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PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS AND
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND
SCIENCE OF THE SOCIAL
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Philosophical Perspectives
1.2.1 Ontology
1.2.2 Epistemology
1.2.2.1 Positivism
1.2.2.2 Positivism And Objectivism
1.2.2.3 Epistemological Consideration
1.2.2.4 Objectivity
1.2.2.5 Stages of Positivism Methodology
1.2.2.6 Interpretivism
1.3 Methodology
1.4 Conclusion
1.5 The Nature of Science And Science Of Social
1.5.1 Nature of Science
1.5.2 Principles of Science
1.6 Social And Physical / Natural Sciences
1.7 Principles of Social Science
1.8 The Scientific Method
1.9 Fundamental difference between social science and Natural science
research
1.10 Conclusion
1.11 Unit End Questions
1.12 Summary
1.13 References and Further Readings
1.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand the philosophical foundations of social research
To comprehend the nature of ontology, epistemology and
methodology in research . munotes.in
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To analyze the significance and application of positivism .
To evaluate the nature of science and social science .
To have a comparative analysis of its differences .
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Understanding philosophy is important because social science
research can only be meaningfully interpreted when there is clarity about
the decisions that were taken that affect the research outcomes. Some of
these decisions are based, not always knowingly, on some key
philosophical principles, as outlined in the figure below.
Philosophy provides the general principles of theoretical t hinking,
a method of cognition, perspective and self -awareness, all of which are
used to obtain knowledge of reality and to design, conduct, analyse and
interpret research and its outcomes. The figure below shows three main
branches of philosophy that are important in the sciences and serves to
illustrate the differences between them. Social science research guide
consisting of ontology, epistemology, and philosophical perspectives.
1.2 PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
Stemming from ontology (what exists for p eople to know about)
and epistemology (how knowledge is created and what is possible to
know) are philosophical perspectives, a system of generalized views of the
world, which form beliefs that guide action.
Philosophical perspectives are important because, when made
explicit, they reveal the assumptions that researchers are making about
their research, leading to choices that are applied to the purpose, design,
methodology and methods of the research, as well as to data analysis and
interpretation. At the most basic level, the mere choice of what to study in
the sciences imposes values on one‟s subject.
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1.2.1 Ontology :
Ontology is the study of „being‟ and is concerned with „what is‟,
i.e., the nature of existence and structure of reality as such (Crotty, 1998)
or what it is possible to know about the world (Snape & Spencer, 2003).
The SAGE Online Dictionary of Social Research Methods (2006) defines
ontology as “a concept concerned with the existence of, and relationship
between, different aspects of society such as social actors, cultural norms
and social structures… Ontological issues are concerned with questions
pertaining to the kinds of things that exist within society” (no page). For
Richards, (2003) , ontology is the assumptions we make about the kind and
nature of reality and what exists. Snape and Spencer (2003) also define
ontology as the nature of the world and what we can know about it.
Furthermore, Bryman (2008) introduces the concept of „social ontology‟
which he defines as a philosophical consideration in research which
concerns the nature of social entities, i.e., whether these social entities are
or can be objective entities which exist independently from social actors or
rather they are soci al constructions in themselves built up from the
perceptions, actions and interpretations of the individuals in society.
Similarly, Ormston et al (2014) assert that ontology concerns the question
“whether or not there is a social reality that exists indepe ndently from
human conceptions and interpretations and, closely related to this, whether
there is a shared social reality or only multiple, context -specific ones”. In
short, ontology concerns our beliefs about the kind and nature of reality
and the social world (what exists).
Thus Ontology , or the „study of being‟, is concerned with what
actually exists in the world about which humans can acquire knowledge.
Ontology helps researchers recognize how certain they can be about the
nature and existence of objec ts they are researching. To illustrate, realist
ontology relates to the existence of one single reality which can be
studied, understood and experienced as a „truth‟; a real world exists
independent of human experience. Meanwhile, relativist ontology is ba sed
on the philosophy that reality is constructed within the human mind, such
that no one „true‟ reality exists. Instead, reality is „relative‟ according to
how individuals experience it at any given time and place.
1.2.2 Epistemology :
Epistemology in general is the assumptions we make about the
kind or the nature of knowledge (Richards, 2003) or how it is possible to
find out about the world (Snape & Spencer, 200 3). For Crotty (1998),
epistemology is a way of looking at the world and making sense of it . It
involves knowledge and, necessarily, it embodies a certain understanding
of what that knowledge entails. He further explains that epistemology
deals with the „nature‟ of knowledge, its possibility (what knowledge is
possible and can be attempted and w hat is not), its scope and legitimacy.
Similarly, but with a particular reference to the contrasting views about
how natural and social worlds should be studied, Bryman (2008) defines munotes.in
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epistemology as “an issue concerns the question of what is (or should be )
regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline” (p.13). To further
explain what epistemology is about, I cite Cohen, Manion and Morrison
(2007) as saying that epistemology is about the assumptions which one
makes about “the very bases of knowledge – its nature and form, how it
can be acquired and how communicated to other human beings”.
Furthermore, the authors stress how the kind of epistemological
assumptions which we make or hold about knowledge profoundly affect
how we go about uncovering knowledge of social behaviour. Here they
refer to the decisions which the researcher will need to make about the
kind of method(s) he or she will be using in their research as per their
epistemological assumptions. That is, if knowledge, on one hand, is
viewed as ha rd, objective and tangible, this demands of the researcher an
observer role together with an allegiance to the methods of natural science
such as testing, measuring, etc. If knowledge, on the other hand, is viewed
as personal, subjective and unique, then t his imposes on the researcher a
rejection of the methods used by natural science and a greater involvement
with their subjects.
Epistemology is the „study of knowledge‟. Epistemology is concerned
with all aspects of the validity, scope and methods of acquiring
knowledge, such as :
a) what constitutes a knowledge claim;
b) how can knowledge be acquired or produced; and
c) how the extent of its transferability can be assessed. Epistemology is
important because it influences how researchers frame their research in
their attempts to discover knowledge.
By looking at the relationship between a subject and an object we
can explore the idea of epistemology and how it influences research
design. Objectivist epistemology assumes that reality exists outside, or
independently, of the individual mind. Objectivist research is useful in
providing reliability (consistency of results obtaine d) and external validity
(applicability of the results to other contexts).
Constructionist epistemology rejects the idea that objective „truth‟
exists and is waiting to be discovered. Instead, „truth‟, or meaning, arises
in and out of our engagement with the realities in our world. That is, a
„real world‟ does not preexist independently of human activity or symbolic
language. The value of constructionist research is in generating contextual
understandings of a defined topic or problem.
Subjectivist episte mology relates to the idea that reality can be
expressed in a range of symbol and language systems, and is stretched and
shaped to fit the purposes of individuals such that people impose meaning
on the world and interpret it in a way that makes sense to th em. For
example, a scuba diver might interpret a shadow in the water according to
whether they were alerted to a shark in the area (the shark), waiting for a munotes.in
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boat (the boat), or expecting a change in the weather (clouds). The value
of subjectivist research is in revealing how an individual‟s experience
shapes their perception of the world.
1.2.2.1 Positivism :
1.2.2.2 Positivism and objectivism:
Positivism, which is an epistemological position, focuses on the
importance of objectivity and evidence in searching for truth and the
world is unaffected by the researcher. Also, in positivism, facts and values
are very distinct, thus making it possible t o conduct objective and value -
free inquiry What this means is that the researcher should distance him or
herself from any impact on their research findings. In addition, positivism
epistemology holds the position that meaning and meaningful realities
alrea dy reside in objects awaiting discovery and they exist apart from any
kind of people‟s consciousness. Therefore, according to this view, when
we recognise objects around us, we simply discover meanings which have
been lying in them all along. Furthermore, according to the
positivism/objectivism paradigm, truth is static and is always objective.
This truth is „objectified‟ in the people being studied and this objective
truth can be „discovered‟ if we go about it in the right way. These „right‟
ways of discov ering knowledge about the world include, as proposed by
positivist writers such as Isaac Newton and Francis Bacon, methods such
as „careful direct observation‟ and not deduction from abstract
propositions. In other words, the essence of objectivism derive s from the
acceptance of natural science as a paradigm to study human knowledge
and, necessarily, employs means and methods for data collections and data
interpretations similar to those used in natural science including
hypothesis testing, causal explanat ions and modelling. Finally, in this
tradition, all knowledge about the world originates in our experiences and
is derived through our senses and, as such, only phenomena (and hence
knowledge) which can be confirmed by the senses can genuinely be
regarded as knowledge. Positivist knowledge, according to Wellington
(2000) deemed to be objective, value -free, generalizable and replicable.
This is why positivism is often being perceived as a synonymous of
„scientific method‟.
1.2.2.3 Epistemological consider ation:
An epistemological issue concern the question of what is (or
should be) regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline. A central
issue is whether the social world can and should be studied according to
the same principles, procedures, and ethos as the natural sciences. The
position that confirms the importance of imitating the natural science is
associated with epistemological position known as positivism.
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1.2.2.4 Objectivity:
In order to follow positivist approach the sociologists try to
achieve objectivity. Objectivity is needed to achieve unbiased results. The
British sociologist, Ray Pawson tried to explain its usefulness through
personal hygiene. Perfect personal hygience i s unattainable but that
doesn‟t mean we shouldn‟t wash. We attempt to be as clear as we can!
Max Weber(1958;Orig.1918) made the distinction b/w selecting a research
topic that is value and conducting research that should be value free.
1.2.2.5 Stages of P ositivism methodology:
First, as a positivist , Comte believed that scientific study of society
is possible only when information collected can be objectivity observed
and classified. Comte argued that sociologists shouldn‟t be concern with
internal meanin gs, motives, feelings and emotions of individual. Since
these mental states cannot be observed and thus cannot be measure d in
objective way.
The Second aspect of positivism concerns its use of statistical data.
Positivist believed that its use makes it possible to classify the social world
data in objective way and produce statistics. For e.g . Durkheim collected
the data on suicide rate and membership of different religion.
The third stage aims to look for correlation between different social facts.
In his study of Suicide, Durkheim found a correlation between a particular
religion and a high suicide rate.
The fourth stage of positivist methodology involves search of
causal connections. If there is a strong correlation between two or more
type of social phenomena, then a positivist sociologist might expect that
one of these phenomena was causing other to tak e place. However this is
not necessarily the case and it is important to analyze the data carefully
before such con clusions can be arriv ed.
Positivism believe that multivariate analysis can establish causal
connections b/w two or more variable. If these f indings are checked in a
society of context then the researchers can be confident that they have
attained the ultimate goal positivism: a law of human behavior.
1.2.2.6 Interpretivism:
Interpretivism is a term taken to denote a contrasting epistemology
to positivism. The term subsumes the views of writers who are critical of
applying the scientific model to the study of the social world. They share
the view that the subject matter of social sciences i s fundamentally
different from that of natural sciences. The study of social world therefore
requires the different logic and procedures.
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The process of construction and reconstruction is based on
personal inputs. The key process that facilitates construc tion and
reconstruction is interpretation. Interpretivism is a frame work within
which qualitative research is conducted and it looks for cultural and
historical interpretation of the social life word. It has its roots in work of
Max Weber‟s n otion of „ Verstehen‟ (understanding), the hermeneutic
phenomenological tradition and symbolic interactionism.
Von Wright (1971) has shown the epistemological clash between
positivism and hermeneutic. This contrast reflects long standing debates
that led to the emer gence of modern social sciences. It finds expression in
Max Weber`s notion of „Versthen‟ approach. Versthen refers to the views,
opinion and perceptions of people as they are experienced and expressed
in everyday life. Here the qualitative research is inte rested in the
subjective meaning i.e. the way in which they assign meaning to it. The
researcher may be interested in what divorce means to children, or in what
it means to be a woman working in job traditionally held by men. Methods
commonly used in this context are intensive or narrative interviews and
content analysis. An emphasis on the subjective meaning is evident in
research based on symbolic interactionism and phenomenology.
1.3 METHODOLOGY
Theory and research are equally important to the process of
accumulating knowledge through the scientific method. The process can
be different points. Theory is something that guides and influences the
collection and analysis of data. In considering the relationship b/w theory
deductive and Inductive theory are of greater significance. The process
can begin at different point as shown in the diagram.
Theory
Induction Deduction
Research
-Quantitative
-Qualitative
1.3.1 Deduction and Induction :
In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the
deductive and inductive approaches.
Theory
Hypothesis
Observation
Confirmation
Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more
specific. Sometimes this is informally called a “top -down” approach. We
might begin with thinking up th eory about our topic of interest. We th en munotes.in
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narrow that down into more specific hypothesis that we can test. We
narrow even further when we collect observations to address the
hypothesis. This ultimately enables to test the hypothesis with specific
data conf irmation (or not) of our original theories.
Theory
Tentative
Hypothesis
Pattern
Observation
Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific
observations to broader generalization and theories. Informally, we
sometimes call this a “bottom up” approach (please note that its “bottom
up” which is the kind of thing the bartender says to customers when he‟s
trying to close for the night). In inductive reasoning, we being with
specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and
regularities, formulate some tentative hypothesis that we can explore, and
finally end up developing some gener al conclusions or theories.
These two methods of reasoning have a very different “feel” to them when
you‟re conducting research. Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is
more open -ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning. Deductive
reasoning i s narrower in nature and is concerned with testing or
confirming hypothesis. Even though a particular study may look like its
purely deductive (e.g an experiment design to test the hypothesized effects
of some treatment on some outcome), most social resear ch involves both
inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project. In
fact, it doesn‟t take a rocket scientist to see that we could assemble the two
graphs above into a single circular one that continually cycles from
theories down t o observations and back up again to theories. Even in the
most constrained experiment, the researchers may observe patterns in the
data that lead them to develop new theories.
1.4 CONCLUSION
Understanding the philosophical basis of science is critical in
ensuring that research outcomes are appropriately and meaningfully
interpreted. With an increase in interdisciplinary research, an examination
of the points of difference and intersection betw een the philosophical
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know, what we can learn and how this knowledge can affect the conduct
of science and the consequent decisions and actions.
1.5 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE AND SCIENCE OF SOCIAL
1.5.1 Nature of Science :
Fundamentally, science is seen as an organized human approach,
and enterprise and research towards the discovery of the unknown; a
theoretical exposition that applies order and logical assessment aimed at
developing a body of knowledge about a particular s ubject or
phenomenon. Giddens (2006) sees science as the “use of systematic
methods of empirical investigation, the analysis of data, theoretical
thinking and logical assessment of arguments to develop a body of
knowledge about a particular subject matter” . Etymologically, the word
“science” is derived from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge.
Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any
area of inquiry that is acquired using “the scientific method” (the scientific
method is d escribed further below). Science can be grouped into two
broad categories: natural science and social science. Natural science is the
science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light,
objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body. Natural
sciences can be further classified into physical sciences, earth sciences,
life sciences, and others. Physical sciences consist of disciplines such as
physics (the science of physical objects), chemistry (the science of matter),
and astronom y (the science of celestial objects). Earth sciences consist of
disciplines such as geology (the science of the earth). Life sciences include
disciplines such as biology (the science of human bodies) and botany (the
science of plants). In contrast, social science is the science of people or
collections of people, such as groups, firms, societies, or economies, and
their individual or collective behaviors. Social sciences can be classified
into disciplines such as psychology (the science of human behaviors),
sociology (the science of social groups), and economics (the science of
firms, markets, and economies).
1.5.2 Principles of science:
i) It is a body of knowledge;
ii) It has the pre -occupation of understanding the natural realm and the
world in which the body of knowledge operates;
iii) It is systematically or in an ordered manner, constructs universally
acceptable laws that can be rationally investigated, systematical ly
proved, verified and applicable under conditions in all situations and
places;
iv) It has laws that operate irrespective of human will and predispositions;
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v) It operates through certain processes and instrumentalities that are
empirical and veri fiable.
1.6 SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL / NATURAL SCIENCES
The founding father of sociology, Auguste Comte, divided science
into two types. The first is the concrete that deals with the definite objects
in all their different aspects. This type deals with the regular and practical
unknown, with the technology of subduing nature. It uses a „nomothethic‟
or generalizing method as far as it seeks to discover law – like and general
relationships and properties. This type of science is known as the Natural
or Physical Sciences, or better still, what the empiricists call Science of
Positivism. These physical sc iences deal mainly with matter and inanimate
objects and they include physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology,
astronomy, mathematics, geology, theoretical and practical medicine, etc.
The other type of science is what is generally known as the social
sciences. It is generally associated with the study of society and human
relationships. In the German scientific tradition, the social sciences apply
the „ideographic‟ or individualizing procedure because their interest is in
the non -recurring events in reali ty and the particular or unique aspects of
any phenomenon (Marshall, 1998). The social sciences concentrate mainly
on the study of social phenomena (social, political and economic
organizations; human behaviour, social institutions, social relations, socia l
events, attitude, etc.). The social sciences include sociology, psychology,
economics, political science, anthropology, philosophy, business studies,
geography, demography and social statistics. These social sciences,
though study human beings, involve t hemselves in systematic methods of
empirical investigation. They analyze data in empirical studies. They
assess, use and formulate theories based on the evidence and logical
arguments from their investigations. Conclusion and recommendations are
made there - from. The two groupings – natural and social sciences - are
called empirical sciences. This implies that the knowledge that comes
from them must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable
of being subjected to tests and investigations for vali dity by other
investigators and researchers operating under the same conditions.
Auguste Comte, who coined the word „sociology‟ and the term „positive
philosophy‟ (Comte, 1986) argued that there exists a hierarchy of
scientific subjects (Giddens, 2006). He posited that sociology was the
„queen‟ of all scientific subjects and therefore at the pinnacle of that
hierarchical structure. His argument is that there is always the possibility
of scientific knowledge about society. Human existence and welfare can
well be advanced and improved upon through the generated scientific
knowledge in such a way that society can be run rationally without
religion and superstition posing any hindrance to societal progress.
Durkheim (1970), in his study on Suicide indirectly mad e the same
submission on positivist research.
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1.7 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
In a concise form, the tenets of the social sciences, according to
Iheriohanma (2002) and Giddens (2006) include:
i) All forms of human behaviour – attitude, perception, feeling s, etc.
ii) All forms of social life – group, organization, community, society,
etc.
iii) All issues relating to individual and group differences – particularly
in the area of structure, dynamics, cohesion, conformity, etc.
iv) All concerns about social structure – the forms, organization,
structure and interrelationships between people and groups in a
society.
iv) All forms of social relations – social, political, economic, inter -
group, inter -personal, etc.
v) All forms of social interactions – the relationships between people,
group (s) and the interactions that go on.
vi) All the social institutions – structural forms relating to how the
society meets some or all the requirements basic to the maintenance
of organ ized social life (the social pre -requisites and functional
imperatives). The family, economy, education, polity and law,
religion, etc. are examples.
