Paper-VII-Rural-Resource-Management-Englsih-Version-munotes

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RURAL RESOURCES
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Natural Resources
1.3 Importance of Natural Resources
1.4 Types of Natural Resources
1.5 Problems Associated with Natural Resources
1.6 Threats to Natural Resources
1.7 Renewable and Non Renewable Resources
1.8 Resource Recovery
1.9 Summary
1.10 Self Study
1.11 Need of Conservation Of Resources
1.12 Concept and Definitions of Conservation of Natural
Resources
1.13 Importance of Natural Resources
1.14 Conservat ion of Natural Resources
1.15 Different Ways of Conserving Natural Resources
1.16 Natural Resource Management (NRM)
1.17 Summary
1.18 Self Study
1.0 OBJECTIVES
 To study the concept of Natural Resources.
 To study the factors of Natural Resources.
 To study the importance of Natural Resources.
 To understand the nature of conservation of natural resources.
 To study the benefits of conservation of natural resources in rural
India.
 To get information about the programs implemented to conserve
natural resour ces.
 To study the obstacles in the conservation of natural resources. munotes.in

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2 1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Since the creation of the world and the beginning of life on it, humans and
other living forms have relied on natural resources to thrive. Sea, land,
soils, rocks, forests, animals (on land and in the water), fossil fuels, and
minerals are some of these things. Natural resources are what give life on
earth its foundation. They supply us with what we need to live and work
properly. Natural resources are all interrelated and l inked in some way. So,
if one is taken away, it will have an impact on the availability and quality
of all the others.
In the course of development, natural resources are crucial. With the
assistance of the natural resources, other supportive arrangements of a
similar nature can function to their full potential. Economic, social,
cultural, political, and environmental changes occur as a result of this
development process.
Human beings are always looking for methods to better themselves, and
they have alway s made an effort to improve their level of living by using
the tools at their disposal, including technology, study, and hard labour.
Developmental process is nothing more than the quantitative and
qualitative improvements made to humankind's level of exis tence.
Following picture shows what natural Resources we get from Nature.

1.2 CONCEPT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources are crucial to the development process. They are widely
utilised in the constantly expanding population, industrialisation, and
competition between nations to develop their economies. A significant
issue the globe faces is how to maintain the amount and quality of natural
resources while simultaneously maintaining the stability of the resources
that are now accessible.
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3 1.3 IMPORTANC E OF NATURAL RESOURCES
The extremely intricate relationship between living things and non -living
things can be supported by natural resources. The benefits of this contact
to humans are substantial. People use natural resources either directly or
indirectl y all across the world. More resources are consumed by
industrialised nations than by less developed nations. The production of
the goods and services that we all enjoy each year requires the utilisation
of almost 60 billion tonnes of resources worldwide. A person in North
America uses roughly 90 kg of resources each day, whereas a person in
Europe uses about 36 kg, a person in Asia uses about 14 kg, and a person
in Africa uses about 10 kg. The three main ways that people use natural
resources are for food and drink, housing and infrastructure, and mobility.
These three make up more than 60% of the resource use.
Food and drink: This include agricultural products as well as naturally
available foods such as food -grains, fish from fresh water and seas, seeds
and nuts, medicines, herbs and plants. They also include drinking water, as
well as water for sanitation and household use.
Mobility: This includes automobiles, trains, water vessels, aeroplanes
together with all the fuel from natural resources that power them.
Housing and infrastructure: The houses, public places, roads and
constructed objects, all the energy for heating and cooling that we
consume in our homes come from the wood, metals, stone and other
materials. Beyond these three major areas of resource consumption, we
consume much more resources from our environment on a daily basis. The
role of natural resources in sustaining life on earth is extremely important
and we must ensure that we protect the environment and also make it easy
for it to replenis h itself naturally.
Natural resources are the bases of life.
1) Source of fresh air and water - Life without air and water is
impossible and natural environment is the source of fresh air, water
necessary for all living and non -living things on earth. If thes e important
sources are polluted, it will affect all the living beings on earth. Nature
always seems to apply its natural processes to refine and purify them.
2) Habitat - Soil, forests and water are the habitat of different animals.
Human beings use soil, wa ter, minerals and forest resources for building
houses, bridges and roads. Soil is the habitat of micro - organisms, insects,
worms and plants. Water is habitat for aquatic animals. Forest is the living
place of wild animals and it also purifies the environ ment by reducing the
CO 2 level and other various harmful and poisonous gases in the
atmosphere. Without forest and trees help in the increase in rainfall.
3) Source of food - The land and forest are important natural resources
and good source of food to livin g beings.
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4 4) Natural beauty - Natural beauty of a country attract tourists from
different places and leads to the economic growth of the country. Tourism
industry flourishes and develops contributing to the National Economy of
the country. It also helps for t he development of tourism industry by
attracting tourists.
5) Economic development - Economic development of a nation
depends on the availability and utility of its natural resources. Proper use
of natural resources helps in the economic development. Agricul ture and
industrial development depends on the availability of these resources.
Natural resources help for the tourism development and increase revenue.
6) Area of study and research - Nature is a vast and complex
phenomenon. It is so wide that even a tiny part of it is enough for
conducting study and research programs.
1.4 TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Land
Land is an important factor of the natural resources. Man uses land for
different purposes. Land is considered as an important factor of the
production. Dep ending on the Ph value the fertility of the soil is decided
and accordingly it is bought and put to use. Land value depends on the
fertility of the soil. Weather and climate of the region, composition of
land, type of soil, formation of soil, type of agric ultural production and
other factors affect the fertility of the soil. Classification of the soil can be
done on the Ph factor of the soil. The quality and possible production of
food grains can be estimated. We can increase the production capacity of
the soil by making some technical changes and by using the biotic factors
to increase the fertility of the sol.
Land is one of the factors of production. Land and soil are non - renewable
sources and they cannot be produced. So a proper planning and
management of the utilization of the usage of land is to be done.
Land is an important factor in the agricultural process. Out of the total
land available in India 60% of the land is under agricultural sector. The
geographical condition in different region is differe nt. Depending on the
type of soil it is used accordingly. To increase the fertility of the soil it has
to be maintained and conserved. But due to industrial development in the
rural areas land in the respective areas is utilized for setting up industries
and for the infrastructure required. As a result percentage of the productive
land is decreasing. Along with rural development infrastructural
development, which includes water supply, electricity, transport and
communication uses the productive land and the percentage of
productive land is decreased. The usage of productive land for
industrialization reduces the percentage of agricultural production.
Due to industrialization in the rural areas more land is required for setting
up new industries. Agricultura l land is used along with barren land for
setting up industries has resulted in the decrease in the land under crops. munotes.in

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5 Saline soils are also used for industrial projects. The problem of
employment of the labourers working in the agricultural fields has come in
light due to rural industrialization. While acquiring land for industries
problems like increasing population, land conservation should be
considered.
Fertility of the soil is decreased due to water logging in the fields, use of
chemical fertilizers i n an unorganized manner, wrong methods of
agricultural operations and overall usage of land or industrial purpose. Out
of the total geographical land 40% is barren and is unused, but if
maintained can be used for agricultural purpose. For example: for
horticultural plantations - mango plantation.
Water
Water factor depends on many other factors as it is a limited natural
resource and conservation of it is very essential. Underground water level
can be increased by means of water saving methods like percolat ing the
water in the ground, by building bunds to stop flowing water and equal
distribution of water, digging trenches to store water and thereby increase
underground water level and most important is to plant more and more
trees to increase the water leve l. This water can be utilized during the non-
rainy seasons.
Water conservation methods are implemented everywhere to deal with the
water storage problem. Available water is related to the various factors
like soil conservation, afforestation, and bunding on the mountain slopes.
The more conservation of water the more availability of water. Konkan
region receives heavy rainfall during the season still they suffer the
problem of water shortage. Nature gives us water in abundance but it is we
who are responsi ble for this water shortage problem and not the nature. We
should take more efforts to conserve water through bunding and making
the water percolate in the soil to increase the surface water and the
underground water level. So planning is essential so that we don’t face the
water problem.
More water will be required due to increasing industrialization,
population, urbanization and other reasons. To fulfill these needs millions
of rupees have been invested on various schemes for the same. Water
facilities we re provided to the urban areas through the water schemes from
the rural areas. But the fact is that no measures were taken for water
conservation in the rural areas, which is the greatest demerit of our
planning. Because of this even after 71 years of inde pendence we are not
able to solve the water problem of our country.
There is consistency of rainfall in our country with increase or decrease in
the proportion of rainfall. If the rain -water is conserved and harvested at
the time of rainfall we won’t ever face drinking water problem in future.
This gift of nature must be preserved and conserved and utilized in an
organized manner.
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6 Weather
Weather is one of the important dominant factors. It is not possible for us
to control weather as it is beyond the capa city of human beings. But it is
possible to study it and use it to increase our agricultural production.
Plants, trees, fruits, flowers, vegetables grow in the region having
favourable climate for it. We can study the effects of climate and weather
in a re gion and the crops related to it will help us to take agricultural
production on a large scale.
Another profession depending on weather and climate is fishery. A
detailed study of weather and climate provides necessary information to
the people depending o n the agriculture and other occupations related to it.
This will help to increase the production in agriculture, fishery and other
occupations subsequently raising their standard of living.
Forests Resources

Plants and trees are also important factors of natural resources. Land under
forest is important like the land under agriculture. Forest includes dense
cluster of trees, dispersed trees, pastures, shrubs, grass, creepers. These
different factors protect and conserve the forest. Forest resources stop soil
erosion due to the rain and fertility of the soil is improved with the help of
different byproducts of trees like fallen leaves, flowers, fruits, stems, twigs
and other byproducts. Trees slow down the force of flowing water and
help to percolate the fl owing water in the soil. Trees help to reduce the
pollution created by the growing industries by inhaling carbon dioxide and
exhaling oxygen. Major solution to solve the pollution problem is to grow
more trees. Trees and plants help to make the human life happier.
Forest is the home for many birds and animals and other wild animals. It
provides food, fodder and shelter to the animals and birds and also
protects the plant species and animals on the verge of extinction. It
provides medicines and medicinal her bs for human beings. Fruits, flowers,
leaves, stems, twigs, barks of the tree is used for making different types of
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7 Forest help in the human development but still man has deteriorated the
forest to a la rge extent. Forests have been destroyed for urbanization and
industrialization and industrialization doesn’t mean development. To
fulfill the needs of growing industrialization and urbanization trees are cut
down on large scale, and forests are destroyed. Forest resource is
renewable but it also requires time. As a result we are facing the problems
like pollution of all the resources, disturbance in ecological balance,
global warming and other natural disasters. If this deterioration problem is
not taken no te of seriously in the nearby years it will be a great threat to
human life in the coming years. The rate at which deforestation is taking
place in India, many birds and animal species are going to become extinct
forever. Destruction of natural balance of ecosystem will destroy our only
home planet earth much sooner than you think. Some countries and people
have understood the demerits of deforestation and have implemented
programs like Afforestation, Vanamahotsav, plant more trees, social
forestry. Various Non- governmental and governmental organizations
have implemented various programs related to the benefit of the ecological
balance.
Animal Resources
Rural economy of India depends on agriculture and the animal resources
required for doing agricultural op erations. Rearing animals is also one of
the allied activities and subsidiary occupation of the farmers. Animal
husbandry, poultry, piggery, goat and sheep rearing duck rearing,
honeybee keeping, sericulture, fish farming are undertaken as subsidiary
occup ations along with agriculture. In some places these occupations are
practiced as main occupations. Transport facilities like trucks and tractors
cannot reach the farms in the remotest areas of rural India. So animal
resources are used for cultivating land, transport of goods and other related
works.
Allied activities and subsidiary occupations help to solve the food problem
in both rural and urban areas. We get food, milk and dung from animals
and also use them for transport. Animals have significant import ance in
the rural economy. Integrated Rural Development program was
implemented to solve the poverty problem in the rural areas. This program
utilized the available animal resources in the rural areas. The families not
having agricultural land for cultivat ion use barren land for rearing animals
and can earn some income for their living. Out of the total available
animal resources in the world 1/6 of it is in India. Food, fodder, health and
hygiene, shelter, cleanliness of the animal shelter and the surround ing area
along with medical facilities are the essential things to be taken care of.
White revolution increased the milk production by using cross breeding
techniques. But this led to negligence of pure breed animals. It is very
essential to preserve our animal wealth so that the good quality breeds
can improve their production capacity and can increase the employment
opportunities in the rural areas. For this a proper planning and
implementation of the program for the animal resources is necessary. As
of now people have understood the benefits of pure breed animals and munotes.in

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8 have again started taking care of and breeding pure original breeds of
animals for milk purpose.
Fisheries
Fish available in the sea is also a natural resource. Fish has high protein
content useful for human beings and nowadays fishing is done on large
scale with the help of mechanized boats. The net used in this type of
fishing not only catches big fishes but also small fishes that are not grown
properly resulting in the decrease of populatio n of fishes in the sea.
Mechanized boats have not only minimized the fish catch in the sea but
also the problem of employment and source of living has aroused. Fish
food is also available from rivers and ponds from which the need is
fulfilled. To increase the production of fishes in the sea fishermen should
be taken into confidence to accept the idea of marine -park, so the problem
of fishermen employment and income can be increased in turn raise their
standard of living.

Energy resources
Energy resources have a greater significance in the development
process. It is necessary for agricultural processes, transport, in industries,
cooking process, for domestic use. In India traditional sources of energy
like wood, coal, cow-dung, kerosene, diesel and petrol are used to fulfill
the need for energy. As these sources of energy are available naturally
they are limited. The unlimited use of these limited natural resources (i.e.
non-renewable source of energy) by human beings is on the verge of
extinction resulting in an imbalance in the nature. A solution to this
problem is to find an alternative source of energy. In other words we can
say we have to use renewable source of energy like solar energy, wind
energy, tidal energy, hydroelectricity, nuclear power for peac eful purpose.
In rural and urban areas bio-waste collected from animals and human
beings can be used to prepare biogas or methane gas for fuel purpose and
the slurry can be used as a fertilizer in the fields which increases the
fertility of the soil, food waste can be decomposed to form manure and can
be used for gardens, kitchen gardens and also be supplied to rural farms.
Using biogas and other appropriate technology has reduced the cutting of
wood for fuel in rural areas to a great extent. munotes.in

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9 Human brain an d human power is also a natural resource that has to be
utilized with the help of science and technology to balance the ecology for
a better future for all the living things on earth.
1.5 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH NATURAL
RESOURCES
Even though natural resources are the basic support structures of life,
too much or too little offit can come with a lot of trouble and conflict.
Too little Natural Resources : In many regions of the world a mix of
limited resources, overpopulation and environmental degra dation,
ecological imbalance, has produced extreme poverty and income
inequality in the society which in turn have fuelled grievances, rebellions,
conflicts and communal wars in the society resulting in the destruction of
the available natural resources.
Too much Natural Resources: This problem is much bigger in regions
with excess natural resources. Greed, corruption, and conflict from
revenue distribution, resource ownership, decision making, management,
and access has fuelled local and international conf lict.
1.6 THREATS TO NATURAL RESOURCES
A) Overpopulation: This is probably the most significant, single threat
that natural resources face. Increasing population at a faster rate puts more
pressure on the available natural resources.

