Paper-–-VIII-Geography-of-Disaster-Mitigation-and-Management-Englsih-Version-munotes

Page 1

1 1
MEANING AND CONCEPT OF DISASTER
AND HAZARDS
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure :
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Subject discussion
1.4 Definition And concept of disaster
1.5 Difference between hazards, calamity and disaster
1.6 Vulnerability, capacity, risk
1.7 Typology of hazards and disasters – natural disaster and -
made disasters
1.8 Impact of Disasters – socio -economic and political.
1.9 Need for Disaster management in India
1.10 Check your Progress/Exercise

1.11 Answers to the self -learning questions

1.12 Technical words and their meaning

1.13 Task

1.14 References for further study
1.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Define disaster
 Know ab out the difference between hazards, calamity and disaster
 Understand vulnerability, capacity, risk
 Discuss disaster management cycle
 Understand disaster management in India – munotes.in

Page 2

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
2  Learn financial arrangements in disaster management –
 Understand the role of NG Os,
 Know role of community -based organizations
 Know role of media and communication in disaster management
 Discuss role of geography and GIS in disaster management

1.2 INTRODUCTION
The main aim of learning about disaster management is to lessen the
impa ct of disasters around the world. The United Nations defines a
disaster as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a
society. It essentially deals with management of resources and information
on disastrous events. Disaster management trie s to coordinate these
resources effectively and seamlessly. The role of Indian government in
prevention and control of disasters is noticeable.
1.3 SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
Disaster management is a relatively new identifiable profession, where the
tasks of a di saster manager, is of a disaster relief assistant during and after
a disaster emergency. It is not necessarily a full -time activity. Indeed, for
most people in the field, their concerns for disaster issues form only a part
of their total responsibilities. There has been a growing awareness in
recent years that all of these disaster management activities, in fact,
comprise the process of disaster management. But the role of people who
are involved in the field of disasters must be coherent and cohesive. This
includes the spectrum of activities from administration to project
implementation. Also Disaster prevention to disaster mitigation to disaster
preparedness to disaster response comes under this category. Disaster
management would succeed only if there is elimination of the underlying
causes of disasters. This would again contribute to minimizing the
people’s vulnerability to disaster. Positive responses to emergencies will
make an enormous impact on the current deadly state of disaster events.
Disaster man agers will require several skills and technologies to achieve
their goal and must have vigorous training.
The term "disaster management" includes the complete field of disaster -
related activities. Generally people have an intention to think disaster
manage ment in terms of the post -disaster actions taken by relief and
reconstruction officials. But it is observed that disaster management
covers a much broader scope where many modern disaster managers find
themselves far more involved in pre -disaster activitie s than in post -disaster
response.
munotes.in

Page 3

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
3 1.4 DEFINITION OF CONCEPT OF DISASTER
There are innumerable definitions of a disaster. Among relief
organizations definitions vary according to each agency's roles, biases, and
capabilities. In short a sudden accident or a natural catastrophe that causes
great damage or loss of life is known as disaster. It is a situation resulting
from an environmental phenomenon or armed conflict that produces
stress, personal injury, physical damage, and economic disruption of great
magnitude. Here one important point must be noted that even though
disasters are referred to by the event that caused them; a disaster is not the
event itself. Earthquake may be taken as an example to explain this. It is a
natural phenomenon. But if it does not strike a populated area with weak
buildings, it is not likely to be a disaster.
Which event will qualify as a disaster entirely depends upon who is
defining it. For example to a government, an oil refinery explosion could
be a major disaster, but it i s unlikely to trigger a massive response from
the United Nations or from voluntary agencies (VOLAGS) unless
hundreds of low -income families are hurt in the same. On the contrary,
disasters caused by long -term environmental degradation will often draw
atten tion from VOLAGS long before governments mobilize their
resources.
There lie differences between disasters and accidents. A disaster is
separated from an accident, or incident, by its magnitude of need and of
victims involved. When an airliner crash it is of course severe and costly,
but the number of people affected is relatively small. We should also
differentiate disasters from individual, non extreme or small -scale
suffering. For example, a world -wide growing phenomenon is hunger. It is
a major concern , and often being endemic, is addressed with different
approaches. Only when hunger becomes widespread and acute, or turns
out to be a famine, the situation qualifies as a Disaster. This distinction is
important because it not only helps to define disaster s as a separate set of
events but also gives a starting point for studying and understanding their
importance, their impact, and the proper responses they require.
1.4.1 Disasters are of three types:
1. Natural Disasters
Natural disasters refer to those disas ters that are triggered by natural
phenomena such as earthquakes, cyclones, floods, etc. These are again
technically known as natural hazards. The term "natural disaster" can be
misleading because it implies that the disasters are solely a result of
natura l hazards -when in fact, human endeavours are a major contributing
factor in creating a disaster. For example, if settlements or farms were not
located in flood plains, disasters would not result from floods. If housing
were built to earthquake - and cyclone -resistant standards, these hazards
would be of scientific interest only and not result in disasters.
Recently, environmental degradation has begun to occur more frequently
as a novel disaster. It results typically from poor farming, grazing, or munotes.in

Page 4

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
4 settlemen t practices, or because of demands for fuel wood. Excessive
exploitation of natural resources or improper use or maintenance of lands
changes the ecological balance; the resulting effects of deforestation,
desertification, erosion, siltation, or flooding o ften bring disaster.
Increased flooding due to overgrazing or poor farming practices in the
upper portions of a watershed, and increased desertification resulting from
overgrazing or improper use of water resources are a few examples. This
type of disaste r is a growing concern not only because of the
environmental consequences but also because large numbers of people can
be displaced. The resulting social disruption can cause massive problems.
Man -made Disasters
The term "man -made disasters" usually refer s to disasters resulting from
man-made hazards. Man -made disasters can be divided into three
categories: armed conflict, technological disasters, and disasters that are
not caused by natural hazards but that occur in human settlements.
2. Technological Disast ers
Technological disasters are usually a result of accidents or incidents
occurring in the manufacture, transport, or distribution of hazardous
substances such as fuel, chemicals, explosives, or nuclear materials. The
catastrophic gas leak at the pesticid e plant in Bhopal, India, in 1984 is an
example.
Environmentalists opine that such disasters are common in industrializing
and developing countries as these lack the trained workers and
government regulators to detect and correct hazards in larger and comp lex
plants. Moreover, the level of technical expertise among workers in
developed countries is better than in developing countries. Often
developing countries also believe that environmental safeguards are too
costly and hence the working conditions in dev eloping countries are
unsafe. For example, in a plant in a country where the workers do not have
shoes it is difficult to require the workers to wear steel -toed safety boots.
The type of accidents in both developed and developing countries is not
much dif ferent from each other, but the likelihood of their occurring and
the potential damage is much greater. The death tolls from the resulting
accidents could be magnified because Third World industries often are
encircled by shantytowns and slums filled with migrants from the
surrounding countryside. In other cases, technological disasters are more
economic than physical. For example, large refineries have exploded with
minimal loss of life, yet the cost of restoring those facilities can be a major
burden subs tantially affecting the entire economy of a small country.

munotes.in

Page 5

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
5 1.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HAZARDS, CALAMITY
AND DISASTER
 Difference between hazards and disaster
A situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or
environment and is very danger ous for human and animal life is known as
hazard . Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk
of harm. An active hazard creates an emergency. Hazard and possibility
interact together to create risk
On the other hand, disaster is the result of a hazard that may be natural or
manmade. Natural hazards are things that take place in nature that cause
harm. The word "natural" is used to note that the disaster is caused by
nature. Some examples of natural hazards are: earthquakes, hurricane s,
sinkholes, hail storms, wildfires, and the like. It might also be helpful to
keep in mind that one natural hazard can lead to another. For example, an
earthquake can cause a tsunami. Natural disasters are slightly different.
They are the effects of natu ral hazards on humanity. For example, the
tsunami in Indonesia caused a great amount of loss of property and more
importantly lives. The earthquake and tsunami in Japan also caused loss of
property and lives, as well as nuclear fallout.
 The differences be tween the two are as follows:
• A hazard is a situation where there is a threat to life, health,
environment or property where as, a disaster is an event that completely
disrupts the normal ways of a community. It brings on human,
economical, and environme ntal losses to the community which the
community cannot bear on its own.
• Hazards are natural or manmade phenomenon that are a feature of our
planet and cannot be prevented. In their dormant state, hazards just pose
a threat to life and property while disasters are the result of a hazard that
may be natural or manmade.
• These hazards are termed as disasters when they cause widespread
destruction of property and human lives. Once a hazard becomes active
and is no longer just a threat, it becomes a disaster .
• Both hazards and disasters are natural as well as manmade.
• We can prevent hazards becoming disasters if we learn to live in
harmony with nature and take precautionary steps.
 Difference between calamity and disaster
Calamity is an event resulting in g reat loss while disaster is an
unexpected natural or man -made catastrophe of substantial extent causing
significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life or sometimes
permanent change to the natural environment.
munotes.in

Page 6

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
6 1.6 VULNERABILITY, CAPACITY, RISK

1.6.1 Vulnerability is a condition wherein human settlements, buildings,
agriculture, or human health are exposed to a disaster by virtue of their
construction or proximity to hazardous terrain.

1.6.2 Capacity
Capacity is the combination of all the strength s, attributes and resources
available within a community, society or organization that can be used to
achieve agreed goals. Capacity development is the process by which
people, organizations and society systematically stimulate and develop
their capacities over time to achieve social and economic goals, including
through improvement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutions.
According to UN/ISDR (2004), capacity is "a combination of all the
strengths and resources available within a community, society or
organization that can reduce the level of risk or the effects of a disaster ".
This includes physical and human resources as well as leadership
and management . UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)
understands capacity development as a locally -driven, society -wide
transformation, and recognizes that capable individuals, organizations and
societies play an indispensable role in the successful reduction and
management of disaster risks.
We can simplify the term and say that if capacity is the means t o plan and
achieve, then capacity development describes the way to those means.
Capacity development commonly refers to a process that is driven from
the inside and starts from existing capacity assets. Capacity building,
however, refers to a process that supports only the initial stages of
building or creating capacities, often by outsiders, and is based on an
assumption that there are no existing capacities from which to start. It is
therefore less comprehensive than capacity development.
For UNDP, devel oping sustainable DRR (Disaster risk reduction)
capacities at national and local level is based on the following
assumptions:
 Locally generated, owned and sustained capacity is essential to the
success of any DRR enterprise.
 The development of DRR (Disast er risk reduction) capacity is the
concern of an entire society, rather than of any single agency,
professional discipline, or stakeholder group.
 The development of technical capacities associated with professional
disciplines or functions —such as environm ental management or land -
use management —needs to be combined with other types of capacity
development that include the promotion of leadership and other
managerial capacities and performance -enhancing measures munotes.in

Page 7

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
7  An enabling environment —i.e. strong political ownership and
commitment at the highest levels of authority, extensive participation,
transparency and clear public accountability — is essential for
translating capacity into performance.
The capacity to cope requires continuing awareness, resources and g ood
management, both in normal times as well as during crises or adverse
conditions. Coping capacities contribute to the reduction of disaster risks.
1.6.3 Risk
Risk is the relative degree of probability that a hazardous event will occur.
An active fault z one, for example, would be an area of high risk.
The combination of vulnerability and hazard gives us disaster risk or the
possibility of a disaster in an area. Thus, risk is a potential to cause
damage. Disaster risk is the product of hazard and vulnerabi lity divided by
capacity for convenience. Conventionally risk is expressed by the
notation.
Risk = Hazards X Vulnerability/Capacity
Thus risk increases with increase in hazards and vulnerability and
decreases with the increase in capacity.
Capacity is defi ned as the community to intervene and manage a hazard in
order reduce potential impact.
1.7 TYPOLOGY OF DISASTERS NATURAL DISASTER
Natural disasters refer to those disasters that are triggered by natural
phenomena such as earthquakes, cyclones, floods, etc . These are again
technically known as natural hazards. The term "natural disaster" can be
misleading because it implies that the disasters are solely a result of
natural hazards when in fact, human endeavours are a major contributing
factor in creating a disaster. For example, if settlements or farms were not
located in flood plains, disasters would not result from floods. If housing
were built to earthquake - and cyclone -resistant standards, these hazards
would be of scientific interest only and not result in disasters.
Recently, environmental degradation has begun to occur more frequently
as a novel disaster. It results typically from poor farming, grazing, or
settlement practices, or because of demands for fuel wood. Excessive
exploitation of natural res ources or improper use or maintenance of lands
changes the ecological balance; the resulting effects of deforestation,
desertification, erosion, siltation, or flooding often bring disaster.
Increased flooding due to overgrazing or poor farming practices i n the
upper portions of a watershed, and increased desertification resulting from
overgrazing or improper use of water resources are a few examples. This
type of disaster is a growing concern not only because of the munotes.in

Page 8

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
8 environmental consequences but also beca use large numbers of people can
be displaced. The resulting social disruption can cause massive problems.
TYPES OF NATURAL DISASTERS
Several natural disasters in India happened due to climatic conditions of
India. These have caused massive losses of Indi an life and property.
Droughts, floods, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, landslides brought
on by torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. In order
to be classified as a disaster these phenomena must have profound
environmental effec t and /or human loss. These frequently incur financial
loss too.
Excessive down pour during monsoons caused landslides in hilly areas
which disturb the life to a huge extent in those areas and even in the
nearby ones. Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which
usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in
North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions. Hail is
also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops
such as rice and w heat.
Some of the natural disasters in India are as follows:
I. Landslides in India
In India, the landslides keep happening frequently in lower Himalayas
because these hills are not old enough and are still into formation. One
more reason behind the occurren ce of landslides in these regions is
deforestation as the trees that hold the soil tight have been cut in huge
number. Apart from lower Himalayas some areas of Western Ghats also
experience landslides, though not such heavy ones. In major parts of
Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir and Sikkim, avalanches are quite common.
II. Floods in India
Flood is the most widely occurring natural calamity that takes place in
almost all the regions of India. The heavy rainfall causes the water -levels
of major rivers like Brahmaputra to rise up resulting into destruction
everywhere in that region. Crops are affected widely. Another cause that
contributes majorly to this disaster is global warming. The huge ice
deposits, melting at a fast pace, increase the water levels further. For pa st
few decades, floods have been occurring in Central India mostly. The
imbalance in environmental cycle has led to all sorts of environmental
issues, floods being most common of them.
Some of the heaviest recorded floods in India have been the Gujarat flo od
of 2005, the Ladakh floods of 2010, the Brahmaputra floods and
Himalayan Flash floods of 2012, the Assam floods of 2013, One of the
most recent natural disasters to have affected India is the massive flood
which affected Jammu &Kashmir in September, 201 4 which claimed
thousands of lives.
munotes.in

Page 9

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
9 III. Flash Floods
Another catastrophic natural disaster to have hit the country was the flash
floods in River Ganga in 2013. Heavy and sudden rains in the region
caused destructive landslides in Uttarakhand, which took toll of thousands
of lives, most of them being pilgrims of Badrinath and Kedarnath, while
thousands were reported missing.
IV. Drought in India
Drought in India has caused tens of millions of deaths over the course of
the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Indian agr iculture is heavily dependent
on the southwest summer monsoon. In some parts of India, the failure of
the monsoons result in water shortages, resulting in below -average crop
yields.
V. Cyclones that Devastated India
Cyclones play the most devastating role as natural disaster. The coastal
regions that come under Inter tropical Convergence Zone including the
Bay of Bengal are hit by cyclones which are characterized by storming
rains that lead to complete blackout and cutoff from all sorts of
connectivity even f or important supplies.
India's western coast, bordering Arabian Sea, experiences mild cyclones
only rarely; these mainly strike Gujarat and, less frequently, Kerala. The
powerful cyclones are majorly experienced in the coastal states such as
Andhra Prades h, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal in the Bay of
Bengal region.
Among many other cyclones the Odisha Cyclone 05B that struck Orissa
on 29 October 1999, was the most devastating one that had cost thousands
of lives and left millions of people homeless. It was the worst in more than
a quarter -century. With peak winds of 160 miles per hour (257 km/h), it
was the equivalent of a Category 5 hurricane.
VI. Earthquakes in India
India has a history of havoc created by earthquakes which happen due to
sliding of var ious layers of the earth. The Indian sub -continent is moving
towards rest of Asia at a considerable rate. This has created various zones
that are prone to earthquakes. Till date, the areas in India that have been
affected by earthquakes are Kangra in Himac hal Pradesh, Andaman &
Nicobar, Jammu & Kashmir, West Bengal, New Delhi, Gangtok in
Sikkim, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, parts of Gujarat, Latur in Maharashtra,
Uttarkashi in Uttarakhand, parts of Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh
and Kolkata in West Bengal . Almost all of India has suffered from the
fury of earthquake.
Latur earthquake is one of the most devastating natural disasters in India
of all time which hit Latur in Maharashtra on September 30, 1993. The
earthquake which killed nearly 20000 and left 30000 injured, measured munotes.in

Page 10

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
10 6.4 on the Richter scale. It also caused huge damage to property, reducing
thousands of buildings to rubble.
Apart from these major natural issues, there are many more like drought,
heat waves and wildfires that have been bothering life in India to a great
extent. Several measures have been taken to avoid the extent of damage,
yet a lot needs to be done in this regard.
MAN -MADE DISASTER

Events which are caused by man either intentionally or by accident are
know n as Man -made Disast ers. Some of the examples are wars, civil
wars, terrorism, errors in designing, nuclear disasters, industrial disasters
etc. As their occurrence is unpredictable, man -made disasters pose a
challenging and severe threat to public health and /or well -being w hich
must be dealt with thorough vigilance and proper preparedness and
response. Information on the major sources of man -made disasters helps to
educate the public about their cause and effects so that emergency
planning relating to these disasters become easier. With the advent of time
as mankind has developed and become technologically advanced,
frequency and magnitude of man -made disasters has increased in the same
proportion. Man -made disasters are the results of industrial and material
progress. Accide nts happen due to negligence on the part of man. The
Bhopal Gas tragedy is a result of an accident which played havoc on the
local residence.

TYPES OF MAN -MADE DISASTERS

Man-made disasters are mainly of two types:

a. Local disasters which are small -scale disasters such as train accidents,
plane crashes and shipwrecks.
b. The other one is Industrial and technological disasters . These are
much larger in scale and are the result of technology failures or
industrial accidents. Such disasters affect both local po pulation and
may even cover a much larger area. Industrial disasters result due to
accidental leakage of water or air pollutants. Many of the chemicals
are extremely toxic and carcinogenic which affect the human
population in an adverse way. Some people di e instantly while others
are crippled for whole life in the form of blindness, paralysis and many
other chronic diseases.






munotes.in

Page 11

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
11 Man -made disasters are those hazards caused directly or indirectly by
human action or inaction.

 They are as follows:
1. Socio logical hazards
a. Crime
b. Civil disorder
c. Terrorism
d. War
2. Technological hazards
a. Industrial hazards
b. Structural collapse
c. Power outage
d. Fire
e. Hazardous materials
f. Transportation
3. Costs hazards
1. Sociological hazards
a. Crime
Crime is an action or omission which constitutes an offence and is
punishable by law. Punishments can range from the payment of a fine to
incarceration in jail. Individual human societies may each define crime
differently. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the
law cou nts as a crime; for example: breaches of contract and of other
private law may rank as "offenses" or as "infractions". Modern societies
generally regard crimes as offenses against the public or the state,
distinguished from torts (offenses against private parties that can give rise
to a civil cause of action). In context, not all crimes provide man -made
hazards.
James Robert Scott, currently serving a sentence of 20 years to life in a
Missouri prison, was convicted of causing a massive flood of the
Mississi ppi River at West Quincy, Missouri as part of the Great Flood of
1993.This flood inundated 14,000 acres on the Missouri side of the river.
a. Civil disorder
Civil disorder is a broad term. It is also known as civil unrest. It is
typically used by law enforcem ent to describe unrest that is caused by a munotes.in

Page 12

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
12 group of people. Although civil disorder does not necessarily escalate to a
disaster in all cases, the event may escalate into general chaos. Rioting has
many causes, from antipathy over low minimum wages to racia l
segregation. Examples of well -known civil disorders and riots are the Poll
Tax Riots in the United Kingdom in 1990; the 1992 Los Angeles riots in
which 53 people died; the 2008 Greek riots after a 15 -year-old boy was
fatally shot by police; and the 2010 Thai political protests in Bangkok
during which 91 people died.
b. Terrorism
Terrorism is the unofficial or unauthorized use of violence and
intimidation in the pursuit of political aims. This controversial term has
varied definitions. One definition means a violent action targeting civilians
exclusively. Another definition is the use or threatened use of violence for
the purpose of creating fear in order to achieve a political, religious, or
ideological goal.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines terrorism as "the
unlawful use of force against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a
government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in the
furtherance of political or social objectives."
 Terrorists use a variety of methods to achieve their ends:
i. Biological - Biological weapons are of two types, one is replicating
(infectious) agents, while the other is non -replicating (non -infecting
or intoxicating) agents. Replicating agents are pathogenic bacteria,
viruses or fungus. Non -replicatin g agents are produced from
replicating agents, other living organisms and plants and are called
"toxins".
ii. Nuclear -There are two fundamentally different threats in the area of
nuclear terrorism. One is the use, threatened use or threatened
detonation of a n uclear bomb. The other is the detonation, or
threatened detonation, of a conventional explosive incorporating
nuclear materials – radiological dispersal devices, also called RDD.
iii. Incendiary -An incendiary device is any mechanical, electrical or
chemical dev ice used intentionally to initiate combustion and start a
fire.
iv. Chemical -Chemical weapons are defined as compounds that,
through their chemicals properties, produce lethal or damaging
effects in man, animal, plants or materials.
v. Explosive - The United State s Department of Transportation (DOT)
defines an explosive as a substance fitting into one of two categories:
Any substance or article, including a device, designed to function by
explosion (e.g., an extremely rapid release of gas and heat), or Any
substanc e or article, including a device, which by chemical reaction
within itself, can function in a similar manner even if not designed to
function by explosion, unless the substance or article is otherwise
classified. munotes.in

Page 13

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
13 c. War
War is conflict between relatively larg e groups of people, which involves
physical force inflicted by the use of weapons. Warfare has destroyed
entire cultures, countries, economies and inflicted great suffering on
humanity. Other terms for war can include armed conflict, hostilities, and
polic e action. Acts of war are normally excluded from insurance contracts
and disaster planning.
2. Technological hazards
a. Industrial hazards
Industrial disasters occur in a commercial context, such as mining
accidents. They often have an environmental impact. The Bhopal disaster
is the world's worst industrial disaster to date, and the Chernobyl disaster
is regarded the worst nuclear accident in history. Hazards may have
longer -term and more dispersed effects, such as dioxin and DDT
poisoning.
b. Structural collapse
Main cause of structural collapses is by engineering failures. Bridge
failures may be caused in several ways, such as under -design (as in the
Tay Bridge disaster), by corrosion attack (such as in the Silver Bridge
collapse), or by aerodynamic flutter of th e deck (as in Galloping Gertie,
the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge). Failure of dams was not infrequent
during the Victorian era, such as the Dale Dyke dam failure in Sheffield,
England in the 1860s, causing the Great Sheffield Flood. Other failures
includ e balcony collapses or building collapses such as that of the World
Trade Center.
c. Power outage
A power outage is an interruption of normal sources of electrical power.
Short -term power outages (up to a few hours) are common and have minor
adverse effect, s ince most businesses and health facilities are prepared to
deal with them. Extended power outages, however, can disrupt personal
and business activities as well as medical and rescue services, leading to
business losses and medical emergencies. Extended lo ss of power can lead
to civil disorder, as in the New York City blackout of 1977. Recent
notable power outages include the 2005 Java –Bali Blackout which
affected 100 million people and the 2009 Brazil and Paraguay blackout
which affected 60 million people.
d. Fire
Casualties resulting from fires, regardless of their source or initial cause,
can be aggravated by inadequate emergency preparedness. Such hazards
as a lack of accessible emergency exits, poorly marked escape routes, or
improperly maintained fire ext inguishers or sprinkler systems may result
in many more deaths and injuries than might occur with such protections. munotes.in

Page 14

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
14 e. Hazardous materials
i. Radiation contamination
When nuclear weapons are detonated or nuclear containment systems are
otherwise compromised, ai rborne radioactive particles can scatter and
irradiate large areas. Not only is it deadly, but it also has a long -term effect
on the next generation for those who are contaminated
During World War II, United States troops dropped atomic bombs on the
Japane se cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. As a result, the radiation
fallout contaminated the cities' water supplies, food sources, and half of
the populations of each city were stricken with disease.
The Soviet republics of Ukraine and Belarus are part of a s cenario like this
after a reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant suffered a meltdown
in 1986.
ii. CBRNs
CBRN are weaponized or non -weaponized Chemical, Biological,
Radiological and Nuclear materials that can cause great harm and pose
significant threats in the hands of terrorists. The term is used to describe a
non-conventional terror threat that, if used by a nation, would be
considered use of a weapon of mass destruction.
Examples include Saddam Hussein's Halabja poison gas attack, and Lord
Amherst gi ving smallpox laden blankets to Native Americans.
f. Transportation
i. Aviation
Air disasters are an incident rather than an accident. It is associated with
the operation of an aircraft. An aircraft is a vehicle ranging from a
helicopter, an airliner, or a space shuttle. The world's worst airliner
disaster is the Tenerife crash of 1977, when miscommunications between
air traffic control and an aircrew caused two fully -laden jets to collide on
the runway, killing 583 people.
ii. Train
A train wreck or train crash is a type of disaster involving one or more
trains. This often occurs as a result of miscommunication. When a moving
train meets another train on the same track accident occurs. Again if a
train wheel jumps off a track in a derailment or when a boiler explosio n
happens there will be train accidents causing disaster.
iii. Road
Traffic collisions are the leading cause of death, and road -based pollution
creates a substantial health hazard, especially in major conurbations. The
greenhouse effect of road transport is a significant fraction of the munotes.in

Page 15

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
15 anthropogenic warming effect, and the rapid consumption of fossil fuel
accelerates the Hubbard peak.
iv. Space
Space travel presents significant hazards, mostly to the direct participants
(astronauts or cosmonauts and ground suppor t personnel), but also carry
the potential of disaster to the public at large. Accidents related to space
travel have killed 22 astronauts and cosmonauts, and a larger number of
people on the ground.
An example is the Space Shuttle Columbia, which disinteg rated during a
landing attempt over Texas in 2003, with a loss of all seven astronauts on
board. The debris field extended from New Mexico to Mississippi.
3. Costs
Some man -made disasters have been particularly notable for the high costs
associated with respo nding to and recovering from them, including:
Chernobyl disaster, 1986: $15 billion estimated cost of direct loss. It is
estimated that the damages could accumulate to €235 billion for Ukraine
and €201 billion for Belarus in the thirty years following the accident;
Three Mile Island, 1979: $1 billion;
September 11 attacks, 2001: $20.7 billion;
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 1989: The clean -up of oil spill cost an estimated
$2.5 billion; recovery for settlements, $1.1 billion; and the economical
loss (fisheries, tourism, etc) suffered due to the damage to the Alaskan
ecosystem was estimated at $2.8 billion;
The costs of disasters vary considerably depending on a range of factors,
such as the geographical location where they occur. When a disaster
occurs in a densely -populated area in a wealthy country, the fina ncial
damage might be huge, but when a comparable disaster occurs in a
densely -populated area in a poorer country, the actual financial damage
might relatively small, in part due to a lack of insurance. For example, the
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsu nami (although obviously not man -
made) with a death toll of over 230,000 people, cost a 'mere' $15 billion,
whereas the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in which 11 people died, the
damages were six -fold.
1.8 IMPACT OF DISASTERS – SOCIO -ECONOMIC
AND POLITI CAL.
India is among the world’s most disaster -prone areas as a large part of the
country is exposed to natural hazards. These have turned into disasters
causing loss of life and property. The consequences of natural disasters
caused by earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions on, landslides, and
hurricanes are catastrophic. In recent years these hazards took toll of munotes.in

Page 16

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
16 thousands of lives and caused massive destruction of property. These have
adversely affected the vital sectors of the country’s development as
agriculture, communication, irrigation, power projects and rural and urban
settlements get affected. However, irrespective of the duration of a
disaster, the damage in the form of deaths, injuries and losses of property
is immense. The magnitude of the disa sters can be judged by the fact that
only during the past two decades; occurrences of floods, earthquakes,
landslides, cyclones, etc. have killed several million people.
1.9 NEED OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
India is the largest democracy and the second most populous country in
the world with about 6 billion people. India is integrated, yet highly
diversified country. India lies in South Asia, surrounded on three sides by
the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Bay of Bengal. To the north
there are th e Himalayan mountain ranges. The geographical area of India
is 3.4 million square kilometers, and the coastline is 7,500 kilometers
long. India was economically the richest country in the world till Mughals
invaded for looting. India knew mining and proces sing of diamonds, and
all the great diamonds belonged to India. The per capita GDP in 2005 was
only $ 736, and India stood at 128th among the countries in terms of the
Human Development Index (UNDP 2007).Poverty is the main root cause
of disasters in India .
Having some of the world’s most severe droughts, famines, cyclones,
earthquakes, chemical disasters, mid -air head -on air collisions, rail
accidents, and road accidents, India stands out to be the most disaster
prone countries of the world. India is also one of the most terrorist prone
countries.
India was, until recently, reactive and only responded to disasters and
provided relief from calamity. It was a relief driven disaster management
system. India also has world’s oldest famine relief codes. In recen t times,
there has been a paradigm shift and India has become or is becoming more
proactive with emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation and
preparedness.
Traditionally India accepted international help in responding to disasters.
Although, after the 2 004 Indian Ocean tsunami, India refused to accept
international response assistance from foreign governments, it deployed its
defense personnel, medical teams, disaster experts, ships, helicopters, and
other type of human, material, and equipment resources to help Sri Lanka,
Mauritius, and Indonesia. It may be noted that India itself suffered from
the tsunami and was internally responding at the same time.
Disasters do not recognize or respect national geographic boundaries. The
tsunami experience illustra tes it vividly. In the increasingly globalized
world, more disasters will be spread over many countries and will be
regional in nature. India has set up an example of responding internally
and simultaneously in neighboring countries for the other countries to
follow. munotes.in

Page 17

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
17 India took a pioneering step regarding disaster management. In the
academic year 2003 -2004, India planned of starting disaster management
education as part of social sciences in class VIII. In the subsequent
academic year 2004 -2005 disaster man agement, was added to class IX. In
the following academic years disaster management was progressively
added to classes XI and XII. This was done by the Central Board of
Secondary Education. India is also implementing community based
disaster management pro gram, along with disaster management education
in schools, with the help of United Nations Development Program in all -
hazard vulnerable districts.
Some changes have been brought in disaster policy and creation of new
organizations on the basis of catastrop hic disasters in recent times. Policy
changes include the enactment of Disaster Management Act, 2005 and
development of the national disaster management response framework.
The National Disaster Management Authority was established to
spearhead in creation of culture of disaster resilience. The National
Institute of Disaster Management itself and along with Disaster
Management Cells in the states is providing training opportunities in
disaster management.
1.8.1 Disaster Policy
The mode of Indian disaster po licy has been changed from response and
calamity relief to disaster prevention, preparation and mitigation. Another
significant change of disaster management is to move from government to
public private partnership, and community disaster management. In th is
regard, significant changes have been made, but the authoritarian attitude
of the government officials is the main stumbling block.
After the Great Famine of 1876 -1878 the Famine Commission of 1880
was constituted and there was eventual adoption of Fami ne Relief Code.
India probably has the world’s oldest disaster relief code which started
in1880. This relief code provides details of the relief to be given by the
government to the affected people.
The India Disaster Report (Parsuraman and Unikrishnan 200 0) provides
the nature of disaster response by the government of India. It identifies
key issues with respect to the availability of and access to disaster -related
information and its quality, the absence of coherent disaster preparedness
and response poli cy, and urgent actions and interventions needed. It shows
that significant advances in health and social and economic development
have been repeatedly interrupted and reversed by disasters.
Although India was following five year national plans, the earlie r five year
plans did not mention disaster management. The Tenth Five -Year Plan
2002 -2007 for the first time had a detailed chapter entitled Disaster
Management and The Development Perspective. The plan emphasized the
fact that no development will be susta inable without mitigation being built
into the development process. Disaster mitigation and prevention were
adopted as essential component of the development strategy. munotes.in

Page 18

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
18 High priority was given to Disaster management in the country. The
Eleventh Five Year Pl an 2007 -2012 (Planning Commission 20008) states,
“The development process needs to be sensitive towards disaster
prevention, preparedness and mitigation. Disaster management has
therefore emerged as a high priority for the country. Going beyond the
histori cal focus on relief and rehabilitation after the event, there is a need
to look ahead and plan for disaster preparedness and mitigation in order to
ensure that periodic shocks to our development efforts are minimized.”
The Eleventh Five Year Plan aims at c onsolidating the process by giving
impetus to projects and programs that develop and nurture the culture of
safety and the integration of disaster prevention and mitigation into the
development process.
The guidance and direction to achieve this paradigm shift will need to
flow from National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), and in the
true spirit of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 to all stakeholders
including State Governments and Union Territories, right up to the
Panchyat Raj (local administratio n by five locally elected citizens)
Institutions. Communities at large will need to be mobilized to achieve
this common objective as they are the first responders (and not the usually
thought fire, ambulance, and police). Even the best of isolated efforts will
not bear fruit unless they are part of an overall, well -considered approach,
and responsibilities of all stakeholders are clearly spelt out and
accountability and sustainability factored in.
The impact of 2001 Gujarat Earthquake was huge. It had very serious
effect on the government and policy makers, in addition to victims, their
families, and general citizenry. The Government of Gujarat for the first
time in India enacted the Gujarat Disaster Management Act, 2003. Before
that, neither at the federal level nor at the state level there was any act to
deal with the management of disasters of various kinds in a
comprehensive manner. The state and federal governments were largely
following the relief code and the rules and regulations, and the
government o rders issued over the years, which were not consolidated.
 Every citizen’s aid is demanded for the following purposes,
namely
(a) Prevention,
(b) Response,
(c) Warning,
(d) Emergency operation,
(e) Evacuation, and
(f) Recovery.
The recurrent occurrences of different types of disasters compelled
Government of India to establish many different committee and munotes.in

Page 19

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
19 commissions to suggest dealing with the problem. Recently there is the
establishment of High Power Committee on Disaster Management (HPC)
in 1999 for m aking recommendations on the preparation of Disaster
Management plans and suggestions for effective mitigation mechanisms.
The Government of India has long been thinking of a National Disaster
Management Authority. The Gujarat earthquake gave extra impetu s for
having a national disaster management authority.
Finally on December 23, 2005 the Disaster Management Act, 2005 was
enacted by the Government of India. The Disaster Management Act, 2005
mandated creation of National Disaster Management Authority, wi th
Prime Minister as the Chairman, and State Disaster Management
Authorities headed by the respective Chief Ministers, to spearhead and
implement a holistic and integrated approach to disaster management in
India. The act also provided for creation of Nati onal Institution of Disaster
Management.
NDMA has prepared a disaster management policy framework. The
themes underpinning this policy are:
 Community -based disaster management, including integration of the
policy, plans and execution at the grass root lev el.
 Capacity development in all related areas.
 Consolidation of past initiatives and best practices.
 Cooperation with agencies at national, regional and international
levels.
 Compliance and coordination to generate a multi -sectoral synergy.
 The objectives guiding the policy formulation have evolved to include:
 Promoting a culture of prevention and preparedness – by centre -
staging disaster management (DM) as an overriding priority at all
levels and at all times.
 Encouraging mitigation measures based on stat e-of-the-art technology
and environmental sustainability.
 Mainstreaming DM concerns into the development planning process.
 Putting in place a streamlined institutional techno -legal framework in
order to create and preserve the integrity of an enabling reg ulatory
environment and a compliance regime.
 Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems
backed by responsive and fail -safe communications and Information
Technology (IT) support. munotes.in

Page 20

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
20  Promoting a productive partnership with the Media, NGOs an d the
Corporate Sector in the areas of awareness generation and capacity
development.
 Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring humane approach
towards the vulnerable sections of the society.
 Making reconstruction an opportunity to build back be tter and
construct disaster -resilient structures and habitats (NDMA 2009).
Presently the Emergency Management and Research Institute (EMRI), a
non-profit professional organization, operating in the Public Private
Partnership mode, have brought out signific ant improvements in dealing
with emergency medical services. This is a free service delivered through
state-of-art emergency call response centres and has over 1,800
ambulances across Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttarakhand, Goa, Chennai,
Rajasthan, Karnataka , Assam and Meghalaya. EMRI handles medical,
police and disaster emergencies. More emphasis is put on medical help,
through the "1 -0-8 Emergency service".
Although India refused any foreign aid for response and relief after the
tsunami it has welcomed for eign institutional support for rehabilitation,
and reconstruction investment. India has reconstruction investment
projects with World Bank and the Asian Development Bank.
It may be clarified that the Government of India refused to receive the
financial as sistance for response and relief from the foreign governments.
However, the government did not prevent private organizations or
individuals from providing assistance through private channels.
The government also passed a comprehensive new environmental la w
called the Environmental Protection Act of 1986. The new law vastly
improved regulatory coverage of hazardous technologies and substances.
SUMMARY
After going through the chapter we may conclude that natural disasters are
very much part of the natural c ycles. It is somewhat obvious that public
perception plays an important role in natural disaster management.
Existing technologies are capable in providing important as well as new
information to the disaster managers that could save lives, reduce damage
to property, and lessen the environmental impacts of natural disasters. In
spite of all these there are innumerable shortcomings that inhibit optimal
decision -making for disaster management. Disasters are of three types,
natural disasters, man -made disaster s and technological disasters. Often
the best response to natural or man -made disasters can be effective
planning before tragedy strikes. Disaster management will be fruitful if the
managers themselves know what to do in a disaster and how to prepare for
one.
As a result of her unique geo -climatic conditions India has been
traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters such as floods, droughts, munotes.in

Page 21

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
21 cyclones, earthquakes and landslides. The loss in terms of private,
community and public assets has been astronomic al. It is the poor and the
under -privileged who are worst affected on account of disasters. Hence in
India disaster management occupies an important place in this country’s
policy. Furthermore, identification of hazards and assessment of risks
affecting th e state is a vital step in the process of reducing the impacts of
disasters.
1.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True false
a. A disaster is separated from an accident by its magnitude of need
and victims involved.
b. Man made refer to those disasters that are tr iggered by natural
phenomena such as earthquakes, cyclones, floods, etc.
c. Overgrazing or poor farming practices in the upper portions of a
watershed has increased flooding.
d. The catastrophic gas leak at the pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, in
1984 is an exa mple of man -made disaster
e. Communication plays a pivotal role in disaster reduction.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. A hazard is a situation where there is a threat to life, health,
environment or property where as, a ____________ is an event that
completely disrupts th e normal ways of a community.
b. Risk increases with increase in hazards and vulnerability and decreases
with the increase in_________.
c. Minimizing the effects of disaster such as building codes and zoning,
vulnerability analyses and public education is known as
_______________.
d. Disasters do not recognize or respect national
geographic_________________.
e. _________________ disasters are more economic than physical.
3. Multiple choice question
a. Man-made disasters can be divided into the following categories
i. environme ntal degradation, increased desertification resulting from
overgrazing, and disasters that are not caused by natural hazards but
that occur in human settlements.
ii. armed conflict, technological disasters, and disasters that are not
caused by natural hazards but that occur in human settlements. munotes.in

Page 22

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
22 iii. result of accidents or incidents occurring while distribution of
hazardous substances, armed conflict, environmental degradation.
b. Hazards are termed as disasters
i. when they cause widespread destruction of property and h uman lives.
ii. when they cause great loss to agricultural field only.
iii. when they cause great loss human lives after epidemic.
c. In disaster management phasepreparedness means
i. planning how to respond
ii. returning the community to normal.
iii. minimizing the effects of disaster.
d. India has brought some changes in disaster policy that include
i. the enactment of Disaster Management Act, 2010 and development of
the national disaster management response framework
ii. the enactment of Hazards Management Act, 2005 and development of
the national disaster management response framework
iii. the enactment of Disaster Management Act, 2005 and development of
the national disaster management response framework.
e. The two main windows presently open for meeting relief expenditure
related to natura l disasters are
i. Orissa State Disaster Management Authority (OSDMA) and the
Calamity Relief Fund (CRF)
ii. National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and National Disaster
Mitigation Resource Centre (NDMRC)
iii. the Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) and National Calamity Cont ingency
Fund (NCCF).
4. Answers the following Questions
1. Define disaster.
2. What are the differences between hazards, calamity and disaster -
3. What are the financial arrangements in Disaster management in India?
4. What is the Role of NGOs in disaster management in I ndia?
5. How does community based organizations help in disaster
management in India?
6. State the role of geography and GIS in disaster management.
7. What is disaster management cycle? munotes.in

Page 23

Meaning and concept of
Disaster and h azards
23 1.11 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1.a. true
1.b.false, Natural disas ters
1.c.true
1.d.false, Technological Disasters
1.e. true

2.a. disaster
2.b. capacity
2.c. mitigation
2.d. boundaries
2.e. Technological

3.a.ii.
3.b.i.
3.c.i.
3.d.iii.
3.e.iii.