1.8 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Sociology is a social science, sociologists follow the rules of
the scientifi c method in their research. The scientific method is followed
in the natural, physical, and social sciences to help yield the most accurate
and reliable conclusions possible, especially ones that are free of bias or
methodological errors. An overriding pri nciple of the scientific method is
that research should be conducted as objectively as possible. Researchers
are often passionate about their work, but they must take care not to let the
findings they expect and even hope to uncover affect how they do thei r
research. This in turn means that they must not conduct their research in a
manner that “helps” achieve the results they expect to find. Such bias can
happen unconsciously, and the scientific method helps reduce the potential
for this bias as much as pos sible.
This potential is arguably greater in the social sciences than in the
natural and physical sciences. The political views of chemists and
physicists typically do not affect how an experiment is performed and how
the outcome of the experiment is interpreted. In contrast, researchers in the
social sciences, and perhaps particularly in sociology, often have strong
feelings about the topics they are studying. Their social and political
beliefs may thus influence how they perform their research on the se topics
and how they interpret the results of this research.
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1.9 FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEAR CH AND NATURAL SCIENCE
RESEARCH
Social science and Natural science research help in the growth and
development of economies.
In Social science research we commonly find subjectivity. In natural
science y ou will always see objectivity.
In Social Science research personal prejudices and bias may distort
the data and hence the conclusion. In natural science research
personal prejudices and bias do not affect the data or result.
Social scientist lab is societ y or world at large and a social scientist
has no control over the equipments or factors that influence them.
Natural Scientists work in lab where they can control the conditions
and environments.
In social science research the result of investigation are at best
generalizations. In natural science research the results of
investigations are well defined by natural laws.
Social phenomena are known as symbolically through words as
welfare, tradition or systematic. Natural science phenomena can be
best known d irectly through our senses like eyes, ears and nose.
The data obtained in social sciences may vary simultaneously. The
data obtained in physical sciences is more reliable and consists of
actual results.
The rate of progress of social science research is le ss due to less
availability of finance. The rate of progress in scientific research is
very high due to high availability of finance.
1.10 CONCLUSION
To sum up, one can easily say that though both sciences are having
certain shortcomings both have played significant role in socio -economic
and technological developments of many undeveloped and well developed
economies.
In short, the major differences between social science research and
natural science research lie more in the object than in the subject. T he
natural scientist bases all his analysis on the data he or she gathers through
scientific methods. On the contrary, the social scientists who are known
for their outstanding research work do not take a scientific view in day to
day affairs of life and s ociety .
The social sciences have a special and unpredictable object as their
main subject of preoccupation, they still insist on pure and rigorous
scientific methods of investigation. They are characterized by the
principles and tenets of science. It must be acknowledged that the social
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subject matter, such as variability, unpredictability and intractability of
human nature and social phenomena, value judgment, terminology, etc.,
these a re not the specific domains of the social sciences alone. These
problems, in one way or the other, confront the pure sciences as well. In
their methodology, the social sciences delve into the use of quantitative as
well as qualitative data in investigation s. These and more make it
imperative to accept the scientific nature of the social sciences.
1.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS
Write a detailed account on philosophical foundations of research.
What is ontology? Critically evaluate its significance in conducting
research.
Critically examine the role of epistemology in carrying out research.
Elaborate on positivism in epistemological consideration.
Examine in detail the nature of scientific research and social science
research and elaborate on the relevance between the two.
1.12 SUMMARY
Social science research is guided by ontology, epistemology
and philosophical perspectives. Ontology refers to what exist for people to
know about and epistemology means how knowledge is created and what
is possible to know philosophical perspectives reveal the assumptions that
researchers a re making about their research, leading to choices that are
applied to the purpose, design methodology and methods of the research,
data analysis and interpretation.
Positivism focuses on the importance of objectivity and evidence
in searching for truth . Objectivity is highly important to get unbiased
results.
1.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Bryman Alan (2001) “Social Research Methods”, Oxford University
Press.
Cresswell,J.W,2007, Research Design - Qualitative Quantitative and
Mixed Methods Approaches, Sage Publication: New Delhi.
David Mathew and Sutton Carole (2011), “Social Research -An
Introduction” (2nd ed) Sage Publication.
Uwe Flick (2007), “Managing Quality in Qualitative Research”, The
Sage Qualitative Research Kit, Sage Publications.
Sarantakos, S (2005) “Social Research” Palgrare, Mac Millan.
Moon, K., and Blackman, D. (2014). A Guide to Understanding
Social Science Research for Natural Scientists. Conservation munotes.in
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Biology , 28: 1167 -1177.
Online: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12326/full
A guide to ontology, epistemology, and philosophical perspectives
for interdisciplinary researchers
May 2, 2017 -Katie Moon and Deborah Blackman -
https://i2insights.org/2017/05/02/philosophy -for-interdisciplinarity/
Hashil Al -Saadi - February 2014 - Demystifying Ontology and
Epistemology in Research Methods
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260244813_D emystifying_
Ontology_and_Epistemology_in_Research_Methods
Comte, A. (1986). The positive philosophy. London: Bell and Sons.
Durkheim, E. (1970). Suicide: A study in sociology. London:
Routledge & Kegan Paul
Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology (5th ed.). Cambridge: Polity Press
Iheriohanma, E. B. J. (2002). Sociology: A practical understanding
of social reality. Owerri: Polynek Consultants ltd.
Iheriohanma, E. B. J. (2013). Science and the Scientific Nature of
Research in the Social Sciences; in Studies in Sociology of Science
Vol. 4, No. 2, 2013, pp. 19 -30
DOI:10.3968/j.sss.1923018420130402.2617 -
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/236305326.pdf
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/social -research/social -research -
meaning -nature -and-its-utility/92733
*****
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2
THE NATURE OF SOCIOLOGICAL
INQUIRY; SCIENCE AND COMMON
SENSE , QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE METHODOLOGIES
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 The Sociological Approach
2.1.2 Differences Between Sociology And Common Sense
2.2 Qualitative And Quantitative Methodologies
2.2.1 Definition of Quantitative Research
2.2.2 Definition of Qualitative Research
2.3 Summary
2.4 Unit End Questions
2.5 References and Further Readings
2.0 OBJECTIVES
To analyse the sociological approach to research
To evaluate the difference between sociology and common sense
To understand the significance and application of quantitative and
qualitative research
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The sociological approach goes beyond everyday common sense
by using systematic methods of empirical observation and theorization.
The sociological approach goes beyond everyday common sense.
Many people believe they understand the world and the events taking
place within it, often justifying their un derstandin gs by calling it “common
sense. ” However, they have not actually engaged in a systematic attempt
to understand the social world.
Sociology, is an attempt to understand the social world by situating
social events in their corresponding environmen t (i.e., social structure,
culture, history) and trying to understand social phenomena by collecting munotes.in
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and analyzing empirical data. This scientific approach is what
differentiates sociological knowledge from common sense.
Thus, to obtain sociological knowl edge, sociologists must study
their world methodically and systematically. They do this through
induction and deduction. With induction, sociologists gather data on the
ground and formulate theories about what they find. These theories are
then tested by u sing the scientific method in order to assess the theory’s
validity. In order to test a theory’s validity, they utilize deduction.
Deduction is the act of evaluating their theories in light of new data. Thus,
sociological knowledge is produced through a co nstant back and forth
between empirical observation and theorization. In this way, sociology is
more rigorous than common sense, because sociologists test and modify
their understanding of how the world works through scientific analysis.
2.1.1 The Sociolo gical Approach :
Early sociological studies were thought to be similar to the natural
sciences due to their use of empiricism and the scientific method.
Early sociological studies considered the field of sociology to be
similar to the natural sciences, like physics or biology. As a result, many
researchers argued that the methodology used in the natural sciences was
perfectly suited for use in the social sciences. The effect of employing the
scientific method and stressing empiricism was the distinction of
sociology from theology, philosophy, and metaphysics. This also resulted
in sociology being recognized as an empirical science.
Many people mistakenly believe that sociology is the study of the
obvious. They claim that sociology is nothing but the appl ication of
common sense. But equating any science with simple common sense
could not be further from the truth! Common sense is not always
“common,” nor “sensible.” Statements like “Birds of a feather flock
together” and “Opposites attract,” while supposed ly based on common
knowledge, contradict each other. Because common sense does not always
accurately predict reality, people need something else.
Not every sociological finding is revolutionary; many findings do
appear consistent with common sense. By systematically testing common
sense beliefs against facts, sociologists can sort out which popular beliefs
hold true and which do not. To accomplish this, sociologists use a variety
of social science research designs and methods.
Sociology as a discipline is more than common sense. Sociology is
a method of inquiry that requires the systematic testing of beliefs against
evidence.
Sociology and common sense, unlike popular belief, do not refer to
the same thing. Many people believe that sociology is just co mmon sense. munotes.in
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This misconception arises due to people not trying to even study sociology
in the first place. In this article, I am going to discuss how sociology and
common sense are different from each other.
To study this, we need to define what they exac tly are. In layman
terms, the social science which helps people to study the structure and
dynamics of the society is called Sociology . It is more than common sense
and this is why it is studied as a discipline . Common sense , on the other
hand, is based on individual and natural hypotheses that one makes and
this varies from person to person since opinions are not the same among a
group of people. Though there is a close relationship between sociology
and common sense, there is still a gap between them. Whi le in sociology,
the sociologist’s research on whether which theories are fact or fiction by
elaborately researching beliefs as well as evidence, in common sense,
there is no hard and fast rule that a particular theory applies to everyone
(since people hav e conflicting opinions). Though common sense is of use
at times, it is not a systematic study and not everything can be predicted
correctly.
https://www.google.com/search?q=sociology+and+common+sense+diagram&tbm=isch&safe=strict
&rlz=1C1SQJL_enIN929IN929& hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj3zJT9zuntAhUwHrcAHavIAfQQrNwCKAB6
BQgBEN0B&biw=1271&bih=697#imgrc=fvHcmn3TPwPhuM
https://www.slideshare.net/yvangumbao/anthro30 -2-sociology
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2.1.2 Differences between sociology and common sense:
Common sense of a person just an assumption. In this case, one has no
evidence to back what one believes. Unlike common sense,
sociological theories are not mere assumptions but
a sociologist concludes upon the theories by collec ting evidences and
studying them in -depth. Given this research, the points put forward by
these theories are reliable and truly applicable to real life.
Common sense is based on personal experiences. But Sociology looks
at the society not with respect to i ndividuals but as a whole. While
common sense develops as one experiences various situations but
Sociology demands thoughts that are not merely individual
experiences.
Sociology is a scientific study of society. But common sense is not.
Since Sociology is an elaborate study of the society (and includes
research), it is a science. But since common sense doesn’t require the
same it isn’t.
In Sociology, while one is researching, one comes across the patterns
that can be found everywhere in the world. But commo n sense is
subjective since it differs from one individual to another based on the
society one comes from.
Common sense is very limited since the person’s horizon is nowhere
beyond the environment in one’s vicinity. But Sociological findings
are applicable to a huge number of people who come from varying
backgrounds.
Sociology calls for a great research and this allows for the authenticity
of the data provided as well as the theories formulated. But this
doesn’t imply that common sense is of no use at all. Common sense is
very useful and in fact, has helped many sociologists ponder over them
and probe into them. So, both common sense and sociology are
different but are closely knit.
Check your progress
1) Briefly explain sociological to research approach
2) Differentiate between soiciology and common sense.
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2.2 QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODOLOGIES
The contrast between positivist sociology and
the verstehen approach has been reformulated in modern sociology as a
distinction between quantitative and qualitative methodological
approaches, respectively. Quantitative sociology is generally a numerical
approach to understanding human behavior. Surveys with large numbers
of participants are aggregated into data sets and analyzed using statistics,
allowing researchers to discern patterns in human behavior. Qualitative
sociology generally opts for depth over breadth. The qualitative approach
uses in -depth interviews, focus groups, or the analysis of content sources
(books, magazines, journals, TV shows, etc.) as data sources. These
sources are then analyzed systematically to discern patterns and to arrive
at a better understanding of human behavior.
Drawing a hard an d fast distinction between quantitative and
qualitative sociology is a bit misleading, however. Both share a similar
approach in that the first step in all sciences is the development of a theory
and the generation of testable hypotheses. While there are s ome
individuals who begin analyzing data without a theoretical orientation to
guide their analysis, most begin with a theoretical idea or question and
gather data to test that theory. The second step is the collection of data,
and this is really where the two approaches differ. Quantitative sociology
focuses on numerical representations of the research subjects, while
qualitative sociology focuses on the ideas found within the discourse and
rhetoric of the research subjects.
2.2.1 Definition of Quantitative Research :
Quantitative research is a form of research that relies on the
methods of natural sciences, which produces numerical data and hard
facts. It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship between two
variables by using mathemati cal, computational and statistical methods.
The research is also known as empirical research as it can be accurately
and precisely measured.
The data collected by the researcher can be divided into categories
or put into rank, or it can be measured in ter ms of units of measurement.
Graphs and tables of raw data can be constructed with the help
quantitative research, making it easier for the researcher to analyse the
results.
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of
generating numeri cal data or data that can be transformed into usable
statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other
defined variables – and generalize results from a larger sample population.
Quantitative Research uses measurable data to form ulate facts and munotes.in
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uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are
much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods.
Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys –
online surveys, paper surveys , mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face -to-
face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website
interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations.
2.2.2 Definition of Qualitative Research :
Qualitative research is one which provides insights and
understanding of the problem setting. It is an unstructured, exploratory
research method that studies highly complex phenomena that are
impossible to elucidate with the quantitative research. Although , it
generates ideas or hypothesis for later quantitative research.
Qualitative research is used to gain an in -depth understanding of
human behaviour, experience, attitudes, intentions, and motivations, on
the basis of observation and interpretation, to f ind out the way people
think and feel. It is a form of research in which the researcher gives more
weight to the views of the participants. Case study, grounded
theory, ethnography, historical and phenomenology are the types of
qualitative research.
Quali tative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to
gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It
provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses
for potential quantitative research. Qual itative Research is also used to
uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.
Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi -
structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups
(group discussion s), individual interviews, and participation/observations.
The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfils a
given quota.
Difference between qualitative and quantitative research : Criteria Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Purpose To understand and interpret social interactions To test hypotheses, look at cause and effect, and make predictions. Group Studied Smaller and not randomly selected Larger and randomly selected Variables Study the whole, not variables specific variables are studied munotes.in
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Types of data collected Words, images or objects Numbers and statistics Form of data collected Open ended responses, interviews, participant observations, field notes and reflections Data based on precise measurement using structured and validated data collection and instrument Types of data analysis Identify patterns, features, themes Identify statistical relationships Most common research objectives Explore, discover and construct Describe, explain and predict Focus Wild angle lens; examines the breadth and depth of topic Narrow-angle lens; test a very specific topic Result Findings that are more generalised and directional Findings that are projectable over population.
Table 2
Difference with
respect to. Quantitative research Qualitative research Underlining philosophy Rationalism: That human beings achieve knowledge because of their capacity to reason’(Bernard 1994:2) Empiricism:‘The only knowledge that human beings acquire is from sensory experiences’(Bernard 1994:2) Approach to inquiry Structured/ rigid/predetermined methodology Unstructured/flexible/open methodology Main purpose of investigation To quantify extent of variation in a phenomenon, situation. To describe variation in a phenomenon, situation, issue. Measurement of variables Emphasis on some form of either measurement or classification of variables. Emphasis on descriptions of variables munotes.in
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Sample size Emphasis on greater sample size Fewer cases Focus of inquiry Narrows focus in terms of extent of inquiry, but assembles required information from a greater number of respondents Covers multiple issues but assembles required information from fewer respondents Dominant research
value Reliability and objectivity (value-free) Authetincity but does not claim to be value- free Dominant research
topic Explains prevalence, incidence, extent, nature of issues, opinion and attitude; discovers regularities and formulates theories Explores experiences, meanings, perceptions and feelings Analysis of data Subjects variables to frequency distributions, cross-tabulations or other statistical procedures Subject response, narratives or observation data to identification of themes and describes these Communication of findings Organization more analytical in nature, drawing inferences and conclusions, and testing magnitude and strength of a relationship. Organization more descriptive and narrative in nature. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless -sociology/chapter/the -
sociological -perspective/
The differences between qualitative and quantitative research are
provided can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:
1. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops
understanding on human and social sciences, to find the way people
think and feel. A scientific and empirical research method that is used
to generate numerical data, by employing statistical, logical and
mathematical technique is called quantitative research.
2. Qualitative research is holistic in nature while quantitative research is
particularistic. munotes.in
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3. The qualitative research follows a subjective approach as the
researcher is intimately involved, whereas the approach of quantitative
research is objective, as the researcher is uninvolved and attempts to
precise the observations and analysis on the topic to answer the
inquiry.
4. Qualitative research is exploratory. As opposed to quantitative
research which is conclusive.
5. The reasoning used to synthesise data in qualitative research is
inductive whereas in the case of quantitative research the reasoning is
deduc tive.
6. Qualitative research is based on purposive sampling, where a small
sample size is selected with a view to get a thorough understanding of
the target concept. On the other hand, quantitative research relies on
random sampling; wherein a large represen tative sample is chosen in
order to extrapolate the results to the whole population.
7. Verbal data are collected in qualitative research. Conversely, in
quantitative research measurable data is gathered.
8. Inquiry in qualitative research is a process -oriented, which is not in the
case of quantitative research.
9. Elements used in the analysis of qualitative research are words,
pictures, and objects while that of quantitative research is numerical
data.
10. Qualitative Research is conducted with the aim of exploring and
discovering ideas used in the on -going processes. As opposed to
quantitative research the purpose is to examine cause and affect
relationship between variables.
11. Lastly, the methods used in qualitative research are in -depth
interviews, focus groups, etc . In contrast, the methods of conducting
quantitative research are structured interviews and observations.
12. Qualitative Research develops the initial understanding whereas
quantitative research recommends a final course of action.
2.3 SUMMARY
It is important for sociologists to study their world
methodologically a n systematically. This is done through induction and
deduction methods.
Quantitative Research is a form of research that produces
numerical data and hard facts. On the other end Qual itative Research is
used in gaining an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions and
motivations. The researcher depending on the topic of his research,
chooses quantitative, qualitative or even mixed techniqu es to obtain first
hand or even mixed techn iques to obtain first hand information.