1) Land Use: Increasing population leads to more demand for food and
in turn this leads to more land under cultivation to increase food
production and more land for building houses for the increasing
population. Green revolution fulfilled the need for food for the increasing
population by making use of hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
insecticides and fungicides. This technology used small piece of land
giving more agricultural production. Many forest or vegetative lands munotes.in

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10 converted to settlements for people, roads a nd farms. These have serious
repercussions on natural resources.
2) Forests : Forests were cut to a large extent to fulfill mainly the
demand for wood for human settlements and for fuel purpose resulting in
deforestation.
3) Fishing: Fishery occupation is also o n the verge of being destroyed
slowly due to mechanization in this business. Fishing for subsistence by
fishermen at local level did not harm the water ecology. But big
companies with big trolleys have created big problems not only for the
local fishermen but also to the seafood chain in the sea and oceans. The
big trolleys catch fish overall not leaving the next generation small fish to
survive. Big and small fish are caught together which results in the
decrease in the number of fishes to lay eggs and thereby destroying the
fish and other creatures in the sea.
4) Need for more: Human's demand for a comfortable and luxurious
life. For this more the development more the destruction of ecology and
the surrounding habitat in the environment. Human settlements,
transportation, communication, entertainment, recreation are some of the
demands, which are fulfilled by destroying mother earth. If all this is done
without harming the nature it is more beneficial or else the destruction is
for sure by facing the problems of rainfall, drinking water, soil erosion, air
pollution, water pollution, sound pollution, ecological imbalance, natural
scenic beauty, etc.
B. Climate Change
The changes in climate pattern as a result of excessive anthropogenic CO 2
is hurting biodiversit y and many other biotic and abiotic natural resources.
Species that have acquainted to their environments might perish and
others will have to move to more favourable conditions to survive.
C. Environmental Pollution
Land, water and air pollution directly affect the health of the environments
in which they occur. Pollution affects the chemical composition of soils,
rocks, lands, ocean water, freshwater and underground water, and other
natural phenomena. This often has disastrous consequences in the
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1.7 B. RENEWABLE AND NON RENEWABLE
RESOURCES
Natural resources come in many forms. It may be a solid, liquid or gas,
organic or inorganic, metallic or non -metallic, renewable or non-
renewable.
Natural Resource can be divided into two types:
1) Renewable source of energy can be regenerated -Plants, animals,
air, water etc.
2) Non-Renewable source of energy cannot be regenerated. Metal
minerals are available in the natural form. If used its shape and form
can b e changed but its existence is not destroyed. But if mineral oil is
used they cannot be regenerated. It takes years and years for the
formation of mineral oil again. So they have to be used very carefully
as they are extinct.
Natural Resources
Renewable Source of Energy Non-Renewable Sources




Renewable resources -Renewable resources are those that are constantly
available or can be reasonably replaced or recov ered, like vegetative lands.
Animals are also renewable because with a bit of care, they can reproduce munotes.in

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12 off springs to replace adult animals. Even though some renewable
resources can be replaced, they may take many years for example soil,
forest. Renewable resources come also from non -living things like solar
energy from sun, tidal energy tidal waves, hydro - electric power from
water and geothermal energy.

Non-renewable resources -Non-renewable resources are those that
cannot easily be replaced once they are destroyed for example fossil fuels.
Minerals are also non -renewable because even though they form naturally,
it takes thousands of years to be renewed thus making it non -renewable.
Some animals can also be considered non -renewable, because if people
hunt for a particular species without ensuring their reproduction, they will
be extinct. So we must ensure that we protect resources that are
endangered. Non -renewable resources include, minerals, wind, land, soil
and rocks. Some non -renewable resources come from living things - such
as fossil fuels.


Metallic and Non -metallic Resources - Metallic minerals are those that
have metals in them. They are harder, shiny, and can be melted to form
new products. Examples are iron, copper and tin. Non -metallic minera ls
have no metals in them and they are softer and do not shine. For example:
clay and coal. munotes.in

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Man started making use of natural resources to make progress in the
industries and technology long back by using the available natural
resources. In other words w e can say that, “The developmental process is
meant to raise the standard of living of human beings”. In this process
contribution of plants has great importance. Therefore it is essential to
study rural development and natural resources in totality.
Rober t Macnmara has defined rural development as - “Rural Development
means an overall development of the rural areas by giving stress on the
development of the weaker sections of the society like small farmers,
landless agricultural laborers and rural artisans ”.
Rural development is a process and natural resources are essential for this.
These natural resources are available in the form of land, weather, forest,
animals, oceans, energy, human resource and waste material. This
resources are not available equally everywhere. It is available in different
forms and in different quantity in different places and is used as per its
availability. So the available natural resource in different places more or
less is to be used very skillfully. If developmental planning i s done taking
into consideration the availability of natural resource then the desired
objectives can be achieved.
1.8 RESOURCE RECOVERY
Now -a-days waste is viewed as a potential resource and not something
that must end up in the landfill. From paper, plas tics, wood, metals and
even wastewater, experts believe that each component of waste can be
tapped and turned into something very useful. All these waste can be
recycled and reused. Wastewater can be treated and used for kitchen
gardens, agricultural purpo se, in industries. Plastic also can be recycled
and reused, paper is recycled, metals also can be recycled and reused for
different purposes. Fossil fuel used by the pulp and paper industry largely
through energy efficiency measures, power recovery through co-
generation and increased use of biomass.
Resource recovery is the separation of certain materials from the waste
we produce, with the aim of using them again or turning them into new
raw materials to be used again and again. Preparing compost manure a nd
recycling of materials that are used for the purpose of leveling the land.
Wet organic waste such as food and agricultural waste is considered waste munotes.in

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14 after food consumption or after an agricultural activity. Traditionally, it is
collected and sent to a l andfill. In Resource Recovery, it is collected and
diverted to composting or anaerobic digestion to produce bio -methane or
biogas. We can also recover nutrients through regulator -approved use of
residuals.
The concept is applied in household settings too. The residents can drop
off waste that they have already sorted in their homes, which makes it
easy for waste recovery organizations to pick them up for further
processing. Recovering waste will give us many environmental and
economic benefits if taken seri ously but it involves good planning for
waste management, educating people about the benefits of sorting the
waste and recycling it, making people understand to participate in this
cause and most important making use of appropriate technology.
Resource rec overy benefits us by reducing our need to search for new raw
materials, thereby saving the environment. For example, by separating and
collecting all waste paper products that are generated, we can recycle them
to reduce the need for new pulp, from timber. Less energy is required in
recycling old materials than new raw materials.
The demand for potable water can be greatly reduced if we can divert all
wastewater for treatment and re -use. We can use it for gardening,
agriculture, sanitation and flushing in toilets (cleaning) and also can be
reused for industrial purpose.
1.9 SUMMARY
Human beings always strive for their development. For this he makes use
of the different factors available in the nature for ex - animals, land, plants
etc. his progress and prosperity depends on the available natural resources.
But in the developmental process man has started destroying the natural
resources available to him, which has created problems of environmental
imbalance and global warming. So it is very essential for man to make use
of the available natural resources very carefully. For the survival of human
being man has to conserve these available natural resources. Human being
is always in search of way to develop him -self and with the available
technique & technology, research and hard work he always has tried to
raise his standard of living.Now -a- days waste is viewed as a potential
resource and not something that must end up in the landfill. From paper,
plastics, wood, metals and even wastewater, experts believe that each
component of waste can be tapped and turned into something very useful.
1.10 SELF STUDY
1. What are natural resources and explain the factors of it?
2. What are natural resources and give its classification?
3. Explain the importance of natural resources in rural development.
4. Explain in detail the factors of natural resources. munotes.in

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15 5. Write in short the problems associated with natural resources.
6. What are the threats associated with natural resources?
7. Natural resources are the bases of life - explain.
8. Write short note s on:
 Concept of natural resources
 Renewable resources
 Non-renewable resource
 Metallic and Non-metallic resources
 Resource recovery
1.11 C. NEED OF CONSERVATION OF RESOURCES
Natural resources (land, water, biodiversity and genetic resources, biomass
resour ces, forests, livestock and fisheries) – the very foundation of
human survival, progress and prosperity, have been degrading fast, and the
unprecedented pace of their erosion is one of the root causes of the
agrarian crisis that the country is facing. The demographic and socio -
economic pressures notwithstanding, the unmindful agricultural
intensification, over use of marginal lands, imbalanced use of fertilizers,
organic matter depletion and deteriorating soil health, extensive diversion
of prime agricultu ral lands to non -agricultural uses, misuse and inefficient
use of irrigation water, depleting aquifers, salination of fertile lands and
water logging, deforestation, biodiversity loss and genetic erosion, and
climate change are the main underlying causes. Air, water, soil, minerals,
fuels, plants and animals are the natural resources on earth. Food, water,
air and shelter coming from natural resources are essential for our
survival. But people often waste natural resources. Animals are hunted
very cruelly f or their tusk, skin, horns, etc. Forests are cleared for human
settlements and other luxurious life thus exposing land to wind and water
damage. Fertile soil is washed away in the absence of trees and plants.

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16 Wrong techniques of farming practices result ing in the loss of fertility of
soil, water -lodging problems, use of chemical fertilizers in excess, soil
erosion, wind erosion, water erosion in the absence of trees are some of the
reasons for depletion of natural resources. Fuel supplies are also on the
verge of extinction if not diverted to the appropriate technology. Water
and air are polluted to a great extent. Natural resources are often wasted
knowingly and unknowingly. If resources are managed carelessly, they
will be used up very soon letting us i n critical condition. If used wisely,
efficiently and appropriately the natural resources will last much longer.
Renewable resources can be replaced quickly or take long time for
replacement for example plants and trees, but the non -renewable resources
cannot be replaced at any cost for example - fossil fuels.
Conservation is the practice of caring for the natural resources used by all
living things in the present and future. People should be made aware of the
depletion resources and it is through conservat ion of natural resources our
future can be secured. The increasing population on earth is using the
available natural resources very much speedily. People very well know that
continuation of life on earth depends on the careful use of natural
resources but knowingly it is ignored to some extent.
1.12 CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS OF
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Nature has provided the three basic natural resources soil, water and
vegetation as assets to the human beings. The survival of the human
beings depe nds on the natural resources on the earth. Apart from soil,
water and vegetation biodiversity and genetic resources, biomass
resources, forests, fisheries, livestock, flora and fauna are also considered
as natural resources.

“One of the basic problems associated with economic development,
poverty alleviation and maintaining human environment is how to prevent
depletion of natural resources such as water, forests, wildlife, minerals and
the like. People of the developed world being conscious of the various
problems associated with over exploitation of natural resources are munotes.in

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17 making efforts to evolve appropriate strategies in terms of norms,
institutions and policies for the conservation of natural resources. People
are now increasingly aware of the consequenc es of depletion of natural
resources and environmental degradation like global warming ozone layer
depletion, acid rain, famines, droughts, floods, scarcity of fuel, firewood
fodder, ill health, starvation and many others.” (Eugen P. Odum and Gary
W. Barre tt)
Conservation is referred to the management of valuable natural resources
used by living beings on earth. The term conservation was used in the late
19th century. It is now used in a broader concept i.e. to conserve the earth
itself by protecting its ca pacity for self -renewal. Conservation is defined
as “The protection, preservation, restoration and rational use of all
resources in the total environment.”
Development and conservation can coexist in harmony if the environment
is used in such a manner that it ensures to have the resources for the
future. This is called as sustainable development. To live sustainably we
have to conserve so many different resources. Managing natural resources
and conserving and preserving the ecological balance are the seen today as
the essential elements of rural development. The ministry of environment
is intended not only to correct the damages resulting from rapidly
increasing urbanization and industrialization, but also to address the
degrading ecosystem. While taking int o account the various categories
from rural areas rural development projects should ensure the protection of
the environment and the surrounding ecology. New techniques have been
developed so as to minimize the damage to the natural resources by
understand ing the functioning of agricultural operations.
1.13 IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL RESOURCES
The ecological balance on earth is a very important issue as the survival of
mankind depends on it. Overuse of natural resources has caused a serious
imbalance. Factors like deforestation leading to environmental imbalance
and global warming, depletion of oil and natural gas creating fuel shortage
& price hike and increasing number of vehicles on road creating air
pollution to its maximum level, shortage of water due to wat er erosion as
the flow of running is not blocked and allowed to percolate in the soil to
increase the underground water level, power generation requires fuel
which is on the verge of extinction, soil erosion due to many factors like
soil washed away by run ning water, wind erosion as there are very few
trees to block the speed of wind all contribute to environmental issues
such as global warming and environmental pollution. These environmental
issues in turn are creating the future shortage of natural resour ces. In short
it is vicious circle that we are entangled in. As some of the natural
resources are nonrenewable they are on the verge of extinction and have
put a question mark in front of us what next. Therefore it is very
important to conserve the natural resources as our survival totally depends
on it. Alternatives for the nonrenewable resources are found like solar
energy, tidal energy, wind energy, hydroelectricity, geo-thermal energy.
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18 the ecological imbalance. They help to conserve the natural resources to a
great extent. So in short to control the air, water, soil and sound pollution
it is important that we conserve the natural resources and use the
alternative sources to save mother earth.
1.14 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Conservation of natural resources is referred to as the sustainable
utilization of natural resources, like soils, water, plants, animals, minerals,
timber, fish, topsoil, pastureland, and also to the p reservation of forests &
forestry, wildlife & wildlife refuge, sanctuaries, parkland, and watershed
areas. In broad concept conservation of natural resources is to protect its
ability for self -renewal. Present thinking as well favors the protection of
the whole ecological regions by the production of “biosphere reserves.”

Methods of Conservation
Consumption of natural resources has been increasing year by year with an
increase in human population and their standard of living. Confrontation
of conservation means comprehending the complicated connections
amongst the natural resources and creating a balance between resource
utilization and protection to ensure a sufficient supply for potential
generations. A variety of conservation methods are used to achieve this
goal. Reducing consumption of resources, protecting them from pollution,
recycling and preserving the resources.
Global natural resources are interconnected in a complex and little
understood web and are preserved in many ways by using fundamental
conservation methods and each resource has a unique set of conservation
problems and solutions for the same. If one thread of the entire web is
damaged the whole web structure will be weakened. Therefore it is
important that this connectivity of natural resou rces be addressed in the
search for solutions to the resource shortages. For example it would be
waste of work to conserve soil without considering the needs and effects
of nearby water and vegetation resources.
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19 Balance in nature is disturbed if we continu e to overuse the natural
resources, which can cause a great threat to the survival of living things on
earth. Deforestation, depletion of oil and gas, shortage of water and power,
soil erosion leading to lack of agricultural growth, all contribute to the
serious environmental issues such as global warming and environmental
pollution. These environmental issues further lead to shortage of natural
resources trapping us in the vicious circle of imbalance of natural
resources. If we continue to deplete these na tural resources at the present
rate the environmentalist have predicted that there would be major
shortages or even complete extinction of them in the near future. As a
result conservation of natural resources is essential for our survival.
1.15 DIFFERENT WAYS OF CONSERVING NATURAL
RESOURCES
Depending on the natural resources has made their conservation a
menacing task but not impossible. Here are some ways by which we can
conserve our precious natural resources and do a bit to save the
environment.
a) Conserving the Trees
To conserve trees the indispensable natural resource we have to go green
at home and wherever possible.
 As it takes lot of trees to make a small amount of paper and to save
trees recycled paper products can be used whether writing on it or
printing on it.
 Unnecessary use of paper should be avoided. Stop printing every
information and sign up for e -billing and net banking services to avoid
bank statements and paper bills, bank forms, other unnecessary paper
work in banks, offices, schoo ls, etc.
 Every person should plant a tree in his name and taking care of it for
lifetime means doing a bit for the environment. In short planting and
adopting a tree can be a solution for the loss done to the environment
by human beings.
 Participate in tre e conservation projects organised in the locality, town
or city, state or in the country or wherever you are in the world.
b) Conserving Water
Water being the basic resource is used for many purposes. But due to lack
of proper planning it is wasted a lot a s a result many parts of the world are
facing problem of water shortage. It is very important to conserve water as
it is of prime importance for the stability of the environment. Following
are a few methods to conserve water:
 Harvesting of rainwater is one of the solutions for this problem.
Harvested water can be used for the all year round if stored effectively
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20  Flowing rainwater can be stopped by building bunds in the path of
running rainwater so that water -flow is slowed down and the water is
percolated in the soil thereby increasing the ground water level.
 Planting more and more trees also helps to increase the ground water
level in any area. Roots of the trees go deep into the soil thus by
making path for the water to be stored underground.
 Cleaning the riverbanks and riverbeds also help the water to percolate
and increase the water level.
 Making use of appropriate technology to water the plants and fields
like sprinklers, jet sprays or any other simple method s by making use
of locally available things.
 Stop leakage of taps by repairing them in time, use bucket of water
instead of using shower for taking bath, use stored water for washing
and cleaning, find methods to be slightly old and arduous, but it is
some thing that you must do if you wish to leave behind at least a little
of these resources for the coming generations.