1.12 TECHNICAL WORDS

1. Disaster -is an event that completely disrupts the n ormal ways of a
community and brings human, economic and environmental losses
upon the community.
2. Hazard -is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health,
property, or environment.
3. Calamity : a serious accident or bad event causing damage or suff ering
4. Vulnerability -is the diminished capacity of an individual or group to
anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural or
man-made hazard.
5. Capacity -is a combination of all the strengths and resources available
within a community , society or organization that can reduce the level
of risk, or the effects of a disaster
6. Emergency services -The set of specialized agencies that have specific
responsibilities and objectives in serving and protecting people and
property in emergency situa tions. munotes.in

Page 24

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
24 7. Environmental degradation -The reduction of the capacity of the
environment to meet social and ecological objectives and needs.
8. Risk : The combination of the probability of an event and its negative
consequences.
9. Mitigation : The lessening or limitatio n of the adverse impacts of
hazards and related disasters.
10. Forecast : Definite statement or statistical estimate of the likely
occurrence of a future event or conditions for a specific area.
1.13 TASK

1. In a chart draw Disaster management cycle and describe how it
functions
2. In a chart with the help of bullets write down the disaster management
policy framework prepared by National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA).
1.14 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India, Disaster Managem ent in
India
2. Module 4 - Capacity Building in Asia using Information Technology
Applications (CASITA)
3. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), Bangkok.
4. Encyclopedia of Disaster Management: Volume IV by Alfred Scott
5. Disaster Management: Future Challenges and Opportunities by Jagbir
Singh
6. Disaster Management by Harsh K. Gupta
7. Oxford dictionary





munotes.in

Page 25

25 2
ELEMENTS OF DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure :
2.1 Objectives

2.2 Introduction

2.3 Subject discussion
2.4 Disaster management - meaning and concept
2.5 Role of th e international organization for disaster management –
UNISDR, INSARAG, RED CROSS
2.6 Role of National organizations for Disaster management
2.7 Role of NGOs, and community in Disaster management.
2.8 Summary
2.9 Check your Progress/Exercise
2.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to –
 Understand the meaning and concept of disaster management.
 Role of the international organization for disaster management –
UNISDR, INSARAG, RED CROSS
 Role of National organizations for Disaster management
 Role of NGOs, and community in Disaster management .
2.2 INTRODUCTION
The main aim of learning about disast er management is to lessen the
impact of disasters around the world. The United Nations defines a
disaster as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a
society. It essentially deals with the management of resources and
information on disa strous events. Disaster management tries to coordinate
these resources effectively and seamlessly. The role of the Indian
government in the prevention and control of disasters is noticeable. munotes.in

Page 26

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
26 2.3. SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
Disaster management is a relatively new identifiable profession, where the
tasks of a disaster manager, is of a disaster relief assistant during and after
a disaster emergency. It is not necessarily a full -time activity. Indeed, for
most people in the field, their concerns for disaster issues fo rm only a part
of their total responsibilities. There has been a growing awareness in
recent years that all of these disaster management activities, in fact,
comprise the process of disaster management. But the role of people who
are involved in the field of disasters must be coherent and cohesive. This
includes the spectrum of activities from administration to project
implementation. Also Disaster prevention to disaster mitigation to disaster
preparedness to disaster response comes under this category. Dis aster
management would succeed only if there is elimination of the underlying
causes of disasters. This would again contribute to minimizing the
people’s vulnerability to disaster. Positive responses to emergencies will
make an enormous impact on the curre nt deadly state of disaster events.
Disaster managers will require several skills and technologies to achieve
their goal and must have vigorous training.
The term "disaster management" includes the complete field of disaster -
related activities. Generally, people have an intention to think of disaster
management in terms of the post -disaster actions taken by relief and
reconstruction officials. But it is observed that disaster management
covers a much broader scope where many modern disaster managers find
themselves far more involved in pre -disaster activities than in post -disaster
response.
2.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT - MEANING AND
CONCEPT
Definition:
Disaster management is a process of effectively preparing for and
responding to disasters. It involves strateg ically organizing resources
to lessen the harm that disasters cause. It also involves a systematic
approach to managing the responsibilities of disaster prevention,
preparedness, response, and recovery.
Concept and Meaning
A disaster is a consequence of a sudden disastrous event which seriously
disrupts the normal function of the society or the community to the extent
that it cannot subsist without outside help. A disaster is not just the
occurrence of an event such as an earthquake, flood, conflict, healt h
epidemic or an industrial accident; a disaster occurs if that event/process
negatively impacts human populations.Disasters combine two elements:
hazard, and the vulnerability of affected people. "A disaster occurs when a
hazard exposes the vulnerability of individuals and communities in such a
way that their lives are directly threatened or sufficient harm has munotes.in

Page 27

Elements of Disaster
Management
27 been done to their community economic and social structure to undermine
their ability to survive.A disaster can be defined as any tragic event
stem ming from events such as earthquakes, floods, catastrophic
accidents, or fires, or It is a phenomenon that disasters can cause dama ge
to lifdamagerty and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of
people.Disaster is the exposure of a group of people to a hazard, leading to
a serious disruption of the functioning of a society and causing human,
material, economic environmental l osses which exceed the ability of the
affected community or society to cope. A disaster results from a
combination of hazards and vulnerability that exceeds the capacity of
society to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk. Hazard is an
extreme event, natural or man -made , with a destructive potential to social,
economic and human assets. These may include future threats, a nd may
be“natural” (geological, hydro meteorol ogical andbiological) or“manmad ”
(Conflict, environmental degradation and techn ological hazards).Disasters
are often described as a result of the combination of: the exposure to a
hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient
capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative
consequences. Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease
and other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well -
being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of
services, social and economic disruption and environmen tal degradation.
A disaster is a calamitous, distressing, or ruinous effect of a disastrous
event which seriously affects or disrupts (or threatens to disrupt) the
critical functions of a community, society or system, for a period long
enough to significan tly harm it or cause its failure. It is beyond the
heapability of the local community to overcome it. The stricken
community needs extraordinary efforts to cope with it, often with outside
help or international aid. It is a situation resulting from an envi ronmental
phenomenon or armed conflict that produces stress, personal injury,
physical damage, and economic disruption of great magnitude.
2.5 ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT – UNISDR, INSARAG,
RED CROSS
UNISDR :United Nati ons Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 1989
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
Given the increasing concern about the impact of disasters, the UN
General Assembly declared 1990 -1999 the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction ( IDNDR). Initially, IDNDR was influenced
largely by scientific and technical interest groups. However, the broader
global awareness of the social and economic consequences of disasters
caused by natural hazards developed as the decade progressed.
1994 First World Conference on Disaster Reduction and the
Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World munotes.in

Page 28

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
28 The Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural
Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of Action
was adopted at the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction,
building on the mid -term review of the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction.
1999 International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)
The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) was launched 3
by the Economic and Social Council and endorsed by the General
Assembly as an international framework for responding to the challenge
presented to the international community by the increasing incidence and
scale of disasters. UNISDR was created as an inter -agency secretariat of
ISDR together with the Inter -Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction.
The UNISDR mandate was then expanded to serve as a focal point within
the United Nations System for the coordination of disaster reduction and
to ensure synergies among the disaster reduction activities of the UN
system and regional organizations and activities in socio -economic and
humanitarian fields. Further mandates are to promote public awareness
and commitment, to expand networks and partnerships, and to improve
knowledge of disaster causes and options for risk reduction, building on
the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action and as a follow -up to the
International Decade f or Natural Disaster Reduction.
2002 The Johannesburg Plan of Action
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in
Johan nesburg, South Africa, noted that “an integrated, multi -hazard,
inclusive approach to address vulnerability, risk assessment and disaster
management, including prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and
recovery, is an essential element of a safer world in the twenty - first
century.”4 The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation provided UNISDR
and the Inter -Agency Task Force with a concrete set of objectives for
integrating and mainstreaming risk reduction into development policies
and processes.
2005 Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction and the Hyogo
Framework for Action 2005 -2015
The World Conference on Disaster Reduction was held
in Kobe , Hyogo , Japan and adopted the “Hyogo Framework for Action
2005 -2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to
Disasters”, which is currently serving as the guiding doc ument in
strengthening and building international cooperation to ensure that disaster
risk reduction is used as a foundation for sound national and international
development agendas.
2007 First session of the Global Platform on Disaster Reduction
The UN Ge neral Assembly established a biennial Global Platform on
disaster risk reduction to support the implementation of the Hyogo
Framework for Action, allowing government representatives, NGOs, munotes.in

Page 29

Elements of Disaster
Management
29 scientists, practitioners, private sector, IFIs and UN organization s to share
experiences, identify remaining gaps, formulate strategic guidance and
advice for the implementation of the HFA. Six Regional Platforms and
over 80 National Platforms have also been established as multi -
stakeholder forums.5 Regional Platforms al so assess progress but focus on
the details of the regional plans of implementation and National Platforms
act as the national coordinating body for disaster risk reduction.
2011 Programme of Action for the Least Developed Countries for the
Decade 2011 -2020
The Istanbul Programme of Action (IPoA) charts out the international
community’s vision and strategy for the sustainable development of LDCs
for the next decade with a strong focus on developing their productive
capacities. The Programme recognized that the scale and impact of natural
disasters has increased over recent decades, threatening hard -won
development gains of LDCs. It encourages LCDs to take action in
implementing and integrating disaster risk reduction in their national and
long-term planning and policies.
2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development -
Rio+20
The outcome Document - The Future We Want – of the United Nations
Conference on Sustainable Development – Rio 20+ held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil on 20 –22 June 2012 contains a section (Chapter V -A) on disaster
risk reduction that sets a firm foundation for discussions on a pos t-2015
framework to continue guiding nations after the Hyogo Framework
expires in 2015.
2014 Third International Conference on Small Island Developing
States and the SIDS ACCELERATED MODALITIES OF ACTION
(S.A.M.O.A.) Pathway
The S.A.M.O.A. Pathway recogni ze that Small Island Developing States
continue to grapple with the effects of disasters, some of which have
increased in intensity and some of which have been exacerbated by
climate change, which impede their progress towards sustainable
development. It r ecognize that disasters can disproportionately affect
small island developing States and that there is a critical need to build
resilience, strengthen monitoring and prevention, reduce vulnerability,
raise awareness and increase preparedness to respond to and recover from
disasters.
2015 Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk
Reduction and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015 -2030
The Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk
Reduction was held in Sendai, Japan from 14 to 18 March 2015, drawing
6,500 delegates to the conference itself and 50,000 people to the
associated Public F orum.[19] The Conference adopted the Sendai munotes.in

Page 30

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
30 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015 -2030 (Sendai Framework)
as the first major agreement of t he Post-2015 Development Agenda , with
seven global targets and four priorities for action.
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015 -2030 is the
successor instrument to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005 -
2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters.
The HFA was conceived to give further impetus to the global work under
the International Framework for Action f or the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction of 1989, and the Yokohama Strategy for a
Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness
and Mitigation and its Plan of Action, adopted in 1994 and the
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction of 1999.
It is a 15 -year non -binding agreement which recognizes that the State has
the primary role to reduce disaster risk but that responsibility should be
shared with other stakeholders including local government, the private
sector and other stakeholders. It aims for the following outcome:
"The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods
and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and
environmental assets of persons, businesses, communiti es and countries."
2017 Fifth session of the Global Platform on Disaster Reduction
The 2017 Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, held in Cancun,
Mexico on 22 -26 May drew in more than 5000 participants, among which
were policy makers and disaster risk managers. Thousands of
governments, international organizations and civil society representatives
were in attendance. It was the first time the forum was organized
outside Geneva and the global progress in the implementation of the
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction adopted in Japan in 2015
was reviewed.During the forum, Nigerian climate change
activist, Olumide Idowu , who was a member of the organizing committee
and represented youth and children, was assigned to lead t he social media
team.
Mandate :
UNDRR’s mandate has been defined by a number of United Nations
General Assembly Resolutions, the most notable of which is “to serve as
the focal point in the United Nations system for the coordination of
disaster reduction a nd to ensure synergies among the disaster reduction
activities of the United Nations system and regional organizations and
activities in socio -economic and humanitarian fields”.
Its core areas of work include ensuring DRR is applied to climate change
adapt ation, increasing investments for DRR, building disaster -resilient
cities, schools and hospitals, and strengthening the international system for
DRR.
munotes.in

Page 31

Elements of Disaster
Management
31 Management :
UNDRR is led by the Special Representative of the Secretary -General for
Disaster Risk Reductio n. Mami Mizutori took up office in this role on 1
March 2018, succeeding Robert Glasser of Australia . Prior to this, the
organization was led by Margareta Wahlström of Sweden , who was the
first Special Repre sentative of the Secretary -General for Disaster Risk
Reduction and had been appointed in November 2008.Robert Glasser took
up his post in January 2016. From 1999 to 2008, UNDRR had been led by
a UN Director -level official, under the auspices of the United Nations
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs .
The functions of the Special Representative of the Secretary -General for
Disaster Risk Reduction include leading and overseeing UNDRR in the
executions of its functions entrusted by the United Nations General
Assembly , United Nations Economic and Social Council and the Hyogo
Framework for Action (HFA) and its successor the Sendai Framework, as
well as policy directions by the Secretary -General, overseeing the
management of the Trust Fund for the International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction, and carrying out high -level advocacy and resource
mobilization activities for risk reduction and implementation. The Special
Representative also ensures the strategic and operational coherence
between disaster -reduction and humanitarian disaster preparedness and
response activities, as well as socio -economic activities of the UN system
and regional organizations.
INSARG : INTERNATIONAL SEARCH AND RESCUE
ADVISORY GROUP
The International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) is a
network of disaster -prone and disaster -responding coun tries and
organizations dedicated to urban search and rescue (USAR) and
operational field coordination. It aims to establish standards and
classification for i nternational USAR teams as well as a methodology for
international response coordination in the aftermath of earthquakes and
collapsed structure disasters. The INSARAG Secretariat is located in
the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA)
Establishment:
INSARAG was established in 1991 following initiatives of international
USAR teams that responded to the 1988 Armenia earthquake and the 1985
Mexico City earthquake .[1] The United Nations was chosen as the
INSARAG Secretariat to facilitate interna tional participation and
coordination. INSARAG Secretariat is hosted in the Emergency Response
Section (ERS) of the Response Support Branch (RSB) (which was called
in the past "Field Coordination Support Section of the Emergency
Services Branch") of OCHA i n Geneva.
INSARAG activities are guided by UN General Assembly Resolution
57/150 of 16 December 2002 on "Strengthening the Effectiveness and munotes.in

Page 32

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
32 Coordination of International Urban Search and Rescue Assistance" and
by the INSARAG Hyogo Declaration adopted at the first INSARAG
Global Meeting in 2010 in Kobe, Japan.
The INSARAG Mandate entails the development of effective international
USAR procedures and operational standards, implementation of UN
General Assembly Resolution 57/150 of 22 December 2002 on
"Stren gthening the effectiveness and coordination of USAR assistance",
improving cooperation and coordination amongst international USAR
teams at disaster sites, promoting activities to improve USAR
preparedness in disaster -prone countries, development of standa rdized
guidelines and procedures, and sharing best practices amongst national
and international USAR teams and defining standards for minimum
requirements of international USAR teams.
Membership:
Any country or organization with a stake in urban search an d rescue may
join INSARAG. Countries that wish to join identify a national focal point
that acts as an interface with the INSARAG Regional Group and the
Secretariat. Organizations wishing to join apply to the Secretariat through
their national focal point. Member countries with USAR teams deploying
internationally are strongly encouraged to apply for an INSARAG
External Classification (IEC), however, this is not a requirement to be a
member of INSARAG.
INSARAG members are part of a worldwide knowledge -shari ng network
on collapsed structure rescue and operational field coordination. They are
invited to annual meetings of the relevant INSARAG Regional Group and
to participate in INSARAG working groups. The members are expected to
have access to the Virtual OSO CC (Virtual On -Site Operations
Coordination Centre) and the Global Disaster Alert and Coordination
System (GDACS) o n the internet, which provide alert notification in the
event of a sudden -onset disaster and real -time information updates and
coordination during ongoing disasters. The USAR Directory, managed by
the INSARAG Secretariat, provides an overview of INSARAG me mber
countries and their USAR teams.
RED CROSS:
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is a humanitarian
institution based in Geneva, Switzerland.
The mission of ICRC is to alleviate human suffering, uphold human
dignity, protect life and hea lth, especially during armed conflicts and other
emergencies. ICRC is present in every country and is supported by
millions of volunteers.
Latest context on International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) –
The Rastriya Raksha University (RRU) in Gujarat, an institution of
national importance in India and the International Committee of the Red
Cross (ICRC) Regional delegation in New Delhi on 10 December 2020 munotes.in

Page 33

Elements of Disaster
Management
33 virtually signed a Memorandum of Understanding on academics, research,
training, capacity building a nd extension activities.
The aim is to generate awareness, know -how and create a specialized
human resource for security, strategy, capacity building and R&D
expertise.
To leverage ICRC and RRU work together for addressing major issues
concerning security, defense and international humanitarian law. With its
mandate to protect the victims of International and Internal armed
conflicts, ICRC has been three -time Nobel Prize Laureates.
ICRC is a part of the International Red Cross and Red Cresent Movement
along with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Cresent
Society and 192 National Societies.
Overview of the International Committee of the Red Cross are as follows:
Formation 17 February 1863
Type Private humanitarian organization
Purpose Protecting victims of conflicts
Regions
Served Worldwide
President Peter Maurer
Vice President Gilles Carbonnier
Director -
General Robert Mardini
Staff 15,448 (average number of ICRC staff in
2016)
Origin and Development of International Committee of the
Red Cross (ICRC)
1. The International Committee of the Red Cross came into being in 1864
by the work of Jean -Henri Dunant, a Swiss humanitarian, who
organised emergency aid for the wounded soldiers of Austria and
France in the Battle of Solferino in 1859.
2. In his book UN Souvenir de Solferino (1862; “A Memory of
Solferino”), Dunant proposed voluntary relief societies in all countries.
3. The Geneva Convention of 1864 committed the signatory governments
to care for the wounded of war, whether enemy or friend. T his
Convention was revised and new conventions to protect victims of munotes.in

Page 34

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
34 warfare at sea (1907), prisoners of war (1929), and civilians in times of
war (1949) were adopted.
4. The Red Cross is the name used in the countries under Christian
sponsorship while Red Cr escent is used in the Muslim countries.
5. The ICRC is a private institution acting as a neutral and independent
intermediary in humanitarian matters during international conflicts and
other international disturbances. Its work is prompted by the desire to
promote humane conduct and is guided by empathy for the victims.
The ICRC remains detached from all political issues related to the
conflict.
Objectives of ICRC
1. The ICRC acts to help all victims of war and internal violence,
attempting to ensure implementa tion of humanitarian rules restricting
armed violence.
2. Its mission arises from the basic human desire to lay down a rule
governing the use of force in war and to safeguard the dignity of the
weak.
3. With a mandate from the international community to help vic tims of
war and internal violence and to promote compliance with
International humanitarian law, the ICRC strives for protecting and
assisting the victims of armed conflict and internal violence so as to
preserve their physical integrity and their dignity and to enable them to
regain their autonomy as quickly as possible.
Geneva Convention
[1864, 1906, 1929,
1949] Yemeni Civil War:
Background and
Humanitarian Crisis People’s Protection
Units (YPG)
Armed Forces &
Central Armed Police
Forces Armed Forces Special
Powers Act (AFSPA) Global Terror
Convention –
Protocols, Clauses
National Security
Doctrine | Internal Security and
Disaster Management Armed Forces
Tribunal (AFT)
India
Defence
Communication
Network Nagorno -Karabakh
Conflict India -China
Conflict – Galwan
Valley Clash
Civil War in Syria United Nations
Peacekeeping Conflicts in West
Asia munotes.in

Page 35

Elements of Disaster
Management
35 Structure of ICRC
1. The Red Cross consists of the International Committee, the League of
Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and the National Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies.
2. The In ternational Committee is an independent council of 25 Swiss
citizens.
3. During a war, the Committee acts as an intermediary among
belligerents and also among National Red Cross Societies.
4. It visits prisoners in war camps and provides relief supplies, mail an d
information for their relatives.
5. The League of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies help in providing
relief to victims of national disaster and aid in the development of
national societies.
Activities of International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC)
1. Being a humanitarian agency, the Red Cross has national affiliates in
almost every country in the world.
2. It was established primarily to care for the victims of war but now the
organisation is also involved in the task of aiding in the prevention and
relief of human suffering which includes first aid, accident prevention,
water safety, training of nurses’ aids and mothers’ assistants and
maintenance of maternal and child welfare centres and medical clinics,
blood banks and many other services.
3. The ICRC acts in consultation with all other organizations involved in
humanitarian work.
4. It systematically reminds all military and civilian authorities directly
involved in armed conflict or internal violence of their obligations
under international humanitarian law a nd the other humanitarian rules
by which they are bound.
5. The Committee acts as an intermediary between the parties to armed
conflict and promotes dialogue in situations of internal violence, with
a view to finding solutions for matters of humanitarian conc ern.
2.6 ROLE OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS FOR
DISASTERMANAGEMENT
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): The NDMA which
was initially established on 30 May 2005, was formally constituted on 27
September 2006, in accordance with Section 3(1) of the Dis aster
Management Act, 2005, under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister.
The NDMA is mandated to lay down policies and guidelines on effective
and timely disaster management for different Ministries, Departments of munotes.in

Page 36

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
36 Government of India and State Government s for the integration of risk
reduction measures into their development plans and projects. It also acts
as a coordinating and enforcing body for the implementation of disaster
management plans.
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), headed by the
Prime Minister of India, is the apex body for Disaster Management in
India. Setting up of NDMA and the creation of an enabling environment
for institutional mechanisms at the State and District levels is mandated by
the Disaster Management Act, 2005. N DMA is mandated to lay down the
policies, plans and guidelines for Disaster Management. India envisions
the development of an ethos of Prevention, Mitigation, Preparedness and
Response.
The Indian government strives to promote a national resolve to mitiga te
the damage and destruction caused by natural and man -made disasters,
through sustained and collective efforts of all Government agencies, Non -
Governmental Organizations and People’s participation. This is planned to
be accomplished by adopting a Technol ogy-Driven, Pro -Active, Multi -
Hazard and Multi -Sectoral strategy for building a Safer, Disaster Resilient
and Dynamic India.
The NDMA Logo reflects the aspirations of this National Vision, of
empowering all stakeholders to improve the effectiveness of Disa ster
Management in India. NDMA has 5 major divisions viz. Policy & Plans,
Mitigation , Operations & Communicat ions & Information & Technology ,
Administration and Finance.
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM): Under Section 42 of
the Disaster Ma nagement Act, 2005, NIDM was constituted to be the
premier institute for capacity building, training and development for
disaster management in India. The institute believes in a “Culture of
Prevention” outlook towards disaster risk reduction. Through a st rategic,
multi -stakeholder and multi -disciplinary approach, the institute develops
training modules, organizes training programs, undertakes research and
documentation and promotes courses, lectures and conferences on disaster
management and risk reduction .During the financial years 2019 -20 &
2020 -21, Grant -in-Aid General of Rs. 12.00 Crore each was released to
NIDM to meet their day to day expenditure on salary of staff, office
expenses, training prrogrammes, travel, publicity, publication, payment of
rent and other committed expenditure.
Directorate General of Fire Service, Civil Defence and Home Guards
(DG FS, CD & HG): The Directorate General of Civil Defence was
established under Ministry of Home Affairs in 1962 to handle all policy
and planning matters related to Civil Defence, Fire Services and Home
Guards, including the functioning of the National Fire Service College. An
IPS officer in the rank of Director General of Police heads the
organization.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF): The NDRF was constituted
under Section 44 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 for a specialized munotes.in

Page 37

Elements of Disaster
Management
37 response to natural and man -made disasters. At present, NDRF comprise
of 12 battalions, with each battalion consisting 1149 personnel. All the 12
battalions are located in Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and
Arunachal Pradesh. These battalions have been trained and equipped to
response to all man -made and natural disasters. It also looks after
functi oning of National College of Civil Defence.
National Fire Service College (NFSC): The National Fire Service
College located in Nagpur, was established in 1956 with the aim of
providing training to the Fire Officers of the country in advanced
techniques of firefighting and rescue, and creating uniformity in the Fire
Service organizations and their management across the country. It is a
residential college. The college awards various courses such as B. E (Fire
Engineering), Certificates, Diplomas and Advanced Diplomas , which are
recognized by the Central and State Governments and public & private
sectors. Infrastructure of the college is being upgraded to make it a world
class Fire Training Institute. After upgradation, annual intake of the
college will be mo re than 1400.
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure Society (CDRIS) -
Grantee Organisation:
The Government of India (on 28.08.2019) approved establishment of an
international Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI, as a
Society, a long with its supporting Secretariat office in New Delhi, at an
outlay of Rs. 480 crore (approx. USD 70 million) for a corpus required to
fund technical assistance and research projects on an ongoing basis over a
period of 5 years from 2019 -20 to 2023 -24.
The rime Minister announced CDRI at the United Nations Climate Action
Summit, in New York City on 23rd September 2019. Memorandum of
Association (MoA) and Bye -laws for establishing the Secretariat of CDRI
as ‘CDRI Society’ have been finalised. On 03.02.202 0, CDRI Society has
been registered.of India approved the fund provision through transfer of
fund as Grants in Aid from MHA to the CDRI Society on a non -lapsable
basis (for a period of five years from 201 -20 to 2023 -24). The Grants to
CDRI Society is to ex ecute CDRI Programmes through technical
assistance and research projects on an ongoing basis and also towards
covering recurring expenditure of Secretariat Operations and
Management.So far, fund provision of CDRI activities are routed through
NDMA. For thi s purpose, sanction order issued to NDMA from MHA’s
Budget Head 2245 “Relief on account of Natural Calamities”. Till now,
PAO NDMA is authorized to transfer following amount for CDRI: -
For FY 2018 -19 - Rs. 12,1660 Crore
For FY 2019 -20 - Rs. 20 Crore
For FY 2020 -21 - Rs. 15 Crore
munotes.in

Page 38

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
38 2.7 ROLE OF NGO S AND COMMUNITY IN DISASTER
MANAGEMENT.
The Role of NGOs in Disaster management The key role which
communities play in disaster management and disaster risk reduction is
strongly acknowledged by the ISDR secretariat, whose vision is to “enable
all communities to become resilient to the effects of natural hazards,
technological and environmental disasters.” Experiences show that
community based approaches offer viable solutions for managing and
reducing risks and ensur ing sustainable development. Today, an
increasingly predominant view is that for risk reduction strategies to be
truly effective in protecting lives and livelihoods, they need to be people
centered. They need to build on people’s local knowledge and cultur al
practices, and apply tools and approaches that people can easily
understand and integrate into their lives. Conversely, disaster reduction
using top -down government and institutional interventions alone are often
considered insufficient as they tend to have a lower understanding of
community dynamics, perceptions and needs, and ignore the potential of
local knowledge and capacities. On many occasions, local people and
organizations are the main actors in disaster risk reduction and disaster
response. Whe n a disaster strikes, immediate response (i.e., search and
rescue and care for those injured, traumatized and homeless) is often
carried out by family members, friends and neighbours and grassroots
organizations. In the case of the many small -scale events triggered by
natural hazards, there may be little or no external support at all, especially
in countries where government capacity is limited. Many members of
local communities also represent the greatest potential source of local
knowledge of hazardous co nditions, and are the repositories of traditional
coping mechanisms suited to their individual environment. Their
awareness of historical risk scenarios is often stronger than that of other
people. NGOs’ involvement in DRR activities has proved beneficial for a
number of reasons, including the following: NGOs can operate at
grassroots level with communities and local organizations as partners, and
take a participatory approach to development planning. This allows them
to respond better to local people’s pr iorities and build on local capacities.
NGOs enjoy higher operational flexibility as they are relatively free from
bureaucratic structures and systems, and better able to respond and adapt
quickly and easily. NGOs often work with and on behalf of most ne edy
groups: the poorest and the most vulnerable. 3 In spite of the encouraging
trend observed over the past decade, it should be noted that NGOs have
found it hard at times to gain acceptance, both at national and international
levels. They have sometimes been regarded as minor players, especially in
countries whose governments have been hesitant to concede authority and
resources to the civil society. As a matter of fact, some governments do
not always welcome the growth of civil society, and may sometimes resist
the expansion of its role, especially where this involves criticism of
government policies or practice. Finally, NGOs’ participation in high -level
decision -making processes so far has also been rather limited. This said,
some NGOs are gaining growi ng recognition in the ongoing process of
promoting DRR, and are becoming more actively involved in a number of munotes.in

Page 39

Elements of Disaster
Management
39 different activities. Over the past years, some NGOs have committed
themselves to advocate for policy changes. Others have been active in
mainstr eaming DRR into rehabilitation and recovery programmes. Many
others have engaged actively in capacity building, knowledge transfer and
public awareness in communities at risk. All these efforts have contributed
to reducing the vulnerability of those living in disaster -prone areas and
increasing their resilience through educational activities and capacity
building. Overall, the following broad areas of intervention have been
identified as being the ones in which NGOs appear to be more actively
involved: Pol icy and advocacy Knowledge and education Community -
based risk and vulnerability assessment Community -based mitigation and
preparedness Major Initiatives Taken & Progress Made by NGOs Policy
& Advocacy A number of NGOs have been very active in advocating for
better DRR policies and practices at the international level. Some played a
key role in lobbying at the January 2005 World Conference on Disaster
Reduction in Kobe, Japan, as well as in the follow -up of and
implementation mechanisms for the Conference ’s outcomes. As a result of
these efforts, there is certainly an increased recognition today of the need
to mainstream DRR into development planning. Meanwhile, a lot of work
still needs to be done to identify how such a mainstreaming can be
achieved in pr actical terms. Some organizations have gone further,
developing basic targets and indicators to help integrate and expand DRR
initiatives into relief management and development planning (see case
study below). Despite a general advancement in this area, it should be
noted that the most active organizations working on the policy and
advocacy fronts do not always seem to be involved in the implementation
of the projects and initiatives they advocate. The general impression is that
a significant number of the initiatives carried out at the community level
are implemented by national NGOs and regional and sub -regional
organizations. In spite of the added value they bring, such initiatives are
less visible 4 and less documented than the ones promoted at the
international level. Further investigation and more concerted action would
be required to understand better the nature of this gap, and break the
existing barriers. South -North cooperation also seems to be lacking in this,
as in other areas.
ROLE OF COMMUN ITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS:
Disaster Management means a planned and systematic approach towards
understanding and solving problems in the wake of disasters involving the
systematic observation and analysis of measures relating to disaster
prevention, mitigati on, preparedness, emergency response, rehabilitation
and reconstruction. In other words, disaster management is a function of
community preparedness. A natural hazard can transform into a natural
disaster depending on its impact on society in terms of loss of life and
property. To enhance community preparedness, a proper safety plan is
very much is essential. The community preparedness plan involves all pre -
disaster planning to reduce the loss as a result of natural disaster. It is
basically a synthesis of various specific plans to solve a common purpose. munotes.in

Page 40

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
40 Community is the first responder in any disaster situation. So, there is a
great need for community level initiatives in managing disasters. As a
result initiatives taken by various agencies, including the state, need to be
people -centric. Moreover, the level of community participation should be
gauged through the role played by the community in the process of
planning and decision -making.
The local economies must be strengthening, so that people become
independent of external assistance. The voluntary sector has been in the
forefront of mobilizing communities, enabling them to cope with disasters
in the past decades. Their initiatives and experiences have been
consolidated and demonstrated on a larger scale with the help of the state.
Development organizations working in communities share a good rapport
with the community. This has again helped the state in implementing its
plans more effectively; village level plans prepared after the Super
Cyclone in Oriss a could be seen as an example of the same.
The global experience of the development community has demonstrated
that Community -based Disaster Risk Reduction (CBDRR) efforts
approached from a social and behaviour change perspective ensure that the
poorest, m ost vulnerable and marginalised communities understand the
simple and practical actions required to protect lives and personal assets in
case of natural disasters. Perhaps the major lesson learnt is that CBDRR
can change the mindset of both communities and other stakeholders.
Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM )
Community based disaster management, is the only proven method of
disaster management; and it is hoped that India would be world leader in
disaster management. It is a process wher e the risk communities, the first
responders, are actively engaged in the identification, analysis, treatment,
monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their
vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities. Due to the severity and
widesp read nature of natural disasters in India, the need for the
institutionalization of CBDRM in government policy making and
programmes has been considered as of significant value to the nation.
Best example of Community based disaster management was seen in
Maharashtra when it was plagued by unprecedented floods causing havoc
in Mumbai, Pune and other districts resulting in tremendous loss to human
life, public and private property. The development sector responded to the
needs of impacted through a process of relief, rehabilitation and livelihood
restoration. There is a huge reservoir of knowledge and expertise in
development sector in the world.
The most prominent disaster managers are the personnel in governmental
disaster preparedness agencies, national e mergency or relief agencies,
national reconstruction agencies, and emergency service agencies,
departments or ministries. All require disaster management specialists.
Municipal or provincial governments often have disaster managers. A
large city has a dire ctor of emergency services. It also has persons in
public health departments, police departments, or public works munotes.in

Page 41

Elements of Disaster
Management
41 departments. They may be assigned additional responsibilities in
emergency management.
Intergovernmental organizations often have specialized disaster or
emergency management agencies. Such as, the United Nations Disaster
Relief Office (UNDRO) provides a wide variety of emergency
management services to member governments. The United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the United Nations Relief and
Works Agency (UNRWA) provide specialized assistance to refugees.
Even within the non disaster agencies of the United Nations, there are
often special emergency management offices like UNICEF, which has an
Emergency Unit; the World Health Organization, which has a Director of
Emergency Relief Operations; and the Pan American Health Organization
(a regional office of WHO), which has an Emergency Preparedness and
Disaster Relief Coordination office that focuses specifically on the
Americas. The World Food Program also has a special Office for
Emergency Relief.
Many nongovernmental organizations, like National Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies, the League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,
and the International Committee of the Red C ross, are specifically
organized to provide emergency services. They function both at the local
level and at the international level. There are also millions of other private
relief organizations throughout the world. These are organized to provide
special ized assistance to disaster victims.
2.8 SUMMARY
After going through the chapter, we may conclude that natural disaster
management is very important to human life. We have already learnt
different international and national origination of disaster manageme nt. all
those originations played important role in disaster management. Some of
NGOs are also take initiatives to prevent to disaster in national and local
are disaster also.
2.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE

1. Answers the following Questions
1. Define disast er.
2. What are the differences between hazards, calamity and disaster -?
3. What are the financial arrangements in Disaster management in India?
4. What is the Role of NGOs in disaster management in India?
5. How does community -based organizations help in disaster
management in India?
 munotes.in

Page 42

42 3
DISASTER MANAGEMENT: METHODS &
APPROACHES
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure :
3.1 Objectives

3.2 Introduction

3.3 Subject discussion
3.4 Disaster management: Historical Perspective
3.5 Disaster management: Pre -Disasterstage of management
3.6 Disaster management: Post Disaster stage of management
3.7 Summary
3.8 Answers to the self -learning questions

3.9 Technical words and their meaning

3.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you w ill be able to –
 Understand the Disaster management: Historical Perspective
 Know the Pre -Disasterstage of management
 Know the Post Disaster stage of management
3.2 INTRODUCTION
The concept of Disaster Management (DM) has changed throughout
history. Identi fying changes and related factors can be effective in
adopting logical, scientific and evidence -based approaches in the future.
Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of depicting the process
of changes in the concept of DM and creating an origin al perspective. In
this narrative literature review study, we used a historical approach.
Literature, regardless of the time of publication, was searched using
divergent keywords including "disaster, health, emergency, management,
risk, disaster medicine, and hazard." DM evolution started with the
emergence of civil defence during the last century. Although DRM was munotes.in

Page 43

Disaster Management: Methods & Approaches
43 initially focused on responses, currently, this concept includes disaster risk
reduction (DRR) and disaster management. DRR includes prevention and
mitigation, and disaster management includes response and recovery
measures. DRR considering underlying risk factors such as social factors,
and focusing on the participation of communities are important steps to be
taken.
Disasters are not merely orna mental or interesting events that adorn our
collective historical record — these disruptions have served to guide and
shape it. Entire civilizations have been decimated in an instant. Time and
time again, epidemics and pandemics have resulted in sizeable re ductions
of the world’s population —as much as 50% across Europe during the14th -
centuryy bubonic plague (“Black Plague”) pandemic. Theorists have even
ventured to suggest that many of history’s great civilizations, including the
Mayans, the Norse, the Minoa ns, and the Old Egyptian Empire, were
ultimately brought to their knees not by their enemies but by the effects of
floods, famines, earthquakes, tsunamis, El Niño events, and other
widespread disasters (Fagan, 1999). From our modernperspective, the
consequ ences of the December 2004 tsunami events that struck throughout
Asia seem almost inconceivable —over 300,000 people killed in a moment
by a devastating wall of water —but this is not close to record -breaking, or
even unique, in the greater historical contex t.
3.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT : HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE
ANCIENT HISTORY
Hazard, and the disasters that often result have not always existed. To
qualify as a hazard, an action, event, or object must maintain a positive
likelihood of affecting man, or possibly h ave a consequence that may
adversely affect man’s existence. Until humans existed on the planet,
neither the likelihood nor the consequence factors of hazards were
calculable, and thus their presence is negated. With the appearance of
man, however, followe d the incidence of hazards and disasters.
Archeological discovery has shown that our prehistoric ancestors faced
many of the same risks that exist today: starvation, inhospitable elements,
dangerous wildlife, violence at the hands of other humans, disease,
accidental injuries, and more. These early inhabitants did not, however, sit
idly by and let themselves become easy victims. Evidence indicates that
they took measures to reduce, or mitigate, their risks. The mere fact that
they chose to inhabit caves is testament to this theory. Various
applications of disaster management appear throughout the historical
record. The story of Noah’s Ark from the Old Testament, for example, is a
lesson in the importance of warning, preparedness, and mitigation. In this
tale, believed to be based at least partly upon actual events, Noah is
warned of an approaching flood. He and his family prepare for the
impending disaster by constructing a floating ark. The protagonist in this
story even attempts to mitigate the impact on th e planet’s biodiversity by
collecting two of each species and placing them within the safety of the munotes.in

Page 44

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
44 ark. These individuals are rewarded for their actions in that they survive
the disastrous flood. Those who did not perform similar actions, the story
tells us, perish. Evidence of risk management practices can be found as
early as 3200 BC. In what is now modernday Iraq lived a social group
known as the Asipu. When community members faced a difficult decision,
especially one involving risk or danger, they coul d appeal to the Asipu for
advice. The Asipu, using a process similar to modern -day hazards risk
management, would first analyze the problem at hand, then propose
several alternatives, and finally give possible outcomes for each
alternative (Covello and Mum power, 1985). Today, this methodology is
referred to as decision analysis, and it is key to any comprehensive risk
management endeavor. Early history is also marked by incidents of
organized emergency response. For example, when in AD 79 the volcano
Vesuvi us began erupting, two towns in its shadow —Herculaneum and
Pompeii —faced an impending catastrophe. But although Herculaneum,
which was at the foot of the volcano and therefore directly in the path of
its lava flow, was buried almost immediately, the majori ty of Pompeii’s
population 2 Introduction to International Disaster ManagementSelected
Notable Disasters throughout History Disaster Year Number killed
Mediterranean earthquake (Egypt 1201 1,100,000 and Syria) Shaanzi
earthquake (China) 1556 830,000 Calcut ta typhoon (India) 1737 300,000
Caribbean hurricane (Martinique, 1780 22,000 St. Eustatius, Barbados)
Tamboro volcano (Indonesia) 1815 80,000 Influenza epidemic (world)
1917 20,000,000 Yangtze River flood (China) 1931 3,000,000 Famine
(Russia) 1932 5,000,0 00 Bangladesh cyclone (Bangladesh) 1970 300,000
Tangshan earthquake (China) 1976 655,000 Source: St. Louis University,
1997; NBC News, 2004. survived. This was because the citizens of
Pompeii had several hours before the volcano covered their city in ash,
and evidence suggests that the city’s leaders organized a mass evacuation.
The few who refused to leave suffered the ultimate consequence, and
today lie as stone impressions in an Italian museum.
MODERN ROOTS
All-hazards disaster and emergency management, wherein a
comprehensive approach is applied in order to address most or all of a
community’s hazard risks is relatively new. However, many of the
concepts that guide today’s practice can be traced to the achievements of
past civilizations. While the manag ement of disasters during the last few
thousand years was limited to single acts or programs addressing
individual hazards, many of these accomplishments were quite organized,
comprehensive, and surprisingly effective at reducing both human
suffering and d amage to the built environment. Some examples follow.
Floods have always confounded human settlements.
Howeverarchaeologiststs have found evidence in several distinct and
unrelated locations that early civilizations made attempts to formally
address the fl ood hazard. One of the most celebrated of these attempts
occurred in Egypt during the reign of Amenemhet III (1817 –1722 BC).
Amenemhet III created what has been described as history’s first
substantial river control project. Using a system of over 200 “wat er
wheels,” some of which remain to this day, the pharaoh effectively munotes.in