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2.4 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. Write a detail note on Sociological approach to research .
2. Critically examine the nature of sociology and the role of common
sense in research.
3. What is qualitative and quantitative research? Evaluate the difference
and applications of it in social research .
2.5 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Bryman Alan (2001) “Social Research Methods”, Oxford University
Press.
Cresswell,J.W,2007, Research Design - Qualitative Quantitative and
Mixed Methods Approaches, Sage Publication: New Delhi.
David Mathew and Sutton Carole (2011), “Social Research -An
Introduction” (2nd ed) Sage Publication.
Uwe Flick (2007), “Managing Quality in Qualitative Research”, The
Sage Qualitative Research Kit, Sage Publications.
Sarantakos, S (2005) “Social Research” Palgrare, Mac Millan.
Moon, K., and Blackman, D. (2014). A Guide to Understanding Social
Science Research for Natural Scientists. Conservation Biology , 28:
1167 -1177.
Online: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12326/full
https://www.sociologygroup.com/sociology -common -sense -
differences/
*****
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3
POSITIVISM AND HERMENEUTIC
INTERVENTION
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 ‘Positivism’ – The Background
3.3 The French Tradition of Positivism
3.4 Central Tenets of Positivism
3.5 ‘Positivism’ and Sociology
3.6 Hermeneutics – The Background
3.7 Hermeneutics – The Modern Transition
3.8 Hermeneutics – Recent Developments
3.9 Summary
3.10 Unit End Questions
3.11 References and Further Readings
3.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand that ‘positivism’ is a philosophical paradigm, based
upon natural science of reason and logic.
To understand the methodological perspective of ‘Hermeneutics’.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Positivism is a philosophy of science that rejects metaphysical
speculation in favor of systematic observation using the human senses.
‘Positive ’ knowledge of the world is based on generalizations from such
observations that, given sufficient number and co nsistency, are regarded
as producing laws of how phenomen a coexist or occur in sequences
(Lewis -Beck et al. , 2004 ).
The doctrine of positivism was formulated by Auguste Comte, the
French philosopher, who is also known for being one of the founding
fathers of sociology. Positiv ism is regarded as the scientific understanding
of society . Although positivism, as a research paradigm, concerns itself
with the social sciences, it draws heavily from the natural science.
Positivism, being based on the principles of natural science, argued for the
study of the society driven by scientific inves tigation and knowledge.
However, as noted by Bryant (1985 ), the terms 'positivism' and
'sociology' are both commonly supposed to have originated with Comte, munotes.in
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and in particular his Cours de philosophie positive (6 vols, 1830 -42),
although true of the second, this is misleading with respect to the first term
in so far as Comte wrote not about 'positivism' but about 'the positive
philosophy' and 'the positive method', and Saint -Simon before him had
also advocated a positive philosophy.
The methodological perspective of hermeneutics, whereas, relates
to the ‘interpretation’ of texts. It is one of the most complex research
paradigms , where even social scientists struggle regarding its application.
In hermeneutics, texts are not just read and interpreted for what has been
written, but also attempts to understand what it implies, by whom and why
it was written, in what contexts was it written, amongst other questions.
3.2 ‘POSITIVISM ’ – THE B ACKGROUND
The philosophy of positivism was to solve the problems of social
life, its progress by following the principles of natural science. In A
General View of Positivism , French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798 -
1857) , gives an overview of his social philosophy kn own as Positivism
(Comte, [2009] 1848 ). The French Revolution had deep impact on the
thinking of Auguste Comte, to the extent that he rejected religion
professed ‘religion of humanity’ . Comte strongly felt that the scientific
study of society would be the only way to solve its problems and thus
named it ‘sociology’.
Based on scientific principles, Comte formulated the doctrine or
philosophy of ‘positivism’, mainly through his six volume work Course of
Positive Philosophy , over a decade. Following the natural science
principles, Comte proposed to look at the society as being governed by its
own set of laws, just as the physical sciences. He, thus laid down the
foundation of the scientific study of society, to become popular as
‘sociology’. The uncertainty and chaos in the social life was to be resolved
by the use and ap plication of these scientific principles. Positivism in
philosophy came to be associated with epistemologies which make
experience the foundation of all knowledge. and also with their
complementary ontologies which propose a division between objects
which are accessible to observation and objects which are not Bryant
(1985 ).
Comte was also significantly influenced by the early intellectuals.
From David Hume and Immanuel Kant , Comte derived his conception of
positivism —i.e., the theory that theology and metaphysics are earlier
imperfect modes of knowledge and that positive knowledge is based on
natural phenomena and their properties and relations as verified by the
empirical sc iences (‘The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, ’ 1997 ). From the
beginning, Positivism believed in the reality being accessible through our
senses. Human experience plays an important role in acquiring the
knowledge of reality. Thus, the validity through experience remains munotes.in
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crucial for positivist approach. In po sitivism, the scientific knowledge has
to be verifiable through human experience.
Comte’s main contribution to positivist philosophy falls into five
parts: (a) rigorous adoptio n of the scientific method; (b) law of the three
states or stages o f intellect ual development; (c) classification of the
sciences; (d) conception of the incomplete philosophy of each of these
sciences anterior to sociology; and (e) synthesis of a positivist social
philosophy in a unified form (Duignan, 2010 ). Comte’s law of three stages
– a theological stage, metaphysical stage and positive stage – outlined the
process of human intellectual development in the history of society.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is ‘Positivism’?
3.3 THE FRENCH TRADITION OF POSITIVISM
It is well known that Comte not only coined the term ‘sociology’
but also introduced and systematized the positivist philosophy in the social
science. Saint -Simon, in fact, provides a better starting point for an
analysis of the Fr ench tradition of positivism than Comte for two reasons:
(a) he announced the great nineteenth century project of the construction
of a positive science at the start of the century, (b) he did so in a way that
attracted admiration from Marx and Durkheim (Bryant, 1985 ).
The works of Saint -Simon, Comte and Durkhei m display
interconnections in their thinking and ideas. Bryant (1985 ) lists twelve
tenets , which indicate the basic cha racteristics of the French tradition of
positivism:
i. There is but one world, and it has an objective existence.
ii. The constituents of the world, and the laws which govern their
movements, are discoverable through science alone, science being the
only form of knowledge. Therefore , that which cannot be known
scientifically, cannot be known.
iii. Science depends upon the combination of reason and observation.
iv. Science cannot discover all the constituents of the world, and all the
laws which govern them, because human powers of reason and
observation are limited. Scientific knowledge will remain forever
relative to the level of intellectual development attained and to
progress in the social organization of science.
v. What man seeks to discover about the world is normally suggested by
his practical interests and his situation. munotes.in
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vi. There are laws of historical development whose discovery will enable
the past to be explained, the present understood and the future
predicted.
vii. There are social laws which govern the interconnections between
different institutional and cultural forms.
viii. Society is a reality sui generis.
ix. Social order is the natural condition of society.
x. Moral and political choice should be established exclusively on a
scientific basis.
xi. The subjection of man before the natural laws of history and society
precludes evaluation of institutional and cultural forms in any terms
other than those of conformity with these laws.
xii. The positive, the constructive, supersedes the negative, the critical.
The positive, the relative, als o supersedes the theological and the
metaphysical, the absolute.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are the characteristics of the French tradition of positivism?
3.4 CENTRAL TENETS OF POSITIVISM
Blaikie (2007 ), through his meta -analysis of the literature on
‘positivism’, has presented some brief points to be incorporated as
positivism’s characteristics or its central tenets. There are:
Phenomenalism: This rule asserts the acquisition of scientific
knowledge only through human experience. Scientific knowledge is
nothing but the perception by the senses, a ‘pure experience’, without
any cognitive interference.
Nominalism: Any abstract concepts used in sc ientific explanation
must also be derived from experience; metaphysical notions about
which it is not possible to make any observations have no legitimate
existence except as names or words. Hence, the language used to
describe observations must be unconta minated by any theoretical
notions. As ‘reality’ or ‘truth’ is believed to be observable through
one’s senses, any theoretical terms, such as ‘God’, which is non -
observab le, should be considered as mean ingless.
Atomism: The objects of experience, of observ ation, are regarded as
discrete, independent atomic impressions of events, which constitute
the ultimate and fundamental elements of the world. In so far as these
atomic impressions are formed into generalizations, they do not refer
to abstract objects in the world, only regularities among discrete
events. munotes.in
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General Laws: Scientific theories are regarded as a set of highly
general law -like statements; establishing such general laws is the aim
of science. These laws summarize observations by specifying simple
relations or constant conjunctions between phenomena. Explanation
is achieved by subsuming individual cases under appropriate laws.
These laws are general in scope, in that they cover a broad range of
observations, and are universal in form, in that they a pply, without
exception, across time and space.
Value Judgments and Normative Statements: “Facts” and “values”
must be separated as values do not have the status of knowledge.
Value statements have no empirical content that would make them
susceptible to any tests of their validity based on observations.
Verification: The truth or falsity of any scientific statement can be
settled with reference to an observable state of affairs. Scientific laws
are verified by the accumulation of confirming evidence.
Caus ation: There is no causality in nature, only regularities or
constant conjunctions between events, such that events of one kind
are followed by events of another kind. Therefore, if all we have are
regularities between types of events, then explanation is nothing more
than locating an event within a wider ranging regularity.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are the central tenets of ‘Positivism’?
3.5 ‘POSITIVISM’ AND SOCIOLOGY
Positivism in sociology has come to be associated with the very
idea of a social science and the quest to make sociology scientific (Bryant,
1985 ). Positivists look at social reality as scientifically verifiable and
measurable. Positivists believed that, just as the physical world is
governed by the laws, human existence is also governed by certain laws
that should be discovered. And therefore, sociology, from a positivist
perspective, is also modelled on the laws of the natural sciences, wh ich
necessarily include logic and reasoning.
As sociology deals with the scientific study of society, positivism
ensures scientific explanations – which are observed, verified and
logically stated – of social phenomena, as it completely rejects theologic al
or supernatural assumptions and explanations. As social actors remain
important in the social phenomena, however, the positivist philosophy,
within sociology, looks at the factual aspects of the phenomena, devoid of
any subjectivity and value judgments of the actors or the researchers.
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Romm (1991 ), through a meta -analysis of existing literature,
affirms that the positivist theory of science is not the only theory which
has become incorporated into the sociological enterprise, but this theory of
science, and the research practice which it inspires, have assumed a
dominant position within sociology. Thus the positivist pursuit of the
sociological understanding of the society entails understanding the causal
aspects of human behaviours, in order to understand how society operates.
Positivism in sociol ogy shares a strange relationship. Sometimes,
to be positivist means no more than being scientific, although that fails to
discriminate between positivism and all the other sociologies that have
claims to be scientific in perhaps different ways, such as Ma rxism,
functionalism, structuralism, and so on; and sometimes, positivist
sociology is synonymous with statistical analysis, as in many sociological
research reports and methods textbooks; yet some other times, to practice
positivist sociology is to seek t o establish causal explanations, or to search
for fundamental laws of human behaviour or historical change, or to insist
upon objective empirical information systematically organized to generate
or test hypotheses (Halfpenny, 2014 ).
Thus, for a positivist sociological investigation, we need
necessarily need: an empirical basis of knowledge, where direct
observation leads to the theory; the place of deduction and induction in
linking 'theory' and 'observation'; constructing an hypothesis; tentative
character of scientific statements; demarcation between science and non -
science; objectivity; and establishing the causality (Romm, 1991 ).
Check Your Progress:
1. Elaborate on the pos itivist research methodology within Sociology.
3.6 HERMENEUTICS – THE BACKGROUND
Hermeneutics has been largely understood as the reading of the
theological scriptures texts, with principles of exegesis ( critical
interpretation) . Hermeneutics can also be seen as the moving away from
the positivist tradition, as it emphasizes the subjective aspects of
interpretation, rather than the objective side of the positivist tradition. And
hence, hermeneutics can be seen as the science of int erpretation, dealing
predominantly with the ways and problems of interpreting these texts.
Hermeneutics, in philosophy, emerged as theories of understanding with
specific emphasis, such as methodological hermeneutics, epistemological
hermeneutics, ontologi cal hermeneutics and so on.
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Religious texts thus become more accessible with the help of
hermeneutics. It also helps understand what meanings these texts imply.
Thus, hermeneutics has been seen as a science which helps in establishing
the rules, principle s and methodologies for the inte rpretation of religion
and its s cripture s, and also its relation to society (Anand, 1997 ). The term
hermeneutics has origins in ancient Greek, and its modern term first enters
the academic lexicon in Latinate form in the work of the Protestant
theologian Johann Conrad Dannhauer (1603 –1666); t he Latin term
hermeneutica is a translation of the Greek hermeneia , which was used not
only to designate the activity of interpretation, but also the activities of
declaration, explanation, translation, communication, and even artistic
elocution (Keane et al. , 2016 ).
One can trace hermeneutics or the concept of hermeneia to the
Aristotle. In his second major work on interpretation , known as De
Interpretatione, in Latin (Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας in Greek) , Aristotle defines
ἑρμηνεία and can be broadly understood as communication and more
specifically it is (i) any expression, animal or human, (ii) that is
meaningful, (iii) that intends to communicate, and (iv) that seeks to
stimulate attention, acknowledge , or agreement (Sheehan, 2016 ).
The next stage of development laid the foundation for modern
hermeneutics. This was led by Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher, a
German Protestant theologian, Bible scholar and philosopher , as he saw
hermeneutics as a science for understanding itself, he moved from a
concern with the analysis of texts from the past to the problem of how
members of one culture or historical period grasps the experiences of
members of another culture or historical period (Blaikie, 2007 ).
Schleiermacher, thus, unified and universalized hermeneutics, blending it
become “general hermeneutics” (Keane & Lawn, 2016 ). According to
Gadamer (1977 ), for Schleiermacher , the meaning of text is not at all what
it “seems” to tell us directly, but rather its meaning should be recovered
by a disc iplined reconstruction of its original historical situation.
Hermeneutics evidently plays a central role in Schleiermacher's
philosophy as a whole, which he expressly separates in certa in respects
from his theology, as he also r epeatedly insists that there should be no
difference in the principles of interpretation for religious and for secular
texts (Schleiermacher, 1998 ). Schleiermacher’s ideas and approach have
been carried forward, upon which we see the modern hermeneutics.
Check Your Progress:
1. What has been the origins of hermeneutics?
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3.7 HERMENEUTICS – THE MODERN TRANSITION
We see a gradual change from its background in scriptural and
other textual interpretation, hermeneutics became the core discipline for
understanding all great expressions of human life and as such this
transition was instigated by Wilhelm Dilt hey, a German historian and
hermeneutic philosopher (Blaikie, 2007 ). Dilthey was highly influenced
by the work of German philosopher Schleiermacher and developed it
further, while simultaneously rooting the study in the history of mankind.
The history of views played an important role in Dilthey’s understanding
or hermeneutics.
As Keane and Lawn (2016 ) observe, Dilthey attempted to develop
hermeneutics as a methodology for the humanities, that has objectivity and
as such just as explanation is the method of natural sciences,
understanding would be the method for humanities. Hence, hermeneutics
moved from the positivist tradition as Dilthey brought in the idea of
Verstehen , along with hermeneutics, into the philosophy of social
sciences. Dilthey based his arguments on the idea that the social science
must incorporate the method of understanding to grasp the subjective
consciousness of the participants (Blaikie, 2007 ).
Understanding is defined by Dilthey , as the process in which we
grasp something inner, something psychical, which is the experience of an
author, by way of an exterior sign, given in sensibility (Keane & Lawn,
2016 ). With this, Dilthey shifted the focus of the philosophy of social
sciences from positivist tradition towards the more objective science with
emphasis on the subjective aspects of it: understanding. Dilthey thus
professed that a true science of humanities was possible only with the
infusion of Verstehen into the philosophy.
Another early writer methodologically relevant to hermeneutics, is
Edmund Husserl, another German philosopher, who is highly regarded for
his contribution to the school of phenomenology. In fact, Blaikie (2007 )
states that phenomenology can be regarded as a parallel intellectual
tradition to hermeneutics. Husserl, too strongly opposed the methods of
natural sci ences, as for him, humans are conscious of their activities and
that it is this consciousness that plays an important role in understanding
their social life.
Husserlian phenomenology is built up round the idea of reduction
that refers to suspending the personal prejudices and attempting to reach to
the core or essence through a state of pure consciousness (Kafle, 201 1).
Blaikie (2007 ) observes that, for Husserl believed that it was possible for a
human being to exist i n a state of pure consciousness. Husserl also
promoted bracketing one’s thoughts and prejudices in order to interpret.
Husserl’s ideas were taken forward in a different direction, by his famous
disciple, Martin Heidegger.
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Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher, conceptualized another
school of phenomenology, termed as hermeneutic phenomenology.
Heidegger strongly rejected the idea of suspending personal opinions and
appealed for the interpretive narration (Kafle, 2011 ). Heidegger also
advocated that the focus of the philosophy should be on the subjective
experience of the individuals, which remains the crux of the interpretative
process.
As stated by Sheehan (2016 ), ‘phenomenology in Heidegger is
entirely about hermeneutical questions’ (p.1). Having a sense or meaning
of something remained of utmost importance for Heidegger. Thus, the
school of thought, hermeneutic phenomenology , was founded with
Heidegger’s works such as History of Concept of Time (1925) and Being
and Time (1927) and was later enriched by other scholars (Kafle, 2011 ).
However, Heidegger’s approach was quite different from that of Husserl
and Dilthey.
Check Your Progress:
1. What has been the contribution of Dilthey to modern hermeneutics?
3.8 HERMENEUTICS – RECENT DEVEL OPMENTS
There has been a growing interest in the study of hermeneutics
recently. Hermeneutical interpretations remain particularly important for
debatable topics in the world religions. As observed by Keane and Lawn
(2016 ), that in the latest developments within the herm eneutic tradition
there is what might in a very general sense be called a new turn toward ,
not only self -understanding, but also ‘objectivity’, different from natural
sciences. Since it is the objective that hermeneutics has to reflect upon, it
should be f irst of all a theory of things and of knowledge about
objectivities, before being a practic al theory of self -understanding and
hence new possibilities are opened up.
3.9 SUMMARY
As we saw, for positivism, reality exists and it can be observed
with human senses. Thus, the human experience becomes very significant
in order to understand the reality of social life. With the application of
quantitative research methods, this methodological paradigm aims at
understanding social life more and more scientifical ly.