Stop dumping things in the seas and rivers and lakes. Not only does
marine life get affected, the water becomes polluted and dangerous f or use
thereafter.
Conserving Energy
Oil, natural gas, minerals and fossil fuels are the resources from which we
get energy. As these sources are non-renewable sources of energy, due to
overuse they are on the verge of extinction if we don’t find any alter native
source of energy. Fuel used in the vehicles; create lot of air and soil
pollution creating hazardous and severe health problems. There are many
ways to conserve these resources and provide a healthy environment to the
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21 Fossil Fuels:
Fossil fuels are formed over millions of years and are produced from the
remains of ancient plants and animals. Once we us them up, they cannot
be replaced as they are non renewable. We need to conserve fossil fuels so
we don’t run out of them. Burning of fossil fuels release carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide gases in the atmosphere, thus contributing to Global
warming. There is a change in the ecosystem resulting in the warming of
oceans and becoming more acidic - a threat to sea life. Sea levels are
rising which is a threat to the people living on coastal areas. Some areas
suffer from floods and some have droughts. So scientist are exploring
alternatives to fossil fuels. They are trying to produce renewable biofuels.
Alternative sources for energy are solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy,
hydroelectricity, geo-thermal energy. Everyone can help conserve fossil
fuels by using them carefully.
Minerals:
They include coal, petroleum (oil), and natural gas. People rely on fuels to
power vehicles li ke cars and airplanes, to produce electricity, and to cook
and provide heat. Many of the products used are petroleum based for
example: - Plastics, Synthetic rubber, fabrics like nylon, medicines,
cosmetics, waxes, cleaning products, medical devices , and even
bubblegum. Electronic products contribute to a lot of E-Waste containing
minerals as well as petroleum -based plastics. Many of them also
contain hazardous materials that can leach out of landfills into the soil and
water supply. Promoting sustai nable mining methods and recycling of
materials can help to conserve mineral resources to a great extent.
Recycling not only keeps the hazardous materials out of landfills, but also
reduces the energy used to produce new products. For e.g. recycling
alumin um saves 90 percent of the energy that would be required to mine
new aluminum.


Turn off lights and other electronics when not using them. Purchase
energy -efficient appliances and weatherproof the home. Walk or ride a
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22 and healthy also, carpool, and use public transportation whenever
possible the best way to conserve natural resources. Turn off electronic and
electrical devices when not in use as they consume electricity even though
they are on standby mode. Use energy star ratings electrical devices as
they consume less electricity and reduce the effects of global warming.
Solar energy is the best option to conserve energy as it saves electricity
and natural gas to a great e xtent. Solar heaters, solar cookers, solar driers
are the common appliances which save electricity.
c) Conservation of Forests
A forest is a large area covered with trees grouped so their
foliage shades the ground. Forests make available a lot of social,
economic, and environmental benefits and possess fantastic biodiversity.
Forests provide habitats for animals and plants, recreational opportunities,
store carbon, help in reducing global warming, protect soil by
reducing water runoff and ther eby reduce soil erosion, add nutrients to the
soil through leaf litter, provide people with lumber and firewood. Forests
are home to more than two -thirds of all known land species. Forests play
the role of crucial defense against global climate change. Thr ough the
process of photosynthesis, they create life -giving oxygen by making use of
enormous amounts of carbon dioxide, the atmospheric chemical majorly
responsible for global warming. Forests may decrease the effects of global
warming by reducing the carb on dioxide proportion in the atmosphere.
Irrespective of this large areas of thickest forests in the world have been
cleared for wood fuel, timber products, agriculture, and livestock.
Deforestation is the process of clearing away forests by cutting them down
for wood or burning them to make way for farming or development.
Deforestation destroys wildlife habitats and increases soil erosion, releases
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming.
Deforestation also harms the people who rely on forests for their survival,
hunting and gathering, harvesting forest products, or using the timber for
firewood. Sustainable forestry practices are critical for ensuring we have
these resources well into the future.
d) Conservation of Soil
Soil is a vital ingredient for food production. High quality soil helps
to grow good crops for humans and animals. Many of the conservation
efforts depend on each other. For example plant and animal conservation
depend on soil conservation. Poor farming methods, such as repeatedly
planting the same crop in the same place, deplete nutrients in the soil.
Water and wind erode the soil to a large extent by wrong methods of
farming. If the crop is taken by consulting the agriculturist it might slow
down the process of soil erosion. For instance taking different crops
having different root systems and leaves help in the process of soil
conservation. Clear cutting method increases the chances of losing
productive topsoil to wind and water erosion. But selective harvesting
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23

e) Conservation of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of living things that populate the Earth. The
products and benefits we get from nature rely on biodiversity. We need a
rich mixture of living thi ngs to provide foods, building materials, and
medicines, as well as to maintain a clean and healthy landscape. But
people through hunting, pollution, habitat destruction by way of
deforestation contribute to global warming and are speeding up the loss of
biodiversity at an alarming rate.
We need to protect biodiversity to ensure we have plentiful and varied
food sources. Biodiversity is important for more than just food but also for
medicine. Government has established parks and preserves to protect
wildlif e and their habitats. Abolishing hunting and fishing practices that
may cause the extinction of some species is a step taken towards the
conservation of biodiversity.
1.16 NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (NRM)
Natural Resources Management (NRM) refers to the s ustainable
utilization of major natural resources, such as land, water, air, minerals,
forests, fisheries, and wild flora and fauna. Over - exploitation of natural
resources by growing population has resulted in various severe problems
like Destruction of vegetation has resulted in land degradation,
denudation, soil erosion, landslides, floods, drought and unbalanced
ecosystems. A balanced ecosystem is an urgent need as the natural
resources (land, water, biodiversity and genetic resources, biomass
resources , forests, livestock and fisheries) – the very foundation of human
survival, progress and prosperity, have been degrading fast, and the
unprecedented pace of their erosion is one of the root causes of the
agrarian crisis that the country is facing. The d emographic and
socio - economic pressures notwithstanding, the unmindful agricultural
intensification, over use of marginal lands, imbalanced use of fertilizers,
organic matter depletion and deteriorating soil health, extensive diversion
of prime agricult ural lands to non- agricultural uses, misuse and
inefficient use of irrigation water, depleting aquifers, salination of fertile
lands and water logging, deforestation, biodiversity loss and genetic
erosion, and climate change are the main underlying causes . It is true that munotes.in

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24 nature takes care of its resources through natural process over a period of
time and maintains them. But ever - increasing population, developmental
activities and technological modernisation have over - exploited available
resources withou t taking into consideration the damage and consequences
for coming generations. Vegetation plays an important role in protecting
land and water. These resources are being depleted at an alarming rate
because of human intervention.

A vast effort is now needed to understand the economic, social, and
cultural functions of customs and practices of different social groups
involved in agricultural development and territorial management in order
to prioritize problems and arrive at a consensus of all those affec ted
concerning environmental protection. Social science research is needed
into marketing of agricultural products, circulation of cooking fuels,
village -town relations, and migration in order to determine the effects of
these phenomena on management and c onservation of natural resources in
rural areas. Experimental research should be directed toward finding
practical solutions to problems encountered by rural cultivators. Different
research organizations should coordinate their programs to avoid
duplicatio n of effort, and developing countries should be furnished access
to new techniques resulting from research conducted by developed
countries. Local populations must be involved in reforestation, water
conservation, and other projects at every stage from pre liminary planning
to execution, if such plans are to succeed. Local populations themselves
should be able to care for equipment and infrastructure involved in these
efforts. Improved techniques of environmental protection must also be
developed at the micr o level of individual farms and pastures. National
governments must redefine their role so that they become facilitators of
local action without coercively imposing programs from above.
Effective methods to conserve natural resources in short -
Use of alte rnative sources of power such as solar and wind energy,
Planting trees to prevent soil erosion, practicing of judicious ways to
conserve water in our homes, Use pipelines to transport oil, Growing of
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25 before they are released in the water bodies, Rain harvesting, Practice of
in-site or on site conservation of wildlife, Practice Ex-situ or offsite
conservation of wildlife, Formulation of policies to regulations to curb
poaching, Practic e judicious ways of conservation energy, Use of biogas
in our homes, Use of bio -fuels, Ensure the recycling of wastes, Planting
trees in home compounds, Make use of electronic mails, Purchase hybrid
cars instead of the conventional cars, Use earth -bags ins tead of plastic and
paper bags, Use energy saving fluorescent bulbs, Industries can ensure the
make production efficient to reduce wastage, Use ceramic cups to
consume the daily cup of coffee rather than using disposable mugs, Water
the lawns and farms in the evening, Reuse old furniture, Practice crop
rotation, Practice crop rotation, Encourage the use of drip and sprinkler
irrigation, Establish special schemes to preserve endangered plant and
animal species, Constructions of reservoirs, Formulate regulati ons to stop
over fishing, Control the number of cattle in a household to prevent
overgrazing and Constructing terraces and gabions in sloping land.
1.17 SUMMARY
In India, close to 275 million rural people depend largely on natural
resources for their livel ihoods. However, over the last few decades, the
equilibrium between natural resources and livelihoods has been under
increasing pressure, threatening both the ecological security of the country
and increasing the vulnerability of rural communities. Rural p opulations
are, therefore, the primary stakeholders in biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use of natural resources. Through centuries of co -existence,
communities living in the proximity of biodiversity - rich areas have
acquired invaluable tradition al knowledge that has shaped their culture
and livelihoods. Community -based natural resource management is a key
approach to conserving biological diversity and supporting local
livelihoods. Natural resources conservation can be done in several other
ways too. Simply making an effort to spread the word is a great way of
doing your bit for the world you live in. Set an example for others to
follow when it comes to the conservation of natural resources, that is so
fundamental for the survival of mankind in th ese trying times.
1.18 SELF STUDY
1) Give the concept and definitions of natural resources?
2) What is the importance of natural resources?
3) What is conservation of natural resources and different ways to
conserve it?
4) What is Natural Resource Management (NRM)?
5) Write short notes on :
a) Natural Resources
b) Conservation of Biodiversity
c) Conservation of Forest
d) Conservation of Soil e) Conservation of Trees

❖❖❖❖ munotes.in

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26
2

LAND
Unit Structure :
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 A. Formation of land
2.4 Factors responsible for the formation of land
2.5 Land utilization pattern in India
2.6 Types of land use in India
2.7 Summary
2.8 Self-study
2.9 Types of soil in India
2.10 Land of Maharashtra
2.11 Summary
2.12 Self-study
2.13 B. Conservation and quality of land
2.14 Soil erosion
2.15 C. Measures to land development
2.16 Summary
2.17 Self-study
2.1 OBJECTIVES
 To unders tand the nature of soil
 To study the characteristic features of the soil
 To understand the types of soil
 To study the use and usage of soil
 To study process of formation of Land
 To study the process of conservation of Land
 To understand the measures of Lan d Development

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27 2.2 INTRODUCTION
The most important natural resource that nature has provided to society is
soil. It is an element required for plant development. In fact, it keeps life
on the globe alive since it is essential to both the living process an d the
ecosystem of the planet. According to the definition, "the upper layer of
soil in which plants grow is a black or dark brown material that frequently
consists of a mixture of organic wastes, clay, and rock pieces."
Soil is produced by a process calle d weathering. Rocks are removed
during this process as a result of the force of the wind, water, and
environment. The features of soils depend on the type of rock from which
it has been formed and the type of plants growing on it. Each and every
layer of s oil is different in color, texture, thickness and its chemical
composition
.

A section known as soil profile shows different types of soil in India.


The uppermost layer of the earth's surface is known as the soil, which is
composed of minuscule fragmen ts of broken rocks, minerals, organic
materials, and microorganisms. When natural factors like temperature,
rain, wind, waves, animals, and plants operate on rocks and break them
into tiny bits over time, this is how soil is created. Everywhere throughout
the nation, the depth of the soil varies. In some locations, it may just be a munotes.in

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28 few millimetres deep, while in others, it may reach a depth of up to 30
metres. The Deccan Plateau in India has black and red soils in addition to
the lush alluvial soils of the Indo-Gangetic lowlands. Different types of
soil are advantageous to various crops. nDifferent crops are benefited by
different types of soils through their unique physical, chemical and
biological properties.
2.3 A. FORMATION OF LAND
Formation of Land
In order for life to continue on Earth, soil must be present. Soil is a vital
component of the biosphere. Soil is essential to both the biosphere and the
spread of life on earth. Soil is a dynamic, complex natural body that acts
as a medium for plant developm ent. Parent material, climate, location,
biota, and time are some of the factors that have an impact on how soil is
formed. Due to the diversity of the components that make up soil, each
kind has its own characteristics and structure. The interactions betw een
soil's physical, chemical, and biological characteristics make it an
effective substrate for plant development with additional uses. However,
silt is created as soil erodes off the ground and pollutes the environment.
But as soil is eroded off the land , it forms silt, which pollutes water
sources.
The weathering process, which results in the physical and chemical
degradation of the earth's rocks due to air factors, is what creates soil.
Rock's natural physical and chemical properties are altered as a re sult of
the weathering process, which chips away rock pieces. It can also create
new minerals that are necessary for the creation of soil.

The two main pathways of weathering physical disintegration and
chemical decomposition are essential for soil form ation and act differently
and simultaneously on the parent material creating recognizable features.
Physical disintegration occurs mainly in dry and cold environments where
the heating and cooling of the exposed rocks create physical stress and
cracking. I t breaks down the rock into smaller pieces and eventually into
sand, silt and clay particles. Other forms of physical weathering come
from abrasion by water, ice or wind which, are just as significant to the
origin of soils and sediments. Simultaneously ch emical processes release
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29 material by chemical reactions. Chemical decomposition occurs in hot and
wet climatic regions. As this form of weathering is impacted by geological
and biologica l processes it is also known as biogeochemical weathering.
Water is an essential component for each of these forms of chemical
weathering reactions.
Nutrient cycling, plant growth, gas exchange, carbon storage and waste
disposal are some of the crucial fun ctions of soil. For instance, chemical
properties control nutrient availability and transformations. Physical
properties influence plant growth, micro -organisms and water transport
while biological properties contribute to the structure of soil, developmen t
and productivity.
Soil Composition
Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient management. Soil
minerals and organic matter hold and store nutrients while, soil water
readily provides nutrients for plant uptake. Soil air plays an integral role in
nutrient management, since many of the microorganisms living in the soil
need air to undergo the biological processes that release additional
nutrients into the soil. The basic components of soil are minerals, organic
matter, water and air. The typical soil consists of approximately 45%
mineral, 5% organic matter, 20-30% water, and 20-30% air. These
percentages are only generalizations but in reality, the soil is very complex
and dynamic. The composition of the soil can fluctuate on a daily basis,
dependin g on numerous factors such as water supply, cultivation practices,
and/or soil type.
Figure 1. Approximate composition of soil.
The solid phase of soil is generally stable in nature and they include
minerals and organic matter. If the organic matter in th e soil is not
managed properly, it may get depleted. The liquid (water) and gas (air)
phases of the soil, are the most dynamic properties of the soil. The relative
amounts of water and air in the soil are constantly changing as the soil
wets or dries.
Solid particles in the soil can be inorganic or organic. The inorganic
particles are mainly minerals – silicates, oxides and hydroxides of iron,
aluminum, manganese, etc. are classified into skeleton and fine earth,
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30 which are then divided into sand, lime and clay. The particles derived from
the alteration of rocks into smaller and incoherent material accumulates to
form superficial deposits and can occur in the same place as the rock was
disintegrated.
The degradation processes of vegetal residues (leaves, frui ts, dry branches
or whole plants) and dead animals lead to the creation of organic fractions
of the soil. Organic compounds can be kept unaltered for long periods
(non-humic compounds) or be subjected to deep and fast changes in their
original chemical structure (humid compounds or humus). Water and
air occupy the free spaces between the solid particles (pores), and form a
thick and extended network that allows water to move in the ground.
Soils are composition of mineral particles 45%, organic matter 5%, air
25% and water 25%.

Mineral Particles:
They are the largest ingredient and make up approximately 45% of soils.
They are formed from the parent rock or the original rock that got broken
down by weathering and erosion to form the basis of soil. This broken
rock has minerals like calcium, phosphorous and potassium in the soil on
which the plants feed. The soil colour, depth, texture and Ph value are
influenced by the parent material.
Organic Matter:
It is the decayed vegetation that is broken down by the m icro- organisms
in the soil to form Humus. Humus is a dark jelly like substance which,
binds the soil together, improves its texture and increases the ability of the
soil to retain moisture. Brown soils are found in area of deciduous forest
areas where the re is abundance of plant litter available to decay. The
colour of the soil indicates the percentage of organic content in it. Darker
soils have more organic content. There is lot of Humus in dark soils.
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31 Air and Water:
Air is very much essential for the sur vival of micro -organisms. There
would be a shortage of humus due to lack of air. The granular structure of
dark soils allow for good aeration. Without water in the soil plants cannot
survive. As mineral particles dissolve in water the roots of plants can
absorb the nutrients of them.
Texture :

Texture is the feeling you get when you touch the soil. It is determined by
the proportions of sand, silt and clay present in the soil. It is the texture that
determines how well can the moisture and roots penetrate the soil and how
well can the excess moisture drain away from the soil. The ideal
combination for soil texture is approximately 40% sand, 40% silt and 20%
clay forming a loam soil.