Page 45

Disaster Management: Methods & Approaches
45 diverted the annual floodwaters of the Nile River into Lake Moeris. In
doing so, the Egyptians were able to reclaim over 153,000 acres of fertile
land that otherwise would have been usel ess (Quarantelli, 1995; Egyptian
State Information Service, n.d.) The roots of the modern fire department
trace back 2000 years, to when the city of Rome was nearly destroyed by
fire. Before this event, slaves had been tasked with fighting fires, and their
poor training, lack of equipment, and understandable lack of motivation
made them highly ineffective. Following the great fire, Emperor Augustus
established a formal, citywide firefighting unit from within the Roman
army, called the Corps of Vigiles. As a result, the firefighting profession
became highly respected and, likewise, highly effective, and was emulated
throughout the vast Roman Empire for 500 years. The structure of this
organization was quite similar to many fire departments today, with
members fulfilling job -specific roles. With the fall of Rome, however,
came the disappearance of the Corps of Vigiles, and organized firefighting
did not appear anywhere in the world for another thousand years. The
Incas, who lived throughout the Andes mountains in South America
during the 13th to 15th centuries, practised a form of urban planning that
focused on their need to defend themselves from enemy attacks. Many of
the Incan cities were located at the peaks of rugged, though easily
defensible, mountains. Th e prime example of their architectural
achievement is the fortress of Machu Picchu. However, in locating their
cities upon mountaintops and other, similar areas, the Incas merely
replaced one man -made hazard with a whole range of environmental
hazards. To facilitate life on this extreme terrain, the Incas developed an
innovative form of land terracing that not only conserved water in their
unpredictable climate but also protected their crops —and thus their
existence —from the landslides that occurred during periods of heavy
precipitation.
THE INTERNATIONAL DECADE FOR NATURAL DISASTER
REDUCTION
On December 11, 1987, the United Nations General Assembly declared
the 1990s as the “International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction”
(IDNDR). This action was take n to promote internationally coordinated
efforts to reduce material losses and social and economic disruption
caused by natural disasters, especially in developing countries. The stated
mission of the IDNDR was to improve each United Nations (UN) member
country’s capacity to prevent or diminish adverse effects from natural
disasters and to establish guidelines for applying existing science and
technology to reduce the impact of natural disasters. On December 22,
1989, through UN Resolution 44/236, the Gener al Assembly set forth the
goals they wished to achieve during the IDNDR. In addition to
establishing a special UN office in Geneva to coordinate the activities of
the IDNDR, the resolution called upon the various UN agencies to:
1) Improve each country’s capa city to mitigate the effects of natural
disasters expeditiously and effectively, paying special attention to
assisting developing countries in the assessment of disaster damage munotes.in

Page 46

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
46 potential and in the establishment of early warning systems and
disaster -resist ant structures when and where needed;
2) Devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying existing
scientific and technical knowledge, taking into account the cultural and
economic diversity among nations;
3) Foster scientific and engineerendeavoursvo rs aimed at closing critical
gaps in knowledge in order to reduce loss of life and property;
4) Disseminate existing and new technical information related to
measures for the assessment, prediction, and mitigation of natural
disasters;
5) Develop measures for t he assessment, prediction, prevention, and
mitigation of natural disasters through programs of technical assistance
and technology transfer, demonstration projects, and education and
training, tailored. The Management of Disasters 5 disasters and
locations , and to evaluate the effectiveness of those programs (United
Nations, 1989). It was expected that all participating governments
would, at the national level:
1) Formulate national disaster -mitigation programs, as well as economic,
land use, and insurance po licies for disaster prevention, and
particularly in developing countries, integrate them fully into their
national development programs;
2) Participate during the IDNDR in concerted international action for the
reduction of natural disasters and, as appropri ate, establish national
committees in cooperation with the relevant scientific and
technological communities and other concerned sectors with a view to
attaining the objective and goals of the decade;
3) Encourage their local administrations to take appropri ate steps to
mobilize the necessary support from the public and private sectors and
to contribute to achieving the purposes of the decade;
4) Keep the Secretary -General informed of their countries’ plans and of
assistance that could be provided so that the U N could become an
international center for the exchange of information and the
coordination of international efforts concerning activities in support of
the objective and goals of the decade, thus enabling each state to
benefit from other countries’ experi ence;
5) Take measures, as appropriate, to increase public awareness of damage
risk probabilities and the significance of preparedness, prevention,
relief, and short -term recovery activities with respect to natural
disasters and to enhance community prepared ness through education,
training, and other means, taking into account the specific role of the
news media;
6) Pay due attention to the impact of natural disasters on healthcare,
particularly to activities to mitigate the vulnerability of hospitals and munotes.in

Page 47

Disaster Management: Methods & Approaches
47 healt hcare centers, as well as the impact on food storage facilities,
human shelter, and other social and economic infrastructure;
7) Improve the early international availability of appropriate emergency
supplies through the storage or earmarking of such supplies in disaster -
prone areas (United Nations, 1989)
3.5. DISASTER MANAGEMENT : PRE -DISASTER
STAGE OF MANAGEMENT
As per Disaster Management Act, 2005, “disaster management” means a
continuous and integrated process of planning, organising, coordinating
and impl ementing measures which are necessary or expedient for:
(i) Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster;
(ii) Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or
consequences;
(iii) Capacity -building;
(iv) Preparedness to deal with any disaster;
(v) Prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
(vi) Assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster;
evacuation, rescue and relief;
(vii) Rehabilitation and reconstruction; Disaster Management can be
defined as the organization and mana gement of resources and
responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of
emergencies, in particular r preparedness,response and recovery in
order to lessen the impact of disasters.
(viii) Disaster management includes administrative decisions and
operational activities that involve
 Prevention
 Mitigation
 Preparedness
 Response
 Recovery
 Rehabilitation Disaster management inv olves all levels of government.
Nongovecommunity -based community -based organizations play a
vital role in the process. Modern disast er management goes beyond
post-disaster assistance. It now includes pre -disaster planning and
preparedness activities, organizational planning, training, information
management, public relations and many other fields. Crisis
management is important but is only a part of the responsibility of a munotes.in

Page 48

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
48 disaster manager. The newer paradigm is the Total Risk Management
(TRM) which takes a holistic approach to risk reduction.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
Disaster Risk Management includes each and every activities,
program mes and measures which can be taken up before, during and after
a disaster with the purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover
from its losses. The three key stages of activities that are taken up within
disaster risk management are as follo ws. (See Figure)

Fig: Disaster management cycle

1. Before a disaster (pre -disaster ).
Pre-disaster activities are those which have been taken to reduce human
and property losses caused by a potential hazard. Such as carrying out
awareness campaigns, stren gthening the existing weak structures,
preparation of the disaster management plans at household and community
level, etc. Such risk reduction measures taken under this stage are termed
as mitigation and preparedness activities.

2. During a disaster (disaste r occurrence).
These include initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions of
victims are met and suffering is minimized. Activities taken under this
stage are called emergency response activities. munotes.in

Page 49

Disaster Management: Methods & Approaches
49 3. After a disaster (post -disaster ).
There ar e initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to
achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected communities,
immediately after a disaster strikes. These are called as response and
recovery activities.
The Disaster risk management cyc le diagram (DRMC) enhances the
range of initiatives which generally occur during the Emergency response
as well as in the Recovery stages of a disaster. Some of these cut across
both stages (such things as coordination and the provision of ongoing
assistan ce); whilst other activities are unique to each stage (e.g. Early
Warning and Evacuation during Emergency Response; and Reconstruction
and Economic and 48 Social Recovery as part of Recovery). The DRMC
also highlights the role of the media, where there is a strong relationship
between this and funding opportunities. This diagram works best for
relatively sudden -onset disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, bushfires,
tsunamis, cyclones etc, but is less reflective of slow -onset disasters, such
as drought, wh ere there is no obviously recognizable single event which
triggers the movement into the Emergency Response stage. According to
Warfield (2008) disaster management aims to reduce, or avoid the
potential losses from hazards, assure prompt and appropriate as sistance to
victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and effective recovery.
The disaster management cycle illustrates the ongoing process by which
governments, businesses, and civil society plan for and reduce the impact
of disasters, react during and imme diately following a disaster, and take
steps to recover after a disaster has occurred. Appropriate actions at all
points in the cycle lead to greater preparedness, better warnings, reduced
vulnerability or the prevention of disasters during the next iterat ion of the
cycle. The complete disaster management cycle includes the shaping of
public policies and plans that either modify the causes of disasters or
mitigate their effects on people, property, and infrastructure. The
mitigation and preparedness phases occur as disaster management
improvements are made in anticipation of a disaster event. Developmental
considerations play a key role in contributing to the mitigation and
preparation of a community to effectively confront a disaster. As a disaster
occurs, disaster management actors, in particular humanitarian
organizations become involved in the immediate response and long -term
recovery phases.

Pre – Disaster stage:
1. Prevention and Mitigation
Reducing the risk of disasters involves activities, which eith er reduce or
modify the scale and intensity of the threat faced or by improving the
conditions of elements at risk. Although the term „prevention is often
used to embrace the wide diversity of measures to protect persons and
property its use is not recommended since it is misleading in its implicit
suggestion that natural disasters are preventable. The use of the term
reduction to describe protect ive or preventive actions that lessen the scale munotes.in

Page 50

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
50 of impact is therefore preferred. Mitigation embraces all measures taken to
reduce both the effects of the hazard itself and the vulnerable conditions to
it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. In addition to these
physical measures, mitigation should also be aimed at reducing the
physical, economic and social vulnerability to threats and the underlying
causes for this vulnerability. Therefore, mitigation may incorporate
addressing issues such as land ownership, tenancy rights, wealth
distribution, implementation of earthquake -resistant building codes, etc.

2. Preparedness
This brings us to the all -important issue of disaster preparedness. The
process embraces measures that enables governments, com munities and
individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them
effectively. Preparedness includes for example, the formulation of viable
emergency plans, the development of warning systems, the maintenance
of inventories, public aware ness and education and the training of
personnel. It may also embrace search and rescue measures as well as
evacuation plans for areas that may be „at risk from a recurring disaster.
All preparedness planning needs to be supported by appropriate rules and
regulations with clear allocation of responsibilities and budgetary
provision.

3. Early Warning
This is the process of monitoring the situation in communities or areas
known to be vulnerable to slow onset hazards, and passing the knowledge
of the pending hazard to people in harm s way. To be effective, warnings
must be related to mass education and training of the population who
know what actions they must take when warned.

4. The Disaster Impact
This refers to the “real -time event of a hazard occurring and affecting
elements at risk. The duration of the event will depend on the type of
threat; ground shaking may only occur in a matter of seconds during an
earthquake while flooding may take place over a longer sustained period.

3.6 THE POST -DISASTER STAGE

1. Recovery:
Recovery is used to describe the activities that encompass the three
overlapping phases of emergency relief, rehabilitation and
reconstruction.

2. Rehabilitation:
Rehabilitation includes the provision of temporary public utilities and
housing as interim measures to assist long -term recovery. munotes.in

Page 51

Disaster Management: Methods & Approaches
51
3. Reconstruction: Reconstruction attempts to return communities to
improved pre -disaster functioning. It includes such as the replacement
of buildings; infrastructure and lifeline facilities so that long -term
development prospect s are enhanced rather than reproducing the same
conditions, which made an area or population vulnerable in the first
place.
4. Development:
In an evolving economy, the development process is an ongoing
activity. Long -term prevention/disaster reduction measu res examples
like construction of embankments against flooding, irrigation facilities
draughtproofing measures, increasing plant cover to reduce the
occurrences of landslides, land use planning, construction of houses
capable of withstanding the onslaught of heavy rain/wind speed and
shocks of earthquakes are some of the activities that can be taken up as
part of the development plan.

3.7. SUMMARY

As you know we have learnt the term disaster management sodisaster
management is important to avoid the maximum loss in a disaster.
Humans can use Different approaches to the prevention of disaster. We
use modern methods for habitation for affected areas by the disaster. We
can take the help disaster management cycle too.

3.8. ANS WERS TO THE SELF -LEARNING QUESTIONS

1. Explain the terms of disaster management?
2. What is the disaster management cycle?
3. Briefly explain the pre -disaster management stage?
4. Briefly explain the post -disaster management stage?
3.9. TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR M EANING

1. Risk : The combination of the probability of an event and its negative
consequences.
2. Mitigation : The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of
hazards and related disasters.
3. Forecast : Definite statement or statistical estimate of the likely
occurrence of a future event or conditions for a specific area.

munotes.in

Page 52

52 4
NATURAL DISASTERS AND THEIR
MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure :
4.1 Objectives

4.2 Introduction

4.3 Subject discussion
4.4 Earthquake and Tsunami – cause, Effect, management
4.5 Flood – Distribution causes, Effect, Management
4.6 Cyclone - Distribution causes, Effect, Management
4.7 Famine - Distribution causes, effects, Management
4.7 Summary
4.8 Answers to the self -learning questions

4.9 Technical words and their meaning

4.10 Technical Words

4.11 Task

4.12 References For Further Study

4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to –
 Understand the Earthquake and Tsunami – cause, Effect, management
 Know the Flood – Distribution causes, Effect , Management
 Discuss the Cyclone - Distribution causes, Effect, Management
 Know the Famine - Distribution causes, effects, Management

munotes.in

Page 53

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
53 4.2 INTRODUCTION
In the last two chapters, we have studied disaster management and how it
tries to coordinate various resources effectively and seamlessly.
Furthermore, two natural disasters, flood and drought, their causes and
impact have also been studied. In this chapter, we are going to study
natural disasters’lifecycles, earthquakes, landslides, the geographical
distribution of natural disasters, causes and impact of natural disasters,
forecasting, warning & monitoring of natural disasters, and preparedness
and response of natural disasters.
4.3 SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
The term 'disaster' means 'bad star' in Latin. Disast er is a sudden disastrous
event that brings great damage, loss, destruction and devastation to life
and property, with no or very little prior knowledge. The damage caused
by the disaster is incalculable and varies with the geographical location,
climate a nd the type of the earth’s surface. This influences the mental,
socio -economic, political and cultural state of the affected area.
Disaster may be of two types natural and manmade. Floods, cyclones,
drought, and earthquakes are natural disasters as they ha ppen due to
changes in the natural conditions whereasnuclear holocausts, Fire
accidents are manmade disasters. A disaster completely disrupts normal
daily life.
The word cyclone refers to many different types of storms. An earthquake
is a trembling or a s haking movement of the ground and a landslide is the
movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope. Now, all these natural
disasters have a varied geographical distribution. If we know the cause and
impact of natural disasters it would have been easier fo r us to reduce
damage both in material terms and in terms of loss of human life.
NATURAL DISASTER
A natural disaster is a major adverse event that results from the natural
processes of the Earth. Natural disaster includes floods, hurricanes,
tornadoes, cyc lones, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other
geologic processes. It results in large -scale loss of life or damage to
property.
4.4 EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI – CAUSE, EFFECT,
MANAGEMENT
 Earthquake
An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's
crust that creates seismic waves. The seismicity, seismism or seismic
activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes
experienced over a period of time. Earthquakes are measured using
observations from sei smometers. munotes.in

Page 54

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
54 It is a sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great
destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic
action or sudden slip on a fault. The tectonic plates are always slowly
moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress
on the edge overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases
energy suddenly in the form seismic waves that travel through the earth's
crust and cause the shaking that we feel. The tectonic plate s in the earth’s
crust which are almost hundred kilometres in thickness get dislocated
because of seismic waves. An earthquake is a natural phenomenon. But
sometimes activities like oil drilling, coal mining, and construction of big
dams also add up to the seismic activity.
The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which earthquakes
larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire globe. The more
numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national
seismological observatories ar e measured mostly on the local magnitude
scale, also referred to as the Richter scale. So, earthquake intensity is
measured with the help of seismometers known as Richter scale . A
magnitude of 3 on Richter scale is indiscernible whereas a magnitude
higher than 7 usually causes damage and destruction. These two scales are
numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower
earthquakes are mostly almost imperceptible and magnitude 7 and over
potentially causes serious damage over large area s, depending on their
depth. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude
slightly over 9, although there is no limit to the possible magnitude. One
of the worst earthquakes to hit was a magnitude of over 9 in Japan in
2011, it was the largest Japanese earthquake since records began. Intensity
of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an
earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal.
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest thems elves by shaking and
sometimes displacement of the ground.
An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter.
The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.
The damage caused due to an earthquake depends on the location of the
epicentre of the earthquake. Major destruction occurs near the epicentre of
the earthquake because maximum intensity locates at the centre.
Sometimes because of earthquakes there may be volcanic eruptions and
landslides. When the epi center of a large earthquake is located offshore,
the seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami.
 Aftershocks
An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the
main shock. It occurs in the same region of the main sho ck but in a smaller
magnitude. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced fault
plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock. If an aftershock is larger
than the main shock, the aftershock is re -designated as the main shock and
the original main shock is re -designated as a foreshock.
munotes.in

Page 55

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
55  Earthquake swarms
Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific
area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes
followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact t hat no single earthquake in
the sequence is obviously the main shock; therefore none have notable
higher magnitudes than the other. An example of an earthquake swarm is
the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park.
 Earthquake storms
A series of earthqua kes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, where the
earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or
stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but
on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years,
and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones.
Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes
that struck the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th century and has
been inferred f or older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the
Middle East.

 Measuring and locating earthquakes
Earthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances,
because seismic waves travel through the whole Earth's interior. The
absolute magnitu de of a quake is conventionally reported by numbers on
the Moment magnitude scale (formerly Richter scale, magnitude 7 causing
serious damage over large areas), whereas the felt magnitude is reported
using the modified Mercalli intensity scale (intensity I I–XII).
Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel
through rock with different velocities:
• Longitudinal P -waves (shock - or pressure waves)
• Transverse S -waves (both body waves)
• Surface waves — (Rayleigh and Love waves)
Propagation velocity of the seismic waves ranges from approx. 3 km/s up
to 13 km/s, depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In the
Earth's interior the shock - or P waves travel much faster than the S waves
(approx. relation 1.7 : 1). The differ ences in travel time from the epicentre
to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image
both sources of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also the depth of
the hypocenter can be computed roughly. In solid rock P -waves travel at
about 6 to 7 km per second; the velocity increases within the deep mantle
to ~13 km/s. The velocity of S -waves ranges from 2 –3 km/s in light
sediments and 4 –5 km/s in the Earth's crust up to 7 km/s in the deep
mantle. As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earthquake arrive at
an observatory via the Earth's mantle. munotes.in

Page 56

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
56 Rule of thumb: On the average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake
is the number of seconds between the P and S wave times 8. Slight
deviations are caused by in homogeneities of subsurface structure. By
such analyses of seismograms the Earth's core was located in 1913 by
Beno Gutenberg. Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude
but also by the place where they occur. The world is divided into 754
Flinn -Engdahl region s (F-E regions), which are based on political and
geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are
divided into smaller F -E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger
F-E regions.
 Size and frequency
Almost 500,000 earthqua kes occur each year that can be detected with the
latest instruments. Among these, around 100,000 can be felt.
8.6.1 Geographical distribution of earthquakes
Minor earthquake prone areas on earth are Italy, Greece, New Zealand,
Turkey, Portugal, Pakistan, Iran, Indonesia, Peru, Chile, Guatemala,
Mexico, California and Alaska. Majority of earthquakes occur in the
course of 40,000 km long circum -Pacific seismic belt which is in the
shape of a horseshoe. Himalayan mountain plate is another zone where
massive earthquakes may occur. With rapid rise in population in countries
like Japan, Mexico and Tehran, because of their presence in seismic zones,
major earthquakes may occur. If we list out the top 10 earthquake prone
countries, it goes like:
1. Japan
2. Indone sia
3. United States of America
4. New Zealand
5. Fiji
6. Tonga
7. Chile
8. Papua New Guinea
9. Mexico
10. Solomon Islands
 Causes and impact of earthquakes
 Causes
Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by
other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear
tests. munotes.in

Page 57

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
57
 Naturally occurring earthquakes
Earth’s tectonic plates are marked by faults or fractures. Earthquakes are
usually caused when underground rock suddenly breaks along a fault.
When the tecto nic plates slide past each other or have a collision with each
other, an earthquake occurs. This sudden release of energy causes the
seismic waves that make the ground shake. When two blocks of rock or
two plates are rubbing against each other, they stick a little but don't just
slide smoothly; the rocks catch on each other. The rocks still push against
each other, but do not move. After a while, the rocks break because of all
the pressure that's built up. When the rocks break, earthquake occurs.
During and after the earthquake, the plates or blocks of rock start moving,
and they continue to move until they get stuck again.
i. Tectonic earthquakes
Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient
stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault
plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically
only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the fault surface that
increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have suc h
asperities and this leads to a form of stick -slip behaviour. Once the fault
has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to
increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around
the fault surface. This continues unt il the stress has risen sufficiently to
break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked
portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as
a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional h eating of
the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake.
This process of gradual build -up of strain and stress punctuated by
occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic -rebound
theory. It is estimated that o nly 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total
energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is
used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat
generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available
elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are
negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out
from the Earth's deep interior.
ii. Earthquake fault types
There are three main types of fault that may cause an earthquake: normal,
reverse (thrust) and strike -slip.
Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended
such as a divergent boundary. Earthquakes associated with normal faults
are generally less than magnitude 7. This is so b ecause the energy released
in an earthquake, and thus its magnitude, is proportional to the area of the
fault that ruptures and the stress drop. munotes.in

Page 58

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
58 Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at
a convergent boundary. Reverse faul ts, particularly those along convergent
plate boundaries are associated with the most powerful earthquakes,
including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more.
Strike -slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip
horizontally pas t each other. Many earthquakes are caused by movement
on faults that have components of both dip -slip and strike -slip; this is
known as oblique slip. Strike -slip faults, particularly continental
transforms can produce major earthquakes up to about magnitud e 8.
The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake
magnitude on a fault is however not the maximum available length, but
the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20.
iii. Earthquakes away from plate boundaries
Where plate boundaries occur within continental lithosphere, deformation
is spread out over a much larger area than the plate boundary itself. In the
case of the San Andreas fault continental transform, many earthquakes
occur away from the plate boundary and are relat ed to strains developed
within the broader zone of deformation caused by major irregularities in
the fault trace (e.g., the "Big bend" region). Another example is the
strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between the Arabian and
Eurasian plates where it runs through the north -western part of the Zagros
Mountains. This is demonstrated by earthquake focal mechanisms. All
tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with
neighbouring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e.g.
deglaciation) these stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along
existing fault planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes.
iv. Shallow -focus and deep -focus earthquakes
The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in depths
not exceeding tens of kilometres. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less
than 70 km are classified as 'shallow -focus' earthquakes, while those with
a focal -depth between 70 and 300 km are commonly termed 'mid -focus' or
'intermediate -depth' earthquakes. Deep -focus earthquakes occur at a depth
where the subducted lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the
high temperature and pressure.
v. Earthquakes and volcanic activity
Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions. These are caused both by
tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes. Such
earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, as during
the Mount St. Helens eruption of 1980. Earthquake swarms can serve as
markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout t he volcanoes.
These swarms can be recorded by seismometers and tiltmeters (a device
that measures ground slope) and used as sensors to predict imminent or
upcoming eruptions. munotes.in

Page 59

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
59

vi. Rupture dynamics
A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault
surface, a process known as nucleation. The scale of the nucleation zone is
uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture dimensions of the
smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it is smaller than 100 m while other
evidence, such as a sl ow component revealed by low -frequency spectra of
some earthquakes, suggests that it is larger. The possibility that the
nucleation involves some sort of preparation process is supported by the
observation that about 40% of earthquakes are preceded by fore shocks.
Once the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate along the fault
surface. The mechanics of this process are poorly understood, partly
because it is difficult to recreate the high sliding velocities in a laboratory.
vii. Tidal forces
Research work has shown a robust correlation between small tidally
induced forces and non -volcanic tremor activity.
viii. Earthquake clusters
Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of
location and time. Most earthquake clusters consist of sm all tremors that
cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur
in a regular pattern.
ix. Human induced seismic activity
With the development and enhancement in technology, man has exploited
the wealth of the nature. Human activiti es that lead to earthquakes are
drilling for oil wells, coal mining, and collecting large volumes of water
for construction of a dam. The underground explosions to break rock
while making tunnels for roads, railroads, subways, or mines do not cause
very st rong seismic waves and we may not even feel them. Sometimes
seismic waves occur when the roof or walls of a mine collapse and this
can be felt by people near the mine. The largest underground explosions,
from tests of nuclear warheads (bombs), can create s eismic waves very
much like large earthquakes. As an example, the 2008 Sichuan
earthquake that occurred in China was because of the construction of a
dam. In Australia also there was coal mining activity which resulted in an
earthquake.
 Impact of earthqua kes
 A number of natural changes occur due to an earthquake.
i. Ground rupture
The ground shakes and ruptures because of which building and other
structures get damaged. The severity of destruction depends on how close munotes.in

Page 60

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
60 the area is to the epicenter. Ground rupt ure means the breakage and
displacement of the earth’s surface. It is a major threat to huge structures
like bridges, dams and nuclear power plants.
ii. Landslides
Another major threat that occurs due to an earthquake is landslides.
When the earthquake is acc ompanied by other major threats like wildfires,
volcanic activity or storms, landslides may occur.
iii. Fire
Due to the damage of electrical power or gas lines chances of fire
eruption are high due to an earthquake.
iv. Soil liquefaction
When water saturated granu lar material like sand loses its strength
due to earthquake it gets modified into a liquid. This process may cause
damage to bridges and buildings. There is a chance of these structures
getting collapsed to the ground.
v. Tsunami
When earthquake occurs in the sea bed, the sea waves rise in the sea. It
has long and sudden movements dispensing large volumes of water.
Depending on the depth of the water these waves travel at a speed of 600 -
800 kilometers per hour. These waters are capable enough to drown the
structures and building all along the sea coast. Usually tsunamis occur in
the seal when the earthquake hit is above 7.5 on the Richter scale. After
the tsunami in 2003 that devastated lakhs of people across Indian Ocean,
countries all over the world are takin g precautions and have invested in
tsunami warning systems.
After effects
A major earthquake causes lot of destruction and damage to buildings
and structures. Because of lack of basic amenities, diseases may spread. It
will take lot of time for rehabilita tion of people.
Man has been making a steady progress in all fields. There are several
discoveries and innovations to his credit. Except for being ready to face
any type of natural calamities, there is nothing that man can do in such
circumstances. Time an d again nature proves that it is mightier than
human beings.
Forecasting, warning & monitoring earthquake
 Forecasting
Earthquake prediction is a branch of the science of seismology. It is
concerned with the specification of the time, location, and magnitud e of
future earthquakes within stated confidence limits but with sufficient
precision that a warning can be issued. munotes.in

Page 61

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
61 Seismologists feel compelled to provide earthquake predictions to society.
Location, magnitude, and recurrence interval of earthquakes have large
uncertainty. For example, the estimated magnitudes for earthquakes in the
New Madrid Seismic Zone range from M 6.6 to M 8.0, and estimates of
the recurrence interval range from 500 to 50,000 years. Uncertainties of
this scale indicate that earthquake s cannot be predicted or forecasted
reliably. One such example is Iben Browning’s forecast: a 50% chance of
a major earthquake with a magnitude of about 7 in the New Madrid
Seismic Zone within a few days of 3 December 1990. Even though the
1975 Haicheng, C hina, earthquake has been claimed as a successful
prediction, it was not predicted scientifically.
Generally, the location, magnitude, and recurrence interval of earthquakes
and their respective uncertainties are quantified by a probability model
(distribu tion), such as a Gaussian (normal) model with a mean and
standard deviation or by a logic tree. A mean magnitude of M 7.5 and
mean recurrence interval of 200 years were assumed for the characteristic
fault. The prediction for this case may be that an M 7.5 earthquake “could
occur” along the fault in the next month, next year, or in 50 years or that
an M 7.5 earthquake “will probably occur” along the fault in the next
month, next year, or in 50 years. To make a forecast, a probability model
has to be introdu ced to describe earthquake occurrence in time (e.g., the
Poisson, empirical, Brownian passage time, or time predictable). Although
the Poisson model (i.e., time independent) contradicts the generally
accepted physical model (i.e., Reid’s elastic rebound th eory), it is the most
commonly used model for estimating earthquake probability. The Poisson
model assumes the exceedance probability (PE) of the M 7.5 earthquake
occurrence along the fault over a specified time period (t) can be estimated
by Embedded Imag e1in which τ is the mean recurrence interval of the
earthquake. For time periods of 1 month, 1 year, and 50 years, equation
(1) yields PEs of about 0.042%, 0.5%, and 22.1%, respectively. Thus, the
forecast that an M 7.5 earthquake will occur along the faul t within the next
month is 0.042%; the probability that an M 7.5 earthquake will occur
within the next 50 years is 22.1%.
 Warning earthquake
Earthquakes and Buildings
Early alert capabilities in some cases will allow some systems to
automatically shut down before the strong shaking starts so that the
services and people using them will be safe. Such systems may include
elevators, utilities such as water and gas, and factory assembly lines.
Small building are more affected, or shaken, by high frequency waves
(short and frequent). For example, a small boat sailing in the ocean will
not be greatly affected by a large swell. On the other hand several small
waves in quick succession can overturn, or capsize, the boat. The same
way, a small building experience mor e shakes by high frequency
earthquake waves. Large structures or high rise buildings are more
affected by long period, or slow shaking. For instance, an ocean liner will munotes.in

Page 62

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
62 experience little disturbance by short waves in quick succession. However,
a large swe ll will significantly affect the ship. Similarly, a skyscraper will
sustain greater shaking by long period earthquake waves, than by the
shorter waves.
 Monitoring earthquake
Earthquake Monitoring: Magnitude vs. Intensity
Earthquake monitoring started long ago, but the technology has advanced
dramatically from its origin in 132 AD in China where the first
"seismoscope" was constructed with carved dragons and frogs.
Intensity scales measure the amount of shaking at a particular location.
Therefore, the intens ity of an earthquake will vary depending on where
you are. Sometimes earthquakes are referred to by the maximum intensity
they produce.
Magnitude scales, like the Richter magnitude and moment magnitude,
measure the size of the earthquake at its source. Th us, they do not depend
on where the measurement of the earthquake is made. On the Richter
scale, an increase of one unit of magnitude (for example, from 4.6 to 5.6)
represents a 10 -fold increase in wave amplitude on a seismogram or
approximately a 30 -fold increase in the energy released. Except in special
circumstances, earthquakes below magnitude 2.5 are not generally felt by
humans. Often, several slightly different magnitudes are reported for an
earthquake. This happens because different measurement proc edures will
often give slightly different magnitudes for the same earthquake.
Management of Earthquake
 Preparedness
Although earthquake is not a new disaster it is necessary to be prepared
against this disaster. Prediction and forecasting of earthquake i s
impossible, hence preparation should be taken against earthquake. It may
lessen the damages occurred due to the earthquake is less.
i. Pre-Disaster Preventive Measures
a. Long -term measures
 Re-framing buildings' codes, guidelines, manuals and byelaws and
their strict implementation.
 Tougher legislation for highly seismic areas
 Incorporating earthquake resistant features in all buildings at high -risk
areas.
 Making all public utilities like water supply systems, communication
networks, electricity lines etc. ea rthquake -proof.
 Creating alternative arrangements to reduce damages to infrastructure
facilities. munotes.in

Page 63

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
63  Constructing earthquake -resistant community buildings and buildings
(used to gather large groups during or after an earthquake) like
schools, dharamshalas, hospitals, prayer halls, etc., especially in
seismic zones of moderate to higher intensities.
 Supporting R&D in various aspects of disaster mitigation,
preparedness and prevention and post -disaster management.
 Evolving educational curricula in architectur e and engineering
institutions and technical training in polytechnics and schools to
include disaster related topics.
b. Medium term measures
 Retrofitting of weak structures in highly seismic zones.
 Preparation of disaster related literature in local langu ages with dos
and don'ts for construction.
 Getting communities involved in the process of disaster mitigation
through education and awareness.
 Networking of local NGOs working in the area of disaster
management.
ii. Post-Disaster Preventive Measures
 Mainten ance of law and order, prevention of trespassing, looting etc.
 Evacuation of people.
 Recovery of dead bodies and their disposal.
 Medical care for the injured.
 Supply of food and drinking water.
 Temporary shelters like tents, metal sheds etc.
 Repairing lines of communication and information.
 Restoring transport routes.
 Quick assessment of destruction and demarcation of destroyed areas,
according to the grade of damage.
 Cordoning off severely damaged structures that are liable to collapse
during after shocks
 The following efforts will be useful for preparedness:
 Train communities in high -risk areas in post -disaster search, rescue
and relief. munotes.in

Page 64

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
64  Practice an extensive programme of mass drills in high -risk areas for
earthquake damage reduction.
 Train local NGOs and strengthen their capacity and capabilities.
 Inculcate basic know -how amongst school kids on earthquake dos and
don’ts along with safety drills.
 Train field personnel in the science and art of carrying out post disaster
damage surveys, for (a) urg ent relief purposes and (b) for repair,
reconstruction and retrofitting purposes. During emergencies, affected
people need to be involved in the relief activities so as to create a
feeling of self -reliance. Also, the sooner they are integrated, the
shorter will the period of relief will be.
 Post-disaster work would involve:
 Detailed survey of buildings for assessment of damage and repair/
reconstruction and seismic strengthening or demolition.
 Selection of sites for new settlements, if required.
 Executio n of the reconstruction programme.
 Review of the existing seismic zoning maps and risk maps.
 Review of seismic codes and norms of construction.
 Training of personnel, engineers, architects, builders and masons.
Response
In the aftermath of an earthquake , workers are found to be involved in a
variety of response and recovery operations. Collapsed structures are a
common result of earthquakes. Rescue workers, engineers and emergency
responders may have to enter collapsed structures to perform search and
rescue activities, and all possible safety and health precautions should be
taken to ensure they can perform their duties safely.

Mitigation - case studies
 Earthquake Risk Mitigation
There is a comprehensive programme for earthquake risk mitigation. The
building construction in urban and suburban areas is regulated by the
Town and Country Planning Acts and Building Regulations. The BIS
(Bureau of Indian Standards ) have laid down the standards for
construction in the seismic zones but these were not follow ed properly.
Even if it is done, there is lack of knowledge regarding seismically safe
construction among the architects and engineers. Moreover lack of
awareness regarding their vulnerability among the population led to most
of the construction in the urb an/sub -urban areas being without reference to
BIS standards. munotes.in

Page 65

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
65 In the rural areas, mode of construction has changed from mud and thatch
to brick and concrete construction and the bulk of the housing is non -
engineered construction thereby increasing the vul nerability. The
increasing population has led to settlements in vulnerable areas close to
the river bed areas which are prone to liquefaction. The Government has
moved to address these issues.
 National Core Group for Earthquake Risk Mitigation
A National Core Group for Earthquake Risk Mitigation has been
constituted consisting of experts in earthquake engineering and
administrators. The Core Group has been assigned with the
responsibility of drawing up a strategy and plan of action for mitigating
the impact of earthquakes.
 Review of building bye -laws and their adoption
Most casualties during earthquakes are caused by the collapse of
structures. Therefore structural mitigation measures are the key to make a
significant impact towards earthquake safet y in our country. In view of
this the States in earthquake prone zones have been requested to review,
and if necessary, amend their building bye -laws to incorporate the BIS
seismic codes for construction in the concerned zones.
 Development and Revision o f Codes
There are Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) codes which are relevant for
multi -hazard resistant design and construction. These codes have to be
regularly updated. An action plan has been drawn up for revision of
existing codes, development of new cod es and documents/commentaries,
and making these codes and documents available all over the country
including on -line access to these codes.
 Hazard Safety Cells in States
The States have been advised to constitute Hazard Safety Cells (HSC)
headed by the Ch ief Engineer (Designs), State Public Works Department
with necessary engineering staff so as to establish mechanism for proper
implementation of the building codes in all future Govt. constructions, and
to ensure the safety of buildings and structures from various hazards. The
HSC will also be responsible for carrying out appropriate design review of
all Government buildings to be constructed in the State, act as an advisory
cell to the State Government on the different aspects of building safety
against h azards and act as a consultant to the State Government for
retrofitting of the lifeline buildings. Rajasthan, West Bengal and
Chhattisgarh have already constituted these cells and other States are in
the process.

munotes.in

Page 66

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
66  National Programme for Capacity Building of Engineers and
Architects in Earthquake Risk Mitigation
Two National Programmes for Capacity Building in Earthquake Risk
Mitigation for Engineers and Architects respectively, have been approved
to assist the State Govts in building capacities for earthq uake mitigation.
These two programmes are being implemented for training of 10,000
engineers and 10,000 architects in the States in seismically safe building
designs and related techno -legal requirements.
 Training of rural monsoons
A programme to assist t he States/UTs in training and certification of
50000 masons has been formulated in consultation with Housing and
Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) and the Ministry of Rural
Development. The training module for masons to include multi -hazard
resistant c onstruction has also been prepared by an expert committee, and
revised curriculum will be introduced in the vocational training
programme of Ministry of Human Resource Development.
 Earthquake Engineering in Undergraduate Engineering/
Architecture Curricula
The role of engineers and architects is crucial in reducing earthquake risks
by ensuring that the construction adheres to the norms of seismically
safety. In view of this, the elements of earthquake engineering are being
integrated into the undergraduate engineering and architecture courses.
 Hospital Preparedness and Emergency Health Management in
Medical Education
As hospital preparedness is crucial to any disaster response system each
hospital should have an emergency preparedness plan to deal with mass
casualty incidents and the hospital administration/ doctor trained for this
emergency. The curriculum for medical doctors does not include Hospital
Preparedness for emergencies. Therefore capacity building through in -
service training of the current heath managers and medical personnel in
Hospital Preparedness for emergencies or mass causality incident
management is essential.
 Acceleration Urban Earthquake Vulnerability Reduction
Programme
An accelerated urban earthquake vulnerability reduction programme has
been taken up in 38 cities in seismic zones III, IV & V with population of
half a million and above. 474 Orientation programmes have been
organized for senior officers and representatives of the local planning and
development bodies to sensitize them on earthquake preparedness and
mitigation measures.
 Mainstreaming Mitigation in Rural Development Schemes munotes.in

Page 67

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
67 Rural housing and community assets for vulnerable sections of the
population are created at a fairly large scale by the Ministry of Rural
Devel opment under the Indira Awas Yojna(IAY) and Sampooran
Grameen Rojgar Yojna(SGRY). About 250 thousand small but compact
housing units are constructed every year, besides community assets such
as community centres, recreation centres, anganwadi centres et c.
Technology support is provided by about two hundred rural housing
centres spread over the entire country.
Case study: The 2001 Gujarat earthquake
India has witnessed some of the most devastating earthquakes during the
last century like the one in Kan gra (1905), Bihar -Nepal (1934) and in
Assam (1950). In the recent past, earthquakes have caused havoc in
Uttarkashi (1991), Latur (1993), Jabalpur (1997), Chamoli (1999) and in
Bhuj (2001).
The 2001 Gujarat earthquake
Gujarat lies 3 –400 km from the plate b oundary between the Indian Plate
and the Eurasian Plate, but the current tectonics is still governed by the
effects of the continuing continental collision along this boundary. The
2001 Gujarat earthquake also known as Bhuj earthquake occurred on 26
Januar y, at 08:46 AM IST. Location was 10 km. North -Northeast of
Jamnagar/290 km. Southeast of Hyderabad in Pakistan. It lasted for over 2
minutes. The epicentre was about 9 km south -southwest of the village of
Chobari in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District of Guja rat, India. The
intraplate earthquake reached 7.7 on the moment magnitude scale and had
a maximum felt intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale.
The earthquake killed between 13,805 and 20,023 people (including 18 in
south -eastern Pakistan) , injured another 167,000 and destroyed nearly
400,000 homes.