Prior to classical hermeneutics, the religious texts had limitations
for its interpretation. With the advent of hermeneutics, the texts were
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contribution, hermeneutics moved to Schleiermacher’s emphasis on
understanding specific contextual cultural or historical experiences.
thereafter, hermeneutics was enriched with the infusions of various
thoughts and ideas from philosophers such as Dilthey, Husserl and
Heidegger, moving on to more recent ones.
3.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. Elaborate on ‘Positivism’ as a classical methodological perspective.
2. Elaborate on the French Tradition of Positivism.
3. What has been Comte’s contribution to the philosophy of positivism?
4. How is ‘positivism’ incorporated into Sociology?
5. Elaborate on the earliest contributions to the hermeneutic approach to
the study of society.
6. Which philosop hers instigated the modern transition in hermeneutics?
3.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS Anand, S. (1997). Understanding Religion: Theories and Methodology .
New Delhi: Vision and Venture.
Blaikie, N. (2007). Approaches to Social Enquiry . United Kingdom: Polity
Press.
Brennan, J. F., & Houde, K. A. (2017). Sensationalism and Positivism:
The French Tradition History and Systems of Psychology (7 ed., pp. 123 -
136). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bryant, C. G. A. (1985). Positi vism in Social Theory and Research .
London: Macmillan Publishers Limited.
Comte, A. ([2009] 1848). A General View of Positivism (J. H. Bridges,
Trans.). USA: Cambridge University Press.
Duignan, B. (Ed.). (2010). Modern Philosophy: From 1500 CE to the
Present. New York: Britannica Educational Pub.
Gadamer, H. G. (1977). Philosophical Hermeneutics (D. E. Linge, Trans.).
London: University of California Press.
Halfpenny, P. (2014). Positivism and Sociology: Explaining Social Life .
London: Taylor & Francis.
Kafle, N. P. (2011). Hermeneutic Phenomenological Research Method
Simplified. Bodhi: An Interdisciplinary Journal (5), 181 -200. munotes.in
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Keane, N., & Lawn, C. (Eds.). (2016). The Blackwell Companion to
Hermeneutics . Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley -Blackwell.
Lewis -Beck, M., Bry man, E. P. A., Bryman, A. E., & Liao, T. F. (2004).
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods . United
States of America: SAGE Publications.
Mill, J. S. (2009). Auguste Comte and Positivism . New York: Cosimo
Classics.
The New Encyclopaedia Br itannica. (1997): Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Romm, N. R. A. (1991). The Methodologies of Positivism and Marxism: A
Sociological Debate . United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan.
Schleiermacher, F. (1998). Schleiermacher: Hermeneutics and Criticism:
And Other Writ ings (A. Bowie, Trans.). United Kingdom: Cambridge
University Press.
Sheehan, T. (2016). Sense and Meaning: From Aristotle to Heidegger. In
N. Keane & C. Lawn (Eds.), The Blackwell Companion to Hermeneutics
(pp. 362 -375). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley -Blackwell.
*****
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4
REFLEXIVITY AND SOCIAL RESEARCH,
FEMINIST METHODOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Reflexivity and Social Research
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Origin
4.1.3 Sociologists on Reflexivity
4.2 Feminist Methodological Perspectives
4.2.1 Feminism
4.2.2 Intersectionality and Feminism
4.2.3 Misogyny
4.2.4 Background to Feminist Writings
4.2.5 Feminist Movements
4.3 Summary
4.4 Unit End Questions
4.5 References and Further Readings
4.0 OBJECTIVES
To help the learners understand the emerging methodologies in the
field of social research.
To give a background framework and introductory to the concept of
reflexivity and feminist research approach.
To sensitize and develop awareness on feminist research writings and
the interaction between subject and researcher.
4.1 REFLEXIVITY AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
4.1.1 Introduction :
The dominant methodology with which s ociology began is that of
Positivism started by Auguste Comte. Positivism in certain extent was
inclined towards following that of natural science methods where the
subject was seen as just as a passive actor. With the emergence of different
scholars like Geertz, Max Weber who laid grounding for the Interpretat ive
sociology which emphasised on interaction, meanings and going deeper on
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For example – Imagine you are a researcher who is studying on
maggi consumption by teenagers. You go to a classroom and ask students
how many people are eating maggi? Yo u count the numbers and come
back. Here you are using the natural science method of observation
(Positivism). However, you ask students why they consume maggi and
have a indepth conversation or discussion then you are using more of
qualitative methods , interpretative methodology . While hearing the
students stori es you recollect your own child hood experiences and you
record it in your findings that is reflexivity.
Reflexivity is nothing but the idea that research doesn’t happen in
vacuum. During the process of research the researcher himself goes
through a process/ transformation while studying the subject. T his journey
is also reported in the findings of the study.
4.1.2 Origin :
The adjective reflexive first appeared in English in 1588; it was
used as early as 1640 to refer to the capacity of mental operations to be
"turned or directed back upon the mind itself." Regarding things
grammatical, reflexive has been used since 1837 to describe pronouns,
verbs, and their significations that are, as th e Oxford English
Dictionary says, "characterized by, or denote, a reflex action on the
subject of the clause or sentence." With reference to mental operations, the
adjective is frequently confused and used interchangeably with its near
synonym, reflectivei.
The value of reflexivity has been widely accepted in anthropology
during the past two decades. The concept of reflexivity can be seen
developing in the work of theorists and ethnographers of the 1960s and
1970s and was brought to flower among theorists and ethnographers of the
1980s and 1990sii.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the origin of reflexivity ?
2. State the dominant methodology before the interpretative approach?
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4.1.3 Sociologists on Reflexivity:
Victor Turn er and his students, focused on the study of reflexive
moments in social life. Turner was interested in the ways in which social
action was accomplished through the manipulation of symbols.
Reflexivity, in Turner's sense, refers to moments in which social ac tors
become conscious of and can reflect upon social life in ritual and other
cultural performances which are " reflexive in the sense of showing
ourselves ourselves … arousing consciousness of ourselves as we see
ourselves ." (Myerhoff, p. 105 )iii
According to Mead, a self is "that which can be object to itself,"
(Mead 1964, 204), or that "which is reflexive, i.e. which can be both
subject and object." . The self, then, represents reflexive experience,
simultaneous organic and mental activity. Only h umans are capable of
this. Only humans have, and are, selves. Lower animals have feelings such
as pleasure and pain, but these belong to the organism, not to the self, for
the feelings have no symbolic meaning. Mead found it convenient to
express the dual and reflexive nature of the self through the concepts of
the "I" and the "me." "The self is essentially a social process going on with
these two distinguishable phases." (Mead 1964, 233)iv.
Geertz while recording his observations on Bali cock fight writes
about his own experiences how people rejected him at the initial stage.
Later when he and his wife acted like a local they were accepted.
Check Your Progress
1. Explain any two thinkers who used Reflexivity in their work ?
Postmodernists have also used reflexivity to a large extent in the
academic writingv. Even feminist scholars have used reflexivity to explain
the interaction between the researcher and the researched. Reflexivity is
different from bias it is the constant v oice of one’ s own socialization ,
habits, customs or baggage which the research carries in the field. This
reflexivity at times can come in face to face while dealing with sensitive
topics like child abuse, domestic violence etc. For example - If the
researc her has witnessed herself violence he or she would be able to relate
and empathize with the subjects.
Now let us look into the second topic of this unit i.e., Feminist
Methodological Perspectives.
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4.2 FEMINIST METHODOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
Feminist methodologies attempt to eradicate sexist bias in research
and find ways to capture women's voices. The process of feminist research
is characterized by four primary features: (1) expanding methodologies to
include both quantitative and qualitative methods (2) connecting women
for group -level data collection (3) reducing the hierarchical relationship
between researchers and their participants to facilitate trust and disclosure,
and (4) recognizing and reflecting upon the emotionality of women's
livesvi.
In simple words, the producers of knowledge for a long span of
generations have been only men and they have been writing about how
women experience the world. Feminist research basically tries to question
this approach. It is women who are writing about th emselves.
Reinharz , book titled ‘Feminist methods in social research ’ talks about
core compo nents of feminist research like :
1. Feminist research is guided by feminist theory.
2. Feminists use multiplicity of research methods.
3. Interdisciplinary research is used while conducting research like
history, psychology, literature.
4. The aim of feminist research is to bring about a social change.
5. Feminist research strives to recognise diversity.
6. It focuses on the experience of the rese arch.
7. It also helps in building a connection between the reader and the
people studiedvii.
Haig , points out certain common features of feminist methodology
through several literature analysis like –
1. It rejects the positivism methodology of generalization , using methods
of science, quantification.
2. It looks into the influence of gender relations.
3. It questions the science.
4. It adopts a liberatory methodology whereby emancipation of women
from oppression is seen through writing, questioning.
5. It speaks abou t non -hierarchical research relationships.
6. It speaks about ethnography, taking feminist standpointsviii.
Check Your Progress
1. List out some of the common features of feminist methodological
perspective?
To understand feminist research methodology we need to look into
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to help us to understand the historical background of the whole of feminist
movement, the struggle, the history and its cha nging form with new form
of media like social media.
4.2.1 Feminism:
The Merriam Webster dictionary , describes feminism as the theory
of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes and an
organized activity on behalf of women's rights and interest.ix Feminist
movements for several decades have campaigned for rights of women, like right
to vote, to hold public office, to work, to earn fair wages or equal pay, to own
property, to receive education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within
marriage and right to have maternity leave. Feminists have also worked on
important areas like promoting bodily autonomy, integrity and to protect women
and girls from brutal crimes such as rape, sexual harassme nt, and domestic
violencex. In other words, feminism talks about women’s rights both at home and
outside home.
4.2.2 Intersectionality and feminism :
With time the discussion of women’s rights also changed its form
with intersectionality concept through which women’s rights or universal
sisterhood idea is not accepted. The term intersectionality was coined by
civil rights advocate Kimberle Williams Cre nshaw points out how women
do not have common experiences all over the world. For example – The
black women experiences more problems in terms of being women,
racism discrimination and economic marginalisation compared to middle
class white women. The fem inist research at present doesn’t restrict to
studying women and her experience but it also talks about the transgender,
queer or any other category which does not confine it to a label even.
4.2.3 Misogyny :
Even today the misogynistic behaviour is very common hence
studying about women becomes very important. The term “misogyny” is
derived from the Ancient Greek word “mīsoguníā” which means hatred
towards women. Misogyny has taken shape in multiple forms such as male
privilege, patriarchy, gender discrim ination, sexual harassment, belittling
of women, violence against women, and sexual objectificationxi.
4.2.4 Background to Feminist writings :
For several generations it is the men who have dominated in
knowledge production. Even in the West many a times women used to
write on the name of men i.e. they used to fake themselves as men and
publish. As the society at that time didn’t expect a woman t o write about
topics like sexuality. It was a taboo. So women were forced to use male
names. So, often it is men where the knowledge producers. These men
with their limited view about women wrote about women. This was often
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a bad light. So, several scholars like Kate Millet question this knowledge
production in their work and calls it as sexual politics. Kate Millet work
stood as an important book which was contributed in the Feminist
movements.
4.2.5 Feminist movements :
The feminist movement could be divided into four waves. The first
wave of feminism started with the “Women's suffrage movement” in 1848
in New York under the leadership of Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth
Cady Stanton. This movement aimed at promoting women' s right to vote.
The second wave which started somewhere in 1960s campaigned for the
legal and social equality for women, it included issues about their
reproductive rights, legal inequalities, domestic violence, marital rape and
divorce law. The third wav e which began in the 1990s dealt with issues
such as sex positive feminism, intersectionality, transfeminism, vegetarian
ecofeminism, and postmodern feminism. Sex -positive feminism or
sexually liberal feminism, propagates the idea of sexual freedom being a n
essential component of women's freedom. The fourth -wave feminism
refers to a kind of feminism that began around 2012 which targets sexual
harassment, campus sexual harassment, rape culture, workplace
discrimination, body shaming, sexist image in the medi a, online
misogyny, assault on public transport, and other type of harassment that is
associated with the use of social media. The recent issues which were
shocking and horrid like Nirbhaya Delhi Gang Rape, Harvey Weinstein
allegations, and Bill Cosby alle gations gave birth to campaigns like
Everyday Sexism Project, No More Page 3, and the recent #MeToo.
(Srivastava, etal. 2017).
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the meaning of Feminism?
2. How has feminist movement shaped the feminist writings?
4.3 SUMMARY
Thus, two important topics of research was dealt in this chapter. i.e .
Reflexivity and feminist research methodological perspectives. Reflexivity
relates to sensitivity to the ways in which the researcher and the research process
may shape the data collected, including the role of prior assumptions and munotes.in
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experiencexii. Feminist research methodology on the other hand, talks about
how the field of research has been dominate d, marginalized . So, feminist
approach has been questioning this bias and trying to bring about a change
through writing and research with large amount of women contribution.
4.4 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. What is reflexivity? Explain its origin and need in Social Research?
2. Explain feminism and how feminist ideology shaped feminist
writings?
4.5 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
https://www.encyclopedia.com/social -sciences -and-law/sociology -and-
social -reform/sociology -general -terms -and-concepts/reflexivity
2 Salzman, P. C. (2002). On reflexivity. American Anthropologist , 104(3),
805-811.
3 https://science.jrank.org/pages/11001/Reflexivity -Reflexivity -in-
Anthropology.html
4 https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/George_Herbert_Mead
5 Marcus, G. E. (1994). On ideologies of reflexivity in contemporary
efforts to remake the human sciences. Poetics today , 383 -404.
6Campbell, R., Wasco, S.M. Feminist Approaches to Social Science:
Epistemological and Methodological Tenets. Am J Community Psychology
28, 773–791 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005159716099.
7 Reinharz, S., & Davidman, L. (1992). Feminist methods in social
research . Oxford University Press.
8 Haig, B. D. (1997). Feminist research methodology. Educational
Research, Methodology and Measurement. An International Handbook. 2ª
Edición. Londres: Pergamon .
9 https://www.merriam -webster.com/dictionary/feminism
10 Echols A. Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America 1967 –
1975. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; 1989. Roberts J.
Women’s work. Distillations. 2017;3:6 –11 cited from Srivastava (vii).
11 Srivastava, K., Chaudhury, S., Bhat, P. S., & Sahu, S. (2017). Misogyny,
feminism, and sexual harassment. Industrial psychiatry journal , 26(2),
111–113. https://doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_32_18
12 irks Y, Harrison R, Bosanquet K, et al. An exploration of the
implementation of open disclosure of adverse events in the UK: a scoping
review and qualitative exploration. Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals
Library; 2014 Jul. (Health Services and Delivery Research, No. 2.20.)
Appendix 8, Detailed statement for reflexivity. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK259820/ munotes.in
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i https://www.encyclopedia.com/social -sciences -and-law/sociology -and-social -
reform/sociology -general -terms -and-concepts/reflexivity ii Salzman, P. C. (2002). On reflexivity. American Anthropologist , 104(3), 805 -
811.
iii https://science.jrank.org/pages/11001/Reflexivity -Reflexivity -in-
Anthropology.html iv https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/George_Herbert_Mead v Marcus, G. E. (1994). On ideologies of reflexivity in contemporary efforts to
remake the human sciences. Poetics today , 383 -404.
viCampbell, R., Wasco, S.M. Feminist Approaches to Social Science:
Epistemological and Methodological Tenets. Am J Community Psychology
28, 773–791 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005159716099. vii Reinharz, S., & Davidman, L. (1992). Feminist methods in social research .
Oxford University Press. viii Haig, B. D. (1997). Feminist research methodology. Educational Research,
Methodology and Measurement. An International Handbook. 2ª Edición.
Londres: Pergamon . ix https://www.merriam -webster.com/dictionary/feminism x Echols A. Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America 1967 –
1975. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; 1989. Roberts J. Women's
work. Distillations. 2017; 3:6–11 cited from Srivastava (vii). xi Srivastava, K., Chaudhury, S., Bhat, P. S., & Sahu, S. (2017). Misogyny,
feminism, and sexual harassment. Industrial psychiatry journal , 26(2), 111 –113.
https://doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_32_18 xii irks Y, Harrison R, Bosanquet K, et al. An exploration of the implementation
of open disclosure of adverse events in the UK: a scoping review and qualitative
exploration. Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library; 2014 Jul. (Health
Services and Delivery Research, No. 2.20.) Appendix 8, Detailed statement for
reflexivity. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK259820/
*****
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5
VIRTUAL RESEARCH, THE NATURE AND
APPLICATION OF STATISTICS IN
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction To Virtual Research
5.2 Uses And Benefits of Virtual Research
5.2.1 How Researchers Use Virtual Tools
5.2.2 Benef its of Virtual Research
5.3 Use Of Computers
5.4 Research Softwares Used In Social Sciences
5.4.1 Statistical Package For Social Sciences (SPSS)
5.4.2 Statistical Analysis System (SAS)
5.4.3 Stata: Software For Statistics And Data Sciences
5.5 Other Virtual Tools Used By Researchers
5.5.1 Google Forms
5.5.2 Microsoft Word
5.5.3 Microsoft Excel
5.5.4 Zoom/ Skype/ Video Communication Software
5.6 Ethics In Virtual Research
5.7 Plagarism
5.8 Summary
5.9 Unit End Questions
5.10 References and further readings
5.0 OBJECTIVES
• To introduce the students to the concept of Virtual Research
• To explore the benefits and uses of Virtual Research
• To know the use of Computers and the softwares useful for Virtual
Research
• To Know the Ethics while conducting Virtual Research
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO VIRTUAL RESEARCH The past couple of decades have seen a rampant shift in the
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digitalized one. With each passing year, the value and importance of
technology has increased in fourfold. Digital literacy has become a vital
skill in various fields and its importance will only continue to grow into
other areas. The field of research holds no exception to this. Over the past
couple of years, the role of computers and other digital channels have only
gained importance in research and for researchers. While critics are still
debating the effects of this transition, it is without a doubt that virtual
learning and researchers have aided researchers in a multitude of ways.
As Eynon, Fry and Schroeder mention in their paper
“The Ethics of Internet Research” -
“The Internet has emerged as a major data resource for social science
research. Not only is it a lens through which to observe our subjects of resear ch
and how they construct their identities and communities online, but it can also be
a tool for gathering and analyzing social science data on a large scale. The
uptake of Internet research for quantitative studies in disciplines as diverse as
information science, political science, and geography, together with its
deployment in the emergent area of e-Social Science, means that the Internet is
increasingly taking the form of a laboratory for the social sciences, in much the
same way as astronomers might use a virtual observatory to understand the
mysteries of the night sky.”