This type of soil has a well-developed crumb structure which allows
wate r, air and organisms to pass through it easily, and even roots can
spread out easily. Water and nutrient retention is very good as it is soaked
up by the crumbs of the soil. Loam soils (dark soils) are ideal for
cultivation as they have good drainage and a eration properties.

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32 Colour :

The colour of the soil also matters a lot. Light coloured soils deflect
sunlight while dark soils absorb more sunlight which, allows the soil to
heat up quickly and boost seed germination and crop growth effectively.
Heat is an important component in the humidification process. The humus
content in the loamy soil is very high which makes the soil darker thus
supporting for good crop growth.
PH Value :

PH scale is used to measure the acidity of a substance and the ideal PH
value for agricultural soil is 6.5 a little bit acidic. High acidic soil lacks
calcium and potassium essential for the growth of plants and crops. It has
low levels of organisms vital for humidification. Soils having PH value
less than 4 is mainly found in the mountainous areas and are less acidic.
Brown soils have PH value between 5 – 7 which support a wide variety
of plant life as it is very fertile.


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33 2.4 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FORMATION
OF LAND
Major factors responsibl e for the formation of soil are the parent material,
climate, vegetation and other life forms along with the human activities.
These factors are separated but independent as the soil profile of any
region around the world is dependent on them.
a) Parent Mater ial: it is deposited by streams or derived from in -situ
weathering wherein the soil acquires properties like the mineral
composition, colour, size of the particle and the chemical elements
from the weathered rocks.
b) Climate: It is considered as the importan t factors in the formation of
soil as it affects the rate of weathering of the parent rock.
c) Role of precipitation: The composition of the soil is modified by the
variability in the precipitation. For instance, the areas having little
rainfall, but the rate of evaporation is high leads to the accumulation of
salts in the soil. The intensive leaching due to heavy rains make the
soil underlying the tropical rain forests poor in nutrient.
d) Role of Temperature: The fluctuations in temperature causes
shrinking and swelling, frost action and general weathering in soils.
So, it also plays an important role in the formation of soil.
e) Biota (Flora & Fauna and Microorganisms): Biota modifies parent
material to produce soil in association with climate. For example –
Legum inous plants have nitrogen fixing bacteria which, improves the
fertility of soil by fixing atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia or
ammonium. Leguminous plants like beans, peas and groundnuts take
the nitrate ions directly from these nitrogen fixing bacteria.
f) Topography (Altitude, Slope and Relief): It affects the soil
processes, soil distribution and the type of vegetation. So, it is treated
as a passive factor that modifies the effects of climate.
g) Time: It takes many years to form a layer of soil. The younger s oils
gain some characteristics from their parent material. But after some
years as they age factors like addition of organic matter, exposure to
moisture and other environmental factors may change the features of
soil.
Features of soil:
1) Fertile soil is ric h in nutrients as it contains the necessary nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium essential for basic plant
nourishment.
2) PH of soil ranges between 6.0 to 6.8.
3) Fertile soil contains adequate minerals like boron, chlorine, cobalt,
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34
promoting plant nutrition.
4) The soil organic matter in the soil improves the soil -structure which
enables the soil to retain more moisture and result in well-drained soil.
5) Fertile soil contains large amount of topsoil and also has a variety of
micro -organisms supporting plant growth.
2.5 LAND UTILIZATION PATTERN IN INDIA
Land being a scarce resource, its supply is fixed for all practical purposes.
With the increase in human population and economic growth th e demand
for land for the different competing purposes is increasing continuously.
Several factors like size of human & livestock population, demand pattern,
technology in use, cultural traditions, location and capability of land,
institutional factors lik e ownership pattern & rights and state regulation
determine the land use pattern at any given time. If the economic
implications and ecological dimensions of land use pattern are ignored,
they can have adverse effect.
Land utilization pattern is shown in the above table. The available land is
classified in two parts on the basis of its use.
1) Agricultural Land
2) Non-Agricultural Land
1) Agricultural Land:
Agricultural land accounts a little over 50% of the total geographical area
in the country and it means the land that is suitable for agricultural
production includes both crops including net sown area, current fallows
and land under miscellaneous tree crops & groves and livestock.

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35 2) Non-Agricultural Land:
This includes –
i. Land under forests and permanent pastures,
ii. Land under other non-agricultural uses (towns, villages, roads,
railways, etc.) and
iii. Land classified as cultivable waste as well as barren and uncultivated
land of mountain and desert areas.
The total effective area of the country (304.6m Ha) as per records has
been put to different categories of land use. Classification of land in
India has its roots in agricultural statistics. After independence land in
India was classified into five categories.
i. Area under forests,
ii. Area not available for cultivation ,
iii. Uncultivated lands excluding current fallow,
iv. Area under current fallow, and
v. Net area sown.

It was seen that this classification did not give a clear picture of the actual
area under different categories of land use, that was required by
agricultural pl anning. So, after March 1950 land in India was reclassified
under nine different categories, viz., i) forests; ii) barren and uncultivable
land; iii) land put to non-agricultural uses; iv) cultivable wastes; v)
permanent pasture and other grazing land; vi) miscellaneous tree crops and
groves not included in the net area sown; vii) current fallows; viii) other
fallows; and ix) net area sown.
Changing trends in Land Use Patterns:
Geographical and Physical changes had taken place in all parts of India in
the l and use pattern after the green revolution. In 1951 -52, the net area
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36 million hectares. Forest cover increased from 14% of land cover in 1951 -
52 to more than 23.5% in 2006 -07. There was an increase in the area that
was doubled cropped and multiple -cropped. The area under wheat and rice
increased significantly but, pulses, millets and fodder reduced.
1950 -51 2006 -07
Net sown area 43.77 48
Not available for cultivation 14.92 13.5
Forests 14.23 19
Fallow land 9.89 6
Other Uncultivated land 17.39 9.5

Table India’s land use pattern in 1950 -51 and 2006 -07(Percentage of
total reporting area of 304 mHa hectare)
As the economy had grown changes in the land use pattern were seen,
resulting in the land being used for purposes other than agriculture. It is
increasingly used for building purposes especially in and around urban
areas which, has resulted in the decline in the pastureland due to pressure
from agriculture.
2.6 TYPES OF LAND USE IN INDIA
The important types of land use in the country are:
i) Forests area
ii) Land not available for cultivation
iii) Cultivable wasteland
iv) Fallow land
v) Net area sown
i) Forest area:
According to the National Forest Policy 1952, the reporting forest area
should be 33.3% of the total land. The area under forest after Indian
independence i.e. during the period 1950 -51was only 40.48 million
hectares which accounts to only 14.2%.but now as per the report it has
increased to 80.20 million hectares accounting to 24.39% in the year 2017 -
18. The forest area is unevenly distributed in India. Due to heavy rainfall
and relief features the states reporting more area under forest cover are
Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Andaman & Nicobar Islands. While, Dadra & Nagar Haveli,
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37 ii) Land not available for cultivation:
Human settlements, transport routes, mountains, deserts, marshy places,
canals, quarries etc. come in this category accounting to 12 .11% of the
total land in India. States of Arunachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujrat and
Madhya Pradesh having more area come under this land use pattern.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Chandigarh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Sikkim have less area fall in this lan d use pattern.
iii) Cultivable waste land:
This category of land use pattern covers about 8.6% of the country’s total
reporting land. It includes permanent pastures, other grazing areas, land
under miscellaneous trees, crops, groves and cultivable waste. S tates of
Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have more area under
permanent pastures and other grazing lands but have less area in Manipur,
Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Goa and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Cultivable
waste land is more in Rajasthan, Madh ya Pradesh and Maharashtra but,
very less in Tripura, Manipur, Sikkim and Punjab states.

On one hand the land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves is found
high in the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra
Pradesh and on the other hand Chandigarh, Goa, Delhi and Puducherry
reported very less area under this category.
iv) Fallow lands:
Fallow land is the land not utilized for cultivation for the last 3 -5 years
but, in future it can be cultivated. It accounts for about 8.13% of India’ s
total land in this land use pattern. States of Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and
Jharkhand have more land in this category while, Tripura, Dadra and
Nagar haveli, Puducherry and Andaman & Nicobar Islands have less land
under this category.
v) Net Area Sown:
Out of the total reporting land in India 46.2% comes under net sown area
and there has been a phenomenal increase in it during last few decades.
The reason behind this is the reclamation of barren land, uncultivable land,
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38 As per the land use statistics 2013 -14, the total geographical area of the
country is 328.7 million hectares, of which 141.4 million hectares is the
reported net sown area and 200.9 million hectares is the gross cropped
area with a cropping intensity of 142 %.Net sown area has reached its
maximum level in Haryana while, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram and
Arunachal Pradesh are reporting less than 30% of net area sown.

2.7 SUMMARY
Soil is one of the most important na tural resources provided by nature to
mankind. It actually sustains life on the planet as it is an essential
ingredient for growing plants. Soil is a dynamic natural body with a
complex structure that serves as a medium for plant growth. Soil is
essential for the propagation of life on earth and therefore is an integral
part of the biosphere. The physical, chemical and biological properties of
soils are interrelated, making soil an effective medium for plant growth
with additional functions. Soil compositio n is an important aspect of
nutrient management. The soil flora and fauna play an important role in
soil development. Soil is composed of both organic and inorganic matter,
and it is essential for life on earth to exist.
2.8 SELF -STUDY
1) Give the concept and formation of soil.
2) Discuss the different land utilization patterns in India.
3) Give the types of land in India?
4) What factors are responsible for the formation of soil?
5) Answer in detail the soil composition
6) Write short note on : Soil Composition


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39 2.9 TYPES OF SOIL IN INDIA
Soil may look like dirty stuff that simply holds plants in the ground, but it
is the basis of thousands of food chains. Our way of living depends on the
soil. It is a multi -layered, complex system holding nutrients for plants,
providing a home for invertebrates &vertebrates. It is the soil that helps us
to grow crops and feed for the living beings on earth.
Different layers of soil perform different functions or have different
purposes. The top layer of the soil is rich in organic matter a nd nutrients
and is called Humus. Below lies the Topsoil containing Humus ideal for
plant growth. Subsoil is next level down to it containing lots of minerals
and some solid rock pieces. But it is less nutrient rich. Below this is the
weathered rock fragme nts containing very little organic matter. Finally,
below is the bedrock, the solid rock on which all the above said layers lie
upon.

Soil is formed when rocks are broken down by the action of wind, water,
weather and climate. The quality of soil also depends upon the rocks
from which it has been formed and the kind of plants that grow in it.
Different types of soil are formed based on the size of the soil grains, the
larger the soil grains the muddier the soil when it gets wet. Clay, sand, silt,
chalk, peat and loam soils have different consistencies, allowing the
growth of different plants. pH of the soil also is an important factor as it
decides the alkalinity and acidity of the soil. It is difficult for a plant
species to get established if the soil i s more acidic or alkaline.
Soil is formed of different layers of particles which, are in different sizes,
in thickness, in texture, colour and chemical composition. There are 8
different types of soils found in India and they are as follows:

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40 1. Alluvial soils:

Alluvial soil is the largest and most important soil group of India. It
covers an area of about 15 lakh sq. km accounting to about 45.6% of the
total land area of the country. It contributes the largest share of our
agricultural wealth and support s massive India’s population. The parent
material of this soil is of transported origin. Much of the alluvial soil is
derived from the sediments deposited by the rivers in the Indo -Gangetic
plain. Some of the alluvial in the coastal areas have been formed by the
sea waves. The streams bring the produce of weathering of rocks from
mountains and deposit them in the low -lying areas. The alluvial soils are
immature with weak profiles and differ in consistency from drift sand to
rich loams and from silts to stif f clays and kankar beds are also present
occasionally. Chemical composition of alluvial soils makes this type of
soil as one of the most fertile soil in the world. Alluvial soil has low
nitrogen. The proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and alkalies is
adequate, while iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range. Alluvial soil
are easily renewed by the recurrent river floods supporting un -interrupted
crop growth. Even the porosity and texture contribute to good drainage
and other favourable conditions for prolific growth.
Alluvial soils occur widely in the Great Indo -Gangetic plains from west to
east. It starts from Punjab to West Bengal and Assam. Further they also
occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery and are called de ltaic alluvium. Also called as coastal alluvium
along the seacoast. Northern parts of Gujarat have some cover of alluvial
soils and some are found in the Narmada and Tapi valleys.
Alluvium of the great Indo -Gangetic plain of India is divided into new or
young Khadar and old Bhangar soils. The khadar soils are found in the
low-lying areas of the valley bottom that are flooded almost every year.
These soils are pale brown, sandy clays and loams, are very dry, leached,
are less calcareous and carbonaceous mean s they are less Kankary. Old
bhangar soil is found on high places 30 meters above the flood level. It
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41 the Bhangarlie the beds of lime nodules known as Kankar. There are
alluvial fans h aving coarse, often pebbly soils along the foothills of
Shiwalik and this zone is called Bhabar. There is a long narrow strip of
swampy lowland with silty soils to the south covering an area of 56,600
sq. km which is called Tarai. Tarai soils are rich in n itrogen and organic
matter, but deficient in phosphate. They are usually covered by tall grasses
and forests. These soils are well suitable for crops such as wheat, rice,
sugarcane, jute and soyabean. The alluvial soils are best suited to
irrigation – canal, well and tube -wells due to the softness of the strata and
fertility. With proper irrigation alluvial soils yield more crops of paddy,
wheat, cotton, jute, maize, sugarcane, oilseeds, vegetables & fruits and
tobacco.
2) Black Soils:
Black soil is also c alled as Regur soil or black cotton soil as cotton is the
major crop taken in this soil. It is believed by the pedologists that black
soil is formed thousands of years ago due to the solidification of the lava
spread over large areas during volcanic activi ties in the deccan plateau.

