, the subtractive form results in decreased thinking ability
(Cummins, 1976). In particular, there may be something of a threshold
effect. Individ uals may need to be at a certain relatively high level of
competence in both languages for a positive effect of bilingualism.
Classroom teachers often discourage bilingualism in children (Sook Lee &
Oxelson, 2006). Either through letters requesting only En glish be spoken
at home, or through subtle attitudes and methods, many teachers actually
encourage subtractive bilingualism (Sook Lee & Oxelson, 2006).
Additionally, children from backgrounds with lower socioeconomic status
(SES) may be more likely to be s ubtractive bilinguals than are children
from the middle SES. Their SES may be a factor in their being hurt rather
than helped by their bilingualism. Researchers also distinguish between
simultaneous bilingualism, which occurs when a child learns two
langua ges from birth, and sequential bilingualism, which occurs when an
individual first learns one language and then another (Bhatia & Ritchie,
1999). Either form of language learning can contribute to fluency. It
depends on the particular circumstances in whic h the languages are
learned (Pearson et al., 1997). It is known, however, that infants begin
babbling at roughly the same age. This happens regardless of whether they
consistently are exposed to one or two languages (Oller et al., 1997). In
the United Stat es, many people make a big deal of bilingualism, perhaps
because relatively few Americans born in the United States of non -
immigrant parents learn a second language to a high degree of fluency. In
other cultures, however, the learning of multiple languages is taken for
granted. For example, in parts of India, people routinely may learn as
many as four languages (Khubchandani, 1997). In Flemish -speaking
Belgium, many people learn at least some French, English, and/or
German. Often, they learn one or more of these other languages to a high
degree of fluency.
Language in a Social Context :
The study of the social context of language is a relatively new area of
linguistic research. One aspect of context is the investigation of
pragmatics, the study of how people use language. It includes
sociolinguistics and other aspects of the social context of language. Under
most circumstances, you change your use of language in response to
contextual cues without giving these changes much thought. Similarly,
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58 Memory And Language different contexts. For example, in speaking with a conversational partner,
you seek to establish common ground, or a shared basis for engaging in a
conversation (Clark & Brennan, 1991). When we are with p eople who
share background, knowledge, motives, or goals, establishing common
ground is likely to be easy and scarcely noticeable. When little is shared,
however, such common ground may be hard to find. Gestures and vocal
inflections, which are forms of no nverbal communication, can help
establish common ground. One aspect of nonverbal communication is
personal space —the distance between people in a conversation or other
interaction that is considered comfortable for members of a given culture.
Proxemics is the study of interpersonal distance or its opposite, proximity.
It concerns itself with relative distancing and the positioning of you and
your fellow conversants. In the United States, 2.45 feet to 2.72 feet are
considered about right.
In Mexico, the ade quate distance ranges from 1.65 to 2.14 feet, whereas in
Costa Rica it is between 1.22 and 1.32 feet (Baxter, 1970). Scandinavians
expect more distance. Middle Easterners, southern Europeans, and South
Americans expect less (Sommer, 1969; Watson, 1970). Wh en on our own
familiar turf, we take our cultural views of personal space for granted.
Only when we come into contact with people from other cultures do we
notice these differences. For example, when the author was visiting
Venezuela, he noticed his cultur al expectations coming into conflict with
the expectations of those around him. He often found himself in a comical
dance: He would back off from the person with whom he was speaking;
meanwhile, that person was trying to move closer. Within a given culture ,
greater proximity generally indicates one or more of three things. First, the
people see themselves in a close relationship. Second, the people are
participating in a social situation that permits violation of the bubble of
personal space, such as close dancing. Third, the “violator” of the bubble
is dominating the interaction. Even within our own culture, there are
differences in the amount of personal space that is expected. For instance,
when two colleagues are interacting, the personal space is much s maller
than when an employee and supervisor are interacting. When two women
are talking, they stand closer together than when two men are talking
(Dean, Willis, & Hewitt, 1975; Hall, 1966). Does interpersonal distance
also play a role in virtual -reality en vironments?
When virtual worlds are created, a lot of factors matter in determining
how believable the virtual worlds are. How people dress, how the streets
look, and what sounds are in the background all facilitate or make it harder
for people to immerse themselves in that environment. For example, when
you visit a virtual place located in Latin America, you expect to see people
who look Latin American. To create lifelike simulations, it also matters
how people behave during interpersonal interactions. Ho w close do they
stand together, how often do they look at each other, and how long do they
keep that gaze? Computational models are being developed to simulate the
behavior of people from different cultures (Jan et al., 2007). Violations of
personal space, even in virtual environments, cause discomfort (Wilcox et
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59 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion in a virtual environment will move away (Bailenson et al., 2003). Physical
space is also maintained in video conferencing (Grayson & Coventry,
1998). These findings on proxemics indicate the importance of
interpersonal space in all interactions. They also indicate that proxemics is
important, even when one or more of the people are not physically present.
Gender and Language :
Within our own culture, do men and women speak a different language?
Gender differences have been found in the content of what we say. Young
girls are more likely to ask for help than are young boys (Thompson,
1999). Older adolescent and young adult male s prefer to talk about
political views, sources of personal pride, and what they like about the
other person. In contrast, females in this age group prefer to talk about
feelings toward parents, close friends, classes, and their fears (Rubin et al.,
1980). Also, in general, women seem to disclose more about themselves
than do men (Morton, 1978). Conversations between men and women are
sometimes regarded as crosscultural communication (Tannen, 1986, 1990,
1994). Young girls and boys learn conversational comm unication in
essentially separate cultural environments through their same -sex
friendships. As men and women, we then carry over the conversational
styles we have learned in childhood into our adult conversations.
Tannen has suggested that male –female dif ferences in conversational style
largely center on differing understandings of the goals of conversation.
These cultural differences result in contrasting styles of communication.
These in turn can lead to misunderstandings and even break -ups as each
partn er somewhat unsuccessfully tries to understand the other. Men see
the world as a hierarchical social order in which the purpose of
communication is to negotiate for the upper hand, to preserve
independence, and to avoid failure (Tannen, 1990, 1994). Each m an
strives to one -up the other and to “win” the contest. Women, in contrast,
seek to establish a connection between the two participants, to give
support and confirmation to others, and to reach consensus through
communication. To reach their conversationa l goals, women use
conversational strategies that minimize differences, establish equity, and
avoid any appearances of superiority on the part of one or another
conversant. Women also affirm the importance of and the commitment to
the relationship. They ha ndle differences of opinion by negotiating to
reach a consensus that promotes the connection and ensures that both
parties at least feel that their wishes have been considered. They do so
even if they are not entirely satisfied with the consensual decision . Men
enjoy connections and rapport. But because men have been raised in a
gender culture in which status plays an important role, other goals take
precedence in conversations.
Tannen has suggested that men seek to assert their independence from
their con versational partners. In this way, they indicate clearly their lack
of acquiescence to the demands of others, which would indicate lack of
power. Men also prefer to inform (thereby indicating the higher status
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60 Memory And Language status) with their conversational partners. The male partner in a close
relationship thus may end up informing his partner of their plans. In
contrast, the female partner expects to be consulted on their plans. When
men and women e ngage in cross -gender communications, their crossed
purposes often result in miscommunication because each partner
misinterprets the other’s intentions. Tannen has suggested that men and
women need to become more aware of their cross -cultural styles and
traditions. In this way, they may at least be less likely to misinterpret one
another’s conversational interactions. They are also both more likely to
achieve their individual aims, the aims of the relationship, and the aims of
the other people and instituti ons affected by their relationship. Such
awareness is important not only in conversations between men and
women. It is also important in conversations among family members in
general (Tannen, 2001). Tannen may be right. But at present, converging
operation s are needed, in addition to Tannen’s sociolinguistic case -based
approach, to pin down the validity and generality of her interesting
findings. Gender differences in the written use of language have also been
observed (Argamon et al., 2003). For example, a study that analyzed more
than 14,000 text files from 70 separate studies found that women used
more words that were related to psychological and social processes,
whereas men related more to object properties and impersonal topics
(Newman et al., 2008). T hese findings are not conclusive. A study
examining blogs noted that the type of blog, more than the gender of the
author, dictated the writing style (Herring & Paolillo, 2006). Thus far we
have discussed the social and cognitive contexts for language. Lan guage
use interacts with, but does not completely determine, the nature of
thought.
2.4 NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE 2.4.1 Neuropsychological basis of Memory :
Retaining Information in the brain :
Initially, people believed that long ter m memory is like an empty room
which has to be filled up with memories. It was also believed that it does
not have elasticity and has limited capacity, to fill new information old
information items need to be thrown out. But later on, psychologists
empiric ally showed that our long -term memory is flexible and has endless
capacity to store information.
However, we do not store information as books are stored in libraries -
carefully staked in distinctly labeled racks and having precise locations.
Instead, man y parts of the brain interact as we encode, store and retrieve
the information from our memories. Memories are not stored in any single
site of the brain, instead they are stored throughout the brain. To show that
memories are not stored in any single spec ific spot of the brain, Karl
Lashley (1950) conducted an experiment in which he trained rats to find
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61 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion brain’s cortex and retested their memories. He found that no matter what
small brain section he removed, the rats always found their way out of the
maze, as they retained at least partial memory. This indicated that while
storing memories various parts of brain are interacting. In fact, different
parts of the brain are active in sto ring different types of memories. Let us
look at which parts are active for implicit and explicit memories.
A) Explicit – Memory System: The Frontal Lobes and Hippocampus :
Explicit or declarative memory is one of the two main types of long -term
human memor y. It stores facts, stories, meaning of the words, previous
experiences and concepts that can be consciously recalled.
The network that processes and stores explicit memories includes frontal
lobes and hippocampus.
Frontal Lobes:
The frontal lobes are important in working memory. The left and right
frontal lobes process different types of memories. The left frontal lobe is
more active in memorizing verbal material, e.g., when you recall a
password and hold it in working memory, you are using the left fr ontal
lobe. The right frontal lobe is more active in recalling non -verbal material,
e.g., if you are recalling a party scene, or thinking about a painting, you
are using your right frontal lobe.
Hippocampus:
The hippocampus is a small, curved neural cente r located in the limbic
system in each temporal lobe. It is involved in the formation of new
memories and emotional responses. It instantly evaluates incoming data
from the five senses and decides whether to store or discard the
information. So, for the br ain, it is equivalent to “save button” in
computer. Studies have shown that explicit memories of names, images
and events are laid down through the hippocampus. Therefore, damage to
hippocampus disrupts recall of explicit memories. Just like humans, birds
also have hippocampus in their brains. It has been found that birds, with
their hippocampus intact, can store food in hundreds of places and can still
find it months later when they return to these unmarked hiding places. But
they can’t remember, where the y had stored the food if their hippocampus
is damaged (Kaamil & Chang,2001). Shettleworth (1993) stated that
among animals, a bird called Nutcracker can locate 6000 pine seeds during
winter season which it had buried months back.
Furthermore, in case of h uman beings, it has been reported that people
cannot remember verbal information, if their left hippocampus is
damaged, but they have no difficulty in remembering visual designs and
locations. They cannot recall visual designs and locations if their right
hippocampus is damaged. We would not be able to remember where our
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62 Memory And Language Research has also found that different sub regions of the hippocampus
itself play important roles in certain types of memory. For example, the
rear part of the hippocampus is involved in the processing of spatial
memories. Studies of London cab drivers have found that navigating
complex mazes of big city streets is linked to the growth of the rear region
of the hippocampus. (Maguire et.al.2003a) Another study reported that
anterior hippocampus is active when people learn to associate names with
faces (Zeineh et.al.,2003) and another part of hippocampus is active when
people use spatial mnemonics (Maguire et.al.,2003b). The reason is that
the left hippocampus is more involved in the memory of facts, episodes,
words; it is responsible for constructing episodic memory. The right
hippocampus is more involved in spatial memory.
Memories are not permanently stored in hippocampus. Events or episodes
(such as its smell, feel, sound and location) are held there temporarily for a
couple of days before consolidating, moving to other parts of the brain for
long-term storage. For example, Tse et.al. (2007) showed in an experiment
that if a rat’s hippocampus is removed three hours after it has learnt the
location of some tasty food, it will not be able to locate food after the
operation, because its hippocampus did not get a chance to send the
information to different locations of long term memory. But if the
hippocampus us removed 48 hours after the rat has learned the location of
the tasty food, it could remember the location.
Much of this consolidation of memory occurs during sleep. During deep
sleep, the hippocampus processes memories for later retrieval. Ot her
studies have shown that getting a full eight hours of sleep after learning a
new task, such as a finger -tapping exercise, or after studying a long list of
words can boost recall the next day. Even a one -hour nap can improve
performance on certain tasks . Researchers have watched the hippocampus
and brain cortex showing simultaneous activity rhythms during sleep,
indicating as if they are having a dialogue (Euston et.al.,2007). What
happens is that when you sleep at night, your brain “replays” the day’s
events. During these nightly recaps, hippocampus and the neocortex,
“talk” to one another and transfer day’s experiences to the cortex for long -
term storage. Cortex areas surrounding the hippocampus support the
processing and storing of explicit memories. This transfer of information
from hippocampus to cortex is called consolidation. In addition to
strengthening memories, sleep can also help integrate new information,
leading to creative insight. In one experiment, researchers showed how
sleep restructure s information to help subjects see new patterns, linking
new information with prior knowledge.
B) Implicit -Memory System: T he Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia:
Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as unconscious memory or
automatic memory or nondeclarativ e memory. As mentioned before,
implicit memory includes skills and habits, conditioned associations,
priming and perceptual learning. Even if you lose your hippocampus and
frontal lobe, you will still be able to do many activities because of implicit
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63 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Nondeclarative memory is expressed through performance rather than
recollection. The unconscious status of nondeclarative memory creates
some of the mystery of human experience. Here arise the habits and
preferences that are inaccessible to conscious recollection, but they
nevertheless are shaped by past events, they influence our current behavior
and mental life. For example, LeDoux (1996) reported a case of a brain
damaged patient who suffered from amnesia and could not form
immediate memories. Every day, her doctor shook her hand and
introduced himself as she could not form memories of the current events.
One day when doctor shook hand with her, she suddenly pulled her hand
back with a jerk because doctor has a drawing board pin in his hand and
that had pricked her. The next day, when doctor returned to introduce
himself, she refused to shake his hand but she could not explain why she
was refusing to shake hand. She was classically conditioned.
The cerebellum plays a very important role in formation and storage of
implicit memories created by classical conditioning. If cerebellum is
damaged, people cannot develop certain conditioned reflexes, such as
associating a tone with about to come puff of air and thus do not blink in
anticipation of the puff (D aum & Schugens;1996). Similarly, when
researchers surgically disrupted the function of different pathways in the
cerebellum of rabbits, the rabbits could not learn a conditioned eye blink
response. It was also reported that if cerebellum is damaged, volunt ary
motor movement become slow and uncoordinated. It is clearly evident
from these experiments that cerebellum plays an important part in
formation of implicit memories.
A subset of implicit memory, procedural memory , enables us to perform
many everyday physical activities, such as walking and riding a bike,
without having to give it thought. A large majority of implicit memories
are procedural in nature. Procedural memory primarily depends on the
cerebellum and basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are deep brain structures
involved in motor movements and memories of skills. The cerebellum
plays a part in correcting movement and fine tuning the motor agility
found in procedural skills such as painting, instrument playing and in
sports such as cricket, swimmin g, etc. Damage to this area may prevent
the proper relearning of motor skills.
The Basal Ganglia receives input from the cortex, but it does not return the
inputs to the cortex for conscious awareness of procedural learning. For
example, once you know how to ride a bike, you never forget this skill,
thanks to your basal ganglia. You can ride the bicycle even if you can’t
recall having taken the lesson for this skill.
Infantile amnesia:
Implicit memory from infancy can be retained right up to adulthood,
including skills and conditioned responses. However, explicit memories
such as our recall of episodes, goes back to about age 3 for most people.
This nearly 3 years “blank” in our memories is called infantile amnesia.
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64 Memory And Language events children experienced and discussed with their mothers, when they
were 3 years old, they could recollect 60% of these events at the age of 7
but could recollect only 35% of these events at the age of 9. This
demonstrated that as we grow old we can’t recollect the events that took
place either before or at the age of 3. The question arises, why we can’t
remember these evets that take place in infancy stage. Psychologists have
come up with two reasons for it :
1. Encoding: Some psychologists believe that explicit memories in
childhood develop with language acquisition because the ability to
use words and concepts helps in memory retention. It is believed that
after developing linguistic skills, memories that were not encoded
verbally get lost within the mind. Another explanation is that young
children encode and store memory as images or feelings. In
adulthood, our language dominated memories do not have retrieval
cues appropriate for gaining access to the stored memory of
childhood.
2. The hippocampus , that plays a significant part in explicit memories,
is one of the last brain structure to mature.
3. Still other psychologists believe that children younger than 3 or 4 do
not perceive contexts well enough to store memories acc urately.
The Amygdala, Emotions, And Memory:
It is a common knowledge that generally we remember emotionally
charged events better than boring ones. The brain region that is most
strongly involved in emotional memory is the amygdala. The question
arises h ow does intense emotions cause the brain to form intense
memories? Psychologists say
1. Emotions can trigger a rise in stress hormones that influences
memory formation. Heightened emotions (stress related or otherwise)
make for stronger memories. Stress h ormones make more glucose
energy available to fuel brain activity. In a way, emotions trigger
stress hormones telling the brain that something important just
happened.
2. These hormones trigger activity in the amygdala and provoke it to
increase memory -forming activity in the frontal lobes and basal
ganglia and also to “tag” the memories as important. The amygdala is
critically involved in calculating the emotional significance of events,
and, through its connection to brain regions dealing with sensory
experiences, also appears to be responsible for the influence of
emotion on perception - alerting us to notice emotionally significant
events even when we’re not paying attention. Emotional arousal can
blaze certain events into the brain, while disrupting memory of certain
other neutral events at the same time. As a result, the memories are
stored with more sensory and emotional details. These details can
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65 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion 3. Emotions often persist without our being consciou sly aware of what
caused them. For instance, in an experiment, patients with damaged
hippocampus (so that they could not form new explicit memory)
watched a sad film and later a happy film. After the viewing, they did
not consciously recall the films, but the sad or happy emotion
persisted. (Feinstein et.al.,2010).
4. Stressful events can form very long -lasting memories. Especially,
traumatic events such as rape, house fire, terrorist attack, etc. may
lead to vivid recollection of the horrific event again a nd again. James
McGaugh (1994) noted that stronger emotional experiences make for
stronger, more reliable memories. This helps in our survival also,
because memory serves to predict the future and alert us to future
dangers.
5. Flashbulb memories: These t end to be memories of highly emotional
events. These events can be traumatic such as 9/11 terror attack, an
earthquake, Tsunami, rape, news of a loved one, etc. or it can be a
pleasant but emotionally charged event, such as first date outing.
Typically, pe ople can accurately recall -
 Place (where they were when the event happened),
 Ongoing activity (what they were doing),
 Own affect (the emotion they felt),
 Informant (who broke the news)
 Others’ Affect (how others felt)
 Aftermath (Importance of the event)
Flashbulb memories register like a photograph. It is as if the brain
commands, “Capture this”. People can recall them vividly and with high
confidence. However, as we relive, rehearse and discuss them, these
memories may get distorted as misinformation seep s in. So, flashbulb
memories are not as accurate as it was initially thought.
Synaptic Changes:
When people form memories, their neurons release neurotransmitters to
other neurons across the synapses. With repetition, the synapses undergo
long-term potent iation (LTP), that is, the signals are sent across the
synapse more efficiently. It is defined as a long -lasting increase in
synaptic efficacy following high frequency stimulation of presynaptic
neurons.
Synaptic changes include a reduction in the prompti ng needed to send a
signal and an increase in the number of neurotransmitter receptor sites. In
other words, neurons can show history - dependent behavior by responding
differently as a function of prior input, and this plasticity of nerve cells
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66 Memory And Language together. It means, through repeated pairing, there will be structural and
chemical changes that will result in strengthening of active synapses
forming a stronger circuit.
Fig.8.1