Digital literacy has become one of the most essential skills of the 21st
century. In brief, this involves the interaction, collaboration and
management of data and information through digital platforms. This
includes:
Digital Information Literacy - “Digital Information Literacy (DIL) is
the ability to recognise the need for, to access, and to evaluate
electronic information. The digitally literate can confidently use,
manage, create, quote and share sources of digital information in an
effective way.”
Digital Media Literacy - “Media literacy includes the ability to
identify media and its messages and create media responsibly, digital
literacy includes both nuts-and-bolts skills and ethical obligations .”
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Literacy - ICT
Literacy is the ability to use tools of information and communication
technology to:
a. Define one’s information problem clearly
b. Access information efficiently
c. Evaluate the reliability, authority, and bias of sources
d. Organize and synthesize one’s information with the best ICT tools
available in order to use it effectively and responsibly
e. Communicate one’s new ideas effectively and ethically with the
appropriate ICT tools available
Virtual research is a relatively new method of study. Hence, there are no
comprehensive definitions for it. However, based on the popular and more munotes.in
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common uses for the same, one could try to identify it’s benefits and use it
to understand the concept of virtual research more clearly
Check Your Progress
1. Can you Explain briefly what is Virtual Research ?
2. What is Digital Literacy ?
5.2 USES AND BENEFITS OF VIRTUAL RESEARCH
5.2.1 How Researchers use virtual tools:
The virtual world provides researchers with a larger window to the
world. This allows them to understand, read and learn about research
problems and issues across the globe. This in turns broadens the scope
of research.
Many researchers publish their work on online platforms. This enables
researchers from different institutions and countries to refer to each
other’s work. Subsequently, this also helps to create a more
comprehensive literature base for the research.
The virtual world has reduced the distance between researchers and
allows them to collaborate much easier. Especially during unforeseen
circumstances like the COVID’19 pandemic, virtual platforms have
come as a boon for researc hers to share their work and learn from one
another.
The traditional pen/paper method of research has been replaced by
digital tools like Microsoft Word, Notepad etc. These provide
additional features, which make it easier for compiling the collected
data. Other tools like Microsoft Excel, Google Spreadsheet and Scoro
allow researchers to organize large amounts of data in a much more
organized fashion.
Additionally, external softwares like SPSS, Stata, Python, R, Sisense,
CAT etc provide researchers with a number of features which enable
them to clean and analyse the data, transcribe and utilize it in the best
way for the research. These allow the researcher to save time and also
reduces the number of possible errors which may arise when
mathematically manip ulating the collected data.
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5.2.2 Benefits of Virtual Research:
Virtual research supports many of the “21st century skills” (i.e., skills,
abilities and learning dispositions required for success in the 21st
century - predominantly involving the use of technology and
economy). As mentioned earlier, societies are rapidly changing to
become more digital in nature and it is crucial for researchers -
especially social researchers to move with the times.
It also helps in providing a more accessible and coherent method of
connecting researchers across the globe.
Aside from the traditional sources of literature available, the virtual
sphere also provides researchers with a vast range of sources through
which they may collect and/or compile data.
Several softwares have also been created virtually to assist researchers
in collecting, analyzing, and presenting data. Hence, the scope of the
virtual assistance in research is not restricted to merely one area, but
helps the researcher in a number of ways.
It has become easier for academicians and researchers to work together
and help one other with their projects/researches. There is a greater
scope, not only for collaborations but also for peer reviews and other
forms of assistance. Thus, it reduces the distance between them and
also allows researchers from several different fields join forces and
work together in ease.
Check Your Progress
1. Can you Explain a few advantages of Virtual Research ?
5.3 USE OF COMPUTERS
Computers are used actively by researchers in various facets of research.
Some of them, as mentioned by Dr. Pawan Kumar Oberoi, in his book
‘Research Methodology’ are:
1. Access to Secondary Data: A vast amount of secondary data- in the
form of periodicals, documents, newspapers or articles can be accesse d
using computers. Many of the big libraries and other platforms allow
students and researchers to retrieve and read such files using the
internet. Further, one can also use it to access the database of
organizations and other groups. Search engines like Google, Firefox
have specialized engines which allow researchers to filter and collect
the kind of data which they require. They have matching and indexing
facilities which make it easier to track and find the desired kind of
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2. Data Collection over ques tionnaire made easy: In several cases,
samples for the research could be spread over a large area. Normally, it
would take a number of days for the questionnaire to reach the
participants and then for them to fill it and send it back. However, e-
questionna ires have made things much easier and economical. Also, it
becomes easier and could be accessed by the researcher, since it is
saved on the computer.
3. Useful during interviews : Researchers use audio -visual tools to
record interviews. This allows the researc her to concentrate on
conducting the interview and allows him/her focus on the interview
without getting distracted. Recording interviews also allows the
researcher to go back and refer to the interview at a later stage.
Further, Computer Assisted Telephon ic Interviews (ATI),
automatically selects and prompts the interviewer in asking questions.
Hence, it makes the process more efficient and quicker. Additionally,
even when conducting the focus group interviews, it becomes more
economical for the researcher , as he/she can bring in a number of
participants together at a much lower cost, while being concerned with
lesser logistics.
4. Comprehensive Observation : Several times, observers may be
subject to fatigue, halo effects and a lack of concentration when
worki ng over a continuous period of time. Hence, the data collected
may be invalid or not reliable. Researchers rely on modern technology
and use close circuit TV (CCTV) to observe the event carefully. The
recorded data may be referred and used at a later stage .
5. Computers for Data Analysis : There are a number of softwares
available today which ease the work of the researcher, especially with
regard to editing, coding and tabulation. This also ensures that there
are fewer non-sampling errors in the analyzed data. External
computerized softwares are also extremely helpful when the researcher
wants to perform complex statistical analysis. With the help of these
softwares the data gets scanned and entered and could then be
organized or edited using full screen editors, spreadsheets etc.
6. Data Mining and Data Storage : Data mining refers to the process
through which meaningful, relevant data is extracted from a larger raw
set of data. Softwares unearth valid, useful patterns from the larger
data which is collected. Furthermore, associations between variables
can also be found using ‘data mining software’.
Data storage - Within any kind of research, there is a vast volume of
data which is collected by the researcher. While it is crucial for the
researcher to refine the raw data to collect the desired information, it
does not imply that the remaining data can be discarded. In certain
cases, the researcher may have to re-do the research if they do not get
the desired/ anticipated results. The saved data can thus assist them,
instead of starting from scratch. Large amounts of data can easily be
stored in data warehouses. Data warehouses shares and organizes large
volume of data in a standardized form for retrieval, interpretation and
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storing the information. They could also be saved virtually on Clouds,
backups etc.
7. Multivariate Analysis : Multivariate analysis techniques analyze the
simultaneous relationship between three or more phenomena. These
techniques are complex and cannot be carried out manually by the
researcher. Hence, research projects using multivariate techniques of
analysis rely on computers or other virtual software packages to
perform these tasks easily.
8. Reporting the Results : Computers are extensively used even when
reporting the results of the research. Whether it is a written or oral
presentation, the researcher relies on softwares to aid them. If the
research is reported in a written format, most commonly, the
researcher would use Microsoft Word to present the findings. Power -
point presentations are used when orally presenting a report.
Additionally, diagrams and other graphical representations can easily
be made with the help of computers. These enable the researcher to
present their report in a more appealing fashion.
5.4 RESEARCH SOFTWARES USED IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
As mentioned above, there are a number of tools and softwares
available virtually, which assist the researcher in a number of ways. Some
of the most popular and commonly used ones are given below:
5.4.1 Statistical Package For Social Sciences (Spss):
SPSS is one the most popular softwares used by social researchers.
It covers a broad range of statistical procedures which summarize the
collected data (i.e., it computes the mean, standard deviation), determines
the significant difference between the groups, examines the relation
between the variables being studied by calculating the correlation,
regression multiple etc and shows these results through graphs. SPSS is
commonly used by researchers working in the field of sociology, political
science, psychology for data analysis about people and their behaviour and
attitude. SPSS has a number of features which streamline the entire
analytical stage, and make it easier for the research er to accomplish
various stage of the data analysis process without having to duplicate their
efforts. The most commonly used SPSS Module is called ‘Dimensions” - a
system through which one can create and field surveys (in any mode and
language), and also provides data analysis and reporting. Hence, using a
single software, researchers can manage complex sections of data, as well
as global, multilingual projects in a smooth and economical manner.
R:
R is an integrated suite of software facilities for data manipulation,
calculation and graphical display. Among other things it has-
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a suite of operators for calculations on arrays, in particular matrices,
a large, coherent, integrated collection of intermediate tools for data
analysis,
graphical facilities for data analysis and display either directly at the
computer or on hardcopy, and
a well-developed, simple and effective programming language (called
‘S’) which includes conditionals, loops, user defined recursiv e
functions and input and output facilities.
R is very much a vehicle for newly developing methods of
interactive data analysis. It has developed rapidly, and has been
extended by a large collection of packages .
5.4.2 Statistical Analysis System (SAS ):
SAS was developed by North Carolina State University and is used for
performing tasks like:
1. Data Entry, retrieval and management
2. Report Writing
3. Statistical and Mathematical Analysis
4. Operational research
5. Applications development
SAS has two primary components :
1. Data Set: It reads the data from the external sources, manipulates it
and combines it together. It consists of information describing the data
set and the data value which are stored as table values.
2. PROC Step: At this stage, it performs mathemat ical and statistical
analysis and produces the resulting report. It includes categories like
report writing, procedures like frequency measures, correlation,
univariate analysis etc.
5.4.3 STATA: Software for Statistics and Data Sciences :
STATA is a general-purpose statistical software package created
in 1985 by StataCorp. Most of its users work in research - especially in
the\field of economics, sociology, political science, biomedicine,
and epidemio logy. Stata is a modern and general command -driven
package for statistical analyses, data management, and graphics. It
provides a number of statistical features like survival analysis, regression,
time series etc and is also relatively affordable. Thenewe r models of
STATA make it one of the most sought after softwares for data analysis,
as it provides a greater number of options on how to manipulate and
present the data.
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5.5 OTHER VIRTUAL TOOLS USED BY RESEARCHERS
5.5.1 Google Forms :
Google forms is one of the most commonly used tools for creating
and sending questionnaires. It is free of cost and extremely user-friendly.
It has a number of options and links the responses to either LINUS or
Google Spreadsheet. Both LINUS and Google Spreadsheet have a number
of features which aid in organizing the data. However, they do not help
with complex data analysis and its features are very limited.
5.5.2 Microsoft Word :
Word is the most popular tools used in the world today. It has a
number of features like an in-built dictionary, spell -check, cross -
references etc. In addition to all this, it also provides a number of options
with regard to graphical representations and diagrams. The newer updates
also provide the researcher with options on translation, TTS (text to
sound) and also provides over 20 language alternatives and typographies.
Word is used by researchers, academicians and students alike in almost
every field. Although commercially very successful, word has several
limitations and cannot be used when hand ling scientific typography. It
also holds very limited feature scalability, especially when large volumes
of data are involved.
5.5.3 Microsoft Excel :
Microsoft Excel is another tool which is widely used by
researchers, especially when organizing and analysing quantitative data.
Excel provides a number of features which enable data and statistical
manipulation and is relatively more user friendly than the other softwares
mention. However, Excel is also limited in the number of features it holds
(in compar ison to R, STATA etc). Some of the key features of Excel are
that:
It is the best way to store data.
You can perform a number of mathematical and statistical
calculations.
It has at least rudimentary form of all the tools for data analysis.
Compiled data can be easily visualized with charts.
Reports can be printed easily.
It has a number of free templates.
You can code to automate.
One can transform and clean the raw data given using a number of
ways.
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5.5.4 ZOOM/ Skype/ Video Communication Software :
ZOO M, Skype and several other video communication softwares
have gained importance in the field of research in the last couple of years.
It attempts to reduce the distance between researchers and allows them to
collaborate on more projects. These tools allow researchers to connect
with one another using audio and visual features. It has a number of in-
built features like Breakout rooms (which enable a meeting to be divided
into smaller groups), recording, personal messaging etc. This in turn
enable researchers and scholars to virtually connect with one another and
discuss and work together, in a more economical and convenient way.
Aside from these, there are a number of other tools and softwares
which aid researchers in a number of ways. As researchers begin to rely
more on the virtual world, the tools available to them also keep updating.
There are specific softwares designed for quantitative research (STATA,
PYTHON, MATLAB, JPM), as well as for qualitative data (NVivo,
ATLAS, Quirkos, MAXQDA etc). In addition to all of this, tools like
SlideShare, Google Classrooms, Microsoft PowerPoint, ResearchGate,
Google Scholar all enable researchers to present and share their work in a
more effective and appealing manner. While all of them may have some
disadvantage or the other, it is without a doubt, that research will be
depending on virtual tools and softwares and these will only aid in
simplifying and making the researchers work much easier.
Check Your Progress
1. Explain any 2 softwares used by the researchers in Virtual Research
5.6 ETHICS IN VIRTUAL RESEARCH
As in any form of research, a number of ethical considerations
have to be kept in mind when conducting virtual research. While the larger
framework of ethics remains somewhat the same with regard to respecting
the participants privacy, objectivity, honesty, keeping confidentiality,
maintaining integrity etc virtual research requires certain special
considerations.
1. Respecting Anonymity :
As in any other form of research, it is crucial that the research er
respects the anonymity of the participant. Furthermore, care must be taken
to ensure that the data collection process does not cause any harm to the
participant (emotionally or mentally - especially if the matter being shared
is sensitive). Since the interaction do not occur face-to-face, it is almost
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participant. Still, the researcher must take the necessary steps to ensure
that the data collection goes as comfortably and convenient ly as possible.
2. Handling sensitive data/ Publishing Responsibly :
Due to the anonymity of the internet, the researcher may come
across a volume of data which could be sensitive or distressing in nature.
They should handle such data with caution as in certain cases this may
even hold legal complications for the researcher. Hence, care must be
taken to reduce such risk and publish the information responsibly and
sensitively.
3. Establishing netiquette and a good rapport :
When conducting the interviews or focus group discussions on an
online platform, the liability rests on the researcher to ensure that basic
netiquette (net etiquette) and rapport exists between the participants. The
researcher must also make sure that the participants are comfortable and at
ease to take part in the research.
4. Maintaining Integrity :
It is of utmost importance that the researcher maintains integrity
when working on the research and at all stages of it. From ensuring that
the secondary data is collected from citable sources, being honest with the
participants when collecting data, informing the participants about the
purpose of the research, and ensuring that he/she collects informed
consent from the participants.
5. Confidentiality:
There is a great amount of risk which comes in when the data is
collected and stored in a virtual cloud. Participants may sometimes share
confidential data. It is crucial that the researcher respects this information
and takes necessary precautions to ensure that the confidentiality of the
information is not leaked. There are number of ways in which the
researcher can protect this information, but it is equally important to
ensure that the research uses the given data in an ethical manner, only to
satisfy the purpose of the research.
5.7 PLAGARISM
Enago Academy refers to plagiarism as “the unethical practice of
using words or ideas (either planned or accidental) of another
author/researcher or your own previous works without proper
acknowledgment. Considered as a serious academic and intellectual
offen se, plagiarism can result in highly negative consequences such as
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currently a grave problem in academic publishing and a major reason
for paper retractions.”
The availability of inform ation in a virtual, accessible place has
made it easier to plagiarise. However, it is an extremely unethical practice.
In order to combat and limit it, several external softwares have been
created to check plagiarism in researches. Plagiarism is most commo nly
seen in the literature review of most papers. While referring to other
publications is indispensable in research, it is not acceptable to merely
copy -paste another person’s work - be it a line, a paragraph or section.
Additionally, even when referring to another’s works, it must be cited and
referenced in order to give the publisher due credit. The liability of this
lies on the researcher, and care must be taken to ensure that all referred
works are duly cited. Many institutes now make it compulsory for papers
to go through an anti-plagiarism check to make sure that the work being
submitted is original.
With the unprecedent changes that the world has seen in the past
couple of months, the value and role of virtual research has once again
gained paramoun t importance. The scope of virtual research is vast and its
uses will only continue to grow in the years to come.
5.8 SUMMARY
Virtual Research is relatively new method of study. It involves
using internet sources to conduct research . Digital literacy has become one
of the most essential skills of 21st century which helps to collaborate and
manage data and information using in virtual research which includes
statistical package for social sciences (SPSS), Google forms, zoom /skype
/video communication softwares are also gains immense popularity.
However, certain ethics are required in order to maintain the quality of
research.
5.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. What is Virtual Research ? Explain its uses and benefits.
2. What are the various research tool softwares used by the Researchers ?
3. What is Plagiarism? Elaborate on the Ethics of Virtual Research
5.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Fielding, N., Lee, R. M., & Blank, G. (2008). The SAGE handbook of
online research methods . Los Angeles: SAGE.
ICT Literacy Skills. (2012, October 02).
https://learning2teachthroughteaching2learn.wordpress.com/ict -munotes.in
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literacy -skills/
Ministry of Education - Education Counts. (n.d.).
https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/e -Learning/80624
Oberoi, P. K. (2013). Research methodology . New Delhi: Global
Academic & Distributors.
Resnik, D. B. (n.d.). What Is Ethics in Research & Why Is It
Important?
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/index.
cfm
How to Avoid Plagiarism in Research Papers (Part 1).
https://www.enago.com/academy/how -to-avoid -plagiarism -in-
research -papers/
University, S. (n.d.). What is Internet Ethics?
https://www.scu.edu/ethics/focus -areas/internet -
ethics/resources/what -is-internet -ethics/
What is digital literacy? (n.d.).
https://www. commonsensemedia.org/news -and-media -literacy/what -
is-digital -literacy
*****
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6
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
METHODS
The sociologist, then, is someone concerned with understanding society in
a disciplined way. The nature of this discipline is scientific. This means
that what the sociologist finds and says about the social phenomena he
studies occurs within a certain rather strictly defined frame of reference.
—Peter Berger, An Invitation to Sociology, p. 16
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Quantitative Research
6.2.1 Characteristics Of Quantitative Research:
6.2.2 Four Main Types Or Designs:
6.3 Qualitative Research
6.3.1 Characteristics Of Qualitative Research :
6.3.2 Techniques To Collect Data Qualitatively:
6.4 Mixed Method Research
6.5 Summary
6.6 Unit End Questions
6.7 References and Further Readings
6.0 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learners with Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Techniques .
To understand the characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative
Research Techniques
To help the learners to select appropriate Research techniques suitable
to their Research
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Quantitative and qualitative methods are paradigms used in social
research. They provide the researcher with a framework or design on the
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analysis of the collected data. Before delving into what these methods are
and what their uses entail, let’s briefly understand what social research is.
