Paper-VIII-20th-Century-British-Literature-munotes

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TERMS/CONCEPTS BACKGROUND
TOPICS PART I

Unit structure:
1.0 Objective s
1.1. Modernism
1.1.1.What is Modernism?
1.1.2.History of Modernism.
1.1.3. Characteristics of Modernism
1.1.4. Examples of Modernist Poetry, Fiction and Drama
1.2. Imagism
1.2.1. What is Imagism?
1.2.2. Origins of the Imagist Poetry Movement.
1.2.3. Characteristics of Imagist Poetry.
1.2.5. Examples of Imagist Poetry.
1.3. Symbolism
1.3.1. What is Symbolism?
1.3.2. How has the Symbolism been used throughout the History
1.3.3. Types of Symbolism in Literature
1.3.4. Ways to use Symbolism in writing
1.4. War Poetry
1.4.1. What is War Poetry?
1.4.2. Theme of War Poetry
1.4.3. Purpose of War Poetry
1.4.4. Characteristics of War Poetry
1.4.5. List of War Poets in English Literature
1.4.6. War Poems in Engli sh Literature
1.5. Let’s Sum up
1.6. Important Questions

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2 1.0. OBJECTIVES

This unit will make the students aware with:
 The 20th Century literary movements.
 The literary genres, trends, and literary movements of Britain in the
20th Century.
 The linkages between social and historical contexts and literary texts.
 The various literary movements and theoretical approaches.

With this knowledge the students will be equipped with comprehensive
understanding of literary genres, trends and movements in 20th Cent ury
British Literature; thereby,enabling them to understand the valuable co –
relation between the sociocultural,economical and historical contexts;
behind the literary production . Students will acquire the discipline to
become reflective and imaginative th inkers through a close, critical and
analytical reading of the prescribed texts.
1.1. MODERNISM
1.1.1. What is Modernism?
The term modernism is a period, style, genre or the combination of all.
More predominantly, the term ‘modern’ has been frequently and
repeatedly used to attribute to the avant -garde, although since the Second
World War, this sense has been popular by the term ‘contemporary’
while ‘modern’ has shifted from the meaning ‘now’ to ‘just now’. The
Modern movement in the arts, however, delinea ted as being almost
synonymous with the advent of the twentieth century, in fact, goes back to
the last decades of the nineteenth century when the foundations and base
of the high Victorian culture were facing serious menace from various
agencies. Being a cultural phenomenon, Modernism saw the exodus from
pre-existing modes of aesthetic engagement to the sphere of art.
The term Modernism applies and refers to the literature, music,
painting, film, and architecture and also to some works before and after
this period. In poetry, Modernism is linked and connected with moves to
break from the iambic pentameter as the basic unit of verse, to
introduce vers libre , i.e. free verse , symbolism , and other new and various
forms of writing. In prose, Modernism is associated with the endeavours
to render human subjectivity in more accurate and authentic ways than
that of realism such as, to represent consciousness, percep tion, viewpoint,
emotion, feeling, meaning and the individual’s relation and alliance with
the society through i nterior monologue, stream of consciousness, non-
linear narratives , rhythm, imagery and themes, and various other
techniques. Hence, the Modernis t writers endeavoured and refers to , Ezra
Pound’s brief phrase, ‘Make it New”. Therefore, the modernist literature
generally focuses on the individual, rather than the society as a whole.

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3 1.1.2. History of Modernism.
The term ‘Modernism ’ was first used in the early 18th century merely to
indicate trends and characteristics of modern times , whereas in the
19th century its meaning encompas sed a sympathy with modern
viewpoints , ideas, thoughts, styles or expressions. In literature ,
Modernismsurfaced and app eared in the English novelist and poet,
Thomas Hardy’s novel, Tess of D’Urbervilles (1891), to indicate what he
called a general and unw anted and unwelcomed creeping industrial “ache
of Modernism ”. It wasin the 1960s that the term modernism became
extensiv ely used. Its literary roots have been said to be in the work of the
French poet , essayist and art critic, Charles Baudelaire and the French
novelist Gustave Flaubert, in the Romantics, or in the 1890s fin de siècle
writers such as Thomas Hardy, George Moo re and Arthur Symon,
whereas its c limactic stage, culmination or the pinnaclepossibly occurred
and appeared before World War I, by which point radical experimentation
had impacted and influenced on all the arts, or in 1922, the annus
mirabilis of James J oyce’s Ulysses , T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land ,
Katherine Mansfield’s The Garden Party , and Virginia Woolf’s Jacob
Room .
Its historical and social background of Modernism, incorporates and
comprised the emergence of the New Woman, the p innacle and d ecline of
the British Empire, unprecedented technological change, the upsurge of
the labour party, the appearance of factory -line mass production, war in
Africa, Europe and elsewhere. Modernism has th us, almost universally
been considered and regarded as a literatur e of not just change but also a
literature of crisis.The foundations of faith were also decrepit and
debilitated by the ons et of Darwinism . The challenge to faith , is one of
the principal features in modern literature . For example , in the early poetry
of T.S. Eliot, the anxiety and restlessness of modern living , the experience
of chaos apprehend this loss of centre , such as Eliot’s Prufrock Joyce’s
Dedalus are q uesters without direction. Writers such as James Joyce, T.S.
Eliot, Joseph Conrad, Henry James, a ndErnest Hemingway are some of
the important and significant writers of the modernist movement.
1.1.3. Characteristics of Modernism
 Individualism
Modernist li terature, typically focuses on the individual rather than the
society. Particularly, modernist writers were captivated and enamored with
how the individual adapted to the changing world. In various cases, the
individual succeeded over hardships and hindran ce. To a large extent, the
Modernist literature presented such characters who just kept their heads
above water. Writers of this movement exhibited the world or society as a
challenge to the honesty and integrity of their characters. Ernest
Hemingway is ch iefly remembered for the intense and powerful characters
who accepted and acknowledged their circumstances at face value and
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4  Experimentation
Poets rejected and relinquished traditional rhyme schemes and started
writing in free verse. Novelists defied and challenged all expectations.
Writers mixed the images from the past with modern languages and
themes, creating a collage of styles. The inner workings of consciousness
were a common subject and theme for modernists. This common subject
and theme led to a new form of narration, which was called stream of
consciousness and in this narration, the point of view of the novel drift and
meanders in a pattern resembling human thought. The eminent authors
such as James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, including the poets like T.S.
Eliot and Ezra Pound, are some of the notable and renowned modernists
best known for their experimental Modernist works.
 Absurdity
The massacre of the two World Wars very deeply affected and stirred the
writers of th is period. Numerouse xcellent and skilful English poets died or
were wounded and bruised in W orld War I. And simultaneously,the global
capitalism was reorganizing society at every level. For several writers, the
world was becoming a more absurd and senseless place every day. T he
mysteriousness of life was being lost and disoriented in the rush of daily
life. The irrational and senseless violence and brutality of W orld War II
was though more evidence that humanity had lost its way. Modernist
authors haveportrayed this absurdity and senselessness in their works.
Franz Kafka's allegorical novella, "The Metamorphosis," in which a
traveling salesman is transformed into an insect -like creature, is one ofthe
best instances of modern absurdism.
 Symbolism
The Modernist writers i mbued people, places , objects, images and events
with significant meanings. Modernist writersenvisaged a reality with
multiple layers, many of them hidden or in a form of code. Symbolism
was not a new concept in literature, but the way the Modernists' use
symbols in their works was an innovation and change . As compared with
the earlier writers, t hey left much more to the reader's imagination leading
to open -ended narratives with numerous interpretations. For instance ,
James Joyce's "Ulysses" embodies distin guishing , open -ended symbols in
each chapter.
 Formalism
For the w riters of the Modernist period , literature was more as a craft than
a flowering and blooming of creativity. According to them, the poems and
novels were constructed from smaller parts rather than the organic,
internal process that the earlier generations had de lineated . The idea of
literature as craft fed the Modernists' craving and desire for creativity and
originality. Modernist poetry generallycomprised foreign languages, dense
vocabulary and invent ed words. For instance, t he poet Edward Estlin munotes.in

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5 Cummings relinquished and rejected all structure and spread his words all
across the page.
1.1.4. Examples of Modernist Poetry, Fiction and Drama.
T. S. Eliot wrote numerous plays which are noteworthy to ment ion.Plays
such as Murder in Cathedral , The Family Reunion , The Cocktail
Party , The Confidential Clerk etc.
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock , by T.S. Eliot is as an example of
trademark modernism .In this he chronicles the experience of Prufrock
using the stream of consciousness technique developed by his fellow
modernist writers. The poem is delineated as a ‘drama of literary anguish’
is a dramatic interior monologue of an urban man, who is afflicted with
the feeling of isolation, confinement, and an inef ficiency and
incompetence for decisive and forceful action that is said ‘to epitomize
frustration and impotence of the modern individual’and ‘embody
thwarteddesires and modern disillusionment.’
In his classic work titled, The Waste Land ,Eliot presents the angst,
anxiety, agony, corruption, and materialism of modernist society enclosed
by the frame of a quest that draws on vari ed cultural structures. Eliot’s
“Four Quartets ” which is a collection of four pomesdeals with the
complexities and complicatedness o f religious experience in the modern
world.
The poetry of Stephen Spenderis organized to exhibit his concern and
solicitude for the contemporary scene, and from his first collection
Poems to Dolphins , Stephens emanates a sober sophistication.
Italian paint er, sculptor, and the theorist of the futurist movement like
Umberto Boccioni used the concept of motion which came from the
placement of s ubsequent photographs, particularly those by the English
photographer Eadweard Muybridge , well -known for his pioneeri ng work
in photographic studies of motion. “Dynamism of a Soccer Player” a
futurist painting by Italian artist Umberto Boccioni is a trademark futurist
painting and a modern art.
The Norwegian playwright and theatre director, Henrik Ibsen is often
regarded and considered as the first modernist in the history of European
theatre . He was also considered as the father and pioneer of the modern
realistic drama.
Although the plays of the English playwright, Wing Pinero and Henry
Arthur Jones the English dramatist, predated the in ventive and ingenious
theatrics of modern drama, some of their plays do exhibit the potential of a
serious engagement with the problems and the difficulties of modernity .
For instance, the play by Wing Pinero titled, ‘The Second Mrs. Tanqueray
in the year 1893.
The Irish playwright, poet, writer and collector of folklore, John
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6 modern stage. Millington Synge plays such as, Riders to the Sea , The
Shadow of the Glen , The Playboy of the Western World ; Deirdre of
the Sorrows , and The Well of the Saints (World Classics) , move
through the terrains of heightened pes simism .
1.2. IMAGISM
1.2.1. What is Imagism?
Imagism a sub -genre of modernism was an early twentieth century
poetic movement that accentuated c l e a r i mag e ry wi t h s ha rp a nd direct
language. Imagism was considered as a reaction to the traditions of
Romantic and V ictorian poetry, which asserts and underscores f l o r i d
ornamentation of language. The Imagists, on the contrary , were succinct
and to the point. Language could be symbolic and allegorical, although
it also had to be succinct a n d c o n c i s e . H o w e v e r , i f the esse nce a n d
significance o f a n o b j e c t , s e t t i n g , o r c u l t u r a l m o v e m e n t c o u l d b e
reduced and shortened to a few words, then a verse of Imagist poetry
requi site only those few words and nothing more.
1.2.2. Origins of the Imagist Poetry Movement .
Literary scholars trace the origins of Imagism to the poetry of the
English critic, and poet Thomas Ernest H u l m e . T w o particular and
definite poems by T.E. Hulme , such as “Autumn” and “A City Sunset,”
are considered and regarded as the basis for Imagists. These two poems
by Hulm e, which are p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 0 9 , exhibits a n e c o n o m y o f
language that was rare and uncommon for the time period. Above is the
Hulme’s verse, “A City Sunset” in its entirety.
Alluring, Earth seducing, with high conceits
is the sunset that reigns
at the end o f westward streets. ...
A sudden flaring sky
troubling strangely the passer by
with visions, alien to long streets, of Cytharea
or the smooth flesh of Lady Castlemaine. ...
A frolic of crimson
is the spreading glory of the sky,
heaven's jocund maid
flaunti ng a trailed red robe
along the fretted city roofs
about the time of homeward going crowds
— a vain maid, lingering, loth to go. ...
T. E. Hulme’s verse is synchronously florid , with the phrases
like “heaven’s jocund maid” that perhaps ma y have been lifted from a
Tennyson poemand economical, with only fourteen lines and limiting
itself to a single de piction . The poem bridges the divide between the
broad and comprehensive , sentimental poetry of nineteenth century .
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7 1.2.3. Essential Characteristics of Imagist Poetry.
Imagist poetry is defined and detailed by directness, economy of
language, avoidance and restraint of vague notions, and a hierarchy of
precise phrasing over adherence and fidelity to poetic meter. The imagist
movement and the imagist p oetry became so prominent and crucial
primarily because of Richard Aldington and Ezra Pound.

It was Ezra Pound’s anthology, which came first, titled ‘Des
Imagistes’ was published in the year 1914. The concept of what and
which poems are “Imagist” to a gre at extent springs from the poems
contained in the anthology titled, Des Imagistes. The most well -known
and renowned poets were Aldington, Aldington’s wife Hilda “H.D.”
Doolittle, and Ezra Pound himself. Whereas, the other notable imagists
were Amy Lowell, William Carlos Williams, John Cournos, Ford Madox
Ford, F. S. Flint, Skipwith Cannell, Allen Upward, and James Joyce.

Earlier, Ezra Pound had put forward certain specific aesthetic points in
the Poetry magazine of March 1913 issue, which was founded by th e
American editor, scholar, and literary critic Harriet Monroe. In essays
titled, ‘A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste and Imagisme’ , and it was Ezra
Pound who laid out some key rules or commandments for what an
Imagist poem should contain:

 Direct treatment of th e subject or ‘thing’, whether subjective or
objective; the poem should talk directly about the subject of what is
being talked, and not to use any fancy words or phrases while talking
about it.

 Use no word that does not contribute to the presentation, tr y to use as
less words as possible.

 In terms of rhythm, don’t write in regular metre but in regular
rhythms as in music, and try to create new rhythms as well.
1.2.4 Examples of Imagist Poetry.
 In a Station of the Metro by Ezra Pound
The leading and the most eminent Imagist poet who is still actively and
vigorously well -read in the twenty first century is Ezra Pound. However ,
his poetry withstands in the English -language canon. This is certain and
evident by his two line and fourteen words poem titled, “In a Station of
the Metro.”
“The apparition of these faces in the crowd:
Petals on a wet, black bough. ”
This poem by Ezra Pound p a c k s immense meaning into just fourteen
words. In just two lines, Pound chronicled both a setting and an
unspoken mood, a nd als o the s p e a k e r ’ s point of view . Symbolist
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8  Oread by Hilda Doolittle
Another renowned and eminent imagist poet is Hilda Doolittle, better
known by her pen name H.D. was one of the leading members of
imagi sm. Hilda’s most notable poem is ‘Oread’. Let’s look at the text of
the poem ‘Oread’;
Whirl up, sea —
Whirl your pointed pines,
Splash your great pines
On our rocks,
Hurl your green over us —
Cover us with your pools of fir.
The poem is just like how Ezra Po und commanded about the three tenets,
it can be seen that there is no extra words and phrases in the poem. And
just like the other imagist poem, this poem also focuses on the image and
doesn’t talk about any irrelevant things. The Oread, who is the speaker of
the poem exhibits her wish that the sea should unite with the land.
However, from the very first line it can be seen that the sea is addressed,
whereas the second line counters this notion with the "pointed pines" of a
forest. The anaphoric connection and associationamong the first two lines
and the use of epistrophe in the second and third lines improves and
embellish the connection and association between the two domains and
much the same might be said about the expression "pools of fir" in the last
line.
 A Lady by Amy Lowell
“You are beautiful and faded
Like an old opera tune
Played upon a h arpsichord;
Or like the sun -flooded silks
Of an eighteenth -century boudoir.
In your eyes
Smoulder the fallen roses of out -lived minutes,
And the perfume of your soul
Is vague and suffusing,
With the pungence of sealed spice -jars.
Your half -tones de light me,
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9
My vigour is a new -minted penny,
Which I cast at your feet.
Gather it up from the dust,
That its sparkle may amuse you.
‘A Lady’ by Amy Lowel l is just a two -stanza poem. The poem is written
in free verse consisting of end words, line lengths and two stanzas of
very distinct length. The speaker of the poem is a younger man, who
uses the text to depict the appears of an older woman. The first sta nza of
the poem is about the young speaker’s impressions and impacts of the
old listener, whereas the second paragraph characterize the actions the
speaker would like to take after seeing this old woman.The depiction and
the images used in the poem points out that the poet is referring to a old
woman.
1.3. SYMBOLISM
1.3.1. What is Symbolism?
The term Symbolism is a literary device that refers to the use of
symbols, be t h e y w o r d s , o b j e c t , p e o p l e , m a r k s , action, locations,
character or abstract ideas to embody something which is beyond the
literal meaning and significance . Symbolism is not just confined to the
works of literature , but also the symbols inhabit every corner of our
daily life a n d e x p e r i e n c e . A symbol is something that stands for or
suggests som ething else, f or example , the colours red, white, and blue
typically symbolize patriotism, which is why they’re the favoured tinge
of political yard signs. Colours like orange and brown connote fall,
which is why they grace and embellish s o m a n y thanksgivi ng
decorations. Road signs, logos, and emojis are some of the other
instances o f s y m b o l i s m . Following are some common examples of
symbolism which are used in day -today life;
 Rainbow symbolizes hope and promise
 Green traffic light symbolizes ‘go’ or proceed further
 Red rose symbolizes love and romance
 Red, white and blue symbolizes American patriotism
 Tree blossoms symbolizes spring season
In literature f or instance , in Robert Frost’s poem titled, “ Fire and
Ice,” Frost employs symbolism to imply to the readers how the world may
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10 Some say the world will end in fire,
Some say in ice.
From what I’ve tasted of desire
I hold with those who favo ur fire.
But if it had to perish twice,
I think I know enough of hate
To say that for destruction ice
Is also great
And would suffice.
In the above poem by Robert Frost , the fire symbolizes de vastating,
harmful and consuming emotions such as envy, jealousy, desire for power ,
anger, annoyance, and hasty. Whereas, Ice, in the poem, symbolizes
devastating, pernicious and withholding emotions like an imosity, hate,
disdain , loneliness, desolation and isolation. Indeed , the poet points out to
the reader that the literal meanings of fire and ice make them adept of
destroying and ending the world. However, it is the symbolism of fire and
ice that enhances and embellishes the meaning and importance of the
poem.
1.3.2. How has the Symbolism been used throughout the History?
Writers employ many different types of symbolism, both as a way to
convey meaning to their overall readershi p, as well as a method of
allowing and permitting individual readers to make their own
interpretations and explore meaning. Besides that , different types of
symbols create different effects for readers, however, as a matter of fact
the overall goal of symbolism as a literary device i s to improve and
embellish the reader’s experience with literature.
 The earliest recorded forms of human storytelling s u c h a s t h e cave
paintings and hieroglyphics a r e t h e l iterally symbols representing
more complex narratives or beliefs.
 Ancient Greek thea tre, which is the foundation for much of today’s
narrative artforms, used symbolic props including phallic objects to
represent Dionysus, the god of fertility.
 The greatest English playwright, poet and actor, William
Shakespeare used symbols to represent inner conscience for instance,
blood in Macbeth ; then Edgar Allen Poe used symbol convey dread
and mortality in eponymous bird in “The Raven”; and William Blake
used religious symbols (including Jesus himself) to represent human
emotion and desire for inst ance in “The Everlasting Gospel” .
1.3.3. Types of Symbolism in Literature
Throughout history, there are several types of symbolism that have
enjoyed particular favo ur from authors, poets, playwrights, and lyricists
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11  Religious symb olism . This has been p ossibly the most consistently
“acceptable” form of symbolism throughout literary history . This
type of symbolism is used to respect faith and help and support to
unite the people of common faith and traditions. Religious
symbolism it isgenerally been sanctioned by religious authorities
who have held strong influence over society for much of human
existence. Religious symbolism traces back to the earliest human
civilizations, but highlights of literary religious symbolism which
comprise Paradise Lost by John Milton , which itself is retelling of
the Genesis story; and The Brothers Karamazov by the Russian
author Fyodor Dostoevsky .
 Romantic symbolism . The second form of symbolism is romantic
symbolism a n d has per meated w i d e s w a t h s o f w o r l d literature.
Poetry, from the sonnets of Shakespeare to the modernist stanzas of
Edna St. Vincent Milla y, are some of the famous examples of
romantic symbolism.
 Emotional symbolism . In emotional symbolism most of the authors
and the poets use physical symbolism to d epict m e t a p h y s i c a l
emotions. French language symbolists like Stephane Mallarme and
Paul Verla ine are some of the notable writers of emotional
symbolism, whereas the English language symbolists such as
William Butler Yeats and Seamus Heaney are the well -known writers
for this form of symbolism .
1.3.4. Examples of Symbolism in Literature
 The Glass M enagerie by Tennessee Williams
In the play, The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams’s , the character
Tom, frequently goes to the movies to escape the boredom, tedium, stress
and pressure of his life at home with his mother and sister. Hence , the
movies o ffer Tom both a literal and figurative escape from his home,
despite the fact, that it is a passive escape in darkness with no true
experience of adventure. The movies symbolize Tom’s dreams
and fantasies as well as their difficulty, unattainability and manufactured
reality.
 The Lesson by Toni Cade Bambara
In Toni Cade Bambara’s short story , The Lesson , the well-known New
York City toy store F.A.O. Schwarz is a symbol for economic wealth and
trivial and frivolous spending. Miss Moore’s character, by bringing a
group of deprived, indigent and impoverished black kids to the toy store,
also wants F.A.O. Sc hwarz to be viewe d and considered as a symbol of
systemic racial and social division in America as well as monetary
separation. By unmasking and disclosing this group of kids to such an
outrageously and disgraceful expensive toy store, Miss Moore
contempla te to teach them a lesson and i mbue a deeper concept of failed
American opportunity and equality through the symbolism of F.A.O.
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12  The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
In the novel, The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, t he colo ur green is a
central theme, which is used frequently to augment and strengthen the
theme of money, wealth, and materialism. The green light through the
water from Gatsby’s home does play a role in this colo ur motif; however,
Fitzgerald uses the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock as symbolism in
the novel. The light not only represents and depicts Gatsby’s future hopes ,
dreams, and desires especially in terms of his love for Daisy, but
eventually the green colo ur of the light symbolizes, to Gatsby, permission
to follo w, pursue and aspire these hopes and dreams. Despite of knowing
the fact that Daisy is a married woman, Gatsby views the green light as
guidance and a signal to proceed with his hopeless and pointless quest to
win Daisy.
1.4. WAR POETRY
1.4.1. What is War Poetry?
In war poetry, the poets have written about the experience and the struggle
of war since the Greek, however, the young soldier poets of the First
World War establishedwar poetry as a literary genre. The combining voice
of this poets has become one of the defining and significant texts of
twentieth century Europe. It was in the year 1914, when the hundreds of
young men in uniform took to writing poetry as a way of attempt to
exhibit extreme and the ut most emotion at the very verge of their
experience. Hence, the work of a handful of these poets, such as Siegfried
Sassoon, Wilfred Owen, and Isaac Rosenberg has endured to become what
Andrew Motion has called ‘a Sacred National text’.
Despite of the fact that ‘war poet’ tends traditionally to attribute to active
combatants, the war poetry has been written by many ‘civilians’ who were
caught up in conflict and struggle in other ways . For instance, the war
poets such as, James Fenton in Cambodia , Margaret Pos tgate Cole and
Rose Macaulay in the First World War, Cesar Vallejo and WH Auden in
the Spanish Civil War etc. It was the global, ‘total war’ of 1939 -1945, that
saw the holocaust, the devastation and the widespread destruction, the
blitz and Hiroshima, virt ually no poet was untouched or unaffected by the
experience of war. And, t he same was true for the civil conflicts and
revolutions in Spain and Eastern Europe. Howbeit, t hat does not mean,
that every poet responded to war by writing directly about it. For some of
the poets , the appropriate response of a poet was one of consciously
(conscientiously) keeping silent.
As a matter of fact, w ar poetryis not necessarily ‘anti -war’. War poetry is
however, about the very large questions of life: identity, innocence, guilt,
remorse, loyalty, courage, bravery, compassion, humanity, duty, desire,
death etc. Its response to these questions, and its relation of immediate
personal experience to moments of national and international crisis, gives
war poetry an extra -literar y significance . The leading poet of the First
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13 ‘vapid’ after Sassoon: ‘not of course because Sassoon is a greater artist,
but because of the subjects’.
War poetry has become part of the mytholog y of nationhood, and an
expression of both historical consciousness and political conscience. The
way we read – and perhaps revere , admire, appreciate – war poetry, says
something about what we are, and what we want to be, as a nation.
In
1.4.2. Theme of War Poetry
The theme of war is used in almost all the poems of war poetry. The theme
of war has been depicted in lots of d istinct ways by different poets. Some
poets ex hibit anger , annoyance and sadness wh ereas the others express
happines s and contentment, by portray ing that war is good and dyeing for
your country is good and something to be proud of.T he theme of war is
stronger and powerful in some poems than the others ,however, in general,
the theme h as been portrayed and presented in lots of di vergent ways.
Some other important themes of war poetry are as follows;
 The loss of innocence
 Brotherhood and Relationship
 The Horror of war
 Irrationality of war
 Disillusionment with religion
 Nature
 Emotion and feelings
1.4.3. Purpose of War Poetry
 The poets fell t hat p oetry is the best way to express someone’s emotion
and expression during the war.
 The purpose and the major reason for writing war poetry is to exhibit
the true picture and depiction of war.
 It also helps to spendtime and express their emotions throug h writings.
 It also creates a sense of honour because, the war poets tell us to hono ur
and respect what these men had done even though they all died , the
soldiers are being celebrated as mighty heroes .
1.4.4. Characteristics of War Poetry
 It used awful, a ppalling and showing imagery .
 It signed a break off from the contemporary poetic tradition.
 It uses the actual language of the men engaged and involved in war.
 Realistic documentation of war with all its savagery and brutality.
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14 1.4.5. List of War Poets in English Literature
A War poet is a poet who participates in a war and writes about their
experiences or non -combatants who writes poems about war. These war
poets are also called trench poets. The term war poetry
predominantlyrepresents and symbolize the poetry that were written under
the direct impact of World War I. It is also called anti -romantic. Earlier
also we had war poets , however, after the World War I these kinds of poet
and poetry c ame under the genre called ‘ War Poetry ‘.Most of the war
poets of that time considered themselves as soldiers as well as poets. The
poets used to write poe try in their leisure time and express their feelings,
emotions , desires, hap piness, grief and sorrow through writings .Below are
the list of some major war poets;
 Rupert Brooke (3 August 1887 -23 April 1915)
He was an English poet, and was known for his idealistic war sonnets
written during the First World War, especially ‘The Soldier’.