Fig.8.2

LTP occurs throughout the brain, but a high concentration of LTP occurs
in the hippocampus and is believed to play a role in learning and
memories. Many experiments have proved that LTP is a physical basis for
memory. For instance :
1. Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning Lynch & Staubli (1991).
2. In an experiment, rats that were given a drug to increase their LTP
learned a maze with half of the usual number of mistakes (Service,
1994).
3. When rat s were injected with a chemical that could block the
preservation of LTP, rats’ immediate memories were erased
(Pastalkova et.al.2006). After LTP has occurred, if electric current is
passed through the brain, it won’t disrupt old memories, but it will
erase current memories. This is exactly what happens when

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67 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion depressed people are given electroconvulsive therapy or somebody
gets hit very hard on the head. For example, football players or boxers
who become temporarily unconscious after a hit by the opponent,
typically have no memory of what happened before the hit (yarnell &
Lynch, 1976).
4. Some pharmaceutical companies manufacture memory -boosting
drugs. These drugs are consumed by people suffering from
Alzheimer’s disease or having mild cognitive impairment that may
later on become Alzheimer’s disease, or simply by people who are
having age related memory decline. This memory improving drugs
are of two types :
a) Drugs that enhance neurotransmitter glutamate.
b) Drugs that improve production of CREB, a prote in that enhances the
LTP process. Increased production of CREB triggers enhanced
production of some other proteins that help in reshaping synapse and
transfer short term - memories into long -term memories and patients
who take these drugs show enhanced lear ning.
However, there are some people who wish to take drugs to block the
memories. These are the people who have gone through traumatic
experiences and do not want to go through the memories of those events.
A drug that helps in erasing such memories is Pr opranolol. In an
experiment, it was found that when victims of traumatic event such as
accident or rape were given this drug for 10 days immediately after the
incident, it helped them to overcome their experiences as after three
months they did not show an y sign of stress disorder.
The following charts shows the summary of encoding of both types of
memories and how the brain stores memories in its two – track system
(See Fig. 8.1 & Fig. 8.2)
2.4.2 Neuropsychological basis language :
The brain and language:
We process complex language information with amazing speed is an
understatement. Caplan (1994), reported, for example, that people
typically recognize spoken words after about 125 milliseconds (about one
eight of a second) that is, while the word is still being spoken. Normal
word production, estimated over a number of studies, requires us to search
through a mental “dictionary” of about 20,000 items, and we do so at the
rate of three words per second.
Obviously, the brain architecture to support this rapi d and complex
cognitive processing must be sophisticated indeed. Neuropsychologists
have been trying to understand what the underlying brain structures
involved with language are, where they are located, and how they operate.
In this topic, we will see two important language disorders which are
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68 Memory And Language Adults whose hearing becomes impaired later in life also face challenges.
When older people with hearing loss must expend efforts to hear words,
they have less remaining cognitive capac ity available to remember and
comprehend them. It has been found that people with hearing loss,
especially those not wearing hearing aid, have reported feeling sadder,
being less socially engaged and more often experiencing others’ irritation.
They may als o experience a sort of shyness. Henry Kisor (1990) very
aptly said, “we can be self -effacing and diffident to the point of
invisibility. Sometimes this tendency can be crippling. I must fight it all
the time”. Helen Keller, both deaf and blind, also noted that “Blindness
cuts people off from things. Deafness cuts people off from people”.
Broca’s Aphasia:
Interest in localizing language function in the brain dates back at least to
the 1800s, when a French physician with interests in anthropology and
ethnogr aphy, Pierre Paul Broca, read a paper in 1861 at the meeting of the
society Anthropologist in Paris. The paper reported on a patient,
nicknamed “Tan” because he had lost the ability to speak any word save
for tan. Shortly after the patient died, his brain was examined and found to
have a lesion in the left frontal lobe. The very next day, Broca reported
this exciting (for science, not for the patient or his family, probably)
finding (Posner &Raichle, 1994). The area of the brain, henceforth known
as Broca’s area, is shown in the figure 10.7.A. It is also called expressive
aphasia. A Broca’s aphasia appeared to leave language reception and
processing undisturbed. In 1865, Broca reported that after damage to an
area of the left frontal lobe a person would stru ggle to speak words while
still being able to sing familiar songs and comprehend speech.
Brain structure involved with languages.