Research refers to “the process of steps used to collect and analyze
information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. ” (Creswell,
2012) Social research, in specific, has been defined as “one among many
ways of constructing representations of social life. It is the product of
individuals (or a group of individuals) that addresses a socially significant
phenomena, engages directly or indirectly with ideas or social theory,
incorporates large amounts of appropriate evidence that has been
purposefully collected and results from the systematic analysis of this
evidence. ” (Ragin, 2011, p.8) Social research involves an interface
between ideas and evidence. While the former allows the researcher to
comprehend the evidence collected, the latter allows ideas to be
elaborated, tested, revised or in certain cases - even rejected. Social
research is hence aimed at exploring, describing, explaining or predicting
different social phenomena through data collection and analysis.
Depending on what the research problem, the question(s), and the
aim of the study is, the researcher will have to choose an ideal method for
data collection. The metho d the researcher chooses to employ, will then
lead them to a research design, which in turn will lead them to the
procedures and techniques of conducting the study. It is impertinent that
the method chosen should be one which will allow the researcher to obtain
the kind of data, which will aid them in achieving the objectives (or test
the hypothesis) of the study.
The type of data being collected and analyzed could be broadly classified
into 2 categories:
a. Numeric information gathered on scales of instruments (Quantitative)
b. Text information which is recorded and reported from the participants
perspective (Qualitative)
Once the data has been collected, it could be inferred either in the
form of statistical results (quantitatively) or by identifying the recurring
qualities and themes and patterns which may have emerged (qualitatively).
In several researches, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected
and analyzed (mixed method).
Both quantitative and qualitative methods have a number of
techniques which could be used by the researcher - for e.g. surveys,
experiments, ethnographies, case studies etc. Despite the contentions by
several scholars to depict one method as superior to another, it is
interesting to note that quantitative and quali tative methods tend to overlap
each other quite often. As Creswell puts it-
All social scientists gather data systematically, make careful
comparisons, and use critical thinking. By understanding both
approaches, you can best understand the full range of social scientific
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While the designs and objectives of both methods tend to differ in
various ways, it is vital to remember that social research must always be
conducted in a scientific manner; and must be consistently backed by
adequate evidence - either quantitatively, qualitatively or by both.
6.2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative Social Research is understood as one of the most
popular streams of research due to its evident and quantifiable
configuration. A research which operates under the quantitative
methodology, uses statistical and numerical data to test or prove a
hypothesis or theory in question. They use standardized test results and
value free quantified measures in order to understand a particular social
problem.
Theoretically, quantitative researches utilize a POSITIVIST
paradigm. This implies that the predictability of the subject matter is taken
for granted. It follows the assumption that social subject matters follow a
set of laws in a sequential manner and therefore, it is possible to anticipate
and predict the course of action in a given similar context .
Quantitative researchers accentuate from theory to hypotheses to
data to finally come to conclusions, hence it holds a DEDUCTIVE
approach. This implies that it goes from an established law to many
departing points. They predominantly deal with material traits, physical
development, artifacts and empirical observations when collecting data. It
attempts to grasp information at a surface level, and practices a MACRO
LEVEL APPROACH when conducting the study.
6.2.1 Characteristics of Quantitative Research :
Some of the other characteristics of quantitative research are:
❖ In a quantitative research, the research problem is described through a
description of trends or by the need to provide a rational for the
relationship between the variables involved.
❖ The literature review is of significance as it provides a justification for
the research questions being asked. It also aids in establishing the need
for the research.
❖ The statement of purpose, the research questions and the hypothesis (if
there is one) is specific, measurable and should be quantifiable in a
structured, uniform manner.
❖ Numerical Data is collected from a large number of samples using
instruments with pre-set questions and responses.
❖ Once the data has been collected, it is depicted through statis tical
figures, mathematical processing and manipulation and graphical
representation. This allows the data to be analyzed by relating
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then interpreted by comparing them to prior predi ctions or past
research.
❖ The final research report must have a fixed structure and evaluation
criteria and must be objective in nature.
❖ The researcher must take an unbiased approach and ensure that only
value -free, measurable facts are presented. He/she should be passive
and neutral during the course of the study.
❖ Quantitative research is conducted independent of the larger context,
and predominantly aims to portray or establish a relationship between
the variables in question.
❖ Quantitative research puts emphasis on precise and exact measurement
of the variables. This is done to ensure that further statistical
manipulation, comparison and mathematical processing is feasible.
❖ RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY and VALIDITY of data are important
values in quantitative research.
❖ Ontologically, quantitative research deals with numbers and occurs in
an artificial setting, with the researcher aiming to come at some kind
of generalization.
In a quantitative study, the researcher identifies the research
problem based on “trends in the field or the need to explain why
something occurs” (Creswell, 2012, p.13). This means that the researcher
attempts to establish an overall pattern from the responses provided by
individuals and seeks to understand how this may vary among people.
Other quantitative studies aim to explain the relation between variables
and how one may affect another. Variables are “an attribute or
characteristic of individuals that the researcher’s study” (Creswell, 2012,
p13). In social science, 3 kinds of variables may be used- nominal, ordinal
and interval. In corroborating the relation between these variables, the
researcher seeks to determine if these variables could be influen cing one
another. Hence, the focus of the quantitative approach is in “carefully
measuring (or experimentally manipulating) a parsimonious set of
variables to answer theory guided research questions and hypotheses ”
(Creswell, 2012, p.13)
Since the scope of a quantitative research is narrow, while framing
the research question and purpose statement, the researcher must take care
to think and identify the variables which they wish to study and also
provide a rationale for the same. In studying these variabl es, the researcher
must be able to obtain some measure or assessment on a pre-created
instrument or record. Instruments are tools used for “measuring, observing
and documenting quantitative data” (Creswell, 2012, p.14). It contains
specific questions and possible responses, which has been developed by
the researcher earlier.
This instrument or record should allow the data to be marked
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standardized tests, survey questionnaires or checklists. The aim behind
this form of data collection is to enable generalization of results - i.e. to
apply whatever has been studied from a small number of people to a larger
group. Once the data has been collected, then it is analyzed through
mathematical procedu res called statistics. In this stage, the data ‘is broken
down into parts to answer the research question’ (Creswell, 2012, p.16).
This includes comparing the responses given by the individuals and
relating their scores to support or defend the research questions and the
hypothesis. Analysis is done with the help of prior studies or results which
may have been predicted earlier and this will enable us to know if the data
collected supports the assertions made earlier.
6.2.2 Four main types or designs :
Primarily, in the realm of social research, there are 4 main types or designs
used to conduct a quantitative research, namely:
1. Experiment
2. Quasi Experiment
3. Descriptive Surveys
4. Correlational Design
Experiment:
Experiments have been defined as those “in which the researcher
manipulates conditions for some research participants but not others and
then compares group responses to see whether doing so made a
difference”. (Neuman, 2014) Experiments aim to understand the influence
and relation between the depe ndent and independent variable. It is
predominantly used in psychology and finds limited application in
sociological research. They are extremely useful in explanatory
researches.
Quasi -Experimental/Causal Comparative:
This is a research design that seeks to find relationships between
independent and dependent variables after an action or event has already
occurred. The researcher does this by comparing two or more groups of
individuals. It is referred to as quasi -experi mental or post-facto research.
Quasi -experiments differ from experiments in the case that the unlike in
an experiment - where the sampling is often random, quasi -experiments
have pre-determined groups. While the setting may not be natural (just
like an expe riment), there is no control or manipulation of variables.
Descriptive Surveys:
Surveys are most commonly used for the purpose of descriptive
research. These aim to answer or describe a particular phenomenon. A
survey is method used in a descriptive quantitative research “in which the
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questions and then records their answers.” (Neuman, 2014). An integral
method of quantitative research, it collects surface level quantitative data
from a large number of people, at a given point of time, in order to arrive
at conclusions, which may be statistically processed for further studies.
For the purpose of conducting a survey, researchers popularly employ a
questionnaire. This is done to learn about the preferences, opinions,
behaviour and/or attitude of a large group of people, within a limited
timeframe. Unlike in an experiment, conditions or variables are not
manipulated in a survey to understand the participants response. Often, a
random sampling technique is used, in order to get a representative
sample. This will aid the researc her to generalize the collected information
from the smaller group (few people) to the large population. The
quantitative value of each question in the survey is pre-set. This enables
the researcher to analyze them statistically and present them in the form of
graphs, tables or charts.
Correlational :
Correlational designs allow researchers to predict scores and
explain the relationship among variables. In correlational research designs,
“investigators use the correlation statistical test to describe and measure
the degree of association (or relationshi p) between two or more variables
or sets of scores.” (Creswell, 2012) In this design, the variables are not
controlled or manipulated as in an experiment; instead, using the
correlation statistic, they relate two or more scores for each person. This
design is utilized the researcher seeks to relate two or more variables to
see if they influence each other. This design allows the researcher to
predict a possible outcome, which could be backed by statistical data.
While social quantitative researchers attempt to establish a relation or
correlation between the variables in the study, it is often just a part of a
larger study; correlation is not frequently used as the sole, singular method
of research.
Irrespective of the design used by the researcher, all these
approaches share the common goal of helping the researcher make
inferences about the correlation among variables, and how the results
derived could be generalized to a broader population.
Chec k your progress
1) Explain Quantitative Research
2) Which are the main types of the research design ?
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6.3 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
A qualitative research can be defined as-
A detailed study of a phenomenon, conducted in its natural setting,
in a planned and scientific manner, in order to arrive at the correct
interpretation of the study undertaken by the researcher.
Qualitative research is carried out to understand a partic ular social
phenomenon in greater detail. This could be for a number of reasons:
a. Due to little existing literature on the topic.
b. If it is an emerging issue.
c. If the topic (or a part of it/or an important variable) has not been
addressed or studied before.
d. If the researcher is aiming to provide a newer interpretation on the
matter.
In a broader sense, qualitative research is used for exploring and
understanding how individuals or groups perceive or ascribe to a certain
social or human problem. Qualitative research involves working around
emerging questions and procedure through the perspective of the
participants involved. The questions asked are open -ended and non-
directional in order to get the honest perspectives and views of the
participants. They begin with the terms ‘what’ and ‘how’ rather than
‘why’. The questions are often quite broad and not specific or to the point.
Alan Bryman has presented 3 primary aspects of qualitative research:
1. Qualitative research is INDUCTIVE in nature. This means that a
theory is generated from associated research.
2. Epistemologically, it is INTERPRETATIVE in nature. In a qualitative
study, the researcher attempts to interpret the ‘multi-dimensional and
multi -variable socio -cultural backdrop’ from two angles:
a. from the participants perspective
b. from the researcher’s viewpoint
Based on his/her interpretation of the same, the researcher then arrives at
the real meaning of the social phenomena.
3. Ontologically, the research is said to be CONSTRUCTIVIST. This
implies that social properties are an outcome of the interaction
between individuals, rather than being caused by an external
phenomenon. Hence, the researcher will have to ‘construct’ the
mean ing of the phenomena from the several threads of reality which
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6.3.1 Characteristics of Qualitative Research :
Several other characteristics of a qualitative research are:
❖ Qualitative research is DESCRIPTIVE in nature. Hence, it does not
aim to quantify - rather it looks to observe, understand and interpret
the variables and the larger phenomenon under study using verbal and
qualitative interpretations.
❖ They occur in a NATURAL SETTING. The backdrop for conducting
the study is not in an artificial or contrived environment. Since
qualitative research aims to understand people’s experiences and
ideas - these are best appreciated and expressed in an organic context.
An artificial setting, defeats the purpose of a qualitative research .
❖ In a qualitative study, the researcher plays a crucial role. While the
participants views are important, the researcher is the key element
who controls the situation in order to achieve the objectives of the
study. Hence, researchers are crucial for observing the situations,
navigating the process and for adequately perceiving and connecting
the data collected.
❖ The sample size of the research is small. However, it covers multiple
issues in depth - thereby getting numerous threads and perspectives
into the research problem. Qualitative research provides a HOLISTIC
account of the research.
❖ Qualitative research handles non-tangible and non-material traits. It
aims to understand the experiences, opinions, aspirations, feelings
and perceptions which the partici pants have.
❖ Qualitative research does NOT claim to be value free. In the totality
of the research, the researchers own perspectives and values are also
included in the study.
❖ AUTHENTICITY and TOTALITY are important values when
assessing the quality of a qualitative research.
❖ Theoretically, qualitative research uses multiple sources of
information to understand a phenomenon in its entirety. Hence, it falls
under the interpretative paradigm.
❖ Hermeneutics and Phenomenology are the basic theoretical
assumption s upon which qualitative research rests. Hermeneutics
refers to the branch of knowledge concerned with interpretation of
texts; it looks beyond the surface level and attempts to understand the
more creative meaning of the texts. Phenomenology, on the other
hand aims to clarify, describe and make sense of the dynamics of
human experiences.
❖ Emphasis of a qualitative research lies in understanding a particular
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❖ In qualitative research, the investigat or develops patterns and themes
from the data collected in order to crystalize it into a more abstract
pattern.
❖ Qualitative research doesn’t follow a pre-planned, rigid design. Often,
the method of designing the research emerges as the study progresses.
This is also because there are a number of variables and perspectives
which may get introduced to the study as it proceeds. The trajectory
of a qualitative research is fluid. The researcher can only work with a
general flexible design - which will develop with the research,
❖ Since qualitative research is interpretative in/ nature, it is difficult for
it to hold external validity. Often the studies are executed in a
particular social setting. The data being collected may hold relevance
in that context and is bound to have some kind of variation in another
context or situation.
❖ The data collected could be interpreted in a number of ways, even
though the final validation may vary from one context to another, and
based on the views of the researcher. Hence, it is subjective in nature.
The design of a qualitative research begins with a central research problem
or issue, from which a research question and central objectives are formed.
When designing a qualitative research, a couple of factors must be
considered:
➢ Participants must be identified through purposeful sampling rather
than random sampling. The people selected should be able to aid the
researcher in understanding the social phenomena in a way most
suitable for achieving the objectives and aims of the research.
➢ Qualitative researches require more interaction with the participants.
There is often a greater need to communicate with them (perhaps
even multiple times). Prior permission should be taken and it should
be feasible to interact with the participant.
➢ Since the approach relies heavily on the views given by the
participants, care must be taken when developing the instrument; it
shouldn’t be close ended, insensitive or restrict the views of the
participants in any way.
Creswell in “Qualitative Enquiry ” summarizes the steps of
conducting a qualitative research - the researcher frames the study within
the assumptions and characteristics of a qualitative research. They must
then begin collecting data (from multiple sources to provide a more
holistic view). The researcher acts as the tool for data collection,
sensitively amassing the participants views. They then analyze the data
inductively to establish themes or patters which may have emerged.
6.3.2 Technique s to collect data Qualitatively:
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Narrative Research:
Narrative research is a qualitative research design which is
commonly used in social science. The researcher attempts to study the
lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories
about their lives or a particular social incident (depending on the research
question). The researcher must therefore collect information from a
number of sources - the central figure as well as from associates in order to
get a larger picture. Then base on a theme or chronology, this information
is then retold or re-storied by the researcher into a narrative chronology.
Additionally, it is crucial that the researcher verifies the validity of the
information that is narrated to him. Hence the central source must be
chosen with utmost care.
Phenomenological Research:
Phenomenological research is a research design more commonly
used in philosophy and psychology. Through this method, the researcher
describes the lived experiences of individuals about a phenomenon as
described by participants. (Creswell, 2018). The researcher amasses
information provided by several individuals who have all experienced the
central phenomenon being studied. It is primarily done by conducting a
number of interviews with the participants involved.
Grounded Theory:
Grounded theory is a design of inquiry in which “the researcher
derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction
grounded in the views of participants” (Creswell, 2018). Grounded theory
approach is popularly used in sociology. It involves a number of stages of
data collection and refinement to establish a pattern. This is then processed
multiple times by categorizing the information and then creating an
interrelation between the categories before deriving an abstract theory.
Ethnog rpahy:
Ethnography is a method of qualitative research in which “the
researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviours, language, and actions
of an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of
time.” (Creswell, 2018). It is commonly used in anthropology and
sociology. Primary data collection mainly involves observations and
interviews in order to understand the participants better. There are
however, a number of ethical concerns involved in conducting a
ethnography and extra care must be taken to ensure that neither the
researcher or the group being studied are impacted to the extent where the
integrity of the research is compromised.
Case Studies:
Case studies are utilized in many fields of social research. They are
popularly used to evaluate the scope or functioning of an occurrence or
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of a case (often a program, event, activity, process, or one or more
individuals). Cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers
collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures
over a sustained period of time.
Check your progress
1) Explain Qualitative Research
2) Describe any two methods of the Qualitative Research ?
6.4 MIXED METHOD RESEARCH
Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving
collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms
of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical
assumptions and theoretical frameworks. As Creswell put it, “the core
assumption of this form of inquiry is that the integration of qualitative and
quantitative data yields additional insight beyond the information provided
by either alone.”
6.5 SUMMARY
Research refers to “the process of steps used to collect and analyze
information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. ” (Creswell,
2012) Social research, in specific, has been defined as “one among many
ways of constructing representations of social life. It is the product of
individuals (or a group of individuals) that addresses a socially significant
phenomena, engages directly or indirectly with ideas or social theory,
incorporates large amounts of appropriate evidence that has been
purposefully collected and results from the systematic analysis of this
evidence. ”
Quantitative Social Research is understood as one of the most
popular streams of research due to its evident and quantifiable
configuration.
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A qualitative research can be defined as-
A detailed study of a phenomenon, conducted in its natural setting,
in a planned and scientific manner, in order to arrive at the correct
interpretation of the study undertaken by the researcher. Qualitative
research is carried out to understand a particul ar social phenomenon in
greater detail.
Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving
collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms
of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical
assumptions and theoretical frameworks.
6.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. Explain the Quantitative Technique of Social Research .
2. What is Quantitative Research ? Explain various techniques of
collecting data Quanititatively .
3. Explain Qualitative Technique of collecting Data for social research.
Explain its advantages .
4. What is Qualitative Technique of Data collection and discuss its types .
6.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
A., D. V. (2013). Research design in social research . London: Sage.
Bryman, A. (2012). Social Research Methods 4e. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
Burnett, J. (2009). Doing your social science dissertation . Los
Angeles: SAGE.
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting,
and evaluating quantitative and qualitative researc h. Delhi, India: PHI
Learning Private Limited.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design:
Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches . Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Johnson, R., & Christensen, L. B. (2013). Educational Research:
Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches . Thousand Oaks:
SAGE Publications.
Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social research methods: Qualitative and
quantitative approaches . Harlow: Pearson.
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7
RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND
RESEARCH DESIGN
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.0 Introduction
7.2 Definition of Research Proposal
7.3 Components of Research Proposal
7.3.1 Title
7.3.2 The Statement of The Problem
7.3.3 Aims and Objectives
7.3.4 Introduction and Background
7.3.5 Significance
7.3.6 Literature Review
7.3.7 Research Methodology
7.3.8 Timeframe
7.3.9 Budget
7.3.10 Anticipated Problems
7.3.11 Ethical Concerns
7.3.12 Expected Outcome/Results
7.4 Other Components
7.4.1 Research Problem And Research Question:
7.4.2 Operational Defintions
7.4.3 Hypothesis
7.5 Research Design
7.6 Unit End Questions
7.7 References And Further Readings
7.0 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learners to the concept of Research proposal .
To explore its components .
To know various types of Research designs.
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
A research proposal is an indispensable part when of a research. It
lays out the trajectory which the researcher intends to follow and provides
a brief albeit convincing stand on the importance of the research. It should
therefore explain what the researcher plans to do, how they propose to
take it forward and a justification on why the research (and subsequently
methodology) is being carried out.
“Good research proposals both give an overview of the project and a
well-informed discussion of the nuts and bolts of the proposed research”
(Burnett, 2009)
7.2 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is often referred to as the ‘outline’ or ‘blueprint ’ that
is prepared before the actual research begins. A well thought of research
proposal is significant in a number of ways:
- It allows the researcher to work in a planned and systematic manner.
- Provides a base for the evaluation of the project
- Introduces the project and offers a background on the area of study
- Clarifies the stand of the researcher and what they aim to accomplish
with the research.
The research proposal is vital especially when applying for funding or
grants. It must be well articulated so as to convince the committee on why
the funding or grant should be allotted to the researcher.
According the Carol Ellison (Concise Guide to Writing Research Papers),
a research proposal should:
- Identify your topic of research
- Present a working thesis
- Explain the method of conducting your research
- Present a hypothesis and the expected/anticipated result
Hence, with a research proposal, the researcher should be able to
justify and defend several key questions such as what the researcher is
trying to find out and what are the research questions that he/she is trying
to answer. Additionally, the proposal should also cover the significance or
relevance of conducting the particular study and how it will add or refine
the existing body of knowledge. (Punch, 2005)
Punch further writes in ‘Developing Effective Research Proposals’ -
“The proposal itself needs to be presented as an argument. Seeing
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consistency and the interrelatedness of its different parts. It means making
sure that the different parts fit together, and showing how the research
will be a piece of disciplined inquiry. As an argument, the proposal should
show the logic behind the prop osed study, rather than simply describing
the study. In so doing, it should answer the question of why this approach,
method and design have been chosen for this study.” (Punch, 2005, p.66)
The format of a research proposal may differ from one project to another,
yet there are several crucial components to a research proposal. These are:
1. Title of the research
2. Statement of Problem
3. Aims and Objectives
4. Introduction and background
5. Significance
6. Review of Literature
7. Research Methodology
8. Budget
9. Time Frame
10. Anticipated Problems
11. Ethical Concerns
12. Proposed Outcome
13. Bibliography
Check your progress
1) What is a Research proposal?
2) Name a few components of Research proposal.
The researcher must follow the format that is given by their
respective organization or guide when submitting a proposal. Care must
also be taken to ensure that it doesn’t hold any theoretical inconsistencies,
grammatical errors or the alike. The research proposal may be modified
several times according to the feedbacks provided - however, it must
always be well constructed and properly presented.
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7.3 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
7.3.1 Title :
The title of the research proposal will be the first thing on the
document and hence must make an impact with the committee/audience. It
must reflect on what the study aims to achieve and must be framed using
appropriate terms. The title should focus on the relevant areas of the
research and must be appealin g enough to garner the attention of the
committee and the larger audience to the rest of the research. Several
times, if the research question itself is concise enough, it may be used as
the title and could be additionall y supported by a subtitle which throws
light into the specific focus of the research.
7.3.2 The statement of the problem:
Once the researcher has figured out the research question which
he/she choses to focus on, it is necessary that they frame it appropriately.
The statement could be declarative, or may take a question form. The
researcher must pay attention to ensure that the words used in the
statement are appropriate and non-ambiguous and not vague. In doing so,
the researcher sets a clear idea on what the focus of the research is. The
statement must be concise and yet explanatory enough to give some kind
of direction to the research process.
7.3.3 Aims and objectives:
Once the researcher has stated the research problem, they must
specify the aims and objectives of conducting the research. The aim of a
particular research involves contributing to a “debate or academic thinking
on the subject, research on the topic or action-oriented research aimed
towards policy or such kind of intervention” (Burnett, 2009, p.82)
Objectives on the other hand are more specific than aims and
focuses specifically on the research questions and the research problem.
The objectives must be formulated clearly, and should be to the point. In
case there are multiple research objectives, it is important to ensure that all
of them are related to each other in some way. These objectives should fall
under the larger purview of the aim of the research.
7.3.4 Introduction and background:
While the researcher may be abreast about the research topic being
studied, the same cannot be said about others. Hence, it is important to
provide a concise summary about the background of the topic. This will
introduce the topic to the audience. Providin g this foundation, will also
later assist in explaining the significance of the research topic. The
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the rest of the proposal will stand. The introduction should not aim to
review the literature - rather it should provide the logical sequencing for
taking the proposal forward.
7.3.5 Significance:
It is crucial to explain the significance of conducting a particular
research. This provides the utility of the research. The researcher must be
able to defend and explain how this particular work would add to the
existing body of knowledge. In several cases the research would be aiming
to refine work existing in a particular field or provide an extension or in-
depth analysis of the existin g literature. A strong, well thought of
significance is vital in explaining the implication the research would have
on a particular area of study. This will also help in explaining the
relevance of the research and the benefits it will provide to tackling a
problem. The significance should attempt to connect the objectives of the
research to the data collected and justify them.
7.3.6 Literature Review:
Literature reviews are a vital part of the research proposal. By
having a thorough understanding of the existing literature in a particular
field, the researcher is able to justify the relevance and often the novelty of
the study he/she is undertaking. As effective research is based on existing
knowledge, an exhaustive literature review allows one to justif y the need
for undertaking a particular research, and explain how it will add to the
existing body of knowledge. This will also ensure that there is novelty in
the work done and may also provide useful hypothesis or suggestions for
the research. The litera ture review is crucial in establishing how the
proposed study can be located in relation to present knowledge and
practice. It is not important to quote or mention every piece of literature
existing in the field- but one should concentrate on the relevant studies. It
is worth noting that the literature reviews are not merely concise
summaries of the already published work, rather they could work as
arguments to justify the significance of the research in question. In a
quantitative research design, the literature review often aids the researcher
with suitable theories which could be utilized to strengthen the study. In a
qualitative design, it may also be used to sharpen the focus of the study
and will aid in reinforcing the design of the research. The searc h for
related literature is valuable in “defining the problem, recognizing
significance, suggesting promising data-gathering services, appropriate
study design and for other sources of data.” (Best, 2017, p.40)
7.3.7 Research Methodology:
Based on the research design which is being employed by the
researcher, there are a number of methods to collect data. Primarily, the
methodology is concerned with 3 major components, namely, “subjects,
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a. Subjects: The selection of a sample is a crucial step in any kind of
research. A number of variables are often involved and must be to taken
into account to ensure that there is a representative sample. The researcher
will also have to plan how and when they would contact their samples.
Furthermore, the researcher must justify the number of participants in the
sample, the variables (like education qualification, gender etc) which are
taken into account, and also how these are important for the research .
b. Procedures : The methods of data collection should also be thoroughly
looked into. This involves explaining how and what kind of data will be
collected, what kind of data-collecting devices will be used, and how each
of these processes will be undertaken.
c. Data Analysis : The researcher must carefully design how he/she plans
to utilize the data that will be collected and also how this specific data
will be used to justify the aims and objectives of the research.
7.3.8 Timeframe:
Almost all research is conducted keeping a particular time frame in
mind. Since a research project involves a number of steps, it is critical to
systematically plan ahead how much time each step will take. Carefully
planning these steps will allow the researcher to divide and devote time as
demanded for by each stage and allow the research to progress in a
systematic and disciplined manner.
7.3.9 Budget:
Proposed budgets constitute an extremely significant requirement
of any research activity. It should include clear cut allocation of important
heads under research. Certain areas are kept flexible to the point that only
the upper limit of the cost estimation is presented to ensure brevity and to
incorporate last minute changes in the expenditure.
7.3.10 Anticipated Problems:
A good proposal should not only be concerned with the positives,
but must also try to calculate the problems or hurdles which may come up
during the course of the research. There could be certain limitations and
barriers which may affect the research such as access to person or
organization, confidential data, resource constraints, language barriers etc.
These factors must be calculated as much as possible, and alternatives
must be planned or thought of, if these hamper with the research.
7.3.11 Ethical Concerns:
Most researches include human participation in one form or the
other. It is imperative that the research being undertaken follows all ethical
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data collectio n, the research must carefully plan and justify how the ethical
parameters will be maintained. These include (yet are not restricted to)
collecting the participants consent for the research, maintenance of
participants autonomy, handling of sensitive data, assurance of
confidentiality among others.
7.3.1 2 Expected Outcome/Results:
It is critical to aim for a kind of outcome or conclusion from the
research activity. The conclusion should be linked to the objectives
discussed earlier in the paper.
Check your progress
1) It is necessary to maintain anticipated problem in a proposal? Give
reason.
7.4 OTHER COMPONENTS
Additionally, a proposal may also include the following (or they may
be included with other components):
7.4.1 Research Problem And Research Question:
“A research problem is a definite or clear expression
[statement] about an area of concern, a condition to be improved
upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists
in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that
points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.” (Bryman, 2015)
After the researcher has identified the research problem, then they
may begin to ask the crucial questions pertaining to the area of the
research. These research questions will then be narrowed down and
clarified to make the statement of the problem or even frame the
hypothesis (if a hypothesis is involved).
When working on the research question(s), the following characterist ics
must be taken into account:
Is the research question clear?
Is it researchable?
Does it hold some link with existing theory and literature?
Is it novel? Does it even in a small way, add something new to the
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If dealing with multiple research questions - ensure that they are all
linked to each other in some way or the other.
Ensure that the questions are neither too broad (keeping time and other
resources in mind) nor too narrow (should make some kind of
contribution to the area of study)
Check your progress
1. What is a Research proposal?
7.4.2 Operational Definitions :
In order to ensure that terms/phrases crucial to the research are not
misinterpreted, the researcher must provide operational definitions, i.e. a
clear -cut definition on how a term or variable is used in the particular
research. This leaves no scope for ambiguity or misinterpretation in a
particular study. These also assist the reader or audience to understand the
variables of the study in its appro priate way.
7.4.3 Hypothesis:
“A research hypothesis is a tentative answer to a question” (Best,
2017, p.41). The hypothesis is formulated before the data collection begins
in order to ensure that the research is not biased. Hypothesis are framed on
the basis of already existing research and/or theory. They are an educated
guess the researcher makes, which he/she tries to prove through the
research being undertaken.
7.5 RESEARCH DESIGN
“The research design refers to the overall strategy that you
choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent
and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the
research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data.” (De Vaus, 2001).
Creating a research design is a vital step in taking your
research forward in a systematic way. It links the earlier stages of the
research (i.e. identifying the research problem, formulating the
research question, framing your aims and objectives), and strategizes
a way to synchronize the various components and collect the data, so
as to provide a plausible outcome to the research. Hence, it aims to
“ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial
questions as unambiguously as possible.” (De Vaus, 2001)
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The research design works as a bridge between the proposal and the
actual research process. The research design must be well thought -out,
and should explain and justify a number of elements such as:
- Type of research design which is being utilized
- Role of the researcher
- Methods used to execute the various areas of the research
(sampling, data collection and data analysis)
When developing a research design, the researcher must keep a
number of things in mind:
What are the methods which will be used and why are they the
best option for this research?
Will the methods used provide the kind of data that is required to
answer the research question? Will it help address the aims and
objectives of the study?
Is the method being used feasible and ethical?
What are the possible limitations which could arise from using
that particular method? How can these be tackled?
What are the devices which will be used for data collection and
data analysis? Are they practical and available?
Can the data collected through this method be deemed as reliable
and valid?
Can this research be replicated?
According to De Vaus, a good research design must hold
Internal and external validity. An internally valid research design
must achieve the conclusions it has aimed for. External validity
implies that the research may be generalized across social setting.
Depending on the broader aim of the research and what the
research question looks to answer, research designs may be
categorized into 2 broad categories: (De Vaus, 2001)
Descriptive Research
Such a research aims to describe or answer the research question . It is
mainly concerned with “what” a particular problem is.
Explanatory Research
It attempts to answer “why a particular social problem exists”.
Understanding the purpose of your research will enable the
researcher to develop a research design more easily. It is worth noting
that descriptive and explanatory researches are not entirely detached
from another, and many researches often attempt to both - describe and
explain a particular research problem.
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Based on the type of research that is being undertaken
(quantitative, qualitative or mixed), there are a number of research
designs which could be used by the researcher.
Some of these are:
1. Experime ntal
2. Longitudinal
3. Cross -Sectional
4. Case Study
5. Comparative
Experimental Research Designs:
The experimental research focuses on 2 variables - the
independent variable (which is the cause) and the dependent variable
(which is the outcome). Through this design, the researcher attempts
to remove the influence of all the other variables, in order to clearly
understand the effect of the intervention on the outcome.
Experimental designs are not very commonly used in sociology.
Longitudinal Designs:
A longitudinal design aims to study a particular sample or
phenomena over a period of time. It involves measuring change over time
and collecting data during 2 points. Longitudinal studies are often seen as
extensions of survey, and are not a very popular research design because
of the time and cost involved. However, they allow insight to the role of
timing of certain variables and may be useful to make causal inferences.
Longitudinal Designs may be categorized into 2 types - panel study and
cohort study. In a panel study, a sample is the focus of the study, and data
is collected from within different kinds of people in the panel framework.
In a cohort study, a group or a cohort, sharing a common characteristic or
feature is studied.
Cross - Sectional Design :
This is a type of research design in which data is collected from
many individuals at a single time. A cross sectional research attempts to
observe one or more variables influencing a social phenomenon, at a
single point of time, without influencing them (unlike in experimental
design). Once a form of data is collected, then it is used to find ‘patterns of
association’ (Bryman, 2015)
Comparative Research Design :
This design involves studying two contrasting cases using more or
less identical methods. These cases are then compared logically, and in
doing so it attempts to better understand the social phenomenon and
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Case Study :
A case study conducts a detailed and intensive analysis of a single
case. The case in question must be relevant or crucial in a particular way-
due to its nature or complexity. A case could be an individual, an institute,
a community - hence there is no ‘fixed size’ to the case in question.
Bordens and Abbott in ‘Research Design and Methods A Process
Approach’ mention several other research designs. They have classified
these as “Non-Experimental Research Designs” .
These designs are purely observational in the sense that:
They are correlational and do not in any way manipulate the
independent variables.
Data is collected primarily through the trained researchers’
observations of the subject’s behaviour. (Borden, 2018)
The Non-Experimental Research Designs are:
a. Naturalistic Design :
This involves the collection of data by observing your subjects in
their natural environment. Care must be taken to ensure that the
observations are made in a non-obtrusive way, since it may affect the
quality of the data being collec ted.
b. Ethnography :
In an ethnographic design, the researcher stays for a prolonged
period of time with the community or social group that is being studied.
They immerse themselves with the social setting in order to observe and
understand the subject(s) being studied in a more thorough manner.
c. Sociometry :
It is a quantitative method for “identifying and measuring social
relationships within a group”. (Borden, 2018, p.247) In a sociometric
study, the research participants evaluate each other along some dimension
and this data is quantified to better understand social relations between the
subjects being studied.
d. Archival Research :
This is a strategy that involves analysing and collecting data from
existing archived records. These records could be “historical accounts of
events, census data, court records, police crime reports, published research
articles, medical records, social media information, or any other archived
information” (Borden, 2018, p.250). However, a number of things must be
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expansive collection of data. The researcher must have specific research
questions in mind, or they may find thems elves lost in the massive amount
of information. Secondly, archival records are often not easily accessible.
Hence, the researcher must consider whether the project is feasible or not.
e. Content Analysis :
This research design is used when the researcher wishes to
“analyse a written or spoken record for the occurrence of specific
categories or events (such as pauses in a speech), items (such as negative
comments), or behaviour (such as factual information offered during
group discussion)” (Borden, 2018, p.251)
7.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. Explain Research Proposal and its various components
2. Explain Research Methodology and its major components
3. What is Research Design ? Explain various types
7.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
A., D. V. (2013). Research design in social research . London: Sage.
Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (2017). Research in education . Harlow,
Essex: Pearson.
Bordens, K. S. (2018). Research design and methods: A process
approach . Dubuque, IA: McGraw -Hill Education.
Bryman, A. (2015 ). Social Research Methods . Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Burnett, J. (2009). Doing your social science dissertation . Los
Angeles: SAGE.
Ellison, C. (2010). McGraw -Hills concise guide to writing research
papers . New York: McGraw -Hill.
Marczyk, G. R., DeMatteo, D., & Festinger, D. (2005). Essentials of
research design and methodology . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons.
Punch, K. (2005). Developing effective research proposals . London:
Sage.
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8
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS ,
WRITING RESEARCH FIND ING S
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Basic Steps In Data Analysis
8.3 Quantitative Analysis
8.3.1 Steps
8.3.2 Types of Quantitative Analysis
8.4 Qualitative Analysis
8.4.1 Steps
8.4.2 Content Analysis
8.5 Summary
8.6 Unit End Questions
8.7 References and Further Readings
8.0 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learners with the concept of Quantitative and
Qualitative analysis.
To understand various steps in the Analysis of Data.
To understand how to write Research findings
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Data analysis is the most crucial part of any research. In this stage,
the researcher summarizes the collected data and constructs or interprets it
in a way, so as to fulfill the objectives of the study. It is done through
analytical and/or logical reasoning, to reveal patterns, trends, or relations
between the variables studied. The method of data analysis and
interpretation are starkly different in quantitative and qualitati ve
researches. This is because, since the research designs are distinct, the
form in which the data gets collected is also different. However, in either
case, the purpose of data analysis is to interpret the data collected, so as
reach an inference on the hypothesis or the objectives of the study. The
analyzed data can then be used by the researcher, as evidence as they
attempt to answer the research problem.