Fig: Map of Bhuj munotes.in

Page 68

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
68 The effect of the earthquake was felt throughout the Indian sub -continent.
Most affected districts in Gujarat were Kutch, Jamnagar, Surendranagar,
Rajkot, and Surat. Worst a ffected towns & cities were Bhuj, Bhachau,
Rapar, Anjar, Ahmedabad, Jodiya, Morbi, and Gandhidham. Among
industrial Impacts damages on Kandla port is important. Other affected
states were Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
Outside Indi a affected countries were Bangladesh, China, Nepal and
Pakistan.
Over 7,000 villages in 19 districts were affected either severely or
moderately. 13,805 people lost their lives and more than 1,67,000 were
injured. About 1.2 million houses were damaged part ially or completely.
Social infrastructure and public infrastructure were severely damaged.
More than 1,000 health units and 12,000 schools were damaged. Roads,
bridges, Public buildings, Dams and irrigation structures were also
affected severely. The tota l primary loss was about US $3,189 million and
the secondary loss was about US $ 635 million and the tertiary loss was
about US $ 2,097 million.
The State Government immediately conceptualized a comprehensive
rehabilitation and reconstruction programme whi ch addressed all
important concerns that arose from the earthquake starting from
immediate relief, economic rehabilitation, livelihood restoration as well as
long term capacity building of all stakeholders to fight future disasters.
The Government prepared Gujarat Earthquake Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation Policy which encompasses all measures and institutional
initiatives taken by the Government in the earthquake affected areas. The
Policy represented a framework of entitlements and a prospectus of
devel opment which reflected the vision of a successful reconstruction and
rehabilitation plan.
After the initial relief phase, Government of Gujarat launched a massive
reconstruction and rehabilitation program in the affected areas. It was a
great challenge to conceptualize a massive reconstruction program, yet
within a very short period government announced a comprehensive
reconstruction and rehabilitation policy which included assistance for
restoration of private houses, economic rehabilitation, and reconstru ction
of public infrastructure, prepare the people to face disasters through
community participation and multi hazard preparedness programs; human
resource development; and livelihood support, based on sustainable
economy and ecology. Gujarat State Disaste r Management Authority was
created as the nodal agency to implement the massive reconstruction
program.
 The task accomplished is as follows: ‰
 Over 9,08,710(99%) houses repaired and
 1,97,091 houses (89%)houses reconstructed ‰
 42,678 schoolrooms repaired (100%) ‰
 12,442 Schoolrooms reconstructed (152%) ‰ munotes.in

Page 69

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
69  3,391 public building repaired ‰
 1,245 public buildings reconstructed ‰
 5,223 km of transmission and distribution lines repaired ‰
 Repair/reconstruction of 640 km of state highways & 3,061 km of
rural roads completed ‰
 Laying of 2,750 km of water supply pipelines including drilling of
222 deep tube wells ‰
 Restored the livelihood of 2,00,000 families
Better houses, upgraded infrastructure, good hospitals and schools can
certainly be counted as som ething that has changed for the better in the
earthquake affected areas.
The Gujarat earthquake did not only result in changes in focus from relief
to mitigation and setting up of institutional mechanism for the same in
Gujarat, but has brought about a maj or change at the national level
towards disaster management. At the National level, emphasis now is
being laid on disaster mitigation. The planning commission has
recommended for utilizing 10% of the plan funds for pre -disaster
mitigation and planning. A n ational level disaster management authority
on the lines of GSDMA is being worked out at the central government
level. Draft bill on National Disaster Management has been prepared.
Many of the lessons learnt and best practices of Gujarat initiated after th e
earthquake is being replicated at the national level and at the state level in
other states including setting up of disaster management authorities and
enactment of bills etc. The approach and process of Gujarat earthquake
reconstruction is now being loo ked at as a model for reconstruction in the
earthquake -affected areas in Bam and Tsunami reconstruction in Srilanka,
Indonesia and in the tsunami -affected south Indian states.
The various initiatives undertaken for integrating reconstruction and long -
term disaster management capacity building have resulted in a major
change in the way reconstruction programs are being done in India and the
neighboring countries. This has in turn resulted in a major shift towards
prevention and mitigation of disasters from t he age -old relief oriented
disaster management in India.
4.5 FLOOD – DISTRIBUTION CAUSES, EFFECT,
MANAGEMENT
Floods
a. Floods reference to Nature
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on coast that
leads to inundation of land which is not normally submerged. Flood is an
attribute of physical environment and thus is an important component of
hydrological cycle of a drainage basin. Flood is a natural phenomenon in munotes.in

Page 70

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
70 response to heavy rainfall but it becomes a hazard when it inflicts loss to
the lives and properties of the people.
b. Geographical distribution of floods
Floods occur most often in low -lying coastal areas and river floodplains.
Any plain low -lying area adjacent a river, lagoon or lake is more likely to
have floods anytime the wate r level rises. This includes coastal areas and
shorelines, as seawater can easily be swept inland by strong winds, tides
and tsunamis.
Flood Prone Areas in India
National Flood Commission (RBA) -1980 assessed the total flood prone
area in the country as 40 m.ha. which included the unprotected flood area
of 33.516 m ha and the balance as protected area. Subsequently, the
Working Groups on Flood Management for X and XI Plans assessed the
flood prone area in the country as 45.64 m ha.
The states falling within the periphery of "India Flood Prone Areas" are
West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. The intense monsoon rains from
southwest causes rivers like Brahmaputra, Ganga, Yamuna etc. to swell
their banks, which in turn floods the adjacent areas. Over the past few
decades, central India has become familiar with precipitation events like
torrential rains and flash floods. The major flood prone areas in India are
the river banks and deltas of Ravi, Ya muna -Sahibi, Gandak, Sutlej,
Ganga, Ghaggar, Kosi, Teesta, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Mahananda,
Damodar, Godavari, Mayurakshi, Sabarmati and their tributaries.
Flood prone areas of India
States 1953 -78 (mha) 1953 -88 (mha)
Andhra Pradesh 1.39 1.39
Arunachal Pradesh - 0.00
Assam 3.15 3.82
Bihar 4.26 4.26
Goa - 0.00
Gujarat 1.39 1.39
Haryana 2.35 2.35
Himachal Pradesh 0.23 0.39
Jammu & Kashmir 0.08 0.51
Karnataka 0.02 0.26

c. Causes of Floods
Floods are results of unfavourable combinations of meteorologi cal and
physical condition of the drainage basin which leads to excessive water
run-off and consequent relative reduction in carrying capacity of channels
leading to bank full conditions. The causative factors, in recent times, have munotes.in

Page 71

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
71 been aided and accentua ted by human impact. The various conditions
responsible for flood are:

(A) Meteorological Conditions
1. Cyclones.
2. Cloud Burst.
(B) Physical Conditions
1. Narrow outlets.
2. Large catchments areas.
3. Lack of well developed drainage channel.
4. Siltation and rising of ch annel
5. Presence of unconsolidated soil.
6. Blocking effect of landslides.
7. Meandering.
(C) Human Impact
1. Construction of dams and reservoirs.
2. Bursting of dams
3. Deforestation.
4. Faulty slope practices.
5. Construction of embankments.
(A).Meteorological Causes
1. Heavy rai nfall.
India is one of the world’s wettest countries receives an annual average
rainfall of 115 cm. Nearly 80 per cent of which is received from June to
September in all the states, except Tamil Nadu, during the southwest
monsoons. It usually exceeds 100 c m in areas east of 78” E longitude. It
extends to 250 cm along the entire west coast and Western Ghats and over
most of Assam and sub - Himalayan West Bengal. Because of this seasonal
concentration of rainfall, rivers remain practically day during summer
while in the rainy season they swell, overflowing their banks.Heavy
incessant rainfall for long period is the basic cause of floods because a
huge amount of water gets collected on the surface flowing as runoff.
High -intensity rainfall gives the average annu al amount of 250 cms. in the
plain area and 500 cms. in the hilly sector in Assam that periodically
causes floods in the Brahmaputra valley. High rainfall in the Himalayas
and in the plains causes disastrous floods in the Himalayan rivers draining munotes.in

Page 72

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
72 through the North Indian plains. Higher magnitude of rainfall coupled
with a larger catchment area leads to a greater volume of overland flow.

2. Cloudbursts.
Excessive rain within a short period is called a cloudburst. Cloudbursts are
very common in the Himalayan r egion, Orissa, and central and western
India including Rajasthan and Gujarat.

3. Tropical Cyclones
Cyclones are the most important cause of floods in the coastal areas.
Certain parts of our vast coastline especially Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa
coast in the ea st and the Gujarat coast in the west are particularly prone to
onslaught of cyclonic storms which originate and develop over warm seas.
These violent storms are accompanied by huge tidal waves and intense
rainfall. The tidal waves cause widespread inundati ons in the coastal belts.
It is inevitable that the heavy downpour which accompanies cyclones will
bring flood in the affected region. In November 1982 and in 1983 in
Saurashtra, cyclones resulted in overflowing of 27 dams some by over 2m.
Although floods due to cyclonic storms are a natural calamity we must
have some precautionary measures to minimize the impact of cyclonic
storms.

(B). Physical Conditions
1. Large Catchment area
A large catchment area collects water from a larger area thus even if the
rainf all conditions are not fairly heavy, chances of flooding in the
consequent stream is high simply because the volume of water collected
from such a larger area becomes very large. The catchment areas of the
Ganga and the Godavari are very large and the volu me of the water carried
by these rivers is also very large.

2. Inadequate drainage arrangement
Even if the catchment area is quite small and the rainfall in the catchment
area is not heavy, flood occurs because water, if it does not drain quickly,
accumulates and leads to flood. The reasons behind the inadequacy of the
drainage arrangement in different regions of the country are as follows.

(a) Under -Developed drainage channels. Particularly in the
states of Punjab and Rajasthan, the drainage channels are not well
developed. Heavy amount of rainfall in these regions cause flash floods as
the rivers are unable to accommodate enormous volume of water.
Moreover, unconsolidated soil of this region chokes and blocks the natural
drainage thus leading to floods.
(b) Reduced C arrying capacity of rivers. The capacity of
channels carrying water is diminished by the accumulation of sediments
derived from massive erosion in the catchment areas. The deposition of munotes.in

Page 73

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
73 the sediment on the beds restricts the passage of the water and hence the
carrying capacity of the channel is reduced. This results in spreading of
the flood water on the adjacent plain. The extensive flooding in eastern
Uttar Pradesh and northern Bihar especially by the Narayani and the Kosi
rivers is primarily due to reduc ed carrying capacity of the rivers choked
with sediments which have been derived from accelerated erosion in the
Himalayan region and inadequacy of slope in flood plains.
(c) Blocking of natural flow by landslides: Landslides lead to
impoundment of water and a consequent rising of the water level leading
to bank full conditions. If the natural dam bursts, it causes disastrous
floods downstream. This normally happens in the Himalayan region. This
was happened with the Bhagirathi River in 1978 when a landslide c aused a
dam formation. The bursting of this dam, 14 hours later, caused
widespread havoc up to Uttarkashi and wiped out the hamlets of Gangnani
and Dabrani on the pilgrim route to Gangotri.
(d) Meandering of the rivers. Sinuous and meandering course of
rivers obstruct the normal discharge of water thus reducing the velocity
which delays the passage of water resulting into stagnation of water. For
example the meandering loops in Brahmaputra.
(e) Formation of sand bars. Sand bar formation is a common
phenomenon in th e coastal regions particularly near estuaries. Long shore
drift which leads to formation of sand bars chokes the mouth of estuaries
and deltas. This impedes the natural drainage, particularly, in times of
heavy rainfall when the river carries a greater vol ume of water. In the delta
areas of West Bengal and Orissa the problem has been aggravated by the
influence of sea tides which deposit silt on the mouth of the rivers and also
in the drainage channels. This leads to a constant deterioration in the
discharg e capacity of the river.
(C) Anthropogenic Factors and Human Impact
Flood is a natural phenomenon with the presence of certain meteorological
and physical conditions. But in recent times some incidence of flooding
has been largely due to human impact on the physical conditions. The
flood discharge of stream depends on the amount of run -off or the ground
flow of rainwater. Run -off is determined by the amount of infiltration of
water which, in turn, is determined by the nature and extent of vegetation,
texture of the soil and length and steepness of the slope. The human
impact has altered all of these components. The most important of all is
the destruction of forest cover.

1. Deforestation
Vegetation has a strong control over runoff as it performs two importan t
functions - by allowing infiltration and hence decreasing runoff. Raindrops
are intercepted by forest canopy and thus reach the ground slowly through
the leaves, branches and stems of trees. On the ground the lead litters and
the grass allows infiltration into the soil and thus reduces runoff. The
absence of vegetation on the other hand, exposes the surface to beating munotes.in

Page 74

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
74 rains. The infiltration gets reduced and most of the water flows as surface
runoff bringing floods downstream. Thus wherever man has resorte d to
indiscriminate deforestation, as in Siwaliks, Lower Himalayas,
Chhotanagpur plateau, Western Ghats and elsewhere floods have become
a rule in the downstream areas. This is evident in Tista and Torsa in West
Bengal, Chambal in Madhya Pradesh, Gandak in Uttar Pradesh and Kosi
in Bihar, etc.

2. Siltation
Higher surface runoff resulting from deforestation additionally accelerates
erosion and increase the sediment load of the streams. Increased sediment
load causes siltation of river beds and filling of the v alleys and hence,
reduces the water accommodating capacity of the river valleys. In south
eastern Nepal the beds of the rivers in the Bhabhar belt are rising at the
rate of 15 -30 cm/yr. The bed of river Kosi in Bihar is now at a higher level
that the flood plain, the river flowing within considerably raised levees.
Rise of the channel to a greater or less degree has also been responsible for
floods in the Gangetic plain and the Brahmaputra plain .
3. Faulty agricultural Practices
In India, valley side slopes of the rivers are ploughed down to the channel,
transverse to the contours. This is done to dry out the moisture which had
accumulated during the wet rabi season. After the crops are harvested, the
ploughed fields are baked by the blazing sun in the summer a nd the loose
soils become extremely dry. With the first showers in the coming rainy
season, the loose soils get saturated with water and slump in to the river
bed following overland flow. The river beds thus get gradually stilled.
Simultaneously, the culti vation of valley side slopes reduces the gradient
of river banks finally flattening the valley. As the flattening gradually
proceeds, the water accommodating capacity of the river decreases and
the river takes very little time in attaining bank full condi tions. The water
then spreads over the valley sides inundating the low lying flood plains.

4. Faulty Irrigation Practices
In the Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh there is a network of
canals in the alluvial formation. The constant seepage of water fr om the
canals raises the water table in the adjoining areas. With further
application of water for irrigation, in these regions of inadequate drainage
a condition of water logging arises. Under these conditions, even in
rainfall is not so heavy the entire rainfall flows as surface runoff because
the ground does not absorb the water, bringing floods.

5. Increasing urbanization.
Increasing urbanization helps to increase the surface runoff and thus the
dimension and magnitude of floods. The construction of roads, building,
pavements, etc., reduces the infiltration capacity and increases the surface
runoff. The increases surface runoff finds its way through the drains into munotes.in

Page 75

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
75 the nearby stream locally increasing the volume and magnitude of floods.
Additionally, urbani zation has also led to siltation of river beds caused by
dumping of garbage from the nearby centres, extension of settlement in
the low lying areas, filing up of nallas (urban drains), construction of
bridges, roads, embankments, etc. Consequently the drai nage capacity of
the river has been reduced.

Although the causes of floods are many and each individual cause may
bring about flood, floods actually result from a combination of these
causes. For example, two factors, namely, heavy precipitation and
defor estation have been the most important causes of floods and although
there has not been a change in the overall rainfall pattern, deforestation
has increased surface runoff and consequently incidence of floods.

d. Impact of floods
Floods are gradually becom ing more and more damaging as they appear
with an increased frequency, intensity and magnitude. The most important
impact of floods is the loss of life and property. Indirect losses result from
the breakdown of the communication, disruption of rail and roa d traffic
and other essential services whose restoration may cost crores of rupees.
The impact of flood was not, perhaps felt to the same extent in the past as
it is being felt now because earlier only fewer people lived on the land and
there was no such p roliferation of industrial activity and other works. Now
with an increase in population, areas close to the river have also become
habituated. The principle where a river has the right of way stay out of its
way is not followed by the people who have littl e option in setting
themselves or locating industrial projects. Floods have caused heavy
damage on nine occasions in the last 40 years – 1955,1971,1973,1977,
1978,1980,1984,1988 and 1989. On an average, the area affected by
floods annually is about eight m illion ha, out of which the cropped area
affected is about 3.7 ha. Rashtriya Barh Ayog has assessed the maximum
area prone to the floods in the country to be about 40 million ha, out of
which 32 million ha is a protectable area. The maximum area damaged i n
any one year was 17.5 million ha in 1978. the average (period 1953 -91)
annual total damage to crops, houses and public utilities is about Rs. 9500
million, while the maximum annual damage was Rs. 46300 million in
1988.
In India, states like Assam, Bihar and parts of Gangetic Uttar Pradesh are
quite prone to floods during the rainy season. The Ganga and Brahmaputra
rivers and their tributaries are most susceptible to floods. However, heavy
rains cause occasional floods in parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kar nataka
and Tamil Nadu. Flooding, in India, is a major problem and some part or
the other is affected by the fury of floods usually during the months from
July to September.
These figures indicate the magnitude of the flood problem in
the country. munotes.in

Page 76

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
76 Sl.
No. Item Average
flood
damage
1953 -90 Maximum
drainage in one
year (Year)
1 Area affected (in
Million ha) 7.94 17.50 (1978)
2 Population affected (in
Million ha) 32.86 70.45 (1978)
3 Cropped Area Affected
(in Million ha) 3.66 10.14 (1988)
4 Value of damage t o
crops (in Rs. Crore) 448.32 2510.90 (1988)
5 Houses Damaged (in
Million Nos) 1.22 3.51 (1978)
6 Value of damage to
Crops (in Rs.Crore) 132.31 741.60 (1988)
7 Cattle Lose (Nos.) 102.905 618.248 (1979)
8 Human Lives Lost
(nos.) 1532 11316 (1977)
9 Value of Damage to
Public Utilities (in Rs.
Crores) 347.38
2050.04 (1985)
10 Total Damage to Crops,
houses and Public
Utilities (in Rs. Crore) 937.56
4630.30 (1988)

e. Forecasting, warning & monitoring of floods
Disasters do not recognize or respect national g eographic boundaries. In
the increasingly globalized world, more disasters will be spread over many
countries and will be regional in nature. India has set up an example of
responding internally and simultaneously in neighbouring countries for the
other co untries to follow. At the present time, warning is possible for
droughts and famines, cyclones and most severe weather phenomena,
volcanoes, large scale fires, and in some cases earthquakes.
i. Flood Forecasting
By monitoring events, specialists look for indi cators that tell when, where,
and what magnitude the disaster may be. This is known as prediction or
forecasting.
Advance information about flood plays a key role regarding flood control.
Losses due to flood, especially of human life and livestock, can be
considerably reduced by flood forecasting and early warning to the
affected areas. Normally a flood peak takes a few hours to few days to
pass from a point downstream along a river. So, if the water level is
constantly monitored, it is possible to issue f orecast of floods downstream
well in advance for the local authorities to take precautionary steps to munotes.in

Page 77

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
77 minimize the loss of life and property. Flood forecasting is the most
effective way of flood management.

The Central Water Commission (CWC) is entrusted with the task of
forecasting floods. It has a network of 157 forecast stations in 11 flood
prone states and 2 Union territories. Bihar has the largest number of flood
forecasting stations. The network uses INSAT extensively for monitoring
and transmitting data. In 1992, the accuracy of forecasts was 96%.

During IX Plan, 55 telemetry stations were installed in Mahanadi and
Chambal Basins besides setting up of two Earth receiving Stations (ERS)
at Jaipur (Rajasthan) and Burla (Orissa). During X Plan, moderniz ation of
168 stations was undertaken; out of which 166 stations besides 11
Modelling Centres have been set up till date. During XI Plan, additional
222 stations and 10 Modelling Centres are proposed to be installed; which
would help the concerned States in taking appropriate measures in
advance for evacuation of people and shifting them and their properties to
safer locations.
ii. Warning Phase
The objective of warning phase is to provide disaster (flood, in particular
case) managers with enough information so they can give the people at
risk adequate notice or warning to prepare for the disaster and, if
necessary, to evacuate. Work is also underway in refugee management to
develop early warning techniques that will let relief agencies know of
impending refugee crises.
Early Warning - Building codes do not exist against storm surge
inundation. Prescribed means today to save life and properties against
storm surge inundation is to evacuate people to safer places as quickly as
possible on receipt of warnings. Coordi nated early warning systems
against tropical cyclone are now in existence around the globe and it is
possible to warn the affected population at least 24 to 36 hours in advance
about the danger from a tropical cyclone. By taking advantage of early
warning systems, it is now possible by prepared and knowledgeable
communities to minimize the loss of lives and properties.
iii. Monitoring flood
In India, a two tier system of flood management exists as briefly described
below:
State Level Mechanism - The State Level Mechanism includes the Water
Resources Departments, State Technical Advisory Committee and Flood
Control Board. In some States, the Irrigation Departments and Public
Works Departments look after flood matters.
Central Government Mechanism – The Union Gover nment has set up
following organizations and various expert committees to enable the State
Governments in addressing flood problems in a comprehensive manner: munotes.in

Page 78

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
78 Central Water Commission (CWC) – The Government of India set up
Central Water Commission as prese ntly named in 1945 for achieving the
goal of furthering and promoting measures of flood control, conservation
and utilization of water resources throughout the country in the areas of
beneficial uses, irrigation and hydropower generation, flood management
and river conservation.
Brahmaputra Board – The Government of India set up Brahmaputra
Board under Brahmaputra Board Act, 1980 (46 of 1980) under the then
Ministry of Irrigation ( now Ministry of Water Resources) The jurisdiction
of Brahmaputra Board incl udes all NE States in Brahmaputra and Barak
Basin. The main functions of Brahmaputra Board are as under:
 Survey and investigations in Brahmaputra and Barak valley.
 Preparation of master plans to control floods, bank erosion, and
improvement of drainage sys tem.
 Preparation of DPRs for dams and other projects
 Standard specifications for construction operation and maintenance of
dams.
 Construction of multipurpose dams and maintenance thereof.
 Any other function for implementation of Brahmaputra Board Act -
1980.
Brahmaputra Board prepared master plans for the flood management for
river Brahmaputra and Barak. Besides this, the Board has undertaken
survey and investigations for preparation of master plans for tackling the
problems of flood, erosion and drainage con gestion including DPRs for
multipurpose projects.
Ganga Flood Control Commission - The Ganga Flood Control
Commission (GFCC) was set up by Government of India in 1972 for
preparation of comprehensive plan of flood control for Ganga Basin and to
draw out a phased coordinated programme of implementation of works
and monitoring & appraisal of flood management schemes of Ganga basin
States. The GFCC has prepared comprehensive plans of flood
management of the 23 sub -basins in the Ganga Basin besides drawing out
a phased programme of implementation of these works to proper
standards, examination and monitoring of various flood management
schemes in the Ganga Basin States.
Farakka Barrage Project Authority – The Farakka Barrage Project
Authority carries out anti -erosion and river bank protection works in its
jurisdiction in near river vicinity of the Barrage.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) - For prevention
and mitigation effects of disasters including flood disasters and for
undertaking a holistic, co ordinated and prompt response to any disaster
situation, the Government of India has set up a National Disaster munotes.in

Page 79

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
79 Management Authority (NDMA) in 2005 under the Chairmanship of
Honourable Prime Minister of India. The functions of the NDMA are:
(i) lay down po licies on disaster management;
(ii) approve national Plan;
(iii) approve plans prepared by the Ministries or departments of the
Government of India in accordance with the National Plan; (iv) lay
down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in dr awing
up the State Plan;
(v) lay down guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or
departments of the government of India for the purpose of
integrating the measures for prevention of disaster or the mitigation
of its effects in their developme nt plans and projects;
(vi) coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plan
for disaster management;
(vii) recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation;
(viii) provide such support to other countries affected by major dis asters as
may be determined by the central Government;
(ix) take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the
mitigation, or preparedness and capacity building for dealing with
the threatening disaster situation or disaster as it may consider
necessary;
(x) lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the
National Institute of Disaster Management.
The NDMA has issued guidelines in January, 2008 for management of
floods and the roles of various Central and State agencies have b een
specified for preparation of flood mitigation plans and taking relief
measures during flood disasters.
Management of floods
Development of a culture of prevention is an essential component of an
integrated approach to disaster reduction. Prepare and m aintain in a state
of readiness ‘Preparedness and Response Plans’ at National, State and
District levels and adoption of a policy of self reliance in each vulnerable
area. Education and training in disaster prevention, mitigation and
preparedness for enhan cement of capabilities at all levels. There should be
identification and strengthening of existing centres of excellence in order
to improve disaster prevention, reduction and mitigation capabilities.
Preparedness means those actions taken to limit the im pact of natural
phenomena by structuring response and establishing a mechanism for
effecting a quick and orderly reaction. Preparedness activities could
include pre -positioning supplies and equipment; developing emergency
action plans, manuals, and procedu res; developing warning, evacuation, munotes.in

Page 80

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
80 and sheltering plans; strengthening or otherwise protecting critical
facilities; etc.
Culture of Preparedness -To cope with the effects of natural disasters
post-disaster management involve many problems such as law and order,
evacuation and warnings, communications, search and rescue, fire -
fighting, medical and psychiatric assistance, provision of relief and
sheltering, etc.
After the initial trauma of the occurrence of the natural disaster, like flood,
is over within the first few days or weeks, the phase of reconstruction and
economic, social and psychological rehabilitation is taken up by the
people themselves and by the government authorities.
Experience has shown that by the presence of a well -functioning warning
system, combined with preparedness on the part of the vulnerable
community, destruction from floods may be minimized. A community that
is prepared to face disasters receives and understands warnings of
impending hazards and has taken precautionary and miti gatory measures
will be able to cope better and resume their normal life sooner.
 Flood preparedness and response in India
In order to respond effectively to floods, Ministry of Home Affairs has
initiated National Disaster Risk Management Programme in all the flood -
prone States. Assistance is being provided to the States to draw up disaster
management plans at the State, District, Block/Taluka and Village levels.
Awareness generation campaigns to sensitize all the stakeholders on the
need for flood prepared ness and mitigation measures. Elected
representatives and officials are being trained in flood disaster
management under the programme. Bihar Orissa, West Bengal, Assam
and Uttar Pradesh are among the 17 multi -hazard prone States where this
programme is be ing implemented with UNDP, USAID and European
Commission.
Mitigation - case studies – flood
 Mumbai flood - July 26, 2005
The following are the glimpse of complexity of Mumbai Flood
 Mumbai, with an Area of 437 Sq. Km, is originally a group of 7
islands h aving many reclaimed areas that are just 5 mtrs. above low
tide sea level.
 Mithi River divides the city into the western & the eastern suburbs can
cause floods.
 Rapid urbanisation in the city with mostly private houses has blocked
the waterways.
 Railwa y lines typically 10 mtrs. above low tide level & Subways close
to high tide level are highly affected by floods. So, there are 82
chronic flooding spots in Mumbai. munotes.in

Page 81

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
81  The ratio of > 75 mm rainfall days to flooding days increased from 1:7
to 1.5:1 during the last sixty years.
 Existing technology does not forecast rainfall >250 mm accurately –
limitations with India Meteorological Department (IMD).
 July 26, 2005 – 944 mm rainfall. Rainfall from clouds few kms. long
could not be predicted.
 Sea level rising by 3 mm ever year.
 Multiplicity of organisations: over 20 agencies from the GoI, GoM,
and MCGM
 The scourge of rainfall -Mumbai get about 2500 mm of rainfall , but in
Mumbai the water has to discharge in one -sixth of the time, due to
concentration of rainfa ll in monsoons during July and August
Government Recovery Plan
1. Storm Water Drainage
 Upgrade the storm water drainage system to mitigate the effects of
events like July 26th 2005, when almost 35% of annual rainfall
occurred on a single day.
 Widening and de epening of existing water channels and causeways.
 Providing smooth transition for waterways near bridges
 Moderating the river course by replacing existing sharp bends with
longer gentler bends
2. Actions by MCGM
 Operates a control room - the Main Centre of Co mmunication
 Discharge pumps – 196 nos. deployed to discharge water
 6 Nos. search and rescue teams kept ready under the fire brigade
 600 personnel from Civil Defence and 10 persons per ward from
NGO
 500 buses kept ready by the transport service provider
 De-silting of Mithi river - 5.68 lakh M 3 silt removed pre -2007 and
3.70 lakhs M3 thereafter
 2652 residential and 1148 commercial structures removed.
 1769 residential and 349 commercial structures rehabilitated
 Additional bridges at Kranti Nagar and Kurl a-Kalina Road started. munotes.in

Page 82

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
82 3. Actions by State Government
 Active traffic management - diversion when roads are waterlogged
 State government hospitals/ supplement municipal hospitals.
 Home Guards & Civil Defence for disaster management
 288 retaining walls in 74 pl aces have been undertaken by the Slum
Improvement Board
 The Chief Minister of Maharashtra acts as the highest coordinating
authority - Chairs a ‘Monsoon -preparedness’ meeting
 Regular follow -up meetings by the Chief Secretary and Additional
Chief Secretary (Home Department).
4. Actions by Government of India
 Honorable Prime Minister sanctioned a special grant of Rs. 1200
crores outside the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JNNURM) as 100% subsidy
 The work involves widening of drains and constr uction of pumping
stations
 Rehabilitation of slums up to 01.01.2000.
5. Conclusion and Recommendation
 Shift from conventional / reactive approach to strategic approach
 Step up structural measures such as gates on Vihar and Tulsi lakes,
holding ponds upstr eam of airport on Mithi river, augmentation of
railway culverts
 Contour mapping of city required for better storm -water management
 Upgrade flood warning and forecasting measures to “nowcasting”.
 Network of Doppler Weather Radars to be put in place
 Restoration of existing water bodies, natural drainage, resettle the
encroachment, enforcement of rain water harvesting etc. to moderate
the discharge.
 Create public awareness about warnings, teach people how to react
and ensure self help grooming; collaborat e with NGOs
 “Flood insurance” products have to be encouraged to cover partial loss
to business
6. Mumbai Floods - Aftermath - Lessons Learnt munotes.in

Page 83

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
83  Sustainable and meticulously planned growth is the key. Expert reports
prepared for future planning
 In India - post 2005 Mumbai floods - disaster management bill passed,
policy is emerging
 Political action is necessary. Regular monitoring by political executive
became order of the day
 Informed, trained bureaucrats can offer co -ordinated response. Regular
interaction wi th experts in training and research institutions
 Effective communication is the key. It can make or break the response
measures
 Disaster response has to be ‘people centric’. People with strong civic
sense and resilience make all the difference
 Local commi ttees trained in facilitating self help foster the government
initiatives
 Empowered communities respond better
4.6 CYCLONE - DISTRIBUTION CAUSES, EFFECT,
MANAGEMENT
A cyclone is a large -scale, atmospheric wind -and-pressure system
characterized by low pres sure at its center and by circular wind motion,
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere. They are usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that
rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwis e in the
southern hemisphere. All large -scale cyclones are centered on areas of low
atmospheric pressure. A cyclone is formed when a warm temperature of
the sea reaches a threshold level and the wind structure is rising. In other
words, cyclone derives th eir energy from the warm tropical oceans and do
not form unless the sea -surface temperature is above 26.5°C. However,
once formed they can persist at lower temperatures and dissipate over land
or colder oceans. The eye of the cyclone is the centre of the cyclone where
the focus lies. The areas surrounding the eye will be most affected
because of the strong wind.
Geographical distribution of cyclone
World distribution of tropical cyclones is limited to six regions, all of
them over tropical and subtropical oceans.
1. West Indies, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea;
2. western North Pacific, including the Philippine Islands, China Sea, and
Japanese Islands;
3. Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal; munotes.in

Page 84

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
84 4. Eastern Pacific coastal region off Mexico and Central America;
5. South Indian Oc ean, off Madagascar;
6. Western South Pacific, in the region of Samoa and Fiji Islands and the
east coast of Australia.
Causes of cyclones
In tropical oceans the water in the oceans’ surface layer heated by the
direct solar radiation. As a result the air a bove the tropical ocean is
characterised by high temperature and humidity resulting in air inflation
that easily leads to low density per unit volume of air. Weak wind near the
equator causes the lighter air to soar and incur convection that further
attrac ts inflow of surrounding cooler air. The intake air then warms up and
soars again, creating a positive feedback cycle that eventually forms an air
column with high temperature, light weight and low density. This is how
the tropical depression forms. Cyclon es form only over warm ocean
waters near the equator. To form a cyclone, warm, moist air over the
ocean rises upward from near the surface. As this air moves up and away
from the ocean surface, it leaves less air near the surface. As basically the
warm air rises, it causes an area of low air pressure below. Air from
surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes in to the low pressure
area. Then this new “cool” air becomes warm and moist and rises, too.
And the cycle continues. As the warmed, moist air r ises and cools the
water in the air forms clouds. The whole system of clouds and wind spins
and grows, fed by the ocean’s heat and water evaporating from the ocean
surface.
As the storm system rotates faster and faster, an eye forms in the centre. It
is ve ry calm and clear in the eye, with very low air pressure. Higher
pressure air from above flows down into the eye. When the winds in the
rotating storm reach 39 mph (63 kmph), the storm is called a “tropical
storm”. And when the wind speeds reach 74 mph (11 9 kmph), the storm is
officially a “tropical cyclone” or hurricane. Tropical cyclones usually
weaken when they hit land, because they are no longer being “fed” by the
energy from the warm ocean waters. However, they often move far inland,
dumping many cent imetres of rain and causing lots of wind damage before
they die out completely.
 There are four stages that form a cyclone which include:
1. Formative Stage
2. Immature Cyclone
3. Mature Cyclone
4. Decay stage
To form, tropical cyclones require large bodies of warm wat er (26.5o C
over a depth of at least 50m). The atmosphere must also be conducive to
convection (i.e. it must cool rapidly with height to ensure a warm air munotes.in

Page 85

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
85 parcel from the surface will continue to rise to a high enough height to
form a cumulonimbus cloud – A thunderstorm). They must form at least
500km (300miles) from the equator to ensure the Carioles ‘force’ is strong
enough to allow the central low pressure to be maintained, otherwise air
would move in too quickly and ‘fill’ the low pressure killing the s torm. An
existing area of disturbance (to provide some weak spin) is also required
in formation – The storm cannot form spontaneously out of the blue.
Finally less than 10m/s of vertical wind shear (how much the wind varies
with height). If shear is greate r than this than the deep convection will be
disrupted and the developing storm can be ‘torn’ apart. Tropical cyclones
obtain all of their energy from latent heat (the energy released when water
cools from water vapour to liquid water i.e. in a cloud). Thi s heat
originated in the warm, tropical oceans as mentioned above. If a tropical
atmospheric disturbance occurs (such as a tropical wave leaving the west
coast of Africa), thunderstorms can begin to develop more widely in the
warm, humid tropical air. As a ir rises into the thunderstorms, further air is
entrained into the surface low and this enhances the weak circulation that
initiated the thunderstorms. The large quantity of rising air also creates a
high pressure system above, leading to diverging air alo ft enhancing the
upward motion of air in the thunderstorms. As the surface winds increase
to between 20 -34 knots, the disturbance becomes known as a tropical
depression. A distinct area of low pressure usually forms at this point at
the centre of the group of thunderstorms and the wind moving faster
inwards causes the spin to increase (just as an ice skaters spin increases
when they move their arms inwards). The sea now becomes rougher,
leading to greater friction and so the winds converge further into the centre
of the low. A feedback mechanism now occurs. The rising air has extra
heat and moisture from the increasingly choppy sea. This results in more
and stronger thunderstorms which release more latent heat. This causes the
surface pressure to lower furth er, causing stronger winds, choppier seas
and greater surface convergence of winds. When winds reach between 35 -
64knots the weather system is classed as a tropical storm. Above 65knots
we call it a tropical cyclone (or hurricane etc depending on geographic
location). By this point the distinctive eye usually forms where slowly
sinking air in the centre of the storm creates a region of relative calm (the
eye) surrounded by violent winds (the eye wall - figure 2). This
development will continue until the mois ture is cut off (the cyclone moves
over land), the heat is cut off (the cyclone moves too far north or south), or
wind shear increases and shears the storm apart. When the cyclone is ‘full’
of thunderstorms, latent heat release slows as the entire air mass warms
and this also limits cyclone growth. These factors mean that wind gusts in
cyclones rarely exceed 200knots. Tropical cyclones generally last about a
week but this can vary considerably. The oldest cyclone (Hurricane Tina
1992) lasted for 24 days. Th e average diameter is around 500km and they
extend to a height of around 15km. Tropical cyclones can release up to
200x1018J per day (approx 1PW = 1x1015Watts!). This is equivalent to
exploding a 10 megaton nuclear bomb every 20 minutes! Obviously when
tropical cyclones make landfall the strength of the wind causes
considerable damage. However the storm surge is often the most deadly
part (~90% of tropical cyclone deaths are due to the storm surge) caused munotes.in

Page 86

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
86 partly by the very low central pressure causing a ri se in sea levels but
mainly by the winds whipping up the sea by up to 5m. Hurricanes,
typhoons, cyclones, Willy -willy’s are all words used for tropical cyclone.
The different terms are used in different parts of the world.
 India also has history of sufferi ng from cyclones.
 The 1935, tropical cyclone killed 30,000 people.
 In 1942, tropical storm in Orissa and West Bengal killed 40,000
people.
 In 1943, Rajputana tropical storm, 5,000 people were killed.
 In eastern coast of Orissa, 1971 tropical storm killed 9 ,658.
 In 1977 cyclone, in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala 14,204
people were killed.
 The biggest cyclone disaster is the Orissa super cyclone. It hit the
Orissa coast of India on October 29, 1999 accompanied with 155 mph
(250 km/h) cyclone winds and water surge from the sea. It caused the
deaths of over 10,000 people, and heavy to extreme damage in its path
of destruction. Following the cyclone, with the help of the World
Bank, Orissa State Disaster Management Authority was formed.
Impact of cyclon e
Tropical storms are a type of severe spinning (rotating) storm that occurs
over the ocean near the tropics. As they gather speed, the spinning of the
earth, the Coriolis effect, pushes them westward and away from the
equator. If they reach land there are several things that you would notice
High Winds : The extreme wind speeds in tropical cyclones are directly
related to the steep pressure gradients near the cyclone centre. Wind
damage increases exponentially with increased wind speed. In severe
cyclones the maximum sustained winds can approach 200 km/h with short
period gusts closer to 300 km/h. Such violent winds can devastate natural
vegetation and all but the strongest man -made structures.
Storm Surge : As a tropical cyclone crosses the coast the combin ation of
low pressure near the centre and strong onshore winds can produce a large
increase in sea level, called a storm surge. This can bring about sea waves
breaking into areas not normally affected, producing absolute destruction
of buildings or other f acilities. In highly vulnerable areas such as the
Ganges River Delta of Bangladesh, where a large population inhabits the
fertile flats close to sea level, the results can be disastrous. Storm surges in
this area have resulted in death tolls exceeding 100, 000.
Flood Rains and Landslides : In some areas of the world (especially the
Philippines, China and Japan), torrential rain brought by tropical cyclones
can produce landslides in mountainous terrain, sometimes with disastrous
results. In early November 1991 on the Philippines island of Leyte an munotes.in

Page 87

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
87 estimated 6,000 people died and a further 20,000 were left homeless when
flood rains in the wake of Typhoon Thelma caused flash flooding,
landslides and a burst dam. Hardest hit was the port city of Ormoc where a
huge mudslide occurred on nearby hillsides made much worse by
extensive logging operations that had removed the protection of the trees.
Forecasting , warning, monitoring cyclone:
 Cyclone Forecast and Stages of Cyclone Warning
Tropical cyclone forecasting is the science of forecasting. It states where a
tropical cyclone’s centre, and its effects, is expected to be at some point in
the future. There are several elements to tropical cyclone forecasting: track
forecasting, intensity forecasting, rainfall forecast ing, storm surge, and
tornado forecasting. The skill in regard to track forecasting has increased,
but intensity forecasting skill remains nearly unchanged over the past
several years.
Cyclones vary considerably in their predictability. Much effort has bee n
dedicated to improving the forecasting skill in both location and intensity.
The Bureau of Meteorology routinely issues forecasts of cyclone location
and intensity at 12, 24 and 48 hour time -steps. All official forecasts are
verified by comparison with t he best track , the official estimate of the
location and intensity of a tropical cyclone. A best track is prepared for
every tropical cyclone, after the fact, using all available data.
Unpredictable nature of Tropical cyclones is seen when some exhibit rap id
changes in intensity or change course speed up or slow down, primarily in
response to changes in the surrounding environment. Cyclone Lena (1993),
for example, was moving to the west but made a U -turn and returned close
to its original path. Also cyclone s at the category 1 stage are typically
difficult to locate as the centre may not be apparent from satellite imagery,
compared to stronger systems that have a well -defined eye. Those systems
that markedly change their course or intensity close to the coast present
the greatest challenge to forecasters and decision -makers in the
community. Community awareness is much higher when a cyclone
develops well offshore prior to crossing compared to one that rapidly
develops near the coast.
The cyclone tracking, fore casting and advance warning are being done
precisely after the Meteorological application program of INSAT series of
Indian Geo -Stationary Satellites have become operational since October
1983. Monitoring of the cyclone is done by taking hourly pictures. This
has helped the forecaster to improve his skill in issuing the timely
warnings to the public. Satellite pictures received by the IMD HQ at New
Delhi are further disseminated to all the forecasting Offices through
satellite based Digital Meteorological Data Dissemination Systems. The
Government has strengthened the Meteorological Department, by
providing Cyclone Surveillance Radars at Calcutta, Paradeep,
Visakhapatnam, Machilipatnam, Chennai and Karaikal in the east coast
and at Kochi, Goa, Mumbai and B huj in the west coast for further cyclone
warning when they are within a close approach of 500 km off coast. munotes.in