Wernicke’s Aphasia:
About 13 years later, in 1874, a German neurologist Carl Wernicke
identified another brain area that, if damaged by a small lesion (often
result of a stroke), left patients with extreme difficulty in comprehending
(but not producing) spoken language (Posner & Raichle, 1994). (Not
surprisingly, this area has come to be called Wernicke’s area, and it is also
shown in figure 10.7.A. It is also called receptive aphasia. People could munotes.in

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69 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion speak words and sentences (although the language was often gibberish).
Damage to Wernicke’s area also disrupts understanding.
But today, Functional MRI scan shows that different ne ural networks are
activated by nouns and verbs, or objects and actions, by different vowels
and by reading stories of visual vs. motor experiences. It was also found
that jokes that play on meaning are processed in a different area of the
brain than jokes that play on the words. The main point is that in
processing language, the brain operates by dividing its mental functions –
speaking, perceiving, thinking, remembering into sub functions. Localized
trauma that destroys one of these neural work teams may c ause people to
lose just one aspect of processing.
2.5 QUESTIONS 1. Explain in detail Atkinson and Shiffrin’s three – stage information
processing model of memory.
2. Discuss in detail short -term memory and working memory.
3. Distinguish between automat ic and effortful processing of
information. What are some effortful processing strategies that can
help us remember new information?
REFERENCE 1) Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International edition.
New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013
2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.



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3
THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE
Unit Structure
3.1 Problem Solving and Creativity
3.1.1 Problem Solving
3.1.2 Creativity
3.2 Thinking, Decision Making and Reasoning
3.2.1 Thinking
3.2.2 Decision Making and Reasoning
3.3 Human Intelligence. Organization of Knowledge in the Mind
3.4 Neuropsychological basis of executive functions
3.4.1 Social Determinants & Biological Determinants of Intelligence:
3.4.2 Is intelligence neurologically Measurable?
3.5 References
3.1 PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY 3.1.1 Problem Solving :
In general, a problem can be any conflict or difference between one
situation and another situation we wish to produce our goal. In trying to
reach the goal of problem solution, we use information available to us
from long term memory and from our here -and-now perception of the
problem situation before we process this information according to rules
that tells us what we can and cannot do. In other words, many instances of
problem solving can be considered a form of rule -guided, motivated
information processing (Newell & Simon, 1972).
Problem Solving Strategies:
Many of the rules used in solving problems concern the changes that are
permissible in going from one situation to another. Four major types of
such rules are algorithm, heuristics, t rial and error and insight.
1) Algorithm:
An algorithm is a set of rules which, if followed correctly, will guarantee a
solution to a problem. For instance, if you are given two numbers to
multiply, you immediately start thinking of all the rules for multi plication
you have learned and you apply these algorithm to the problem. If you
follow the rules correctly, you will solve the problem. Algorithm is a step -
by-step procedure that guarantees a solution. But it can be laborious and
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71 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion
2) Heuristics:
Heuristic are simpler thinking strategies, usually based on our past
experience with problems, that are likely to lead to a solution but do not
guarantee success. One common strategy, or heuristic, is to break the
problem down into smaller s ub problems, each a little closer to the end
goal.
3) Trial and Error:
This is the most commonly used method in problem solving. It is used
when a person does not have any well thought out strategy for solving a
problem or when he is incapable of thinking about his problem
systematically. In other words, he does not know about the rules to help
him solve the problem. He goes on trying one thing after another till
somehow the problem gets solved by chance – an abrupt, true seeming and
often satisfying solut ion. Insight strikes suddenly with no prior sense of
‘getting warmer’ or feeling close to a solution.
Mechanical solutions also involve solving by rote or a learned set of rules.
Many problems in life can be solved by merely applying certain rules
mechanic ally. If the rules are applied correctly the solution is sure to be
found. Many problems in everyday life and in school and college
situations involve mechanical application of the facts or knowledge that
we have acquired. The strategy involving use of alg orithms and heuristics
is representatives of this method.
4) Insight:
This is another important method of solving a problem. For some
problems, solutions occur suddenly. Insight occurs when the problem
solver suddenly ‘sees’ the relations involved in a ta sk and is immediately
able to solve the problem. It was Kohler who first suggested that learning
takes place by insight. An instance of insight is found in the example of
Archimedes who ran naked out of his bathtub, shouting ‘Eureka’, when he
found an answ er to a problem that had troubled him for a long time. Most
creative problems are solved through insight. When human beings solve
the problem through insight they experience a good feeling called as ‘aha’
experience. Thus, insight occurs when the learner ‘ suddenly sees’ the
solution involved in a task and is immediately able to solve the problem.
When he suddenly gets the solution, he is said to have got insight.
Obstacles in Problem Solving:
Problem solving is not an easy task, it is filled with considera ble
difficulties or obstacles that are involved in the process of problem
solving. Some problems are difficult to solve as compared to others.
Human beings commit errors or have limitations that come in the way of
solving problems. The three most common ba rriers to solving a problem
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72 Thinking And Intelligence 1. Functional Fixedness
2. Mental Set
3. Confirmation bias.
4. Using incomplete or incorrect representations
5. Lack of Problem specific knowledge or expertise
We will discuss each of these briefly.
1. Funct ional Fixedness:
Functional Fixedness means that the functions or uses we assign to objects
tend to remain fixed or stable. Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that
that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally
used. Kar l Duncker defined functional fixedness as being a “mental block
against using an object in a new way that is required to solve a problem.”
This “block” then limits that ability of an individual to use the components
given to them to make a specific item, a s they cannot move past the
original intention of the object. When people develop functional fixedness,
they recognize tools only for their obvious function. For example, an
object is regarded as having only one fixed function. The problem -solver
cannot al ter his or her mental set to see that the tool may have multiple
uses. To overcome functional fixedness, we need to think flexibly about
other ways that objects can be used. To overcome functional fixedness, we
have to realize that an object designed for o ne particular function can also
serve another function. The history of technology offers numerous
examples of overcoming functional fixedness. For instance, the steam
engine was used for a century to pump water out of mines before an
inventor realized that it could be used as a source of locomotive power
(Gellatly, 1986).
2. Mental Set:
Mental set is a tendency to adopt a certain framework, strategy or
procedure or more generally, to see things in certain ways instead of
others. Mental set is analogous to perceptual set, the tendency to perceive
an object or pattern in a certain way on the basis of your immediate
perceptual experience. Mental set is one type of functional fixedness.
Mental set directs the thinking process to solving problems in the same
way. When problem solvers have mental set, they keep trying the same
solution they have used in previous problems, even though the problem
could be approached via other, easier ways. Mental sets involve a kind of
mindless rigidity that blocks effective proble m solving (Langer, 1989).A
mental set often works against us in our everyday experiences too. A
number of research studies have been carried out to study how mental set
effects problem -solving behavior. The three major studies using different
problems are as follows: i)Luchin’s study using water Jar problem. ii)
Nine -dot problem iii) Six match stick problem. Luchin (1942) in one of
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73 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion students were blind to easy solution and continued to so lve the problem in
the same fashion as they did in the practice problem.
3. Confirmation bias:
Confirmation bias is one of the barriers to logical thinking. Confirmation
bias refers to a type of selective thinking whereby one tends to notice and
to look f or what confirms one’s beliefs, and to ignore, not look for, or
undervalue the relevance of what contradicts one’s beliefs. Confirmation
bias is a phenomenon wherein decision makers have been shown to
actively seek out and assign more weight to evidence th at confirms their
hypothesis, and ignore or under weigh evidence that could disconfirm
their hypothesis. Confirmation bias is one of the hurdles in objective
evaluation of a theory. In this a researcher overemphasizes data supporting
the theories they favo ur and tend to ignore or downplay data which are
inconsistent with their views.
4. Using incomplete or incorrect representations:
Irrelevant information hinders problem solving as it slows the process
down, can cause confusion or misunderstandings.
5. Lack of Problem Specific Knowledge or Expertise:
If we don’t have problem specific knowledge or expertise, we can’t solve
problem. Even if we are going to solve problem it can create difficulties in
solving problem.
3.1.2 Creativity :
One important debate in u nderstanding the variations in creativity has
been the relationship of creativity with intelligence. Let us take an
example of two students in a class. Savita is regarded by her teacher as an
excellent student. She does her work on time, scores the highest grades in
her class, listens to instructions with care, grasps quickly, reproduces
accurately but she rarely comes out with ideas which are her own. Rima is
another student who is just average in her studies and has not achieved
high grades consistently. She prefers to learn on her own. She improvises
new ways of helping her mother at home and comes up with new ways of
doing her work and assignment. The former is considered to be more
intelligent and the latter as more creative. Thus, a person who has the
ability to learn faster and reproduced accurately may be considered
intelligent more than creative unless she/he devises new ways of learning
and doing.
Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with IQ were not necessarily
creative. At the same time, creat ive ideas could come from persons who
did not have a very high IQ. Other researchers have shown that not even
one of those identified as gifted, followed up throughout their adult life,
had become well -known for creativity in some field. Researchers have
also found that both high and low level of creativity can be found in highly
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74 Thinking And Intelligence person, thus, can be creative as well as intelligent but it is not necessary
that intelligent ones, in the conventional sense, must be creative.
Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure creativity.
Researchers have found that the relationship between creativity and
intelligence is positive. All creative acts require some minimum ability to
acquire kno wledge and capacity to comprehend, retain and retrieve.
Creative writers, for example, need facility in dealing with language. The
artist must understand the effect that will be produced by a particular
technique of painting, a scientist must be able to re ason and so on. Hence,
a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that
intelligence dose not correlate well with creativity. It can be concluded
that creativity can take many forms and blends. Some may have more of
intellectual a ttributes, others may have more of attributes associated with
creativity. Yet there is more to creativity than what intelligence tests
reveal. Intelligence tests require convergent thinking while creativity tests
require divergent thinking. Injury to certa in areas of the frontal lobes can
leave reading, writing and arithmetic skills intact but destroy imagination.
Sternberg et.al. have identified 5 components of creativity -
1. Expertise : A well-developed base of knowledge - furnishes the ideas,
images and ph rases we use as mental building blocks. The more blocks we
have, the more chances we have to combine them in novel way.
2. Imaginative Thinking Skill : It provides the ability to see things in a
novel way, to recognize patterns, and to make connections. Hav ing
mastered a problem’s basic elements, we redefine or explore it in a new
way.
3. A Venturesome Personality : A venturesome personality seeks new
experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming
obstacles. For example, Wiles said h e labored in near -isolation from the
mathematics community partly to stay focused and avoid distractions.
4. Intrinsic Motivation : Intrinsic motivation is being driven more by
interest, satisfaction and challenge than by external pressures. Creative
people focus less on extrinsic motivators such as meeting deadlines,
impressing people, or making money – than on the pleasure and
stimulation of the work itself. When Newton was asked how he solved
such difficult problems, he said by thinking about them all the time.
5. A Creative Environment : Sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas.
After studying the careers of 2026 famous scientists and inventors, Dean
keith Simonton (1992) concluded that most of these men were mentored,
challenged and supported by their colleagues. Many had the emotional
intelligence needed to network effectively with peers. Creativity -fostering
environments support innovation, team building and communication. They
also support contemplation.
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75 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion 3.2.1 Thinking :
Most of our waking hours, and even when we are asleep and dreaming, we
are thinking. It is hard not to think. As you read these words you are
thinking, and even if you stop thinking about what you are reading, your
thoughts wander off to something else -perhaps to what you are going to do
tomorrow - you will still be thinking. What do we do when we think?
Loosely speaking, we might say that we mentally, or cognitively, process
information. There are different definitions of thinking. We woul d discuss
in briefly.
Thinking consists of the cognitive rearrangement and manipulation of both
information from the environment and the symbols stored in long -term
memory. From another viewpoint, thinking is the form of information
processing that goes o n during the period between a stimulus event and the
response to it.
In other words, thinking is the set of cognitive processes that mediate, or
go between, stimuli and responses. To illustrate, suppose you are trying to
make a decision about buying a ne w mobile. The seller presents several
mobiles in your price range (the stimuli), and you eventually purchase one
of them (the response). Before making the response, however, you
consider the advantages and the disadvantages of the several mobiles; you
process the information you have about them. Your thinking about the
mobiles - thus mediates between the mobiles as stimuli and your eventual
response of buying one of them.
The general definition of thinking given above encompasses many
different varieties of thought. For instance, some thinking is highly private
and may use symbols with very personal meanings. This kind of thinking
is called as autistic thinking; dreams are an example of autistic thinking.
Other thinking is aimed at solving problems or creati ng something new;
this is called directed thinking. Directed thinking is the kind you were
engaged in when you solved (or tried to solve) the problem.
How people think? :
One of the most complex and highest forms of human behaviour is
thinking. The topic of thinking came within the purview of psychology
only in the 1960s with the growth of cognitive psychology. Behaviorists
were not in favour of the study of thinking as according to them thinking
was covert in nature and not empirically observable. Thinkin g is closely
related to learning, memory, intelligence, decision making and language
development. We would discuss these topics in this as well as the next
unit.
Thinking or Cognition:
The terms thinking and cognition are often used synonymously. There is
considerable difference between them. The term cognition is much
broader in scope as compared to thinking. According to one definition,
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76 Thinking And Intelligence between a situation and the response we make to it. According to Watson,
‘thinking’ is ‘sub -vocal speech’. Thinking is also defined as “mental
activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information
such as organizing it, understanding it, and communicating it to others.”
Thinking is not only verbal in nature but also involves the use of mental
images or mental representation. The three most important elements
involved in thinking are mental images (also called as mental imagery),
concepts and prototypes.
Concepts:
Concepts are an i mportant class of language symbols used in thinking. A
concept is a symbolic construction representing some common and
general features of object or events. Some natural, or basic, concepts are
easily acquired and appear in thinking early in life. Other co ncepts are
acquired by discriminative learning by seeing examples of the concept in
different context, and by definition. There are different types of concepts.
We would discuss these in detail.
1) Superordinate Concept:
It is the most general type of a c oncept, such as “bird” or “vegetable” or
“fruit”.
2) Basic level Type:
A basic level type of concept is one around which other similar concepts
are organised, such as Mango or apple or watermelon, as there can be
many different types of mangos such as alp honso, dusseri, badami, payri,
langda, etc.
3) Subordinate Concept:
It is the most specific type of a concept. Such as “Crackle Cadbury
chocolate” or the name of your dog or a “Kashmiri apple”, etc.
4) Formal Concept:
Formal concepts refer to those conce pts which have a strict definition.
These concepts are defined by specific rules or features and are very rigid.
Formal concepts are generally taught in schools and colleges as a part of
academic activity.
5) Natural Concept:
Natural concepts are those co ncepts which people form as a result of their
experiences in the real world. Unlike formal concepts, natural concepts are
not well defined. Is tomato a vegetable of fruit? Is duck a mammal or a
bird? What about whale, is it a fish or a mammal? We form conc epts
about these as a result of our experiences in the outside world. Natural
concepts help us to understand our surrounding in a less structured and
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77 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Becoming a human being involves the attainment of concepts: much
human thinking uses them. I t is therefore of some practical value to
discovery what helps or hinders concept attainment. One factor in concept
attainment is transfer. A second factor is the degree to which the common
elements are isolated, grouped, or otherwise made conspicuous. Thi s may
be called as distinctiveness. A third factor is ability to manipulate the
materials involved in the concept. Rearranged, rewarding, or reorganized
materials containing the common properties helps people to discover the
concept. Another factor is the instructional set people have. Finally,
people usually learn concept faster if they have all the relevant
information available at the same time, instead of being given only a piece
of information at a time.
Mental Imagery:
Mental imagery is also called as visual imagery or imagery and is an
important component of human thought or cognition. Mental imagery
refers to the representations that stand for objects or events and have a
picture -like quality. Mental imagery is used by most people in their
everyday l ife. Considerable degree of research on mental imagery has
been done by Allan Paivio, Kosslyn and others.
Research studies by Kosslyn and his colleagues (1990)have shown that
most of our imagery is visual. They did some pioneering studies on mental
rotatio n of visual images. Kosslyn also found that when we form a mental
image our experience seems much like seeing something in our mind. It
seems a lot like vision. When we form a mental image we seem to be able
to manipulate them and we seem to be solving pro blems some times by
means of manipulating them. Mental images can be quite detailed but they
tend to be less detailed than actual perception. Kosslyn’s research has
demonstrated the following with respect to imagery and size.
 People take longer to make jud gements about the characteristics of
small mental images than of the large mental images.
 It takes longer time to travel a large mental distance than when images
are different.
Research shows that visual imagery is a powerful strategyfor enhancing
memory. Research has also shown that memory is most effective when the
items must be recalled are shown interacting with each other (Begg 1982).
Prototypes:
Prototype is another important element of thinking. It can be defined as an
example of a concept that close ly matches the defining characteristics of a
concept. Prototypes can be defined as mental models of the typical
qualities of members of some group or category. Concepts simplify our
thinking. We can’t think of life without concepts. Without concepts, we
would need a different name for every person, vents, objects and ideas.
For example, suppose we ask a child to “throw a ball”, a child will not
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78 Thinking And Intelligence concepts such as ball gives us much informati on with little cognitive
efforts.
Prototypes can be defined as mental frame - work for e.g., we have
prototypes for Indian political leaders, certain film stars, criminals, etc.
Prototypes describe the truly typical member of such categories. The
prototypi cal model helps us to compare new persons we meet in order to
determine if they do or do not fit into the category. When they fit quite
well, we can readily place them in various categories. When they do not,
the situation is more puzzling. For example, su ppose you meet a young
woman who told you that she reads books as a hobby, likes to do social
work and who was dressed in simple clothes. When you discovered that
she was a film actress you would probably be surprised. The reason is
simple: she does not se em to fit well with the prototype of film actress that
you have built up through past experience. Prototypes also exert important
effects on social thought and social behaviour. The prototype for objects
and events varies from culture to culture and from r egion to region. For
e.g., In an Indian family it is customary to touch the feet of elders.
However, such a custom does not exist in many other cultures. Similarly,
prototype of fruits or drink varies from region to region depending upon
what fruit or drin k is commonly available in a given region or culture. For
e.g., someone who lives in a tropical area will have a different prototype
for fruit as compared to one who stays in Northern Hemisphere. For e.g.,
someone who grew up in an area where there are man y coconut trees, for
e.g., Kerala might think of coconut as the most typical fruit as compared to
a person who comes from Kashmir where apples are found in plenty. It
has also been noted that people who are familiar or have knowledge about
given objects an d events will have a different prototype about these
objects and events as compared to persons who are not knowledgeable or
lack information about such objects and events. Thus, many factors
influence the development and formation of prototypes. Some commo n
factors are as follows:
 Geographical Region
 Culture
 Information and Knowledge
 Experience
One’s thinking is considerably influenced by the prototype that one
develops or holds. They also aid in the process of problem solving and
decision making. Eleanor R osch (1973) has done considerable research
work with respect to prototypes. The prototype approach has had an
important impact on cognitive psychology and other related disciplines.
3.2.2 Decision Making and Reasoning :
Decision -making is a kind of problem solving in which a person must
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79 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion involve certain amounts of risk, we are often guided by heuristic rules.
There are two types of heuristics.