Black soils are mainly derived from two types of rocks the deccan and the
raajmahal trap which are sufficiently deep, and ferruginous gneisses and
schists generally shallow that occur in Tamil Nadu.
The origin of black cotton soils is attributed to old lagoons in which
the rivers deposit the materials brought down from the interior of
Peninsula covered with lava in some parts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
Black soils are spread over 5.46 lakh sq km (16.6 % of the total
geographical area of the country) lying between 15°N to 25°N latitudes
and 72°E to 82°E longitud es. Area lying between these latitudes and
longitudes have high temperature and low rainfall. Therefore, this is a soil
type of the dry and hot regions of the peninsula. Black soil is mainly found
in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat and
Tamil Nadu. According to some scientist the black colour of the soil is due
to the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous magnetite o r iron and
black constituents of the parent rock. It may be even derived from
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42 crystalline schists and basic gneisses in Tamil Nadu and some parts of
Andhra Pradesh. Different shades of the black colour are found in this
group of soils like deep black, medi um black, shallow black or even a
mixture of red and black. Black soil retains moisture, swells and becomes
sticky in rainy season. As a result, it is difficult to plough the field as the
plough gets stuck in the mud.
But in hot dry season the soil becomes dry as the moisture evaporates, the
soil compresses and is seamed with broad and deep cracks 10 -15 cm
wide and a meter deep. Because of this the flow of oxygen in the soil is
very good and is extraordinarily fertile. This soil is used for growing
variety of crops for many centuries without the addition of manures and
fertilizers, without fallowing. Black soil is highly argillaceous with 62%
or more clay without gravel or coarse sand. It also contains 10% alumina,
9-10% iron oxide and 6-8% of lime and magn esium carbonates. Potash is
less than 0.5% and is variable. Humus, nitrogen and phosphates
percentage is low.
In all the regur soils and ferromagnesian schist there is a layer rich in
kankar nodules which, is formed by the segregation of calcium carbonate
at lower depths. In general, black soils in the uplands are less fertile and
black soils in the valleys are darker, deeper and richer. Black soils are
widely used to produce many important crops due to their high fertility
and moisture retention capacity. Major crops grown on the black soils are
cotton, wheat, jowar, linseed, Virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and
millets. Wherever irrigation facilities are there, two important crops rice
and sugarcane are taken. Also, many varieties of fruits and vegetabl es are
successfully grown on black soils.
3) Red Soil:

Red soils are formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and
metamorphic rocks. The main parent rocks are acid granites and gneisses,
quartzitic and felspathic. The colour of these soils is gene rally red which,
is due to the wide diffusion than to high percentage of iron content and are
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43 are spread in a vast area of about 3.5lakh sq. km accounting to 10.6% of
the total geogr aphical area of the country. It is found in Tamil Nadu, parts
of Karnataka, south -east Maharashtra, eastern parts of Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Chota Nagpur in Jharkhand, large parts of south
Bihar; the Birbhum and Bankura districts of West Bengal; Mirzapur,
Jhansi, Banda and Hamirpur districts of Uttar Pradesh; Aravallis and the
eastern half of Rajasthan, parts of Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,
Tripura and Meghalaya.
Red soils are rich in potash but poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates,
nitrogen and humus. They are mainly siliceous and aluminous by chemical
composition with free quartz as sand and are rich in potassium. Red soils
texture vary from sand to clay as the majority are loams. They are thin,
poor and gravelly, sandy or stone and po rous in the uplands, but are rich,
deep dark and fertile in the lower areas. It responds very well to the proper
use of fertilizers and irrigation by giving excellent yields of cotton, wheat,
rice, pulses, millets, tobacco. Oil -seeds, potatoes and fruits.
4) Laterite and Lateritic Soils:

Majority of people have the opinion that the laterite soil is formed under
conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and
dry periods. Such climatic conditions promote leaching of soil wherein
lime and silica are leached away leaving behind the soil rich in oxides of
iron and aluminium compounds. There are many varieties of laterite soils
which have bauxite on one side and an indefinite mixture of ferric oxides
at the other. All laterite soils have very less lime and magnesia and also
are deficient in nitrogen, potash. The phosphate content may be high in the
form of iron phosphate and in some places high content of humus.
Laterite and lateritic soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq.km. they are
mainly found on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 -1500 m above
mean sea level, the Vindhyas, the Satpuras, the Eastern Ghats, the Malwa
Plateau and the Rajmahal Hills. Laterite soils are also found in the low -
lying areas and in v alleys in several other parts of the country. They are
well developed in southern part of Maharashtra, some parts of Karnataka,
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44 Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Kerala, Jharkhand, Assam and
Meghalaya.
Typical laterite soils lack fertility due to intens ive leaching and low base
exchange capacity. So, they are of little use for crops. But when they are
manure and provided irrigation facilities, some of the laterite and lateritic
soils are suitable for growing plantations like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona ,
areca nut, coconut, etc. Paddy is also grown in some of the low - lying
areas. Laterite soils respond very well if supplied with nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Chota
Nagpur in Jharkhand, Orissa and Assam. It also s upports grazing grounds
and scrub forests in some areas of the country.
Laterite and lateritic soils are used for building material due to their
distinctive quality. They can be easily cut with spade but when exposed to
air it hardens like iron. It cannot be weathered more further as it is the end
end-product of weathering and is indefinitely durable.
5) Forest and Mountainous soil:

It is mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests occupying about
2.85 lakh sq. km accounting to 8.67 % of the total land area of India. These
soils are formed by the characteristic depositions of organic matter derived
from forest growth. Being heterogeneous in nature the character of this soil
changes with the parent rocks, its ground configuration and climate. The
soils differ immensely even though they occur in close proximity to each
other. Such soils are majorly found in valley basins, depressions and less
steeply inclined slopes. The forest soils occur on Western and Eastern
Ghats as well as in some parts of the Peninsular
plateau along with the Himalayan region. They are deficient in potash,
phosphorus and lime but rich in humus as a result they need good portion
of fertilizers to gain high yields. These soils are more suitable for tea,
coffee plantations, spices a nd tropical fruits in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala. Soils in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal
are suitable for crops like wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits.
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45 6) Arid and Desert Soils:

A large part of the arid and semi -arid r egion in Rajasthan and the
adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana lying between the Indus and the
Aravalisis affected by the desert conditions. It receives annual rainfall of
less than 50 cm and covers an area of 1.42 lakh sq. km accounting to 4.32
% of the total area. Rann of Kuchchh in Gujarat is an extension of this
desert. As this area is covered by a mantle of sand it suppresses the growth
of soil. Sandy soil is originated from the mechanical disintegration of the
ground rocks or is blown from the Indus basin and the coast by the
prevailing south -west monsoon winds. Barren sandy soils without clay
factor are also common in coastal regions of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and
Kerala. The desert soil contains Aeolian sand (90-95 %) and clay (5-10%).
Some of these soi ls are poor in organic matter, are alkaline and vary in the
percentage of calcium carbonate and contains high percentage of soluble
salts. In certain areas the subsoil has ten times calcium compared to the
topsoil. In many areas the calcium content increas es downwards. The
phosphate content of these soils is high as that in normal alluvial soils.
This soil is deficient in nitrogen, but it is to some extent fulfilled in the
form of nitrates. As a result, wherever there is moisture available and the
presence of phosphates and nitrates make the soil fertile. With proper
irrigation facilities there are possibilities to regenerate these soils. Drought
resistant and salt tolerant crops like cotton, barley, wheat, millets, maize,
pulses and rapeseed are grown in th is soil.
7) Saline and Alkaline Soils:
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46 Saline and Alkaline soils are accountable to saline and Alkaline
efflorescences. They are known by different names like reh, kallar, rakar,
chopan, thur, karl, usar. These soils are found in Andhra Pradesh,
Karnatak a, drier parts of Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab
and Haryana occupying area of 68,000 sq. km. many decomposed rock
and mineral fragments on weathering liberate sodium, magnesium and
calcium salts and sulphurous acid. While some salts are tra nsported by the
rivers thus percolating in the sub soils of the plains. The accumulation of
these salts makes the soil infertile which is unfit for agricultural purpose.
In canal irrigated areas and high subsoil water table by capillary action the
harmful salts are transferred from below the topsoil as a result of
evaporation in dry season.
In Gujrat, the area around the Gulf of Khambat is affected by the sea tides
carrying salt-laden deposits. Due to this the vast areas that comprise the
estuaries of the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati areas have
become infertile. It has been approximated that about 1.25 million
hectares of land in Uttar Pradesh and 1.21 million hectares of land in
Punjab is affected by Usar.
8) Peaty and Marshy Soil:
Soils or iginating in humid regions as a result of accumulation of large
amounts of organic matter in the soils are the Peaty soils. They contain
considerable amount of soluble salts and 10-40 % of organic matter. These
soils called Kari and are found in Kottayam a nd Alappuzha districts of
Kerala. Peaty soils are black, heavy and highly acidic in nature. They are
deficient in potash and phosphate. Peaty soils are under water in the rainy
season. But as soon as the rain ceases, paddy cultivation is done on it.
Marshy soils having high proportion of vegetation occur in the coastal
areas of Orissa and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of West Bengal, Bihar and
Almora district of Uttaranchal.
Soil is a valuable ecosystem covering the earth’s surface. As soil is made
up of minerals , nutrients, water, air, organic matter and micro - organisms.
Therefore, this soil is used in a variety of products in various industries.

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47 2.10 LAND OF MAHARASHTRA
Land of Maharashtra are derived from the igneous basalt rock and are
residual. The soil in the river basins of Godavari, Bhima, Krishna and Tapi
has a deep layer of fertile black basalt soil and is rich in humus and is best
suited for cotton. It is often called as black cotton soil. The remaining
semi -dry plateau of Deccan has a medium layer of black regur soil. It is
clayey and moisture retentive, rich in iron but is poor in nitrogen and
organic matter. Higher plateau region has murmad soils containing gravel.
Reddish laterite soil locally called as jambhi is found on the peaks of the
Sahyadri Mountains, in districts of Ratnagiri and Sindhudurgand the
western regions of Kolhapur and Satara. The konkan coast has a sandy
loam soil. North Konkan and Bhandara, Gondia and Gadchiroli districts of
eastern Vidharba region have reddish and yellowish soil. Towards the east
in Vidharbha region the morand soils having good mixture of lime are
ideal for kharif crops.
Maharashtra the third largest state Indian state can be divided into three
natural regions the Maharashtra plateau, the Sahyadri range and the
Konkan coastal strip according to its geographical features. Though the
dominant physical trait of the state is its plateau character the soil and
vegetation of Maharashtra are related to the climate and the geology.
Many small plateaux and river valleys imp rint the deccan plateau region
and rivers like Narmada, Krishna, Godavari, Wardha, Tapi mold the
valleys in between intervening highlands. The clayey type of soil in the
semi dry Deccan Plateau is mostly black basalt soil retains moisture and is
rich in humus. It is also called ‘black cotton soil’ or ‘regur soil’ as it is
best suitable for cotton cultivation. These igneous rocks break down to
form fertile black soil suitable for rabi crops. The old crystalline rocks and
saline soil make the Wardha -Wainganga river valley infertile. As this soil
is granular, can retain moisture and rich in iron content. It has natural
resistance to wind and water. This makes the soil very reactive to
irrigation.
The pather soil containing more gravel is seen in the hilly high lying
terrain. The laterite reddish brown soil is well suited for rainfed crops
like rice, ragi, jowar, gram, groundnut, sugarcane etc. it is also productive
under forest cover and mango, cashew, jackfruit and jamun are also can be
grown here.
Sahyadri hills also called Western Ghats run parallel to the seacoast. Most
of the rivers in Maharashtra originate from the sahyadris. The soils in the
western ghats vary from reddish brown to black and are rich in nitrogen.
The tableland called Mawal is dominated by vegetables like potato, onion,
chillies, brinjal and tomatoes and kharif cereals, sugarcane and
groundnuts. Fruits like mango, banana, guava, grapes and cashew are also
grown.
On the plains the soil is greyish black and moderately alkaline in nature,
well drained and good for irrigation. Is mainly suitable for kharif and rabi
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48 The konkan area is a 50km wide belt between the Arabian sea and the
Sahyadri. It is a lowland plateau with steep valleys and vege tation mainly
consists of forest in the eastern region and the Sahyadri ranges, the
Satpura ranges and the Chandrapur region. Shrub jungles predominate the
plateau. Vegetation grown in this region is paddy and the coastal belt
consists of eminent trees like the mango, coconut and shrubs.
Thick evergreen deciduous forests cover 17% of the land in Maharashtra
and they have high value as they yield teak, bamboo, myrobalan etc. The
areas having good annual rainfall have rich vegetation.
2.11 SUMMARY
Shallow, medium and deep-black soils are mostly found in the state of
Maharashtra. Black cotton soil is mainly found in Deccan plateaus. Soils
found on hill tops are composed of sandy and stony material with murum.
Alluvial soils are formed by alluvium found at upstr eam region or nearby
relief. The Eastern Maharashtra especially Wainganga basin consists of
varieties of rocks such as granitic, gneissic and sediment resulting in
formation of different soils. Soils are light to pale yellowish to in red
color. Various typ es of basaltic rocks are found in Western part of
Maharashtra. Lateritic soil is formed by lateritic rock in high elevation.
Red soil is formed by laterite rock erosion by heavy rain fall. Coastal
saline soil is formed by erosion of sand bar -sand sedimenta ry platform
rock by water wave, tide and heavy rain fall. In semiarid climate of
Maharashtra such as, Sangli, Satara, Solapur and Ahmednagar saline,
alkaline and saline -alkaline soils are found.
2.12 SELF -STUDY
1) Answer in detail the different types of soils in India.
2) Write short notes on:
a) Soils of Maharashtra
b) Alluvial Soils.
c) Black soil
d) Red Soil.
e) Laterite and Lateritic Soils
f) Forest and Mountainous Soil
g) Arid and Desert soil
h) Saline and Alkaline soils
i) Peaty and Marshy Soils
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49 2.13 B. CONSERVATION AND QUALIT Y OF LAND
The capacity of a soil to perform functions for specific land uses or within
ecosystem boundaries is termed as soil quality. It is an inherent
characteristic of soil varying from soil to soil. Indicators like salinity, tilth,
compaction, organic - matter content, available nutrients and rooting depth
help to measure the quality of soil in the given place. The ability of a soil
to store and cycle nutrients for plant growth is decided from the organic -
matter content, acidity, salinity and the biolog ical activity. Available water
capacity, compaction and soil tilth cast the ability of a soil to regulate the
flow of water. Texture, like loam and clay, also is an important property of
soil in the support of buildings and roads.


Benefits of soil quali ty:
High -quality soils assure that the primary agricultural lands are sustained
for the future generations. Soils of high quality are essential for the
production of a plentiful supply of safe food and fiber for the living things
on earth. Healthy food con verts to a healthy people and a healthy nation.
High -quality soils are a foundation for: storage of green house, clean
water, healthy plant growth and clean and healthy air.
 Storage of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the form of organic
matter in the soil.
 Clean water transforms harmful substances and chemical toxins to
nontoxic forms, by cycling nutrients and partitioning rainfall to keep
sediments and chemicals out of lakes, streams and rivers.
 Healthy plant growth as it stores nutrients and water and also provides
structural support to the plants through a receptive rooting medium.
 Clean and healthy air keep dust particles out of the air and cycles other
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50 Enhanced soil quality protects the finite resource. Maximum efficiency in
crop producti vity is maintained by the maintenance and enhancement soil
quality. It also protects water and air quality and preserves the beneficial
functions of the soil in specific ecosystem. Soil and soil quality are closely
associated with the other natural resourc es. Caring the land in a way
improves the soil quality by better filtering the water, maintaining or
improving productivity, reducing airborne particles, use of less chemicals,
increasing plant, animal and micro -organism diversity.
Factors reducing soil quality:
a) Lack of knowledge about soil types and their properties as they relate
to soil quality and land use
b) Extreme use of available soil resources by the human being has forced
him to use more fragile and erodible lands for food and fodder.
c) Unable to under stand the ability of the soil and impact of management
activities on individual soils.
2.14 SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is the major cause of reduced soil quality. Though soil erosion
is a natural geologic process but is often stimulated by cultivation and
resource development to fulfill the increasing human demands. Soil
condition is degraded by soil erosion wherein the content of organic -
matter, the root depth and the available water capacity is decreased. The
product of erosion the sediment pollutes stre ams, lakes and other water
bodies by depositing soil particles, chemical and plant nutrients. The air is
polluted due to soil erosion by wind damaging the plants through a
sandblasting effect.

Accumulation of salts, excess nutrients and chemicals, toxic substances,
pesticides increase the potential for nutrients and chemicals to leach from
soil in percolating waters and eventually pollute ground and surface
waters. Soil erosion is a process in which the top fertile layer of soil is lost
which, makes the s oil infertile or less fertile. Soil erosion is the removal of
topsoil by the natural forces. Factors like wind, water, deforestation,
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51 Factors of Soil Erosion:
1) Wind
Strong winds blow the topsoil along with the organic m atter more often in
an area of having less plantation or grasses like desert and semi - desert
regions where strong winds blow very frequently.
2) Water
Soil in the hilly areas gets washed away towards the plains when it rains in
the hilly areas. The running water over the years deposits the mineral rich
soil in the riverbed. This deposition can change the course of the river
leading to floods causing harm to life and property. Water erosion leads to
loss of agricultural potential.
3) Overgrazing
This happens when the cattle are allowed to graze on the same place or field
repeatedly. The cattle eat the available grass including the roots which
makes the topsoil loose and is blown by wind and flowing water, leading
to soil erosion.
4) Deforestation
The roots of trees h old the soil together to prevent the soil from getting
loose. Clearing the forests for agricultural purposes to feed the ever -
increasing population, to build houses, for industrial purposes etc. has led to
deforestation.






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52 2.15 C. MEASURES TO LAND DEVELOPMENT
Preventing the soil from getting eroded is called conservation of soil. The
soil erosion can be prevented in many ways. Soil conservation includes all
those measures which help in protecting the soil from erosion and
exhaustion. Some of them are discussed below.

According to Prof. S.P. Chatterjee, “Soil erosion is the greatest single evil
to Indian agriculture and animal husbandry”. Soil is the most precious
asset we have on earth and productive soil alone can ensure prosperous
agriculture, industrial development, economic prosperity leading to a
higher standard of living. G.T. Renner has defined conservation as “the
greatest good to the largest number for the longest time.” According to S.I.
Kayastha, “With soil conservation people rise and with its destruction they
fall.”
It is estimated that about two thirds of our arable land needs conservation
measures on an urgent basis for the prosperity of mankind. Neglect of soil
means killing the hen laying golden eggs.