Page 88

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
88 Area Cyclone Warning Centres (ACWC) and the Cyclone Warning
Centres (CWC) of IMD are responsible for cyclone forecasting in the Bay
of Bengal and Arabian Sea - the National Cyclone Warning Centre at New
Delhi being the coordinator. Computerised Operational Advisory
Forecasts on cyclone movements are being issued by the Numerical
Weather Prediction (NWP) division of the Department at the H.Q., New
Delhi.
After receipt of pre -cyclone watch bulletin issued by HQ, ACWC/CWC
will monitor issue of warnings under two stages warning system - Cyclone
Alert and Cyclone Warning.
Cyclone Alert, the first stage warning: This is issued 48 hrs. in advance
of the comm encement of adverse weather, to Collector of coastal districts
and the Chief Secretary of the concerned maritime state. After issue of
alert message for broadcast, the concerned AIRs are to be requested to
maintain round the clock watch to receive & broad cast the subsequent
numbered bulletins.
Cyclone warning is the second stage warning: This is issued 24 hrs. in
advance of the commencement of adverse weather.
Third stage of warning: If the storm is tracked by radar with a high
degree of confidence, any other crucial warning will be sent more
frequently to all the concerned recipients (Collectors & Chief Secretaries),
subsequent to this warning. These recipients will be informed that
subsequent warning on the storm will be broadcast by AIR stations.
The fourth stage of the warning, i.e. Post Landfall Outlook (PLO) meant
for Interior districts issued 12 hrs. before the estimated landfall of the
storm in order to bring to the notice of the Collectors of interior districts
about their area likely to be affe cted by cyclone.
One of the means of communication, on which IMD depends for the
dissemination of these warnings, other than AIR, is satellite, based
Cyclone Warning Dissemination System (CWDS) installed at maritime
district HQ, so that district authoriti es can initiate appropriate
precautionary measures on receipt of such warnings. This scheme makes
use of the S -band broadcast capability of INSAT satellite. At present there
are 5 CWDS stations located in Kerala, which are at Thiruvananthapuram,
Alappuzha , Ernakulam, Thrissur and Kozhikode.
Fisheries Warnings: When wind speed over sea area is expected to
exceed 45 kmph in the sea area up to 75 Nautical miles from the coast,
wind warnings are issued and communicated to the Director of Fisheries,
all Dy. D irectors of Fisheries and Director of Ports through fax/SMS
through VPN connection, advising fisherman to be cautious while
venturing into the sea.
Heavy rainfall warnings : When rainfall amount is expected to exceed 7
cm, heavy rainfall warnings are issue d to District Collectors and various
agencies, such as public services, PWD, Irrigation, Hydroelectric, Port, munotes.in

Page 89

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
89 telegraphs, Railway and Community Project Officials, so that the disaster
management machinery can be kept in readiness
Monitoring cyclone
Observa tion of tropical cyclone has been carried out over the past couple
of centuries in various ways. The passage of typhoons, hurricanes, and
other tropical cyclones have been detected by word of mouth from sailors
recently coming to port or by radio transmiss ions from ships at sea, from
sediment deposits in near shore estuaries, to the wiping out of cities near
the coastline. Moreover, since World War II, with the advancement in
technology planes have been used to survey the ocean basins, satellites to
monitor the world's oceans from outer space using a variety of methods,
radars to monitor their progress near the coastline, and recently the
introduction of unmanned aerial vehicles to penetrate storms. Recent
studies have concentrated on studying hurricane impa cts lying within
rocks or near shore lake sediments, which are branches of a new field
known as paleotempestology.
Management of cyclone
 National Cyclone Mitigation Project
A project for Cyclone Mitigation (estimated cost Rs. 1050 crore) has been
drawn up in consultation with the cyclone prone States. This project
envisages construction of cyclone shelters, coastal shelter belt plantation
in areas which are pr one to storm surges, strengthening of warning
systems, training and education etc. This project has also been given in -
principle clearance by the Planning Commission and is being taken up
with World Bank assistance.
The Government of India has approved a N ational Cyclone Risk
Mitigation Project (NCRMP), to be implemented in cyclone prone coastal
States and Union Territories. The Project will be implemented in three
phases as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with 75% contribution by the
Central Government and 25 % contribution by the State Governments for
the component consisting of structural and non -structural measures.
A Project Oversight Committee will be constituted under the chairmanship
of the Home Secretary for overall review and policy level directions o f the
scheme. A Project Steering Committee chaired by Secretary, NDMA will
be constituted with representation of key Ministries/organisations. At state
level, a Project Implementation unit will be set up.
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) h as been
designated as the implementing agency. The scheme is regularly
monitored by NDMA and MHA.
Objectives of NDMA
(i) To upgrade cyclone forecasting, tracking and warning systems and
capacity building in multi -hazard risk management. munotes.in

Page 90

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
90 (ii) To construct major inf rastructure including multi -purpose cyclone
shelters and embankments.
After the Orissa Super Cyclone of 1999 under the influence of
reconstruction donor organizations, led by the World Bank, the
Government of Orissa established Orissa State Disaster Manage ment
Authority (OSDMA). This was an institutional innovation for speedy
reconstruction, disaster management planning, preparedness, training, and
related matters, avoiding the bureaucratic red tape.
Preparedness and Response of cyclone
The significant i mprovements in disaster management, preparedness,
forecasting capabilities and early warning, such as the improvements
exhibited by India during Cyclone Phailin in October 2013, have helped to
mitigate some disaster -related impacts. Preparedness and early warning
communications and activities had been much improved since the
comparable Cyclone 05B 14 years earlier.
On the evening of October 12, 2013 a very severe tropical cyclone,
Phailin, brought torrential downpours, damaging winds of more than 220
kilome tres per hour (km/h) and storm surges of up to 3.5 metres (m) to the
eastern Indian states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. Effective disaster
planning, preparation and dissemination of early warning information led
to a minimal death toll in the wake of the strongest cyclone to hit India in
14 years. In mid -October 2013, Cyclone Phailin swept over the Bay of
Bengal and across the eastern coast of India. The evacuation of more than
a million people in the states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh in response to
effective early warnings resulted in a much lower death toll than a
catastrophic cyclone of similar strength that struck in 1999, leaving 10,000
people dead. Continued early warning efforts could have similar positive
results in the future, and when accompanie d by good communication and
adequate preparation, impacts of disasters could be mitigated or even
prevented.
Regarding forecasts, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) was able
to predict wind velocity more accurately, contributing to better forecasts
and more effective early warning communications. Warnings from the
IMD were disseminated as early as four days before Phailin made landfall,
as compared with two days of warning provided for Cyclone 05B in 1999.
In addition to early warning alerts that pro mpted evacuations, precautions
to protect cattle were taken and reservoirs were lowered to mitigate
anticipated flooding. Also, preparedness meetings were held among
various Disaster Response Teams in Odisha and volunteer teams, such as
the International F ederation of Red Cross (IFRC), were also on hand to
assist with evacuation and relief.
Case study cyclone: Super Cyclonic Storm, Orissa on 29 October,
1999
Orissa was battered by a Super Cyclonic Storm on 29 October, 1999 that
made landfall near Paradip. T he estimated maximum wind speed reached munotes.in

Page 91

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
91 260-270 kmph in the core area which produced a huge storm surge that led
to sea -level elevation of more than 20 feet and took away valuable lives of
nearly 10,000 people. It was accompanied with exceptionally heavy r ains
which led to devastating floods and cut off the State from the rest of the
country. Undoubtedly it was the most intense one.
It had some unique features such as rapid intensification, small radius of
eye wall confining the large surge close to the poi nt of landfall and
relatively long life after landfall. Climatologically there is a high
frequency of dissipation of cyclones in October because of strong easterly
winds aloft. It was first detected when it was at its low pressure stage over
the gulf of Si am by the IMD cyclone surveillance system on the morning
of October 24, five days before it made landfall. Winds of up to 260 kph
raged for over 36 hours. Coastal districts of Balasore, Bhadrak,
Kendrapara, Jagatsinghpur, Puri and Ganjam were forced to eva cuate their
homes. Landfall point was between Ersama and Balikuda in Jagatsinghpur
district (southwest of Paradip). Time of landfall was 10.30 am, October
29, 1999. It had very high wind speed. The wind speed of the super
cyclone was so high that the anemo meter, a device used for measuring
wind speed, at the IMD office and at Paradip had failed to record it. Eye of
storm was Paradip. There was three days of torrential rain. The super
cyclone centered over coastal areas of Odisha for three days was
accompani ed by torrential rain as a tidal surge of about 7 to 10 metre that
swept more than 20 km inland. Diameter of cyclone was 200 km. It
originated from about 550 km east of the Andaman Islands as a
depression. Many districts and towns were affected by this sup er cyclone.
The storm in 1999 led to 45 cm to 95 cm of rainfall and affected 14 coastal
districts, 28 coastal towns and two major cities of Bhubaneswar and
Cuttack. Death toll was also noticeable. While the official death toll then
was 9,885 people, unoffi cial sources estimated the toll to be above 50,000.
An estimated 1,500 children were orphaned. Of the total casualty,
Jagatsinghpur district alone had accounted for 8,119 people. At least 13
million people, including 3.3 million children, 5 million women a nd
nearly 3.5 million elderly people were affected in 1999. The storm had left
7,505 people injured and number of livestock lost was 3,15,886 head of
cattle. 16,50,086 houses damaged, 23,129 houses washed away, 7,46,337
houses fully destroyed and 8,80,620 houses partially damaged by the super
cyclone.
After the Orissa Super Cyclone of 1999 under the influence of
reconstruction donor organizations, led by the World Bank, the
Government of Orissa established Orissa State Disaster Management
Authority (OSDMA). This was an institutional innovation for speedy
reconstruction, disaster management planning, preparedness, training, and
related matters, avoiding the bureaucratic red tape.
Within two days after the cyclone hit the Orissa coast, three INSAT
portable mob ile telephony terminals were handed over to the Civil
Administration in Bhubaneswar for relief work. These terminals work
with the INSAT -2C Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) transponders. Within
3 to 4 days, five Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs) were air lifted munotes.in

Page 92

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
92 from Delhi and a network of five VSATs was established. HCL Comnet
and Essel Shyam supplied the VSATs. At present, VSATs are located at
Krishi Bhavan, New Delhi; Secretariat, Bhubaneswar -1; Secretariat,
Bhubaneswar -2; District HQ Collector Offices i n Jagatsinghpur and
Kendrapada; and in Paradeep, Erassama and Balikuda. It helped in
establishing contact between the Relief Commissioner at Delhi and the
Orissa Secretariat via VSAT network, operating through the INSAT -2C
Extended C band transponders. Thi s network of VSATs has now been
extended to 13 places.
Use of Remote Sensing Data
Immediately after the super cyclone hit the Orissa coast and the following
days, maps showing flood inundated areas were prepared using the data
from Indian Remote Sensing s atellites and the microwave data from the
Canadian RADARSAT. As the affected areas were clouded making it
difficult for using optical remote sensing data that is provided by Indian
Remote Sensing satellites (IRS), the microwave data from RADARSAT
were also procured to complement IRS data. The maps generated at
National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad, using the data from the
satellites were rushed to Bhubaneswar within 24 hours of data acquisition
and provided to various officials for using them for relief and rescue
operations. The maps were used by Indian Air Force and the Indian Army
who were in -charge of air dropping of food and other essential materials.
Maps were also given to officers in charge of health services.
4.7 FAMINE - DISTRIBUTION CAUSES, E FFECTS,
MANAGEMENT
DROUGHT
Drought refers to a situation when rainfall fails in general and the ground
water loses its potentiality affecting the biotic life adversely. Drought is a
relative phenomenon in the sense that the amount of moisture available is
not that important to life as its effectiveness.
Drought is basically a distress situation caused by lack of rainfall. The
failure of rains may be reviewed from two aspects. Firstly, the rainfall may
be insufficient, but secondly, it may be sufficient for the region as a whole
but with a wide gap, separating two or more spells of rain. Thus the
quantum as well as the time of the rainfall both is important. In other
words, drought is a relative phenomenon. Therefore the amount of rainfall
is not that importa nt as is its effectiveness.
a. Drought: Type and distribution
 Type of drought
A distress situation caused by lack of water falls in three categories of
drought, depending on meteorological, hydrological and agricultural
aspects. Usually, we talk about meteoro logical drought, which is a
situation when the actual rainfall is significantly less than the munotes.in

Page 93

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
93 climatologically expected rainfall over a wide area. But all observed
drought is not meteorological drought. The other form of drought are
hydrological drought, s urface water drought, ground water drought and
agricultural or soil water drought.
 Meteorological drought
The special situation in which the rains do not arrive in time or in adequate
quantity is called meteorological drought.
As has been pointed above i t is the effectiveness of the rainfall rather than
its quantity that is more important. The average rainfall rather than its
quantity that is more important. The average rainfall in India is 105 cm.
and it is considered to be the largest anywhere in the wo rld for the country
of comparable size, but it fluctuates widely. It is either delayed or it ends
earlier or in between there are long breaks or the rainfall is concentrated in
just one part and is completely absent in another.
 Hydrological drought
Hydrolo gical drought comprises surface water drought and ground water
drought. It is associated with the drying up of surface water such as rivers,
streams, lakes and reservoirs. Hydrological drought occurs when
meteorological drought is sufficiently prolonged.
 Surface water drought
Apart from meteorological drought there are many other processes
through which water scarcity gets generated. Deforestation and
hydrological destabilization in the mountain catchment of rivers can make
rivers and streams dry up in th e post monsoon period. In such a situation
surface water drought occurs even though the rainfall is normal. This has
happened in Cherrapunji where it has become normal. With the
destruction of hydrological capacity of the mixed natural forests in the
catch ment, the entire 450 inches (1200 cm) of rainfall instantly runs off as
soon as monsoon is over the springs and the streams start drying up and
water scarcity sets in one of the wettest spot of the earth, during march -
April
 Ground – Water drought
Most of t he ground water that is utilized in India comes from the shallow
aquifer zone with depth less than 400 to 500 feet.
The lowering of the ground water table as a result of excessive pumping
without a compensatory replenishment creates an almost irreversible
ground water drought even in normal rainfall conditions. Except in the
alluvial areas of the Indo -Genetic plain, the rest of the country especially
in the Peninsula has very limited ground -water potential due to existence
of hard cry stalling rocks.
munotes.in

Page 94

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
94  Agric ultural drought
Agricultural drought or soil water drought occurs when soils lose their
effective moisture conserving capacity through a complex of diverse
processes and consequently leads to land aridisation. Agricultural drought
may not be present even w hen meteorological drought exists and vice -
versa.
 Distribution of drought
Various Governmental agencies have devised ways to delineate drought
prone areas.
On the basis of coefficient of variation
The coefficient of variation varies from 15 to 30 percent in India. So there
are areas of higher variability and areas of lower variability. Lower the
variability higher is the reliability and vice versa.
The highly variable rainfall areas are Rajasthan, Gujarat and Kachchh
where variability is from 50 to 80 per cent. Other areas where the
variability is from 30 to 50 percent include the interior of the Peninsula to
lee of Sahyadris or Western Ghats.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) approach
The Indian meteorological department uses two measures the firs t
describes rainfall conditions while the second represents drought severity.
Rainfall conditions are defined as follows.
Excess + 20 percent or more of the average of 70 -100 years
Normal+ 19 per cent to 19 per cent of the average of 70 -100 years
Deficien t - 20 percent to 59 percent of the average of 70 -100 years
Scanty - 60 percent or less of the average of 70 -100 years
The precipitation is expressed on a weekly and monthly basis.
Drought is described as moderate or severe if the seasonal rainfall
(south west monsoon) deficiency is 26 -50 percent or more than 50 percent
of the normal, respectively. The criteria used by the Indian Meteorological
Department are the most accepted measure of drought, principally because
of its simplicity. Other measures of drou ght have been proposed.
Subramanyam (1964), for example, defined drought intensities using
standard deviation of the aridity index, while Krisbnan and Thanvi (1971)
used the aridity index of the Kharif (monsoon season) cropping season to
describe the droug ht intensity. A drought prone area is defined as one in
which the probability of a drought year is greater than 20 percent. A
chronic drought prone area is one in which the probability of a drought
year is greater than 40 percent. A drought year occurs whe n less than 75
per cent of the normal rainfall is received. munotes.in

Page 95

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
95 b. Geographical distribution of drought
The drought area and the chronic drought affected areas are:
(a) Drought affected areas
 Gujarat, Rajasthan and adjoining parts of the Punjab, Haryana, West
Uttar Pradesh and west Madhya Pradesh
 Madhya Maharashtra, interior Karnataka, Rayalseems, South
Telengana and parts of Tamilnadu.
 Small portion of north -west Bihar and adjoining east Uttar Pradesh,
south west Bihar including Palamau and Garhwal district.
 Small portion of north east Bihar and adjoining portion of West
Bengal.
(b) Chronically drought affected areas.
 This includes western part of Rajasthan and Kachchh. Thus the three
drought areas are:
 The track comprising the desert and semi arid region of India in a
rectangular from running from Ahmedabad to Kanpur and From
Kanpur to Jalandhar comprising an area of about 0.6 million sq. km.
 The track comprising the regions lying in the lee of Sahyadri
comprising an area of about 0.37 million sq. km.
 Pockets of drough t which comprises Thirunelveli and Coimbatore
districts of Tamil Nadu, Saurashtra and Kachchh region, Puruliya
district of West Bengal and Kalahandi region of Orissa comprising 0.1
million sq. km. Thus are total area affected by inadequate rainfall is
over 1 million sq.km. Thus the total area affected by inadequate
rainfall is over 1 million sq. km.
The rainfall criterion described above is useful for a continuous
monitoring of the monsoon season. The sum of the season’s rainfall
becomes the basis for descr ibing a region under moderate or severe
drought. When more than 50 percent of the area in the country is under
moderate of severe drought, the country is described as severely affected
by drought; and when the affected area is 26 -50percent of the country, it is
described as an incidence of moderate drought.
It is seen that most of the areas susceptible to drought fall between arid
and semi arid zones of the country and chronically affected drought areas
are identified with extreme arid conditions. However, droughts may occur
outside this zone in areas like Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh in Madhya
Pradesh and some areas in the east in sub humid regions.

munotes.in

Page 96

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
96 c. Causes of droughts
There are six major causes of drought as far as rainfall is concerned
1. Late onset and early wi thdrawal of monsoons
2. Lean rainfall due to absence of depressions (low pressure system)
passing over India.
3. Prolonged breaks in monsoon rainfall
4. Re-establishment of southern branch of jet stream
5. Up welling of cool water over the Arabian Sea and extension of cool
Somali currents over the Arabian Sea
6. The movement of monsoon trough closer to the Himalayan zone
The reasons behind late onset and early withdrawal of monsoons are not
clearly known. The physical mechanism which leads to this
meteorological situatio n is not fully understood. The more information on
cloud structure will definitely help to know the conditions that leads to the
late or an early onset of monsoon.
The absence of depressions and low pressure systems passing over India is
actually associate d with the global weather systems. The southern
oscillation is one such meteorological system that affects the generation of
these depressions. The low pressure system which dominates the area
around Tahiti in central Pacific and associated high pressure o ver land on
Asia and southeast region naturally prevents the formation of cyclones and
depressions over Indonesia and the Bay of Bengal.
The prolonged break in monsoon rainfall is again part of the global
weather dynamics. Previous rainfall data suggests t hat prolonged breaks in
monsoon rainfalls have a tendency to occur towards the second half of the
season that is in August and September. This type of phenomena occurred
in 1974, in 1979 in 1981. These breaks are linked with quasi stationary
anti-cyclonic circulation that establishes itself over North West India. This
anti cyclonic circulation inhibits the upward motion of air suppressing
rainfall generating conditions. Again how meteorological features
influence this type of circulation is not fully unders tood.
The re -establishment of the southern branch of jet stream is also a part of
the global weather dynamics which cannot be fully explained. The effect
of re establishment of jet stream is the suppression of convection.
Suppressed convection inhibits cl oud formation and consequently rainfall.
The upwelling phenomenon over the Arabian Sea caused due to pushing
of cool Somali current decreases the sea water temperature by as much as
2 to 4 degrees. The low surface water temperature decreases evaporation
and consequently the moisture content of the wind. With lowered moisture
content, the amount of rainfall all along the western coastal belt and in the
lee of Sahyadri is also lowered. munotes.in

Page 97

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
97 Rainfall along the axis of the monsoon trough is heavy because the trough
is the passage ways of smaller depressions. Thus when the monsoon
trough lies close to the Himalayas there is abnormally heavy precipitation
in the foothills. This causes floods while the rest of plain goes dry and
invites drought.
Lack of water cannot be considered as the sole criteria for drought. If it
was so then the areas receiving heavy rainfall such as North -Eastern India
and the Western Ghats regions would have not been drought affected. But
drought like conditions does exist in these places during March -April. It
must be recognized that climatic and rainfall variability is intrinsic part of
tropical meteorology. India’s weather conditions like many part of tropical
world a characterized by short term fluctuations which are not adequately
explained. When the monsoons appear over India, depressions and
cyclonic disturbances can cause appreciable spatial variations in rainfall.
At the same time these disturbances do not give a common pattern. For
example, during 1917 and 1918 monsoon season the numbers of
disturbances were equal while 1917 and 1918 are the wettest and driest
season of India, respectively, during the period 1901 to 1960.
Droughts’ resulting from failure of rainfall is a product of meteorological
variability. Droughts are bound to re -occu r because they are, after all, a
part of tropical meteorology. Except for small pockets of north east there
is no area in India that has not been affected by drought at one time or the
other.
Probability of Occurrence of Drought in Drought Prone
Meteorolo gical Subdivisions
Meteorological Subdivisions Frequency of Deficient
Rainfall (75 % of normal or
less
Assam, Northeast Region Very rare, once in 15 years
West Bengal, West Madhya Pradesh,
Konkan, Coastal Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Kerala, Bihar, Oriss a. Once in five years.
South interior Karnataka, Eastern Uttar
Pradesh, Vidarbha, Gujarat, Eastern
Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh Once in five years
Tamil Nadu, Kashmir Once in Four years
Rayalseema, Telangana, Western
Rajasthan Twice in five years
d. Impact of drought
Although the drought is short term phenomena, its impact is felt over a
much longer period. Its adverse impact is felt widely in the form of
depletion of underground water resources, lowering water table, death of
human, animal alike, etc ., and these are greatly aggravated by the
cumulative impact of successive droughts. This happens only if the
drought is severe. A mild drought followed by a good season may not
leave its marks. munotes.in

Page 98

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
98 Drought has manifold impact on the geography of a country tha t can be
studied under the following heads.
I. Physical impact
Meteorological drought has an immediate effect on the soil moisture,
ground water table and surface runoff. The water table is lowered and the
surface runoff is reduced to lower the reservoir leve ls. The absence of
recharge, lower water table and cause the wells to dry up. The drying up of
wells has an adverse effect on irrigation. A meteorological drought also
causes the runoff to decrease causing the rivers to dry up during the dry
season. This i n turn also affects the lowering of the reservoir water level.
II. Impact on Agriculture
Indian agriculture is still largely monsoon controlled. It is dependent on
environmental factors such as rainfall, ground water condition and soil
moisture condition. Henc e it is largely prone to meteorological,
hydrological and agricultural drought. The effect is manifested in the
shortfalls of agricultural production in drought years.
The major drought of 1918, 1965, 1966, 1972, 1979 and 1982 caused
losses in food grain production.
Extent and impact of drought in important drought years
Drought
Year % of the
Country
Affected % Reduction in
Food Grain
Production over
the Previous
Peak year Total food
Grain
Production
(in million
metric tons) Import of
Food
Grains (in
million
metric
tons)
1918 -19 73 32.3 - -
1965 -66 54 18.8 72.4 10.6
1972 -73 43 7.7 97.0 3.6
1979 -80 41 17.0 109.0 0
1982 -83 37 3.7 128.4 0

A shortfall in production may be the direct impact of meteorological
drought but consecutive meteorological drought , hydrological and
agricultural and agricultural droughts have a long range and far reaching
impact on agriculture. This impact may be in the form of changes in
cropping patterns and impoverishment in cattle.
III. Social and Economic Impact
Droughts do affect t he social and economic life of people, but the severity
of the impact depends on:
a) The manner in which it is tackled.
b) The stability, strength and resilience of the economy of the society. munotes.in

Page 99

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
99 The consequences are:
1) Decline in crop acreage.
2) Set bank to agricultur al production (crop production, milk
production0.
3) Fall in employment in the agricultural sector due to showing down
of agricultural activity.
4) Fall in purchasing power of those engaged in agriculture
5) Scarcity of drinking water, fall in water -table.
6) Scarcit y of food grains.
7) Rise in the price of food grain and other commodities
8) Scarcity of fodder.
9) Distress sale of cattle.
10) Loss of cattle life.
11) Low intake of food.
12) Malnutrition especially among children.
13) Ill health and spread of diseases like diarrhoea, dysenter y or
cholera famine and ophthalmic diseases caused by starvation.
14) Distress sale and mortgage of land, jeweller and personal property.
15) Migration of people in search of employment, depopulation of
area.
16) Death due to malnutrition/starvation/diseases,
17) Fall in effective demand from agriculture sector leading to
dislocation of productive processes and slowing down of the
economic activities in the secondary and tertiary sectors.
18) Low morale of people
19) Social stress and tension, disruption of social institutions and
relationships and social crimes. E.g., looting of grain shops.
20) Growth of fatalism, reliance on heavenly powers.
The impact is greatest on the most vulnerable sections of the society who
have a hand to mouth economy and very little margin and staying power .
These include the landless and marginal farmers, the artisans like the
weavers whose very existence depends on local demand. On the contrary
the richer sections take advantages of scarcity and high prices of food to
make a fortune out of their surplus st ock. munotes.in

Page 100

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
100 To conclude it may be said that a severe drought followed by a moderately
good season leads to a secular decline of the economy. On the contrary, a
milk drought followed by good seasons and effective handling of the
consequences may not come in the w ay of secular upward movement of
the economy. In the long term, some consequences of drought may be
easily overcome, but most of them leave a permanent imprint on the
economy.
In spite of some irreversible changes, like loss of life, assets and wealth if
a drought is followed by a good rain, it will lead to an increased fodder
production. It will also replenish the depleted food stocks and may also
increase opportunities of gainful employment.
e. Forecasting, warning & monitoring of drought
Empirical studies conducted over the past century have shown that
meteorological drought is never the result of a single cause. It is the result
of many causes, often synergistic in nature.
Management of Drought
Drought can be managed in two ways
1) Preventing the causative a spects of drought.
2) Providing relief to victims of drought and also rehabilitating them.
The reoccurrence of drought can be prevented by eliminating the causes
which are responsible for it.
Management of Meteorological Drought
Meteorological drought will be a part and parcel of India’s climate
conditions as long as India is in the tropical realm. The complexity of
meteorological phenomena on such as re -establishment of jet stream,
movement of monsoonal trough close to the Himalayas, El Nino effects
and globa l pressure changes (walker’s Circulation), the upwelling
phenomena in Arabian Sea, etc., cannot be managed as they are part of a
complex atmospheric circulation.
The meteorological drought can be managed by predicting the variability
of changing weather to some extent. By predictions the impact of climatic
variations may be lessened. A prediction that the rainfall will be less than
the normal will help the farmer to judiciously choose crops that are less
water demanding. On the other hand, if a water demand ing crop is sown,
in the absence of current information about rainfalls, an artificial drought
condition may occur.
Management of Hydrological Drought
In so far as hydrological drought is concerned which is readily manmade,
management can be done through v arious techniques and methods. munotes.in

Page 101

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
101 Hydrological drought management aims at preventing the drying up of
surface streams and checking the fall in ground water table. This can be
done by
a) Biological Methods
b) Engineering Methods
c) Involving local people
Biological Methods
Biological methods involve taking help of vegetation, i.e. bringing about
overall change either in the type of tree grown or overall planning in
integrated manner.
1) A deforested region decreases percolation hence lowers the ground
water table . This increases run -off and flood incidence. Therefore,
checking indiscriminate deforestation growing apace in the hilly region is
important.
2) Treatment of watershed by planting suitable trees under social
forestry and farm forestry. It should be an integr al part of watershed
management. This will reduce the prospect of flooding in the lower
portion and consequently surface water drought and at the same time,
recharge the aquifers through its input into the intake basins.
3) Converting monoculture plantations of pine or eucalyptus by
ecologically suitable trees. This will provide adequate defence to the soil
against the direct hit of raindrops during intense storm reducing the
prospects of flash flood and hence prevent surface water drought. This
method will be particularly effective in the lower Himalayan region. In
addition, monoculture eucalyptus plantation which drains a large amount
of water through its enormous evapotranspiration capabilities should be
replaced by trees which provide not only economic secu rity but also
ecologic security to the people. This will also help in raising the water
table and tiding over artificial ground water drought.
Engineering Methods
Engineering methods involve artificial recharge of ground water by
different methods. These a re stated under:
Aquifer recharge
In the mountainous terrain, the most effective and appropriate way of
recharging ground water is to cover the watershed with thick vegetation
multi -storeyed forests with trees, shrubs and grasses and thick carpet of
litter . This will allow greater infiltration of rainwater.
In flatter terrains ground water can be recharged artificially in addition to
putting the ground under forest cover. This can be done by allowing the
flood water to spread on the fields and fill the exca vated trenches, tanks, munotes.in

Page 102

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
102 ditches and furrows on the sides of the roads and railway lines. The stored
water will eventually find its way to underground reserve.
Another way of artificial recharge is injecting water through wells in areas
where excessive wate r has been withdrawn such as the southern and
central parts of Mehasana district of Gujarat. This method, to a large
extent, will help to reverse the irreversible drop in water table. These types
of efforts have been made in the Ghaggar basin at Kurukshet ra and near
Ahmedabad where water from the Sabarmati River was injected through
siphon pumps. In the peninsular regions the traditional tank system causes
one such mechanism to recharge ground water, by increasing percolation
from surface storage of rain w ater.
Diversion and storage of excess water
Diverting water from a water surplus region to water scarce and drought
prone areas will considerably abate the distress situation. Rajasthan Canal
Project has done the same thing. It has brought the water of the Himalayan
river to the dry lands of Jaisalmer Bikaner division in the desert; The
Yamuna canal likewise transfers of water as the main plank.
Involving local people
The involvement of local people and the mobilization of the energy for
water conservati on are necessary. If the people are given leadership they
would themselves undertake such projects despite unwillingness of
administration. One of the examples of this type of mass action in India is
by Mukti Sanbarsh Babini in Sangli district of Maharasht ra where the
people through Sbramdan (donation of labour) constructed a small dam
across a dry river.
Management of Agricultural Drought
The choice of crops in India has evolved according to the variations of
climate and soil conditions. It is in this per spective of the built in
resilience of indigenous practices and enhanced vulnerability of green
revolution agriculture that the droughts in India are to be analyzed. The
HYV’s need more water thereby creating an artificial drought condition in
the wheat mo noculture region of the Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Hence the first task would be to resort to the original cropping pattern
suitable to that agro climatic region. The native crops are not only less
water demanding but the indigenous mix also helps to check the nutrient
deficiency in the soil. Alternatively, stress should be put on drought
resistant verities and crops like sorghum, pearl millet, sunflower in
drought prone areas.
b. Preparedness and Response
Post Drought Management
The impact of drought can be mitigated by providing relief and
rehabilitation. The Government has launched the Drought Prone Area
Programme with a view to mitigate the effects of drought. munotes.in

Page 103

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
103 Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
The precursor of the Drought Prone Area Programme (DPA P) was the
Rural Works Programme (RWP) initiated at the beginning of the country’s
Fourth Five Year Plan. This was based on the decision that much of the
amount, the Central Government spent on relief in famine affected areas
could be so deployed in the ar eas of chronically affected by the drought as
to generate considerable employment in the rural sector largely related to a
pre planned programme of rural works. Soon after the implementation of
the RWP, it was realized that mere rural works would not be me aningful
in bringing about drought mitigation and needed to be given area
development approach. As a part of the midterm appraisal of the Fourth
Plan, the TWP was redesigned as DPAP and funding on this basis
commenced from 1972 -73. After a number of review s presently the DPAP
cover 415 blocks in 95 districts of the country. The Minhas Committee,
constituted by the Planning Commission had recommended that DPAP
should aim at integrated development of agriculture with focus on
restoration of ecological balance . Apart from irrigation, forestry, soil and
moisture conservation, it recommended changes I agronomic practices,
restructuring of cropping pattern, livestock development, rural
communication and drinking water supply as important elements of the
strategy o f integrated rural development. Later in 1980, the entire
programme was reviewed by a Task Force under the Chairmanship of M.
S. Swaminathan, the then Member (Agriculture), Planning Commission.
The Task Force redefined the scope and objective of DPAP and D DP.
While reiterating the ongoing approach and strategy, it emphasized on:
a) Promoting a more productive dry land agriculture on the basis of the
soil water climate resources of the area
b) Development and productive use of the water resources of the area;
c) Soil and moisture conservation, including promotion of proper land
use practices;
d) Afforestation, including farm forestry; and
e) Livestock development, including development pasture and fodder
resources.
Desert Development Programme (DDP)
The DDP launched in 197 7-78, covering presently 131 blocks in 21
districts, was also to have a similar approach with accent on control of
desertification.
In 1987, the Central Sanctioning Committee sought to sharpen the focus
by limiting the programme activities to the core sect ors of soil
conservation, water resource conservation, and afforestation and pasture
development.
munotes.in

Page 104

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
104 The following are the suggestions stated for drought mitigation:
1. Drought prone areas should incorporate short term and long term
development projects such as fodder bank, pasture
development/rangeland management as disaster mitigation practice.
2. An area specific watershed model development plan should be
prepared for arid, Semi arid and sub humid regions of the country.
3. In rain fed agricultural zones (having le ss rainfall and frequent
droughts), considerable stress should be placed on development of
khadi and village industries/college and handicrafts industries projects
to provide gainful employment to the local people and check people’s
migration towards citie s.
4. The development programmes such as national Watershed
Development Programme for rain fed areas, DPAP, Desert
Development Programme, National Rural Employment Programme,
Drinking Water Programme and Poverty Alleviation Programmes
should be integrated to form a comprehensive Drought Mitigation
Programme.
5. Public participation and use of traditional practices for Disaster
Mitigation should be give proper attention.
Local communities have devised indigenous safety mechanisms and
drought oriented farming met hods in many parts of the country. From the
experience of managing the past droughts particularly the severe drought
of 1987, a number of programmes have been launched by the Government
to mitigate the impact of drought in the long run. These programmes
include Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Desert Development
Programme (DDP); National Watershed Development Project for Rain fed
Areas (NWDPRA), Watershed Development Programme for Shifting
Cultivation (WDPSC), Integrated Water Development Project (IWD P),
Integrated Afforestation and Eco -development Project Scheme (IAEPS).
c. Mitigation - case studies Latur, Maharashtra
Drought has devastated the once -prosperous Latur. Latur, with a
population of about half a million, is one of the eight districts in the
Marathwada region facing severe drought. The vagaries of nature have
already taken their toll: the farmer in the hinterland has no way out, and
the common man clings to a collapsing water infrastructure in the cramped
city. Geographically, the impact of th e crisis has varied. The north -eastern
belt, Jalkot, Ahmedpur, Deoni, Nitur, Udgir, faces more of a hydrological
drought and scarcity. The slightly better -off and greener north -western
Bel, Renapur, Latur City and Ausa, is hit by both agricultural and
mete orological drought.
There are some man -made factors also. munotes.in

Page 105

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
105 1. Current drought is a disaster of water management, accompanied by
corruption, water -intensive cropping patterns and absence of a long -
term view to manage water and drought.
2. Government’s plans of ir rigation failed as its plans for upcoming
projects were entangled in corruption, plagued with delays and cost
overruns.
3. Building unviable large dams, wrong cropping patterns, water
diversion for non -priority uses, neglect of local water systems and
unaccou ntable water management by the State government, the Centre
and the Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority
4. The precarious state of water in the state can be blamed on the
increasing area under sugarcane cultivation in Maharashtra, water -
intensive activities like running of sugar and wine factories in drought -
affected districts.
5. Real estate builders continue to exploit the land further by coming up
with massive construction projects in drought affected areas. These
luxurious projects often target t he elite who prefer large swimming
pools in their backyards. And to top it all, the Indian premier league,
which is the country’s most popular Cricket tournament, is going to be
held in Maharashtra this month.
Natural factors:
1. One third area of Maharashtra falls under semi -arid climatic zone –
therefore deficient rainfall pattern – and non -perennial rivers.
2. El-Nino – leading to warming of central Pacific waters and
consequently drought conditions in India. 2014 and 2015 have been
reported to have witnessed worst El -Nino in metrological history.
3. These region lies in the leeward side of Western Ghats, therefore
receives very less rainfall and absence of perennial forests also affects
the rainfall pattern.
Groundwater levels at Jalkot being 4.7 metres are at an alarming level
while at Ahmedpur it is -4.38m and at Deoni, is 4.08m. According to the
groundwater act, levels below -1m are ‘manageable scarcity’, below -2m
are ‘critical’ and below -3m are ‘alarming’. Jalkot hit the danger mark in
October 2015, when the average fall was -3.53m across its ten talukas.
It has been noticed that after three deficient monsoons in a row the east’s
few barrages and dams have gone bone dry. In the 33 small water projects
at Ahmedpur, with a total capacity of 14.4 million cubic m etres (mcm.),
current water availability is zero. Same is observed in Jalkot’s 10 water
projects (capacity 25.26 mcm).
Ironically, this is in an ‘assured rainfall’ zone (it gets 700 –800 mm each
monsoon), while the prosperous western sugar belt is a ‘Declar ed DPAP
(Drought Prone Areas Programme) Zone’. This is because it is home to munotes.in

Page 106

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
106 three powerful sugar factories, and has major sources of water, including
the Manjra dam and Bhandarwadi barrage, among others.
Suggestions to mitigate droughts in Latur
1. Mostly al l the drought affected districts are the major producers of
sugar, therefore needs a shift in cropping pattern, more focus to
cultivation of other crops that require lesser amount of water.
2. Restoration of ecological balance – By Conserving, developing and
harnessing land, water and other natural resources including rainfall
3. Integrated watershed management – under National Watershed
Programme – and with focus on strategies like Agro -forestry, Agro -
horticulture
4. Adoption of micro -irrigation methods and new tec hnologies in
agriculture for high yield and less water usage (Drip and Sprinkler
irrigation systems)
5. Drought resistant crops with technological intervention (bio -
technology)
6. Replicate water harvesting technique prevalent in other states – TN –
compulsory r oof top, Rajasthan’s traditional practice of storing water
in Tanks.
7. Empowering farmers with knowledge of water management
techniques, drought resistant crops, conservation of ground water.
Awareness and self regulation among people will help to conserve t he
limited water resources.
The water train Jaldoot, commissioned by the railway ministry in
collaboration with the Maharashtra government, was one of the key
measures to alleviate the situation, transporting half a million litres of
water on each of its t rips from Miraj in Sangli district. Miraj gets its water
from the Warna dam, downstream of river Krishna. The dam has a storage
capacity of 34 thousand million cubic feet (tmcft) and currently has
around 14 tmcft left. The railway ministry and the Maharash tra
government zeroed in on Miraj because it has surplus water and offers the
logistical convenience too for this difficult operation.
Indian Railways and local government authorities in Latur have made
arrangements to run a 50 -wagon service soon, with eac h wagon carrying at
least 50,000 litres. A 25 -wagon service is supposed to run on Tuesday and
Wednesday. Considering Latur’s population of 500,000, each water train
journey has theoretically brought one litre of water to every Latur
resident. In normal tim es Latur’s water demand is 60 million litres per
day, which works out to around 100 litres per day per person.

munotes.in

Page 107

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
107 4.7 SUMMARY
We already know that natural event such as a flood, drought, earthquake,
landslide or cyclone causes great damage or loss of life. In dia is one of the
most disaster -prone countries in the world because of its locational and
geographical features.
As India has a long coast line of 8,000 kms. it experiences about five to
six tropical cyclones on an average, which form in the Bay of Beng al and
Arabian Sea every year.
India has the lofty Himalayan mountain ranges in the north. These are
considered to be the world's youngest fold mountain ranges. The
subterranean Himalayas are, therefore, geologically very active and are
earthquake prone z one.
Moreover, the Himalayan, the north -east hill ranges and the Western
Ghats experience considerable landslide activities of varying intensities.
To combat all these natural disasters long term planning and preparedness
are considered as a part of the pr ocess of development planning in India. A
number of special programmes are in operation over many years for
mitigating the impact of natural disasters. Among other disaster
monitoring systems GIS is considered as the best method to analyse
cyclones because it could be used as a tool for developing a spatially
enabled system.
4.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True false
a. Landslides cause property damage, injury and death and adversely
affect a variety of resources.
b. Areas existing on old landslides are genera lly prone to landslide.
c. As hospital preparedness is not at all crucial to any disaster response
system each hospital should not have an emergency preparedness plan
to deal with mass casualty incidents.
d. No casualties during earthquakes are caused by the c ollapse of
structures.
e. There are Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) codes which are relevant
for multi -hazard resistant design and construction.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves and P waves
travel much faster than th e ________ waves.
b. ____________ are usually caused when underground rock suddenly
breaks along a fault. munotes.in

Page 108

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
108 c. When earthquake occurs in the sea bed, the sea waves rise in the sea
dispensing large volumes of water, it is _____________.
d. In earthquake monitoring ___ ______ scales measure the amount of
shaking at a particular location.
e. ____________ is the most destructive and turbulent form of landslide.