1) Availability Heuristics
2) Representative Heuristics
We would discuss each of these heuristics briefly.
1) Availability Heuristics:
Availability heuristics is a mental shortcut that helps us make a decision
based on how easy it is to bring something to mind. In other words, we
often rely on how e asy it is to think of examples when making a decision
or judgment. For instance, in 2011, what percentage of crimes do you
suppose involved violence? Most people are likely to guess a high
percentage because of all the violent crimes - murder, rape, robbe ry, and
assault - that are highlighted on the news. Yet the FBI reported that violent
crimes made up less than 12% of all crimes in the United States in 2011.
So, anything that makes information ‘pop up’ into mind - its vividness,
recency or distinctiveness can make it seem common place. We often fear
the wrong things. For example, we fear flying because we play in our head
some air disaster.
2) Representative Heuristics:
A mental shortcut that helps us make a decision by comparing information
to our mental prototypes. For example, if someone was to describe an
older woman as warm and caring with a great love of children, most of us
would assume that the older woman is a grandmother. She fits our mental
representation of a grandmother, so we automatically cl assify her into that
category.
These rules include judging on the basis of representativeness, using the
available information to decide which outcome is more likely, and using
adjustment to arrive at an estimate of the probability of a certain outcome.
Each of these heuristics introduces bias into the decision -making process.
Heuristics are simple decision -making rules we often use to make
inferences or draw conclusions quickly and easily. Heuristics are
strategies, usually based on our past experiences wi th problems, that are
likely to lead to a solution but do not guarantee success. We make use of
many mental heuristics in our effort to think about and use social
information. Two most important heuristics approaches in solving a
problem are as follows:
1) The Means -Ends Analysis
2) The Analogy Approach.
1) The Means -Ends Analysis: munotes.in

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80 Thinking And Intelligence It is a problem solving strategy in which the solver compares the goal to
the current state, and then chooses a step to reduce maximally the
difference between them. In other wo rds this strategy involves figuring out
the “ends” you want and then figuring out the “means” you will use to
reach those ends. The means -ends analysis concentrates the problem
solver’s attention on the difference between the current problem state and
the goal state. Very often, it so happens that in order to reach a goal state
certain preconditions have to be fulfilled. These preconditions constitute
sub goals. Through the creation of sub goals, the task is broken down into
manageable steps, which help us to reach a final goal state. Newell and
Simon developed a computer program called General Problem Solver or
GPS, which is a program whose basic strategy is means -ends analysis.
2) The Analogy Approach:
In an analogy, we use a solution to an earlier probl em to help with a new
one. Analogies pervade human thinking. Whenever we try to solve a new
problem by referring to a known, familiar problem, we are using an
analogy (Halpern et al.,1990).
Bad Decisions:
a) Overconfidence: Sometimes our judgments and deci sions go wrong
simply because we are more confident than correct. In many tasks, people
tend to overestimate their performance. For example, many overconfident
students expect to finish preparing for exam ahead of schedule. In fact, the
preparation takes m ore time than what they predict. Similarly, many
people do not realize that there can be a potential for error in their thinking
and believe that they will have more money next year and merrily take
loans and later on find it difficult to pay back as they may not get as much
pay raise as they expected.
However, overconfidence has an adaptive value. Research studies have
shown that people who make mistakes in judgment due to overconfidence
live more happily. They make tough decisions more easily, and they s eem
to be more credible than others. The wisdom to know when we know a
thing and when we don’t know is born from experience.
b) Belief Perseverance: Just like we have problem of overconfidence, we
also have problem of belief perseverance - our tendency to cling to our
beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. Belief perseverance often leads to
social conflicts. The more we come to appreciate why our beliefs might be
true, the more tightly we cling to them. For example, once we have
explained to ourselves w hy we believe a child is ‘gifted’ or has a ‘learning
disability’, we tend to ignore evidence undermining our beliefs. Once
beliefs form and get justified, it takes more compelling evidence to change
them than it did to create them.
To control this tendenc y, a simple trick is to consider the opposite. When
people are asked to imagine and ponder over opposite findings, they
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81 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion c) The Effects of Framing: Framing refers to the way we present an
issue, sways our decisions and judgments. For example, imagine that two
different surgeons are explaining a surgery risk to a patient. One surgeon
says that 10% people die during this surgery, while the other surgeon says
that 90% people survive this surgery. The information is same but the
effect will be different. Patients report that risk seems greater when they
are told that 10% people die during this surgery.
Framing can be a powerful persuasion tool. If rightly framed arguments
are presented, it can persuad e people to make decisions that could bene fit
them or society as a whole.
3.3 HUMAN INTELLIGENCE: ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE MIND Introduction: What Is Intelligence? :
In this unit, we will discuss numerous topics related to intelligence such as
determinants of intelligence and is intelligence one general ability or
several specific abilities. We will also be discussing neurological
measurement of intelligence, mental retardation and giftedness. We would
discuss in detail about the origins of intellig ence testing and different ways
to assess intelligence. After this, we would briefly discuss modern tests of
mental abilities such as Binet Mental Ability Test, Stanford Binet and The
Wechsler Tests. It should be remembered that Intelligence is one of the
most important and unique ability that human beings possess. The term
intelligence was popularized by Sir Francis Galton, Alfred Binet and
others. Intelligence refers to the cognitive ability of an individual to learn
from experience, to reason well, and t o cope with the demands of daily
living. Some important concepts and topics related to intelligence such as
emotional intelligence, Intelligence and creativity, the nature v/s nurture
controversy and the bell curve would also be discussed in brief. Towards
the end of the unit we would study principles of test construction.
Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ
from one another. It also provides an understanding of how people adapt
their behaviour according to the environmen t they live in. In this chapter,
we would learn about intelligence in its various forms.
Definition:
Psychological notion of intelligence is quite different from the common
notion of intelligence. If you watch an intelligent person, you are likely to
see in her/him with attributes like mental alertness, ready wit, quickness in
learning and ability to understand relationships. Intelligence is not a
quality like height or weight, which has the same meaning for everyone
around the globe. People assign the term intelligence to the qualities that
enable success in their own time and in their own culture. There are
different definitions of intelligence given by different psychologist, some
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82 Thinking And Intelligence  Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologist wh o worked on
intelligence. According to him, Intelligence is the ability to judge
well, understand well and reason well (Alfred Binet, 1973).
 According to Wechsler, Intelligence is the global and aggregate
capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to t hink rationally and to
deal effectively with his/her environment. (Wechsler, 1950).
 Other psychologists such as Gardner and Sternberg have defined
intelligence as well. Intelligent individual not only adapt to their
environment but also actively modifies o r shapes it (Gardner &
Sternberg).
In simple words, intelligence is synthesis of one’s abilities. Binet assumes
intelligence as a general capacity for comprehension and reasoning that
manifests itself in various ways, another psychologist, Charles Spearman ,
proposed that all individuals possess a general intelligence factor in
varying amounts. In contrast to Spearman. Louis Thurstone felt that
intelligence could be broken down into a number of primary abilities.
Rejecting all these theories, Guilford states that many aspects of
intelligence tends to be ignored when items are lumped together to form
tests.
Important Concepts in Intelligence:
Individual Differences in Intelligence:
It is often said that no two individuals are exact duplicates; they differ
from each other in some way or the other. Hence the job of the
psychologist is to identify and understand this uniqueness in individuals.
Such a similarity or difference between persons reveals individual
differences. It happens in our day -to-day life when we see people around
us. A question comes to mind; how and why people appear similar or
different to each other? For example, when we think about their physical
appearance, we often ask ourselves why some people have dark or fair
complexion, why some people are tall and some are short, why some are
thin and why some are very fat. When we think about their psychological
characteristics we often come across people who are very talkative or less
talkative, some laugh too much whereas others take much time even t o
smile and some are very friendly whereas some prefer to be alone. In
psychology, these are called individual differences referring to the extent
and kind of variations or similarities among people on some of the
important psychological aspects such as in telligence.
When we speak Individual differences in terms of intelligence, individual
difference occur due to interaction of genetic and environmental factors.
We inherit certain characteristics from our parents through genetic codes.
The phenotype or the expressed forms of our characteristics depend on
contributions of the socio -cultural environment. This is the reason why we
are not exactly like our parents and our parents not exactly like our
grandparents. We do share similarities with our parents in re spect of many
physical attributes like height, colour of eyes, shape of nose etc. We also munotes.in