 Siegfried Sassoon (8 September 1886 – 1 September 1967 )
Siegfried Loraine Sassoon was an English war poet, writer and soldier. He
was adorned for the bravery on the Western Front, and h e became one of
the leading poets of the First World War.

 Wilfred Owen (18 March 1893 – 4 November 1918)
Wilfred Edward Salter Owen was an English poet and soldier. Owen was
one of the leading and prominent poets of the First World War.

 Robert Graves (24 July 1895 – 7 December 1985)
Robert Von Ranke Graves was a British poet, historical novelist and critic.
Robert Graves developed an early reputation as a war poet and was one of
the first poet to write realistic poems about the experience of frontline
conflict.

 Edward Thomas (3 March 1878 – 9 April 191)
Philip Edward Thomas was British poet, essayist and a novelist. Edward is
considered a war poet, despite the fact that, few of his poems deal directly
with his war experiences, and his career in poetry came after he had
already been acknowledged as a successful writer and a literary critic.

 Isaac Rosenberg (25th November 1890 -1st April 1918)
Isaac Rosenberg was an English poet and artist. His poems from the
‘Trenches’ are perceived and recognized as some of the most outstanding
poetry written during the First World War.

 Sidney Keyes
Sidney Keyes was one of the most renowned English poet of World War
II. The poem ‘War Poet’ was written by Sidney Keyes.

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15 1.4.6. War Poems in English Literature
One of the greatest English romantic poet William Wordswor th reminds
us, "poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings", and there
can be no area of human experience that has generated a wider dimension
and aspect of powerful feelings than war: hope and fear; elation and
humiliation; hatred – not only for the enemy, but also for generals,
politicians, and war-profiteers; love – for fellow soldiers, for women and
children left behind, for country (often) and cause (occasionally). Above
are some of the most notable war poems in English literature:
 Christ and the Soldier by Siegfried Sassoon
It was o n 1stJuly 1916, when Siegfried Sassoon saw the carnage and
massac re of the opening of the Battle of the Somme and, a month later, he
wrote this scintillating but savagely anti -Christian poem (which,
significantly, he never published)
 Break of Day in the Trenches by Isaac Rosenberg
According to Robert Graves, Isaac Rosenberg was considered to be one of
the three poets of importa nce whom we lost during the World War I.
‘Break of Day in the Trenches’ is perhaps Rosenberg’s most notable
poem, and the poem exhibits his taut, no -nonsense style which he shares
with Owen (and extreme , to a degree). Rats, poppies, the ‘torn fields of
France’: Like Wilfred Owen, Rosenberg puts us among st the action,
painting a stark, realistic scene of warfare and the daily day-today lives of
the soldiers.
 Strange Meeting by Wilfred Owen
Not the mos t flawless of Owen's poems, but the most visionary, this
reaches back to the heroic epics of Homer and Virgil and forward to voice
in its last lines a compassionate humanity in striking contrast to the last
speech of Byrhtnoth, the doomed warrior in The Ba ttle of Maldon.
 Aristocrats by Keith Douglas
Keith’s Aristocrats is an excellent elegy for fellow officers who were
killed in the Battle of El Alamein , and it again acknowledges and
appreciates both ancient and modern traditions of war poetry.
 Dulce et Decorum Est by Wilfred Owen
‘Dulce et Decorum Est’ is one of the most notable of all war poems, which
was written in response to the jingoistic pro -war verses being written by
people like Jessie Pope . Indeed, Jessie Pope is the ‘friend’ of Owen, whom
he addresses directly in the clos ing lines of the poem. However, the poem
is also a harrowing and intense account of a poison gas attack, with a
number of details which immediately stick in the memory, and haunt our
dreams as they haunted Owen’s, show casing how naive and damaging and
harm ful outlooks like Jessie Pope’s really were.Dulce et Decorum Est’ is munotes.in

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16 an excellent example of Owen’s superb craftsmanship as a poet and this
poetry is as a window onto the horrors of the First World War .
 MCMXIV by Philip Larkin
No poem written since MCMXIV (Latin numerals for 1914, as found on
first world war memorials) speaks so eloquently , powerfully , poignantly,
and so painfully of the future await ing the children at play, "the men
leaving the gardens tidy, the thousands of marriages", all seen as in a fine -
grained sepia photograph .
 The Soldier by Rupert Brooke
Rupert Brookewrote a very different type of war poetry from Wilfred
Owen and Siegfried Sassoon . Brooke was such a man, who did not live to
enjoy much of his fame, but this poem – patriotic and stirring as it is –
played a crucial and essent ial role in the early days of the War in helping
to bring England together in uncertain and difficult times. In fact , the
poem was read aloud in St Paul’s Cathedral in Easter 1915, shortly before
Brooke’s death.
1.5. LET’S SUM UP

The unit extensively discusses terms, critical theories, and points of view
that are commonly used to classify, analyse, interpret, and write the
history of works of literature. In this unit we have discussed in detail
about; Modernism - a term which is widely used to identify new and
distinctive features in the subjects, forms, concepts, and styles of literature
and the other arts in the early decades of the present century, but
especially after World War I (1914 -18).

Imagism -a sub -genre of modernism was an early twentieth century
poeti c movement that accentuated clear imagery with sharp and direct
language. Imagism was considered as a reaction to the traditions of
Romantic and Victorian poetry, which asserts and underscores florid
ornamentation of language ; Symbolism -The Modern Period, in the
decades after World War I, was a remarkable era of symbolism in
literature. Many of the major writers of the period exploit symbols which
are in part drawn from religious and esoteric traditions and in part
invented ; War poetry - the poets have writt en about the experience and the
struggle of war since the Greek, however, the young soldier poets of the
First World War established war poetry as a literary genre.

1.6. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

 What is modernism? What were the main influences of modernist
litera ture?
 What are the main characteristics of modernist literature?
 Write in detail about the history of modern literature.
 What is the main idea of modernism in literature? munotes.in

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17  What are the examples of modernist poetry, fiction and drama?
 What are the main idea s of imagism?
 What was social realism influenced by?
 How is social realism applied in literature?
 Write about the origins of the Imagist poetry movement.
 What are the main characteristics of Imagism in English poetry?
 What is the importance of symbolism in Literature?
 What are the three types of symbolism in literature?
 How has the symbolism been used throughout the history?
 What are the important ways to use symbolism in literature?
 What are the major themes in war poetry?
 What is the purpose of war poetry ?
 What are the main characteristics of War poetry in literature?
 Who are the war poets in English literature?
 Give examples of war poems in English literature.
References
 Abram M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms, 7th Edition.
 www.warpoets.org
 englishnotesguru.com
 www.theguardian.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 litgalaxy2019.com
 www.utoledo.edu
 www.mdc.edu
 www.masterclass.com
 www.poets.org
 www.interestingliterature.com
 www.st udy.com
 www.poemanalysis.com
 www.ukessays.com


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18 2
TERMS/CONCEPTS BACKGROUND
TOPICS PART II

Unit structure:
2.0 Objective
2.1Movement Poets
2.1.1 What is Movement Poets?
2.1.2 Movement Poets of 1950’s
2.1.3 Important features and c haracteristics of the Movement.
2.1.4 contribution of the Movement poets
2.2 Poetic Drama
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Definition of Poetic Drama
2.2.3 Difference between Poetic Drama and Prose Drama
2.2.4 History of Poetic Drama
2.2.5 Essential Characteristics of Poetic Drama
2.2.6 Poetic Drama Examples
2.3 Social Realism and its Impact on English Drama
2.3.1 What is Social Realism?
2.3.2 S ocial Realism in Literature
2.3.3. Impact of Social Realism
2.4. The Theatre of the Absurd
2.4.1. What is Theatre of the Absurd?
2.4.2. A brief history of the Theatre of the Absurd
2.4.3. Characteristics of the Theatre of the Absurd
2.4.4. Characters in t he Theatre of the Absurd
2.4.5. Plot
2.4.6. Six Remarkable Absurdist Plays
2.5. Let’s Sum up
2.6. Important Questions
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19 2.0 OBJECTIVE

This unit will make the students aware with:
 The 20th Century literary movements.
 The literary genres, trends, and lit erary movements of Britain in the
20th Century.
 The linkages between social and historical contexts and literary texts.
 The various literary movements and theoretical approaches.

With this knowledge the students will be equipped with comprehensive
under standing of literary genres, trends and movements in 20th Century
British Literature; thereby,enabling them to understand the valuable co –
relation between the sociocultural,economical and historical contexts;
behind the literary production . Students will acquire the discipline to
become reflective and imaginative thinkers through a close, critical and
analytical reading of the prescribed texts.

2.1 MOVEMENT POETS

2.1.1 What is Movement Poets?
In literature the term ‘movement’ stands for a new development or epoch
in literary activity or interest of some particular period. The term
‘Movement Poets’ was not applied to any literary school as such, but it
was applied to a group of notable poets of the 1950’s. The literature of the
1950’s was a reflection of misery, pa in, suffering, disappointment,
frustration, class struggle and animosity and anger of common man.This
literature was not a literature of the elite class but it was of a lower -middle
of the society. The movement poets portrayed the life in provincial region
of that period.

2.1.2 Movement Poets of 1950’s
The title Movement for the group of famous writers was coined in the year
1954, by the literary editor of the spectator, J.D. Scott, who referred this
new movement of the fifties. In the Movement, J.D. Scott desc ribe a group
of eminent writers includ ing Kingsley Amis, Philip Larkin, Elizabeth
Jennings, George Macbeth, John Holloway, Anthony Thwaite, Vernon
Scannell, John Wain, Donald Davie, Thom Gunn, D.J. Enright and Robert
Quest . The movement was substantially E nglish in character as poets from
other parts of the United Kingdom were not involved in this movement.

After the end of World War II (1939 -1945), the British public started to
have a normal affluent and robust life. The World War II took a toll on
every thing, it has disrupted communities and the families, and the lives of
the people were affected very badly during the war. After the end of the
war, almost after five years later, people started to have a normal and a
tranquil life. The problem of food rat ion was ended, medical healthcare
was improved, the economical welfare was almost at hand. Hence, after so
much pain and misery, eventually the life of the people started healing and
curing from the pains, sorrow, and sufferings of the war and people were munotes.in

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20 in the process of forgetting the cruelty and atrocities of the war, which the
war gave them. They were about to put the sorrow and suffering of the
war behind and make a fresh new start.

Although the life started improving and developing on many levels, t he
arts, however, and literature and theatre in particular, were in a gouge . The
literature produced at that time was dominated by the ideas , affection,
emotion, and the sentiments of the ore -war times and neither poetry nor
novel could reflect the change that took place due to the war. Poets,
novelists and dramatists show cased a reluctance and disinclination to let
go of Britain ’s imperial past and an obsession with class held sway. A
radical shake -up was needed and the Literature needed to get angry
The M ovement – were Oxbridge -educated, white, mostly male(Jennings
wasthe only woman in the group, and also, she was a late arrival), middle -
class, Europhobicand for the most part heterosexual. Yet, they caught the
mood of their time, and Philip Larkin and Kings ley Amis in particular are
undeniably and unquestionablyimportant figures in English literature.The
Movement produced two anthologies, Enright ’s Poets of the 1950s (1955)
andConquests New Lines (1956) .
2.1.3. Major features and Characteristics of the Moveme nt.
The important characteristics of The Movement Verse are as follows:
 The movement poetry stayed away from the charm and spell of
Thomas Stearns Eliot and Ezra Pound and the high emotion and verbal
effusion of Dylan Thomas.
 The movement poets rejected n ot only the Romantic tradition but also,
they reacted against the experimentation of the modernist poets.
 The movement poetry lacked spontaneous and instinctive outburst of
feelings, affections, emotions and sentiments. The poetry pleased and
attracted mo re to the head than to the heart of the readers.
 The movement poetry was a group of famous poets who were realist,
potent, robust, vigorous and sceptical. They gave vent to their pent -up
feelings in ironic vein.
 It is ironical, practical, realistic, down to earth, unsentimental and
rooted in a nostalgic idea of English identity. Realism is the basis and
essence of the Movement poetry, that, at times makes the works
sluggish, insipid, tedious, tiresome and dry.
 The movement poets experienced the world as ma terialistic, banal and
nefarious. The poets did not bemoan over the loss of glory and weep
for the horror of the wars and boredom like ‘Tiresias’ in T.S. Eliot’s
‘The Waste Land’, despite, they believed in facing grotesque and
awful reality with bravely.
 The Movement poetry was less sentimental and more intellectual in
nature.
 The Movement poetry was anti -romantic, witty, humorous, amusing,
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21  The poets of the 1950’s abominated over -experimentation in form and
over-use of figurative langu age in poetry. The main stress was on
simplicity, coherence and clarity of expression in poetry.
 The movement poets abhorred the evocative, reminiscent and mythical
nature of T.S. Eliot’s poetry which demands greater knowledge and
understanding on the part of the reader. It was too complicated, and
arduous to be understood by the ordinary man.
 European sympathies were considered as unmistakable signs of
intellectual pretentiousness and moral turpitude. For few critics and
readers, the poet ’s perspective and point of view understandably
evokes a narrow -minded Little Englandism.
2.1.4. Contribution of the Movement Poets
Philip Larkin, was one of the key pillars of the Movement poetry. He
expressed his disgust, hatred and animosity for figurative language and
experimentation in modern poetry. While a number of modern poets were
under the spell of T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound in the first half of the
twentieth century, it was Philip Larkin who was not much influenced and
affected by their spell.

Larkin accentuated the use of traditional metrical forms, precision,rigor,
and plain diction in poetry, rather than experimentation in poetry. His first
collection of poetry, ‘The North Ship’ came in the year 1945, which
clearly indicates influence of W.B. Yeats.

The most notable collection of poetry by Larkin is “The Less
Deceived” that established Larkin in the literary field. This poem ‘the less
Deceived’ by Larkin was published in 1955. The poem was filled with
pessimism and grim humour thatwithout any doubtpoi nt out that the poet
was highly influenced by Thomas Hardy. Larkin’s collection of poetry
‘The Less Deceived’ was followed by another two volumes named ‘The
Whitsun Weddings’ in 1964 and ‘High Windows’ in 1974. The acute,
pungent and bitter tone of his poe try points out his alliance and association
to the Movement poetry of the 1950’s.

Robert Conquest, one of the one of the acclaimed and well -known writers
of the Movement of the 1950’s edited an anthology named, ‘New Lines’,
and which was published in 195 6. The anthology was comprised with the
principles of ideology of the Movement.

It is essential to wrote that, it was Robert Conquest who has criticized the
obscurity and metaphorical nature of modern poetry in the preface of the
anthology, “New Lines” . He considered Dylan Thomas’s style as ‘diffuse
and sentimental verbiage and pirouettes’.

Robert Conquest’s poetry dealt with the pain, misery, disillusion,
disenchantment,annoyance, frustration, and suffering of man of the
prevalent period. There is a f ine blending of colloquial speech and irony in
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22 Robert Conquest in his poetry, has portrayed man as a central and
essential part of nature. The tone of his poetry is intellectual rathe r than
emotional and sentimental.

The eminent and the remarkable poet and a novelist, Kingsley Amis was
also associated with the group of ‘angry young men’ of the 1950. In his
notable Campus novel, ‘Lucky Jim’, Kingsley has introduced a hero, Jim
Dixon, who is against the established values, pretensions and elite art and
craft art with defiant, disregardful, and rebellious attitude , mindset and
belief .The hero, Jim Dixon, in ‘Lucky Jim’, expresses his anger,
frustration, alienation and disillusionment in sardonic tone and grim
humour in the novel. Jim Dixon, the hero of ‘Lucky Jim’ is a
representative of the Angry Young Men and he belongs to the lower -
middle -class of society.

The titles of Elizabeth Jennings collection of poems, ‘A Way of Looking’
and ‘A Sense of the World’ clearly reflected the principles of The
Movement of 1950’s. The collection of poems vividly indicates a new and
a distinct way of The Movement of perceiving, observing, and
experiencing the world.

Thomas Gunn’s poetry can be deemed and regarded as the meeting point
of the American Beat Movement and the English Movement poetry.
Thomas Gunn was highly influenced by a critic named, Yvor Winters.
Gunn’s first volume of poetry, ‘Fighting Terms’ came into view in the
year 1954, which est ablished him in the literary field of poetry. The
second volume of Thomas Gunn’s poetry, ‘The Sense of Movement’ was
published in 1957 and it clearly exhibits Yvor Winter’s influence. Gunn
has very adroitly and cleverlyobserved, rationalistic precision , clarity and
lucidity while handling a subject matter of his poetry.

Dennis Joseph Enright, played a significant role in the development of the
Movement of 1950’s. His first volume of poems ‘The Laughing Hyena
and Other Poems’ was published in 1953. Dennis Enright has ingeniously
handled various themes through his poetry. It is essential to note here that,
he produced an anthology of the Movement named, ‘Poets of the 1950’s’
in the year 1955, which later became a primary source for the anthology
‘New Lines’ by the famous poet Robert Conquest in 1956.

Donald Davie, one of the key members of the Movement, conveyed his
anti-Romantic and anti -bohemian principles in his noteworthy work,
‘Purity of diction in English Verse’. The ‘Purity of Diction in English
Vers e’ was published in the year 1952. Donald Davie also produced some
volumes of poetry such as ‘Brides of Reason’ in 1955, ‘A Winter Talent’
in 1957, ‘Events and Wisdom’ in 1964 and ‘Essex Poems’ in 1969.
Davie’s poems are tinted with speculation and philoso phy. He is time and
again charged with obscurity and complicatedness of his verse.

John Wain, is a remarkable novelist and critic, and he was associated with
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23 published in ‘New Lines’. John Wa in has been charged with insipid and
prosaic style of his writing. He also produced a collection of poems
‘Mixed Feelings’ in 1951, and ‘Weep Before God’ in 1961.

Hence, the Movement poetry was against over -experimental nature of the
modernist poetry and it also reacted against the romantic vein of the poetry
of a group of Wystan Hugh Auden and Dylan Thomas. The Movement
poets and their poetry put emphasis on simplicity of form and speech and
clarity and precision in expression. In short, it can be said th at the
Movement poetry was against all that was romantic, figurative, allusive
and mythical.

2.2 POETIC DRAMA
2.2.1. Introduction
The eighteenth and the nineteenth century contributed little to the
development of poetic drama because of the unfavourable and detrimental
circumstances . The main reaso n behind this was, that most of the
dramatists of this period were i ntrigued in realistic drama. A change was
notic ed with the passage of time. T. S Eliot gave the theatr e a workable
dramatic verse and has done mor e than any other playwright of this
century to get audience to accept this verse without prejudice and bias. And
it was T.S. Eliot who rigidly and strongly established it. Poetic drama is a
mixture and combination of both high seriousness and colloquial
element. It is symbolic and difficult. The verse form of poetic drama is
blank verse or free verse. In short, its vehicle is verse, its mechanism is
imagery, its substance is myth and its binding force is musical pattern.
Poetry is always considered and regard ed as something that is higher than
that of prose, which indicates high and intensified emotions and
sentiments of man, and philosophy of human life. Poetic form has been
regarded the biggest and greatest natural presentation of artistic feelings
and emoti ons.Whereas on the other hand, drama is mean to exhibit the
communication of imaginative experience. The great thinker and
philosopher Aristotle has accentuated the need of heightened, enhanced
and embellished style in tragedies to accomplish the universal human
demand.

2.2.2 Definition of Poetic Drama
Poetic drama is a combination of both poetry and drama. It has the
qualities of both poetry and drama which to a great extent give profound
impact and influence of dramatist’s emotions on the readers. As a matter
of fact, the poetry combined with drama increases seriousness in tragedy
and actors feel complacent as well as comfortable to learn poetic
dialogues. This eminence, intensity and greatness of verse drama has now
been well acknowledged because in this chaoti c world, the poetic
dramatist does not bring the characters near to us nor he endeavours to
impress and inspire us but in fact, he ventures to make a great distance
between us and realities of the world. He wishes and desires to cut us munotes.in

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24 away from our realis tic world and bereave us from seeing the replica of
the world on the stage to raise us to some unfamiliar associations which
can be obliging in detaching and disengaging the individual from his
fellow and make us feel in him the flow of inner life .The poet ry in verse
drama is in trinsic and immanent in the structure of the play itself.
2.2.3. Difference between Poetic Drama and Prose Drama
 In verse drama , character s talk in verse while in prose drama
characters talk in prose.
 Prose drama focuses its imitati on on the outermost reality wh ereas the
verse drama on the innermost reality of life
 Poetic drama inducesprofound sense of amusement and delight in life
and firmly and powerfully reminds its witnesses that they have the
power of being conscious of their ow n lives, wh ereas in prose drama,
simple description wrapped in reality is presented.
 Through its poetic equipment, poetic drama gives us voluptuous joy,
whereas prose drama gives a detailed description of events happened
in the drama .

2.2.4 History of Poetic Dr ama
 Poetic drama reached its top in Elizabethan England due to the
fact, all through this time, poetry came to be recognized as the medium of
drama. Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides wrote great poetic
plays which were saturated with powerful and vehement emotions. The
intrepid spirit of the age can nowhere be seen more clearly than in
dramatic poetry.
 Though the heroic couplet was used by William Shakespeare in his
play, ‘A Midsummer Night ’s Dream ’, the popularity of blank verse was
also rigidly and stron gly established. The greatest playwright and the poet,
William Shakespeare started his literary career as a poet but when he was
engaged in writing plays, he did not renounce and discard poetry , in fact,
he brought out a fine combination of drama and poetr y.
 After William Shakespeare, there came a steady decline in poetic
drama. It was only Webster who touched the pinnacle and thought his
verse could have great power, it was often faulty. The English poet and
intellectual John Milton also wrote verse drama named ‘Samson
Agonistes’ that combined poetic and personal appeal with intensity
unequalled and incomparable except in Dante’s.
 It was during the eighteenth century, when the verse drama became
an almost homely waif and numerous reasons became the cause o f its
decline and downturn. It had to face sheer rivalry and contention with
another genre of literature called novel. It was only Dryden who wrote
drama in verse form, whereas the other dramatists wrote in prose. Even
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25 writings,nevertheless, William Wordsworth’s ‘The Borderers and P.B.
Shelly’s ‘The Cenci’ are noteworthy to mention.
 In the late nineteenth century, poets such asRobert Browning, Alfred
Tennyson, Swinburne and Matthew Arnold produc ed ex tremely bad
literary sense through their works and relatively all of their works were
imitation of Greek classic drama. But during the twentieth century, verse
drama came to bloom through certain literary minds. The two notable
poetic dramatists who h ad extreme and immense theatrical success are
Stephen Phillips and Elroy Flecker .
 Stephen Phillips, John Millington Synge , T. S. Eliot , James Elroy
Flecker, John Masefield, Wilfred Wilson Gibson, John Drinkwater, John
Davidson, Thomas Hardy, Arthur Symons , WB Yeats, Laurence Binyon ,
Christopher Fry, W. H. Auden and Stephen Spender are the key and
essential dramatists writing in verse.
2.2.5 Essential Characteristics of Poetic Drama
 The descriptive quality and expressive sensuousness of poetic
drama is vivid and intense . In Macbeth , we are moved by Macbeth
and his wife haunted by guilt and fear. We are also moved by Hamlet
desperately endeavouring to see his mother in sin and disloyalty. The
images and language presented in a poetic drama make it profoundly
vivid and serves as the total image and the sense of distilled and
fermented human reality we observe in it.

 Closeassociation and alliance between dramatist and character is the
heart of poetic drama. As long as the dramatist’s imagination and
creativeness warms the actor’s imagination, no theatrical experience
can come out because then, nothing remains to share with the
audience.

 Poetry introduces and presents sensory experience into drama which
usually remains abstract and along with that it interprets and define
the action by setting it in a large context and framework of moral and
spiritual world.

 The poetic dramatist must unite whole drama in a manner of
analogous with music.