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53 Following methods are normal ly adopted for conserving soil:
1. Afforestation:
Afforestation means planting new trees and plants. Plants and trees are
very essential for the survival of living beings on earth. New trees should be
planted in place of the cut trees and planting trees in hilly areas are most
effective for conservation. The best way to conserve soil is to increase
area under forests. Indiscriminate cutting of trees must be stopped, and
efforts should be made to plant trees in new areas. A minimum area of
forest cover in th e country that is healthy for soil and water conservation
should be between 20 – 25%. In the second five -year plan it was raised to
33%. The proportion of forest cover in general should be 20% for the
plains and 60% for hilly and mountainous regions.
2. Free movement of cattle to be controlled:
The animals moving freely in the fields spoil the soil by their hoofs leading
to soil erosion. There should be separate grazing grounds and fodder crops
should be grown in large quantities especially for the cattle and other
grazing animals.

3. Building Dams:
Dams help to check the speed of water thus saving soil from eroding. Soil
erosion by river floods can be stopped by constructing dams across the
rivers.
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54 4. Changing Agricultural Practices:
Certain changes in agricultural practices can save our precious soil from
degrading. Some of the outstanding changes are suggested

i) Crop Rotation:
Sowing a particular crop in the same field year after year takes away
certain elements from the soil, making it infertile un suitable for that crop.
Rotation of crops is a method in which different crops are cultivated on a
piece of land every year. Soil fertility is conserved as different crops
require different demands on the soil. Leguminous plants is a good option
as they ad d nitrogen to the soil. Rotation of different crops in successive
years helps to maintain the fertility of the soil naturally.
ii) Strip Cropping:
Different crops may be cultivated in alternate strips, parallel to one another
as they ripen at different tim es of the year and are invested at intervals
ensuring no time of the year the entire area is left bare or without crops.
Some strips may be allowed to lie fallow while in others different crops
may be sown e.g., grains, legumes, small tree crops, grass etc . The tall
growing crops act as wind breaks and the strips parallel to the contours
help to increase water absorption by the soil by slowing down run off.


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55 iii) Use of Early Maturing Varieties:
Early maturing varieties of crops take less time to mature thus putting
lesser pressure on the soil and reduce the soil erosion.
iv) Contour Ploughing:
Ploughing done at right angles to the hill slope, following the natural
contours of the hill, the ridges and furrows break the flow of water down
the hill thus preventing excessive soil loss as gullies are less likely to
develop and also reduce run -off so that plants receive more water.
Growing crops in contour pattern allows the plants to absorb maximum
rainwater and minimizing the soil erosion.
v) Terracing and Contour Bunding:
Terrace farming is done in the hilly areas. It is done by cutting steps on the
slopes of the hills which slows down the flow of water and also the soil
that has been removed from one step is deposited on the next step.
Terracing and contour bunding across the hill slopes, is a very effective
and one of the oldest methods of soil conservation. Hill slopes are cut
into a number of terraces having horizontal top and steep slopes on the
back and front. Terracing and contour bunding divide the hill slope into
numerous small slopes, checks the flow of water, promotes absorption of
water by soil and saves soil from eroding. Retaining walls of terraces
control the flow of water and help in reducing soil erosion.

vi) Stop Shifting Cultivation:
Stoppin g and reducing shifting cultivation by persuading the tribal people
to switch over to settled agriculture is a very effective method of soil
conservation. It is done by making arrangements for their resettlement
which involves the provision of residential accommodation, agricultural
implements, seeds, manures, cattle and reclaimed land.
vii) Ploughing the Land in Right Direction:
Ploughing the land in a direction perpendicular to wind direction reduces
wind velocity and protects the top soils from erosion.
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56 5. Shelterbelts
Shelterbelts is the cover of plants and trees around the fields to break the
speed of strong winds to prevent and protect the soil from being blown
away.
6. Embankments
Embankments are in a way hurdles build along the banks of the river to
protect fields from the floods. These strong hurdles prevent the fast
overflowing rivers and rainwater from washing away a large amount of
rich fertile soil.

7. Van Mahotsav and maintaining soil quality
It is a tree plantation program initiated by the In dian government to create
awareness to conserve forest and soil.
For long term benefits, the perfect method to maintain and improve soil
quality is to select the crops best suited in a particular soil and use it
according to its capacity. We should not onl y solve soil quality problems
but also the problems related to water and air. To develop technologies
that can maximize the ability of soils to function for specific land uses.
The development of technologies should be in the fields like soil specific
nutrient and pesticide management, other crop residue management
technologies, conservation management systems and appropriate use of
urban and animal wastes. Public awareness and concern for quality soil
should be developed and making the people understand th e effects of
polluted soil on their day to day lives.
2.16 SUMMARY
The capacity of a soil to perform functions for specific land uses or within
ecosystem boundaries is termed as soil quality. It is an inherent
characteristic of soil varying from soil to so il. Indicators like salinity, tilth,
compaction, organic - matter content, available nutrients and rooting depth
help to measure the quality of soil in the given place. Soil erosion is the
major cause of reduced soil quality. Though soil erosion is a natura l
geologic process but is often stimulated by cultivation and resource
development to fulfill the increasing human demands. Factors like wind,
water, deforestation, overgrazing, etc. cause soil erosion. Preventing the
soil from getting eroded is called con servation of soil. The soil erosion can munotes.in

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57 be prevented in many ways. Soil conservation includes all those measures
which help in protecting the soil from erosion and exhaustion.
2.17 SELF -STUDY
1) Explain soil quality
2) Which factors reduce the soil quality?
3) What is soil erosion?
4) What are the factors of soil erosion?
5) Explain soil conservation
6) Which methods are adopted for conserving soil?
7) Write short notes: Future approaches to maintain soil quality.

❖❖❖❖
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3
WATER RESOURCES
Unit Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 A. Concept of Water Resources
3.4 Sources of Water
3.5 Properties and Importance Of Water
3.6 Distribution of Water
3.7 B. Scarcity of Water
3.8 Measures on Water Scarcity
3.9 C. Conservation & Management Of Water Resources
3.10 Government Schemes For Water Conservation
3.11 Specific Projects For Water Conservation
3.12 Summary
3.1 OBJECTIVES
1) To study the natural sources of water, its importance and distribution.
2) To find remedies on scarcity of water.
3) To know the methods to conserve water.
4) To study the government schemes and special projects undertaken for
conservati on of water.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Only 3.5% of the water on Earth is fresh water, with 96.5% of the water on
Earth existing in the form of oceans. Nearly 70% of the world's fresh water
supply, or ice sheets and glaciers, are found in Antarctica, Greenland, and
mountainous regions, while the other 30% is held in the planet's aquifers
as groundwater. India's entire renewable water resources are thought to be
1,897 square kilometres per year. India receives around 4% of the world's
precipitation and is ranked 133r d in the world in terms of water availability
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59 There are several water -related difficulties that the Indian economy and
society must overcome. Rapid urbanization and industrialization need for a
greater water supply, but difficulties w ith availability, water table decline,
and water quality have become more prominent. As water wells are dug
deeper and deeper, fluoride and arsenic are introduced into the
groundwater.
By dumping untreated effluents and sewage into rivers and groundwater,
pollution is caused. The hydrological cycle is impacted by climate change
as well. The number of disputes between rival water consumers and usage
is increasing daily. According to predictions, several parts of India may
join other nations or areas that exp erience perpetual water scarcity by
2025. Next to air, water is also an important constituent of life -support
system. As water is vital natural resource, we depend on it for irrigation,
industry, domestic needs, shipping sanitation and for disposal of wastes.
Water bodies like ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, sea, oceans have become
polluted due to industrial growth, urbanization and other problems created
by mankind.
3.3 A. CONCEPT OF WATER RESOURCES
Without water, life on earth is unimaginable. Since 60% of our body is
made up entirely of water, all living creatures require water to survive. In
order to support other biological activities and control body temperature,
water is present in all of our body's cells, organs, and tissues. It is crucial
to rehydrate and replenish lost water by drinking fluids and consuming
meals high in water content since our bodies lose water through breathing,
sweating, and digesting. Our needs for water are influenced by the local
temperature and ecology. It also depends on how physically active you are
and whether you have any health conditions, illnesses, or other problems.

3.4 SOURCES OF WATER
Water is absolutely essential to life. It contributes to the wonder and
majesty of the natural world, whether through the babbling of a small
brook or the vast ocean. There are several key sources of water related to
one another through the working of water cycle.
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60 Water Cycle
Water vapour rising from the ocean surface starts the cycle. These droplets
are gathered by clouds unt il they attain saturation. When a cloud gathers
too many particles, it reaches saturation and must release the weight as
rain. Rain, ice, or snow can occur as clouds pass over a land mass,
depending on the weather. To enter lakes, rivers, and streams, this water
source descends to the earth. Droplets replenish the groundwater by being
absorbed into the soil. This water supply is moved into our lakes, rivers,
and streams by runoff from the land, and it finally returns to the ocean to
start the cycle all over again.

Natural springs

Earlier we could drink water from the springs without treating it. But now
a days water from springs has to be tested to make it sure it is free from
chemical toxins and biological organisms. Ozone is added to purify the
water as it reduces to ordinary oxygen normally suspended in
water or released into the atmosphere. This ozone purified water is then
bottled to make bottled spring water. And if it is naturally carbonated it is
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61 Rivers and Lakes


Water from rivers and lakes is used as a standard source of water for
human consumption. These sources are restored regularly by the actions of
weather. But this water cannot be used directly for drinking purpose. It has
to be treated to make it fit for consumption. Water treatment plants pump
water into their facilities, filtering and adding chemicals to purify the
water. Lakes and rivers are the source of tap water. It is purified and
disinfected usually with chlorine, but sometimes fluoride is added. It is
then su pplied to the homes across the area for individual homes for
consumption and other uses of water.








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62 Groundwater

Groundwater lies in pockets beneath the surface of the earth typically
existing between layers of rocks. Those living in rural areas o r those who
don’t have access to municipal corporation water supply often use this
ground water source for wells. The water cycle replenishes groundwater
tables at a relatively predictable rate based on climate. The ground water
levels can be affected during drought conditions. Wells can be either
near the surface or they can draw up water from very deep. They need to
be tested for purity. But some wells offer pure, drinkable water.
Desalination

Desalination is a process in which the seawater is treated to remove salt
from it. But in this process additional minerals from this water are
removed. Huge processing plants around the world convert seawater to
potable water suitable for human consumption. This type of
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63 natural water source conversion requires extensive treatment and the
expensive use of electricity to run the water processing plants.
Harvested Rainwater

Rainwater harvesting is a common practice in the more arid regions of the
world. Typical rainwater harvesting setups include a barrel attached to the
downspouts on the roof a perfect opportunity to collect and store
rainwater for use around the exterior of homes in different places. More
sophisticated collection devices are used like flat, sloped sections of the
roof designed to collect more rainwater per square inch. The rainwater
runs at an angle toward a collection point, funneling water into a catch
basin. This non-potable source of water helps to minimize the costs of
using a potable water supply for watering crops and general landscape
maint enance. Rainwater is actually pure. It has to be purified as it may get
dirty and contaminated by the roof or surface where it is caught, gutters or
pipes, and storage.
3.5 PROPERTIES AND IMPORTANCE OF WATER
Water an essential nutrient plays a key role in the human body. We can
survive for several weeks without food, but not without water. Every
system in human body needs water for its functioning from cells and
tissues to all the vital organs of the body. Water helps to regulate body
temperature, it flush es out toxins out of the body, it carries nutrients to all
the cells in human body and oxygen to the brain, it acts as a lubricant for
joints and muscles and also allows the body to absorb and incorporate
minerals, vitamins, glucose, amino acids and other substances. Water is a
constant reminder that life repeats. It’s the only element that has a visible
cycle.
We cannot imagine earth without water and nothing growing on it. It
would be lifeless, dead and would appear collapsed into dust, sand, clay or
rock. The earth used to be like a sponge, but wherever the ground water
has been sucked almost dry, the earth has hardened and has collapsed. This
process of hardening and collapsing of earth is called ‘Subsidence’.
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64

Clouds provide a buffer from the heating power of the sun. Without them
it would pour down with no mercy. Dry air would suck out whatever
moisture it could find, wherever it could find it, and the noses and soft
tissues of any living being would shrivel. If there is no moisture there
would be no sweet scents.
The composition of the air would change. Temperatures would swing from
extreme to extreme, getting hotter as time went on. The sun, pouring down
without mitigation, would beat on the earth and heat it up. Any carbon -
based thing would burn up during the day. At night it would freeze.
There would be nothing to soften the effect of volcanoes or to put out
fires. The cushioning effect against earthquake would not be there. The
rubbing of tectonic plates against each other would create massive rock
slides and crumbling. The earths surface would burn and would be grinded
into dust.
Water Stabilizes Temperature of the Earth
Water keeps the temperature of the earth even. It cools the earth when
heated and warms up when it cools down. When the temperatu re rises up
water evaporates taking the heat with ii thereby cooling the hot air. When
the temperature falls down water freezes and releases its own heat to warm
the frigid air. The moisture released from burning vegetation forms clouds
which cool the air and thereafter releasing rain. This cools the heating
effect of volcanoes and wildfire. Ground water cools the earth during the
day and warms it at night. Water is the cooling medium for air and earth. If
there is no water the temperature would either be e xtreme hot or extreme
cold all over the world, with a gradual increase in the temperature as time
passes by. Global warming is the consequence of this in a way as the land
water is used to maximum extent and allowing the rain water to fall in
the sea.
Wate r acts as Cushions
Water softens the soil making it easier for the rain water to percolate inside
the earths surface to increase the ground water level. If the
groundwater level decreases to a great extend after it is used and not
refilled the soil gradual ly becomes hard. This hard soil does not allow the
water to be absorbed or to be percolated in the soil and it slides off the top
and is wasted. As a result, the earth loses its place to store water and its munotes.in

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65 shock protector. In other words, we can say where the earth is receptive,
rainwater sinks down through it to be stored in the aquifer.
Water has a cushioning effect if it is stored under the ground. It is like the
water in the waterbed giving a cushioning effect with any movement done
on it. It is good i f the groundwater level is high as it provides good
protection during an earthquake as it slows down seismic waves and
minimizes their effects.

The softening effect of water prepares the seeds to grow. Water softens the
seed cover enough for the little s hoots to break out. The soft soil, mixed
with organic matter, provides a perfect medium for the shoots to grow into
full-fledged plants. It would be difficult for most of the seeds to grow
without water, as the ground would be too hard or sandy to absorb and hold
the rain water. Without water storage on the surface and underground there
will be severe droughts killing most of the living species on earth and also
the earthquakes would be very severe.
Waterways a mode of Transportation
Water is the media to t ransport both the nutrients and wastes for all living
things on earth. Nutrients and rich soils from the mountains to the lower
altitudes on the way to the sea are transported by water on land while, in
oceans water currents transport nutrients throughout the world. Water
ways help to transport people and goods.

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66 Water Cleans and Breaks Down the Waste Matter
Water plays an important a role in breaking the waste matter on earth and
living beings. Flowing rain water carries along with it all the dirt,
debri s, minerals and toxins into the sea. The algae and other microbes in
the ocean break down the waste matter (except plastic) into basic food
components used to support life under the sea. Water plays an important
role in the life of human beings as it plays a cleansing role. It carries the
waste to the kidneys to be separated and thereby throwing out of the body
in the form of solid and liquid waste.
Water a Key Component of Reproduction
Water is a key component of birth the reproductive cycle of all animals .

Water Home for many lives in water
Ocean and other water bodies is home for more life than what lives on land.
Mammals, fish, birds, insects, trees, plants, algae, krill, and many other
forms of life either live directly in water or are wholly dependen t upon it
for survival. Without water life would lose its primary food source.

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67 Water Essential Component for Human Beings
Plants prepare their food with the help of water, carbon dioxide and
sunlight the important components of the photosynthesis process of
preparing food for plants, which eventually is the food for animals and
human beings also. Every living creature on earth uses water in one or the
other way. Without water, plants and many insects and arthropods could
not survive, nor would humans have developed the foods and industries.
Conservation of water
We use water in many ways and its cycle reminds us of that our life also
works in cycles. We will end up destroying ourselves if we don’t care for
it and preserve it. Plants, trees, all types of fo rests, mountains, rivers,
lakes, marshy places, the estuaries, icebergs, snow tops and water in all
its natural forms for the survival of living things.