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83 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion inherit certain cognitive, emotional and other characteristics from our
parents like intellectual competence, love for sport, creativity etc.
However, our own charact eristics develop largely by the support from the
environment in which we live.
Extremes of Intelligence: Retardation and Giftedness:
Figure: Normal Distribution Curve of Intelligence: Bell Curve

The results of studies assessi ng the measurement of intelligence show that
IQ is distributed in the population in the form of a normal distribution
curve, which the pattern of scores is usually observed in a variable that
clusters around its average. In a normal distribution, the bulk of the scores
fall toward the middle, with many fewer scores falling at the extremes.
The normal distribution of intelligence (Figure11.2. Distribution of IQ
Scores in the General Population”) shows that on IQ tests, as well as on
most other measures, the majority of people cluster around the average (in
this case, where IQ = 100), and fewer are either very smart or very dull.
Because the standard deviation of an IQ test is about 15, this means that
about 2% of people score above an IQ of 130 (often conside red the
threshold for giftedness), and about the same percentage score below an
IQ of 70 (often being considered the threshold for mental retardation).
The normal distribution of IQ scores in the general population shows that
most people have about averag e intelligence, while very few have
extremely high or extremely low intelligence.
 Retardation:
One cause of mental retardation is Down syndrome, a chromosomal
disorder leading to mental retardation caused by the presence of all or part
of an extra 21st chr omosome. The incidence of Down syndrome is
estimated at 1 per 800 to 1,000 births, although its prevalence rises sharply
in those born to older mothers. People with Down syndrome typically
exhibit a distinctive pattern of physical features, including a fla t nose,
upwardly slanted eyes, a protruding tongue, and a short neck.
Societal attitudes toward individuals with mental retardation have changed
over the past decades. We no longer use terms such as mad, idiot to
describe these people, although these were the official psychological terms
used to describe degrees of retardation in the past. Laws such as the
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84 Thinking And Intelligence Person with Disabilities Act (PWD) have made it illegal to discriminate on
the basis of mental and physical disability, and there has been a trend to
bring the mentally retarded out of institutions and into our workplaces and
schools.
 Giftedness:
Having extremely high IQ is clearly less of a problem than having
extremely low IQ, but there may also be challenges to being particularly
smart. It is often as sumed that schoolchildren who are labeled as gifted
may have adjustment problems that make it more difficult for them to
create social relationships. To study gifted children, Lewis Terman and his
colleagues (Terman & Oden, 1959) selected about 1,500 high school
students who scored in the top 1% on the Stanford -Binet and similar IQ
tests (i.e., who had IQs of about 135 or higher), and tracked them for more
than seven decades (the children became known as the termites and are
still being studied today). This study found, first, that these students were
not unhealthy or poorly adjusted but rather were above average in physical
health and were taller and heavier than individuals in the general
population. The students also had above average social relationships for
instance, being less likely to divorce than the average person (Seagoe,
1975).
As you might expect based on our discussion of intelligence, kids who are
gifted have higher scores on general intelligence (g). But there are also
different types of gifte dness. Some children are particularly good at math
or science, some at automobile repair or carpentry, some at music or art,
some at sports or leadership, and so on. There is a lively debate among
scholars about whether it is appropriate or beneficial to l abel some
children as gifted and talented in school and to provide them with
accelerated special classes and other programs that are not available to
everyone. Although doing so may help the gifted kids (Colangelo &
Assouline, 2009), it also may isolate th em from their peers and make such
provisions unavailable to those who are not classified as gifted. There is
IQ classification given by Wechsler for understanding of IQ range.
Classification of IQ range is given below. Sr. No. IQ Range IQ Classification 1 130 and Above Very Superior 2 120-129 Superior 3 110-119 Above Average Intelligence 4 90-109 Average Intelligence 5 80-89 Below Average Intelligence 6 70-79 Borderline Intelligence 7 55-69 Mild Mental Retardation 8 40-54 Moderate Mental Retardation 9 25-39 Very Superior 10 24 and Below Superior munotes.in

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85 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion
Figure A: Classification of Intelligent Quotient by Wechsler
Nature v/s Nurture Controversy:
Intelligence has both genetic and environmental causes, and these have
been systematically studied through a l arge number of twin and adoption
studies (Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin, DeFries, Craig, & McGuffin, 2003).
These studies have found that between 40% and 80% of the variability in
IQ is due to genetics, meaning that overall genetics plays a bigger role
than does environment in creating IQ differences among individuals
(Plomin & Spinath, 2004). The IQs of identical twins correlate very highly
(r = .86), much higher than do the scores of fraternal twins who are less
genetically similar (r = .60). And the corre lations between the IQs of
parents and their biological children (r = .42) is significantly greater than
the correlation between parents and adopted children (r = .19). The role of
genetics gets stronger as children get older. The intelligence of very youn g
children (less than 3 years old) does not predict adult intelligence, but by
age 7 it does, and IQ scores remain very stable in adulthood (Deary,
Whiteman, Starr, Whalley, & Fox, 2004).
But there is also evidence for the role of nurture, indicating that
individuals are not born with fixed, unchangeable levels of intelligence.
Twins raised together in the same home have more similar IQs than do
twins who are raised in different homes, and fraternal twins have more
similar IQs than do non -twin siblings, wh ich is likely due to the fact that
they are treated more similarly than are siblings. The fact that intelligence
becomes more stable as we get older provides evidence that early
environmental experiences matter more than later ones. Environmental
factors a lso explain a greater proportion of the variance in intelligence for
children from lower -class households than they do for children from
upper -class households (Turkheimer, Haley, Waldron, D‘Onofrio, &
Gottesman, 2003). This is because most upper -class hou seholds tend to
provide a safe, nutritious, and supporting environment for children,
whereas these factors are more variable in lower -class households.
Social and economic deprivation can adversely affect IQ. Children from
households in poverty have lower IQs than do children from households
with more resources even when other factors such as education, race, and
parenting are controlled (Brooks -Gunn & Duncan, 1997). Poverty may
lead to diets that are under -nourishing or lacking in appropriate vitamins,
and poor children may also be more likely to be exposed to toxins such as
lead in drinking water, dust, or paint chips (Bellinger & Needleman,
2003). Both of these factors can slow brain development and reduce
intelligence. If impoverished environments can h arm intelligence, we
might wonder whether enriched environments can improve it.
Government -funded after -school programs such as Head Start are
designed to help children learn. Research has found that attending such
programs may increase intelligence for a short time, but these increases
rarely last after the programs end (McLoyd, 1998; Perkins & Grotzer,
1997). Intelligence is improved by education; the number of years a
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86 Thinking And Intelligence It is impo rtant to remember that the relative roles of nature and nurture can
never be completely separated. A child who has higher than average
intelligence will be treated differently than a child who has lower than
average intelligence, and these differences in b ehaviors will likely amplify
initial differences. This means that modest genetic differences can be
multiplied into big differences over time.
The Bell Curve:
Richard Herrinstein and Charles Murray in 1994 published an important
book called as “The Bell C urve” which has become highly controversial
and had made certain conclusion concerning intelligence, race and
genetics. According to Herrenstein and Wilson (1994) intelligence is an
important asset in a modern society. The demand for intelligence in
modern society has created two groups in society. One group consists of
highly intelligent individuals who hold good jobs and earn more. Due to
their high intelligence, they are paid more and they progress economically
as well as socially. On the other hand, are individuals, who, because of
their low intelligence, hold low status jobs and are paid less.
Consequently, their economic and social status is also low. Thus,
according to Herrenstein and Murray (1994) one’s intelligence determines
one’s occupational succ ess and one’s social status. Its central point is that
intelligence is a better predictor of many factors including financial
income, job performance, unwed pregnancy, and crime than parents’
Socioeconomic or education level. Also, the book argued that tho se with
high intelligence, which it called the “cognitive elite”, are becoming
separated from the general population of those with average and below -
average intelligence and that this was a dangerous social trend.
Thus, in The Bell Curve, Herrnstein and M urray set out to prove that
American society was becoming increasingly meritocratic, in the sense
that wealth and other positive social outcomes were being distributed more
and more according to people’s intelligence and less and less according to
their so cial backgrounds.
The Bell Curve has become highly controversial. The Bell Curve is not a
scientific work. It was not written by experts, and it has a specific political
agenda. According to experts the book has many statistical errors and
ignored the effe cts of environment and culture in determining his/her
success in life.
Theory of Multiple Intelligence:
According to American psychologist Howard Gardner (1983) we do not
have one underlying general intelligence, but instead have multiple
intelligences. Th e nine types of intelligence identified by Howard Gardner
are as follows:
 Linguistic Intelligence: Children with this kind of intelligence enjoy
writing, reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles. Linguistic
intelligence involves aptitude with sp eech and language and is
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87 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion  Logical -Mathematical Intelligence: Children with lots of logical
intelligence are interested in patterns, categories and relationships.
They are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and
expe riments. Physicist Albert Einstein is a good example of this
intelligence.
 Spatial Intelligence: It is used to perceive visual and spatial
information and to conceptualize the world in tasks like navigation
and in art. Painter Pablo Picasso represents a pe rson of high spatial
intelligence.
 Musical intelligence: It is the ability to perform and appreciate
music, is represented by composer A. R. Rahman and Rahul Dev
Burman (R.D. Burman).
 Bodily -kinaesthetic intelligence: It is the ability to use one’s body or
portions of it in various activities, such as dancing, athletics, acting,
surgery, and magic. Martha Graham, the famous dancer and
choreographer, is a good example of bodily -kinaesthetic intelligence.
It is the type of ability shown by the gifted athletes , dancers or super
surgeons who have great control over their body, hand and finger
movements.
 Interpersonal intelligence: It involves understanding others and
acting on that understanding. It is the type of ability shown by those
who can easily infer othe r people’s mood, temperaments, or intentions
and motivations.
 Intrapersonal intelligence: It is the ability to understand one’s self
and is typified by the leader Mohandas Gandhi. It is the ability shown
by someone who has great insight into his/her own fe elings and
emotions.
 Naturalist Intelligence : the ability to recognize and classify plants,
animals, and minerals. Naturalist Charles Darwin is an example of
this intelligence. Naturalistic Intelligence is defined as the ability to
observe and/or interact with diverse species in nature. The type of
ability shown by biologists or environmentalist
 Existentialist: It is the ability to see the “big picture of the human
world by asking questions about life, death and the ultimate reality of
human existence.
Emot ional intelligence:
Most psychologists have considered intelligence a cognitive ability,
people also use their emotions to help them solve problems and relate
effectively to others. Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to
accurately identify, asse ss, and understand emotions, as well as to
effectively control one’s own emotions (Feldman -Barrett & Salovey,
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88 Thinking And Intelligence This concept was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer. According to
them, Intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own and others emotions,
to discriminate among emotions and to use the information to guide one’s
thinking and actions. The idea of emotional intelligence is seen in Howard
Gardner‘s interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the
emotions, intentions, motivations, and desires of other people) and
intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, including
one‘s emotions).
Emotional Quotient (EQ):
Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in th e
same way as Intelligent Quotient (IQ) is used to express intelligence.
Emotional Quotient (EQ) is a ratio concept and is a score of emotional
intelligence obtained by dividing chronological age by emotional age and
multiplying by 100. The formula of Emot ional Quotient (IQ) is given
below.
Emotional Quotient (EQ) = Emotional Age/ Chronological Age* 100
Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal,
expression and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence.
A good IQ and scholastic record is not enough to be successful in life.
You may find many people who are academically talented but are
unsuccessful in their own life. They experience problems in their life,
workplace and interpersonal relationships. What do they lack? Some
psychologists believe that the source of their difficulty may be lack of
emotional intelligence. In simple words, emotional intelligence refers to
the ability to process emotional information accurately and efficiently.
There are some char acteristics of emotional intelligent person. Person who
are high on emotional intelligence who possess following characteristics.
Characteristics of Emotional Intelligent Person :
 Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
 Perceive and be sens itive to various types of emotions in others by
noting their body language, voice, tone and facial expressions.
 Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into
account while solving problems and taking decisions.
 Understand the powerful in fluence of the nature and intensity of your
emotions.
 Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while
dealing with self and others.
Daniel Goleman, an American author and journalist, popularized the
concept in his book Emotional Intelligence (1995). He expanded the
concept to include general social competence. The importance of
emotional intelligence has been very well brought out in the following
words by Daniel Goleman “Emotional Intelligence is a master aptitude, a munotes.in