 The symbolic system of Ibsen’s prose style is mutually exclusive and
the poetic world of Shakespeare’s plays, although they have different
atmosphere, they belong to same planetary system .

 Religious attitude to human life is importan t for writing a true verse
drama. Other than Auden and Isherwood, all the crucial and
significant poetic drama of the last thirty years have been religious to
the core. The important and essential phase of poetic drama began
when drama retreated to its ori gin inside the church. Then, from
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26  Like other types of drama, poetic drama should aim and focus on
entertaining the public. The Elizabethan drama aimed at general
public which only wanted entertainment of a simple ki nd. However,
in the present times, the problems of contemporary life ought to be
the leitmotif of poetic drama.

2.2.6 Poetic Drama Examples
 W.B. Yeats:
William Butler Yeats, Lady Gregory and J ohn Millington Synge
established the Abbey theatre in Dublin to embolden the poet and the
playwrights. At th e Abbey theatre ,W.B. Yeats attempted to re suscitate
poetic drama. Even though Yeats wrote about twenty -six plays in verse ,
Yeats was more of a poet than dramatist. His plays are rich in poetical
intensity.Yeats essen tial and significant plays are on ‘Baile's Strand , The
Resurrection and Deirdre ’.
 T.S. Eliot:

Thomas Stearns Eliot pro ffered the theory of the poetic drama. It
was T.S. Eliot who established its tradition in 20th century. Eliot’s ‘ The
murder i n the Cathedral ’ is his first full -length poetic play. The
family Reunion, The Cocktail Party, The Confidential Clerk and the Elder
Statesman are his other significant and essential poetic plays. Through
these plays , Eliot has evolved and developed anappro priate poetic mode of
expression for the poetic drama. He rejected the use of traditional blank
verse. Eliot conscientiously avoided any echo of Shakespeare. He
traversed the dramatic possibility of verse and extended the scope of
poetic drama.

 Auden and Isherwood:

Auden wrote two plays alone and three plays in collaboration with
Isherwood. Auden's play, ‘ The Dance of Death ’ is an essential and
significant poetic drama. Isherwood's ,play ‘ Ascent of F6 and Across the
Frontiers ’ are thecrucial plays. Isherwood’s plays deal with symbolic
situation and cartoon characters.

 Stephen Spender:
Stephen wrote ,‘Trial of a Judge ’. However, it can't be considered to be a
poetic play of permanent value. John Masefield, Drinkwater, Macneice,
Duncan, and Ridler are the other dramatists that have enriched the field of
the poetic drama.
 Christopher Fry:

Christopher Fry’s, 'The Lady Is Not For Burning' is an significant
experiment in verse and technique. In the play 'Venus Observed' written in
blank verse, Fry use s simple poetic language.
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27 2.3. SOCIAL REALISM AND ITS IMPACT ON ENGLISH
DRAMA
2.3.1. What is Social Realism?
The term, Social realism is a style of art, fiction , movies and plays . Social
realism depicts and portrays the daily life of workers and poor people.
Social realist artists endeavour to showcase people and their day -today
lives in a very realistic way. This means that they often exhibit things
which are not beautiful or alluring. They may show people who are
elderly, sick, sad, heartbroken, insane , irrational or have a disability . This
doesn’t imply that a Realist work of art or literature is ugly or grotesque. It
can be made beautiful and alluring by the way that the artist or writer
creates it.
The term “social realism” is a label that is derived from the Russi an
stimulated principles which were merely based on the representation of
revolutionary socialist society. Socialist realism predates the description
and depiction of the shared reality not as it is, but as it is supposed to be in
an idealized society. The ideology of Socialist realism was represented by
the upper house of Soviet authors in 1934 and they were permitted by
Stalin, Nickolai Bukharin and were guided by Gorky and Andrey
Zhdanov.
The main roots of Socialist realism can be associated to neoclassi cism and
its civilizations can be linked with realism from Russian prose of the 19th
century. It can be highlighted and featured from the days of early people.
This ideology was demonstrated by the aesthetic thinking of Gorki. The
Russian writer and a poli tical activist, Alexei MaximovichPeshkov,
popularly known as Maxim Gork y, Gorky, novel ‘Mother’ which was
written in 1906, about the revolutionary factory workers, is his notable
novel and is often considered as a starting point of socialist realism. Gorky
was besides a dynamic figure. Whereas Feodor Gladkov's novel and
Mikhail Sholokhov's epic, named, ‘And Quiet Flows the Don’ are
considered as some of the best works in the history of social realism
2.3.2.Social Realism in Literature
The earliest forms of social realism in literature can beseen in the works of
Charles Dickens, with his portrayal of work -houses, the homeless, and
down -trodden workers. It was the Russian novelist, short -story writer and
a playwright, Nikolai Gogol and Fyodor Dostoyevsky chro nicled the lives
of low -level government functionaries, and Victor Hug o, the French poet,
novelist, essayist, playwright, and dramatist of the Romantic movement,
wrote elegiacally about the lower classes struggling and excruciating for
survival and humanit y. Not only these authors, but hundreds of other
playwrights , wrote to emphasize to the conditions of the working class and
poor. Social realism in literature grasps a glaring and a blatant spotlight on
the lives of these characters as a means of criticizi ng the social structures
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28 For instance , Charles Dickens's harsh portrayal of the lives of the Cratchit
family in the ghost story named , ‘A Christmas Carol ’ provides them a
spiritual glow, a humanity that is lacking in Ebenez er Scrooge despite his
great wealth. Howbeit , in much of the literature of social realism which
came later, this kind of recognition was more frequently and repeatedly
created in the reader, rather than in the central character.
2.3.3.Impact of Social Real ism
The impact and the effect of the socialist realist art can nevertheless be
seen decades after it ceased being the only state -supported style. However,
before the end of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) in 1991,
the government h ad been reducing and abbreviating its practices of
censorship. After the death of Stalin in the year 1953 , first secretary of the
communist party of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev , commenced to
decry the previous regime's practice of ex orbitant restrictions and
constraints . This freedom , allowed the artists to start experimenting with
new techniques, however the shift was not immediate and prompt . It was
not until the ultimate fall of Soviet rule that artists were no longer
restricted by the deposed Communist Party. Hence, m any socialist realist
tendencies prevailed until the mid -to-late 1990s and early 2000s.
It was i n the 1990s, when many Russian artists used the characteristics and
attributes of socialist realism in an ironic fashion. This was completely and
entirely distinct from what existed only a couple of decades before. Once
artists broke from the socialist realis t mould, there was a significant power
shift. The a rtists began to include subjects that could not exist according to
Soviet ideals. In view of the fact that the power over appearances was
taken away from the government, artists achieved a level of authori ty that
had no longer existed since the early 20th century. In the decade , soon
after the fall of the USSR, artists depicted and pictured socialist realism
and the Soviet legacy as a traumatic and appalling event. As a result, b y
the next decade, there was a unique sense of detachment .
The W estern cultu res usually do not look at socialist realism positively.
Democratic countries view the art produced during this period of
repression as a lie . Non -Marxist art historians generally tend to view
communism as a form of totalitarianism which smothers artistic
expression and th ushinders and slow down the progress and development
of the culture .In the past few years there has been a re clamation of the
movement in Moscow with the addition of the Institute of Russian Realist
Art (IRRA), a three -story museum dedicated to preserving 20th -century
Russian realist paintings.
In Strife, Galsworthy makes the invisible so cial structure the hero
and the characters act mere puppets. They have very little
independent existence. Even when they are individualized; they are
intensely typical. They represent common human lapses and
weaknesses. All of them show their weakest spots in a time of
struggle. All of them are selfish human beings. They suffer from
internal schisms and rivalries. Anthony and Roberts are left alone. munotes.in

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29 Their followers drift away from them and end the strife on their own
terms. Hence, it is not the personal hero that governs the event s of the
play . It is the social structure and that is where the fun comes in
Galsworthy’s play, Strife which strongly stresses this type of injustice.
One fully realizes how utterly hopeless the life of workers is. They
simply cannot raise their hands and walk like free and equal species
of mankind In Strife, Galsworthy makes the invisible so cial structure
the hero and the characters act mere puppets. They have very little
independent existence. Even when they are individualized; they are
intensely typica l. They represent common human lapses and
weaknesses. All of them show their weakest spots in a time of
struggle. All of them are selfish human beings. They suffer from
internal schisms and rivalries. Anthony and Roberts are left alone.
Their followers dri ft away from them and end the strife on their own
terms. Hence, it is not the personal hero that governs the events of the
play . It is the social structure and that is where the fun comes in
Galsworthy’s play, Strife which strongly stresses this type of i njustice.
One fully realizes how utterly hopeless the life of workers is. They
simply cannot raise their hands and walk like free and equal species
of mankind In Strife, Galsworthy makes the invisible so cial structure
the hero and the characters act mere puppets. They have very little
independent existence. Even when they are individualized; they are
intensely typical. They represent common human lapses and
weaknesses. All of them show their weakest spots in a time of
struggle. All of them are selfish huma n beings. They suffer from
internal schisms and rivalries. Anthony and Roberts are left alone.
Their followers drift away from them and end the strife on their own
terms. Hence, it is not the personal hero that governs the events of the
play . It is the soc ial structure and that is where the fun comes in
Galsworthy’s play, Strife which strongly stresses this type of injustice.
One fully realizes how utterly hopeless the life of workers is. They
simply cannot raise their hands and walk like free and equal sp ecies
of mankind In Strife, Galsworthy makes the invisible so cial structure
the hero and the characters act mere puppets. They have very little
independent existence. Even when they are individualized; they are
intensely typical. They represent common hum an lapses and
weaknesses. All of them show their weakest spots in a time of
struggle. All of them are selfish human beings. They suffer from
internal schisms and rivalries. Anthony and Roberts are left alone.
Their followers drift away from them and end th e strife on their own
terms. Hence, it is not the personal hero that governs the events of the
play . It is the social structure and that is where the fun comes in
Galsworthy’s play, Strife which strongly stresses this type of injustice.
One fully realizes how utterly hopeless the life of workers is. They
simply cannot raise their hands and walk like free and equal species
of mankind.
The impact of social realism can also be seen in the play ‘Strife’ by
Galsworthy. John Galsworthy in his three -act play ‘St rife’ which was munotes.in

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20th Century British Literature
30 produced in the year 1909, makes the invisible social structure the hero
and the characters act mere puppets. They hardly have i n d e p e n d e n t
existence a n d e ven when they are individualized , they are profoundly
typical. They embody c o m m o n h u m a n l a p s e s a n d w e a k n e s s e s . This
altogether show s their weakest points in a time of struggle. All of them
are selfish human beings. They suffer and undergo internal s eparations
and rivalries. Anthony and Roberts are left alone. Their followers drift
away from them and end the strife on their own terms. Therefore , it is
not the personal hero that governs the events of the play. It is the social
structure and that is where the fun comes in Galsworthy’s play, ‘Strife ’
which strongly and powerfully emphasis t h i s t y pe of injustice. One
completely realizes that how utterly hopeless and pointless the life of
workers is. They simply cannot raise their hands and walk like free and
equal species of mankind.
The English writer John Galsworthy’s three -act play, ‘Strife ’ is based on
the social conflicts a n d s t r u g g l e s o f i n d u s t r i a l l i f e a n d hindered
production between John Antony, the Chairman of the Trenartha Tin
Plate Works, and David Roberts, the Strike leader of the workers
through whom Galsworthy wants to exhibit t h e unyielding, stiff, and
rigid attitudes and psychological struggle and conflicts of his
contemporary people. Through this text, Galsworthy wants to shed a
new light on the revolutionary passions of the common workers against
their ruling class for their rights and also the privileges and advantages
of the early 20th century , England. Galsworthy also intends to reveal
and disclose the mysterious truth of his social reality. Galsworthy as a
realistic dramatist, has very considerably depicted the impact of social
realism in his play, ‘Strife ’, and its significance as well .
2.4.THE THEATRE OF THE ABSURD
2.4.1. What is Theatre of the Absurd
The term Theatre of the Absurd is coined by the Hungarian -born
British producer, dramatist, journalist, adaptor and translator, cr itic,
academic scholar and professor of Martin Julius Esslin in his essay
“Theatre of the Absurd.” The term is widely used for the work of a
number of playwrights, which were mostly written in the 1950s and
1960s, written mostly by the number of European pl aywrights in the late
1950s. The playwrights work merely exhibits the thought of human
existence that has no meaning or purpose. If a problem and difficulty
come, some logic is given on a matter, it simply makes the situation worse
and awful, and further it leads to silence.
2.4.2.Theatre of the Absurd Examples
The Theatr e of the A bsurd exemplifies the philosophy of Albert
Camus in the philosophical essay, ‘The Myth of S isyphus that speaks of
life with no in nate and immanent meaning in it. For Camus , the world was
beyond the understanding of man, so he asserts that it will always remain
absurd and we should accept this fact. For Martin Esslin the four munotes.in

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31 playwrights i.e. Samuel Beckett , Eugene Ionesco, Arthur Adamov and
Jean Genet were the chief andessential pla ywrights of the movement.
After a passage of time , Harold Pinter was also i ncorporated to this
group and some of the works of Tom Stoppard, Edward Albee and Jean
Tardieu were also classified and categorized as belonging to Absurdist
Theatr e. Though, peculi arly, these writers were most of the time not
comfortable with the label and hence, sometimes preferred to use terms
such as “ Anti -Theater ” or “ NewTheat re.
2.4.3. A brief history of the Theatre of Absurd
The movement, Theatre of the Absurd which was infl uenced
by existentialism , began in the form of experimental theatr e in Paris and
resultantly, after the spread of the absurd form in other country, absurdist
plays were written in French. It was after the rise of the Greek drama
when the Absurd elements first came into existencein the plays
of Aristophanes in the form of wild humor and buffoonery of
old comedy .
Further , the morality plays of the Middle Ages can also be called a
precursor of the Theatre of the Absurd , which was dealing with common
man’s struggle and effort with allegorical and existenti al problems. It was
duringthe Elizabethan period, when the dramatists like John Webster,
Cyril Tourneur, JakobBiederman and Calderon depicted and portrayed the
world as mythological archetype.
2.4.4. Characteristics of the Theatre of the Absurd
Following are some of theessential characteristics of the Theater of
Absurd , but it is important to note here that , all these characteristics
cannot necessarily and inevitably be found in all the absurdist plays as it is
not necessary that the playwright must have us ed all the characteristics
of Absurd plays ;
 Questions of Existence
Absurd plays raise some basic and general questions of existence such as -
why we are alive ,or why we have to die and why there is injustice ,
prejudice, suffering and pain .
 Distrust and disb elief in Language
According to the absurdist playwrights, language is only a meaningless
communication and stereotyped exchange of ideas because words fail to
express essence of human existence.
 Illogical Speeches and Meaningless Plots
The Absurdist playwr ights b y using illogical speeches and meaningless
plots, wish to establish a feeling of freedom to make their own worlds.

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32  Re-establishment of man’s communionwith Universe
The absurdist’sendeavours to bring back the significance of myth and
rituals in th e life of man and make them aware of the ultimate realities of
their life.
 Accentuate on Abstract Values of Life
Absurdist ’s pressurize and force us to look at our abstract values of life
like love and family. Hence , we may hope to accept the absurdity of life
and try to find values in a world devoid and bereft of them.
 Vagueness about Time, Place and Character
Absurdists have no time, place and character in their plays as they feel that
there is no past or future, only the repetition of the present .
 Lack o f communication a mong characters
Each character lives an egoistic life and endeavours to get another
characterto understand him and as a consequence this results in more
alienation.
2.4.5.Characters in the Theatre of the Absurd
The Characters in the Theat re of the Absurd, ambit from one -
dimension to multi -dimensions with no feeling but still with a very
sensitive feeling. M ostly the characters are floating, buoyant, stereotype,
archetype and flat because they have to deal with the absurd universe and
time a nd again discard and renounce rational and logical devices. The
characters speak in clich es and realism is their key principle, but often
they are distorted and perverted at many points.
It is very difficult for the Complex characters to go with this thea tre
because eventually they have to deal with the incomprehensive universe.
As a result, the complex characters cannot go with the Absurd theatre. The
characters in Harold Pinter’s plays are trapped in a confined space which
ismenaced by some force , and th at force is incomprehensible and
unimaginable to them. For instance , in the play, ‘ The Room ’, the central
character Rose, is menaced by Riley where the real source of menace
remains a mystery.
2.4.6. Plot
The Theater of Absurd discards and rejects the trad itional pattern of plot
construction. It is comprised of repetition of clich es and routine as in the
play Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beck ett. Absence, emptiness ,
nothingness, and unresolved mysteries are the majorcharacteristics of m ost
Absurdist plots.

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33 Essential Features and Characteristics of Absurdist Plot
 Absence
 Emptiness
 Nothingness
 Unresolved
 Mysteries
For instance , in Samuel Becke tts play ' Waiting for Godot ’, the action
centers round the absence of a character Godot , who is long awaited but
never arrives . The plot of the play also revolves round unexplained
metamorphosis . For instance , in Eugene Ionesco’s play, ‘ How to Get Rid
of It’, a couple is dealing with a corpse that is growing large steadily and
firmly , but Ionesco never unveils and reveals the identity of the corpse and
eventually , the corpse floats away unidentified in the unknown. The plots
are generally and repeatedly cyclical too as occurs in Endgame , the play
begins where it ends and the theme of routine and repetition keeps on
moving.
2.4.7. Six Remarkable Absurdist Plays
Some of the best -known absurdist plays are:
 Waiting for Godot
Waiting for Godot is a play by an Ir ish novelist, playwright, short story
writer, theatre director, poet and a literary translator, Samuel Beckett .
The play is arguably the most well-known and acclaimed work of
absurdist theatre. In Waiting for Godot , the two tramps, Vladimir and
Estragon, s pend the entire play waiting for the arrival of a titular Godot ,
who never arrives . They deliver dialogue frequently , and though they try
to leave their situation, they are stuck in the same place in the end.
 Endgame
The Endgame is another play by Samuel Beckett. This play is an
absurdist, tragicomic one-act play, about a blind, paralyzed , arrogant
and domineering elderly m a n , his old aged parents and his servant
waiting for “the end” —which could mean the end of their relationship,
end of life or the end of t h e p l a y i t s e l f . The tragicomedy , ‘Endgame’
delves into the existential agony, anguish and hopelessness when one
realizes that the human condition is meaningless.
 The Bald Soprano
The Bald Soprano is Romanian -French playwright Eugene Ionesco’s
first play . This playby Ionesco is about two families in London who
engage in a m eaningless dialoguewith the stories and conversations that
go nowhere. They never communicate anything meaningful, make a
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34 of the play, The Bald Soprano, recite dialogue from the beginning of the
play.
 Rhinoceros
Rhinoceros is Eugene Ionesco’s other n oteworthy a b s u r d i s t p l a y .
Rhinoceros is set in a small provincial French town where the inhabitants
slowly turn into rhinoceroses, and eventually the only human character
who does not succumb to this mass metamorphosis is the main and the
principal character named, Berenger . The play is commonly read as a
response and criticism t o t h e suddenupsurge of Fascism and Nazism
during the Second World War. The play scrutinizes the themes of
culture, conformity, fascism tension between mob mentality and
conformity and human morality andthe stories and conversations that go
nowhere.
 The Balcony
The Balcony is a play by the French dramatist Jean Genet . The play
takes place in a nupmarket brothel in an unnamed city that is
experiencing a revolutionary uprising in the streets . Whe n most
influential and powerful members of society are killed in a revolutionary
uprising in the streets , the brothel patrons take on those roles. Jean
Genet’s play scrutinizes power and exhibits that even when faced with
unrest, the status quo will always reaffirm itself.
 The Birthday Party

The Birthday Party is Harold Pinter’s first full -length play . This play is
about a birthday party that is disrupted , disturbed and turned into a
nightmare by the arrival of two menacing strangers who arrive
unexpectedl y. The characters are unreliable , deceitful a n d repeatedly
contradict themselves, and it’s never clear why the two sinister strangers
arrive u n e x p e c t e d l y to terrorize the main character during his birthday
party.
2.5. LET’S SUM UP
The unit extensively dis cusses terms, critical theories, and points of view
that are commonly used to classify, analyse, interpret, and write the
history of works of literature. In this unit we have discussed in detail about
the Movement Poets which deals with the literature of t he 1950’s, which
was a reflection of misery, pain, suffering, disappointment, frustration,
class struggle and animosity and anger of common man. Poetic
Dramawhich is comprehensively a new phenomenon in the history of
English drama and a literary revolution of 20thcentury. It has the qualities
of both poetry and drama which to a great extent give profound impact
and influence of dramatist’s emotions on the readers . Social Realism and
its impact ;the term is often used by Marxist critics for the novels which,
they claimed, reflected social reality —that is, novels that accorded with
the Marxist view that the struggle and conflict between economic classes
is the essential dynamic of society andTheatre of the Absurd ; which is munotes.in

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35 applied to a number of works in drama a nd prose fiction which have in
common the sense that the human condition is essentially absurd, and that
this condition can be adequately represented only in works of literature
that are themselves absurd .
2.6. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
 What is known as movemen t poets?
 Who are the movement poets of the 1950’s?
 What are the important features and characteristics of the
movement?
 What are the contribution of the movement poets?
 What are the features of Poetic drama?
 What is the difference between poetic drama and prose drama?
 Write about the history of poetic drama.
 What is social realism in drama?
 What are the impacts of social realism?
 How is social realism applied in literature?
 What are the characteristics of Theatre of the absurd?
 What is the main purpose of T heatre of Absurd?
 What are the characters of Theatre of the Absurd?
 Mention some of the remarkable absurdist plays.
 Write about the history of Theatre of Absurd.
 What makes a play absurdist?