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8.2 BASIC STEPS IN DATA ANALYSIS
Although the method of data collection could change based on the
research design being used, most data analysis follow 3 basic steps:
(Marczyk)
1. Preparing the data for analysis
2. Analysing the data using appropriate methods
3. Interpreting the data
According to John Best, in a research, the stage of data analysis is when
the data gets processed by the researcher. How the information collected
gets analyzed depends on two things:
1. Type of Information - descriptive, quantitative, qualitative, attitudinal.
2. How the researcher chooses to communicate the findings to the
readers.
When analysing and reporting the collected data, the method used
for the analysis would depend on whether the researcher is using a
quantitative or qualitative design (or a mixed design). It is interesting to
note that the distinction between the two, often tends to be more
theoretical and academic in nature, as most researches are likely to use
some level of both. However, there are methods used exclusively for
quantitative and qualitative designs.
Aside from the quantitative and qualitative distinction, the
researcher must also take into account whether data analysis would be
done manually or with the help of a computer. If the data collected is
purely descriptive, then normally the researcher would choose to manually
analyse the data. However, if there is a copious amount of data, then the
researcher could do it with the help of a computer program. For qualitative
researches, there are several computer software like NUD*DIST N6,
NVIVO etc for this purpose. If the research is quantitative, then the
researc her first has to decide on the kind of analysis required, i.e. if it is a
frequency distribution, cross -tabulation or if it requires statistical
procedures like regression analysis, factor analysis etc. There are several
software programs like SPSS, R and Python which can also be utilized by
the researcher for quantitative data analysis.
Data analysis is basically concerned with data reduction . At this
stage the researcher reduces the data which has been gathered, so as to
make sense of it. In case of quantitative data, this is done through some
form of mathematical or statistical manipulation (such as averages, tables
etc) and in qualitative data, this is done by grouping the collected data into
various categories or themes. The preceding stage (i.e. data collection)
collects copious amounts of data- only some of which is entirely relevant
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the researcher to take that data which helps him/her justify the purpose and
needs of their research.
Check your Progress
1) Which are the basic steps in Data analysis?
In terms of the data that is collected by the researcher for the purpose of
the study, analysis could be broadly separated into 2 categories:
Primary Data Analysis
Secondary Data Analysis
Primary data analysis refers to that data which is collected by the
research themselves for the specific focus of the research. This implies
that the data being analyzed has been collected by the researcher or a
group of researchers to address certain questions. The method of research
design and data collection too has been carefully selected by the
researcher.
In contra st, secondary data analysis, is concerned with making
sense of the data which has been collected by someone else, for another
purpose or project. Hence, the researcher has had no direct involvement in
the collection of data and it was not done to address the specific research
questions of the researcher. Therefore, the same piece of data could be
primary data for one researcher and secondary data for another. In case of
secondary data analysis, the research attempts to utilize the information
gathered by another researcher to support the claims and objectives of
his/her study. Since the data has not been collected by the researcher, it is
important that he/she familiarizes themselves with the data- method used
for data collection, what the response categorie s were, the population that
was being studied, and the other specifics of the data.
As mentioned earlier, data analysis is a crucial stage in research. It
is important to ensure that all the steps of the research being conducted is
valid, reliable and ethically just. Creswell mentions a few tips researchers
should keep in mind when analysing data:
Remain Neutral :
In certain cases, researchers may be tempted to support and
embrace the views of the participants. This implies that instead of taking a
neutral view, the researcher is inclined towards a particular opinion or
view, or to present only that which supports the research hypothesis. In
doing so, they may ignore or avoid some of the data that has been
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presenting the views of the participants only in positive light. In
quantitative resea rch, it could mean disregarding data may approve or
disapprove the hypothesis the researcher holds.
Avoid disclosing only positive results :
Ethically, it is important for researchers to disclose their complete
findings, irrespective of whether or not they may suit the researcher’s
inclinations. Thus, in a quantitative research, the data analysis should
reflect the statistical tests and no part of the data collected should go
underreported. In qualitative research, the researcher must take care to
report the whole range of findings - even patterns and themes which may
not support his/her research.
Respect the privacy of the participants
When analysing the data, the researcher must be careful to respect
the privacy of the researcher. While their personal information may be
collected during the data collection process, during the transcription stage,
the researcher must disassociate the names of the participants from the
responses. In qualitative research, the investigators use pseudonyms or
aliases to respect the identity and views of the participants.
8.3 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Quantitative Analysis refers to the process where the data collected
is classified and then processed using a set of statistical methods. It
involves mathematical processing and manipulation, which is then
interpreted and illustrated with the help of graphical representations. The
data chosen for quantitative researches are collected randomly and in large
samples. Thus, the analysis allows the researcher to apply the patterns or
trends found in the sample to the general population.
Quantitative analysis is objective in nature and attempts to
understand the occurrence of an event or happening and describe them
using statistical methods. It is therefore not concerned with the random or
scarce results of a study. However, is it vital to note that researchers must
take care not to make sweeping generalizations about the analyzed data.
The kind of data collected in a quantitative design are primarily
concerned with measurable quantities like length, weight, speed, width,
temperature etc. Since the amount of data collected is expansive, in the
process of data analysis, the researcher attempts to simplify the data using
statistical techniques like measures of central tendency, standard
deviation and measures of dispersion. This data is then expressed through
diagrammatic representations (e.g. charts, graphs etc).
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8.3.1 Steps :
Quantitative data analysis can be simplified when broken down to the
following steps
1. Organizing the collected data :
The researcher could have collected data for the research from a
number of samples. The first stage of data analysis should therefore be to
organize the collected responses from the sources so that they may be
explored or described in greater detail.
2. Expressing/Depicting the Data :
Once the data has been organized into a number of similar
responses, then the researcher can begin to illustrate the data. Graphical
representations may be used for this. In certain cases, the numerical
figures collected would have to undergo some form of a statistical
procedure so that they may be more easily expressed. These could be
communicated through tables, figures, pie-charts, histogram etc.
3. Analyzing/ Summarizing to reach conclusion :
In this step, the researcher must evaluate the collected data to
understand what the kind of responses have been like. This will allow
them to interlink the responses with the hypothesis or research question.
By this step, the data collected is no longer just in its raw form. Hence, the
analyzed data should be able to assist the researcher in establishing or
proving the hypothesis, thus leading to a conclusion of the research.
However, quantitative research is not without its limitations:
1. To ensure greater control over the subjects (such as in cases where
experiments are conducted), the research could be conducted in an
unnatural environment. Hence, the analyzed data will hold narrow
scope and may not be applicable in real life situations.
2. Quantitative data analysis could be affected by structural bias- a result
of missing data, unequal measurements and errors from the
researcher.
3. Quantitative data analysis is often deemed superficial.
4. It is challenging to use quantitative data analysis when studying about
new concepts or phenomenon. It merely deduces the data in hand
with the hypothesis, but doesn’t elabor ate or explain why.
John Best in his book Research in Education pens down some of the
thing’s researchers must keep in mind when doing quantitative data
analysis:
Are tables and figures used properly?
Is explanation on the text clear and brief? munotes.in
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Is the examination of relations between data based on logic and
proper perception?
Is the statistical analysis understood properly?
Are all sections of the experimental design provided with results?
Are they supported with apt statistical analyses and/or charts and
graphs?
Are the results projected directly in a straightjacket manner without
explaining the reasons for their occurrence?
Are all statistical analyses suitable and presented properly?
Check your Progress
1.What is Quantitative Analysis?
2. What are the steps involved in Quantitative Process ?
8.3.2 Types of Quantitative Analysis :
1. 1. Descriptive Analysis :
A descriptive analysis is considered as the important first step of
conducting a statistical analysis. At this stage, the data is described using
its most basic features. The data is expressed through basic analytics, such
as through the distribution of data, identifying the outliers, finding the
basic associations etc. Descriptive analysis could be done with the help of
multiple techniques like by finding the mean, range, standard deviation
etc.
The 3 main kinds of descriptive statistics are:
Measures of Frequency :
Frequency distribution is concerned with organizing the collected
data into a systematic form so as to understand and access the frequency
of some of the variables being studied. It simply accounts for the number
of times a variable occurs through the course of data collection.
Measures of Central Tendency :
Also referred to as an average, these indicate a “statistical constant,
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whole.” (Prof. Arthur Bowley) It condenses the mass of data into a single
value, which then enables us to get a bird’s eye view of the entire data. It
is useful when comparing the data, either between at a point of time, or
over a period of time. Measures of central tendency could be a mathematic
average (or mean), or could be locational averages (such as median and
mode)
Measures of Dispersion or Variation :
Measures of dispersion or variation study the spread or
scatteredness of the data. It enables the researcher to know more about the
data, than merely the central term or average. Hence, it aids in
supplementi ng the measure of central tendency, by providing information
about how individual items are spread around the mean. There are 4
measures of dispersion - Range, quartile deviation, mean deviation and
standard deviation.
2. Inferential Analysis :
According to Best, “The purpose of inferential statistics is to draw
inferences about a population on the basis of sample estimation.
Inferential statistics are statistical procedures that are used to infer and
draw conclusions about the population underta ken for study based on the
data sample collected from them. Inferential statistics use descriptive
statistics as the base from which inferences are drawn.”
Statistical tests (like T-Test, Parametric Test, Hypothesis test etc)
are used to identify if there is an observed pattern in the data collected.
Researchers use inferential statistics to determine the relation between the
outcome and the intervention, or to analyze the strength of the relationship
being studied.
8.4 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Qualitative Analysis involved understanding and interpreting data
which is in a non-quantifiable form. It is made up of words, symbols,
actions and observations. It normally pertains to the information which the
researcher has collected through qualitative methods like interviews, focus
groups, observation etc. The analysis involves both primary and secondary
sources, through which the researcher may have collected data. Since it is
almost impossible to derive complete meaning from qualitative data, it is
commonly used in exploratory and descriptive research.
Qualitative analysis is thus concerned with understanding and
looking deeper into the properties or characteristics of a phenomenon. It
provides the researcher with a deeper understanding by attempting to
uncover “why” a certain event or trend occurs. Qualitative analysis may
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scope of quantitative enquiry and analysis is restricted to mathematical
and statistical manipulation, qualitative data analysis has a much wider
range and the involvement of the researcher is also much greater and more
important. Qualitative analysis is therefore subjective, descriptive, non-
statistical and exploratory.
Since qualitative analysis has much less ‘rules’ to go by than a
quantitative study, the researcher must also be well equipped to handle the
large amounts of data which gets collected. Subsequently, in certain cases,
the researcher may personally know or have a connection with the
participants. It is impor tant to ensure that these do not affect the study or
hinder the research in any manner.
8.4.1 Steps:
While the techniques utilized for analysis may differ, most of them follow
the same basic steps:
1. DESCRIBING/ Getting familiar with the data :
Qualitative analysis aims to develop a thorough and
comprehensive descriptions of the phenomenon under study. Since
qualitative data primarily consists of words, the first step in analysis is for
the researcher to go through/read the collected data a coupl e of times to
get familiar with it. It involves understanding the context, action and
process of the phenomenon under study. This will enable a researcher to
identify basic patterns and observations, which may be built on later. In
case the data has been collected through an interview, this is the stage in
which the researcher will transcribe the data.
2. CLASSIFICATION - Developing a framework :
This step is also known as coding or indexing. The researcher will
start assigning codes to important broader areas such as certain ideas,
concepts, phrases or characteristics. For e.g. the socio -economic status,
age groups, gender etc could be broad areas which could be crucial to the
study. This stage is important as it provides a form of structure to the data.
By summarizing data, we take away the unnecessary details and delineate
more clearly the central characteristics of the data.
3. CONNECTING - Iden tifying patterns and connections :
Once the data has been coded, the researcher can start to identify
and make connections between the data. This could be related to certain
themes, recurring ideas, patterns or common responses. These areas could
then be interpreted by the researcher in ways to satisfy the objectives of
the research. It would not only enable them to find answers to the research
questions but it may also aid them in discovering new areas to explore
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According to Ian Dey, some of the key points to keep in mind when doing
a qualitative analysis are:
Meanings are context -dependent
Meanings are always negotiable between different observers
In social science we can ask subjects what they mean
Subjects intentions are not always a reliable guide to interpretation
Process involves analysing changes over time
Change can be analysed through phases, key incidents or the complex
interplay of factors.
Material as well as social factors affect change
The commonly used techniques of qualitative analysis are:
❖ Content Analysis
❖ Narrative Analysis
❖ Discourse Analysis
❖ Thematic Analysis
❖ Grounded Theory
Check your Progress
1) What is the qualitative analysis ?
2) Mention a few techniques of qualitative analysis ?
8.4.2 Content Analysis :
Content analysis is one of the most popular and commonly used
forms of qualitative data analysis. It involves analyzing documented
information collected from texts, media etc. The data for this may have
been collected from primary sources like interview transcriptions or focus
group discussion transcriptions or from secondary sources. Content
analysis is used to evaluate patterns from a range of sources or from the
content available. Content analysis is most commonly done in interview
transcripts. Since there could be a large amount of content to analyze, it is
crucial for the researcher to have a specific research problem or question
in hand when analyzing the data. In a content analysis, the collected data
is regrouped and coded and further analyzed into categories or themes.
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has often been criticized for losing the smaller nuances of the idea being
communicated when it gets coded and categorized.
Narrative Analysis :
The method of narrative analysis is used when the researcher
focuses on using the stories and experiences of people in answering the
research question. The researcher listens to the stories shared by people;
this is done with the assumption that stories have some kind of functional
purpose. It is useful when studying the life of a single individual or of a
specific, particular phenomenon. It collects data from number of primary
and secondary sources, such as the researcher’s observations, surveys,
interview s of the respondents etc. Narrative analysis is done by analyzing
the participants stories, which is then re-storied into a particular
framework. When the collected data gets re-storied, the researcher
reorganizes the gathered stories into a framework, based on key elements
or themes. Hence, the collected data is compiled and rewritten in a
chronological order, to bring about a new form of narration. The key idea
behind a narrative research is understand ‘HOW ’ something is being said.
Narrative analysis is time consuming and requires the researcher to have a
good rapport with the participants and also a clear context on the
situation/person being studied.
Discourse Analysis :
This method of qualitative data analysis is done on discourses.
Discourses may be defined as an interrelated set of texts and the practices
of their production, dissemination and reception. It is concerned with
analyzing language in a social context and follows the assumption that
language is constructed to arrive at an objective. The key idea behind a
discourse analysis is to understand the social situation in which a
particular dialogue or discourse took place. Discourse analysis can be
applied to a numbe r of data sources like texts, talks, newspaper articles,
interviews etc. Understanding and analyzing these sources can give an
idea about the history, culture and social context being studied and
provides an insight into the socio -psychological characteris tics of the
participant being studied. Within these, the researcher can find patterns
and themes. It is very important to have a specific research question in
mind when conducting discourse analysis, as there could be a vast amount
of data.
Grounded Theo ry:
Grounded Theory is a method of qualitative data analysis, by
which the researcher attempts to construct a theory from the data
collected. It involves systematically categorizing and comparing the
collected data. The method of grounded theory and its analysis is
relatively newer in the field of qualitative research. The collected data is
analyzed through 3 stages of coding - namely initial coding (i.e. coding and munotes.in
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identifying them into categories), intermediate coding (i.e. selecting core
categories and data saturation) and advanced coding. Throughout this
stage, there is a constant comparative analysis which takes place between
the data (and specifically the codes, and the subsequent categories which
emerge), which then generate abstract concepts and theories through an
inductive process. Researchers analyze the data to explain why a certain
phenomenon happened by using similar cases in different settings, which
are then used to derive causal explanations. These ‘theories’ may be
refined and altered based on new cases which emerge, until reaching an
explanation which fits all cases.
Thematic Analysis :
Thematic analysis, much like content analysis, looks to find
themes which emerge from qualitative data. What distinguishes it from the
latter, is that thematic analysis focuses on both the explicit and implicit
meaning which emerges from the data. It is frequently used with other
forms of analysis. Thematic analysis is useful when the researcher is
trying to identify the themes and patterns emer ging from people’s
opinions, perspectives, experiences or values. Thematic analysis could be
done inductively (own themes) or deductively (pre-conceived themes),
based on the researcher’s choice. It is a flexible method of data analysis,
but this also implies that the onus of coding it into themes falls on the
researcher.
Interpreting and writing the analyzed results are crucial in ensuring
that the research can be understood thoroughly. Care must be taken to
ensure that the analyzed data is interpreted in a clear and simple manner.
When reporting the analyzed data, the researcher must ensure that the
interpretations are clear and non-ambiguous. Poor interpretation and weak
analysis, make the findings unstable and hamper the authenticity and
reliability of the research.
8.5 SUMMARY
Data analysis is a most important part of research where the data is
summarized and interpreted to fulfill the objectives of the study. It
involves Quantitative Data analysis as well as Qualitative Analysis each
having separate techniques and steps.
8.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. What is Data analysis? Explain the basic steps of Data analysis .
2. What is Qualitative method of Analysing Data ? Explain Its steps and
Techniques .
3. What is Quantitative Method of Analysing Data? Explain Its Steps
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8.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
A., D. V. (2013). Research design in social research . London: Sage.
Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (2017). Research in education . Harlow,
Essex: Pearson.
Bordens, K. S. (2018). Research design and methods: A process
approach . Dubuque, IA: McGraw -Hill Education.
Bryman, A. (2015). Social Research Methods . Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Burnett, J. (2009). Doing your social science dissertation . Los
Angeles: SAGE.
Ellison, C. (2010). McGraw -Hills concise guide to writing research
papers . New York: McGraw -Hill.
Marczyk, G. R., DeMatteo, D., & Festinger, D. (2005). Essentials of
research design and methodology . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons.
Punch, K. (2005). Developing effective research proposals . London:
Sage.
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MODEL QUESTION PAPER
PAPER 4
METHODOLOGIES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
Total Marks : 60 Duration : 2 Hours
N.B:
1) Attempt All Questions
2) All Questions carry equal marks
Q1. Explain the Philosophical Foundations of Social Research 15 marks
Or
Explain the Qualitative methods of Social Research 15 marks
Q2. Explain Positivism and Sociology 15 marks
Or
Explain the importance of Reflexivity and Social Research 15 marks
Q3. What is Virtual Research? Explain its benefits and uses 15 marks
Or
Explain the Quantitative Techniques of Social Research 15 marks
Q4. Explain the Components of Research Proposal 15 marks
Or
What is Data Analysis? Explain the Basic steps in
Data Analysis 15 marks
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