3. Multiple choice question
a. There are four stages that form a cyclone which include:
i. Formative Stage, Immature C yclone, Mature Cyclone, Decay stage
ii. Formative Stage, , Mature Cyclone, Decay stage, Immature Cyclone
iii. Immature Cyclone. Decay stage, Formative Stage, , Mature Cyclone

b. Orissa was battered by a Super Cyclonic Storm on 29 October, 1999
i. that ma de landfall near Digha.
ii. that made landfall near Bhubaneswar.
iii. that made landfall near Paradip.

c. An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's
crust
i. that creates cyclones
ii. that creates heavy rainfall
iii. that cr eates seismic waves.

d. Earthquake intensity is measured with the help of seismometers
known as
i. Richter scale
ii. Barometer
iii. Anemometer
e. Collapsed structures are a common result of
i. Earthquakes
ii. Flood
iii. drought

f. Areas that are typical ly considered safe from landslides
i. On soft, jointed bedrock that has moved in the past.
ii. On hard, non -jointed bedrock that has moved recently.
iii. On hard, non -jointed bedrock that has not moved in the past.

4. Answers the following Questions
1. What is Cyclone?
2. Define Earthquakes?
3. Define Landslides?
4. How earthquake is caused? What are its impacts?
5. What are the impacts of cyclone? Explain your answer with an
example. munotes.in

Page 109

Natural Disasters and Their
Management in India
109 6. What are the Preparedness and Response of earthquake?
7. What are the Preparedness and Respon se of cyclone?
8. What are the Preparedness and Response of landslide?
9. What do you understand by forecasting earthquake?
10. Stat the Geographical distribution of earthquake, cyclone and
landslide.
4.9 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1.a.true
1.b.true
1.c. false, hospital preparedness is crucial, should have an emergency
preparedness plan
1.d. false, Most casualties
1.e. true
2.a. S
2.b. Earthquakes
2.c. Tsunami
2.d. Intensity
2.e. Flow
3.a.i.
3.b.ii
3.c.iii.
3.d.i.
3.e.i.
3.f..iii

4.10 TECHNICAL WORDS:

1. Fault plane - the flat surface of rock along which a geological fault
occurs.
2. Elastic -rebound theory -explains how energy is spread during
earthquakes.
3. Rain gauge -an instrument for measuring rainfall
4. Aftershock -a smaller earthquake following the main shock of a large
earthquake
5. Earthquake swarms – these are sequences of earthquakes striking in
a specific area within a short period of time munotes.in

Page 110

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
110 6. Fault - Itis a crack in the Earth's crust resulting from the displacement
of one side with respect to the other
7. Opticalfi bre-a thin flexible fibre with a glass core through which light
signals can be sent with very little loss of strength
8. Landslide -a collapse and rapid downward movement of a mass of
earth or rock from a mountain or cliff
9. Geographic information system (GIS) –it is a system designed to
capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or
geographic data.
10. Storm Surge -a rising of the sea as a result of wind and atmospheric
pressure changes associated with a storm
4.11 TASK

1. In a map of India point out the earthquake prone zones.
2. In a map of India point out Kedarnath, Uttarakhand.
3. In a chart describe National Landslide Risk Mitigation Project.
4.12 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India, Disaster Management in
India
2. Module 4 - Capacity Building in Asia using Information Technology
Applications (CASITA)
3. India Country Report 1999 - By Anil Sinha, Additional Central
Relief Commissioner & Joint Secretary, Natural Disaster
Management Division Ministry of Agriculture, Govern ment of India
4. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), Bangkok.
5. Encyclopedia of Disaster Management: Volume IV by Alfred Scott
6. Disaster Management: Future Challenges and Opportunities by
Jagbir Singh
7. Disaster Management by Harsh K. Gupta
8. Oxford dictionary

 munotes.in

Page 111

111 5
ANTHROPOGENICAND THEIR
MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure :
5.1 Objectives

5.2 Introduction

5.3 Subject discussion
5.4 Industrial Hazards - cause, Effect, managemen t with reference to
Bhopal Gas tragedy.
5.5 Terrorism - causes, Effects, Management with reference to 26/11
Mumbai attack.
5.6 Wild Fire – Types, causes, Effects, Managementwith reference to
Uttarakhand Forest Fire 2016.
5.7 Accident causes, effects, Managementwith reference to Savitri River
bridge collapse accident august 2016.
5.7 Summary
5.8 Answers to the self -learning questions

5.9 Check Your Progress/ Exercise

5.10 Answers To The Self Learning Questions

5.11 Technical Words

5.12 Task

5.13 References For Further Study

5.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to –
 Understand the Industrial Hazards - cause, Effect, management case
study.
 Discuss the Terrorism - causes, Effects, Manageme nt munotes.in

Page 112

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
112  Discuss theWild Fire – Types, causes, Effects, Management
 Know the Accident causes, effects, and Management
 Discuss the case studies – man-made hazards
 Define Man -made disaster
 Learn the distinction between man -made disaster and natural disaster
 Understand causes of man -made disasters
 Discuss basic facts of man -made disaster
 Understand the need and scope for improving disaster management
systems
 Discuss types of man -made disasters
 Learn response to man -made disasters
 Understand specific risk reduct ion and preparedness measures
 Define typical post -disaster needs
 Discuss case studies
 Define Forest Fire with reference to nature , geographical distribution ,
causes and impact, response to man -made disasters, specific risk
reduction and preparedness me asures, typical post -disaster needs, case
studies
 Learn Terrorism with reference to nature, geographical distribution,
causes and impact, response to man -made disasters, specific risk
reduction and preparedness measures, typical post -disaster needs, case
studies
5.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters we have studied about natural disasters and
disaster management. We have discussed about natural disasters like
flood, drought, cyclones, landslides, earthquakes; its causes and impact.
Different case stud ies regarding these natural disasters in India have also
been done. In the present chapter we are going to learn and define Man -
made disasters and how is it different from natural disasters. The contrast
between the two will help us to understand the cause s of man -made
disasters, basic facts of the same and the need and scope for improving
disaster management systems. There are a variety of man -made disasters
among which we are aiming to study Forest Fire and Terrorism with
reference to nature, causes and i mpact, response to man -made disasters,
specific risk reduction and preparedness measures, typical post -disaster
needs, case studies. munotes.in

Page 113

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
113 5.3 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
The United Nations defines a disaster as a serious disruption of the
functioning of a community or a society. To lessen the impact of disasters
around the world disaster management, with its various tools, plays a
pivotal role. The interior as well as the exterior of the earth is in a mode of
constant change. Some of these changes become very devastating in their
after effects and are often recognized as environmental disasters. But not
all environmental disasters are the result of natural change. Human error,
carelessness has significant part in disasters termed as man -made. A
debate continues on the top ic of natural disasters and on the role of human
in the same. Manmade disasters can be both intentional and unintentional.
History of mankind is loaded with both natural and man -made disasters.
Hence people of the world have always faced both types of disa sters.
Man-made disasters play havoc on human in modern times.
Forests fires, most common hazard in forests, are as old as the forests
themselves. The Man made causes behind forest fire may be attributed to
naked flame, cigarette or bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition that
comes into contact with inflammable material. They create a very serious
threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime to fauna
and flora. The bio -diversity and the ecology and environment of a region
also get disturbed.
Terrorism is not a new phenomenon and there is no universal agreement
regarding the definition of terrorism. Terrorism is defined as the
illegitimate use or threat of violence to further political objectives. It
threatens the public with wid espread death and disease, fear, panic, and
disruption to society – both psychologically and economically.
ANTHROPOGENIC / MAN -MADE DISASTER

Events which are caused by man either intentionally or by accident are
know n as Anthropogenic / Man -made Disaste rs. Some of the examples
are wars, civil wars, terrorism, errors in designing, nuclear disasters,
industrial disasters etc. As their occurrence is unpredictable, man -made
disasters pose a challenging and severe threat to public health and /or well -
being wh ich must be dealt with with thorough vigilance and proper
preparedness and response. Information on the major sources of man -
made disasters helps to educate the public about their cause and effects so
that emergency planning relating to these disasters bec omes easier. With
the advent of time as mankind has developed and become technologically
advanced, the frequency and magnitude of man -made disasters have
increased in the same proportion. Man -made disasters are the results of
industrial and material progre ss. Accidents happen due to negligence on
the part of man. The Bhopal Gas tragedy is a result of an accident which
played havoc on the local residence. munotes.in

Page 114

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
114 5.4 INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS - CAUSE, EFFECT,
MANAGEMENT WITH REFERENCE TO BHOPAL
GAS TRAGEDY.
 INDUSTRIAL H AZARDS – CAUSE:
There are a number of factors that can lead to industrial accidents,
including everything from improper lifting techniques to mishandling
hazardous materials. Below are some common causes of accidents in the
workplace.
a. Environmental Causes of industrial Hazards:
Accidents which occur from environmental causes refer to those
workplace accidents that happen because of the working
environment. The environmental factors can be both natural and
man-made such as workplace design. Common environm ental
causes of accidents include:
1. Poorlighting –
Low visibility is a common cause of slips, trips, and falls.
2. Ambient temperature –
If a workplace is too hot, overheating can occur. If the workplace is
too cold, frostbite or hypothermia can occur.
3. Air pol lution –
Breathing issues can develop if a workplace has poor ventilation
and/or air pollution.
4. Sound pollution –
The sound in a workplace can cause injury to a worker’s hearing.
b. Mechanical Causes of Industrial Accidents
Mechanical causes of industrial acc idents are factors that refer to machine
or equipment failure or breakdown. Generally, with proper maintenance
and safety processes in place, these types of accidents are preventable.
Common mechanical causes of accidents include:
1. Broken or damaged machine –
Parts can be easily broken or damaged if made of poor -quality metal.
2. Power failure –
Total or partial power failure can lead to serious injury.
3. Fire or explosion –
Cooling failure or a small spark can lead to a mechanical fire or
explosion. munotes.in

Page 115

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
115 4. Fair wear and tear –
The older machine, the more wear and tear on the parts which can lead
to a higher risk of a mechanical accident.
c. Human Factors That Cause Accidents
Accidents caused by human factors refer to incidents in which the accident
is directly attribut ed to the worker involved in the accident. Common
human factors that cause industrial accidents include:
1. Poor housekeeping –
An unkemptworkspace can lead to slips, trips, and falls.
2. Fatigue –
When a body is tired, injury is more likely to occur.
3. Overexerti on –
Overexertion injuries are the most common type of workplace injury.
4. Stress –
Workers who are stressed are often more distracted and of greater risk
of injury.
5. Dehydration –
It is important to consume enough water to ensure you body functions
properly.
6. Improper Lifting –
Lower back strains and shoulder injuries are common among workers
who use improper lifting techniques.
 INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS – IMPACT:
Accidents can happen anywhere, including the workplace. Industrial
businesses that process hazardous ra w materials are particularly prone
to causing accidents , especially when negligence comes into play. Not
only can harmful chemicals, including gasoline, pesticides, and other toxic
gases, harm workers, but they can also have significant environmental
impacts.
It’s not rare for industrial accident injuries to cause harm to both workers
and the environment around them. That’s why it’s important to enlist t he
help of an attorney who is well -versed in the impacts of the chemical
industry. With the necessary experience, an industrial accident
attorney can help prove your case and get you the compensation and
justice y ou deserve.
1. Impacts On Public Health
Of course, we humans are part of the environment, and, following
an industrial accident like a chemical explosion, there can be dramatic
impacts on both th e workers and the surrounding community. Without the
proper equipment, such as gas masks, to both neutralize the danger and munotes.in

Page 116

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
116 keep residents safe, harmful chemicals can enter peoples’ bodies. This can
cause a wide list of issues, including respiratory failur e due to air quality
contamination.
2. Impact On the Environment
While there are some steps that businesses and communities can take to
mitigate their risk factor following an oil spill or fire, the same can’t be
said for the surrounding environment. The dam age to nearby ecosystems
usually begins right after the industrial accident takes place. Some
examples may include the following:
 Air Contamination
Fallout, dust, or gaseous clouds may disperse pollutants that can harm
local flora and fauna, spreading out into neighbouring areas. These
gases can cause necrosis or chlorosis, leading to cell death and
preventing plants from undergoing photosynthesis properly. Another
serious contaminant that may be seen after an industrial accident is
acid-rain.

 Soil Cont amination
From industrial accidents to illegal waste dumping, harmful pollutants
can be deposited in the soil by a range of sources. This may lead to
complete degradation of the soil’s chemical makeup which is harmful
to the flora and fauna of the area.

 Water Contamination
Water contamination can also come from several sources. One of the most
well-known cases of water contamination was caused by the BP oil spill in
the Gulf of Mexico, the largest marine oil spill in history. After an oil
platform exploded , large amounts of oil spilt out into the ocean. This
ravaged the aquatic water life in the area, which in turn greatly impacted
the local community and food chain.
BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY
On December 2-3 1984 in Bhopal toxic Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas
leaked from the factory owned by Union Carbide. The gas silently spread
out engulfing the densely populated areas around the factory. This was one
of the worst chemical disasters globally that resulted in over 10,000 losing
their lives and over 5.5 lakh persons affected and suffering from agonizing
injuries, even today.
The tragedy was a result of human error and poor supervision at the
factory.
munotes.in

Page 117

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
117 5.5 TERRORISM - CAUSES, EFFECTS, ANAGEMENT
WITH REFE RENCE TO THE 26/11MUMBAI ATTACK
 TERRORISM :
With reference to Nat ure :
In the modern sense terrorism is violence or other harmful acts committed
against civilians for political or other ideological goals. Most definitions
of terrorism include only those acts which are intended to create fear or
“terror”. These are not a lone attack but perpetrated for an ideological
goal. They deliberately target or disregard the safety of non -combatants.
Many definitions also include only acts of unlawful violence.
As a form of unconventional warfare, terrorism is sometimes used when
attempting to force political change by convincing a government or
population to agree to demands to avoid future harm or fear of harm,
destabilizing an existing government, motivating a disgruntled population
to join an uprising, escalating a conflict in t he hopes of disrupting the
status quo, expressing a grievance, or drawing attention to a cause.
An International Round Table on Constructing Peace, Deconstructing
Terror hosted by Strategic Foresight Group recommended that a
distinction should be made betw een terrorism and acts of terror. While
acts of terror are criminal acts as per the United Nations Security Council
Resolution 1373 and domestic jurisprudence of almost all countries in the
world, terrorism refers to a phenomenon including the actual acts, the
perpetrators of acts of terror themselves and their motives.
There is disagreement on definitions of terrorism. However, there is an
intellectual consensus globally, that acts of terror should not be accepted
under any circumstances. This is reflected in all important conventions
including the United Nations counter terrorism strategy, the decisions of
the Madrid Conference on terrorism, the Strategic Foresight Group and
ALDE Round Tables at the European Parliament.
Official definitions determine count er-terrorism policy and are often
developed to serve it. Most government definitions outline the following
key criteria: target, objective, motive, perpetrator, and legitimacy or
legality of the act. Terrorism is also often recognizable by a following
statement from the perpetrators.
Violence - According to Walter Laqueur of the Center for Strategic and
International Studies, “the only general characteristics of terrorism
generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of
violence.” However, the criterion of violence alone does not produce a
useful definition, as it includes many acts not usually considered
terrorism: war, riot, organized crime, or even a simple assault. Properly
destruction that does not endanger life is not usually considered a violent
crime, but some have described property destruction by the Earth
Liberation Front and Animal Liberation Front as violence and terrorism. munotes.in

Page 118

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
118 Psychological impact and fear - The attack was carried out in such a way
as to maximize the severit y and length of the psychological impact. Each
act of terrorism is a “performance”, devised to have an impact on many
large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols to show their
power and to shake the foundation of the country or society they ar e
opposed to. This may negatively affect a government’s legitimacy, while
increasing the legitimacy of the given terrorist organization and/or
ideology behind a terrorist act.
Perpetrated for a Political Goal - Something all terrorist attacks have in
common is their perpetration for a political purpose. Terrorism is a
political tactic, not unlike letter writing or protesting, that is used by
activists when they believe no other means will affect the kinds of change
they desire.
The change is desired so badly that failure is seen as a worse outcome that
the deaths of civilians. This is often where the interrelationship between
terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into
the framework of a religious or “cosmic” struggle, such as over the control
of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as Israel and Jerusalem, falling
in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated with spiritual failure,
which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the
deaths of innocen t civilians.
Deliberate targeting of non -combatants - It is commonly held that the
distinctive nature of terrorism lies in its intentional and specific selection
of civilians as direct targets. Much of the time, the victims of terrorism are
targeted not bec ause they are threats, but because they are specific
“symbols, tools, animals or corrupt beings” that tie into a specific view of
the world that the terrorist possess. Their suffering accomplishes the
terrorists’ goals of instilling fear, getting a message out to an audience, or
otherwise accomplishing their political end.
Disguise - Terrorists almost invariably pretend to be non -combatants, hide
among non - combatants, fight from in the midst of non -combatants, and
when they can, strive to mislead and provok e the government soldiers into
attacking the wrong people, that the government may be blamed for it.
When an enemy is identifiable as a combatant, the word terrorism is rarely
used. Mass executions of hostages, as by the Nazi military forces in the
Second World War, certainly constituted crimes against humanity but are
not commonly called terrorism.
Unlawfulness or illegitimacy - Some official (notably government)
definitions of terrorism add a criterion of illegitimacy or unlawfulness to
distinguish between actions authorized by a “legitimate” government (and
thus “lawful”) and those of other actors, including individuals and small
groups. Using this criterion, actions that would otherwise qualify as
terrorism would not be considered terrorism if they were g overnment
sanctioned. For example, firebombing a city, which is designed to affect
civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were
authorized by a “legitimate” government. munotes.in

Page 119

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
119 This criterion is inherently problematic and is not unive rsally accepted,
because: it denies the existence of state terrorism: the same act may or
may not be classed as terrorism depending on whether its sponsorship is
traced to a “legitimate” government; “legitimacy” and “lawfulness” are
subjective, depending o n the perspective of one government or another;
and it diverges from the historically accepted meaning and origin of the
term. For these reasons this criterion is not universally accepted. Most
dictionary definitions of the term do not include this criteri on.
Types of Terrorism
Terrorism classified terrorism into six categories -
a) Civil Disorders: - A form of collective violence interferes with the
peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
b) Political Terrorism: - violent criminal behavior design ed primarily to
generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for
political purposes.
c) Non-Political Terrorism: - Terrorism that is not aimed at political
purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain
high degree of fe ar for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or
collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective”.
d) Quasi –Terrorism; - The activities incidental to the commission of
crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genui ne
terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not
the main purpose of the quasi -terrorists to induce terror in the
immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi -
terrorist uses the modalities and techniques o f the genuine terrorist and
produces similar consequence and reaction. For example, the fleeing
felon who takes hostages is a quasi - terrorist, whose method are
similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purpose are quite
different.
e) Limited Politi cal Terrorism: - Genuine political terrorism is
characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism
refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or
political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to
capture control of the state.
f) Official or State Terrorism: - Referring to nations whose rule is
based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such
proportions.
 Geographical distribution
We may think that a geographic ontology would in clude things such as
mountains, rivers, and streams, or perhaps cities, buildings and more
abstract things like nations and their boundaries. But we certainly believe
that no one would consider terrorism to be a part of such ontology. After
innumerable att acks of terrorism in recent past it is believed that there is a munotes.in

Page 120

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
120 new geography of terrorism, and we must create a new map of potential
targets anywhere on Earth. Terrorism is an isolated phenomenon,
occurring at various trouble spots around the world and it has no
boundary.
 Causes and impact of terrorism
Many opinions exist concerning the cause of terrorism. They range from
demographic to socio -economic to political factors. Demographic factors
may include congestion and high growth rates. On the other hand
socioeconomic factors include poverty, unemploym ent, and land tenure
problems. Disenfranchisement, ethnic conflict, religious conflict,
territorial conflict, access to resources, or even revenge come under
political factors.
 Causes of terrorism:
 All terro rist acts are motivated by the following facts:
1. Social and political injustice: People choose terrorism when they are
trying to fight what they perceive to be a social or political or
historical wrong. When they have been stripped of their land or rights,
or denied these.
2. The belief that violence or its threat will be effective, and usher in
change. Many terrorists in history said sincerely that they chose
violence after long deliberation, because they felt they had no choice.
3. Ethno -nationalism: When a popu lation desire to break away from a
government or ruling power to create a state of their own can cause the
formation of terrorist groups. In the 20th century this was seen often
times with regions or states attempting to gain independence from their
coloni al era masters.
4. Alienation /Discrimination: A sense of alienation felt by diasporas,
acts as a driver of terrorism. Many times these groups face
discrimination in the countries they reside, leading to further feelings
of isolation. They commonly move from poorer countries, particularly
Muslim states in the case of Europe, to wealthier ones to go to school
or find work.
5. Religion - Perhaps the most commonly held belief today is that
terrorism is caused by religion. Though it is not the main cause for
terrorism , religion does play a significant role in driving some forms of
it.
6. Socio -Economic Status - A sense of relative depravation and lack of
upward mobility within society is another reason that drives terrorism
because Globalization and the modern media have g iven the ‘have
nots’ an acute awareness of their situation compared to the ‘haves’.
The economic differences between themselves and the Western world
can infuriate some in underdeveloped countries, increasing tension and
hostilities. munotes.in

Page 121

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
121 7. Political Grievances - A lack of political inclusiveness in states or
grievances against a certain political order may cause individuals to
join or create terrorist groups. Left and right wing terrorists often seek
to a political system.
8. The Accidental Guerrilla - “Accidental Gu errilla” a theory put forwarded
by David Kilcullen. According to him when terrorist organization
moves into an area with poor government or that is conflict ridden,
then uses this safe haven to spread their ideologies to other areas and
as a base to carry out violent acts. When outside forces then intervene
to deal with the threat posed to them by this group, this causes the
local population to reject the ‘foreign invaders’ and ally with the
terrorist group, thus creating more terrorists and popular support for
terrorist movements.
 The Intent of Terrorist Groups
A terrorist group commits acts of violence to -
 Produce widespread fear
 Obtain worldwide, national, or local recognition for their cause by
attracting the attention of the media
 Harass, weaken, or embarrass government security forces so that the
government overreacts and appears repressive
 Steal or extort money and equipment, especially weapons and
ammunition vital to the operation of their group
 Destroy facilities or disrupt lines of communication in order to create
doubt that the government can provide for and protect its citizens
 Discourage foreign investments, tourism, or assistance programs that
can affect the target country’s economy and support of the government
in power
 Influence government d ecisions, legislation, or other critical decisions
 Free prisoners
 Satisfy vengeance
 Turn the tide in a guerrilla war by forcing government security forces
to concentrate their efforts in urban areas. This allows the terrorist
group to establish itself amon g the local populace in rural areas
A global research report An Inclusive World prepared by an international
team of researchers from all continents has analyzed causes of present day
terrorism. It has reached the conclusions that terrorism all over the wo rld
functions like an economic market. There is demand for terrorists placed
by greed or grievances. Supply is driven by relative deprivation resulting
in triple deficits - developmental deficit, democratic deficit and dignity munotes.in

Page 122

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
122 deficit. Acts of terror take p lace at the point of intersection between supply
and demand. Those placing the demand use religion and other
denominators as vehicles to establish links with those on the supply side.
This pattern can be observed in all situations ranging from Colombia to
Colombo and the Philippines to the Palestine.
Unfortunately the only real way to mitigate this is through economic
development of the community, country, and region, but that takes time.
For the foreseeable future there will always be those that are disgr untled
by the comparison of living standards of the wealthy around the world
versus their own, opening the doors to frustration and anger. Thus, this
driver is remarkably hard to combat as globalization allows for more
mechanisms of comparison between var ying global socio -economic levels.
Terrorism is a forceful and unlawful method to achieve the desired goal.
Its sole motive is to overthrow the existing law and order machinery. It is
a deliberate use of violence against civilians and armed personnel and t he
state.
 Impact of Terrorism on Society and Economy :
Terrorism is a deliberate use of violence against civilians and armed
personnel and the state. It is a forceful as well as unlawful method towards
the achievement of a desired goal. Its sole motive is t o overthrow the
existing law and order machinery.
a. Social impacts
Terrorism poses a serious law and order problem and leads to
disintegration of society. The incident of murder, torture, mutilation,
kidnapping, arson and extortion create atmosphere of susp icion, fear and
panic all around. Life becomes uncertain. The terrorists kill unarmed
civilians including women and children.
Organized crime and violence cause social disharmony. The inter
relationship among various insurgent groups and their foreign link ages
bring illegal money and encourages smuggling. Many insurgent groups
collect certain percentage of money from the employees and businessmen
on regular basis. Economic development of the area comes to an end. Our
government has to make heavy expenditure to meet the challenges of
terrorism.
A sense of victimhood is common to a society experiencing terrorism. The
more the civilian population is targeted, the more this sense of victimhood
increases. This sense of victimization in turn leads to a de -legitim ization
of the terrorists and the people they claim to represent. Consequently, the
targeted society becomes unwilling or unable to consider the other side’s
grievances and objectives.
Another major social effect of terrorism is a rise in ethnocentrism an d
xenophobia as a group increases its solidarity in the face of violence.
munotes.in

Page 123

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
123 b. Economic impacts
The indirect economic impacts of terrorist attacks, however, are
potentially more significant than direct economic ones. The most direct
economic effect of a terrori st attack is the damage caused to life and
property at the site of the attack. The indirect economic effects of
terrorism are many and varied, yet they are very difficult to accurately
gauge. A long -running terrorist campaign can definitely impact a state ’s
GDP, as happened to Israel during the second Intifada.
c. Psychological impacts
Children are at high risk for experiencing mental health difficulties after a
disaster or act of terrorism include those who are near to or actually
witness the event, those w ho lose loved ones as a result, and even those
children who merely live in the affected community or watch coverage of
the event on television.
 Management Terrorism
Presumably, there is no direct connection between poverty and terrorist
behavior. But in th e case of individuals, groups or whole societies, in
which a sense of deprivation, relative or absolute, despair, humiliation or
general hopelessness about one’s future prevail terrorism, will potentially
flourish.
Although countering terrorism has been on the agenda of the United
Nations System for decades. But the attacks against the United States on
11 September 2001 prompted the Security Council to adopt resolution
1373. This for the first time established the Counter -Terrorism Committee
(CTC)
After fiv e years, all Member States of the General Assembly for the first
time agreed on a common strategic framework to fight the scourge of
terrorism: the UN Global Counter -Terrorism Strategy. The Strategy is a
unique instrument to enhance the efforts of the inte rnational community to
counter terrorism along four pillars:
 Addressing conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism;
 Preventing and combating terrorism;
 Building Member States’ capacity to prevent and combat terrorism and
to strengthen the role of the United Nations system in this regard;
 Ensuring the respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the
fundamental basis for countering terrorism.
 At the time of the adoption of the Strategy, the General Assembly also
endorsed the Counter -Terrorism Implementation Task Force (CTITF),
which had been established by the Secretary -General in 2005.
Consisting of 38 entities of the UN and affiliated organizations, CTITF munotes.in

Page 124

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
124 works to promote coordination and coherence within the UN System
on counter -terrorism a nd to provide assistance to Member States.
 The UN Counter Terrorism Centre (UNCCT) provides capacity -
building assistance to Member States and carries out counter -terrorism
projects around the world in line with the four pillars of the Global
Strategy.
 The Security Council works to enhance the capacity of Member States
to prevent and respond to terrorist acts through its subsidiary bodies,
which include the Counter -Terrorism Committee, the 1267/1989/2253
ISIL (Da’esh) and Al -Qaida Sanctions Committee, as wel l as the 1540
Committee on the non -proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and
biological weapons. The Committees are supported in their work by
different entities; whereas the Counter -Terrorism Committee has its
Executive Directorate (CTED) to carry out its p olicy decisions and
conduct expert assessments of Member States, the 1267 Committee
draws on a Monitoring Team.
Specific risk reduction and preparedness measures :
We cannot eliminate terrorist attacks completely, but the effects of these
attacks can be mi tigated to a large extent with precautions and pre -emptive
strategies. The major characteristic of contemporary terrorism is its
unexpectedness hence the time and manner of attacks are unpredictable.
Today's terrorists kill in quantity and kill indiscrimin ately and normally
their target is innocent civilians. They use unconventional weapons such
as anthrax and radiological material. The physical damage from terror
attacks may be smaller than that from large natural disasters but
psychological damage of terr or attacks is not at all negligible.
 The action of reducing the severity, seriousness of the effects of
terrorist attacks is possible on four fronts, like
a. Intelligence
b. Deception
c. Physical & Operational Protection
d. Structural Hardening

a. Intelligence
To preven t the occurrence of potential terrorist threat we should use
intelligence measures which can be done by understanding, preventing and
pre-empting moves of the terrorists.

b. Deception
Now in deception tactics, the following measures must be followed:
munotes.in

Page 125

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
125 I. the facility is made to appear to be more protected thereby not
drawing the attention of an un -researched terrorist

II. the attacker is misdirected to a portion of the facility that is non -
critical.

c. Physical & Operational Protection
The third level of preparedn ess considers implementing physical security
measures along with on -line operational security forces in the form of
surveillance, guards, and sensors.

d. Structural Hardening
When all the previous three measures fail to ward off the attacker, this
strategy i s built -in to save lives and to facilitate evacuation & rescue.

In spite of the fact that the above stated four strategies of intelligence,
deception, physical & operational protection and structural hardening is
required to fend off terrorism these can b e effective in a different sequence
also depending on the type of facility being protected and on the prevalent
terrorist threat.
Typical post -disaster needs
Whatever their source or scale of disasters like terrorism may be they
bring with them the potenti al to cause distress. Sometimes that distress is
severe. The estimated number of deaths from terrorism worldwide rose
from 3,329 in 2000 to 32,685 in 2014, according to a November 2015
analysis by the Institute for Economics and Peace. The vast majority of
lives lost to terrorism in 2014 — 78 percent — took place in the five
countries where most terrorism activity occurred: Iraq, Nigeria,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Syria.
a) Psychosocial Support
Every person who is directly or indirectly involved in such an e vent may
be affected and many may need psychosocial support. A sizeable minority
of people may develop other psychosocial conditions and/or mental
disorders for which they require more substantial and, sometimes,
sustained intervention, including treatment .
There is high incidence of terrorism. Evidence of numbers of persons
affected has increased very rapidly along with the numbers of people
killed by these events.
Strategic preparedness supports psychosocial resilience and is, thereby,
likely to improve responses to peoples psychosocial needs and reduces the
risks of severe distress and mental disorder.

munotes.in

Page 126

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
126 b) Economic needs of Terrorism :
Studies dating back to the early 1990s have investigated the
microeconomic consequences of sector -specific attacks partic ularly in the
fields of tourism, trade, and financial sectors. Attacks against tourist
venues (e.g., airports, hotels, or attractions) or tourist mode of
transportation (e.g., airplanes) make a tourist consider the risks involved
with their vacation plans. Even a single heinous act at a popular terrorist
venue can cause tourists to alter plans by vacationing to a terrorism -free
country for a holiday. So government should take some strategy to ensure
people so that tourism does not lose its position as econo mic support to the
country.
c) Insurance claims
The terrorism is also costly for specific sectors of the economy as there are
always unexpected claims on insurance companies. Following the attacks,
insurers generally stopped offering policies that covered lo sses due to
terrorism, and these days, the costs of insuring against terrorism are
subsidized by the federal government.
d) Net foreign direct investment
Foreign investors must be aware of all kinds of risks, those posed by
terrorism.
CASE STUDY: MUMBAI TERRO RIST ATTACKS OF 26/11
Since independence India has seen a number of terrorist attacks but the
worst among all of these attacks was the 26/11 Mumbai attack of
2008. Multiple coordinated terrorist attacks occurred on November 26 –29,
2008, in Mumbai (Bombay), Maharashtra, India’s largest city, financial
capital, and home to the Bollywood film industry. By selecting to attack
Mumbai’s most opulent and iconic hotel, the terrorists have sent a
powerful message to India's leaders, foreign investors and tourists.
26/11 attack was different in a sense that for the first time, terrorists
trained in Pakistan, used the sea route to enter India. The terrorists who
participated in 26/11 Mumbai attacks were highly trained. Their objective
was to create terror and get some key terrorists released who were
involved in Kandahar hijacking episode.
 The most notable targets were:
1) Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus – formerly known as Victoria Station
2) The Taj Mahal Palace and Tower Hotel
3) Leopold Café
4) The Trident -Oberoi Hotel
5) Nariman Hou se, a Jewish community center
6) Cama Hospital munotes.in

Page 127

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
127 There were also shootings in the streets and strikes on many other
locations.
Ten gunmen, believed to be connected to Lashkar -e-Taiba, a Pakistan -
based terrorist organization, carried out the attacks. Attackers e nter the
grounds of the hotel between 9:35 and 9:45 p.m. on November 26.
Militants first attack guests around the swimming pool and then move
inside to the bars and restaurants of the hotel. Armed with automatic
weapons and hand grenades, the terrorists ta rgeted civilians at numerous
sites in the southern part of Mumbai, including the Chhatrapati Shivaji
railway station, the popular Leopold Café, two hospitals, and a theatre.
While most of the attacks ended within a few hours after they began at
around 9:30 pm on November 26, the terror continued to unfold at three
locations where hostages were taken —the Nariman House, where a Jewish
outreach centre was located, and the luxury hotels Oberoi Trident and
TajMahal Palace & Tower.
 Casualties
172 people were kill ed in the attacks. These included many local
Mumbaikars, as well as visitors from all over the world. At both hotels,
many staff died or was wounded as they attempted to protect their guests.
 Loopholes
The terrorist attacks in Mumbai exposed loopholes in t he security system
that India had in place to deal with this “new brand” of terrorism. These
are urban warfare characterized by symbolic attacks, multiple targets, and
high casualties.
Although subsequent reports indicate that there were several intellige nce
warnings by Indian along with U.S. sources before the attacks but that
authorities, had ignored them. Moreover, the lack of coordination between
authorities in the Indian capital of New Delhi and officials in Maharashtra
state also weakened the immedia te crisis response.
The November attacks prompted the Indian government to introduce
important new institutions as well as legal mechanisms to fight terrorism.
On December 17, 2008, the Indian parliament consented to the creation of
the National Investiga tion Agency, a federal counterterrorism group
whose functions would be similar to many of those of the U.S. Federal
Bureau of Investigation. Parliament also approved amendments to the
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act that incorporated stringent
mechani sms to contain and investigate terrorism.



munotes.in

Page 128

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
128 5.6 WILD FIRE – TYP ES, CAUSES, EFFECTS,
MANAGEMENT WITH REFERENCE TO
UTTARAKHAND FOREST FIRE 2016
With reference to Nature
A Forest Fire is an uncontrolled fire, occurring in nature in an area of
combustible vegeta tion, that wipes out large fields and areas of land.
These fires tend to thrive in very warm and dry climates, rather than the
thick, moist rainforest types. These fires sometimes burn for days and
weeks and may be so large that it becomes hard and takes a long time to
gain control over the situation by the fire fighting crews. This could result
in massive destruction by wiping out an entire forest and destroy almost
every organic matter in it.
Although the causes of a significant number of forest fires remain
unknown it is estimated that as many as nine out of ten forest fires are
caused by humans. The most common cause of such fires is the use of
open flames and disposable barbecue grills. Even a cigarette that is not
properly extinguished can cause a forest fire.
Some forest fires also start as a consequence of downed power lines,
sparks from trains, sparks from hedge trimmers along roadways or sparks
from tools and forestry machinery doing work in the forest. Natural forest
fires are due to lightning strikes.
In Norway, averages of about 1100 forest fires occur each year. Most of
these are small and relatively easy to control. Only two per cent of the
registered forest fires in Norway are larger than 100 decares.
Forest fires can be broadly classified into three types - ground fires,
surface fires, and crown fires, depending on the type of fuel involved and
its vertical arrangement. These two factors not only determine the
intensity of the fire, but how fast it spreads as well.
 Geographical distribution :
Forest fires typically occur in areas that suffer from extended periods of
hot, dry weather. They usually begin in the summer or fall, and occur
when branches dry out and fall from trees, becoming highly flammable. At
that point, anything from human carele ssness to lightning or volcanic
activity can cause a forest fire.
Statistical data on fire loss is weak and in most of the cases unavailable.
But it is estimated that the proportion of forest areas prone to forest fires
annually ranges from 33% in some states to over 90% in others.
Most of the world burnt biomass matter is from savannas, and
because2/3rd of the earth savannas are in Africa, that continent is now
recognized as burnt centre of the planet. Biomass burning is generally
believed to be a uniquel y tropical phenomenon because most of the
information we have on its geographical and temporal distribution is based munotes.in

Page 129

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
129 on the observation of the tropics. Because of poor satellite coverage,
among other things, little information is available on biomass burni ng in
boreal forests, which represent about 29% of the world’s forests.
As per the Forest Survey of India (FSI) report on Vulnerability of India's
Forests to Fires (2012), 42 million ha forest area in 168 districts of the
country is highly vulnerable to forest fires. This includes around five
million ha of very dense forests, 21 million ha of moderately dense forests
and 16 million ha of open forests.
 According to FAO report “Fire Management - Global Assessment
2006”, regional estimates of human induced forest fires as follows:
a) Mediterranean - 95%
b) South Asia 90 %
c) South America 85 %
d) North America 80 %
e) Balkan countries 59 %
The natural causes of forest fires are common in remote areas only.
 Causes and impact :
The 'fire triangle', fuel, oxygen and a source of heat are the three
prerequisites for a fire. The availability of these three elements can
unleash an intense fire in the forest too. Forest fires can be witnessed
throughout the world and they usually occur in cycles.
The extensive size and the speed, in spreading of forest fire have made
them astounding. Forest fires can easily spread and engulf a vast area
because of their ability to change direction and overcome barriers like
rivers, roads, and firebreaks. A forest fire can be ignited by several factors,
including both natural factors and human activities.
Forest fires can be broadly classified into three types - ground fires,
surface fires, and crown fires, depending on the type of fuel involved and
its vertical arrangement. These two factors not only determine the
intensity of the fire, but also how fast it spreads. Ground fires are usually
fuelled by subterranean roots, buried organic matter, and dead vegetative
parts like leaves, branches, and bark and stems of trees that exist on the
soil surface at various stages of decomposition. Though quite infrequent in
nature, ground fires can burn slowly for days to months. They basically
burn by smouldering, and can literally destroy all vegetation leaving
behind only bare earth. Surface fires are fed by low-lying vegetation,
shrubbery, leaves, grass, and other debris. A surface fire is usually less
intense as compared to a ground fire, and it does not pose major risks to
mature trees and their roots. But factors like the build -up of fuel over a
period of time, and drought or dry spells can increase the intensity of the
surface fire, and cause it to spread rapidly to become a ground fire. munotes.in

Page 130

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
130 Causes of Forest Fires
Right from lightning and volcanic eruptions to unattended campfires can
cause forest fires. Sometimes, a lighted cigarette left in the forest can also
ignite a forest fires. The following are some of the most important factors
that can cause forest fires, or increase their intensity to the extent that they
can wreak havoc on the flora and fauna of the affec ted area.
a. Lightning
It has been estimated that lightning strikes the earth about 100 times in a
second, and is responsible for causing almost 12% of the total forest fires
in the United States.
Forest fires are usually caused by dry lightning or lightning not
accompanied by rain. They often occur in isolated areas, and this is the
reason why wildfires caused by lightning burn more areas than fires
caused by human activities.
b. Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions can also ignite forest fires, as the hot lava or magma
burns everything that comes in its way.
c. Underground coal fires
Underground coal fires or the smouldering of coal deposits is another
important contributory factor in reigniting, as well as spreading forest
fires. Generally caused by lightning or a forest fire, an underground coal
fire can continue to smoulder for a long time after the ground fire has been
extinguished, and thus, it can reignite a forest fire.
d. Spontaneous Forest Fires
At times, wildfires can be spontaneous, especially when the weather is
extremely hot and dry to create enough heat that can induce spontaneous
combustion. Everything including wood has a temperature at which it
burst into flames, which is called its flash point. For wood, the flash point
is 572°F or 300°C.
The accumu lation of dead organic matter such as leaves, twigs, and dry
branches on the ground can increase the heat. At high temperatures, wood
can also release hydrocarbon gases that react with oxygen to create a fire.
Thus, wood can reach its flash point to ignite spontaneously in extremely
hot and dry climatic conditions.
Spontaneous forest fires have been mostly observed in climates that are
moist enough to promote the growth of vegetation, but are also
characterized by extended hot and dry periods. The vegetated areas of
Australia and Southeast Asia, the forested areas of the United States and
Canada, and the Mediterranean basin are some areas where such
spontaneous wildfires are quite common. munotes.in