References
 Abram. M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms, 7th Edition .
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.study.com
 www. getsetnotes.com
 www.englishliterature.com
 www.englitmail.com
 www.blisty.cz
 www.masterclass.com
 www.penandthepad.com
 www.rubabliteraturereviewfinal.com

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36 3
CRITICAL STUDY OF JOHN OSBORNE’S
LOOK BACK IN ANGER PART I
Unit Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Kitchen Sink Drama
3.2 Angry Young Men Movement
3.3 Life of John Osborne
3.4 Historical context of the play
3.5 Summary of the play
3.6 Characters
3.7 Questions
3.8 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES:
1. To introduce students to Angry Young Men Movement and Kitchen
Sink Drama.
2. To examine John Osborne’s Look Back in Anger as a critic and
representation of the 1950’s English social, political and economic
structure.
3. To study the characters, important themes, and other literary elements in
the novel.
3.1 KITCHEN SINK DRAMA:
The 1950’s witnessed the development of one of the most important
movements in modern British theater: the Kitchen Sink drama. Plays
composed und er this movement had several characteristics that
distinguished them from othertheatre forms before them. Kitchen Sink
drama can be compared with theatrical movements like avantgarde theater
or the theater of the absurd.
The most notable characteristic of Kitchen Sink dramas was the way in
which they portrayed a particular social message or ideology. This
ideology was most often leftist and the settings were almost always of
working class. This new trend was in contrast to the previous trend in
Victorian th eater that had oftenrepresented the lives of the wealthy
members of the ruling classes who were often conservative in their politics
and ideologies. This was not the case for Kitchen Sink Theater. The
Kitchen Sink drama attempted to bring the real lives an d social inequality
of ordinary working class people to the stage. The lives of these people
were caught between struggles of power, industry, politics, and social
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Osborne’s Look Back in Anger
Part I
37 Another chief characteristic of the Kitchen Sink drama was the way in
which its characters expressed their undistorted emotion and
dissatisfaction with the ruling class. This is clearly evident in the play
considered to be the standard bearer of this Kitchen Sink genre: John
Osborne ’s Look Back in Anger . In Osborne’s play, Jimmy Porter plays the
role of the Angry Young Man. He isdissatisfied and angry at a world that
offers him no social opportunities and emotional fulfillment. He longs to
live a “real life.” He feels, however, that the trappings of working class
domesticity keep h im from reaching this better existence. As a result, his
anger and rage are channeled towards people around him. Osborne’s play
is a study on how suchpiled up frustration and social anger can wreak
havoc on the ordinary lives of the British people.
Though Kitchen Sink dramas gained infamous status in twentieth century
British culture for their constant anger and criticism directed towards the
social, political, and economic establishment, the plays were also
significant for the way they presented the most i ntimate aspects of
domestic life. This was in contrast to popular classical or Victorian dramas
and comedies which largely centered on and around the public and
personal lives of socially established characters. Before the Kitchen Sink
dramas, critics have observed that in the mid -twentieth century, British
theater still produced plays as if it were the nineteenth century. The
Kitchen Sink drama, in contrast, moved the action and emotion of the
theater from depictions of the public space of people’s lives i nto the most
intimate of settings. The kitchen was considered to be the realm of the
domestic, of females and servants, and Victorian drama often excluded
any mention of it. Kitchen Sink dramas, however, turned this notion
around and made the kitchen the c enter of familial and social life. In the
case of the Porter’s attic apartment, the kitchen and living spaces were all
one room on the stage. The boundaries of intimate domestic life and
public life were blurred and created a realism not seen before in Bri tish
theater.
Whether social or domestic, the Kitchen Sink drama changed the course of
British theater. Though many of the authors considered to have written in
this genre such as Osborne, Arnold Wesker, Shelagh Delaney, and John
Arden never claimed the ti tle of Kitchen Sink dramatist, these author’s
plays contained themes of common life that deeply resonated with British
culture of the period. These types of plays signaled a determined shift of
British theater into the 20th century.
3.2 ANGRY YOUNG MEN MOV EMENT:
The " angry young men " were a group of, mostly working and middle
class, British playwrights and novelists who became prominent in the
1950s. The group's leading members were John Osborne and Kingsley
Amis. The phrase was originally coined by the Roy al Court Theatre's
press officer to promote John Osborne's 1956 play Look Back in Anger .
Following the success of Osborne’s play, the label was later applied by
British media to describe young British writers who were characterized by
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38 resentment were especially aroused by what they perceived as the
hypocrisy and mediocrity of the upper and middle classes.
The Angry Young Men were a new breed of intellectuals who were mostly
of working c lass or of lower middle -class origin. Some had been educated
at the postwar red -brick universities at the state’s expense, though a few
were from Oxford. They shared an outspoken irreverence for the British
class system, its traditional network of pedigree d families, and the elitist
Oxford and Cambridge universities. They showed an equally uninhibited
disdain for the drabness of the postwar welfare state, and their writings
frequently expressed raw anger and frustration as the postwar reforms
failed to meet exalted aspirations for genuine change.
The trend that was evident in John Wain’s novel Hurry on Down (1953)
and in Lucky Jim (1954) by Kingsley Amis was crystallized in 1956 in the
play Look Back in Anger , which became the representative work of the
move ment. By the time Sir Laurence Olivier played the leading role in
Osborne’s second play, The Entertainer (1957), the Angry Young Men
were acknowledged as the dominant literary force of the decade.
Their novels and plays typically feature a rootless, lower -middle or
working -class male protagonist who views society with scorn and sardonic
humour and may have conflicts with authority but who is nevertheless
preoccupied with the quest for upward mobility. A major concern in
Angry Young Men Movement writings is the dissatisfaction of the lower -
class towards the established socio -political system which inequitably
valued the middle and the upper classes and fiercely criticised their
hypocrisy. Another frequent subject in this age is the depiction of hopeless
posit ion of the youth in society . The writers often portrayed the central
hero being disillusioned with the life and dissatisfied with their job and a
society where he is unfit and deprived of normal rights. Angry Young
Men literature strongly revolted against all the accepted norms and
ideals. Typically the hero is a rootless, lower -middle or working -class
male psyche with a university degree. He expresses his dissatisfaction
towards social ills with excessive anger and sardonic humour. He often
indulges into a dultery and inebriation to escape from complexities of life.
In fine, he is the very epitome of a frustrated post -World War II
generation.
John Wain (1925 –1994), English poet, novelist, and critic, portrayed the
repressions of society in lively comic situa tions. He is assumed to have
showed Angry Young Men temperament in his first novel Hurry on
Down (1953). It is a comic picaresque story about an unsettled university
graduate who sought to reject the standards of conventional society.
Kingsley Amis (1922 –1995) English novelist, undertakes a humorous
critical survey of the post -World War II British society. Amis's first novel
was Lucky Jim (1954), which according to many reflects the Angry Young
Men temperament. This particular book influenced a number of Br itish
playwrights and novelists, including John Osborne and Alan Sillitoe. munotes.in

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Osborne’s Look Back in Anger
Part I
39 John Osborne (1929 –1994), is an English playwright and motion picture
screenwriter, whose plays enact sharp criticism of post -World War II
British life through outbursts of abusive language. It was Osborn’s debut
play Look Back in Anger (1957) that made the Angry Young Men
Movement authoritatively established. In this sense, John Osborne was the
most fortunate literary artist to have an age started on the basis of a single
literary w ork.
Among the other writers embraced in the term are the novelists John
Braine ( Room at the Top, 1957) and Alan Sillitoe ( Saturday Night and
Sunday Morning , 1958) and the playwrights Bernard Kops ( The Hamlet of
Stepney Green, 1956) and Arnold Wesker ( Chic ken Soup with
Barley, 1958).
This literary Movement brought a fresh concept which was totally
complied with the then socio -political context. Though lasted only for a
short span of time, it exerted a profound impact in the field of British
literature. Like the Beat movement in the United States, the impetus of the
movement was exhausted in the early 1960s.
3.3 LIFE OF JOHN OSBORNE:
John Osborne was born in London in 1929 to Thomas Osborne, an
advertisement writer, and Nellie Beatrice, a working class barmai d. His
father died in 1941. Osborne used the money from a life insurance
settlement to send himself to a private boarding school, Belmont College.
Osborne was expelled after only a few years for assulting the headmaster.
He received a certificate of comple tion for his upper school work, but
never attended a college or university.
After returning home, Osborne did several odd jobs before finding a niche
in the theater. He began working with Anthony Creighton's provincial
touring company where he was a stage hand, actor, and writer. Osborne
co-wrote two plays - The Devil Inside Him and Personal Enemy - before
writing and submitting Look Back in Anger for production.
The play, written in a short period of only a few weeks, was summarily
rejected by the agents a nd production companies to whom Osborne first
submitted the play. It was eventually picked up by George Devine for
production with his failing Royal Court Theater. Both Osborne and the
Royal Court Theater were struggling to survive financially and both saw
the production of Look Back in Anger as a risk. After opening night, the
play received mixed reviews. It did receive a handful of glowing reviews
from several influential theater critics, however, and Osborne was soon
pronounced to be one of the most prom ising young playwright's in British
theater.
In the late 1950's, Osborne was approached by Lawrence Olivier, the
famous actor, about writing and producing a play for him. Osborne
wrote The Entertainer , a play that metaphorically explores the decline of
the British empire through the lens of a failing music hall. Olivier played
the lead role in the production and the play received critical acclaim. munotes.in

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40 Osborne would continue to write for the stage through the 1960's. He
produced a number of critical and commerci ally successful works
including Luther , a play based on the life of Martin Luther. In 1963,
Osborne won an Academy Award for his screen adaptation of Tom Jones .
Osborne continued to work in the artistic and entertainment worlds
through the 1970's and 80's. He wrote plays, but also ventured into writing
screenplays, television adaptations, and autobiography. Osborne made
several appearances as an actor during this period. He starred in several
popular Hollywood films including Get Carter and Flash Gordon . Later in
life, he received numerous awards for his work including a Lifetime
Achievement Award from the Writer's Guild in Britain. Osborne died at
the age of 65 from complications related to diabetes.
3.4 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE PLAY:
Britain faced the tas k of rebuilding their infrastructure, which had been
decimated by German bombs, and propping up a struggling economy after
the end of World War II. Partly as a result of these difficulties, Britain
withdrew from their colonies in India, Sri Lanka, and Myan mar in 1947.
The 1956 Suez Crisis, in which Britain invaded Egypt and eventually
withdrew due to political and economic pressure, led to a humiliating
recognition that the country was no longer a world power. Further
changing the social context in the coun try, the 1944 Mass Education Act
in Britain had made secondary education free, opening of the possibility of
higher education to the working classes. This created more class mobility
in the post -war era than had existed before it, and economic recovery in
the 1950s extended this trend. At the same time, British class structure
remained somewhat static, resulting in a generation of educated children
of the working class who found it difficult to put the education they had
received to good use.
3.5 SUMMARY OF THE PLAY:
Look Back in Anger presents a young husband and wife, Alison and
Jimmy Porter , as they attempt to steerthrough class conflict and deal with
a deteriorating marriage in 1950s England. Alison comes from a
traditional upper class background and Jimmy comes from a working class
background, though he is highly educated. The couple lives with Cliff
Lewis , a jovial working class man and Jimmy’s longtime friend. The
scene opens on a Sunday morning in the apartment. Alison irons clothes
while Cliff and Jimmy read the newspaper .
The play’s first act largely consists of Jimmy’s angry outbursts against
upper class complacency and his wife’s lack of “enthusiasm.” Jimmy
thinks that suffering is the only way to experience true human emotion,
and that Alison a nd other upper class people are therefore less “alive” than
he is. He also seems to have some nostalgia for a past age in Britain when
the country had more power. Jimmy’s attempts to shock his wife into
some display of emotion escalate as the act progresse s – he insults her
family and complains that all women are out to destroy men. Cliff, munotes.in

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Part I
41 attempting to cheer Jimmy up, begins to banter and roughhouse with his
friend. The two fall against Alison’s ironing board, and she burns her arm.
Jimmy apologizes, but s he yells at him to leave, and he exits.
Cliff helps Alison treat the burn, and she reveals to him that she is
pregnant with Jimmy’s child. She hasn’t told Jimmy yet, because she is
afraid that he’ll feel trapped and angry. Cliff comforts Alison, and tells her
that Jimmy loves her. He kisses her. Jimmy enters while they are kissing,
but doesn’t acknowledge or object (the three live in a non -traditional set -
up that would have been shocking to audiences at the time). Soon after,
Cliff leaves to get some cigare ttes, and Alison and Jimmy share a tender
moment. They play their “ bear and squirrel ” game, which allows them to
escape into affection while pretending to be animals. Then Cliff returns
and says that Helena Charles , one of Alison’s upper class friends, is on the
phone. Jimmy’s mood immediately darkens. When Alison says that
Helena wants to stay with them, Jimmy explodes. He says he wishes that
Alison would have a baby that would die so that she could experience true
suffering.
The second act begins with Hel ena and Alison sharing the womanly duties
of the home while Jimmy plays his trumpet off stage. Alison tells Helena
about her first months with Jimmy. They lived with his working class
friend Hugh Tanner , and spent time going on “raids” to parties of Alison ’s
upper class friends. She says that she felt like “a hostage from those
sections of society they had declared war on.” Helena asks why they got
married, and Alison says that it seemed to be largely because Alison’s
mother and her father Colonel Redfern disapproved. That made Jimmy
want to marry her no matter what.
Jimmy and Cliff come in to eat. When he hears that Helena and Alison are
going to church together later that day, Jimmy also becomes convinced
that Helena is out to take Alison away from him. He lets fly a series of
outrageous insults against Alison’s mother. Helena tries, and fails, to
reason with him, and Jimmy asks whether she has ever watched someone
die. He tells the story of watching his father die from wounds received
fighting in the Spani sh Civil war when he was ten years old, and claims
that this taught him more about life than Helena and Alison know even
now. Near the end of the scene, Jimmy leaves to go get the telephone.
While he’s gone, Helena tells Alison that she has sent a message to
Colonel Redfern asking him to come pick Alison up. Alison doesn’t
protest. When Jimmy returns, he says that Hugh’s mum , the working class
woman who set him up in his candy stall and for whom he harbors deep
affection, is dying of a stroke. He asks Aliso n to come to the hospital with
him. Instead, she goes to church. Jimmy is left alone on stage.
In the next scene, Colonel Redfern helps Alison pack to leave. He reveals
that he thinks he and Alison’s mother reacted too strongly to her marriage
with Jimmy, and that Jimmy might have been right to be angry with them.
He says he thinks that Jimmy could be right that he, Redfern, is a relic of
an old version of England that has ceased to exist. He also says that he and
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42 things. She is surprised to hear this from him, and as she finishes packing
she briefly re -considers her move. Then Helena enters, and Alison decides
to go. She says goodbye to Cliff. Helena stays behind because she has a
work me eting the following day. Alison and Colonel Redfern exit, and
Cliff, angry that Helena has disrupted their life, leaves before Jimmy
comes back. Jimmy returns a few moments later, furious, having seen
Alison leaving with her father on his way home. Helena gives him a letter
that Alison wrote explaining her decision. Jimmy is angry at her polite,
restrained language. Helena tells him that Alison is going to have a baby.
He says that he is not overcome with emotion at this news, and insults
Helena, who slaps him. This causes Jimmy to collapse in despair. Then
Helena “kisses him passionately,” and the act ends.
The scene opens several months later, looking very similar to the
beginning of Act 1, except that it is now Helena who is ironing. Jimmy
and Cliff joke and discuss newspaper articles. They roughhouse, and Cliff
dirties his shirt. Helena leaves to clean it, and while she is off stage, Cliff
tells Jimmy that he is moving out. Jimmy wonders why he always chooses
women over male friendship, even though he val ue’s Cliff’s company
more highly than he values Helena’s. Helena comes back with the shirt,
and Cliff leaves to dry it in his room. Helena tells Jimmy that she loves
him, and he asks her desperately to never leave him. Then Alison appears
at the door, look ing sick and disheveled.
The next scene opens a few minutes later, with Jimmy playing his trumpet
off stage. Alison tells Helena that she is not angry with her, and is not
trying to break up the new couple. Helena, however, says that Alison’s
presence has reminded her that what she is doing is wrong. Alison has also
had a miscarriage, and Helena considers this a “judgment” on her
relationship. She calls Jimmy back, and tells him that she is leaving.
Jimmy says that he always knew Helena wasn’t strong enough for true
love, which requires “muscle and guts.” Helena leaves.
Alison apologizes, and Jimmy says that she should have sent flowers to
Hugh’s mum, and remembers his first meeting with her, when he thought
that she had a “wonderful relaxation of spirit.” T his turned out to be just
complacency, he says. Alison lets out a cry, and tells him that the loss of
their child has made her understand the depth of emotion that he wanted
her to have all this time. She tells him that she wants to be “corrupt and
futile, ” and collapses at his feet. Jimmy can’t bear to see her this way, and
kneels to help her. Then, “with a kind of mocking, tender irony,” he
launches into their bear and squirrel imaginary game. “Poor squirrels,” he
says to Alison, and she responds, “poor, poor, bears.”
3.6 CHARACTERS:
Jimmy Porter
Jimmy is the “angry young man” of the play, usually found spouting
tirades against the complacency of the British upper classes, and
especially against his wife Alison and then his lover Helena . Born working munotes.in

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Part I
43 class but highly educated, like his friend and roommate Cliff , but has an
ambivalent relationship with his educated status, seeing himself mostly as
a working class man and yet frustrated that his education can do nothing to
affect his class status. “He is a di sconcerting mixture of sincerity and
cheerful malice, of tenderness and freebooting cruelty.” Jimmy “alienates
the sensitive and insensitive alike,” and his “blistering honesty, or
apparent honesty…makes few friends.” Jimmy is a frustrated character,
railing against his feelings of alienation and uselessness in post -war
England. He can also be considered a villain for the ways in which his
anger proves to be destructive to those in his life.
Alison Porter
A woman from an upper class background, and Jimmy ’s wife. She is
drawn to Jimmy’s energy, but also exhausted by their constant fighting.
Jimmy accuses her of being too complacent and lacking “enthusiasm,” and
her own father, Colonel Redfern , agrees that she has a tendency towards
too much neutrality. She fe els stuck between her upper class upbringing
and the working class world of her husband. Alison eventually leaves
Jimmy, but returns to him later in the play after she loses their child to a
miscarriage. This suffering changes her, and causes her to commit more
fully to the intense emotion inherent in Jimmy’s world.
Cliff Lewis
Cliff is a friend and roommate of both Jimmy and Alison. Cliff lives with
them in their attic apartment. He is a working class Welsh man and Jimmy
makes sure to often point out that he is "common" and uneducated. Cliff
believes this is the reason that Jimmy keeps him as a friend. He is quite
fond of Alison and they have a strange physically affectionate relationship
throughout the play.
Helena Charles
Helena Charles is Alison's best f riend. She lives with them in their
apartment while visiting for work. Helena is from an upper class family.
She is responsible for getting Alison to leave Jimmy. She and Jimmy then
begin an affair. Her sense of morality leads her to leave. She can be
considered the play's moral compass.
Colonel Redfern
Alison ’s father, a former colonel in the British army stationed in the
English colony of India (back before 1947, when India still was a colony
of England). He is “gentle” and “kindly,” but also “brought up to
command respect.” After leaving his post in India, “he is often slightly
withdrawn and uneasy” because he lives “in a world where his authority
has lately become less and less unquestionable.” Jimmy says that the
Colonel is stuck in a past version of En gland, and the Colonel himself
agrees with this. When the Colonel comes to help Alison pack to leave
Jimmy, he shows himself to be self -aware and incisive, commenting that munotes.in

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44 both he and Alison like to stay neutral and avoid showing emotion, to their
detrimen t.
Hugh Tanner
Jimmy ’s friend, who took Alison and Jimmy into his apartment in the first
months of their marriage. He was Jimmy’s partner when they went on
“raids” against Alison’s upper class friends at fancy parties, and Jimmy
saw him as a co -conspirator in the class struggle. Then Hugh decided to
leave for China to write a novel, and Jimmy felt betrayed. This reveals
Jimmy’s deep traditional values (he was angry that Hugh abandoned his
mother, Mrs. Tanner ) and his sense of patriotism.
Mrs. Tanner
The mot her of Hugh Tanner , called “Hugh’s mum” by Jimmy, she helped
set Jimmy up with his sweet stall. Jimmy loves her, and Alison thinks this
is just because she is lower class and “ignorant.” In the middle of the play,
Jimmy learns that Hugh’s mum has had a str oke, and Jimmy goes to visit
her in the hospital. In one of his few expressions of true vulnerability, he
asks Alison to come with him. She refuses, and leaves him shortly
thereafter. Jimmy is offended that Alison seems to see Hugh’s mum only
in terms of h er class, and not as a person. He thinks that society in general
ignores the humanity of working class people, and that Alison’s and
other’s treatment of Hugh’s mum is a prime example.
3.7 QUESTIONS:
1. Describe historical socio -political context of Look Back in Anger .
2. Discuss the play look back in anger as a social document that depicts
the post war British society.
3. Critically analyze the character of Jimmy Porter as a Marxist critic of
the society.
4. Trace the elements of kitchen sink drama in the play.
5. What is the purpose of Cliff’s character in the play?
6. Why or why not is Helena Charles the moral compass of the play?
7. What does Jimmy and Alison’s playful game of bear and squirrel
represent?
3.8 REFERENCES:
https://www.literaturewise.in/mdl /mod/page/view.php?id=229
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Angry -Young -Men
https://www.litcharts.com/lit/look -back -in-anger/summary
https://www.gradesaver.com/look -back -in-anger

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45 4
CRITICAL STUDY OF JOHN OSBORNE’S
LOOK BACK IN ANGER PART II
Unit Structure:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Major Themes in the Play
4.2 Major Symbols in the Play
4.3Questions
4.4 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES:
1. To introduce students to Angry Young Men Movement and Ki tchen
Sink Drama.
2. To examine John Osborne’s Look Back in Anger as a critic and
representation of the 1950’s English social, political and economic
structure.
3. To study important themes, major symbols and other literary elements
in the play.
4.1 MAJO R THEMES IN THE PLAY :
Class and Education:
Look Back in Anger was published in the post World War II period in
England, in 1956. In 1944, The British Mass Education Act had made
secondary education free for everyone in the country. This meant that
whole ne w swaths of British society were now equipped to write about
their lives. John Osborne was one of these. His play broke into a world of
British theater that had previously been a polite, upper class environment,
and brought a new angry energy and previousl y unencountered point -of-
view to the stage that startled some theatergoers. We see evidence of that
new class mobility, and the new reality it created, in the play. Jimmy
Porter comes from a working class background, but has been highly
educated. He went t o a university (though not one of Britain’s finest — his
upper class wife, Alison , notes that it was “not even red brick, but white
tile.”) And though Jimmy went to a university, he is still stuck running a
sweet stall. He has in some ways left his backgrou nd behind, but he also
doesn’t feel fully comfortable and hasn’t been accepted into the upper
classes. He uses big words and reads the newspaper , but he sometimes has
to look those words up in a dictionary, and he says that the Sunday papers
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46 Alison and Jimmy’s relationship is the main place where class tension
unfolds. Alison comes from an upper class background very different from
Jimmy’s. Both portray the struggle between the classes in military terms,
focusing on the ways that the se two sectors of society fail to blend. Jimmy
and his friend Hugh see her as a “hostage,” and they spend time in the
early years of Alison and Jimmy’s marriage going to upper class parties to
“plunder” food and drink. Though Alison and Jimmy try to make t heir
relationship work in the end, we get the sense that it’s built on shaky
ground, and that they might fall back into the cycle of anger and fighting
that they enact throughout the play. Alison and Jimmy may make their
relationship work for now, but the divisions between them run too deep to
ever fully heal. In Look Back in Anger, truces across class boundaries are
ultimately brief and inadequate.
Suffering and Anger vs. Complacency :
Suffering and anger are highly associated with lower class -ness in the
play, and complacency with upper class -ness. Jimmy believes that lower
class people, who have suffered as he has, have an insight on the world
that upper class people lack. He berates Alison for lacking “enthusiasm”
and “curiosity.” He suggests that her com placency makes her less human,
less connected to life than he is. He sees this suffering and anger as an
important part of his identity. At a climactic moment in the play, Alison
says of Jimmy, “don’t try and take his suffering away from him —he’d be
lost w ithout it.”
In the end, Alison finally experiences the suffering that Jimmy thinks she
has been lacking: she loses their child to a miscarriage. This, she believes,
forces her to experience the fire of emotion that Jimmy had always wished
she had. But the play leaves us unsure whether their suffering will actually
lead to any redemptive knowledge. The circular structure of the play – the
beginning of the first a nd third acts mirror each other – undermines the
sense that Jimmy’s life is really as dynamic as he suggests that it is. He
seems to be stuck in a routine. Osborne’s voice in the play, seen in his
stage directions, also tells us that Jimmy’s fiery energy can be self -
defeating. In his first stage direction describing Jimmy, Osborne writes,
“to be as ve hement as he is to be almost non -committal.” When Alison
finally breaks down and tells him that she wants to be “corrupt and futile,”
Jimmy can only “watch her helplessly.” The play ultimately suggests that
Jimmy’s anger is an expression of his social disc ontentment and suffering,
but not an answer to his problems. He doesn’t channel it in any political
direction, joining a party or holding meetings or organizing his similarly
angry friends, or even conceive of any way that it can be channeled.
Though it sp rings from a moral fervor, it dissolves into a diffuse attack on
many fronts, rather than pointedly targeting and taking down any
oppressive systems.
Disillusionment and Nostalgia :
Look Back in Anger is the archetypical play of the “angry young men”
moveme nt in British theater, which was marked by working class authors munotes.in

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Part 1 I
47 writing plays about their disillusionment with British society. In Osborne’s
play, we see this in Jimmy ’s sense of political emptiness. Jimmy
complains that, in the Britain of the 1950s, “the re aren’t any good, brave
causes left.” Helena observes that he was born in the wrong time —“he
thinks he’s still in the middle of the French Revolution.” Jimmy’s angry
fervor is out of place in modern society, and this leaves him feeling
useless and adrift . Other characters also feel a sense of nostalgia for the
past, but for different reasons: they long for an era characterized by a
leisurely life for rich Britons and greater worldwide power for the British
Empire. Many of these themes of nostalgia revolve around Alison ’s
father, Colonel Redfern , who had served in the British army in colonial
India. Jimmy says that Colonel Redfern is nostalgic for the “Edwardian”
past — early 20th century England, before World War I, when things were
supposedly simpler and more peaceful.
In the end, the play argues that the characters’ disillusionment is
legitimate. Post -war Britain was marked by a stagnant economy and
declining world power, partly due to the fact that it no longer had many
lucrative colonies around the worl d (India, where Colonel Redfern served,
gained its independence in 1947). The play argues that these factors have
left the country’s young people adrift and disempowered. Jimmy’s anger
is therefore justified. Both Jimmy and Colonel Redfern, from their
different places in society, have nostalgia for a time when Britain was
more powerful on the world stage. The passing away of Britain’s imperial
power is thus painted in a negative light – and though Look Back in
Anger voices a revolutionary social critique of class conditions in
England, it stops short of criticizing Britain’s exploitation of its colonies.
Instead, it argues that the decline of the empire has led to the
disenfranchisement of the men of Osborne’s generation, and gives those
disenfranchised citi zens a strong and angry voice in Jimmy Porter.
Gender
During World War II, many British women had stepped into new roles in
the labor force. After the war ended, most were expected to move back
into their traditional roles in the household, but many still held jobs
outside the home. The play takes a conflicted view of gender that parallels
these shifting dynamics. On the one hand, Jimmy ’s angry, destructive, and
typically masculine energy drives much of the action and dialogue. On the
other hand, women are given agency, and female characters act in their
own interests, independently of men (most notably, both Alison
and Helena leave Jimmy).
Femininity in the play is highly associated with upper class -ness, and
masculinity with lower class -ness. This leads to clashes between the
genders that also have an economic dimension. Sticking to conventional
gender roles means sticking to the propriety and politeness of British
society (which also means acting along with your class role). For example,
in stealing Alis on away from her family to marry her, Jimmy took on the
traditional male role of a “knight in shining armor.” But, Alison says that
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48 role by adding a class dimension to it. Jimmy was almost heroic, but not
quite. There is clearly something attractive in Jimmy’s virile, lower class
masculinity, as first Alison and then Helena are drawn to him sexually.
Yet there is something destructive in it as well, as both also end up leaving
him. Fur ther complicating the gender dynamics, women, too, are
portrayed as having a destructive power over men. Jimmy says he’s
thankful that there aren’t more female surgeons, because they’d flip men’s
guts out of their bodies as carelessly as they toss their ma keup instruments
down on the table. He likens Alison’s sexual passion to a python that eats
its prey whole. At the end of the play, he says that he and Cliff will both
inevitably be “butchered by women.”
The muddled gender roles in the play add to the sens e of realism that made
it such a sensation when it was first performed. Characters defy social
convention. Alison disobeys her parents to marry Jimmy. Helena slaps
Jimmy at the very start of their affair, and later walks out on him. An
unmarried man (Cliff ) lives with a married couple. He flirts with Alison,
but Jimmy doesn’t particularly mind. The fluid and shifting gender roles in
the play reflect the more fluid realities of post -War British society,
portrayed for the first time in the traditionally staid and upper -class
medium of theater.
Love and Innocence :
Jimmy believes that love is pain. He scorns Cliff and Alison ’s love for
each other, which is a gentle sort of fondness that doesn’t correspond to
his own brand of passionate, angry feeling. When Helen a decides,
suddenly, to leave him at the end of the play, Jimmy reacts with scorn and
derision. Love, he says, takes strength and guts. It’s not soft and gentle. To
some extent, Jimmy’s definition of love has to do with the class tensions
between Jimmy and Alison. Alison tells her father that Jimmy married her
out of sense of revenge against the upper classes. In asking her to leave
her background, he laid out a challenge for her to rise to, and their passion
was partly based on that sense of competition be tween classes. This
subverts a traditional love story – Jimmy’s anger at society overshadowed
his feelings for Alison, at least in her eyes.
It’s clear that Jimmy and Alison’s relationship isn’t characterized by much
tenderness. However, the two do manage to find some when they play
their animal game. Jimmy and Alison as the bear and squirrel are able to
express more simple affection for each other, but only in a dehumanized
state, when they leave their intellects behind. In the final scene, Jimmy
describes their game as a retreat from organized society. They’ll be
“together in our bear’s cave, or our squirrel’s drey.” Jimmy and Alison are
not able to enjoy love as a simple human pleasure. Their relationship is
buffeted by class struggle, anger, and sufferin g. Only when they remove
class markers and withdraw from society in their animal game are they
able to reach some level of innocence.
This reflects a broader loss of innocence in a generation of post -war
Britons that had seen the hydrogen bomb dropped on J apan and 80 million munotes.in