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89 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion capacity that profoundly affects all other abilities, either facilitating or
interfering with them. According to Daniel Goleman the term
encompasses has following five characteristics and abilities:
1) Self-Awareness : Knowing your emotions, recognizing feelings as
they occur, an d discriminating between them.
2) Mood Management : Handling feelings so they’re relevant to the
current situation and you react appropriately.
3) Self-Motivation : Gathering up your feelings and directing yourself
towards a goal, despite self -doubt, inerti a, and impulsiveness.
4) Empathy : Recognizing feelings in others and tuning into their verbal
and nonverbal cues.
5) Managing relationships : Handling interpersonal interaction, conflict
resolution, and negotiations.
Thus, emotional intelligence is not same as self -esteem and optimism.
Rather emotionally intelligent people are both social and self -aware.
Those scoring high on managing emotions enjoy higher -quality
interactions with friends (Lopes et.al.2004). They avoid being hijacked by
overwhelming depress ion, anxiety or anger. Being sensitive to emotional
cues, they know what to say to soothe a grieving friend, encourage a
colleague and manage conflict.
Emotional intelligence is less a matter of conscious efforts and more of
one’s unconscious processing o f emotional information. (Fiori,2009).
Across many studies in many countries, those scoring high on emotional
intelligence showed somewhat better job performance. They could also
delay gratification in pursuit of long -term rewards, rather than being
overta ken by immediate impulses. They were emotionally in tune with
others and therefore often succeeded in career, marriage and parenting.
3.4 NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS 3.4.1 Social Determinants & Biological Determinants of Intelligence:
There are two basic factors which influence the human intelligence. These
two factors are biological and social. The heredity -environment issue,
debated in regard to many aspects of human behaviour, has focused most
intensely on the area of intelligence. Few experts doubt that there is some
genetic basis for intelligence, but opinion differ as to the relative
contribution of heredity and environment.
Most of the evidence bearing on the inheritance of the intelligence comes
from studies correlating IQs betw een person of various degree of genetic
relationship. The average correlation between the IQs of parents and their
natural children is 50; between parents and their adopted children the
correlation is about 25. Identical twins, because they develop from a single munotes.in

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90 Thinking And Intelligence egg. Share precisely the same heredity; the correlation between their IQs
very high –about 90. The IQs of fraternal twins (who are genetically no
more alike than ordinary siblings, since they develop from separate eggs)
correlated higher, .75, than those of fraternal twins reared together.
Note that being reared in the same home situation tends to increase IQ
similarity, even for individual who are unrelated. Although adopted
children resemble their natural parents on the basis of their natural
paren t’s ability (Skodak and Skeels, 1949).
Racial Differences:
After discussing generic contribution to intelligence, it is obvious that
there are racial differences in intelligence. Because of the recent issue on
the question of whether blacks are innately l ess intelligent than whites. In
view of the heated controversy centered on this issue and its significance
for social policy, it is important that we examine the available evidence.
On standard intelligence tests black Americans, as a group, score 10 to 15
IQ points lower than while Americans, as a group. This fact is not a debate
but revolves around how to interpret the difference. Some possible
explanations should be apparent from what we have already said about the
nature of IQ tests and the influence of environmental factor on tested
intelligence. For example, most intelligence have been standardized on
white populations. Since black and whites generally grow up in quite
different environments and have different experiences, the contents of
such tests ma y not be appropriate for blacks. And a black child may react
differently to being tested (particularly if he or she is being tested by a
white examiner) than a white child. Thus, the whole issue of estimating
black intelligence is complicated by the questi ons of whether the tests are
appropriate and whether the data obtained by white testers represent an
unbiased measure of IQ.
3.4.2 Is intelligence neurologically Measurable? :
Using today’s neuroscience tools, we might link differences in people’s
intellige nce test performance to dissimilarities in the heart of smarts —the
brain? Might we anticipate a future brain test of intelligence?
More recent studies that directly measure brain volume using MRI scans
do reveal correlations of about +.33 between brain siz e (adjusted for body
size) and intelligence score (Carey, 2007; McDaniel, 2005). Moreover, as
adult’s age, brain size and nonverbal intelligence test scores fall in concert
(Bigler et al., 1995). One review of 37 brain -imaging studies revealed
associations between intelligence and brain size and activity in specific
areas, especially within the frontal and parietal lobes (Jung & Haier,
2007). Sandra Witelson would not have been surprised. With the brains of
91 Canadians as a comparison base, Witelson and he r colleagues (1999)
seized an opportunity to study Einstein’s brain. Although not notably
heavier or larger in total size than the typical Canadian’s brain, Einstein’s
brain was 15 percent larger in the parietal lobe’s lower region —which just
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91 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion information. Certain other areas were a tad smaller than average. With
different mental functions competing for the brain’s real estate, these
observations may offer a clue to why Einstein, like some other great
physicists such as Richard Feynman and Edward Teller, was slow in
learning to talk (Pinker, 1999).
If intelligence does modestly correlate with brain size, the cause could be
differing genes, nutrition, environmental stimulation, some combination of
these, or perhaps something else. Recall from earlier chapters that
experience alters the brain. Rats raised in a stimulating rather than
deprived environment develop thicker, heavier cortexes. And learning
leaves detectable traces in the brain’s neural co nnections. “Intelligence is
due to the development of neural connections in response to the
environment,” notes University of Sydney psychologist Dennis Garlick
(2003).Postmortem brain analyses reveal that highly educated people die
with more synapses —17 p ercent more in one study —than their less -
educated counterparts (Orlovskaya et al., 1999). This does not tell us
whether people grow synapses with education, or people with more
synapses seek more education, or both. But other evidence suggests that
highly intelligent people differ in their neural plasticity —their ability
during childhood and adolescence to adapt and grow neural connections in
responseto their environment (Garlick, 2002, 2003).
The neurological approach to understanding is currently in its h eyday.
Will this new research reduce what we now call the g factor to simple
measures of underlying brain activity? Or are these efforts totally
wrongheaded because what we call intelligence is not a single general trait
but several culturally adaptive ski lls? The controversies surrounding the
nature of intelligence are a long way from resolution.
3.5 REFERENCES 1. Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thEdition; International edition.
New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013.
2. KumarVipan (2008 ), General Psychology, Himalaya Publishing
House, Chapter 06.
3. Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.
4. Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian
subcontinent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt.
Ltd.