If, instead of controlling it, we see ourselves as a partner or an intelligent
component of water's own rain and storage cycle, it might encourage us to
be more respectful towards water and be more careful of the way we
utilize it. We know that there is no life without water and we cannot
survive without it. So, we should learn to value, conserve and take care of
the water resources we have been provided by nature.
3.6 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
Water a unique natural resource available on earth is essential for all the
important activities like food production, industries like energy, production
and manufactur ing. It plays an important role in economic development
and the general well-being of the country. Water is not merely an economic
commodity but also a social and cultural good as per United Nations.
Out of all the water available on the Earth, 97 % of wat er is saline and is in
oceans, 3% of water is freshwater available in rivers, streams and glaciers.
There is enough freshwater available on the planet but it is distributed
unevenly. Following graph shows the Earth’s water distribution.
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68
Detail estimate on global water availability;

Indian Scenario :
Surface water resources:
Water resources including rivers, lakes or fresh water wetlands are known
as surface water resources. Precipitation the natural recharging source for
the surface water resources also maintains the hydrological cycle. Rivers
are the major source of water in India. The annual surface water in the
rivers of the country that can be utilized is 690km3. Artificial dams,
reservoirs also have the capacity to increase utilization of water.

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69 Groundwater resources:
Subsurface water or water within aquifers are known as ground water
resources. Ground water resources are recharged from the precipitation in
the monsoon season in India. The other contributors to the recharging of
the ground water are canal irrigation and other forms of irrigation systems.
3.7 B. SCARCITY OF WATER
Water Availability in India:
Water is available only for a few hours in most Indian cities and the
quality is also not up to the mark. Water woes are also because of
insuffici ent or low pressure and erratic supplies. The rural population
suffers from low water quality but the urban and semi - urban areas are
most prone to water shortage. The water quality should be safe and sound
at the microbiological level and mere continuous supply is not enough.
Another aspect is the water wastage in terms of leakages and illegal
connections.
Water Scarcity
Millions of people all over the world don’t have access to water and if
at all they have that water is not usable. About 70% of the Earth ’s surface
is covered with water and 3% of it is actually fresh water that is fit for
human consumption. Around two -thirds of that is tucked in frozen glaciers
and is unavailable for our use. Clean drinking water is scarce and there are
millions of people in this world who spend their entire day searching for it.
People who have access to safe, clean drinking water take it for granted
and don’t use it wisely. Water scarcity involves water crisis, water
shortage, water deficit or water stress. Water scarcity can be due to
physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity. Physical water
scarcity is where natural water resources are unable to meet a region’s
demand and economic water scarcity is a result of poor water management
resources.
Water crisis in In dia
Water an existential need for humans is one of the most under prioritized
but misused commodity. Though it is fundamental need to our lives it has
never been the main point of focus in our planning even when we rapidly
evolve into an urban society. Our ancestors understood the importance of
water and planned their living accordingly. History says civilizations were
born and lost on account of water, still we fail to value it. The world’s
oldest civilization grew around the Indus and the Ganges and is st ill
thriving. In the post -independence period more importance was given to
utilizing water by way of controlling and storing it through large dams
which, was the need of the hour. As far as urbanization is concerned our
towns and cities have consequently g rown without planning for water need
vs water availability.
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70 Causes of water scarcity in India
Following are the main reasons for water scarcity:
1) Inefficient use of water:
India being one of the highest agricultural producer in the world consumes
maximu m amount of water for irrigation for agriculture purpose.
Traditional methods of irrigation causes maximum water loss due to
evaporation, drainage, percolation, water conveyance and excess use of
groundwater. More and more area under traditional irrigation techniques
more the stress for water availability for other purposes will continue.
Extensive use of micro -irrigation techniques like drip and sprinkler
irrigation is the solution for this.
2) Traditional water recharging areas need to be reduced:
The traditional water bodies that have acted as ground water recharging
mechanism need to be revived on an urgent basis while implementing the
new ones.
3) Old sewage and waste water drainage system to be changed:
Government intervention is urgently required to t ackle the problem of old
sewage and waste water drainage system.
4) Release of toxic substances:
Strict monitoring action and implementation of laws by the government,
NGO’s and social activists is necessary on the problem of release of
chemicals and efflu ents into rivers, streams and ponds.
5) De-silting operations to be done on time:
Lack of initiative of on -time de -silting operations in large water bodies
have become an issue. If this de-silting is done on time and taken up on
priority basis as annual pr actice it can enhance the water storage capacity
during the monsoon season. This can significantly add to the water storage
levels.
6) Lack of efficient water management:
Inefficient water management and improper distribution of water between
urban consume rs, agricultural sector and industrial sector is creating
problems. It is the need of the hour that government enhances its
investments in technology and include all stakeholders at the planning
level to ensure optimization of existing resources.
7) Urbani zation a serious problem:
Urbanization has created serious problems. Concretization due to urban
development has choked ground water resources. Water is neither being
recharged nor is stored in such a manner that will optimize its use while
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71 into the water bodies (rivers) is severely affecting the potable water.
Marine life also has been affected. If we don’t understand the root cause of
the problem we never will be able to find the su stainable solutions to these
problems.
8) Overuse of Water:
Overuse of water on people, animals, land, recreational activities and
many other things is a big problem many people are dealing with. They
don’t care about the effects that it may have on the wo rld around them.
9) Conflict:
It may be difficult to access the water if there is conflict over an area of
land. This can lead to a variety of other issues including pollution.
10) Distance:
Many areas throughout the entire world suffer from water scarcity just
because they not in the vicinity of areas having water. Desert areas or areas
having very low rainfall are such areas.
11) Drought:
Droughts are common all over the world. They occur in places getting low
rainfall which is not enough to sustain life residing in that region. Some
areas are in recurring droughts and some areas have occasional droughts.
12) Governmental Access:
Governments using water as a source of control causing a scarcity to those
in the nearby locations, can be a big issue.
Effects of Water Scarcity
a) Lack of Access to Drinking
Due to scarcity of water the people are not able to get fresh and clean
drinking water. Less water consumption leads to many diseases and
problems as living things cannot live long without water.
b) Poverty
Scarcity of water also leads to poverty. People are not able to get water the
natural resource for their survival a basic need are facing many problems
due to this.
c) Hunger
Without water crops cannot be grown as a result living things would suffer
from hunger. Water scarcity causes starvation for both humans and
animals in that particular area.
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72 d) Diseases
If there is no access to clean water people would be effected with
waterborne diseases with the dirty and polluted water. Unhygienic
conditions would p revail constantly.
e) Sanitation issues
No clean water means no cleanliness either food, utensils or living beings.
Improper sanitation leads to diseases, also causes mental health issues
including depression and anxiety.
f) Lack of Education
Water scarcit y may lead to illiteracy in the areas having water scarcity
problems. As people drink unhygienic water they fall sick frequently and
cannot go to school regularly or they are struggling to get some clean
water for their family resulting in the absence in schools.
3.8 MEASURES ON WATER SCARCITY
1) Recycle Water:
New technologies have been developed to recycle water and rainwater. It
not only prevents scarcity of water but also saves money from spending it
on medicines, hospitals and to the doctor.
2) Advance Technology Related to Conserve Water:
Though a lot of work has been done in conserving water still more is to be
done in-order to ensure that the rest of the world is able to conserve water.
Investing money and efforts into conservation of life saving things could
save the life on earth.
3) Improve Practices Related to Farming:
The main culprits of water scarcity are the methods of farming and
irrigation. Improving agricultural practices using new techniques that use
less water and also those methods using water to its fullest potential.
4) To Improve Sewage Systems:
A good sewage system provides good drinking water. Without proper
sanitation water in those specific areas becomes polluted and laden
with water borne diseases. By improving sewage system water scarcity
can be prevented from becoming worse.
1) Education:
Educating people about the proper use of water in day to day use,
agricultural purpose and many more uses should be done on priority basis.
There is a need to change in our utensils washing syst em and minimize the
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73 Every independent home, flat and housing societies should have rain
harvesting facility. low cost technologies for waste water treatment and
recycling for non-drinking purposes should be used. If we see water
leaking anywhere simply close the tap or immediately repair the leakage.
2) Support Clean Water Initiatives:
Giving support to the organizations working to conserve water will not
only help them to save water but also educate the people about
conservation of natural resources. By donating time, skills or money will
help them to save the earth.
A small step can make significant saving in water consumption and
conservation. A small steady water leak can cause a l oss of 226,800 litres
of water per year. So, we have to be aware and conscious of water wastage
or else we will not be able to avail the basic quantity of water that we need
to carry on with our normal lives. The time to take initiative has arrived.
3.9 C. CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT OF WATER
RESOURCES
If we do not wisely use and conserve our water resources a situation
will come where there will be water everywhere but not a single drop t o
drink. Research shows that by 2025, many countries in the world along with
India will face a deliberate scarcity of water. At present many regions in our
country are currently undergoing the process of water stress. Falken Mark a
Swedish expert on water in his research has noted that ‘Water Stress’
happens when the water availability falls below 1000 cubic meters per
person per day.
Though India is blessed with large rivers like the Ganga, Yamuna,
Godavari, Narmada and other big rivers, India’s socio -econ omic
development have contributed more to decreasing water resources. The main
reasons behind shortage of water in India are rising population of India,
modernization, industrialization, urbanization, modernization of agriculture.
Due to this most of our prominent rivers, especially the smaller ones are full
of toxics with waste products and pollution.
Water is indeed an essential resource for life on earth and it must be
conserved. Humans had learned to conserve the available water resource by
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74
Dams are nothing but simple hydraulic structures that act as a barrier
between the source of water and destination of flowing water. In olden
days dams were small and made by hand. But now-a-days engineering
techniques and methods are used to construct most of the dams. The water
flow can be obstructed, redirected or slowed down with the help of a dam,
depending on the need. The barrier many a times create a small reservoir
or a lake, collecting the excess flow of water.
Dams are mostl y used for irrigation, while some are used for generating
hydroelectricity. Though dams help in conserving water resources, they
can also cause over sedimentation of the river beds.
Rainwater Harvesting:
Rainwater harvesting is more like the recycling of n atural water. It is one
of the most efficient and effective way of conserving water.

Rain water harvesting is a common practice in states like Rajasthan, West
Bengal, Meghalaya and major parts of South India, where rainfall is
usually heavy. In this syst em people connect PVC pipes to a drain on their
roof and the rainwater is collected below in large storage tanks. This stored
water is then used for daily needs even after the rainy season.

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75 Bamboo Drip Irrigation
This indigenous method is practiced in the north eastern states of India
since 200 years. It not only helps to conserve the region’s water resources
but also helps in the irrigation of local farms and fields. Bamboo pipes are
used to tap waters of streams and springs. About 18020 litres of water flow
through a network of pipes and end up as drips on the farmlands.