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Part 1 I
49 soldiers and civilians die during World War II. Their parents and
grandparents were able to grow up with some measure of peace of mind,
but these characters (and the real Britons of their generation) cannot. This
affects them even in fu ndamental parts of their domestic lives, like love
and marriage. They have trouble experiencing these things as simple
pleasures, because the world surrounding them is so difficult and complex.
Only by leaving their society, their human -ness, behind, can t hey find the
innocence to enjoy simple love.
Loss of Childhood :
A theme that impacts the characters of Jimmy and Alison Porter is the idea
of a lost childhood. Osborne uses specific examples -- the death of
Jimmy's father when Jimmy was only ten, and how h e was forced to watch
the physical and mental demise of the man -- to demonstrate the way in
which Jimmy is forced to deal with suffering from an early age. Alison's
loss of childhood is best seen in the way that she was forced to grow up
too fast by marry ing Jimmy. Her youth is wasted in the anger and abuse
that her husband levels upon her.
Osborne suggests that a generation of British youth has experienced this
same loss of childhood innocence. Osborne uses the examples of World
War, the development of th e atomic bomb, and the decline of the British
Empire to show how an entire culture has lost the innocence that other
generations were able to maintain.
Real Life :
In the play, Jimmy Porter is consumed with the desire to live a more real
and full life. He c ompares this burning desire to the empty actions and
attitudes of others. At first, he generalizes this emptiness by criticizing the
lax writing and opinions of those in the newspapers. He then turns his
angry gaze to those around him and close to him, Ali son, Helena, and
Cliff.
Osborne's argument in the play for a real life is one in which men are
allowed to feel a full range of emotions. The most real of these emotions is
anger and Jimmy believes that this anger is his way of truly living. This
idea was u nique in British theater during the play's original run. Osborne
argued in essays and criticisms that, until his play, British theater had
subsumed the emotions of characters rendering them less realistic.
Jimmy's desire for a real life is an attempt to re store raw emotion to the
theater.
Sloth in British Culture :
Jimmy Porter compares his quest for a more vibrant and emotional life to
the slothfulness of the world around him. It is important to note that
Jimmy does not see the world around him as dead, but merely asleep in
some fundamental way. This is a fine line that Osborne walks throughout
the play. Jimmy never argues that there is a nihilism within British culture. munotes.in

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50 Instead, he sees a kind of slothfulness of character. His anger is an attempt
to awaken those around him from this cultural sleep.
This slothfulness of emotion is best seen in the relationship between
Alison and Cliff. Alison describes her relationship with Cliff as
"comfortable." They are physically and emotionally affectionate with each
other, but neither seems to want to take their passion to another level of
intimacy. In this way, their relationship is lazy. They cannot awaken
enough passion to consummate their affair. Jimmy seems to
subconsciously understand this, which is the reason he i s not jealous of
their affection towards one another.
The Rise and Fall of the British Empire :
The character of Colonel Redfern , Alison's father, represents the decline
of and nostalgia for the British Empire. The Colonel had been stationed
for many years in India, a symbol of Britain's imperial reach into the
world. The Edwardian age which corresponded to Britain's height of
power, had been the happiest of his life. His nostalgia is representative of
the denial that Osborne sees in the psyche of the Britis h people. The world
has moved on into an American age, he argues, and the people of the
nation cannot understand why they are no longer the world's greatest
power.
4.2 MAJOR SYMBOLS USED IN THE PLAY:
Newspapers :
Jimmy and Cliff read newspapers throughout A ct 1 and Act 3, and they
are a major visual feature in the apartment. Jimmy uses the newspaper as a
symbol of his education. They are a way for him to mimic the habits of the
upper class, university -educated elite. He repeatedly comments on what he
is read ing, sometimes using erudite vocabulary. He also uses newspaper
articles as a way to belittle the intelligence of Cliff and Alison , which is
one of the tactics he employs to make himself feel smarter and more
worthwhile. Yet, Jimmy’s relationship with news papers also shows his
ambivalent relationship to his educated status. He says that the newspapers
make him “feel ignorant,” and he often mocks “posh” papers, which, in
his mind, are out of touch with the real concerns of working class men like
him. The new spapers in the apartment also form a “jungle,” showing that,
in a working class environment, this status symbol becomes something
that upper class characters like Alison would consider chaotic and
dangerous. This reflects the way that greater social mobili ty has caused
social upheaval in Britain.
Pipe :
Jimmy ’s pipe is another example of an upper class symbol that
Jimmy uses instead to reflect his working class status. Pipes call to mind
old, educated, university professors. Jimmy’s pipe is a way for him to
dominate the scene and assert himself as a rebellious force in the world
(and he uses his force largely to rail against upper class norms). His pipe munotes.in

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Part 1 I
51 smoke fills the room, and creates a smell that other characters come to
associate with him. Alison says in the first act that she has “gotten used”
to it, reflecting the way that she adapts her values and sensibilities
depending on the context that she is in. Helena later says that she has
grown to “like” the smell, reflecting the attraction that she feels to Jimmy,
and also the fact that she retains more of a sense of self than Al ison does
in the same situation – Helena positively likes the smell, while Alison is
merely “used” to it. While living with her parents in the third act of the
play, the smell of pipe smoke reminds Alison of Jimmy, and soon after,
she comes back to him. Once in the apartment, she absentmindedly cleans
up the ashes from the pipe, reflecting the fact that she retains her upper
class sense of respectability and order, even as she returns from her
parents’ home to live in Jimmy’s world. The pipe thus becomes a litmus
test of Helena and Alison’s relationship with Jimmy throughout the play.
Bear and Squirrel :
Alison and Jimmy ’s bear and squirrel game gives them a way to access a
simple affect ion for each other that they cannot achieve in normal life. The
bear is associated with Jimmy, and the squirrel with Alison. The animals
symbolize the fact that social norms and conventions interfere with the
love that these two characters have for each ot her. Their relationship is a
site of class and societal conflict, and this means that their love becomes
fraught with anger and fighting. When they act like animals, whose only
concerns are food, shelter, cleanliness, and sex, they can forget that
conflict and feel a simpler version of love for each other. The fact that
they keep stuffed animal versions of the bear and squirrel in the apartment
reflects a childlike innocence that these characters find it difficult to
maintain in their troubled world, but th at they still hope for.
Church bells :
The church bells symbolize a respectable middle class morality
that Jimmy finds oppressive. Helena subscribes to this version of morality,
which posits that some things are clearly right, while others are wrong and
“sinful.” Jimmy, on the other hand, believes that the rules of respectable
society are something to struggle against. In his mind, it is moral to act in
allegiance with his oppressed class, and to feel emotions as keenly and
intensely as possible. The church bells chime from outside the window at
various points in the play, reflecting the fact that these middle class rules
are a fact of life in most of the world, and that they often intrude into the
apartment, and into Jimmy’s life. He curses and yells when he hears them,
reflecting his anger at this system of morality. Alison leaves for church
with Helena in the middle of act 2, following Helena back into a middle
class world.
Trumpet :
Jimmy ’s jazz trumpet can be heard off stage at various points in the play.
Jazz has traditionally been protest music, and is associated with the
working classes. It symbolizes Jimmy’s desire to be a voice of resistance
in society, but it also shows the futility of that dream. It serves largely to munotes.in

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52 annoy and antagonize those around him, not to call a movement to
attention. Like Jimmy’s pipe smoke, the trumpet also allows Jimmy to
assert his dominance non -verbally. He disrupts his domestic scene
(playing the trumpet only inside), but makes little headway truly
disrupting the world ar ound him.
4.3 QUESTIONS:
1. Critically examine Jimmy's anger in psychological perspective .
2. Discuss the play look back in anger as a social document that depicts
the post war British society.
3. Examine the underlying issues behind jimmy ’s anger and
discontentment in the play “Look Back in Anger”.
4. What are the elements of kitchen sink drama in the play.
5. Comment on the marital conflict between Jimmy and Alison in the play
Look Back in Anger?
6. Show how look back in anger critiques class – ridden establishment
7. How is the theme of the play look back in anger relevant to the present
times as well?
4.4 REFERENCES:
https://www.gradesaver.com/look -back -in-anger/study -guide/the mes
https://www.litcharts.com/lit/look -back -in-anger/symbols/trumpet

munotes.in

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53 5
CRITICAL STUDY OF GEORGE
BERNARD SHAW’S SAINT JOAN PART I
Unit Structure:
5.0 Objectives
5.1 George Bernard Shaw
5.2 Background of the play
5.3 Plot
5.4 Characters
5.5 Themes
5.0 OBJECTIVES :
This unit discusses George Bernard Shaw’s play, Saint Joan . It deals with
a short introduction of the playwright, G. B. Shaw and explicates briefly
the play —its background, content, Characters, themes and criticism about
play.
5.1 GEORGE BERNARD SHAW :
George Bernard Shaw is a great Irish playwright, critic, polemici st and
political activist. He was Born on July 26, 1856, in Dublin, Ireland, and
died on November 2, 1950. He got very less education but he had intellect
of creativity due to which after going through many ups and downs, he set
himself as a playwright. He wrote more than sixty plays. Archibald
Henderson, official biographer of his subject, entitled his work, George
Bernard Shaw: Man of the Century completed his work before Shaw's
death, this famous dramatist and critic had become an institution. William
Archer, the distinguished dramatic critic, editor and translator of Ibsen
inspired Shaw a lot. Shaw's Arms and the Man (1894) brought him success
as a playwright. In the same year Shaw wrote Mrs. Warren's Profession
which did not get sanction from censor boa rd as it deals with prostitution.
His play, Candida (1895) was a huge success. In 1903 he published Man
and Superman . Some of the well plays penned down by him are Major
Barbara (1905), Pygmalion (1913), Heartbreak House ( 1919), and Saint
Joan (1923). He denied position in the royal court but in 1925, he did
accept the Nobel Prize for Literature.
5.2 BACKGROUND :
Saint Joan, staged in 1923, dramatizes of the life of 15th -century French
military icon and religious martyr, Joan of Arc. The play is based on t he munotes.in

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54 historical records of her trial in 1431. Shaw published a lengthy preface
with the play. The canonization of Joan of Arc in 1920 by Catholic Church
after so many years of her martyrdom inspired Shaw to write the play.
Saint Joan is one of Shaw's most po pular plays.
Shaw tells fictionalized story of Saint Joan . It is considered as a
celebration of Joan’s life and the person she really was. The play includes
six scenes and an epilogue. The play doesn’t follow a typical three -act
structure. Shaw explains J oan as a Protestant martyr, an early feminist, and
a champion of nationalism. He underlines reason church punished Joan.
He suggests as she challenged patriarchal society as well as church’s
authority and their idea that God spoke through men.
Shaw provide s the information related to the historical, social and political
contexts of his play in his preface. Through his Preface to Saint Joan he
expresses his views of the personage of Joan from a more objective point
of view. The Preface is divided into forty -one sub -sections, every section
deals with one of the area of Joan of Arc’s life. He deals with views of
Joan in sections 1 -16. He highlights misrepresentations about Joan in
literature regarding Medieval Society and the Medieval Church in sections
17-21. He comments on Joan's death in relation to Modern Acts of
Inhumanity in sections 22 -34. In the last sections from 35 to 41 he
explicates the nature of historical drama and Saint Joan as a tragedy.
Shaw considers Joan, ironically, the first Protestant mart yr and as a
forerunner of equality for women. According to him, Joan was burned as a
heretic, thus martyred. He explains the two primary reasons —firstly, Joan
never denied the Church and although she constantly turned to it for
solace. She was the first Pr otestant because she listened to the dictates of
her own conscience and her own reasoning rather than blindly following
the authority of the Church. Secondly, she was "the pioneer of rational
dressing for women," which was criticized as unwomanly for which she
was burnt at the stake. Shaw tells how "her voices and visions." Is her won
intelligence and imagination to analyze a situation with which she
managed the military affairs. He sympathizes her ignorance to understand
how cunning conspiracy of about her burning.
Many authors write about Joan, her qualities, interpretation of her actions.
They recreate the medieval society and Joan’s life. From Shakespeare
through Voltaire, from Schiller to Mark Twain, and from Anatole France
and others, Joan and her tri als have been the source for writers to interpret
her fate unsuccessfully as they fail to understand her and her environment.
Shaw tells how at that it was impossible for anyone to talk about country
and its national boundaries, only the Universal Church, and the Church
could not tolerate anyone questioning its authority.
Shaw marks how the medieval Church would not tolerate Joan's
individualism. He criticizes that today’s the modern world also will not
tolerate a person who denounces the authority of whoev er happens to be in
power. The world today also punishes a genius or a saint as it happened in
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55 Shaw brings to light the problems and stage limits of writing a historical
play by comparing his plays with Shakespeare's methods and efforts of
writing historical dramas. He finds Shakespeare does not talk much about
law and religion and patriotism. Shaw talks about history and politics.
Saint Joan is a tragedy without any villain. His characters put in their
historical period. Shaw’s epilogue provi des lots information.
5.3 PLOT SUMMARY :
Saint Joan is set in 1429, in the French castle called Vaucouleurs. There
Robert de Baudricourt, a nobleman does not enjoy the cool and pleasant
whether because he runs a farm and the hens won’t lay any eggs.
Meanw hile, a girl called Joan also known as The Maid wants to be a
soldier arrives. She asks horses and armor to go to the Dauphin of France
and to release Orleans, a city held captive by the English. She reveals how
the voices of Saints Margaret and Catherine have told her what to do.
Robert laughs at her because at that time girls do not participate in war.
Joan tells Robert that God speaks to her. She says that she has been
assigned a task to crown the Dauphin of France King. She plans on
crowning him herself . Now, Robert thinks she is mad and he tells her to
leave. He gives the idea that how these voices are connected with her
sanity and will and finally become the reason of her death at the stake.
Joan convinces Robert’s friend, Poulengey to support her. Ro bert agrees to
help as he believes that the Dauphin "might swallow" Joan's conviction
and her dedication; maybe even the Dauphin might take courage from
Joan's determination. At least, it is worth a try. He tells Joan that the
Dauphin lies trapped somewher e and she’ll never find him. Joan shows
believes in God that He will guide her. When she leaves, Robert’s servant
informs him that there are eggs everywhere in the henhouse.
Shaw opens nest scene in March 1429. The Dauphin is very careless and
spoiled who eats and drinks too much, and does not possess any quality to
be king. He is indebted and on the verge of poverty. He doesn’t want to
fight any wars. When the letter of Sir Baudricourt is delievered the
Archbishop and the Chamberlain advise the Dauphin no t to meet Joan. Sir
Bluebeared takes Joan’s test to know her ability and her claimed guidance
from the God. according to his challenge he will pretend to be the
Dauphin, and if The Maid cannot recognize the royalty from common
blood, then she is a pretende r. But wins the challenge and then she makes
the Dauphin to realize that there’s no choice for him. If he doesn’t claim
his crown, he’ll end up homeless and humiliated. She also assures him that
as God is supporting him, he will never fail. Joan promises h im that the
English will be defeated and France will become holy and the Dauphin
will rule. Everyone in the court including Dauphin gets inspired and
impressed with Joan. The Dauphin declares that he has given the
command to Joan so she can take decisions regarding the fights as she
likes.
Joan helps Dunois, the commander of the French forces and the heir to
Orleans to regain the city from the English and by doing so, French can
his coronation. Dunois advises her for waiting to change the wind’s munotes.in

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56 direction b ut Joan does not follow changes her decision of attack and wins
the fight. Dunois believes that she’s succeeded due to her luck and not
because God with her. He doubts one day, her luck will run out. Joan
thinks Dunois is hopeless and pessimist. Joan and D unois seize Orleans.
Sometime later, the English start considering Joan must be a witch
because there is no other way than sorcery to defeat English.
Joan’s victory also increases the tension of Roman Catholic Church as it
will make people to believe that God speaks through a woman which can
create a problem to its authority. She removes church’s role as a mediator
between God and king. Joan's simple pleas can possibly destroy the entire
feudal system. At that time, the Church rules Europe. Hence, there is no
chance for Nationalism. Because it is considered that the church should
be the only authority, powerful than king and nation. Joan appeals to
French nationalists which stress the senior clergy conspire together and
plan to execute her as a witch.
Further, the Dauphin crowns at Reims Cathedral. He is now officially
King Charles VII of France. King Charles respects and believes Joan but
his negotiation of a peace treaty with English -occupied Paris does not like
by Joan who wants to win Paris back. The ki ng does not want further
bloodshed whereas Joan attempts to seek permission for attacking on
Paris. Commander Dunois too does not want to start another campaign
after all of the recent successes. The Archbishop takes the opportunity of
this chaos. He suppo rts the king and he berates Joan for pride. He makes
very one considers Pride is a deadly sin, and she’ll destroy France by
fighting. Joan has been told that she will not be rescued from the enemies
by military, state and church, if she will be caught. Joa n clarifies she
works as per God’s will and it’s His will to seize Paris. Still she continues
to remain determined. At last, King puts her in prison for nine month. In
her imprisonment she has been questioned about the validity of God’s
voice from which sh e gets commands. In May, 1431, church decides
either to execute her or to leave her imprisoned forever. Joan warns by
opposing her, they are opposing the God. So, the church tortures her. She
feels if she will accept that she lied about God’s instructions to her, the
church will set her free. But the church plans to imprison her forever.
Hence, she renounces her entire confession and asks her execution. The
Church burns her at the stake. After her death, the Executioner announces
that Joan's heart would n ot burn which makes the noblemen and priests
wonder if God really spoke through her after all.
The time then moves to 1920, when Joan is declared to be a saint by the
Church. Shaw sets epilogue in King Charles' bedchamber, twenty -five
years after the last scene. Charles (the former Dauphin) puts aside his
book, calls servant, Ladvenu enters. Ladvenu carries the same cross which
he held when The Maid was burnt at the stake. He announces that twenty -
five years later, at the court of inquiry for rehabilitation . Joan has been
declared innocent of all charges for which she was burned as a heretic. Her
judges have been declared "full of corruption, cozenage, fraud, and
malice." Shaw highlights Charles’ interest in removing the troublesome
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57 The king again rings for his servant, this time the candle goes out and a
silhouette is seen and the voice of Joan is heard. She assures Charles that
he is dreaming, and she eagers to know the happenings of last twenty -five
years. Charles happ ily informs that he is the Victorious not only that even
today she will get the justice and her judges will be punished. Cauchon
appears and complains the dishonors done to him. He was
excommunicated and his body was flung into the sewer — all in order to
praise Joan. Cauchon praises himself as pure -hearted, merciful, and
faithful. Joan does not believe English are gone, and Dunois appears to
assure Joan that he kept his words. He tells Joan that the French won by
using Joan's fighting strategies. He apolog izes for his inability to save her.
As the clock strikes, a rough, strange voice is heard and ruffian -like
English soldier appears. He claims that he has come from Hell. He informs
that he gets one day off each year because he gave Joan two sticks tied
together as a cross when she was about to be burned. The soldier explains
that Hell is not so bad. He informs about the presence of popes, kings and
aristocrats in Hell.
Again the door opens, and an old, white -haired priest, de Stogumber, who
has never recov ered from witnessing Joan's burning at the stake enters. He
constantly advises people to be kind. He fails to recognize Joan because
he thinks Joan is burnt and dead, the Executioner appears and announcs
that Joan is more alive than de Stogumber because J oan's heart would not
burn. Warwick enters to congratulate Joan on her rehabilitation and
explains that her burning was nothing personal, but only a purely political
necessity.
Suddenly, time moves and a stranger dressed in the fashion of 1920
appears. Eve ryone laughs for his comic dress. He ignores them reads from
a recent proclamation that Joan The Maid has now been canonized and
elevated to sainthood. He also reads memorial service will be celebrated
every thirtieth of May, on the anniversary of her burn ing. Suddenly,
statues of Joan are seen in front of cathedrals, and all kneel to offer Joan
praise; then, one by one, each of them informs how he is praised in a
various sectors of society.
Joan interrupts them by saying that she is declared as a saint now so, she
can perform the miracles. Therefore, she asks them whether or not she
should come back to life as a living woman and return to them. Everyone
leaves with excuses and apologies as they prefer that she remain dead. All
leave only Joan and English s oldier remains. The soldier comforts Joan.
He too leaves and at the end, Joan questions God that how long the will be
ready to accept the saints.
5.4 CHARACTER LIST
Joan of Arc
Joan of Arc, also known as The Maid Joan is the protagonist of the play,
Saint Joan . This character is based upon the historical character. She is a
strong -willed person straightly follows her heart. Shaw showcases her as a munotes.in

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58 sixteen - or seventeen -year-old, simple, uneducated but intelligent country
girl. He in his preface explicates h ow Joan offers her ideas in terms of
voices from heaven which guide to her. Form the beginning of the play,
she practices her superiority in terms of military tactics and strategy. Her
military strategy is flawless. Throughout the play, she remains honest and
innocent who simple believe in God’s mission. She does not care about
the hypocrisy of the others. The church and judges try to trap her and
sentence her to the death, her clear and innocent answers make them feel
guilty. She is inexperienced about the medieval society and the jealousies
of the feudal system. Her belief in her own conscience and her refusal to
yield to the authority of the Church establishes her as the first Protestant to
be martyred by the Catholic Church.
Captain Robert de Baudricourt
Robert de Baudricourt is a squire, a shield bearer who attended a knight
from Joan's district, Lorraine. He is a "handsome and physically energetic"
man with "no will of his own." He owns a farm but concerns about the
hens non productivity of eggs. He is the first person who supports The
Maid's plans. He offers Joan her first armor and her first chance to show
her military skills. He is also the first one who criticizes her for her voices:
Sir Robert introduces the first skepticism about the voices:
JOAN: . . . you must not talk to me about my voices.
ROBERT: . . . How do you mean? Voices?
JOAN: I hear voices telling me what to do. They come from God.
ROBERT: They come from your imagination.
Bertrand de Poulengey (Polly)
Bertrand de Poulengey is Joan's firs t follower who believes in her. He aids
Joan in getting support from Robert de Baudricourt, and he accompanies
her in the Battle of Orleans. He believes the Dauphin is trapped "like a rat
in a corner" by the English and Burgundians.
The Archbishop of Rhe ims
At first, the churchman, the Archbishop of Rheims senses Joan as a pious
and innocent. He also believes that she is in close service with God.
Continuously, Joan proves herself right. She successfully carries the
responsibility of crowning the Dauphin king which disheartens the
Archbishop and, ultimately, sides against her. during her trial, he realizes
the church’s cruelty but he keeps his mouth shut and continues to push
Joan towards death.
Monseigneur de la Trémouille
Monseigneur de la Trémouille,th e Lord Chamberlain in the court of the
Dauphin and also the "commander -in-chief" of the French forces. He has munotes.in

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59 been accustomed to bullying the Dauphin, and, therefore, he deeply
resents Joan when she is given command of the French forces.
Gilles de Rais (Bl uebeard)
Gilles de Rais is a captain in the army and a devoted follower of The
Maid even though he is not a religious person.
The Dauphin
The Dauphin later crowned Charles VII in the Rheims cathedral. He is
weak, weeping, and careless about his court and country. Joan forces him
to behave like a king and claim authority. Charles is "quiet and sensible,"
and he doesn't "want to kill people." He simply wishes to be left alone to
live peacefully.
Dunois (The Bastard)
Dunois is the young, popular, and efficie nt leader of the French forces. He
recognizes Joan's military genius after Orleans victory but in the final
battle of Paris, he does not support her.
The Earl of Warwick
The Earl of Warwick is the English earl in charge of the English forces
and Joan's mo st bitter opponent. He sees Joan's simple opinions that the
people should give their allegiance directly to the king as being a threat to
the loyalty that the feudal lords demand from their serfs. He demands
Joan's death as a way of retaining the status qu o of the feudal system.
John de Stogumber
John de Stogumber is the Earl of Warwick's chaplain. He is a vicious and
ferocious accuser of Joan's. He thinks her as a witch who should be burned
without delay. He does not understand the most complicated and sub tle
arguments concerning Joan's threat to the Church and to the aristocracy.
Joan’s death brings the dramatic change John de Stogumber as a person.
After he has witnessed the burning of Joan, he becomes a weak and
broken man. Throughout his life he does go od deeds for others in order to
lessen his guilt opposing The Maid.
Peter Cauchon
Peter Cauchon is the academic theologian. He represents the rules and
regulations, concerns related with the Church. He considers Joan as a
direct threat to the Church’s auth ority. He claims that he always respects
the Church’s opinion. He does not believe on Joan’s claim that she
directly communicates with God without church’s help. For him, church is
the highest authority after God.
The Inquisitor
The Inquisitor looks kindly and sweet elderly gentleman. He represents
the institutions of the Church. He gives lots of importance to church’s munotes.in