*****
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4
PSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONS
Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theories of Emotions
4.2.1 Historical Emotion Theories:
4.2.2 Cognition Can Define Emotion: Schachter and Singer’s Two
Factor Theory
4.2.3 Cognition May Not Precede Emotion: Zajonc, LeDoux an d
Lazarus’ Theory
4.3 Biological basis of human emotions
4.3.1 Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System:
4.3.2 The Physiology of Emotions:
4.3.3 Gender, Emotion and Nonverbal Behavior:
4.4 Measurement of Emotions
4.4.1 Detecting Emotions in Others
4.4.2 Culture and Emotional Expression
4.4.3 The Effects of facial Expression
4.5 Emotional Development and regulation
4.5.1 The Need To Belong: Introduction
4.6 Summary
4.7 Questions
4.8 References
4.1 INTRODUCTION Emotions are responsible for the f inest inhuman achievement and for the
worst in history. They are the source of pleasure as well as sorrow in our
life. Negative and long lasting emotions can make us sick. So, what are
emotions? Emotions are our body’s adaptive response. They exist to give
us support for our survival. When we are faced with a challenge, emotions
focus our attention and energize our actions. (Cyders &
Smith,2008).Emotions are a mix of bodily arousal (heart pounding),
expressive behaviors (quickened pace) and conscious experi ence,
including thoughts and feelings (panic, fear, joy). (Mayers D.G.,2013)
Historical as well as current research has been trying to find answer to two
questions .
1. Whether bodily arousal comes before or after we emotional feelings?
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93 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion 4.2 Theories of Emotions 4.2.1 Historical Emotion Theories:
1) A. James Large Theory: Arousal Comes Before Emotion :
Common sense suggests that first we experience a feeling and then
consequently comes our action, e.g., w e cry because we are sad, tremble
because we are scared. But James -Lange theory proposes exactly opposite
of that and states that feeling comes as a consequence of our action, e.g.,
we feel sorry because we cry.
In other words, James and Lange would say, “I feel sorry because I cry, I
feel afraid because I tremble”. If a person sees a bear while walking along
in the woods, James and Lange would suggest that the person would
tremble and then realize that, because they are trembling, they are afraid.
He furt her stated that without the bodily states following on the
perception, the latter would be purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless,
destitute of emotional warmth. We might then see the bear, and judge it
best to run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but we should not
actually feel afraid or angry.
2) The Cannon -Bard Theory:
Cannon disagreed with James -Lange Theory and stated that people who
show different emotions may have the same physiological state, e.g., cry
when happy and sad. The body ’s responses such as heart rate, perspiration
and body temperature are often too similar and too slow to cause different
emotions, which erupt very quickly, e.g., does racing heart signal fear,
anger or love? Physiological arousal may occur without the exp erience of
an emotion, e.g., exercise increases heart rate no emotional significance.
Cannon - Bard explained that our bodily responses and experienced
emotions occur separately but simultaneously, e.g., The emotion triggering
stimulus travels to sympathet ic nervous system, causing body’s arousal. At
the same time , it travels to brain’s cortex, causing awareness of emotion.
So, my pounding heart did not cause my feeling of fear, nor did my feeling
of fear cause my pounding of heart.
However, Cannon -Bard’s theory has been criticized by those doing
research on spinal cord injuries. It was reported by them that patients with
high spinal cord injury (those who could feel nothing below neck)
reported changes in their emotions’ intensity. Patients reported that t he
intensity of experienced emotion such as anger has come down drastically.
One patient reported that “Anger just doesn’t have the heat to it that it
used to…” But other emotions that are expressed mostly in body above the
neck were felt more intensely, e .g., these patients reported increase in
weeping, lumps in the throat and getting choked up when saying good -
bye, worshipping or watching an emotional movie. This indicates that our
bodily responses feed our experienced emotions.
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94 Psychology of Emotions 4.2.2 Cognition Can De fine Emotion: Schachter and Singer’s Two
Factor Theory:
Schachter and Singer maintain that we don’t automatically know when we
are happy, angry, or jealous. Instead, we label our emotions by
considering situational cues. Our physical reactions and thoughts together
create emotions. So, there are two factors – physical arousal and cognitive
appraisal. They also talked about spillover effect . some element in the
situation (e.g., you have come home after a rigorous exercise) must trigger
a general, nonspecific arousal marked by increased heart rate, tightening
of the stomach, and rapid breathing. At that time, you get the good news
that you have got the job that you wanted for a long time. You will feel
more excited because of lingering arousal from the exercis e. You would
not have felt the same intensity of excitement if you had just woken up
from sleep.
To show this spillover effect, they conducted an experiment in which
volunteered were told that experiment was about the effects of a vitamin
called Suproxin. After volunteers consented they were injected with
epinephrine or a placebo. Epinephrine triggers a feeling of arousal and
generally increases blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration. Thus, the
men who received the epinephrine were more physiologicall y aroused
than those who received the placebo. Schachter and Singer reasoned that
once the epinephrine’s effects take place, participants would begin to
search for the cause of their arousal and their reaction would depend on
the available situational cues . After administering injection, all
participants were asked to wait in a waiting room, where another person
(actually an accomplice of the experimenters) was already present. This
accomplice acted either euphoric or irritated.
Before going into the waiti ng room some of the epinephrine injected
participants were told that there are some common side effects of the drug
- they might feel flushed, their hands might shake, and their hearts might
pound. The other subjects, in contrast, were given no information at all
about the effects of the drug. Once the effect of epinephrine kicked in,
people who were told beforehand that the drug would arouse them felt no
emotion and assumed that the drug was causing their hands to shake and
their heart to pound and those w ho weren’t told about the drug’s effects,
interpreted their arousal as an emotion. As Schachter and Singer had
predicted, the physiologically aroused subjects who hadn’t been told about
the drug’s side -effects responded with motions that matched the
confed erate’s actions. If they were aroused and hadn’t been expecting the
arousal, then they felt happy when the other person, i.e., confederate, was
happy, but angry when the other person was angry. Forewarned subjects
and unaroused subjects who received a plac ebo did not display any
pronounced emotion. This finding that arousal state can be experienced as
one emotion or the other depending on how we label it has been replicated
in many other studies, indicating that arousal fuels emotions, cognition
channels it .
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95 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion 4.2.3 Cognition May Not Precede Emotion: Zajonc, LeDoux and
Lazarus’ Theory:
Zajonc believed that some of our emotional reactions involve no deliberate
thinking. He that our emotional responses follow two different brain
pathways. Some emotions such a s hatred and love travel a “high -road”
while other emotions such as simple likes, dislikes and fears take “low
road”. This low road is like shortcut that enables our emotional response
before our intellect interferes.
Lazarus said that our brains process vast amount of information without
our conscious awareness and that some emotional responses do not require
conscious thinking. Much of our emotional life operates via the automatic,
speedy low road. However, we still need to appraise a situation to
deter mine what we are reacting to. This appraisal may be effortless and we
may not be conscious of it. In other words, he said that emotions arise
when we appraise an event as harmless or dangerous, whether we truly
know it is or not, e.g., we appraise the soun d of the rustling bushes as the
presence of danger. Later on we might realize that it was just the wind.
So, some emotional responses -especially simple likes, dislikes and fears
involve no conscious thinking, e.g., we may fear a snake and our emotion
may not change in spite of knowing that snake is harmless. However,
studies have shown that highly emotional people are intense partly
because of their interpretations and although the emotional low road
functions automatically, the thinking high road allows u s to retake some
control over our emotional life.
4.3 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUMAN EMOTIONS Different emotions do not have sharply distinct biological signatures and
they do not engage very distinctly different brain regions. For example,
insula, a neural c enter deep inside the brain gets activated when we
experience different social emotions such as lust, pride and disgust. It gets
activated with taste, smell or even thought of some disgusting food or
even if we feel moral disgust over a cheating case. Howe ver, researchers
have identified some subtle physiological distinctions and brain patterns
for different emotions,
We can say that we cannot differentiate in emotions on the basis of heart
rate, breathing and perspiration, but different emotions have diff erent
facial expressions and brain activity.
4.3.1 Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System:
By now, we know that autonomic nervous system helps in moving our
various bodily organs into action when the need arises and
parasympathetic nervous system help s in calming down our bodily
reactions. For example, when we are faced with a challenging or
exhilarating situation, our adrenal glands secrete stress hormones, our liver
releases more sugar in the blood stream to provide more energy and
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96 Psychology of Emotions down to divert more blood from internal organs to muscles and if you are
wounded, the blood clots more quickly to stop the bleeding. The pupil in
the eyes dilates so that more light comes in and you can se e better. The
perspiration increases to cool your stirred -up body, etc. This kind of
bodily response is beneficial for better performance to meet the
challenges. Moderate arousal is needed to give better performance. For
example, can you imagine P.T. Usha winning a race if she was not
moderately aroused/tense (or was sleeping) just before the race started.
However, having too much arousal/ tension or having too little arousal/
tension before an important activity will not enhance the performance.
One should not be too relaxed or too tense before the important activity.
On the other hand, when the situation comes back to normal and is no
more challenging, the parasympathetic gradually calms down the body and
stress hormones slowly dissipate from the blood st ream.
4.3.2 The Physiology of Emotions:
Different emotions neither have very distinct biological reactions nor do
they originate from specific distinct brain regions. For example, the insula
in the brain is activated when we experience various social emo tions such
as lust, pride and disgust. It does not matter that these feelings may
originate from different sources. For example, the feeling of disgust may
originate from taste of disgusting food, smell of disgusting food or just a
thought of some disgusti ng food or it may originate from watching a
disgusting news of corruption practiced by politicians.
However, studies have shown that even though biological reactions and
brain regions for different emotions appear to be similar, there are
emotions such as sexual arousal, fear, anger, and disgust that are felt
differently by the people and they appear to be different to other people.
Researchers have identified some subtle brain pattern differences and
physiological differences for different emotions. For e xample, the finger
temperature and hormone secretion related with fear and rage differ. Heart
rate increases in fear and joy but both feelings stimulate different facial
muscles. While experiencing fear, your eye brow muscles get tensed up
and while experi encing joy, your cheeks and under your eyes pull into
smile.
Some emotions also differ in their brain circuits. People show more
activity in amygdala when they are watching fearful faces rather than
angry faces. Experience of negative emotions such as dis gust activates
right side prefrontal cortex rather than left side one. People with
depression and negative personality in general also show more right
frontal activity. People with positive personalities, that is people who are
alert, enthusiastic, energiz ed and persistently goal oriented, show more
activity in the left frontal lobe than in the right frontal lobe.
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97 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Thus, we can say that we can’t easily differentiate emotions on the basis of
bodily reactions such as heart rate, breathing and perspiration. B ut facial
expressions and brain activity can differ with emotions.
4.3.3 Gender, Emotion and Nonverbal Behavior:
Studies have proved that women are better at reading emotional cues than
men, even if they are exposed to very little behavior of the other pe rson,
e.g., they can detect whether a male -female couple is a genuine romantic
couple or just pretending one(Barnes & Sternberg, 1989).Women’s
nonverbal sensitivity is due to their greater emotional literacy and they
more emotionally responsive. For exampl e, in an experiment on emotional
literacy, when men were asked how will they feel saying good bye to a
friend, they simply said, “I will feel bad”, while women said “It will be
bittersweet; I’ll feel both happy and sad”.(Barrett et.al., 2000). A study of
people from 26 cultures found that women reported themselves as more
open to feelings than men. (Costa et.al. 2001). This clearly indicates that
women are more emotional than men. However, generally, people tend to
attribute women’s reactions to their emoti ons while men’s reactions to
their circumstances, except for the feeling of anger. Anger is considered as
more masculine emotion. Surveys showed that women are more likely to
describe themselves as empathic. Their heart rate goes up and they are
more likel y to cry when they see someone in distress.
4.4 MEASUREMENT OF EMOTIONS 4.4.1 Detecting Emotions in Others:
To determine other people’s emotions we read their bodies, listen to their
voice tones and study their faces. Psychologists wondered whether non -
verbal language differs according to our culture and can our expressions
influence our experienced emotions. For example, in western culture, a
firm handshake conveys an outgoing, expressive personality. A gaze, an
averted glance or a stare indicates intim acy, submission or dominance. In
a study, male -female pairs who were total strangers to each other, were
asked to gaze intently at each other for two minutes. They reported feeling
a tingle of attraction towards each other.
Most of us read nonverbal cues well. We are especially good at detecting
nonverbal threats. In a crowd of faces, a single angry face is identified
much faster than a single happy face. Experience can also sensitize us to
particular emotions, e.g., viewing a series of faces depicting ang er to fear,
physically abused children were much quicker to spot the signals of anger
than non -abused children. Hard to control facial muscles reveal signs of
emotions that a person may be trying to hide, e.g., eyebrows raised and
pulled together signal fe ar. Our brains are very good detectors of subtle
expressions. Seeing a face for just 0.1 seconds also enabled people to
judge attractiveness or trustworthiness of a person (Willis &
Todorov,2006). It is rightly said that first impression occurs at lightnin g
speed. Despite our brain’s emotion detecting skills, it is difficult to detect
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98 Psychology of Emotions tellers are too minute for most people to detect. However, some people are
much better emotion detect ors (especially introverts) than others. It is
difficult to detect emotions from written communication because it does
not have gestures, facial features and voice tones to help detection of
emotions. Electronic communication also provides very poor qualit y
nonverbal cues. That is why, people often use emoticons.
Lie Detection:
It is a common practice for researchers and crime detectors to use lie
detector - polygraph to detect the lies. The question arises how effective
and reliable is polygraph in detecti ng lies. The polygraph works on the
principle that certain emotion -linked bodily changes, such as changes in
breathing, cardiovascular activity and perspiration changes take place
when a person tells a lie, even if that person can control his facial
expres sions. The tester/examiner asks questions to the testee and observes
these bodily changes taking place in the testee while answering the
questions. The tester starts questioning with certain question that may
make any person nervous and polygraph will show signs of arousal. These
are called control questions. For example, a tester may ask in last 10 years
have you taken anything that does not belong to you? The arousal level
shown on a polygraph, in response to these control questions serves as the
base lin e. Then the tester will ask the critical questions, e.g., have you
stolen anything from your previous employer? The arousal level shown on
polygraph in response to this question will indicate whether the person is
telling the truth or lying. For example, i f the arousal level while answering
the critical question is weaker than the base line arousal determined
before, then we can say that person is telling the truth. On the other hand,
if the arousal shown in response to critical question is more than base l ine
arousal that means the person is telling the lie.
4.4.2 Culture and Emotional Expression:
Studies have shown that there are universal facial expressions for basic
emotions across different cultures. Facial muscles speak a universal
language. In entire world, children cry when in distress and smile when
they are happy. Even people blind from birth, naturally show the common
facial expressions linked with emotions such as joy, sadness, fear and
anger. Musical expressions also cut across cultures. In all cultures, fast
paced music seems to be happy one and slow music is considered as sad
one.
Charles Darwin said that in prehistoric times, before our ancestors
communicated through words, they communicated threats, greetings and
submission through facial e xpressions. Their shared expressions help in
their survival. Emotional expressions help in our survival in other ways
also, e.g., surprise raises the eyebrows and widens the eyes so that we can
take in more information. However, it is observed that people are more
accurate in judging emotions from their own culture, and there are cultural
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99 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion western culture, people openly show their emotions while in Asian
cultures, people tend to have less vis ible display of their emotions.
4.4.3 The Effects of facial Expression:
Studies indicate that expressions not only communicate emotions, they
also amplify and regulate them. People report feeling more fear than any
other emotion, when made to construct a fearful expression. It is said
smile warmly on the outside and you will feel better on the inside. So,
your face feeds your feelings. In an experiment, depressed patients felt
better after getting Botox injections that paralyze the frowning muscles.
Simi larly, it is reported that people see ambiguous behaviors differently
depending on which finger they move up and down while reading a story.
If they read the story, while moving an extended middle finger, the story
behaviors seemed more hostile. If read wi th a thumb up, they seemed
more positive.
4.5 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND REGULATION 4.5.1 The Need To Belong: Introduction :
Aristotle wrote that all human beings are social animals. Even if people
have all resources and amenities to live life comfortably, but no social
contact with other human beings, they will choose not to live. They will
prefer to live with others, even if it means to live with limited resources.
We all have a need to affiliate with others, even to become strongly
attached to certain oth ers in long lasting close relationships. Alfred Adler
called it an “urge to community”. The question arises why do we have
such strong desire to affiliate with others. Psychologists believe that need
to belong is beneficial for human beings.
Aiding in Surv ival:
Evolutionary psychologists explained that social bonds increased the
survival rate of our ancestors who were living in forests and caves.
Survival was enhanced by cooperation. In solo combat, our ancestors
could not fight back other animals who were much stronger than them.
Similarly, to get food by hunting, fishing or by just collecting from plants,
our ancestors realized that it is better to hunt in team and share the spoils
rather than try to hunt individually. Travelling in group gave every one of
them protection from predators and enemies.
Psychologists believe that all human beings have a strong instinct to
propagate their genes in next generation. As adults, those who formed
attachments were more likely to reproduce (have children) and to co -
nurture their offspring to maturity. By keeping children close to their
caregivers, attachments served as a powerful survival impulse. Those who
felt a need to belong survived and reproduced more successfully. So being
social is there in our genes.
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100 Psychology of Emotions Good He alth:
Studies have shown that people who feel supported by close relationships
are the ones who live longer with better health and at a lower risk of
psychological disorder than those who do not have social support, e.g. It
was observed that married peopl e are less at risk for depression, suicide
and early death. Social isolation puts us at the risk of declining mental and
physical health.
Wanting to Belong:
Most people report close, satisfying relationships with family, friends, or
romantic partners is the first and foremost requirement for their happiness
and meaning in life. (Berscheid, 1985) Studies show that money does not
make a person happy, rich and satisfying close relationship do. A person
may be very rich and yet unhappy and lonely. When our n eed to belong is
satisfied in balance with psychological needs of autonomy (having a sense
of personal control) and competence, we experience a deep sense of well -
being. (Deci & Ryan (2002). When we feel included, accepted and loved
by those who are import ant to us, our self -esteem goes up. Therefore, most
of our actions are aimed at increasing our social acceptance. To avoid
rejection, we generally conform to group norms and try to make favorable
impressions.
The need to belong influences our need to defin e who we are. We express
our identity in terms of faithful relationships and loving families. We
proudly say that I belong to so and so family. However, our need to define
who we are can be expressed in negative way also. For example, we may
become part of teen gangs, we may become part of ethnic rivalries (our
identity as Hindu, Muslim, or Sikh, etc.) and fanatic nationalism.
Sustaining Relationships:
It is well known that generally familiarity produces liking. Think of it. In a
new class or conducted vac ation trips, initially, we are indifferent to other
students/participants, who are total strangers for us, but by the end of the
course/ vacation trip, parting ways and breaking social bonds becomes a
distressing experience and we promise to keep in touch with each other.
These friendships with at least some of them becomes lifelong.
Our strong desire to maintain relationships with others, no matter how bad
or abusive, are due to our fear of being alone. Studies on abusive
relationships have shown that pe ople prefer to stay in abusive relationships
and suffer emotional and physical abuse rather than face the pain of being
alone. People suffer emotional trauma even when bad relationship breaks
down. After separations, people have feelings of loneliness and anger.
Sometime they have strange desire to be near the former partner even if
the relationship with former partner was not good.
Children who move through a series of foster homes or through repeated
family relocations, with repeated disruptions of buddi ng attachments, may
have difficulty in forming deep attachments in later life. (Oishi & munotes.in