Page 131

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
131 Spontaneous forest fires usually occur in summer and fall, and also during
drought, when fallen leaves, twigs, and other organic matter become dry
and highly combustible. Strong winds can spread such forest fires to a
large area, and make it difficult to contain them.
e. Friction leading to sparks
In dry season, friction may cause sparks by rolling stones in the
mountainous areas which will lead to forest fires. A devastating forest fire
occurred in Gwar village, located 40 km towards north -east from
Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand in February 2001 is an example of
such fire.
f. Rubbing together
In bamboo areas, forest fires may occur by the rubbing together of clumps
of dry bamboos.
g. Human Activities
According to forest fire statistics, 9 out of 10 forest fires are of human -
caused origin .
Human activities, or to be more speci fic, human carelessness is
responsible for causing more than 80% of all wildfires. They are stated
under:
 Agricultural activities like burning grass -gorse or stubble.
 Throwing of burning cigarettes end or matches.
 Lighting of fires in restricted areas.
 Burning of wastes and garbage at non-authorized landfill sites.
 Military exercises.
 Hunting activities.
 Residential activities like the use of electrical tools that cause sparks
and burn of wastes.
 Arson.
 Short -circuit of power lines.
h. Other Causes
Another important cause of wildfires is the sparks from rock falls. Forest
fires can be frequent during the dry summer months, and the periods of
droughts and strong winds. Even global warming is believed to play a role
in creating frequent forest fires, by increasi ng the frequency and intensity
of droughts.
munotes.in

Page 132

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
132 Impacts of forest fires
Forest fires not only just have an impact on the environment, but on
economy, society, and human health as well. Forest fires leave a visual
impact because they cause damage to houses and other properties,
environmental destruction, damage to local and national economies and
the potential for loss of life.
If heavy rains follow a fire, other natural disasters can occur, including
landslides, mudflows, and floods. Once ground cover has been burned
away, little is left to hold soil in place on steep slopes and hillsides. If the
wild land fire destroyed the ground cover, then erosion becomes one of
several potential problems .
a. The Positive Consequences of forest fires
 Forest fires clean up an y dead or decaying matter strewn
across forest. This enables an increase in new plant growth.
 Forest fires remove any harmful insects and diseased plants
and hence maintain the balance within an ecosystem.
 Moreover there is a benefit of plant removal. It increases
sunlight, which can assist in the regeneration of plant seeds.
 Forest fires can also increase the amount of plant and animal
diversity within a particular ecosystem.
 In the midst of forest fires exceptional amount of nutrients are released
into the soil, which can result in a flood of new plant growth. Some
plants even require forest fires to germinate their seeds and stimulate
growth, such as the peculiar species of Panderosa pine trees.
 Regular forest fires kill invasive species which in tu rn allows for
indigenous species to continue thriving. If forest fires do not occur
regularly, this can lead to forested regions being overrun with
underbrush and trees. Subsequently, when these forests are finally
subject to a forest fires, they may bur n too hot, thereby stifling new
growth rather than causing it.
b. The Negative Consequences of forest fires
Too much frequency of forest fires in a particular region can have
a devastating impact on the ecosystem.
 Frequent forest fires are harmful for the n atural cycles of the forests as
it eradicates native plant species. This may also encourage growth of
fire-resistant plants and other invasive plant species. Some of these
invasive species being highly flammable often cause a perpetual cycle
where they in crease the risk of future forest fires that further destroy
native plant species. munotes.in

Page 133

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
133  Forest fires can worsen the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse effect is already plaguing our earth and forest fires
strengthen it.
 Further, forest fire s generate ash and destroy available plant nutrients,
thereby greatly affecting the biodiversity of forests.
 With an increase in water runoff, forest fires can engender flash flood
conditions and enable soil erosion.
 These fires also create heavy smog th at is harmful to human and
animal life, and they use up a lot of natural resources, including water,
which could lead to periods of needed water preservation in the area.
To conclude it may be said, that forest fires whether are positive or
negative is co ntingent on their frequency and cause. Unfortunately, their
negative effects often overshadow the positive impacts. To strive towards
a sustainable future, some precautionary measures must be taken regarding
forest fires. Naturally occurring fires cannot b e prevented, especially in
areas where there is high risk of forest fires, with high summer
temperatures. Therefore we must take extra caution so that man -made fires
do not occur. We should be more educated and aware about the potential
consequences of for est fires.
 Management of Forest fires :
In the aftermath of a forest fire, workers may be involved in a variety of
response and recovery operations. Some operations, such as utility
restoration, cleaning up spills of hazardous materials, and search and
rescue, should only be conducted by workers who have the proper
training, equipment and experience.
A Forest Fire Response Plan describes how we will manage and report
forest fires. In some respects forest fire planning is more important than
prescribed fire planning because of the extensive damage that may occur
during fire suppression, and the fact that many more sites are susceptible
to forest fire than have fire prescribed for them. It is also important to plan
for forest fire for good community relations . Large landholdings of
flammable fuels may present a risk to neighbouring landowners. It is our
responsibility as good neighbours to plan for forest fire and work with
community fire-fighters to reduce risk when possible.
 Some key components include:
 the location of the site
 a physical description of the site (fuels, topography, fire-sensitive
areas, etc.)
 a narrative of the procedure to be followed in the event of a wildfire
(e.g. notification, evacuation, suppression action) munotes.in

Page 134

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
134  identification of the fire control agency responsible for suppression in
the area (e.g. volunteer fire department, state forestry agency), with
contact phone numbers
 list of Nature Conservancy staff to be contacted in case of forest fire,
with phone numbers
 information concerning any cooperative agreement with multiple
landowners or agencies, such as a Mutual Aid Agreement
 communications procedures, including radio frequencies of responding
agencies
 maps identifying
 roads into and on the site, and access gates
 natural features that could be used as firebreaks, such as streams,
lakes, or changes in fuel types
 ecologically sensitive areas to be avoided by response vehicles
 wet or low-lying areas where response vehicles may get mired
 water sources
 location of flammable fuels or hazardous materials storage
In some areas, Conservancy fire programs may decide to develop a media
response plan in anticipation of an escaped prescribed burn. This
document would designate one or two staff to interact with the media and
include a basic framework for a response and a fact sheet on the preserve
or site which could be distributed to media contacts.
Specific risk reduction and preparedness measures :
Just as fire is an integral part of the forest , risk reduction and preparedness
measures is an integral part of forest management. It is the process of
planning, preventing and fighting fires to protect people, property and the
forest resource. Risk reduction and preparedness are the measures that
ensure an organized mobilization of personnel, funds, equipme nts, and
supplies within a safe environment for effective relief. Often costly to
achieve, it is found to be successful, though to the detriment of ecological
values. The decision to fight a fire or leave it to burn out naturally is based
on a hierarchy of priorities set by the government agency responsible for
fire management where the fire is burning. Avoiding forest fires can be
achieved through various means, but in the end a combination of different
measures offers the best protection.


munotes.in

Page 135

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
135 Some of the measures are discussed below : :
a. Fire fighting reservoirs
Since time immemorial water is still the main way to extinguish forest
fires. Hence it is necessary to have, or build and maintain, a fire fighting
water supply system within suitable water courses or to create artificial
reservoirs for water extraction in large, contiguous and fire endangered
forested areas. It is important that these extraction points are sufficiently
identified and easily accessible by fire engine.

b. Infrastructure
Communication syste m must be well maintained. Therefore, in order for
fire engines to reach a forest stand it is important that the roads can bear
heavy vehicles.

c. Machinery and equipment
Nowadays, alongside mobile fire extinguishing equipment, fighting forest
fires continu es to be hard manual work for as many people as are available
to fight the fire. Hence it is the responsibility of forest enterprises of all
ownership type in areas with a medium to high forest fire risk to maintain
appropriate fire-fighting tools and mach inery. These include hand tools
such as spades, shovels, fire beaters and axes as well as transport vehicles
or tractors and ploughs suitable for working in forests.

d. Forest Fire Monitoring
The introduction of automatic, camera supported forest fire obser vation
systems has remarkable responses. Although the number of forest fires has
not reduced but their extent has. It has helped in an early and exact
identification of forest fires as well as a fast notification. This has again
ensured that the technical team can be onsite quickly and can begin to
fight the fire as soon as possible.

e. Aerial Surveillance
Aerial surveillance flights are another possible means to detect forest fires
at an early stage during times of high fire risk. Besides the early detectio n
and location of forest fires, this aerial support can also be helpful in
directing the operational forces on the ground.

f. Mapping
Forest fire fighting maps at a scale of 1:50.000 using the UTM geographic
coordinate system are the basis for all those fighting forest fires. All
important elements such as fire fighting water points, towns etc. are shown
on these maps. The depiction follows the tactical symbols of the fire
service. These maps are prepared by the authorities and are updated at
least every five years.

munotes.in

Page 136

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
136 g. Communication equipment
Forest fires can only be quickly and successfully fought with functioning
communication between the fire service and forest authority operational
teams. Mobile telephones and radios are required. Up-to date telephone
lists are also needed.

h. Emergency and deployment plans, Control of operations
Before the outbreak of a fire, emergency and deployment plans have to be
created.

i. Cooperation and joint exercises
Regarding forest fire risk reduction and preparedness collaboration
between forest owners, the administration and different branches of the
fire and emergency services is necessary as these work groups organise
joint education and training courses, evaluate forest fire events and
develop and update the emergency plans. They share common experiences
and get to know each other during the evaluation, planning. Also
implementation exercises help in building up a collegial relationship
among each other. Therefore mistakes could be avoided, decisions are
made quickly and decisiv ely and the area of burnt land reduced.

Typical post-disaster needs :
The most important post-disaster needs for forest fire are efficient and
timely generation and transfer of information related to fire warning. It is
necessary to enhance the capacity of forest management functionaries at
various levels to generate timely warning and translate it into useful
information for field staff and others. The forest officials need to be
trained in using various indicators to get prior information about forest fire
at the earliest time possible to take timely action. The forest department
may be provided with necessary equipment in detecting forest fire at the
earliest possible. Forest officials are to be trained to use a variety of
valuable information available at national and international levels and
translate it for local use. Necessary collaboration is required with
organisations involved in generating early warning about forest fire.
Meteorological Departments and other national and international sources
providing weather related information maybe collaborated to get prior
information about the temperature and rainfall situation - two main
deciding factors for forest fires.
The information available from different sources need to be dovetailed for
making use at local level and necessary arrangement be made to
disseminate this information at field level to make use in taking
appropriate preventive, preparedness and response actions in time. To get
prepared and take necessary preventive measures in time, it is necessary
that the vulnerability/ risk maps be prepared of forest area, depending
mainly on past history, climatic conditions and other human induced
factors like population density, socioeconomic conditions etc. munotes.in

Page 137

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
137 CASE STUDY FOREST FIRE, UTTARAKHAND, INDIA, 2016 :
The frequency of forest fire in Uttarakhand during April 2016 was much
higher and widespread than during April 2015. During April 2015, forest
fire points were identified only in two districts viz. Nainital and Udham
Singh Nagar with 1 and 6 fire points respectively, whereas in 2016, fire
spread over 13 districts with a maximum number of fire points observed in
PauriGarhwal followed by Nainital. Thus around 32% of the total 1270
fire points were observed in PauriGarhwal followed by around 22% in
Nainit al during April of the current year. The worst affected districts of
PauriGarhwal, Nainital, Pithoragarh, Bageshwar and Chamoli.
A total of 1890.79 hectares of green cover have been destroyed this fire
season as a major forest fire. Forest officials fear wildlife could have faced
problems too. These fire set mainly in pine forests in the slopes of the sub-
Himalayan region, produced clouds of smoke. The first incident of forest
fire was reported on 2 February 2016 from Pithoragarh district on in the
forests of Uttarakhand.
 Cause :
Although the exact damage is yet to be ascertained there are some natural
reasons for the forest to catch fire. S ome experts suggest dry weather, poor
rainfall, El Nino and very high temperatures, climate warming as major
causes behind this and the windy conditions that fanned the fire and
helped it to spread. Some others opine it was miscreants and the timber
smugglers were accused of setting the forests on fire. Besides extraction of
timber, other anthropogenic intervention for co llection of honey,
collection of sal seeds, improvement of growth of grass, hunting wild
animals, encroaching forest land and many accidental fires lead to forest
fire in Uttarakhand forest. The government has decided to study the
reasons behind major fire s, especially in summer, and prepare an action
plan accordingly.
India has very poor data regarding forest fire and damages caused by
them. Losses like carbon sequential capability, soil moisture and nutrient
losses due to forest fire are very difficult to be ascertained but are of
utmost importance for environmental conservation. It also contributes to
global warming.
 Effects
The forest fires in Uttarakhand have severely affected the wildlife reserves
across the state. Going by the statistics, 70 hectares in Rajaji Tiger
Reserve and 60 hectares in Kedarnath Musk Deer Sanctuary had come
under fire. The Corbett Tiger Reserve and Kalagarh Tiger Reserve, which
are home to famous Royal Bengal tigers – has already witnessed 48
incidents of forest fire that destro yed 260.9 hectares of the forest.
Himalayan glaciers have been affected severely by the Uttarakhand forest
fire. Black carbon deposits in the glaciers from smoke and ash of forest
fire have high temperature absorbing capacity w. This will cause ice to munotes.in

Page 138

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
138 melt faster. The glaciers feed the rivers in Northern India. As a result of
this forest fire they will now carry harmful chemicals and pollutions due to
such carbon deposits on glaciers. Besides much human loss, flora, fauna
and wild animal losses were also si gnificantly observed during the two
months of forest fire. This will create ecological imbalance with negative
impact and disaster in the region in near future.
The damage to biodiversity with loss of flora, fauna, and bird species were
significantly high than larger animals such as tigers, deer and elephants,
who manage to escape to safer places. Besides, tourism is also very badly
affected by this forest fire.
 Preparedness :
Around 10,000 people of state and central government officials and
residents were deployed to douse the fire.
Changes in the attitudes and actions of individuals, stakeholder groups, the
private sector, and governments are required for action and
implementation of sustainable forest fire prevention policies. Prevention
of forest fire will require long-term coordinated efforts by public and
private authorities with robust planning and informed policy
implementation.
 Measures :
Taking such a severity into consideration, the concerned Environment
Minister has begun trial runs for a pre -fire alert system that will issue
warnings via SMS about possible fire outbreaks in the country. The idea is
to inform the forest department even before the fire starts spreading.
The Uttarakhand governor has increased the number of personnel
deployed to con trol the fire to 6000. He has asked the SDRF, locals and
district administration to do their bit.
The Central Government has earmarked Rs. 5 crore for the fire -fighting
operations. Both the Prime Minister’s Office and the Home Ministry are
closely monitori ng the situation.
5.7 ACCIDENT CAUSES, EFFECTS, MANAGEMENT
WITH REFERENCE TO SAVITRI RIVER BRIDGE
COLLAPSE ACCIDENT AUGUST 2016
ROAD ACCIDENT:
Road accident, considered as a ‘global tragedy’, is one of the major causes
of death and injuries in the world. I t has an ever-increasing trend. The
problem of road accident is very acute in highway transportation due to
complex flow pattern of vehicular traffic, presence of mixed traffic along
with pedestrians. munotes.in

Page 139

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
139 In Asia alone, 400,000 people are killed on the roads a nnually and more
than four million injured. According to WHO, every year, nearly one
million people are killed, three millions are severely disabled for life and
thirty millions are injured in road traffic accidents. Furthermore, the
number of accidents is in constant increase throughout the world. In 1990,
death on road accidents remained in 9th rank; and by 2020 road accidents
will be the third leading cause of death worldwide.
Traffic accident leads to loss of life and property. Thus the traffic
engineer s have to undertake a big responsibility of providing safe traffic
movements to the road users and ensure their safety. Road accidents
cannot be totally prevented but by suitable traffic engineering and
management the accident rate can be reduced to a cert ain extent. For this
reason systematic study of traffic accidents are required to be carried out.
Proper investigation of the cause of accident will help to propose
preventive measures in terms of design and control.
 Road accidents with reference to Natur e
Road accidents are among the major causes of death and tend to be the
most serious problem world over. Worldwide, the number of people killed
in road traffic accidents (RTA) each year is estimated at almost 1.2
million, while the number of injured could be as high as 50 million.
 The nature of road accidents is as follows:
 Lane departure crashes include head on collisions and run -off-road
collisions. These occur when a driver leaves the lane they are in and
collide with another vehicle or a roadside objec t.
 The collisions at junctions include rear -end collision and angle or side
impacts.
 Collisions involving pedestrians and cyclists
 Collisions with animals
 Geographical distribution
Major car accidents occur near our home because most driving occurs
close to home. The following are some of the most common places where
car crashes happen:
1. Neighborhoods
It has been said that most car accidents happen close to home. Studies
reveal that 52% of all accidents occur within 5 miles from a person's
home. Common neig hbourhood collisions include crashing into parked
cars, backing out of a driveway and into someone driving by and side -
swiping a car to avoid pedestrians or other vehicles in the road.

munotes.in

Page 140

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
140 2. Parking Lots
In parking lots the most accidents occur. It is very com mon for 2 cars
backing out of parking spaces to bump each other.
3. Daily Commutes
In large metropolitan areas such as New York and Los Angeles, people
may not be completely alert during their commute, as they are either tired
from getting up early or tired from working a long day. Moreover,
commuters spend hours each day sitting in traffic travelling to and from
work. and use this time to multi -task, such as shaving, eating or even
reading the newspaper while behind the wheel.
From the above stated list we come to know the common places where
usually car accidents occur. While every car crash cannot be avoided,
there are certain steps all drivers can take to ensure their safety on the
roads.
 Causes and impacts of road accidents :
 Causes of road accidents
Road accidents are undoubtedly the most frequent one. The reasons for
this are the extremely dense road traffic and the relatively great freedom of
movement given to drivers. The various causes of road accidents are:
1. Road Users:
a. Excessive speed and rash dri ving -Failing to follow the speed limit is
the most common cause of traffic accidents.
b. violation of traffic rules
c. failure to perceive traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time
d. carelessness
e. driver fatigue and falling asleep in the wheel – Accord ing to recently
published data driver fatigue is the cause of 2.5 -3.0 percent of all
roadway related fatalities in the United States.
f. Alcoholic driving: driving while under the influence of a narcotic
substance: According to studies driving while under the influence of
alcohol results in a 900% increase in the probability of an auto
accident.
2. Vehicle -
Common defective automobile and automobile parts failure of the
following can cause severe injuries to occupants:
a. brakes
b. steering system munotes.in

Page 141

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
141 c. tyre burst
d. lighting s ystem
e. seatbelt defects and
f. defective airbags.

3. Road Condition
a. Skidding road surface
b. pot holes
c. ruts
4. Road design –
Defects on Roadway Construction: The improper design of roadways
result in hundreds of auto accident fatalities each year.

a. Defective geomet ric design like inadequate sight distance
b. inadequate width of shoulders
c. improper curve design
d. improper traffic control devices and improper lighting
5. Use of Mobile Phone –
Texting while driving: The proliferation of mobile phone use has resulted
into an in creased level of danger on our roads.
6. Rubber -necking –
Rubbernecking is another type of distracted driving and takes place when
drivers look other things on the road not linked to their driving. Examples
include watching other accidents, looking at sunsets , and nice views.
7. Improper Coning off of Construction Zones –
Road work is needed to maintain and built the countries transportation
infrastructure. However in many cases road construction crews fail to
safely cordon off construction zones resulting in an increased probability
of auto accidents.
8. Environmental factors –
Example of weather condition posing the greatest dangers to motorists on
the road includes icy roads, high winds, and rain after a prolonged drought
resulting in oily surfaces. Moreover, unfa vourable weather conditions like
mist, snow, smoke and heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and
makes driving unsafe.
munotes.in

Page 142

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
142 9. Other forms of Distracted Driving –
There are numerous types of distracted driving.
a. improper location of advertisement boards ,
b. gate of level crossing not closed when required
c. to loud music or changing the dial
d. reaching for objects in the vehicle.
 The Impacts of Road Accidents
Road traffic accidents pose a public health and development challenge and
greatly affect the huma n capital development of every nation. The
immediate and later physical, social and psychological consequences of a
road traffic accident are as follows:
A. Individual –
1. Physical
a. Death
b. Permanent loss of mobility/functioning
c. Fractures
d. Bruising
e. Burns

2. Psycholog ical
a. Feelings of guilt
b. Post traumatic stress
c. Depression
d. Anxiety/fear

3. Economic
a. Loss of earnings
b. Medical bills
c. Damage to property



munotes.in

Page 143

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
143 B. Community
1. Psychological - Traditionally we are aware of the mental health
implications of any trauma but most of us tend to ass ociate a road
traffic accident with physical injury rather than psychological damage.
a. Loss of trust
b. Loss of family structure
2. Economic
I. Loss of family income
II. Loss of community cohesion
III. Damage to property

C. National
Economic

I. Loss of productivity
II. Cost to taxpayers: medical, legal, increased insurance premiums,
administrative costs, counseling, ACC payments, damage to property

 Response to Road Accidents:
Few road users are aware of the factors that could determine the time
needed to respond to a vehicle ac cident. So importance lies in the
awareness of these factors. Also steps that road users can take to assist
emergency teams in responding swiftly to accidents must be taken into
consideration. Up to 46 per cent of road traffic fatalities could be
prevented if the right first aid assistance was available in those first
moments.
 Responses to Road Accidents are stated under:
 All emergency medical calls are categorised and prioritised when they
are received and resources are allocated according to the category and
priority of the call as well as available resources at the time.
 A straight forward and consistent process is followed regarding the
caller number and name, what and where the emergency is with all
demographic information.
 This information is sent to t he Emergency dispatchers through the
Integrated Call Taking and immediate dispatch system who then use
satellite tracking to allocate the closest, most appropriate resources to
the call. munotes.in

Page 144

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
144  Following factors play a role in determining the time before a
respon se vehicle will arrive at an accident scene
 Callers not able to tell what the problem is.
 Third party callers that are not with the patient result in further phone
calls to establish the nature of the emergency.
 Inaccurate demographic information
 Cross st reets are not known, callers do not know what suburbs they
live in or cannot give landmarks to pass on the staff who will attend to
the scene.
 Informal settlement streets are not captured and some of the new
estates do not have their internal road systems mapped.
 Meeting points are usually agreed where we then rely on a third party
(friend, family, member of the public or security) to direct us to the
scene.
 Availability and location of resources - we send our closest available
resource according to their p osition in relation to the incident at the
time. If our own resources are not available we will ask service
providers in the area to assist where we do not have resources.
 Traffic - we are finding it increasingly difficult to access certain areas
during pe ak traffic times and emergency lanes are often used by non
emergency vehicles or have been allocated as additional lanes to assist
traffic flow.
 Some drivers are also reluctant to give way to emergency vehicles.
 Possible reason for additional delays, if an y
 Additional delays happen when the vehicles stop responding when
they get involved in accidents themselves
 Adverse weather conditions may also cause further delays as normal
response driving is not possible.
 Access to the scene of the emergency and the pa tient is also sometimes
restricted when the bystanders come in the way. Sometimes properties
also not give easy access once the vehicles arrive.
There are several things can be done by the public also. Those are stated
under:
 Public must ensure that they h ave information such as accurate address
details and nature of the incident on hand when calling.
 Landmarks are very useful and in any case, if no street names exist,
public must agree on a meeting area at a specific landmark. munotes.in

Page 145

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
145  Public should allow emergenc y vehicle right of way to respond to the
emergencies.
 Public should allow access to the scene of the incident and patient/s.
 Send someone to meet the vehicles
 Ensure that security at entrance points are made aware of emergencies
in complexes,
 Switch on som e outside lights if incident is at night
 Clear access routes and lock away any dangerous or vicious domestic
animals.
 Public must be aware of the following facts at the accident scene
 Emergency services personnel need access to the scene and patients
and m embers of the public can assist by allowing this and leaving
them to do their jobs.
 Once the emergency personnel arrive, public must it to them so that
they can perform their duty without any hindrance.
 Safety of the public is also a top priority and they must not approach
any dangerous area or situation as they may just end up adding to the
casualties and increase the workload for the emergency services.
 Members of the public must keep updating the call centre if anything
changes or anything may need to ch ange the level of the response or
the resources allocated to it and can relay further information to the
response team.
 Quick response by emergency medical services to vehicle crashes
is an important way to reduce the severity of injuries.
 Crash victims ha ve a better chance of recovery, if they receive quick
medical treatment at the spot of an injury. Hence, improving first aid
skills for the general public is a good way to improve survivability
after a crash has occurred.
 Improving existing emergency respo nse services, especially where
these are currently poor is very important.
 The World Bank suggests the following factors are important for
effective post -crash care:
 Efficient emergency notification
 Fast transport of qualified medical personnel
 Correct d iagnosis at the scene
 Stabilization of the patient munotes.in

Page 146

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
146  Prompt transport to the point of treatment
 Quality emergency room and trauma care
 Extensive rehabilitation services.
 Other emergency services (such as the police or fire brigade) can help
make respons es times quicker by giving medical services teams
accurate information about the location, and the number and severity
of injuries.
Several WHO guidelines are also available to help improve post -crash
care.
 Specific risk reduction and preparedness measure s of road
accident :
The factors involved in accidents are both internal and external. The risk
involved, therefore, covers both.
(i) Internal factors: consist of those about the means of transport — the
vehicle the driver and the driven.
(ii) External Factors: co nsist of people on the road, the other colliding
factors, the road -side structure etc.
Unless immediate actions regarding road accidents are taken this will be
the fifth leading cause of death by 2030, leading to estimated 2.4 million
deaths per year. In a ddition to mortality, road traffic crashes injure or
disable between 20 million and 50 million people a year. Road traffic
injuries are predicted to become the third largest contributor to the global
burden of disease by 2020. Over 90% of the world’s fatal ities on the roads
occur in low -income and middle income countries, which have only 48%
of the world’s vehicles. In low -income and middle -income countries, the
most vulnerable road users are pedestrians, cyclists or users of motorized
two wheelers. So ther e must be specific risk reduction and preparedness
measures of road accident. Drivers should carry an Emergency Kit in his
Glove Compartment. He should carry a cell phone, a pen and paper for
taking notes, a disposable camera to take photos of the vehicles at the
scene, and a card with information about medical allergies or conditions
that may require special attention if there are serious injuries. Also, keep a
list of contact numbers for law enforcement agencies handy. Stock your
glove compartment with sm all water bottles or pouches of water. Snacks
with a long shelf life such as energy bars (replace them with fresh ones
when you change your smoke alarm batteries).
 When the accident occurs
 We should keep calm and avoid panic as far as possible
 We must hel p family and neighbours who are in difficulty.
 We should follow the orders of the captain and the crew. munotes.in

Page 147

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
147  We should keep identity papers and important personal documents
such as medical and vaccination certificates and details of blood type
at hand
 Other per sonal medicines must be kept with us in case we need them.
 When a major accident occurs in a road with traffic, one should direct
the traffic along with taking care of one’s own safety.
 We should not touch or move the seriously wounded unless there is a
risk of fire or toxic fumes.
 The witnesses are bound to alert the rescue services and give them the
exact location and nature of the accident. They should also provide the
information about the type of vehicle involved the characteristics
(code number) of an y dangerous substances and the likely number of
victims.
 Witnesses should also provide their names and addresses.
 After the accident
 One must keep calm and avoid panic.
 We should follow the instructions of the intervening bodies and of the
rescue personne l.
 We must also try to collaborate with the rescuers and with the judicial
authorities and experts in charge of the investigation.
 Typical post -disaster needs of road accident
1. Stay at the Scene
One can face serious criminal penalties for being a hit -and-run driver if
one leaves, particularly if someone sustains injuries or killed. He should
never leave the accident scene until it is appropriate to do so.
2. Check on All Drivers and Passengers
Before assessing property damage, one must make sure everyone involv ed
in the accident is alright. Prompt medical attention must be present at the
accident spot for anyone who needs it. If a person is unconscious or has
neck or back pain, we should not move them until qualified medical help
arrives. But if any hazardous si tuation requires moving the person, that
should be done without hesitation, with proper care and expertise.
3. Call the Police
If there's significant property damage, physical injury, or death, we need
to call the police. We should also ask that a police repo rt be filed in
situations where police do arrive at the scene, and obtain the name and
badge numbers of the responding officers. munotes.in

Page 148

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
148 4. Exchange Information
Get the names, numbers, addresses, drivers' license numbers, license plate
numbers, and basic insurance in formation from all drivers involved. If
there are passengers, also obtain their names, numbers, and addresses. In
talking to other drivers, try to be cordial and cooperative.
5. Talk to Witnesses
Every witness must be asked for what he or she saw and if possi ble their
names, numbers, or addresses must be collected. The opinion of the local
people is also very important and they must be asked if they have ever
witnessed other accidents in the same place before or in the same date.
6. Inform Your Insurance Company
We must promptly tell our insurance company that we have been in an
accident and cooperate with them and tell them the truth about what
happened and the extent of your injuries. Explain the facts clearly.
7. Keep Track of Your Medical Treatment
Note any doct ors, physical therapists, chiropractors, or other medical
professionals that you receive treatment from, and each medical provider
that referred you to other caregivers. Keep a detailed account of the
treatments or medications you receive. Also, request co pies of all medical
reports and bills as these help you prove your medical expenses later.
Medical expenses are relatively easy to document, but pain and suffering
is trickier to prove. Keep a record of how your injuries have impacted your
daily life. Incl ude any missed workdays, list any routine activities you
can't undertake, and describe how the injuries have affected your family
life.
8. Photograph and Document the Accident:
Take photographs of any damage to your vehicle as soon as possible after
the accid ent. Photos helps your insurance adjuster determine how much
you should be compensated for the damage to your car and can help in
court. Use your camera to document the damage to all the vehicles. We
should keep in mind that we want our photos to show the overall context
of the accident so that we can make our case to a claims adjuster. If there
were witnesses, we must try to get their contact information; they may be
able to help us if the other drivers dispute our version of what happened.
However, we sho uld in no way interfere with the on -going police
investigation. If we cannot take pictures at the scene of the accident, we
must take them as soon as possible after the accident.
9. Get a Property Damage Valuation
Obtain your insurance company's damage valuat ion. If you aren't satisfied
with how your insurance company has valued your vehicle, don't give up.
Get two independent repair estimates or replacement quotes. Assertively munotes.in

Page 149

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
149 inform the adjuster of your concerns. If you can't agree on your car's
value, consi der mediation or consult an attorney.
10. Use Caution in Discussing the Incident
Don't talk to anyone about the accident other than your lawyer, your
insurance company, and the police. Don't talk to a representative of
another insurance company, without the k nowledge of your attorney or
insurer. If called by the other insurance company, be polite, but ask them
to call your attorney or insurer to arrange an interview. Also, tell your
lawyer or insurer about the call.
11. Be Wary of Early Settlement Offers
Be carefu l if you're offered a settlement from an insurance company.
Confirm all your physical injuries have been treated. Some injuries don't
show up or reach their greatest level of discomfort until many days,
weeks, or months later. Don't settle a claim until yo u know you'll be
compensated for all your injuries, and consult an attorney before signing
any settlement documents.
12. Consider Hiring an Attorney
If anyone was injured in the accident, it's best to consult an experienced
attorney. An attorney can help you m aximize your recovery if you're
injured or better defend yourself if you're at fault. Most accident attorneys
work on a contingency fee basis. That means that your lawyer only
receives a fee if you're awarded damages or receive a settlement. Contact
an exp erienced attorney now for a free claim review.
13. Keep Safety First.
Drivers who are involved in minor accidents with no serious injuries
should move cars to the side of the road and out of the way of oncoming
traffic. If they leave cars parked in the middle of the road or busy
intersection additional accidents and injuries may occur. But in a road
accident if a car cannot be moved, drivers and passengers should remain in
the cars. They must keep their seatbelts fastened for their safety till help
arrives. Ma ke sure to turn on hazard lights and set out cones, flares or
warning triangles if possible.
14. File An Accident Report.
Although law enforcement officers in many locations may not respond to
accidents unless there are injuries, drivers should file a state ve hicle
accident report, which is available at police stations and often on the
Department of Motor Vehicles Web site as a downloadable file. A police
report often helps insurance companies speed up the claims process.
15. Know What Your Insurance Covers.
The wh ole insurance process will be easier following your accident if you
know the details of your coverage. For example, don't wait until after an munotes.in

Page 150

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
150 accident to find out that your policy doesn't automatically cover costs for
towing or a replacement rental car. Ge nerally, for only a dollar or two
extra each month, you can add coverage for rental car reimbursement,
which provides a rental car for little or no money while your car is in the
repair shop or if it is stolen. Check your policy for specifics.
16. Light sticks and string to attract help.
If you are trapped in the vehicle, you can use the string to swing the light
outside the window.

17. Other signalling devices include the rear -view mirror and the backs of
CDs.
18. The Life hammer, an all -in-one tool that includes a blade to cut
seatbelts and a double -sided hammer to easily and safely break side
windows if the doors are stuck or the car is submerged.
19. However minor a car accident is, the driver must stop. In fact, failing
to do so is an offence under the Road Traffic Act. He should make
sure his car’s engine is switched off and then turn his hazard lights on
to alert other road users to his presence.
20. Keep a file. Keep all your accident -related documents and information
together. This information should include a claim number, the claim's
adjuster who is handling the claim, names and phone numbers of all
contacts, receipts for a rental car and other expenses incurred as a
result of the accident.
Despite the above facts one final question that usually arrives with an
accident is who will pay for the damage. In case of a minor accident the
drivers may decide to handle the damages themselves without the
involvement of an insurance company. But this isn't always the best idea,
for several reasons.
a. While the other driver may a gree to pay for the damage to the other
ones car on the day of the accident, he may see the repair bills and
decide it's too high. At this point, time has passed and the insurance
company will have more difficulty piecing together the evidence if one
files a claim.
b. Also, keep we should keep in mind that we have no way of knowing
whether another driver will change his mind and report the accident to
his insurance company.
 Case study of road accident
 Indian scenario:
In India road traffic injury is one of the leading causes of mortality and
morbidity. Its India's worst kept secret that we have the world's most
unsafe roads and the situation seems to be getting worse by the year. In
2004, India had just one per cent of total vehicles in the world but munotes.in

Page 151

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
151 accounted for six per cent of total road accidents. Over 400 people were
killed in road accidents every day in 2015, government data reveals.
Indian roads, which account for the highest fatalities in the world, became
yet more dangerous in 2015 with the number of de aths rising nearly 5% to
1.46 lakh. This translates to a death every 10 minutes on Indian roads, 400
deaths a day or one life snuffed out every 3.6 minutes, in what an expert
described as a "daily massacre on our roads".
Fresh data submitted by the Ministr y of Road Transport and Highways in
the Rajya Sabha (May 2016) indicates just how alarming the situation is.
1,46,133 people were killed in road accidents in India in 2015, a 4.6% rise
over 2014 when 1,39,671 people were killed.
In the past one decade, ove r 1.3 million people have been killed in road
accidents but there is still no comprehensive road safety legislation in the
country. According to the 234th report of the Standing Committee on
Transport, Tourism and Culture which has recently been tabled in
Parliament, there are several stumbling blocks for replacing the existing
Motor Vehicles Act with a proposed Road Transport and Safety Bill,
2015.
According to the report, the Ministry "wanted to change the entire
architecture over road transport and road safety in the whole country,
basically, setting up a set of authorities at the Central level and the State
level to control all aspects of transport and public transport including
driving licences."
However, this has not been possible because "the main hit ch is on sharing
of revenues between the Centre and the state" in implementing the
changes which have been proposed. In an effort to still try and push the
safety measures through, the government claims it is trying to focus on
noncontroversial, achievable goals such as "an increase in the penalty for
drunken driving or increasing the penalty for unauthorized driving, minor
driving."
While it is well established that our roads and highways are deadly to
travel on, according to the data, the states with the highest number of road
accidents in 2015 are Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka and Kerala. These states contribute 29.66% to the total number
of accidents recorded nationwide. The same states also recorded the
highest number of injuries at 2,75,873 in 2015.
 Road Accident Statistics in India
 Over 1,37,000 people were killed in road accidents in 2013 alone, that
is more than the number of people killed in all our wars put together.
 16 children die on Indian roads daily.
 5 lives end on Delhi’ s roads every day.
 There is one death every four minutes due to a road accident in India. munotes.in

Page 152

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
152  One serious road accident in the country occurs every minute and 16
die on Indian roads every hour.
 1214 road crashes occur every day in India.
 Two wheelers account f or 25% of total road crash deaths.
 20 children under the age of 14 die every day due to road crashes in
the country.
 377 people die every day, equivalent to a jumbo jet crashing every
day.
 Two people die every hour in Uttar Pradesh – State with maximum
number of road crash deaths.
 Tamil Nadu is the state with the maximum number of road crash
injuries
 Top 10 Cities with the highest number of Road Crash Deaths (Rank –
Wise):
I. Delhi (City)
II. Chennai
III. Jaipur
IV. Bengaluru
V. Mumbai
VI. Kanpur
VII. Lucknow
VIII. Agra
IX. Hyderabad
X. Pune
(Sour ce of Information: National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Road
Transport & Highway, Law commission of India, Global status report on
road safety 2013)
 Here’s a list of past accidents on the Mumbai -Pune expressway:
May 28, 2016: Traffic disrupted on Mum bai Mumbai -Pune Expressway as
a truck turned turtle, driver injured. A truck carrying heavy load of goods
turned and toppled at Mumbai -Pune Expressway. There were no reported
casualties in the accident, but the incident caused a massive traffic snarl.
May 27, 2016: Pune expressway accident zone: Builder D S Kulkarni
injured, driver killed in car mishap. munotes.in

Page 153

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
153 May 16, 2016: Car crashed with bus on Pune -Mumbai expressway, 6
dead. A car carrying a family of a six collided with a bus on the Mumbai -
Pune Expressway. A ll the passengers in the car including an eight -year-
old died in the accident.
May 12, 2016: Hit -and-run: One killed on Mumbai -Pune Expressway. A
monk from Ujjain lost his life in a hit -and-run accident on Mumbai -Pune
Expressway. Another individual was lef t critically injured and was sent for
treatment at Nigdi -based hospital.
Mar 17, 2016: Bus accident at Mumbai -Pune E -way, Two dead, seven
injured. A speeding private bus carrying around 30 passengers hit a road -
divider killing two passengers and seriously injuring 3 on the Mumbai -
Pune Expressway.
Nov 24, 2015: Tempo accident at Pune -Mumbai Expressway killed 6.A
speeding tempo crashed on a telephone post on Mumbai -Pune expressway
and toppled. 6 people were killed and over 20 passengers were injured in
the ro ad mishap.
Nov 4, 2015: Major accident on Mumbai -Pune E -way, Two dead. A
speeding truck rammed into cars on Mumbai -Pune expressway resulting in
deaths of two people. Several people were left injured after the accident.
Sep 29, 2015: Two dead as car rams in to stalled truck on Mumbai -Pune
Expressway.
A car carrying 5 passengers rammed into a truck which was parked on the
wrong side of the lane. The accident led to deaths of two passengers,
injuring the remaining three, including an 18 -month -old girl.
Sep 22, 2015: Expressway accident: Seven killed in yet another accident.
A speeding SUV rammed into a dumper truck on Pune -Mumbai
expressway, killing seven people, including four women. Two people
suffered minor injuries in the accident.
A state -run bus from from Telangana carrying 17 passengers and two
drivers, rammed into a parked tempo on Mumbai -Pune E -way. The
passengers including the driver and the conductor suffered injuries in the
mishap.
To conclude it may be said that nothing should outrage a civilized cou ntry
more than the avoidable loss of human life. When we see the scale of that
loss is nearly 1.5 lakh a year with a rising trend our conscience demands
action to prevent it. Strict implementation of simple traffic rules and
transport norms can go a long w ay towards drastically reducing these
deaths. But if not so, the dubious distinction of being the country with the
largest number of road accident victims will remain ours.

munotes.in

Page 154

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
154 RAIL ACCIDENTS

Rail accidents with reference to nature :
Railway accidents are comparatively rare but their consequences can be
very severe, involving many injuries and loss of life. A high speed crash
or derailment is inevitably very high profile in the media and can cause
disruption to transport links for many weeks. The nature of the equipment
involved often means that even 'minor' incidents can have significant
operational and financial consequences.
Railway accidents include incidents such as:
a. Derailments
b. Collisions with objects on the track
c. Collisions with vehicles on level cr ossings
d. Potential inadequate maintenance of track and rolling stock
e. Mechanical failure of the permanent way and rolling stock
f. Fires on trains and in the load on trains

 Geographical distribution of Rail accidents :
Train accidents are common around the wo rld. Unfortunately when these
accidents occur, people are often seriously injured or even killed.
Accidents involving trains are often the result of mechanical failures and
human error, and often it’s a combination of both.
Indian Railways (IR), the larges t rail passenger carrier in the world, has
experienced 11 major accidents due to derailment or collision between
trains in the year 2010, leading to several human casualties and large -scale
disruptions in traffic. Alarmingly, 8 of these 11 accidents have o ccurred
within a specific geographical region known as the Indo -Gangetic plain.
 Causes and Impact of rail accidents :
A rail accident is a type of disaster involving one or more trains. Rail
accidents occur when trains travelling on the same tracks collid e or when
trains derail because of technical faults in the rolling stock, the rails or the
security systems, or because of landslides, avalanches or objects
obstructing the rails by deliberate actions, such as terrorist attacks.
 Causes
Generally, these a ccidents cannot be avoided because the train driver or
security personnel do not have enough time to react. Such accidents cause
direct and indirect damage to people and the environment, especially when
they involve trains carrying freight or dangerous or polluting substances. munotes.in

Page 155

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
155
A majority of the train accidents that take place in India are due to human
error. CNN -IBN has accessed an internal safety report of the Railways
which says that 18 of 21 accidents in the last four months took place due
to human err or. Manpower shortage, financial bottlenecks and delay in
installing anti -collision devices are among key reasons why safety is being
compromised. Reports also show that there are shortages of 16,000
locomotive drivers in the railways. When driver over spe ed and skip red
signals accidents happen. There is shortage of drivers too.
There are a variety of different reasons that these railroad accidents occur,
and some of these include:
 Train conductor negligence
 Train derailment
 Improper maintenance of the tra in tracks
 Faulty equipment
 Collision with another train
 Collision with a car, bus or truck trying to cross train tracks
 Collapsed bridges
 Faulty train crossings - The number of European level crossing crashes
between 1990 and 2009 remained the same in relat ion to the number of
passenger kilometers travelled. This makes level crossing crashes a
high priority issue. For example, in 1999 a passenger train collided
with a tractor -semitrailer at a grade crossing in Bourbonnais, Illinois.
U.S.
 Major reasons leadi ng to rail accidents in India are as follows:
1. Low investment
 Official records say that the Indian Railway is carrying 15 times more
people than its capacity for the past 20 -23 years. Hence, damaging the
old tracks is done by overloading.
 Most of the Indian trains are not equipped with fire detection systems.
Sometimes smoke and fire detection systems are installed in AC
coaches but not in the other compartments of the same train. Detecting
fire in the open coaches is more problematic.
 In some nations device s to automatically stop the train if it crosses red
signal are in place. These avert head on collisions to a great extent. But
no such devices are provided in Indian Railways leading to certain
avoidable collisions. munotes.in

Page 156

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
156  Train crashes caused by carriage and equ ipment failure must be
avoided by for example timely inspections and maintenance.
2. Human errors
The Human factor has proved to be the direct cause of several train
crashes. Many studies have been carried out within this factor and contain
aspects of the hu man factor through investigations of crash causes and
user-friendly instruments and tools. The term is often used to denote the
human tendency to misunderstand, make miscalculations, and mistakes. It
has been found out by CNN -IBN after assessing the intern al safety report
of the Railways that 18 out of every 21 accidents occur because of human
error.