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60 disciplines. He always considers the church is always right and its justice
is correct. Always defends church and its decision. He e stores his
complete belief in church’s wisdom than individualism.
D'Estivet
D'Estivet is the prosecutor against Joan. He is very impatient. His
argument purely based on legalism.
Courcelles
Courcelles is a young priest helps to compile some sixty -four charges
against Joan. Some of his charges are lie but he still does not like that
many of the charges like stealing of the Bishop's horse by Joan are
dismissed by the court.
Brother Martin Ladvenu
Brother Martin Ladvenu is a sympathetic young priest who wants to save
Joan. He showcases his concerns about Joan's inability to understand that
the charges are made against her to trap her. He feels her only sin is her
ignorance. He finds ok if she will be imprisoned forever than sentenced
executed. However, he holds up the cross for Joan to see while she is on
her funeral stake. He is instrumental in Joan's restoration.
The Executioner
The Executioner represents the horrors of the stake. His other importance
is that he reports that The Maid's heart would not burn which make s the
noblemen and the judges to feel guilty and fear about what they have
done.
An English Soldier
An English Soldier is the common soldier who makes a cross out of two
sticks and gives it to Joan. For this deed, he receives one day a year out of
Hell. Hi s deed and reward which he gets due to which strongly stress the
martyrdom of Joan and her close relation with God.
5.5 THEMES :
Power
Shaw’s Saint Joan moves around some major power clashes. Joan is
proved threat to the Catholic Church and the English feu dal lords. She
helps many people but especially, the King, Charles too leaves her for fear
of losing the power. In the end, all conspire against her and she is proven
as a witch and burnt in order to protect their power and authority. King
Charles also fe els her threat once, he is declared as the King of France.
But he too feels jealous for Joan’s popularity and power. Hence, he wants
her to return to her family than fighting for him. The Catholic Church
realizes Joan as a threat because she does not give importance to the
church’s authority and power. People Warwick considers that,"It is the munotes.in

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61 protest of the individual soul against the interference of priest or peer
between the private man and his God." Cauchon tells that The Maid
instills a sense of nation al pride into the common people toward their
national origins: "France for the French, England for the English, Italy for
the Italians . . . and so forth"; this is against to the current state of affairs in
which the Church's rule is a universal rule -one r ealm — one kingdom of
Christ — and not several divided nations with different rulers and
different allegiances.
Religion
Shaw through Saint Joan chronicles the life of a Catholic saint, Joan of
Arc. Religion is a major theme. In the play, he talks about th e clashes of
Protestantism and Catholicism. There's also much discussion of popular
religious topics such as faith, heresy, martyrdom, and repentance.Shaw
pictures the rise of Protestantism with Joan. He highlights how the
Catholic Church finds Joan as a t hreat to its authority and power. As
church palys the role of mediator between God and people, Joan directly
communicates God without mediator, church. In this way, the possession
of the church is challenged by her. Hence, religious people like the
Archbis hop, Cauchon and the feudalists come together and conspire
against Joan and finally burn her on stake. The Archbishop already
guesses Joan’s fate as she strictly follows religion. He says, "Child: you
are in love with religion. […] There is no harm in it [ …] But there is
danger." Joan is punished only as she does not follow the church’s
authority, as Cauchon says, "She is not a witch. She is a heretic."
Women and Femininity
Shaw presents Joan as an early pioneer of women's equality. She wears
men's clothes, becomes a soldier, and advises the most powerful men of
her day, as Saint Joan details. She leads the wars and wins and helps the
king to get his crown. She sets an example for all women to follow. Joan,
dresses as a soldier and with crops hair. La Hire b elieves her to be an
"angel dressed as a soldier." Durial her trial, the Archbishop says that she
is not a respectable woman because "she does not wear women's clothes,"
and, thus, she is unwomanly." She clarifies the reason behind her men
clothing. She sa ys, "If I were to dress as a woman they would think of me
as a woman; and then what would become of me? If I dress as a soldier
they think of me as a soldier." She highlights the necessity of dressing as a
soldier because if she will not, she will be raped . The issue of Joan's
clothes becomes central to her trial and plays major role in her
condemnation. Her participation in the war is also criticized as war always
is the business of men. In comparison with Joan he Dauphin is no "manly"
man — that is, he ne eds someone to order him about, as Joan will do. In
this way, Shaw presents Joan as a powerful woman who is equal to male
gender and sometimes, proves better than them.
Society and Class
Shaw presents in his play, Saint Joan Medieval society which was rig idly
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62 structure of society. He tells that how in the society, the church is the
considered the highest authority more powerful than king and nation. He
also tells that how the king also ca n be indebted by the church. He
showcases the power and the possession of the Catholic Church. He
highlights the political relations of the church, kings and feudal lords, and
the lot of common peasants and soldiers. He projects that wveryone needs
to foll ow this structure any one who tries to break it gets the punishment.
Joan of Arc is punished because of the same.
Warfare
Saint Joan is set in medieval France which was divided among the
powerful forces like English, Burundians and Armagnacs. In the play,
Joan is assigned amission from God, to make war and unit France and
heir to the French throne, Charles VII. Hence, she fights war as a soldiers
with a great leadership, methods and strategies she wins all the wars.
Dunois comments that Joan loves war. But she lives with only purpose of
completing God’s command. Hence, she fights the war and unit France.
Pride
Everybody in Saint Joan accuses Joan of pride.but there is always a thin
line btween the pride and confidence which makes it unclear whether she's
guilty of this or not. Despite the opposition, she always takes correct
decision gets success. She also believes her God directs her. so she insists
that idea that everyone should listen to her and do what she says. The rich
and powerful, however, consider this as her pride.
Admiration
Joan is able to inspire such admiration. She starts a movement of uniting
country, shifting its entire power structure in France. She is admired by
LaHire as a soldier. But many a time, she gets criticism instead f
admirati on. Eventually, admiration for her grew so much that the Catholic
Church made her a saint. Saint Joan chronicles the life, death, and legacy
of this inspirational figure.

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63 6
CRITICAL STUDY OF GEORGE
BERNARD SHAW’S SAINT JOAN PART II
Unit Structure:
6.0 Objective
6.1 Criticism
6.2 Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory
6.3 Conclusion
6.4 Questions
6.5 Reference for further study
6.0 OBJECTIVE:
This unit discusses George Bernard Shaw’s play, Saint Joan . It deals with
the critical elements of the play.
6.1 CRITICISM
Drama, Tragedy, Biography, Historical Fiction
Shaw's Saint Joan is a tragedy because Joan’s choices are the cause of her
own destruction. Furthermore, Shaw calls the play as a chronicle play. He
documents the life of Joan. He gives detailed information about her life
journey right from Joan of Arc to Saint Joan. This makes the play
abiography of Joan of Arc. The play can be considered as a historical
drama as Shaw gives the exact detail of history. The play is based on
historical people from and past events. Shaw uses a lot of historical events
and personages for dramatic effect.
Title
The play is titled Saint Joan . It's about a saint whose name is Joan. Joan is
tragic heroi ne who gives her life for God’s will. She lives and dies for the
benefits of the French people. But the king, church’s authority and feudal
lords conspire against her to secure their power and authority. They burn
her on the stake and label her as a witch. Joan is not recognized as a saint
in her lifetime. She had a lot of fans, though. Many admired her
courageous leadership and even believed that she'd worked miracles.
One of great ironies of Joan's story is that she was branded a heretic and
burnt alive by the very same organization that would recognize her as a
saint over 400 years later. In his book, Contradictory Characters , Albert
Bermel suggests that the title of Shaw’s play, Saint Joan itself is ironic. munotes.in

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64 He says, "The play asks a riddle: When is a sa int not a saint? The answer
is: when she's alive." The last line of the play supports this theory. Joan
appeals to God saying, "O God that madest this beautiful earth, when will
it be ready to receive Thy saints? How long, O Lord, how long?"
Ending with Ep ilogue
Shaw ends his play, Saint Joan with an epilogue. He makes many
important characters to appear and discuss Joan's legacy on earth. He
introduces King Charles who clears Joan’s name after twenty -five years of
her execution. Shaw makes it clear that Ki ng Charles does so for his
benefit because he does not want to be called a king helped by witch. Then
various characters like Cauchon, Warlike, English Soldier and Dunius
appear and they praise her. Shaw shows up a guy from the future (1920) to
tell them a ll that the Church has recognized Joan as a saint. The ending is
the high mark where the tragedy turns into comedy when everyone
excuses the revival of Joan.
Shaw tells the importance f the epilogue. He says, "It was necessary by
hook or crook to shew the canonized Joan as well as the incinerated one"
(source). Shaw felt that if he didn't address in some way the fact that Joan
was later recognized as a saint, he hadn't really done the job of chronicling
Joan's story. She was one of those rare people whose death had just as
large an effect on the world as her life. He expresses how Joan would be
executed all over again if she would come to life. he showcases the reality
where the characters all praise Joan after they find out she's been
canonized. But the sa me characters do not want her to live again on the
earth.
Overall Political Situation
Shaw minutely depicts the medieval society and the various situations
occurred in that time. He shows how during Joan's time, France was not
united but divided in many t owns. He refers The Hundred Years War of
1337. Basically, there were two families to claim the French throne – the
House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet. The Valois thought they
should rule France, while the Plantagenets claimed both France and
Engl and.
Before Joan approach to him, the Dauphin, Charles of Valois, was in
pretty bad shape. He was surrounded by enemies. First there were the
Burgundians. Charles had tried a couple times to make peace with their
Duke, John the Fearless. Under the pretext of "peace talk" Charles's men
rose up and assassinated him. The Burgundians were understandably kind
of mad about the whole their -leader -getting -butchered thing. John's son,
Philip the Good, allied Burgundy with Charles's big dog enemies, the
English.
A huge chunk of northern France, including Paris, was occupied by the
English. Charles didn't really take any decisive action to kick them out,
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65 By the time Joan in 1429, France was in total chaos. People didn't think of
them selves as French. There was no nationalism at all.
Setting
Shaw sets Saint Joan in Medieval period. He skillfully chooses to set the
actual scenes which are remarkable —rooms in castles, the bank of a river,
a room in a cathedral, and a bedroom. Shaw choos es theses places in a
play where giant crazy battles, a grand coronation, and a massive public
execution take place offstage.
Writing Style —Shavian
Shaw’s style of writing is famous among the critics as Shavian. Saint Joan
has all of Shaw's trademarks. Ma ny of the characters are hyperactive.
These characters are interested high complex concepts and enjoy debating
them passionately as Cauchon, The Archbishop and Warwick discuss high
and complex issues. For instance, in Joan's trial, it's Joan's beliefs vs.
Church doctrine. Another good example is Warwick and Cauchon's
discussions of Nationalism and Protestantism. Saint Joan is a Shavian as it
turns the stage into a forum for ideas. Another hallmark of Shavian style is
wittiness. Shaw mixes intellectual disc ussions with humor. Joan's trial is a
good example of such writing.
6.2 SYMBOLISM, IMAGERY, ALLEGORY
The Wind
Shaw uses natural symbol, the wind to prove Joan’s miracle power. The
wind changes directions on the banks of the Loire as Joan orders to fight.
It convinces Dunois that it's a miracle. He's sure that Joan has been sent by
God. he considers it as a symbolic of God's blessing on Joan.
Joan's Heart
Joan's heart which left undamaged and unburned is another symbol of her
eternal spirit. It showcases h er spirit doesn't die along with her body when
she is burnt. Her memory lives on to inspire many more generations to
come.
The Eggs
Shaw uses an ancient symbol of eggs which symbolizes birth. It also
symbolizes Joan is a Christ figure. She is martyred jus t like Jesus. Robert
de Baudricourt beats his poor Steward because there aren't any eggs. The
hens do not lay eggs since Robert refused to see Joan. When Robert
supplies Joan with the soldiers, she needs to go see the Dauphin.
Immediately, the hens lay aga in.
Rise of Nationalism in Saint Joan
Shaw marks the rise of nationalism in Saint Joan. Bishop Cauchon
explains nationalism when he says, "I can express it only by such phrases munotes.in

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66 as France for the French, England for the English, Italy for the Italians,
Spain for the Spanish, and so forth". He mixes Protestantism and
nationalism. He does not understand that Joan is not disobeying anyone
knowingly. She just wants to unite France by sending English away. She
inspires the king and all noblemen to believe in un ite France. Before her
even these people do not consider themselves French.
Joan and Protestantism
Shaw depicts Joan as the first protestant because she does not give
importance to the church as a mediator between her and God. She
considers God is powerf ul than church. Due to which church considers her
as a threat. Bishop Cauchon tells everybody that, "The mighty structure of
Catholic Christendom […] may be […] brought to barbarous ruin and
desolation, by this arch heresy […] Protestantism". Warwick who
represents feudal lords defines Protestantism as “the protest of the
individual soul against the interference of priest or peer between the
private man and his God". Joan does not condemn church but her believe
in God’s voices scares church because it remov es its importance as a
mediator. Hence, the church along with feudal lords can't allow this
symbol of Protestantism to survive.
Saint Joan as an Epic Tragedy
Shaw uses a very unique structure of the play than the common structure
of the tragedy. The play i s fine combination of the tragic elements with
epic. The heroine of the play, Joan of Arc’s tragic flaw is his igborant
about the others jealous nature. She strictly follows God’s words and
behaves accordingly. She fails to understand the others vicious ob jectives
and benefits due to which she gets the death punishment for her direct
relation with God. Joan is a tragic heroine who suffers because of her
virtues. She also inspires king, noblemen and people of France to come
together and fight for the nation as per the God’s command. She plants the
seed of nationalism and Protestanism among French who before do not
recodnise themselves as French people.
6.3 CONCLUSION
George Bernard Shaw depicts the historical character of Joan of Arc. He
chronicles her journe y from a village girl of seventeen year to the
sainthood in 1920. His play, Saint Joan offers the detailed information
about the middle ages, medieval society, religion and political ideas. Shaw
does not just develop the character of Joan but also informs the situation
responsible for tragedy and clarifies why Joan is considered saint after her
death. He also brings to the light the status of woman in medieval society.
He also criticizes the society for it hypocrisy, cunning and self centered
attitude due to which it fails to accept the saint.

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67 6.4 QUESTIONS
1 What possible meanings, real and ironic, could Shaw mean by entitling
his play Saint Joan? Discuss Shaw's possible views toward saints and
miracles and voices.
2 Discuss what is meant by the terms "Protestantism" and "Nationalism,"
as used by Cauchon and Warwick. How do each of the terms threaten
either the Church or the aristocracy?
3 Discuss in detail the function of the Epilogue. Consider the play
without the Epilogue and how its absence would ch ange the nature of
the play.
4 critically analyze the theme of religion and feminism in George
Bernard Shawa’s play Saint Joan ?
6.5 REFERENCES
 George -bernard -shaw_saint -joan -pdf
 www.wikipedia.org
 https://www.cliffnotes.com/literature/st -joan/study -help
 www.shmoop.com
 https://muse//.jhu.edu
 www.sparknotes.com

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68 7
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF T.S. ELIOT’S
‘THE HIPPOPOTAMUS’ AND ‘PORTRAIT
OF A LADY’ & W.B. YEATS’S ‘THE
SECOND COMING’ AND ‘A PRAYER FOR
MY DAUGHTER’
Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 T.S. Eliot
7.2 The Hippopotamus
7.3 Portrait of a Lady
7.4 W.B. Yeats ( 1865 –1939)
7.5 The Second Coming
7.6 Prayer for My Daughter
7.7 Works Cited
7.0 OBJECTIVES:
i. To introduce two prominent poets of 20th century T.S Eliot and W.B
Yeasts
ii. To study prescribed poems of T.S Eliot and W.B Yeasts
iii. To trace the elements of m odernism in prescribed poems
7.1 T.S. ELIOT (1888 -1965):
Thomas Stearns Eliot was born on 26th September 1888 in St. Louis,
Missouri. He lived 18 years in St. Louis and later attended Harvard
University. T.S. Eliot after receiving his undergraduate and ma ster’s
degrees left the United States for the Sorbonne in 1910.Meanwhile he had
contributed several poems to the Harvard Advocate . He returned back to
Harvard after a year to pursue a Doctorate in Philosophy but somehow he
couldn’t do it and he returned to Europe and settled in England. Eliot
married Vivienne Haigh -Wood and began working in London as a teacher
and later for Lloyd's Bank. In London Eliot came under the influence of
his contemporary Ezra Pound. Ezra Pound had recognised Eliot’s poetic
genius and assisted him in the publication of his works. The most notable
one is "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" in Poetry in 1915. Prufrock
and Other Observations was Eliot’s first book of poems published in munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of T.S. Eliot’s
‘The Hippopotamus’ and
‘Portrait of a Lady’ & W.B.
Yeats’s ‘The Second Coming’
and ‘A Prayer for My
Daughter’
69 1917and this made him the renowned poet of the a vant-garde. The Waste
Land published in 1922 recognised him as the single most influential
poetic work of the twentieth century. Thereafter Eliot became the most
dominant figure in poetry and literary criticism in the countries that speaks
English.His poem s usually express his deep pain and showcases the
disillusionment of man in the Victorian era. Eliot was a critic and he had
amassive impact on contemporary literary taste and propounding views
which were increasingly based in social and religious conserva tism.
T.S. Eliot wrote numerous poems and also attained recognition as an
essayist. He wrote on literary theory and criticism, social, philosophical, and
theological matters as well. T.S. Eliot’s other major works include: Ash
Wednesday (1930) and Four Qu artets (1943); his books of literary and
social criticism include The Sacred Wood (1920), The Use of Poetry and
the Use of Criticism (1933), After Strange Gods (1934), and Notes
Towards the Definition of Culture (1940). Eliot was also asignificant
playwrig ht, and his works include Murder in the Cathedral , The Family
Reunion , and The Cocktail Party .
T.S. Eliot became a British citizen in 1927 and forlong connected with the
publishing house of Faber & Faber, where he published many younger
poets, and eventual ly became director of the firm. Eliot got separated from
his first wife in 1933, and remarried Valerie Fletcher in 1956. T. S. Eliot is
the recipient of Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948 and on 4th January 1965
he bid adieu to the world.
7.2 THE HIPPOPOTA MUS
THE broad -backed hippopotamus
Rests on his belly in the mud;
Although he seems so firm to us
He is merely flesh and blood.

Flesh -and-blood is weak and frail,
Susceptible to nervous shock;
While the True Church can never fail
For it is based upon a roc k.

The hippo's feeble steps may err
In compassing material ends,
While the True Church need never stir
To gather in its dividends.

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70 The 'potamus can never reach
The mango on the mango -tree;
But fruits of pomegranate and peach
Refresh the Church from over sea.

At mating time the hippo's voice
Betrays inflexions hoarse and odd,
But every week we hear rejoice
The Church, at being one with God.

The hippopotamus's day
Is passed in sleep; at night he hunts;
God works in a mysterious way --
The Church can sleep and feed at once.

I saw the 'potamus take wing
Ascending from the damp savannas,
And quiring angels round him sing
The praise of God, in loud hosannas.

Blood of the Lamb shall wash him clean
And him shall heavenly arms enfold,
Among the saints he shall be seen
Performing on a harp of gold.

He shall be washed as white as snow,
By all the martyr'd virgins kist,
While the True Church remains below
Wrapt in the old miasmal mist.
T.S. Eliot's poem 'The Hippopotamus' makes a comparison between a
hippopotamus and the Church of England. He uses metaphor and satire in
this poem to express his unrest. In 'The Hippopotamus', Eliot actually
expresses his negative feelings towards the Church of England. He
directly makes comparison between two objects or ideas, i.e. the Church
of England and a hippopotamus. Eliot also uses satire , to present his ideas
in a way that appears to be the opposite of his actual beliefs. Primarily, the
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Critical Analysis of T.S. Eliot’s
‘The Hippopotamus’ and
‘Portrait of a Lady’ & W.B.
Yeats’s ‘The Second Coming’
and ‘A Prayer for My
Daughter’
71 clumsy, frail and f lawed, whereas the church is gracious and revered.
Later we see that the hippo rises above the Church both literally and
symbolically.
In the poem the speaker expresses that the hippo makes mistakes while
living its life, whereas the Church never struggles to receive the fruits of
‘pomegranate and peach' that 'Refresh the Church from over sea.' Here in
the poem the hippo represents the common man who struggles and works
hard to make a living. The speaker further points out that the church
doesn’t do any kin d of hard work as it keeps on receiving money from its
parishioners, receives support, funds, and praise from its spiritual patrons
and volunteers . According to the poet, the Church is incapable of being
innocent as the hippopotamus.
Eliot’s true feelings are revealed in the end of the poem. Later in the poem
we see that the hippo, with all its flaws and innocence, ultimatelyrises to
Heaven, leaving behind the True Church “below wrapt in the old miasmal
mist.” This line indicates that the hippo can overcom e all its situations
and achieve a life of high value whereas the Church will always be
aworldlything that remains corrupt. He tries to convey to the people that
the one who strive to be good individuals shall have the possibility of
going to Heaven after their demise. They will overcome their sufferings
in life and rise to a kingdom in heaven. He also warns the Church and its
corrupt leaders and tells the people that they will forever be trapped into
the shallow materialism of this world filled with sin.
7.3 PORTRAIT OF A LADY
Thou hast committed —
Fornication: but that was in another country,
And besides, the wench is dead.
(The Jew of Malta )
I
Among the smoke and fog of a December afternoon
You have the scene arrange itself — as it will seem to do —
With "I have saved this afternoon for you";
And four wax candles in the darkened room,
Four rings of light upon the ceiling overhead,
An atmosphere of Juliet's tomb
Prepared for all the things to be said, or left unsaid.
We have been, let us say, to hear the la test Pole
Transmit the Preludes, through his hair and finger -tips.
"So intimate, this Chopin, that I think his soul
Should be resurrected only among friends
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72 That is rubbed and questioned in the concert room."
—And so the conversation slips
Among velleities and carefully caught regrets
Through attenuated tones of violins
Mingled with remote cornets
And begins.

"You do not know how much they mean to me, my friends,
And how, how rare and strange it is, to find
In a life composed so much, so much of odds and ends,
(For indeed I do not love it ... you knew? you are not blind!
How keen you are!)
To find a friend who has these qualities,
Who has, and gives
Those qualities upon which friendship lives.
How much it mean s that I say this to you —
Without these friendships — life, what cauchemar !"
Among the winding of the violins
And the ariettes
Of cracked cornets
Inside my brain a dull tom -tom begins
Absurdly hammering a prelude of its own,
Capricious monotone
That is at least one definite "false note."
— Let us take the air, in a tobacco trance,
Admire the monuments,
Discuss the late events,
Correct our watches by the public clocks.
Then sit for half an hour and drink our bocks.

II
Now that lilacs are in bloom
She has a bowl of lilacs in her room
And twists one in her fingers while she talks.
"Ah, my friend, you do not know, you do not know munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of T.S. Eliot’s
‘The Hippopotamus’ and
‘Portrait of a Lady’ & W.B.
Yeats’s ‘The Second Coming’
and ‘A Prayer for My
Daughter’
73 What life is, you who hold it in your hands";
(Slowly twisting the lilac stalks)
"You let it flow from you, you let it flow,
And you th is cruel, and has no remorse
And smiles at situations which it cannot see."
I smile, of course,
And go on drinking tea.
"Yet with these April sunsets, that somehow recall
My buried life, and Paris in the Spring,
I feel immeasurably at peace, and find th e world
To be wonderful and youthful, after all."

The voice returns like the insistent out -of-tune
Of a broken violin on an August afternoon:
"I am always sure that you understand
My feelings, always sure that you feel,
Sure that across the gulf you reach your hand.

You are invulnerable, you have no Achilles' heel.
You will go on, and when you have prevailed
You can say: at this point many a one has failed.

But what have I, but what have I, my friend,
To give you, what can you receive from me?
Only the f riendship and the sympathy
Of one about to reach her journey's end.

I shall sit here, serving tea to friends ...."

I take my hat: how can I make a cowardly amends
For what she has said to me?
You will see me any morning in the park
Reading the comics and the sporting page.
Particularly I remark.
An English countess goes upon the stage. munotes.in

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74 A Greek was murdered at a Polish dance,
Another bank defaulter has confessed.
I keep my countenance,
I remain self -possessed
Except when a street -piano, mechanical and tire d
Reiterates some worn -out common song
With the smell of hyacinths across the garden
Recalling things that other people have desired.
Are these ideas right or wrong?