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101 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion Shimmack, 2011). It has been observed that children reared in institutions
have no sense of belonging to anyone, or children locked away at home
under extreme neglect b ecome pathetic beings – withdrawn, frightened
and speechless.
Life’s best moments occur when close relationships begin, e.g., when new
friendship develops, we fall in love or when a new baby is born in the
family. The worst moments of life take place when close relationship
comes to an end. When some situation threatens, or dissolves our social
ties, we experience extreme anxiety, loneliness, jealousy or guilt. When a
person loses a life partner, he or she feels that life has become empty and
meaningless. For immigrants and refugees moving alone to new places,
the stress and loneliness can lead to depression for them. But if the feeling
of acceptance and connection increases, then our self -esteem, positive
feelings and desire to help others instead of hurti ng others also increases.
The Pain of Ostracism:
This social exclusion is called ostracism. For centuries together, humans
have controlled social behavior by using the punishing effect of severe
ostracism. In extreme form, it can be in the form of exile, imprisonment or
solitary confinement. In milder form, it can be being excluded, ignored or
shunned by your friends, being given a silent treatment by not talking to
you, by avoiding you or averting his/her eyes in your presence or even
making fun of you be hind your back. Williams & Zadro (2001) stated that
being shunned – given the cold shoulder or the silent treatment, with
others’ eyes avoiding yours - threatens one’s need to belong. This is the
meanest thing you can do to someone, especially when you know that the
other person can’t fight back. Even just being linguistic outsider among
people speaking a different language that you can’t speak or understand
must have made you feel excluded.
People often respond to social ostracism with depressed moods. In the
beginning, they try to restore their acceptance and if they don’t succeed,
they go into withdrawal. People lose their self -esteem and their weight
drops. Experiencing cyber -ostracism is equal to experiencing real pain.
Ostracism (in the form of being i gnored in a chat room or email going
unanswered) even by strangers or by a despised out group takes its toll on
the victim. It activates the same area of brain that is activated in response
to physical pain. (Williams et.al.,2006).
When people experience r ejection, and cannot rectify the situation they
seek new friends or gain stress relief by strengthening their religious faith.
They may turn nasty, may indulge in self - defeating behaviors, may
underperform on given tasks, may not empathize with others and are more
likely to behave aggressively, especially towards those who had excluded
them.
Social networking:
Since social relationships are essential for leading a healthy life, it is but
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102 Psychology of Emotions significantly impacted satisfaction of our need to have social contacts.
Technology has changed the way we connect with others and
communicate. Texting, e -chatting and e -mailing has replaced phone
talking. With social networking being pervasive in all as pects of our life it
is important for us to see how it impacts us.
The Social Effects of Social Networking:
As electronic communication becomes part of new normal, researchers are
exploring how these changes affect our relationships. The question asked
by psychologists is ”Are Social Networking Sites Making Us More Or
Less Socially Isolated?” Research has reported that when online
communication in chat rooms and during social games was mostly
between strangers in the internet’s early years, adolescents and a dults who
spent more time online spent less time with friends, and their offline
relationships in real world suffered.
Bonetti et.al.(2010) reported that lonely people tend to spend greater than
average time online. Social networkers are less likely to kno w their real -
world neighbors, and compared to non -internet users, are 64% less likely
to rely on neighbors for help either for themselves or for their family
members.
However, social networking has its own advantages also. The internet is
diversifying our social networks. It is possible to connect with likeminded
people having similar interest from all over the world. Geographical
boundaries are broken. To a large extent, social taboos are also broken.
Despite the decrease in neighborliness, social network ing is mostly
strengthening our connections with people we already know. For example,
we form groups on Facebook and WhatsApp. If Facebook page helps you
to connect with friends, stay in touch with extended family, or find support
in facing challenges, the n you are not alone.
Another phenomenon noticed on social networking sites is that people
disclose personal information to perfect strangers or for the whole world
to see that in normal circumstances they will not like to disclose in real
life. This obser vation brought another important question to psychologists
– Does Electronic Communication Stimulate Healthy Self -Disclosure?
Mental health experts point out that confiding in others can be a healthy
way of coping with day to day challenges. Very often we find that people
pour out their woes on social networking site. For example, it was reported
in TOI, dated 16th May 2017, that a film producer of Marathi films posted
his suicide note on Facebook before committing suicide. This is not
isolated news. Before that also, media has reported many such incidents.
The question arises why people disclose their distress on social
networking sites rather than talking to somebody in their vicinity. There
can be many reasons for it such as:
1. People may not have any c lose friends to whom they can
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103 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion 2. While disclosing our distress face to face, we are not sure how the
other person is going to react. We are vulnerable and self -conscious.
It makes us feel weak and hits our s elf-esteem. On the other hand,
while communicating electronically rather than face -to-face, we often
are less focused on others’ reactions, feel less self -conscious and thus
feel less inhibited. We become more willing to share our joys, worries
and vulnera bilities. Sometimes, this disinhibition can take an extreme
form. For example, people indulge in sexting, teens send nude photos
of themselves to their internet friends, youth are “cyber -bullied” or
trolling takes place, hate groups post messages promoting bigotry or
crimes.
3. Self-disclosure can also help to deepen friendships. Even if our
friendship with internet friends gets stronger, we crave to meet them
face to face. This is because nature has designed us for face to face
communication, which appear s to be better predictor of life
satisfaction. Texting and e -mailing are rewarding but having face to
face conversation with friends and family is more enjoyable.
There are all sorts of people in virtual world just as they are in real world.
Some people ar e honest, loving good human beings and some are cheats,
criminals/ predators. Psychologists wondered whether people reveal their
true selves on internet. So the next question is –Do Social Networking
Profiles and Posts Reflect People’s Actual Personalities ?
Beck et.al. (2010) found that ratings based on Facebook profiles were
much closer to the participants’ actual personalities than to their ideal
personalities. This indicated that generally social networks reveal people’s
real personalities. In another s tudy, it was found that people who seemed
most likable on their Facebook page also seemed most likable in face to
face meetings also. This also indicates that Facebook profile reflects real
personality of the person.
It has been observed that most of the p eople using social networking sites
are mainly talking about themselves. It is always about me, my life, my
family, my thoughts, my experiences etc. So, another question that
intrigued psychologists was - Does Social Networking Promote
Narcissism?
Narcissi stic people are self – focused, self - promoting and have an unusual
sense of self – importance. They like to be the center of attention. Such
people on Facebook compare the number of friends they have, the number
of likes they get from others, compared to their other friends. They are
very active on social media. Just to feel the pleasure of having maximum
number of friends, they collect more superficial friends. They post more
staged, glamorous photos of themselves just to get more likes. Anyone
who visits their Facebook page can judge that they are narcissists. So,
social media is not just a platform for all narcissists to gather there, but it
also satisfies their narcissistic tendencies
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104 Psychology of Emotions Maintaining Balance and Focus:
The question arises how to maintain b alance between our real world and
the virtual world. Some of the suggestions offered by experts are as
follows:
1. Monitor your time: Keep a diary and see whether the way you use
your time reflects your priorities. Check whether the time spent on
internet is interfering with your academic and work performance and
whether it is eating your time with friends and family.
2. Monitor your Feelings: Check how you feel when you are not
online. If you feel anxious and restless, if you keep thinking about
social net working sites all the time even when you are in class or at
work, then you are getting addicted to social networking sites and you
need help.
3. “Hide” your more distracting online friends: Before posting
anything on your social networking sites, ask yours elf, is it something
that I would like to read if somebody else had posted it?
4. Try turning off your handheld devices(mobiles) or leaving them
elsewhere: Cognitive psychologists point out that we cannot pay full
attention to two things at a time. When yo u do two things at once, you
don’t do either of them as well as when you do them one at a time. So
while studying, resist the temptation to check your social networking
sites like WhatsApp/Facebook. Disable sound alerts and pop -ups.
5. Try going on Intern et “Fast”: That means decide to go off internet
for five hours/ten hours or one day.
6. Recharge your focus with a natural walk: Research has shown that
walking in a quiet garden or in a forest recharges people’s capacity for
focused attention rather than walking in a busy street.
4.6 SUMMARY In this unit, we have touched upon three learning items - need to belong,
emotions and happiness.
In need to belong, we looked at the definition and usefulness of need to
belong. We also discussed how ostracism is p ainful for anybody and in
social networking topic we discussed how technology has impacted our
social communications. We also looked at the ways and means of
maintaining a balance between real world and internet world.
In emotions we first talked about it s definition, and we discussed four
historical theories of emotion to see the link between cognition and
emotions. The James Lange theory proposed that first comes bodily
response and then we label emotions based on those bodily responses.
Cannon -Bard’s th eory argued that emotions and autonomic responses
occur simultaneously but separately. One is not the cause of the other. The munotes.in

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105 Psychology of Cognition And Emotion individual’s appraisal of the emotion producing situation largely
determines the emotions.
Schachter and Singer believed that to e xperience emotions, we must
consciously interpret and label them. Zajonc, LeDoux and Lazarus noted
that we have many emotional reactions without interference of intellect.
Many emotions occur without our being aware of them. Then we
discussed the physiolog y of emotions and how emotions can be detected
by others. We also dwelled upon how gender and culture can influence the
expression of emotions, and how facial expression can influence the actual
experience of emotions.
4.7 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the usefuln ess of need to belong and pain of ostracism.
2. What is social networking and how can we maintain balance between
real world and virtual world.
3. Define emotion and discuss various theories of emotion.
4. How can we detect emotions in others and what rol e is played by
gender and culture in detecting emotions?
Write a short note on .
a. Effects of social networking
b. Maintaining balance between real world and virtual world
c. Cannon -Bard theory of emotion
d. Schachter & Singer’s theory of Emotion
4.8 REF ERENCES 1) Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International edition.
New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013
2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.



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