 As the Indian Railways lacks new technologies, the chances of human
error are more. Hence, it is one of the major causes of rail accidents in
India.
 Moreove r the organizations compromise on the safety measures
because of low investment, delay in installing anti -collision devices
and shortage in manpower.
 Shortage of staff is another major reason leading to human errors. Less
staff means work overload. In Indi a train accidents also occur because
of the fault of driver and negligence of railway staff.
 Manual signaling system between stations must be replaced with
automated one. Again this needs a huge investment, maintenance and
management.
3. Unmanned crossings
 15,000 crossings out of 50,000 in India are unmanned.
 Existing level -crossings have been improved and the construction of
new ones has been minimized.
 Road users do not take proper precautions and cross lines even if the
signal is red leading to accident. Overpass bridges, flyovers and
fencing are done to reduce the accidents.
4. Physical environment
Physical environment factors can also be reasons for crashes.
 In the early days, trains sometimes collided with cows, but it did not
create any severe injury eve nts.
 Bridge collapses were other hazards.
 Improved materials and performance of railway tracks have reduced
the number of crashes caused by, e.g., the weather or climate, which munotes.in

Page 157

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
157 cause heat distortions of tracks, ice formations, problems induced by
snow.
 The Physical environment such as bridges or steep embankments can
further aggravate the crash.
 Impact of Rail Accidents :
Train crashes causing severe consequences for passengers are not a
problem of the past, rather they continue to be highly relevant tod ay.
 Environmental
 In a rail accident, the damage is not only limited to the people injured
or killed but also affect the environment by contaminating the
surrounding area. These damages require extensive remediation and
cleanup. Moreover a rail accident h as significant effect on individuals
as well as organizations regarding property damage and financial loss.
They may even be injured or become ill as a result of toxic substances
released into the environment by a train crash.
 Disruption of rail traffic.
 Loss of commercial and public confidence in the transport system.
 Often, physical environment made it difficult to evacuate and transport
the injured from the steep embankment to the road.
 Further, railway crashes might happen far from roads as was the cas e
when two trains collided head -on due to a signal malfunction in Japan,
1991, The rural setting of the crash hampered rescue efforts.
 Human factors
The Human factors also play an important role in the post -crash phase.
 Evacuation knowledge and well prepa red train crew affect the
outcome because, only if passengers are provided with appropriate
safety critical information they will be able to know how to handle the
situation when it arises.
 Besides the physical injuries, train crashes affect the whole per son
(psychological, social, and existential).
 There are many studies focusing on, for example, psychological and
psychiatric effects such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among
people who have been involved in serious disasters.
 Survivor’s reactio ns are considered severe immediately after the event,
but many people find pathways to recovery. There are survivors who
experience trauma affects from 5 years after event to lifelong.
munotes.in

Page 158

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
158  Socio -economical environment factors
The Socio -economical environment factors comprise, e.g., guidelines,
competence, resources, and disaster plans.
 If rescue personnel are not prepared and trained for a train crash, this
will most likely affect the outcome. In a 2008 train crash in Los
Angeles, two of the fatalities were p assengers trapped under debris.
They most likely they died from asphyxia due to the prolonged
extrication time.
 Response to rail accident :
Response : Once the Emergency occurs, the railway authorities coordinate
with external organizations, perform the ini tial measures on the field,
deploy staff on the site and define the need of technical means support. In
this phase, the Emergency is usually solved by external organizations with
the support of the railway authorities.
The first persons arriving at a railw ay accident site can render valuable
assistance to minimise injury and loss of life, reduce property loss through
damage, and prevent loss of clues and evidence that can identify the
factors that contributed to the accident. Often Police and Emergency
Services and representatives of the Railway Network Owner and/or
Railway Operator are the first trained personnel to arrive at railway
accident sites. In addition, supervisory officers coordinate response and
recovery from locations off -site. Some of the respo nses are as follows:
 Emergency spill and hazmat response
 Licensed transportation services
 Railroad emergency response services
 Scrap metal bin services
 Scrap metal processing
 Site remediation
 Waste bulking and packaging
 Waste characterization and identific ation
 Waste container services
 Waste manifesting, tracking and reporting
 Waste transportation and disposal services

munotes.in

Page 159

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
159  The following are some reportable matters in relation to rail accidents:
1. The death of, or a serious injury to, a person on board the rail vehicle
or in contact with the rail vehicle or anything attached to the rail
vehicle or anything that has become detached from the rail vehicle.
2. A collision between the rail vehicle and one or more other rail
vehicles, resulting in serious damage to any of the rail vehicles.
3. A collision between the rail vehicle and a person or vehicle at a level
crossing, including a pedestrian crossing.
4. A collision between the rail vehicle and an obstruction that results in
serious damage to, or destruction of, the rail ve hicle or obstruction.
5. A running line derailment of the rail vehicle.

 Specific risk reduction and prepare dness measures of rail
accident :
Preparedness : At this stage, the railway authorities define capacities,
maintain the resources (human and technica l) and define the Emergency
Plans and Organization to be prepared for an unlikely Emergency
situation. Preparedness largely approaches to achieve risk reduction from
‘‘people’’ side. So, preparedness may be largely common to all hazards
but prevention and mitigation have to be hazard specific. Preparedness
may be a matter of inculcation and readiness but prevention & mitigation
have to be concrete and specific. Preparedness is people and area specific.
Best of preventive measures cannot ensure that disaster would not happen.
Therefore it is essential to be prepared for emergency response through
having an effective “Disaster Management Plan”, backed by provision of
adequate support capacity and empowered delegation to enable response
team to tackle the situa tion. Plan should be supported by provision of
requisite infrastructure, reserved and kept spare in readiness for
emergency and otherwise. Indian Railways emergency response system
has all these elements.
 Risk Reduction Programmes are as follows:
 Identifyi ng, collecting and analyzing precursor accident data to
identify risks
 Developing voluntary pilot programs in cooperation with stakeholders
that are designed to mitigate identified and potential risks
 Propagating and institutionalizing best practices and l essons learned to
the entire rail industry
 Providing analytical support, data, and recommendations needed by
stakeholders to develop strategies, plans and processes to improve
safety and promote positive organizational change munotes.in

Page 160

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
160
 The objectives to be achieved in case of a train accident are:
I. Save life and alleviate suffering,
II. Protect property including mails,
III. Provide succor and help to other passengers at the site of accident,
IV. Ascertain cause of the accident, and
V. Restore through lines of communication.
In orde r to make the above expeditiously possible, all railway resources in
men and material, as warranted specific to the situation, are required to be
promptly made available. This is legislated as written instructions. It is
also strictly observed should the s ituation so require.
Railway’s rolling stock is of special nature. So, in case of a railway
accident, special equipment to clear the site is required. Railway tracks
also pass through non -habited zones. Therefore, Indian Railways has
provided specialised r ail mounted Accident Relief Medical Vans
(ARMVs) and Accident Relief Trains (ARTs). These can be either self
propelled (SPARMVs / SPARTs) or locomotive hauled. The self propelled
units have excellent mobility with superior speed potential. Hence the use
of these units have increased and replaced conventional units except in
case of ARTs having heavy lift 140T crane in its composition.
The Accident Relief Medical Vans (ARMVs) are specialised vans which
have two or three coach units. In a two -coach format one coach has
emergency medical relief including a mini operation theatre, while the
other coach carries required rescue equipment including portable hydraulic
and / or electrical cutters to cut open railway coaches for rescuing trapped
passengers should the need arise. The third coach in three -coach format
generally carries additional equipment and staff. Movement to the site of
accident depends highly on their distance from site. Other factors include
obstruction of the railway tracks due the accident. Keepi ng these points in
view Railways always keep co -ordination with various non -railway,
government /non -government agencies, as this would help them further
and their resources can be requisitioned immediately to help the affected
persons.
The Disaster Manage ment Act 2005 envisages participation by all stake
holders based on their expertise. It has also been the experience that the
golden hour is invariably managed by few on -board railway staff, railway
staff working in vicinity, unaffected train passengers, l ocal police and fire
brigade, local hospitals and doctors and other rescue workers in the nearby
areas.
The Accident Relief Trains are provided with necessary re -railing /
handling equipment to clear the site of accident.
munotes.in

Page 161

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
161 The location and beat of each AR MV and ART is clearly laid down and
well publicised for information of all concerned. This is also available at
all control rooms for requisitioning incase of need. ARMV and / or ART
of adjoining and other beats can also be requisitioned should the need
arise. Whenever any unit is not available for maintenance or any other
reason the same is pre -informed to similar adjoining units so as to be
available in readiness.
In order to keep ARMVs and ARTs in good fettle and readiness certain
minimum staff is availa ble with these, whereas other required pre -
nominated staff is normally employed in their regular duties. In case of
requirement these staff is automatically called. This system of dedicated
staff supported by sufficient trained additional manpower, when ne eded,
ensures provision of requisite resources, reserved and kept spare in
readiness for emergency.
 Training and preparedness of rail accident:
Cyclic training and retraining of manpower, system of periodic inspections
of the resource and rehearsing and ex amination of preparedness through
mock drills are essential ingredients of a sound disaster response
mechanism. These all elements are provided in railways disaster response
system. The dedicated and nominated staffs for ARMVs and ARTs have
specific work a ssigned to them in case called for. For example if the break
down crane has to be brought in use pre -assigned staff by himself takes
over the duty of watching supports ensuring stability of the crane. Both
kinds of staff are sent for periodic training and knowledge up gradation to
zonal as well as divisional training schools. Even the officers are given
training on disaster management at National Academy of Indian Railways
at Vadodra. Active assistance of NDRF is also being taken for four week
training of t rainers on disaster management, who in turn becomes nodes
for imparting further awareness among frontline staff. Extract from the
relevant paras pertaining to disaster management training are at annexure
3 for reference purposes only. There is a well laid out system of periodic
inspections of both ARMVs and ARTs at various levels with frequency
increasing from weekly inspections at supervisory level to quarterly
inspections at divisional officer’s level. This is also a scheduled item of
inspection during sa fety audit of the division and / or inspection at zonal
level by Principal Head of Department of concerned officer who is
invariably an HAG level officer. The preparedness of system is practiced
through “mock drills”. These are planned/“surprise” exercises wherein a
situation is artificially created and ARMV / ART ‘ordered’ to carry out
prescribed task. The exercise is also carried out at a larger scale involving
other participants like NDRF and other stake holders in order to have
synchronisation and coord ination should the need arise. The system is
tested for response from time to time by actual ordering of the ARMV and
/ or ART in day as well as night to check actual response in terms of
available of manpower, readiness of system to turn out required unit in
specified time etc. Incidentally the prescribed time for turning out ART
during day and night is 30 minutes and 45 minutes respectively. Similarly munotes.in

Page 162

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
162 the ARMV is to be turned out in 25 minutes and 15 minutes depending
upon single exit or double exit irres pective of day or night.
 Typical post -disaster needs of rail accident :
Recovery : This phase begins once the Emergency is solved (usually the
injured people have been treated, the site has been processed by all the
organizations according to their duties and those external organizations
have finished their main tasks). Here, the railway authorities take a leading
position with their own resources (human and technical) in order to restore
the railway service as soon as possible. The findings of the emergenc y
(accident) investigation are the basis to create or modify the safety rules
and recommendations. This is known as the 360º safety circle.
1. Prevent the marshalling of the form of energy in the first place
2. Reduce the amount of energy marshalled
3. Prevent the release of energy
4. Modify the rate of spatial distribution of release of the energy from its
source
5. Separate, in space or time, the energy being released from the
susceptible structure
6. Separation by “barrier”
7. Modify appropriately contact surfaces (softening)
8. Strengthen the human resistance
9. Prevent aggravation of occurred injury event – emergency care
10. Restoration and rehabilitation of those injured
 Case study of rail accident: India :
The Dehradun -Varanasi Janata Express (train number 14266) derailed
near Bachhrawan in Uttar Pradesh, northern India, on 20 March 2015. The
train was the Janata Express from Dehradun to Varanasi. Coming from
Dehradun, the Janta Express train was heading for Varanasi, when the
engine jumped th e rails and its first two coaches, packed with passengers,
collapsed, leaving 80 persons trapped. This accident occurred at 09:10
local time when a passenger train overshot a signal at Bachhrawan, Uttar
Pradesh. As a result the locomotive and two carriages were derailed. In the
train there were more than 400 passengers and 85 members of staff.
At least fifty -eight deaths and 150 people were injured in this accident.
The driver reported by radio that his brakes had failed, and that he could
not stop the tra in. It was diverted into a siding and crashed through the
buffers at Bachhrawan.
munotes.in

Page 163

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
163 A team of doctors from the King George Medical University Hospital in
Lucknow was dispatched to the scene of the accident. The injured were
taken to the King George Medical U niversity and Sanjay Gandhi Post
Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences in Lucknow, or to a hospital in Rae
Bareli.
The trapped passengers could be brought out only after steel cutting
machines reached the site. Rescue workers used cutting machines to free
passengers and recover the dead bodies, a witness said. Blood was
splattered in and around the wreckage. The rescue operations concluded
around 4 pm, with Divisional Railway Manager A K Lahoti declaring. The
critically injured were sent to Sanjay Gandhi P ost Graduate Institute of
Medical Sciences and King George’s Medical University in Lucknow,
while the others were admitted to the district hospital at Rae Bareli.
The police had a tough time controlling local villagers, who rushed to the
spot.
AIR ACCIDENT S
In spite of air travel widely considered to be the safest form of travel it is
still in its infancy and when midair calamity strikes, the results are often
catastrophic.
Air accidents with reference to nature :
Take -off and landing are different phases o f the flight. At these points the
risks are greatest. It is found that most accidents occur in the immediate
vicinity of airports.
In air accidents vertical distortion and horizontal contusion of the body are
symptomatic of injuries of passengers and crew. The injured person is
generally found poly traumatized. Hence to preserve life in such cases
maximum organization, precision, and speed on the part of the local and
regional rescue services is required. Moreover, careful enquiries into such
catastrophes a re indispensible for the development of effective preventive
measures.
Another important point noted that over the last decade that 10% of all
fatal aviation accidents occurred while the planes were on the ground.
22% of all fatal airline accidents have oc curred during the “takeoff and
climb” phase which involve three distinct phases, according to aviation
experts.
The takeoff phase occurs when the plane is accelerating down the runway,
while the initial climb is the steep ascent as the plane leaves the gro und,
followed by a gentler climb to cruising altitude.
Over the past ten years, six fatal accidents occurred during takeoff, four
during the initial climb, and six during the climb -to-cruising altitude
phase.
munotes.in

Page 164

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
164 One such crash occurred in July 2000, when an Air France Concorde
struck debris on the runway at Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris, causing
a catastrophic explosion shortly after takeoff.
When accidents do occur during cruising phase, however, they are far
more dangerous for passengers. The seven fat al accidents documented in
Boeing’s study resulted in 774 fatalities — or 20% of the 3,884 fatalities
in commercial aviation accidents from 2004 to 2013.
The disappearance of MH370 over the Indian Ocean in March 2014, the
shooting down of MH17 over Ukraine in July 2014 and the German wings
flight in March 2015 was three notable incidents that occurred while the
aircraft were cruising.
The descent, approach and landing phase of a flight is by far the most
dangerous.
The point at which the aircraft begins to descend from its cruising altitude
in preparation for landing marks the beginning of the phase in which most
fatal aviation accidents occur.
Geographical distribution of air accidents :
Despite the series of high profile crashes in recent years that have s een a
rise in the number of fatalities, the rate of aircraft accidents is low.
Figures from the Bureau of Aircraft Accident Archives (BAAA) make the
German wings crash in the Alps the 17th such incident in 2015 compared
to 33 that occurred up to the same p oint in 2014.
It also takes the total number of fatalities for 2015 so far at 247, which
assumes the 150 on board today’s German wings crash have all died.
In 2014, the BAAA say 1,328 died in aircraft accidents - the highest
annual fatality figure since 20 05 due to a series of crashes including Air
Asia flight QZ8501 and the downing of MH17 in Ukraine. The
organisation counts military transport planes and any aircraft capable of
carrying six or more passengers.
The Aviation Safety Network put the number of fatalities, excluding
QZ8501, at 526 for 2014, the highest since 2010. The ASN figures only
include aircraft capable of carrying 14 or more passengers and exclude
military aircraft. It also reportedly excludes casualties from hostile actions,
such as the M H17 incident.
Using annual aircraft departure figures collated by the World Bank and the
International Civil Aviation Organization, we can calculate the rough
accident and fatality rate per million departures for the BAAA and ASN
(with AirAsia added) figur es up to 2014. I say rough as the coverage of
countries in the World Bank dataset varies from year to year.

munotes.in

Page 165

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
165  Causes and impact of air accidents :
The Most Common Reasons for air accidents :
Any news of air accident instantly raises questions about aircra ft safety
and the threat of terrorism. But without knowing the facts, it is not
suggestible to speculate on what might actually have caused a specific
crash. There are various causes behind any air accident. They are
discussed below:
1. Pilot Error : The propo rtion of crashes caused by pilot error has
increased. Half of all plane crashes are caused by pilot error. Aircraft
are complex machines and so it requires a lot of management. Pilots
are actively engaged with the aircraft at every stage of a flight so the re
are numerous opportunities for this to go wrong. This may include
failing to programme the vital flight -management computer (FMC)
correctly to miscalculating the required fuel uplift. Pilots must
navigate through dangerous weather, respond to mechanical issues and
execute a safe takeoff and landing. Some plane accidents are caused
when pilots misread equipment, misjudge weather conditions or fail to
recognize mechanical errors until it’s too late.
Sometimes plane crashes happen when pilots become incapac itated during
critical points of a flight. In 2005, a Helios Airways flight to Greece
crashed because the flight cabin depressurized, incapacitating the entire
flight crew. Some pilot errors can even be the result of mental problems. A
flight to Tokyo cras hed in 1987 because a pilot who was known to have
serious psychological problems put the plane’s engines into reverse mid -
flight.

While such errors are regrettable, it is important to remember that the pilot
is the last line of defence when things go cata strophically wrong.

2. Mechanical Error . The second most common cause of plane crashes
is mechanical error. Equipment failures still account for around 20% -
22% of all aviation accidents, despite improvements in design and
manufacturing quality. While engines are significantly more reliable
today than they were half a century ago, they still occasionally suffer
catastrophic failures. Some mechanical errors occur because of a flaw
in the plane’s design. For example, in 1974 a Turkish Airlines flight to
France c rashed because of a design flaw in the latch of the cargo door.
Sometimes, mechanical failure occurs when outside circumstances
damage the plane. For example, in 1962 a United Airlines flight
crashed because it was struck by a single swan that tore off the plane’s
left horizontal stabilizer. Birds have caused at least seven plane
crashes to date.
3. Weather . Around 12% of all plane crashes are caused by bad weather
conditions. Although flights are often grounded when weather
conditions are deemed hazardous, st orms, heavy winds and even fog
can sneak up on pilots and air traffic controllers. Lightning strikes can munotes.in

Page 166

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
166 be especially dangerous. Aviation accidents have happened because
lightning caused electrical failure, because it ignited fuel tanks and
pipes, and eve n because the flash itself caused temporary blindness.
Sometimes milder weather conditions can cause plane crashes as in the
case of a flight to Lebanon in 1977.Here the pilot encountered a thick fog
as he prepared to land. Circling back, he retried the la nding several more
times before fuel ran out and the plane could no longer stay aloft. In 2010,
an Indonesian plane carrying 103 passengers crashed when inclement
weather conditions caused the pilot to overshoot the runway. The plane
skidded into a pool of water at the end of the runway and crashed into a
nearby hillside. The impact of the crash caused the jet to break in half.

4. Sabotage. Plane crashes that are caused by sabotage account for about
9% of total plane crashes. Some sabotaged flights crash becau se of
hijackers, and of course the most notable examples are the three flights
that were hijacked on September 11th. But despite increasingly strict
TSA regulations, some passengers still manage to smuggle bombs or
firearms onto planes. When they’re succes sful, a single passenger can
bring down a jet, killing hundreds of people.
5. Other Human Error . About 7%, plane crashes are caused by some
kinds of human errors. Several plane crashes are caused by air traffic
controllers. Air traffic control mistakes have caused planes to crash
into mountains, to land on occupied runways and even to collide in
midair. Human error also lies in the field when a plane is loaded,
fueled or maintained incorrectly. One of the more common fatal
mistakes caused by humans is someth ing called “fuel starvation” – but
this isn’t always the result of an improperly filled fuel tank. A Coastal
Airlines flight in 1948 crashed because the fuel valves were positioned
incorrectly, causing both engines to pull fuel from a single tank.
 Impact of air accidents
Accident of an aircraft leads to human injury or even loss of human life, it
also influence the reputation and the economy of air transportation
industry of the country. To reduce the rate of accident researchers are
addressing problem fr om various perspectives including improving
meteorological forecasting techniques, collecting additional weather data
automatically via on -board sensors and flight modems, and improving
weather data dissemination.
 Economic effect
 If fewer people travel the n there is a negative effect on the economy. If
the same numbers of people travel, just on different airlines, then the
overall effect is zero,
 Much cash moves around as there is insurance claims and paying the
lawyers, munotes.in

Page 167

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
167  At the crash site, there is much lo calized spending - securing the site,
investigating the site, meals and accommodations for all those
attending the site,
 An airline needs to buy a new aircraft,
 CNN needs to charter helicopters to fly over the crash site for the next
three days. Employment for talking heads in Atlanta goes up,
 Funerals are expensive.
 The cost of rescue operations, recovering bodies, retrieving aircraft
wreckage and investigation can run into millions of dollars.
 Emotional effect
Although the risk of dying in an air accident is very small (there is a much
greater chance of being killed in a road accident), the public reaction to
such events is intense. Loss of confidence in an airline, or in flying
generally, is common, whether the accident was fatal or not. Crashes have
other serious consequences.
 Psychological effect
Psychological research has shown that air accidents can cause serious
mental health consequences for victims. These consequences take the
form of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and a variety of other disorders a nd
symptoms which have been less investigated.
Response to air accidents :
Emergency Response begins as soon as an air crash is identified or
reported. The numbering sequence is not meant to establish priority as all
actions should be done as soon as pos sible.
Aircraft accidents are complex and unfortunate events that require a deft
personal and corporate response. A company’s first and highest
responsibility is to the families of those involved in the accident. Every
appropriate provision for their comfo rt and accommodation should be
considered, assigned and acted upon first, prior to internal company or
public comment. Company management should take steps immediately to
notify the families, offer counseling and other support, make needed
arrangements and keep them informed.
The primary sources for information regarding the aircraft, crew and
passengers involved typically are internal and can be obtained from
sources such as flight department records, flight department personnel not
involved in the acciden t, company human resource departments or
personnel departments. The leadership of those departments should be
contacted at the outset. Legal counsel, public affairs and investor -relations
personnel, and insurance providers also should be contacted immediat ely.
munotes.in

Page 168

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
168 Aircraft accidents often generate acute levels of public and professional
scrutiny previously not experienced by management, in an area outside
their expertise. Although this attention typically is long -term as an
investigation unfolds, the broader p ublic’s interest usually is ephemeral.
The early acknowledgment of and stated regret for an obvious tragedy,
responsibility for the families of those involved in the accident, and a
demonstrable corporate attitude of proactive cooperation with
investigatin g authorities are highly recommended. The public’s perception
of a company’s professionalism in the wake of a crisis often significantly
influences public and shareholder opinion of the company’s competency.
Ultimately, safety is the responsibility of comp any management, from the
CEO down, and it should be treated as a fundamental matter of the
company culture. Management should articulate in writing a strong,
permanent and visible commitment to safety. Past aircraft accident
investigators have noted that t he implementation of corporate safety
standards for air transportation often effectively prevent most accidents
before they occur.
In the event an accident does occur, company management should have
procedures in place to help them respond to the crisis qu ickly and
effectively. The following sections recommend specific actions that
company representatives should (or should not) take in the aftermath of an
aircraft accident. They also identify the facts company representatives
should know about the accident and about business aviation in general in
order for them to answer likely press and public inquiries successfully.
 To protect life, property and evidence the following should be kept in
mind
 Establish a security perimeter around the accident scene.
 Allow P ublic Safety Personnel access to preserve life, recover the
fatally injured and stabilize hazardous materials.
 Prevent disturbance of the accident scene and the wreckage.
 Protect and preserve ground scars and marks made by the aircraft,
vehicle, train, ves sel, pipeline, and other physical evidence related to
the accident.
 Document and photograph pavement evidence prior to re -opening of
roadway. Mark possible evidence for analysis by the NTSB
investigators upon arrival.
 Remove highway vehicles to a secure lo cation and ensure that
recovery operations do not alter critical pre -crash adjustments such as
airbrake settings.
 Maintain a record of personnel who enter the accident scene.
munotes.in

Page 169

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
169 Specific risk reduction and preparedness measures air accident :

Risk reduction :
In major aircraft accident wreckage, bodies and survivors may be strewn
over a wide area. This situation is further complicated by hazardous cargo.
The under stated measures may be taken as risk reduction.
 Automation is supposed to relieve an aircraft p ilot’s workload and
reduce errors. The reality can unfortunately be very different
sometimes. When the pilot and the aircraft do not interact as foreseen,
automation technology can be the cause of disturbing instability,
which has resulted in catastrophic failures.
 A risk reduction strategy has been developed for carriage of dangerous
goods by air. When implemented it makes the carriage of these goods
an acceptable practice.
 Approach and landing accident reduction (ALAR) has long been
among the primary goal s of the Flight Safety Foundation (FSF). When
the international FSF ALAR Task Force published its report in 1998, it
cited data showing that an average of 17 fatal ALAs had occurred each
year from 1980 through 1998 in passenger and cargo operations
involvi ng aircraft weighing 5,700 kg/12,500 lb or more. The task
force’s work, and the subsequent safety products and international
workshops on the subject, have helped reduce the risk of ALAs — but
the accidents still occur.
Preparedness :
Preparedness involve s actions designed to save lives and minimize
damage. It is planning and training prior to a major air crash for
appropriate response when an emergency occurs.
 In Preparedness measures the following are taken into consideration.
All responders will:
 Maint ain a resource inventory of equipment and manpower which
could be utilized.
 Train personnel in the responsibilities and emergency duties required
under this plan.
 Conduct periodic exercises that will test the effectiveness of this plan.
 Review and update t he plan as needed based on exercises, emergency
response or changes in policy.
 Follow the established communications network identified in this plan


munotes.in

Page 170

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
170 Typical post -disaster needs in air accidents :
Plane crashes are catastrophic, but not necessarily are un-survivable
events. The National Transportation Safety Board stated in a report that
the survival rate of crashes was 95.7%, analyzing airline accidents from
1983 to 2000. Sure, there are some accidents where everyone, or nearly
everyone, died, but thos e are much rarer than you’d guess based on what
you see in the news. The NTSB found that even in serious accidents where
fire and substantial damage occurred, 76.6% of passengers still survived.
 10 tips that could save a life in air accidents

1. If one has s urvived the crash landing, one has a chance of getting out
of the airplane alive that too within 90 seconds only. This is because it
takes, on average, just 90 seconds for a fire to burn through the plane’s
aluminum fuselage and consumes everything and eve ryone in it.
2. Young, slender men have the best chances of surviving a plane crash.
Escaping a plane crash requires one to maneuver quickly through
narrow aisles with luggage and wreckage strung about.
3. If possible travelers should fly in bigger planes if pos sible. One should
also avoid regional carriers if possible as they have an accidents and
incidents rate double that of national carriers and their pilots are often
less experienced and overworked.
4. One should focus on finding a seat near an exit while flyi ng
5. We should overcome the normalcy bias with an action plan. The
Normalcy Bias causes our brains to assume that things will be
predictable and normal all the time. When things aren’t normal, it
takes our brain a long time to process this. Instead of spring ing to
action when something unexpected happens, our brain figures that
what has happened cannot be so bad, because truly bad events are so
out of the ordinary.
6. The flyer must read the safety card and listen to the flight attendants
when they give their pr e-flight safety spiel. A frequent flier may think
he is justifiably confident, but he probably complacent. The FAA
found in a report published a few years ago, that frequent fliers were
the least informed on what to do and most susceptible to the normalcy
bias in the event of a plane crash.
7. In the aviation world, Plus 3/Minus 8 refers to the first three minutes
after takeoff and the last eight minutes before landing. According to
flight crash investigators, close to 80% of all plane crashes occur
during thi s timeframe. Hence, if you want to up your chances of
survival, you need to be extra vigilant and ready to take action during
the first 3 minutes after takeoff and the last 8 minutes before landing.
8. Put on your oxygen mask as soon as it drops. We all know that
airplane cabins are pressurized so we can breathe normally even at munotes.in

Page 171

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
171 30,000 feet. But when a cabin loses pressure, there is very little air at
high altitudes that getting oxygen to our bloodstream is certainly
impossible. This is the time when oxygen ma sks are highly needed.
They pump pure oxygen into our nose and mouth so that we can get
the air we need.
9. Assuming brace position would help us survive in a plane crash and
indeed up the chances of survival in an emergency crash landing. The
positions help reduce the velocity of your head when it inevitably
slams into the seat in front of you. Moreover, they help minimize limb
flailing.
10. We must forget our carryon luggage and remember the kids. The thing
actually happens is while rushing to get out of the pl ane, we may
forget our kids. Our brain does peculiar things in disasters.
 Case Study of air accidents: Air India Express Flight 812
Air India Express Flight 812 accident was the third deadliest aviation
disaster in India. It was a scheduled passenger ser vice from Dubai to
Mangalore, at around 01:00 UTC on 22 May 2010. It overshot the runway
on landing, fell over a cliff, and caught fire, spreading wreckage across the
surrounding hillside. Of the 160 passengers and six crew members on
board, only eight pas sengers survived.
SEA ACCIDENTS
Just as ashore, at sea also most accidents are preventable. However, the
environment and working conditions aboard seagoing vessels pose
additional hazards not found ashore. The responsibilities to avoid
accidents flow from the top down; from the shore establishment to the
Master, to each and every individual aboard. "Safety awareness" by all
hands is the biggest single factor in reducing accidents.
Sea accidents with reference to nature :
Maritime disasters involving huge sp ills of mineral oil have subsequently
provoked changes in maritime regulations due to the severe nature of the
associated environmental impact and the obvious links with poor vessel
operation and maintenance. Hence, shipping accidents have been a
catalyst for environmental protection regulation over the past 40 years.
Environmental risk is linked to the type and amount of oil and/or
hazardous substances being carried and the sensitivity of the marine area
where any accident happens.
Areas of concern and co ntributory factors to shipping accidents are
highlighted along with the implications these incidents have on the marine
environment. It focuses in particular on the issues surrounding the role of
flag states (the flag state is the country the ship is regis tered to and that has
the authority and responsibility to enforce regulations over that vessels)
and the extent of their responsibilities with respect to vessel safety and the
implementation of international rules and regulations. Environmental risk munotes.in

Page 172

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
172 is dir ectly linked to the type and amount of hazardous substances,
including oil, being transported and the sensitivity of the marine area
where any accident could occur. Flag State performance continues to play
an important role in the quality and safety of sea -going vessels around the
world. Several organisations publish guidelines on flag State performance.
These include bodies such as the International Chamber of Shipping
(ICS), the Maritime International Secretariat Services (MARISEC) and the
International T ransport Workers’ Federation (ITF).
 The list of 12 main known types of maritime accidents as follows:
1. Offshore Oil Rig Mishaps: Offshore oil rigs constitute great danger in
terms of their heavy machinery and the complexities of the processes
involved.
2. Cruise Vessel Mishaps: Cruise vessels form a very important part in
the vacation itinerary of people. However, a major type of maritime
accident occurs in cruise vessels. Cruise vessels could capsize or face
tough weather conditions causing the ship to develop major problems.
3. Commercial Fishing Mishaps: Even fishing for commercial purposes
can lead to fatal incidents, due to inexperienced fishermen. Harsh
weather conditions can also could severe damages to a commercial
fishing expedition.
4. Accidents on Tugboats: Tugboats are those which help move huge
ships to enter docks. They are small in nature but are powerful to
ensure that the large vessels are handled safely. But sometimes
because of the blockage of the visibility of tugboats by the larger
vessels, maritim e accidents occur. Also human error on the part of the
pilot of the tugboat can also lead to unwanted and unexpected tugboat
mishaps.
5. Accidents on Crude Oil Tankers and Cargo Ships: The major cause of
accidents on cargo tankers is explosions.
6. Grounding of Ships: Ship grounding occurs when the bottom of the
ship’s hull scrapes through the ocean -bed. The danger to workers
aboard the ship is an important consequence because of the mishap.
7. Maritime Accident because of Drugs and alcohol: If the workers of a
particular ship engage in substance abuse or alcohol this could cause
the worker to behave erratically and thereby lead to an unwanted
maritime accident on board ships.
8. Crane Mishaps: Just like crane operations on the land, marine crane
operations on ports an d on ship are also risky.
9. Accidents in Shipyards: The shipyard is the place where the ship is
assembled and constructed in its entirety. Fitting and welding
accidents are common in the shipyard which could spare the worker
his life but hamper the worker’s overall working abilities. Similarly munotes.in

Page 173

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
173 constant inhaling of poisonous fumes also becomes another shipyard
accident cause.
10. Maritime Accidents on Diving Support Vessels: People who want to
explore the mysteries of the deep sea use a diving support craft to ta ke
a plunge into the water.
11. Accidents on Barges: Barge mishaps occur mainly because of the
overall build of the barges themselves, which allows them limited
movement on the water and because of the problems of the barge -
towing equipments. These problems c ould be caused due to
inexperience on the part of the person at the helm of the towing boats
or due to usage of faulty towing cables.
12. Cargo Hauling Accidents: Cargo hauling maritime accidents are those
accidents caused to workers who work as cargo haulers. However,
according to several maritime accident investigations, it has been
reported that cargo hauling workers overstate their cargo -hauling
injuries. The maritime accident investigation, consequentially reports
that because of this, this profession has one of the most severe rate of
work -place absenteeism.
Geographical distribution of sea accidents :
Despite the tremendous efforts of different maritime organizations to
achieve a safe and secure maritime transportation system, the number of
maritime accid ents and incidents is still increasing.
Geographic Information System (GIS) is an effective and efficient tool for
spatial analysis with high visualization. It is used to carry out the analysis
of maritime accidents. It identifies the hot spots areas and b uffer analysis
is used to calculate accidents that occurred in coastal areas. The acquired
results stats that the area around the UK is the area with the greatest
number of accidents, and the coastal areas around East Asian countries
(such as China, Japan, and Korea) and the Mediterranean Sea are the areas
with the next highest number of accidents. Moreover, maritime accidents
may not frequently occur in the open sea; however, accidents frequently
happen in coastal areas with 51.1% of the total accidents ha ppening within
25 miles of the continents and 62.2% within 50 miles.
 Causes and impact of sea accidents :
Causes
Ships are vulnerable to all sorts of accidents.
 Human error
Although the average seafarer is competent and well trained, has been
shown the rig ht way to work and has the appropriate equipment for the
job, various research and statistics state that over 70% of marine accidents
happened due to human error. These include trips and falls, fire, pollution
and collisions, and are invariably due to a fa ilure in safe working munotes.in

Page 174

Geography of Disaster
Mitigation and Management
174 practices. These incidents often cause crew injuries or fatalities, with the
ship being consequently delayed or damaged.
Human errors include neglected maintenance, insufficient checking of
systems, lack of communication between crew members, fatigue, or an
inadequate response to a minor incident causing it to escalate into a major
accident. From a more practical point of view, analysis of the
circumstances surrounding accidents demonstrates the high proportion of
spills due to ground ings and collisions.
Collisions are generally due to manoeuvring errors, especially in poor
visibility and/or busy shipping traffic areas. Groundings are also often a
result of manoeuvring errors, often made worse by high winds,
challenging currents and ba d weather.
 Mechanical failure
Human error can play a pivotal role, even when there has been a
mechanical failure, either by way of a lack of maintenance or monitoring
(failing to pick up a potential problem), a lack of suitable equipment or
protective devi ces, or a breakdown in communication or procedures.
 Manning Issues
Crew fatigue and complacency can often be a major factor in incidents.
The prudent ship -owner or manager will ensure that these are addressed
by way of additional manning or rotating the s hip staff more regularly if
the ship is employed on a demanding trade route. There are, however,
owners and managers who are unable to do this, which could in part be
due to a shortage of available trained seafarers, but is more often attributed
to commer cial or operational considerations. Good equipment can cost
more, but safety should be accorded a higher priority, because a ship
cannot be operated safely without the seafarer.
 Ship Design
Ships were often designed by people who had very little practical
knowledge of what they were designing. But at present the ship design
team usually incorporates the suggestions of seafarers who are familiar
with or have sailed on the type of ship that is being designed. Proper
supervision during the building process e nsures that discrepancies and
potential problem areas can be addressed.
 Operating Standards
In most of the marine accidents it has been studied that the operating
manuals are hard to understand. Hence improved methodology in ship
design does not complete ly address the problem because the seafarer then
has to decipher the operating manuals that are supplied with the
equipment.
munotes.in

Page 175

Anthropogenicand Their
Management in India
175 Language can often be a major problem. The manual may not be written
in the language of the crew on board, and is often merely a generic
document. Given that adequate facilities are available for translation of
manuals into just about any language, this is unacceptable.
 Lack of Unified Standards
Equipment problems are further compounded by the lack of a unified
standard for essent ial equipment, including oily water separators, voyage
data recorders and lifeboat launching equipment, and until regulatory and
industry bodies are able to agree on a common standard, it is the seafarer
who will be faced with understanding and operating e quipment that is
unfamiliar and unduly complex, often in less than ideal conditions.
It is often said that safety and quality must be initiated and led from the
top. Unfortunately, this does not always happen. It is our collective
responsibility to ensur e that a seafarer is provided with an environment in
which it is safe to live and work.
Apart from the above stated causes there are several other conditions that
can lead to sea accidents that are as follows:
 weather conditions
 accidents caused by weathe r conditions, such as gales,
 narrow and/or congested waters,
 collision .with unknown objects,
 ship lying at anchor or moored at buoys with strong currents,
 maneuvering at close quarters or
 limited space and adverse conditions in port.
 cargo -related acc idents occur through the carriage of dangerous goods,
cargo on deck, heavy
 cargo or cases relevant to the ship seaworthiness.
 failure in the steering system, main engine, different devices,
 war, terrorism, piracy, collision and misinterpretation in
commu nications at sea
 Natural conditions such as current, tide and tidal stream, severe wind,
reduced visibility (fog, heavy snow and rain), storm seas, darkness etc.
affect the ship or those controlling her.
 Technical failures are shortcomings within the ship, such as corrosion,
steering failure, engine failure, or hull failure arising from defective
materials or construction, or by the shore -based installations, such as
aids to navigation. munotes.in