III
The October night comes down; returning as before
Except for a slight sensation of be ing ill at ease
I mount the stairs and turn the handle of the door
And feel as if I had mounted on my hands and knees.
"And so you are going abroad; and when do you return?
But that's a useless question.
You hardly know when you are coming back,
You will f ind so much to learn."
My smile falls heavily among the bric -à-brac.

"Perhaps you can write to me."
My self -possession flares up for a second;
This is as I had reckoned.
"I have been wondering frequently of late
(But our beginnings never know our ends!)
Why we have not developed into friends."
I feel like one who smiles, and turning shall remark
Suddenly, his expression in a glass.
My self -possession gutters; we are really in the dark.

"For everybody said so, all our friends,
They all were sure our feelin gs would relate
So closely! I myself can hardly understand.
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Critical Analysis of T.S. Eliot’s
‘The Hippopotamus’ and
‘Portrait of a Lady’ & W.B.
Yeats’s ‘The Second Coming’
and ‘A Prayer for My
Daughter’
75 You will write, at any rate.
Perhaps it is not too late.
I shall sit here, serving tea to friends."
And I must borrow every changing shape
To find expression ... danc e, dance
Like a dancing bear,
Cry like a parrot, chatter like an ape.
Let us take the air, in a tobacco trance —
Well! and what if she should die some afternoon,
Afternoon grey and smoky, evening yellow and rose;
Should die and leave me sitting pen in hand
With the smoke coming down above the housetops;
Doubtful, for quite a while
Not knowing what to feel or if I understand
Or whether wise or foolish, tardy or too soon ...
Would she not have the advantage, after all?
This music is successful with a "dying fa ll"
Now that we talk of dying —
And should I have the right to smile?
The poem Portrait of a Lady ’ written by T.S. Eliot is a three -part poem
that is divided into uneven stanzas. It portrays the relationship between an
insensitive young man and a sensitive older woman who craves for love.
The poem takes the reader through three different meetings between the
two. In each of the meetings it is observed that the older woman makes
proclamations about the young man’s character and her longing for
genuine relatio nships. On the other side we witness the young man
psychologically shoves his back against her. Though in the poem he
doesn’t announce it, but through his narration it is evident that he is an
insensitive man.
The Part I has two stanzas and in the first st anza of the poem the young
man is the speaker who sets the scene. He remembers how he and his
female companion were in a dark room that was lit by four candles. He
feels that things had come together to create a dark atmosphere and was
ardentlyhot. In the poem “Juliet’s tomb” is compared to the dark
atmosphere where the older lady waited in a death -like state for her
Romeo. We could see both of them had returned from a lovely concert
and they get into a conversation about Chopin’s performance and the
divin e music. Later the speaker narrates the scene as a whole and states
that this was how the conversation fell and alluded to “velleities” or
feelings not acted upon and regrets.In the next stanza,the lady’s words are
conveyed . She expresses her love and appr eciation for her friends and tells munotes.in

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76 the young man how dear they are to her. She also tells him that it is rare
and strange to genuine and true friends.She says life is complex and filled
with insignificant trivialities but her friends help her toease her
problems. Further she stops speaking about the general friends and starts
speaking about the young man. She compares him as one of her close
friend and she feels lucky to have found him. The older lady knows that
her life without friends will be difficult to survive. The young man doesn’t
believe the older lady’s words as for him they are not genuine. Her words
are not resembling to the sweetness of the violins for they strike a “false
note”. Later he steps out and shake off the trance of tobacco which
indica tes his repetitive efforts in finding ways to forget his boredom.
The Part II of ‘Portrait of a Lady’ starts with a new scene, where the
speaker regards her voice as an “out -of-tune” broken violin which
indicates his attitude towards the older lady. He say s, the “lilacs are in
bloom”, while his older female companion has some of these same flowers
in her room and she swindles with them while she speaks. She addresses
the young man as “my friend” and tells him that he does not realize his
life. She makes an attempts to support the speaker to understand life and
also points out how he’s controlling it. According to the lady he is just
allowing his life to “flow from you” and doesn’t fully appreciate the youth
that he has. The older lady advices him take care o f his youth before it’s
gone but the man is seen taking it lightly. She asks, rhetorically, what she
has that she can give him and answers her own question saying that she
can give him “the friendship and the sympathy”. Further, the older lady
thinks about her own youth in Paris in the spring, where she experiences
“immeasurably at peace” and “wonderful and youthful, after all”. The
young man takes pride being “self -possessed”. Later he overhears the
sounds of a street musician and also smells the hyacinth s in the garden
thatconveys the notion of love which “other people have desired”. Further
we can find him in the state of dilemma and wonders if these “ideas” of
love and companionship are “right or wrong”.
In the Part III of the poem the setting changes a gain and the fall is
manifested. Though the season has come as usual still the young man feels
a little less at comfort. The woman confesses that she can “hardly
understand” why things are the way they are and her self -pity is again
overlaid with the expre ssion “I shall sit here, serving tea to friends”. The
young man goes to meet the woman and bid her good bye and she speaks
to him, enquiring when he’s going to return. She knows she will not get
any response from him as she realizes that he himself doesn’ t know when
he’s returning. Further, in the poem the young man is seen worried by the
thought of her dying, and surprised by his own concern. For him there is
the possibility that she’s going to pass away and leave him “sitting pen in
hand”. At the end th e speaker sees that death has come and he wonders
whether he still has the “right to smile”?

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Critical Analysis of T.S. Eliot’s
‘The Hippopotamus’ and
‘Portrait of a Lady’ & W.B.
Yeats’s ‘The Second Coming’
and ‘A Prayer for My
Daughter’
77 7.4 W.B. YEATS( 1865 –1939)
William Butler Yeats was the son of a well -known Irish painter, John
Butler Yeats and born in Dublin, Ireland, on June 13, 1865. He sp ent his
childhood in County Sligo, where his parents were raised, and later in
London. He returned to Dublin at the age of fifteen to continue his
education and study painting, but learnt that he preferred poetry than
painting. Yeats involved with the Celt ic Revival, a movement against the
cultural influences of English rule in Ireland during the Victorian period.
The Celtic Revival pursued to support the spirit of Ireland's native
heritage. Yeats poetry was influenced by the Irish revolutionary Maud
Gonne, whom he met in 1889. Maud Gonne was famous for her passionate
nationalist politics and her beauty. Though she married another man in
1903 and grew apart from Yeats but still sheremained a powerful figure in
his poetry. Eventually Yeats too got married toG eorgie Hyde Lees.
Yeats was intensely involved in politics in Ireland, and in the twenties, in
spite of Irish independence from England.His verse echoeda distrust about
the political situation in his country and the rest of Europe. Yeatswork
after 1910 was strongly influenced by Ezra Pound. Though he became
more modern in its concision and imagery, but Yeats never abandoned his
strict adherence to traditional verse forms. His poetry continued to grow
stronger as he grew older. Yeats was appointed as a senat or of the Irish
Free State in 1922. He is renowned as an important cultural leader, a
playwright and an utmost poet. W. B. Yeats was awarded the Nobel Prize
in 1923 and at the age of Seventy -three he died in 1939.
7.5 THE SECOND COMING
Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,
The blood -dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all convic tion, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity.

Surely some revelation is at hand;
Surely the Second Coming is at hand.
The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out
When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi
Troubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desert
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78 A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun,
Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it
Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds.
The darkness drops again; but now I know
That twenty centuries of stony sleep
Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle,
And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,
Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?
“The Second Coming ” is one of W.B. Yeats’s most renowned poem. It is
the most amb iguous poem which is tough to comprehend because of its
terrifying language and scenes. The title suggests the new incarnation of
Godwho is a destructive and has already knocked at the door. The poem is
divided into two sections, the first part talks about the problems and the
barrenness of the modern world, where as the second part depicts the
distressing representation of the world in the near future. This poem is
derived from the inner sadness of Yeats.
The poet in the poem The Second Coming refers to a terrifying scene: the
falcon, turning in a widening “gyre”and cannot hear the falconer.”The
poet compares the civilisation to the rotating gyre, which is changing.
Further the mankind is compared to a Falcon and the God to the Falconer.
He asserts that th e Mankind has lost touch with the falconer i.e., man is
not listening to God and is roaming free. Further he describes the chaos in
the world as expressed in the poem “Things fall apart; the centre cannot
hold.” The 20th century modern men have lost the ce ntre of the universe
and are so innocent that they have to bear tensions and miserable
conditions. The innocent people have become silent and submissive to
their fate whereas the cruel people are in power. The poet witnesses “The
blood -dimmed tide is loose d, and everywhere the ceremony of innocence
is drowned.” The wave of violence is washing over the land and the
mankind is in distress. Through the poem, Yeats tries to portray the
frustrations and dissatisfaction of the modern man with the world. The
poet also represents the loss of moral values, spirituality, order, faith,
obedience and innocence in the mankind. He not only points out the lack
of convictions but also stresses on the worst people who are “full of
passionate intensity.”
In thesecond part the poet tries to portray the terrifying picture of the
world in the future. He states, the world is near to a revelation; “Surely
the Second Coming is at hand.” The poet is disturbed by a vast image of
the SpiritusMundi, it has the body of lion, the head of man and the eyes
like a sun. He envisions a giant sphinx moving in the desert. The fearful
birds are flapping around casting shadows on the desert sand. The
darkness drops again and the poet knows that the sphinx’s twenty
centuries of “stony sleep” have b een made a dreadful as the Sphinx is
getting ready to be in a cradle.He says the world was sleeping for twenty
years and now something terrible is going to happen. The second munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of T.S. Eliot’s
‘The Hippopotamus’ and
‘Portrait of a Lady’ & W.B.
Yeats’s ‘The Second Coming’
and ‘A Prayer for My
Daughter’
79 assumption in the poem is of a monstrous Second Coming who is a
destructor. It is not the second coming of Jesus Christ that we know
written in the Holy Bible. It is the second coming of a new God, a “rough
beast,” who is slouching itself to take birth towardsBethlehem.
7.6 PRAYER FOR MY DAUGHTER
Once more the storm is howling, and ha lf hid
Under this cradle -hood and coverlid
My child sleeps on. There is no obstacle
But Gregory's wood and one bare hill
Whereby the haystack - and roof -levelling wind,
Bred on the Atlantic, can be stayed;
And for an hour I have walked and prayed
Because of the great gloom that is in my mind.
I have walked and prayed for this young child an hour
And heard the sea -wind scream upon the tower,
And under the arches of the bridge, and scream
In the elms above the flooded stream;
Imagining in excited reverie
That the future years had come,
Dancing to a frenzied drum,
Out of the murderous innocence of the sea.
May she be granted beauty and yet not
Beauty to make a stranger's eye distraught,
Or hers before a looking -glass, for such,
Being made beautiful overmuch,
Consider beauty a sufficient end,
Lose natural kindness and maybe
The heart -revealing intimacy
That chooses right, and never find a friend.
Helen being chosen found life flat and dull
And later had much trouble from a fool,
While that great Queen, that rose o ut of the spray,
Being fatherless could have her way
Yet chose a bandy -leggèd smith for man.
It's certain that fine women eat
A crazy salad with their meat
Whereby the Horn of Plenty is undone.
In courtesy I'd have her chiefly learned;
Hearts are not had a s a gift but hearts are earned
By those that are not entirely beautiful;
Yet many, that have played the fool
For beauty's very self, has charm made wise,
And many a poor man that has roved,
Loved and thought himself beloved,
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80 May she become a flourishing hidden tree
That all her thoughts may like the linnet be,
And have no business but dispensing round
Their magnanimities of sound,
Nor but in merriment begin a chase,
Nor but in merriment a quarrel.
O may she live li ke some green laurel
Rooted in one dear perpetual place.
My mind, because the minds that I have loved,
The sort of beauty that I have approved,
Prosper but little, has dried up of late,
Yet knows that to be choked with hate
May well be of all evil chances chief.
If there's no hatred in a mind
Assault and battery of the wind
Can never tear the linnet from the leaf.
An intellectual hatred is the worst,
So let her think opinions are accursed.
Have I not seen the loveliest woman born
Out of the mouth of Plenty' s horn,
Because of her opinionated mind
Barter that horn and every good
By quiet natures understood
For an old bellows full of angry wind?
Considering that, all hatred driven hence,
The soul recovers radical innocence
And learns at last that it is self -delighting,
Self-appeasing, self -affrighting,
And that its own sweet will is Heaven's will;
She can, though every face should scowl
And every windy quarter howl
Or every bellows burst, be happy still.
And may her bridegroom bring her to a house
Where all's ac customed, ceremonious;
For arrogance and hatred are the wares
Peddled in the thoroughfares.
How but in custom and in ceremony
Are innocence and beauty born?
Ceremony's a name for the rich horn,
And custom for the spreading laurel tree.
W. B. Yeats poem ‘A Prayer for my Daughter’ represents the theme of
love and anxiety of a father towards his daughter. It also presents the
poet’s expectations and hopes for his daughter. The poets expect her to
become a very beautiful woman with a virtuous soul. The opening lines of
the poem ‘ A Prayer for My Daughter’ depictsthe child sleeping in a
cradle. The child sleeps innocently amidst the “howling storm” outside, munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of T.S. Eliot’s
‘The Hippopotamus’ and
‘Portrait of a Lady’ & W.B.
Yeats’s ‘The Second Coming’
and ‘A Prayer for My
Daughter’
81 but Yeats couldn’t relax due to the storm that is going on within him. The
storm howling in the poem signifi es destruction. The wind bred in the
Atlantic has no hindrancesexcluding the estate of Lady Gregory, which
denotes to the poet’s patroness, and a bare hill. The poet is worried by the
storm i.e. outside world and its impact on his daughter. The poet prayer s to
God to protect his daughter from both the physical and political storm that
are brewing across Ireland.
In the second stanza portrays Yeats’s fears about the future. He overhears
the sea screaming upon the tower, under the bridge, and elms above the
flooded stream which troubles him more. The word “Scream” and the
“flooded stream” signify the poet’s worry for his daughter. The poet
envisions the future coming out of the sea and dances to the frenzied
drum. It isdenoting the fear of the poet associated to war and murder.
Further the poet compares the “murderous innocence” with the world and
his daughter.
In the third stanza, the poet prays for his daughter to be gifted with beauty
and doesn’t want her beauty to distraught stranger’s eyes. That means he
doesn’t want her daughter to have that beauty which will make her mad or
others mad. Neither he wants her to be dependent on her beauty for
everything nor to be using it for some gain. Further, he doesn’t want her to
become proud of her beauty and spend her time gazing at the mirror in
vain. The poet says these women lose their kind nature as well as their
capability to be truly intimate and good. Beauty is the reason that they
never make friends or find a romantic right partner.
In stanza four, Yeats confir ms his view on beauty and also tries to prove it
as a source of trouble and destruction. The poet makes reference to
Helenof Troy who was considered to be the most beautiful woman on
earth in Greek mythology . She was chosen to be a king’s wife but she
found life boring with him. Later Helen suffers in the hands of her lover,
Paris. He describes about how her beauty brought the fate upon her and
many others. The reference is made to the queen of Aphrodite who chose
Hephaestus, a crippled blacksmith, as her h usband. The poet says beautiful
women waste their natural beauty by doing crazy things in life. The poet
talks about the eating habits of these beautiful women and he wonders if
the beautiful women eat crazy salad with their meat. The poet tries to refer
this habit as a stupid decision which brings misery forever. “The rich Horn
of Plenty” indicates courtesy that is no more found in these women who
make stupid decisions.
In stanza five, the poet continues with what he desires his daughter to
possess. He is more insisting on the internal beauty than external beauty.
He wishes his daughter to learn to be compassionate. He says heart is not
gifted it has to be earned. Further he refers to the men who believed to
love and loved by the beautiful women faced disap pointment in life. They
often used to compare to those men found love in the compassionate
women. Moreover, he says courteous people attract hearts than those with
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82 In stanza six, Yeats continues to talk about his expectations from his
daughter. As she grew up, he wants her to be contented in life. He wants
her to grow into “a flourishing hidden tree” and her thoughts like a “green
linnet”. He refers to its innocence and cheerfulness which he looks
forward to see in his daughter. He wants her to be satisfied with herself,
and spread her happiness with others. Further, he wants her to live like a
“laurel” rooted in a particular place that signifies deep rooted in the
tradition.
In stanza seven, Yeats endures to talk about women. He believes that kind,
self-contained, traditionally rooted women are honest. The poet considers
hatred to be the cause of all evil and prays that his daughtershould not fell
prey to evil. Further, the poetwants his daughter to have a mind that has no
place for hatred.He says i f a mind is free of hatred, then the destruction of
the wind can never rip the finch from the tree branch.Further, he states just
as the storm outside can’t tear the green linnet from the leaf same way
nothing can breakdown a strong woman.
In stanza eight , the poet appeals his daughter to ignore passion and wild
feelings that are often the weakness of beautiful women. He considers the
intellectual hatred the worst one. He wants her daughter to keep her
opinion away and tells her that woman should be moderat e because people
who love deeply, could hate deeply too. The poet wants his daughter to
know that hatred often destroys the lives of the people and they end up
doing cruel things. He wishes his daughter to experience neither
disappointment nor hatred.
In the ninth stanza the poet continues to describe the impact of hatred. He
urges his daughter to concentrate on the benefit of staying away from
hatred. He says once hatred is driven out, the soul could recover its
innocence and only then the soul would be fr ee to discover that it is “self -
delighting”, “Self -appeasing” and “self -affrighting”. According to the
poet, the ideal woman makes everyone happy, despite all odds which
refers to storms of hardships that come in her voyage.The poet says if the
woman has a clear mind then she will be a stronghold for people around
her and her will would be that of heavens i.e. will of God.
In the last stanza , the poet expresses his ultimate wish and prays that his
daughter to be married to a good husband. He should take hi s daughter to
a home where everything is done according to the customs and ceremony.
The poet elaborates that ‘Ceremony’ is a name for the rich bounty of
nature, and ‘Custom’ for the growing laurel tree. The poet believes that
neither arrogance nor hatred of common folks could be foundin him. He
desires to see morality and purity in his dughter. Further, the poet does not
want her to live animmoral life and he concludes the poem by stating that
his daughter would be rooted in spiritual values like a ‘laurel tree’.


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Critical Analysis of T.S. Eliot’s
‘The Hippopotamus’ and
‘Portrait of a Lady’ & W.B.
Yeats’s ‘The Second Coming’
and ‘A Prayer for My
Daughter’
83 7.7 WORKS CITED:
1. "The Hippopotamus" is reprinted from Poems . T.S. Eliot. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1920.
2. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44213/por trait-of-a-lady-
56d22338932de
3. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43290/the -second -coming
4. https://www.sparknotes .com/poetry/yeats/section5/
5. https://www.gradesaver.com/the -second -coming/study -
guide/summary -the-second -coming
6. https://poets.org/poem/prayer -my-daughter
7. https://poemanalysis.com/william -butler -yeats/a -prayer -for-my-
daughter/#:~:text=The%20poem%20'A%20Pra yer%20for%20my%20
Daughter'%20portrays%20the%20theme,attributes%20of%20a%20virt
uous%20soul.




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84 8
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF W.H. AUDEN’S
‘THE SHIELD OF ACHILLES’ AND ‘IN
MEMORY OF W.B. YEATS’& WILFRED
OWEN’S ‘INSENSIBILITY’AND
‘STRANGE MEETING’
Unit Structure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 W. H. Auden (1907 -1973)
8.2 The Shield of Achilles
8.3 In Memory of W. B. Yea ts
8.4 Wilfred Owen (1893 –1918)
8.5 Insensibility
8.6 Strange Meeting
8.7 Works Cited:
8.0 OBJECTIVES:
i. To introduce two prominent poets of 20th century T.S Eliot and W.B
Yeasts
ii. To study prescribed poems of T.S Eliot and W.B Yeasts
iii. To trace th e elements of modernism in prescribed poems
8.1 W. H. AUDEN (1907 -1973):
Wystan Hugh Auden was considered the greatest English poet of the
twentieth century. He was born on February 21, 1907 in Yor k, England
and later he relocated to Birmingham for education at Christ Church,
Oxford. He was influenced by the renowned poets such as Thomas Hardy,
Robert Frost, William Blake, Emily Dickinson, Gerard Manley Hopkins,
and Old English verse. W. H. Auden’s talent as a poet was instantly
apparent during his days in Oxford. Hefound true friendship for lifetime in
Stephen Spender and Christopher Isherwood.
W. H. Auden’s collection Poems was privately printed in 1928 and in
1930 another collection titled Poems was published that made him the
leading voice of a new generation of poets. He is usually admired for his
unsurpassed technical virtuosity, his intellect and his ability to write munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of W.H.
Auden’s ‘The Shield of
Achilles’ and ‘In Memory of
W.B. Yeats’& Wilfred Owen’s
‘Insensibility’and ‘Strange
Meeting’
85 poems in nearly every imaginable verse form. He used to write about the
popula r culture, current events, vernacular speech, social and political
theories, scientific information variety of literatures, art forms and his
travels. He is also renowned for mimicking the writing styles of
Dickinson, W. B. Yeats, and Henry James.
W. H. A uden also served in the Spanish Civil war. In 1939, he moved to
the United States, met his lover, Chester Kallman, and later became an
American citizen. W. H. Auden was not only a prolific writer but also a
noted playwright, lyricist, editor, and essayist . He also served as
a chancellor of the Academy of American Poets from 1954 to 1973. W.
H. Auden died on September 29, 1973 in Vienna.
8.2 THE SHIELD OF ACHILLES
She looked over his shoulder
For vines and olive trees,
Marble well -governed cities
And ships upon untamed seas,
But there on the shining metal
His hands had put instead
An artificial wilderness
And a sky like lead.
A plain without a feature, bare and brown,
No blade of grass, no sign of neighborhood,
Nothing to eat and nowhere to sit down,
Yet, c ongregated on its blankness, stood
An unintelligible multitude,
A million eyes, a million boots in line,
Without expression, waiting for a sign.
Out of the air a voice without a face
Proved by statistics that some cause was just
In tones as dry and level a s the place:
No one was cheered and nothing was discussed;
Column by column in a cloud of dust
They marched away enduring a belief
Whose logic brought them, somewhere else, to grief.
She looked over his shoulder
For ritual pieties,
White flower -garlanded h eifers,
Libation and sacrifice,
But there on the shining metal
Where the altar should have been,
She saw by his flickering forge -light
Quite another scene.
Barbed wire enclosed an arbitrary spot
Where bored officials lounged (one cracked a joke)
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86 A crowd of ordinary decent folk
Watched from without and neither moved nor spoke
As three pale figures were led forth and bound
To three posts driven upright in the ground.
The mass and majesty of this world, all
That car ries weight and always weighs the same
Lay in the hands of others; they were small
And could not hope for help and no help came:
What their foes like to do was done, their shame
Was all the worst could wish; they lost their pride
And died as men before the ir bodies died.
She looked over his shoulder
For athletes at their games,
Men and women in a dance
Moving their sweet limbs
Quick, quick, to music,
But there on the shining shield
His hands had set no dancing -floor
But a weed -choked field.
A ragged urchin, aimless and alone,
Loitered about that vacancy; a bird
Flew up to safety from his well -aimed stone:
That girls are raped, that two boys knife a third,
Were axioms to him, who'd never heard
Of any world where promises were kept,
Or one could weep because a nother wept.
The thin -lipped armorer,
Hephaestos, hobbled away,
Thetis of the shining breasts
Cried out in dismay
At what the god had wrought
To please her son, the strong
Iron-hearted man -slaying Achilles
Who would not live long.
W. H. Auden’s poem ‘The S hield of Achilles’ is the title poem published
in the volume of poems entitled The Shield of Achilles in 1955. The poem
is written in three parts and each part consists of three stanzas which sums
to nine stanzas. It is a fine lyrical poem. In the poem Aud en puts the
classical myth of Achilles and his shield to the service of his art. He being
a modern poet tries to bring out the contrast between the heroic past and
the unheroic present through the poem. Auden's is renowned for his
expertise in handling of the myth and underlying the despair, brutality and
barrenness of the modernoutlook.
The title ‘The Shield of Achilles’ derived its theme from Homer’s epic
poem Iliad and Auden signifies the Homeric theme in a mock -heroic way.
The poem presents the combinat ion of the classical world with the modern munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of W.H.
Auden’s ‘The Shield of
Achilles’ and ‘In Memory of
W.B. Yeats’& Wilfred Owen’s
‘Insensibility’and ‘Strange
Meeting’
87 world. It depicts the futility of the modern world. The p oem, ‘The Shield
of Achilles’ , makes an imaginary description of what Thetis noticed on the
shield of her son. According to Greek mythology, Thetis was a se a-
goddess and the mother of Achilles. Achilles was the greatest of the
Greek heroes in the Trojan War. She requested Hephaestus, the armor -
maker of gods to make an armor and a shield for Achilles. Hephaestus
made the shield and also engraved images that re flects the futility of the
war-ridden world on the shield. The poet talks about the images portrayed
on the shield by Hephaestus and denotes the miserable conditions in the
modern world. The poem contains several themes such as war, heroism,
modernity, fut ility, death, destruction, and apathy of modern men. In the
poem the shield of Achilles is a symbol of heroism and throws light on the
hollowness of heroism .
In the opening stanza of the poem, ‘The Shield of Achilles’ , Thetis, one of
the sea deities, acco rding to Greek mythology, is shown looking over
Hephaestus’s shoulder and the shield of Achilles he is engraving images
on. She expected he had engraved traditional images of ancient Greece,
such as vineyards, olive woods, marble places, peaceful cities, s ailed ships
on wine -dark seas, etc. Hephaestus surprised her by not engraving any
traditional images on the shield instead the image of the miserable world
and the artificial condition of life was seen on it.
Thetis states it was under a sky that was lead -colored and domineering that
she could see the plain which was dull, bare, and brown. It had no blade of
grass, any sign of neighbourhood, no food and no place to sit. Further she
says, there stood together a million soldiers waiting for their signals and
had no expressions at all.
Thereafter, in the third stanza of ‘The Shield of Achilles’ , Thetis notices
that just then a voice on a loudspeaker or wireless set. Shehears the
announcement of numerical facts to justify that action was fair and
required. As so on as the soldiers heard the message, they marched away
from that place.The poet refers to a place where they can mourn and
express their emotions but it is sad to discover that there is no such place
in the modern world.
In the fourth stanza of the poem, Thetis turns her eyes from that image
and looked for images of religious rites. She wanted to have a look on
images either of young cows decorated with white flower garlands or that
of men offering any other sacrifice to the almighty God. Thetis was
surpr ised to find no such image reference on the shield of Achilles which
was far from her expectation. This made her disheartened.
In the fifth stanza, Thetis feels there should have been an altar but she
noticed the image of a selected spot enclosed with barb ed wire fences. The
poet indicates the place that is illogically selected or taken away from a
person. She also notices the bored officials and soldiers who are alert on
the guard. Further she also witnesses an apathetic crowd of ordinary
people who are ob serving the carrying of three pale men and binding them
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20th Century British Literature
88 In the sixth stanza of ‘The Shield of Achilles’ , Thetis notices that all the
people of the imagined world were in the power of their dictatorial
rulers.She could sen se that their humiliation was the worst possible in the
situation as they had lost their self -esteem as responsible citizens. They
often are found being dependent on others rather than on themselves.
Moreover, they are tooweak in their thoughts and could n ot anticipation
for any help. These people are conscious of their deeds and are aware that
none will come to help them as well. Thereafter, the poet describes their
pride turned to dust after their death.
In the seventh stanza, Thetis then turned her eyes to gaze for an image of
athletes taking part in games, merry men and women dancing together to
the tune of music but, instead of them, she found a bird flying up to a
place of a field overgrown with weeds. Here, the poet uses a metaphor in
‘a weed -choked field’, that compares field to a human being. It indicates
that everywhere it is seen that the field is choking because of the
overgrown weeds. Also the overgrowth of weeds denotes to the fact that
humans had become insensitive with the nature.
In the sta nza Eight, Thetis saw a mischievous boy dressed in ragged
clothes in that empty field. She also observed a bird flying up to a safe
place so as to protect from the cruel boy’s aim. The poet compares the
cruel boy coming from the world where crime is done e very now and then.
He belongs to the such a place in which girls arebeing raped every now
and then. This boy is unaware of any noble world in which people are
sensitive, sympathetic, caring, respect each other and their promises are
lasting forever.This st anza portrays a true and cruel image of the modern
world.
In concluding part of the poem, the poet says that Hephaestus walked
away lamely, leaving the shield in his work -shop. And Thetis, cried out in
disappointment as she knew that Achilles, would not li ve long.The poet
makes use of epithets in the poem describing Achilles - ‘Iron -hearted’ and
‘man -slaying’ and it relates to modern men. He says the modern man has
no feelings for anyone and they are cruellyslaughtering each other in the
name ofnationalism. Through this poem, Auden presents the legendary
shield as a magic mirror, revealing the future as well as the present and
displaying what is true rather than what is desired.
8.3 IN MEMORY OF W. B. YEATS
I
He disappeared in the dead of winter:
The brooks were frozen, the airports almost deserted,
And snow disfigured the public statues;
The mercury sank in the mouth of the dying day.
What instruments we have agree
The day of his death was a dark cold day.
Far from his illness
The wolves ran on through the e vergreen forests, munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of W.H.
Auden’s ‘The Shield of
Achilles’ and ‘In Memory of
W.B. Yeats’& Wilfred Owen’s
‘Insensibility’and ‘Strange
Meeting’
89 The peasant river was untempted by the fashionable quays;
By mourning tongues
The death of the poet was kept from his poems.
But for him it was his last afternoon as himself,
An afternoon of nurses and rumours;
The provinces of his body r evolted,
The squares of his mind were empty,
Silence invaded the suburbs,
The current of his feeling failed; he became his admirers.
Now he is scattered among a hundred cities
And wholly given over to unfamiliar affections,
To find his happiness in another kind of wood
And be punished under a foreign code of conscience.
The words of a dead man
Are modified in the guts of the living.
But in the importance and noise of to -morrow
When the brokers are roaring like beasts on the floor of the bourse,
And the poor have the sufferings to which they are fairly accustomed
And each in the cell of himself is almost convinced of his freedom
A few thousand will think of this day
As one thinks of a day when one did something slightly unusual.
What instruments we have agree
The day of his death was a dark cold day.
II
You were silly like us; your gift survived it all:
The parish of rich women, physical decay,
Yourself. Mad Ireland hurt you into poetry.
Now Ireland has her madness and her weather still,
For poetry makes noth ing happen: it survives
In the valley of its making where executives
Would never want to tamper, flows on south
From ranches of isolation and the busy griefs,
Raw towns that we believe and die in; it survives,
A way of happening, a mouth.
III
Earth, receiv e an honoured guest:
William Yeats is laid to rest.
Let the Irish vessel lie
Emptied of its poetry.
In the nightmare of the dark
All the dogs of Europe bark,
And the living nations wait,
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90 Intellectual disgrace
Stares from every human face,
And the seas of pity lie
Locked and frozen in each eye.
Follow, poet, follow right
To the bottom of the night,
With your unconstraining voice
Still persuade us to rejoice;
With the farming of a verse
Make a vineyard of the curse,
Sing of human unsuccess
In a rapture of distress;
In the deserts of the heart
Let the healing fountain start,
In the prison of his days
Teach the free man how to praise.
‘In Memory of W.B. Yeats’ is a beautiful poem writtenby W. H. Auden in
1939. This poem is an elegy for W.B. Yeats. It is divided into three parts
with six stanzas in Part I, onestanzas in Part II and six stanzas in Part III.
This also reflects the role and place of the poetry in the modern world.
PART I:
In the first section, Auden refers to the death of W. B. Yeats ‘in the dead
of winter’. It is the time when the brooks were all frozen, airports deserted
and snow disfigured the public statues. The chilling cold was unbearable
and even the mercury in the thermometers dropped. The poet is hurt by the
scenes of day to day life that continues to go on even though the world has
lost a great poet. He says the wolves are still running through the forests
and the ‘peasant river’ is untempted by the more ‘fashionable quays’. The
poet describes the illness and d ying state of Yeats and was saddened to so
the world i.e. Irelandwas normal. The poet says, ‘The death of the poet
was kept from his poems’ which means the poetry Yeats has now died but
the fact is his poetry remains perfect.He is referring to the human re sponse
to the Yeats’s death.
Auden stresses on the immortality of the poet W.B. Yeats. It is the readers
who read and keeps the poet alive. He describes Yeats’s death and also
states that after his death, Yeats ‘became his admirers’: that means
Yeatsrenewe dinto whatsoever his readers decided he was. He states that
when readers meet his poems his death will not contemplate on their
minds. The third stanza of the poem gives the reader a very human
representation of Yeats’ death and his last moments spent arou nd nurses in
the hospital. The poet describes his last moments as he says, ‘T he
provinces of his body revolted’, which shows how his body was revolting
against itself just like a war. munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of W.H.
Auden’s ‘The Shield of
Achilles’ and ‘In Memory of
W.B. Yeats’& Wilfred Owen’s
‘Insensibility’and ‘Strange
Meeting’
91 The poet praise Yeats’s work and is glad that his work is ‘scattered’ al l
over the world. he says his readers finds his work interesting and
surprising which at times Yeats himself is not aware of it. Auden stressed
on the fact that the death of the author may be a physical passing but the
reader can keep him alive through his work. This also hints on the fact that
the worthiness of an authorlies with the reader rather than the author. The
poet intends to say that Yeats memory lived on in those who loved his
written works. Further, Auden says that the words of a dead man or a poet
is ‘modified in the guts of the living’: which means that readers can
change the meaning and interpretation of the poem as per their
requirements and desires.
Auden underlines the theme of life after death by speaking about Yeats in
the present tense in this stanza. The poet speaks about the unfortunate
image of the world and civilization. He articulates that all are in the ‘cell
of himself’ where they are nearly ‘convinced’, of their own liberty. The
poet mentions that Yeats’ death is only one more mo ment of
unpleasantness in the world and it passes just like everything else does.
Auden concludes the Part I of ‘In Memory of W. B. Yeats’ by stating that
the world will go on tomorrow as usual. ‘ A few thousand will think of this
day’ which means only few will remember the poet. The poet says, ‘one
thinks of a day when one did something slightly unusual’ i.e. it is like a
day on which one does something out of the ordinary.He expresses that
nature goes on without considering that something has happened.
PART II:
Auden speaks to the dead poet Yeats. He addresses Yeats calling him
‘you’ and says that ‘your gift survived it all’, it outlasted ‘your’ physical
decay and the ‘parish of rich women’. He reminds him about the ‘Mad
Ireland hurt you into poetry’. He says Ireland is still as mad as it was
before and his poetry has made no difference in it.
He says, ‘You were silly like us’which means Yeats was pointless like us.
The poet initiates to think about Yeats poetry more largely rather than
thinking about the poet specifically. He states ‘Ireland has her madness
and her weather still’, which expresses the conditions of Ireland. Auden
clarifies Yeats poetry changed nothing in the world and poetry is not
thought to be something to bring about a change.
The poet says that poetry is like water which is flowing down the valley
and it also enters into the ‘ranches of isolation and the busy griefs’. The
poet says ‘poetry makes nothing happen’ which points out the limitations
of poetry as a tool for bringing about a s ocial and political change in the
world. Auden is satirically commenting on the failure of poetry in regards
to changing things in the world. Further, the poet says, Poetry ‘survives’
going through a whole lot and it is itself a ‘way of happening ’.

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92 PART III:
The concluding section of ‘In Memory of W. B. Yeats’ begins with Auden
addressing the earth.He requests the earth to revive Yeats’ body where he
is laid to rest. The poet calls Yeats by his full name i.e. ‘William Yeats’
and addressing him as aIrish vessel’ for his poetry which is now ‘ Emptied
of its poetry ’ i.e. the vessel that was once full of poetry is now empty.
The poet talks about a nightmare which is approaching and ‘All the dogs
of Europe bark’ on it. He throws light on the World War II that
‘sequestered’ and separated the nations of the world from one another due
to hatred. The poet points out the ‘Intellectual disgrace’ which is found on
‘every human face.’ According to the poet there is nothing pleasant is
happening in this world and he turn s to speak about the political climate of
the time rather than about Yeats because of Yeats was interested in it.
Auden praises Yeats’ ability to gaze into the ‘bottom of the night’ with his
‘unconstraining voice’. Auden uses gloomy descriptions to menti on how
Yeats would havespoken about the World’s disorder during the Second
World War. The poet highlights the unsuccessful lives of the mankind as
he says, ‘sing of human unsuccess in a rapture of distress’.
Auden concludes by speakingto the shade of the dead Yeats again. He
requests Yeats to ‘persuade us to rejoice’ and to restore us with the
‘fountain’ of his work. Auden advices Yeats to teach the free man to
praise and celebrate hislittle time on earth. He describes the day of Yeats’
death as ‘a dark cold day’ and all the instruments too agree that the day
was both cold and dark. The poet uses the image of water again as the
‘healing fountain’ and wishes it to ‘Start’ in the hearts of mankind. The
poem ends hopefully but also showcases the dark image o f the human
condition. To conclude, the poet states that life is a ‘prison’ and that by
spending time with Yeats’ poetry can enable one to praise.
8.4 WILFRED OWEN (1893 –1918)
Wilfred Edward Salter Owen was born on March 18, 1893 in Shropshire,
England. Hi s family moved to Birkenhead after the death of his
grandfather in 1897. Owen was educated at the Birkenhead Institute and
later in 1906, he continued his studies at the technical school in
Shrewsbury. Owen was interested in the arts right from the young a ge and
soon started to write poetry.
Owenmet the poet M. Laurent Tailhade in 1913, when he went to teach in
France at the Berlitz School of English. In 1915, he returned from France
toget recruited in the Artists Rifles. Owen was trained in England and in
1916, he was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the Manchester
Regiment.
Owen met a poet Siegfried Sassoon in the Craiglockhart War Hospital
near Edinburgh where he was being treated for his wound in 1917.
Siegfried Sassoon worked as a mentor and intr oduced Owen to renowned
literary figures such as Robert Graves and H. G. Wells. munotes.in

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Achilles’ and ‘In Memory of
W.B. Yeats’& Wilfred Owen’s
‘Insensibility’and ‘Strange
Meeting’
93 Owen wrote many of his most important poems, including ‘Anthem for
Doomed Youth’ and ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’ at that time.The major theme
of his poetry reflected the horrors of warfare, the physical landscapes, the
human body, male beauty and comradery.
Owen after recovering he re -joined his regiment in Scarborough in June
1918. He returned to France in August and was awarded the Military
Cross for bravery at Amiens in October. Owen was just 25 years old,
when he was murdered on November 4, 1918, while struggling to lead his
men across the Sambre -Oise canal at Ors.
Owen's poems appeared in print during his lifetime, the collected Poems
of Wilfred Owen , with an introduction by Sa ssoon, was published in
December 1920 made him one of the most admired poets of World War I.
The brutal, harsh and horrific truths in his poems makes him stand out as a
distinguished poet in comparison to other war poets.
8.5 INSENSIBILITY
I
Happy are men who yet before they are killed
Can let their veins run cold.
Whom no compassion fleers
Or makes their feet
Sore on the alleys cobbled with their brothers.
The front line withers.
But they are troops who fade, not flow ers,
For poets’ tearful fooling:
Men, gaps for filling:
Losses, who might have fought
Longer; but no one bothers.
II
And some cease feeling
Even themselves or for themselves.
Dullness best solves
The tease and doubt of shelling,
And Chance’s strange arithmetic
Comes simpler than the reckoning of their shilling.
They keep no check on armies’ decimation.
III
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20th Century British Literature
94 They have enough to carry with ammunition.
Their spirit drags no pack.
Their old wounds, save with cold, cannot more ache.
Having seen all things red,
Their eyes are rid
Of the hurt of the colour of blood for ever.
And terror’s first constriction over,
Their hearts remain small -drawn.
Their senses in some scorc hing cautery of battle
Now long since ironed,
Can laugh among the dying, unconcerned.
IV
Happy the soldier home, with not a notion
How somewhere, every dawn, some men attack,
And many sighs are drained.
Happy the lad whose min d was never trained:
His days are worth forgetting more than not.
He sings along the march
Which we march taciturn, because of dusk,
The long, forlorn, relentless trend
From larger day to huger night.
V
We wise, who with a though t besmirch
Blood over all our soul,
How should we see our task
But through his blunt and lashless eyes?
Alive, he is not vital overmuch;
Dying, not mortal overmuch;
Nor sad, nor proud,
Nor curious at all.
He cannot tell
Old men’s placidity from his.
VI
But cursed are dullards whom no cannon stuns,
That they should be as stones. munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of W.H.
Auden’s ‘The Shield of
Achilles’ and ‘In Memory of
W.B. Yeats’& Wilfred Owen’s
‘Insensibility’and ‘Strange
Meeting’
95 Wretched are they, and mean
With paucity that never was simplicity.
By choice they made themselves immune
To pity and whatever moans in man
Before the las t sea and the hapless stars;
Whatever mourns when many leave these shores;
Whatever shares
The eternal reciprocity of tears.
‘Insensibility’ written by Wilfred Owen is a complex poem. It is Owen's
longest poem at 59 lines ordered into six stanzas of varyin g length and
considered as an ode. It is written in response to the killing of troops
which he has observed as an officer in the field during the first world
war.Owen's warriors are something and are seen happy as the reality of
war hits home. There is ac cumulation of unpleasant emotions in the people
such as horror, anger, frustration and injustice.
The opening lines talks about the poets happy feeling when he knows he is
surrounded by death. This is the poet’s unconcerned to death not only of
his soldie rs but also his own. It seems as if the blood in his veins has
already turned cold. To survive the horrors of war, a soldier become a
ruthless killing machine. He lacks the warmth, feeling and compassion
when he is fighting in the war. The poet says that t he soldiers are at their
happiest when there is no compassion and when they turn into robots with
no place for any emotions in their heart. The poet portrays the
horridportrait of war when the soldiers walk boldly on the cobbles of dead
soldiers. Further the poet says if these happy men remain aloof, cold, and
able to jeer at compassion then they won't be affected by any kind of
emotions.
The poet uses the word ‘withers’ and likens the soldiers to flowers which a
poet might want to write about. He is also aware of the fact that the poetry
about war might evoke only fake tears and gives rise to useless emotions.
He thinks about what good the poetry can do to the readers. The poet talks
about the front line that withers and the soldiers and troops often fade with
time. Further he says ‘Men, gaps for filling: Losses, who might have
fought longer; but no one bothers’. The poet says the men in the front line
pass away and their place is replaced by some other soldier. He says no
one is bothered about their life.
In the second stanza the poetemphasizeson the idea of the soldiers being
numb. They are neither having feelings nor any caring. They are also not
worried whether those incoming shells will hit them or not. They are so
dull that the poet feels the chances o f them getting hit and killed seems
easier. The poet is saddened by the ignorance of the authorities, who have
no idea about how many troops are being slaughtered. This shows the
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20th Century British Literature
96 The third stanza the poet says the soldiers are happy for they lose their
power of imagination as they are occupied with their ammunition. The
poet talks about the soldiers turning cold at the sight of blood. They are
used to see the red colour of blood every time a nd their wounds hurt them
no more. The war makes the soldiers unemotional and no sensitivity can
affect them. ‘Their senses in some scorching cautery of battle’refers to
thesustained turmoil of the battlefield. These soldiers are unconcerned
about who dies and are able to laugh even as others die around them.
In the fourth stanza, the poet states that the happy soldier is one who is
home, unconscious of the fact that others are still being killed somewhere.
He says, it was better not to have gone through mi litary training which has
long hours of tedious work. The soldiers go on singing a song as they
march. This is the march of many towards the gigantic night and the
darkness descends on those who will die.
In the fifth stanza, the poetsays, those who have v ision in life are often
thinking wrong. ‘We wise, who with a thought besmirch Blood over all
our soul’, refers to the wise men who dirty their soul by thinking wrong.
Further he says, it is the duty of the poets to be the spokesperson and they
can share th eir feelings freely ‘through his blunt and lashless eyes?’
The sixth and concluding stanza focusses on those civilians and senior
army staff. They are those people who are not at the forefront of battle in
war. There often counted as ‘wretched’ and cruel. The poet refers to the
insensitivity of the people who ignore the sacrifices, suffering and death of
the military men. ‘Before the last sea and the hapless stars’, the poet refers
to the last journey across the sea and the fate of the men. In the concludin g
line the poet speaks about the stoned hearted men who are unmoved by
mourning of man though they have compassion but they fail to express it
during war.
8.6 STRANGE MEETING
It seemed that out of battle I escaped
Down some profound dull tunnel, long sinc e scooped
Through granites which titanic wars had groined.

Yet also there encumbered sleepers groaned,
Too fast in thought or death to be bestirred.
Then, as I probed them, one sprang up, and stared
With piteous recognition in fixed eyes,
Lifting distress ful hands, as if to bless.
And by his smile, I knew that sullen hall, —
By his dead smile I knew we stood in Hell.
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Auden’s ‘The Shield of
Achilles’ and ‘In Memory of
W.B. Yeats’& Wilfred Owen’s
‘Insensibility’and ‘Strange
Meeting’
97 With a thousand fears that vision's face was grained;
Yet no blood reached there from the upper ground,
And no guns thumped, or down the flu es made moan.
‘Strange friend,’ I said, ‘here is no cause to mourn.’
‘None,’ said that other, ‘save the undone years,
The hopelessness. Whatever hope is yours,
Was my life also; I went hunting wild
After the wildest beauty in the world,
Which lies not cal m in eyes, or braided hair,
But mocks the steady running of the hour,
And if it grieves, grieves richlier than here.
For by my glee might many men have laughed,
And of my weeping something had been left,
Which must die now. I mean the truth untold,
The pit y of war, the pity war distilled.
Now men will go content with what we spoiled.
Or, discontent, boil bloody, and be spilled.
They will be swift with swiftness of the tigress.
None will break ranks, though nations trek from progress.
Courage was mine, and I had mystery;
Wisdom was mine, and I had mastery:
To miss the march of this retreating world
Into vain citadels that are not walled.
Then, when much blood had clogged their chariot -wheels,
I would go up and wash them from sweet wells,
Even with truths t hat lie too deep for taint.
I would have poured my spirit without stint
But not through wounds; not on the cess of war.
Foreheads of men have bled where no wounds were.

‘I am the enemy you killed, my friend.
I knew you in this dark: for so you frowned
Yesterday through me as you jabbed and killed.
I parried; but my hands were loath and cold.
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20th Century British Literature
98 Wilfred Owen’s ‘Strange Meeting’ is a dramatic war poem and it talks
about reconciliation. Two soldiers meet up in an imagined Hell which
migh t be an imagined landscape within the poet’s mind. The first soldier
kills the second one in the battle field. Though both the soldiers are
enemies in the war but towards the end we see them reconciled. The poet
has also used religious (Biblical) reference s in the poem that reflects
Owen’s strict religious upbringing. So his poem comes with a message of
love and forgiveness. The poet tried to showcase the cruel war in the
forefront and this poetry tries to portray pity in the war. The second solider
reveals at the end that he (Speaker) was the one who killed him in the war.
The poem reflects on the shared humanity of these two soldiers and also
displays the terrors of war. The poem also suggests that human beings will
never stop fighting but also insists on reconciliation.
This poem is about a strange meeting of two soldiers who are actually
enemies. The speaker of the poem who is a soldieris coming from the war
and entered a tunnel that took him to a landscape which can be identified
as Hell. This might be t hat the soul of the soldier is taken to hell after his
death. He is uncertain about the upcoming encounter. He sees other
soldiers who are unable to sleep or are dead. As the speaker looks at them
one rises up and he too is a soldier. The soldier has reco gnized the speaker
and moves his hands as if to bless him. The speaker identifies that he is in
hell after looking at the dead smile of the soldier.
The poet shares the horrific atmosphere that might scare the readers by
portraying the post -battle Hell. Th e speaker meets a soldier and it is
evident that they know each other. Further the poet describes the dead
soldier’s face as extraordinary and that is having no relation to the real
world. The speaker’s opening dialogues is meant to dispel fear and
sadnes s. He addresses the other soldier as friend that shows he is meeting
someone of equal status and there is no more place to display enmity and
hatred. The dead soldier comes to life and expresses that he too had a life
full of hope. Owen wanted his poetry t o be recognised as a pity poem.
The speaker tells the soldier that ‘here is no cause to mourn.’ The soldier
answers that there is a reason to mourn as he refers to ‘save the undone
years’ and ‘hopelessness’ which they see around. The soldier says his hope
is the same as the speaker. Further he informs him that he once went
hunting for beauty in the world and the same beauty made a mockery of
time. The soldier very well understands what he has done in the past,
which is ‘the pity of war, the pity war distill ed’. He is regretting that he
can’t redo his past and can’t show pity in war.
The soldier says that he will not break their ranks even though ‘nations
trek from progress’. He recollects that he was once a courageous man full
of wisdom. But He used to have courage and wisdom. He also desired to
wash the blood from the wheels of chariots and wanted to be
compassionate as a human being. But as a soldier he cannot do it in
war.Finally, the soldier tells the speaker that ‘I am the enemy you killed,
my friend,’. He still remembers him though it was dark. To conclude the
soldier says that ‘ Yesterday through me as you jabbed and killed’ which munotes.in

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Critical Analysis of W.H.
Auden’s ‘The Shield of
Achilles’ and ‘In Memory of
W.B. Yeats’& Wilfred Owen’s
‘Insensibility’and ‘Strange
Meeting’
99 means the speaker has jabbed and killed him yesterday. The soldier ends
his conversion by asking the speaker ‘Let us sleep no w’. This shows that
they have reconciled and are now they are friends.
8.7 WORKS CITED:
1. https://poets.org/poet/w -h-auden
2. https://poets.org/poem/shield -achill es
3. https://poemanalysis.com/w -h-auden/the -shield -of-achilles/
4. https://poets.org/poem/memory -w-b-yeats
5. https://poemanalysis.com/w -h-auden/in -memory -of-wb-yeats/
6. https://interestingliterature.com/2018/12/ a-short -analysis -of-w-h-
audens -in-memory -of-w-b-yeats/
7. https://poets.org/poet/wilfred -owen
8. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/572 58/insensibility
9. https://owlcation.com/humanities/Analysis -of-Poem -Insensibility -by-
Wilfred -Owen
10. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/47395/strange -meeting
11. https://owlc ation.com/humanities/Analysis -Of-Poem -Strange -
Meeting -by-Wilfred -
Owen#:~:text=Strange%20Meeting%20is%20a%20poem,war%20end
ed%20in%20May%201918 .
12. https://www.grade saver.com/wilfred -owen -poems/study -
guide/summary -strange -meeting


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