3.10 GOVERNMENT SCHEMES FOR WATER
CONSERVATION
The Government of India has established National Water Mission as one
of the eight National Missions under the National Action Plan on Climate
Change. The Union Cabinet approved the comprehensive Mission
Document for National Water Mission (NWM) on 6th April, 2011. The
main objective of NWM is “conservation of water, minimizing wastage
and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States
through integrated water resources development and management”. NWM
has identified five goals as under: -
1) Comprehensive water data base in public domain and assessment of
the impact of climate change on water resource;
2) Promotion of citize n and state actions for water conservation,
augmentation and preservation;
3) Focused attention to vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas;
4) Increasing water use efficiency by 20%; and
5) Promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.
Various strategies for achieving the goals have been identified which lead
to integrated planning for sustainable development with active
participation of the stakeholders. In pursuance to the approval accorded by
the Union Cabinet to the National Water Missi on, a Mission Directorate
was established in the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development &
Ganga Rejuvenation. Eight Advisory Groups/Committees as envisaged in
the NWM Mission document have been constituted.
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76 Major Programs of the Department
The prog rams/schemes implemented by the Department include both
Centrally Sponsored Schemes as well as State Plan Schemes.
A. State Plan Schemes
1) Soil & Water Conservation in General Areas.
2) Watershed Management Program.
B. Centrally Sponsored Schemes
1) Integ rated Wasteland Development Program (IWDP).
2) Integrated Watershed Management Program (IWMP).
C. Additional Central Assistance
1) Watershed Development project in Shifting Cultivation Areas
(WDPSCA)
2) Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Program (AIBP)
D. NAB ARD Loan
Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF)
E.Other Government of India Schemes
1) Soil Conservation for enhancing the productivity of degraded lands in
the catchment of River Kopili in Jaintia Hills District under Macro -
Management Mode of Agric ulture Department, Meghalaya.
2) Rastriya Krishi Vigyan Yojna (RKVY)
F. Special Plan Assistance
1) Cherrapunjee Ecological Project - Restoration of Degraded Lands Under
Sohra Plateau.
A) State Plan Schemes
1. Soil & Water Conservation in General Areas
This scheme covers the general areas outside those not specifically
covered by other packages of schemes of the Department. Its main
objective is to reduce soil erosion hazards and land degradation and
conservation of water, where individuals/groups of farmers are targeted.
Activities taken up under this Scheme include terracing and reclamation,
erosion control, water conservation and distribution, a forestation,
cash/horticulture crops development works water harvesting works, farm
ponds, conservation works in urban areas, etc.
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77 3.Watershed Management Programme
The programme aims for treating the micro watersheds on an integrated
approach. The activities include treatment of arable land, non - arable land
and drainage lines. Due to fund constraint, the activities have been
confined mainly to afforestation, cash/ horticultural crop developmental
works.
B) Centrally Sponsored Schemes
1. Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP)
The scheme is funded by the Department of Land Resources, Ministry of
Rural Devel opment, Government of India with 91.66% as Central Share
and 8.34% as State Share. With an intention of involving village
communities in the implementation of Watershed Development Projects
(WDP) under IWDP, the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD),
Govern ment of India, adopted the WDP Guidelines (1995) which was
subsequently revised in 2001 (WDP Revised Guidelines, 2001) and later
evolved the New Guidelines for Hariyali (2003) which are under
implementation w.e.f. April 1, 2003.
There are 112 projects sanctioned for treatment in 439 micro - watersheds
covering a total area of 2,21,225.00 hectare with a total cost of
Rs.13,053.25 lakh.
3. Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)
During 2009 -10, the Government of India, Ministry of Rural
Development, D epartment of Land Resources, has approved for treatment
of 30,000 hectares in 18 watershed projects of the State. Subsequently, the
Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development,
Government of India approved 52,000, 37,500 and 38,870 hectares of area
for treatment during 2010 -11, 2011 -12 and 2012 -13 respectively.
The Central and State share for the IWMP projects is in the ratio of 90:10.
The main objectives of this programme are as follows:
 To dissipate soil and water erosion and surface run -off
 To harvest/ recycle surface runoff and rainwater
 To enhance soil moisture regime/ water holding capacity
 To promote sub-surface flow, base flow and ground water recharge
 To improve soil health and tilth
 To improve production and productivity
 To promote generation and gainful employment opportunities
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78 Major Programmes of the Department
C) Additional Central Assistance
1. Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas
(WDPSCA)
The scheme was implemented from the year 1995 -96 onwards. It is a 100%
Central assistance through the Ministry of Agriculture & Co - operation,
Government of India.
The main thrust of the project is as follows:
 Protect hill slopes of Jhum areas through soil and water conservation
measures on a watershed basis.
 Encourage and assist Jhummia families to develop Jhum land for
productive uses with improved cultivation and suitable package of
practices leading to settled cultivation.
 Impr oved socio -economic status of Jhummia families through
household/land -based activities.
 Mitigate ill effects of shifting cultivation by introducing appropriate
land use as per land capacity and improved technologies.
During 2012 -13, Government of India did not release any fund for the
scheme.
3. Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP)
This is a Central assistance scheme sponsored by the Ministry of Water
Resources. It is in the form of central grant (90 % of the project cost) and
the balance cost of the project (10%) as the State’s share which is to be
arranged by the state government from its own resources. The main
thrust of the programme is to increase the area under irrigation
thereby increasing the productivity of the area and improving the soc io-
economic condition of the people.
During 2011 -12, a total of 32 projects sanctioned during 2009 -10 have
been completed and no new projects were sanctioned by the Government
of India during the year 2012 -13.
D) NABARD Loan - Soil & Water Conservation Scheme under RIDF
The Department started implementing Scheme under Rural Infrastructure
Development Fund (RIDF) - NABARD Loan from the year 2000 -2001
onwards. The basic objective of the scheme is to enhance the productivity
of agriculture and its allied activ ities and in small river valleys, thereby
improving the socio -economic set up of the people in the rural areas.
Besides these, the scheme also envisages to promote sustainable
development through conservation and management of soil and water.
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79 A total of 49 projects had been implemented under the RIDF NABARD
Loan. Out of these, 12 projects are under RIDF -V (2000 -01 to 2002 -03),
11 projects under RIDF -IX (2004 -05 to 2006 -07), 7 projects under RIDF·
XIII (2007 -08 to 2009 -10), 10 projects under RIDF XIV (2009 -10
onwards) and 9 projects under RIDF -XV. 40 Projects under RIDF -V,
RIDF -IX and RIDF· XIII and RIDF XIV have been completed, while 9
projects under RIDF -XV are ongoing.
E) Other Government of India Schemes
1. Soil and Water Conservation in the Catchment of River Kopili
The Department is implementing a scheme known as River Valley Project
& Flood Prone River (RVP & FPR) of River Kopili under the Macro -
management mode. The State Agriculture Department is the Nodal
Department of this centrally sponsored program me of the Ministry Of
Agriculture, Department of Agriculture & Co -operation (Natural Resource
Management Division).
Objectives: -
Prevention of land degradation by adoption of appropriate based soil and
water conservation measures on watershed approach.
Improvement of land capability and moisture regime in the water
sheds.
Promotion of land-use to match land capability.
Prevention of soil erosion and run off from the watershed to prevent
premature siltation of reservoirs.
The selection of the watersheds was based as per the priority list of the
watersheds. The Soil and Land Use Survey of India (SLUSI) was engaged
in the task of priority delineation and detailed Soil survey of the Kopili
Catchment. The watersheds have been prioritized based on the magnitude
and criticality of degradation into five categories; viz, Very High, High,
Medium, Low and Very Low.
Priority Category No. of Watersheds Area in Ha
Very High 259 1,11,516
High 84 37,121
Medium 40 19,320
Low 4 2,032
Grand Total 387 1,69,989
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80 A tota l of 12 watersheds falling under very high priority have been
covered under this scheme. The total area of 12 watersheds is 5218
hectares with 4863 hectares as the treatable area, covering 21 villages with
1145 families.
3. Rashtriya Krishi Vigyan Yojana (RKVY)
The area of focus of this programme is for the development of Rainfed
Farming Systems in and outside watershed areas as also integrated
development of watershed areas, wastelands, river valleys and for
activities relating to enhancement of crop produ ction and popularization of
micro -irrigation systems. The thrust area is to protect the loss of topsoil,
improving soil fertility, enhancing crop production, land and water
productivity of watershed areas comprising of wastelands, river
valleys and the eco-system as a whole. The programme is implemented
with the Department of Agriculture as the Nodal Agency.
Objectives
 To incentivize the States so as to increase public investment in
Agriculture & Allied Sectors.
 To provide flexibility & autonomy to States i n the process of planning
and executing Agriculture & Allied Sector Schemes
 To ensure the preparation of agriculture plans for the Districts and the
States based on agro -c1imatic conditions, availability of Technology
and natural resources.
 To ensure that the local needs/ crops/ priorities are reflected in the
agricultural plans of the states.
 To achieve the goal of reducing the yield gaps in important crops,
through focused interventions.
 To maximize returns to the farmers in Agriculture & Allied Sectors.
 To bring about quantifiable changes in the production & productivity
of various components of Agriculture & Allied Sectors by addressing
them in a holistic manner.
The proposed schemes under RKVY mainly comprise of the following:
a) Soil & Water Conservation for enhancing crop production &
productivity in river valley/ valley bottom lands.
b) Soil & Water Conservation for improving crop production &
productivity of cultivated Jhum & Bun lands including abandoned
Jhum & Bun lands.
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81 d) Soil & Water Conservation for improvement of traditional water
conservation & distribution system for enhanced crop production.
F) Cherrapunjee Ecological Project -
Restoration of Degr aded Lands under Sohra Plateau
This project under Special Plan Assistance (SPA) was sanctioned by the
Govt. of India during 2010 -11. The objective of the Scheme is to enhance
Soil moisture/water regime by the following ways.
 Ameliorate the ecology and envi ronment of Sohra Plateau.
 Restore degraded lands
 Strengthen village level institutions or NRM
 Minimize human activities detrimental to the environment
 Create avenues for sustainable livelihood
The main objectives of the project are as follows: -
 Check soil loss and reduce silt load in streams and rivers
 Improve soil moisture regime
 Promote in-situ water harvesting
 Improve recharge of springs and aquifers
 Afforestation/ reforestation of denuded hills/areas
 Promote development of pasture lands and horticulture plantations
 Imparting training and capacity building for the villagers/ farmers on
sustainable farming practices
 Provide support for livelihood activities -piggery, poultry, fisheries
 Create awareness amongst the people on natural resource management
3.11 SPECIFIC PROJECTS FOR WATER
CONSERVATION
Water conservation: Cross country community efforts In drought hit areas,
communities have contributed towards creating solutions to save, manage
and restore water. A few examples are given below:
l. In drou ght hit Bundlekhand, Parmarth, a civil society organisation is
supporting resilience amongst the drought affected families through
development of more than 100 drought risk reduction plans, rainwater
conservation and establishing community and institutiona l linkages.
JalSahelis (friends of water) are managing in -village water supply and
water conservation efforts.
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82 lI. Under Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems
(APFAMGS) project implemented in 7 drought prone districts of AP,
farmers are managin g their groundwater systems and have adopted
suitable agricultural options.
lII. In 2002, drought hit Raj Samadhiyala village in Gujarat, managed to
take up three crops a year using the rainwater harvested through the
construction of farm ponds, percolatio n tanks, check dams and sub -surface
structures.
lV. Hiware Bazaar village, Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra, adopted
an integrated model of water management wherein, the villagers
contributed by providing labour. Annual water budgeting exercise was
intro duced in 2004.
V. Drought prone Laporiya village in Rajasthan has a unique dyke system
called the ‘chauka’ to capture rainwater, improving water availability for
drinking and harvest.
3.12 SUMMARY
Water is vital natural resource, we depend on it for irriga tion,
industry, domestic needs, shipping sanitation and for disposal of wastes.
Water bodies like ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, sea, oceans have become
polluted due to industrial growth, urbanization and other problems created
by mankind. Water an essenti al nutrient plays a key role in the human
body. We can survive for several weeks without food, but not without
water. Every system in human body needs water for its functioning from
cells and tissues to all the vital organs of the body. Water a unique natu ral
resource available on earth is essential for all the important activities like
food production, industries like energy, production and manufacturing. It
plays an important role in economic development and the general well -
being of the country. Water is not merely an economic commodity but
also a social and cultural good as per united nations. Water scarcity in
India has been created by the people of the country due to excess
population growth and mismanagement of water resources. If we do not
wisely us e and conserve our water resources a situation will come where
there will be water everywhere but not a single drop to drink.


❖❖❖❖
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4
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Solid Waste
4.4 Bio-Waste
4.5 E-Waste
4.6 B.Problems With Solid Waste And Consequences
4.7 C. Solid Waste Management
4.8 Personal Safety
4.9 Cleaning Tools
4.10 Summary
4.11 C. Solid Waste Management
4.12 Self-Study
4.1 OBJECTIVES
a) To study the concept of Solid Waste
b) To study the problems and consequences arising from Solid Waste
c) To study effective management of Solid Was te
4.2 INTRODUCTION
The wide range of waste, useless and unwanted material produced due to
commercial, industrial and agricultural and any other sources is called as
Solid Waste. It may consist of radioactive, medical of environmental
product which can be hazardous or non hazardous in nature. Solid waste
refers to any type of garbage, trash, refuse or leftover which is discarded
abandoned material. In our day to day activity, we often use the material
and throw as a trash which is termed as Municipal Solid Waste. The
wastes that generated from domestic or household activities, hotel
restaurants and on road eatable stalls, shops or educational institutions
and other public places are termed as Municipal wastes. They may be
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84 (waste water, used oil, stale food or papers/ documents, pins or broken
or damaged part of TV, Radio or Mobiles) etc.
US Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), defines “solid
waste” as any garbage or refuse material resulting from common
community activities of households, commercial establishments, industrial
facilities, agricultural operations, and so on.
North America, which has two industrialized nations, has the greatest
average daily trash production at 4.6 po unds. In reality, the continent
produced almost 289 million tones in 2016. However, 99.7 percent of all
waste is collected in North America. This indicates that there is some form
of solid waste management programme in place in every state, city, and
count ry.
In North America, recyclable items like plastic, metal, glass, cardboard,
and paper make up about 55 percent of the waste. The remainder is
dumped in clean landfills. Even yet, recycling still accounts for 30% of
landfill garbage.
4.3 SOLID WASTE
Solid waste is a broad category of garbage that includes frequently used,
unnecessary, and undesirable products. Residential, commercial,
industrial, agricultural, medical, and radioactive sources all frequently
produce this kind of trash.
Solid waste is any ma terial that is subject to the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) of the US federal Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). Keep in mind that only waste products that strictly adhere
to RCRA's standards of solid waste are classified as such. The E PA also
creates regulations that specify which solid wastes fall into the non -
hazardous and hazardous categories.
Understanding these definitions is crucial for governmental organisations
and private companies that have been tasked with or wish to explore solid
waste management. The same is true for those who produce these garbage.
This understanding is an essential first step in waste management
programmes because it enables all organizations to correctly identify
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The following can be considered solid waste:
Recyclable materials include things like plastic bottles, glass, paper,
cardboard, aluminium cans, tyres, and aluminium foil. Biodegradable
waste includes things li ke food and kitchen waste as well as dried leaves
and grass clippings. Electrical and electronic waste includes things like
broken electronics like phones, watches, alarm clocks, and fuses. Tetra
food packages, toys, and outdoor furniture comprise composit e waste.
Concrete slabs, bricks, stones, and gravel from construction and
demolition projects; hazardous household waste from cleaning agents,
light bulbs, aerosol spray cans, and paint products; Fungicides, herbicides,
and pesticides are examples of toxic waste. Biomedical waste includes old
medications and bandages.
Solid waste types differ from one nation to another as well. For instance,
US solid wastes are frequently less in weight and volume than equivalent
materials from Europe or Japan. Paper and ca rdboard products make up
around 40% of the solid trash produced in America, while food wastes
make up about 10%. The remainder is made up of various trims, wood,
glass, plastic, metal, and other materials.
We can also classify Solid Waste as given below:
Biodegradable Waste – leftover food items and kitchen waste, fruit
covers, dried plants, leaves and leafy vegetables etc.
Biomedical Waste – human or animal body parts, expired medicines,
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86

Construction and Demolition Waste - concrete slabs, cement blocks,
bricks, stones, grinded powder, tiles etc.
Electrical and Electronic Wastes (E -wastes) - non-functioning electrical
Appliances / gadgets, TV, Radio parts, broken mobile phones, watches,
copper wires, fuse etc.

Hazardous Waste - cleaning fluids, light bulbs, aerosol spray cans,
painting liquids.
Household Toxic Wastes - fungicides, sprays, herbicides, pesticides,
common fluids.
Recyclable Materials – paper plates, newspapers, plastic bottles,
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There is variety of solid wastes as per the nature of the area or
surroundings. In industrial areas, one can find industrial solid wastes
whereas in slum areas it can be food leftovers or household wastes. In the
regions like Institutional areas it may be paper, pens, books or related
material whereas in villages one can find cow dung, dried leaves or grass
as solid wastes. On the construction or demolition sites, it is full of solid
wastes like concrete slabs, cement blo cks or bricks or stones etc. The solid
wastes is also vary from the nature and culture of the country. Like US,
solid wastes mainly based on paper products and a food waste is minimal
whereas in European countries it is largely wooden products, plastic or
metal wastes. It is only because of style of culture they follow and
availability of sources for livelihood.
Sources of Solid Waste
There are many sources of solid waste that can be classified as below:
1.Residential (domestic or household)
2. Industrial / Commercial
3. Medicine field or Institutional
4. Construction or Demolition Sites
5. Agricultural Waste
The process of waste handling and disposal varies in different countries.
In India, the processes differ according to the source of solid waste.
They can be classified as:
1. Hazardous Solid Waste - Hazardous wastes: These are substances
that have characteristic ignitability or reactivity or toxicity. Radioactive
substances, chemicals, flammable wastes and explosives are common
hazardous wastes.
2. Mu nicipal Solid Waste - Municipal wastes are produced by residential
tasks, eating establishments, educational facilities, and public spaces.
Municipal wastes can be either solid (municipal solid trash) or liquid
(domestic liquid waste), including garbage fr om businesses, workplaces,
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88 4.4 BIO-WASTE
All human endeavors result in garbage. We are all aware that this garbage
might be toxic and has to be disposed of properly. Water, soil, and air are
polluted by industrial waste, sew age, and agricultural waste. Both humans
and the environment may be at risk from it. Similar to this, hospitals and
other healthcare institutions produce large amounts of garbage that might
expose individuals to illnesses, notably HIV, Hepatitis B & C, and
Tetanus. India produces over three million tones of medical waste yearly,
and that volume is anticipated to increase by 8% every year.

We can classify biomedical waste as given below:
Any solid or liquid waste, including its container and any intermedia te
products, produced during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of
humans or animals, or during related research activities, as well as during
the production or testing of biological or in health facilities, is referred to
as bio -medical waste.
The biomedical waste can produce infection and it can be toxic in nature,
so one be very careful while handling it.
Human anatomical waste, such as tissues, organs, and body parts, is
included in biomedical waste.
 animal waste produced by veterinary clinics during research
 Biotechnology and microbiology waste,
 Toxic substances and abandoned medications.
 Waste including blades, syringes, hypodermic needles, used gloves
etc.
 contaminated waste, including dressings, bandages, plaster casts,
bloody
 materials, t ubes, and catheters
 liquid waste produced in any of the diseased regions
 Chemical wastes and incinerator ash.
The biohazard emblem should be on the cans and bags to let patients and
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89 4.5 E-WAS TE
Electronic garbage, sometimes known as e -waste, is another category of
solid waste that is possibly expanding at the quickest rate in many
industrialised nations. This category includes old computers, televisions,
phones, and other electronic gadgets. T here is growing concern about this
form of waste. Among the elements of concern found in electronic gadgets
are lead, mercury, and cadmium. Government rules may be needed to
control their recycle and disposal.

Solid Waste Management
Solid waste manageme nt refers to the administrative framework that
coordinates the operations of collection, source separation, storage,
transportation, transfer, processing, treatment, and disposal of solid waste.

Image courtesy: http://cdn.britannica.com
Classification of Municipal Solid Waste Management
Based on their properties, solid waste may be divided into two types. munotes.in

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90 1. Solid Organic Waste
2. Solid Inorganic Waste
Solid Organic Waste
When left unattended, biodegradable trash that is in the process of
decomposing rele ases an unpleasant and obnoxious odour. Food, sewage
sludge, green waste, etc. are a few examples.
Organic Material
Solid waste that doesn't break down in any way. Depending on the kind
and nature of the substance they are made of, this category of waste
material may be flammable.
Solid waste should be properly /managed. If not, it would harm the
environment and endanger public health. Environmental planning for a
region ought to take solid waste management into account.
The system of administration that manages the activities of collection,
source separation, storage, transportation, transfer, processing,
treatment, and disposal of solid waste.
There are various types of waste management, a few of them are listed
below:
(a) Solid Waste Management
(b) Liqu id Waste Management
(c) Biological Waste Management

Management of solid waste
Solid -waste management system is a collection, handling, and disposal of
solid waste that is disposed after being used up or becoming unusable.
Unsanitary circumstances brought on by improper municipal solid waste
disposal can result in environmental contamination and epidemics of
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91 The handling of solid waste involves intricate technological issues. They
also provide a wide range of management and solution challenges in the
administrative, economic, and social spheres.
Earlier, wastes were thrown into unpaved streets and highways in ancient
towns, where they were allowed to collect. The earliest recorded ru le
outlawing this practise was not enacted until 320 BCE in Athens. At that
time, Greece and the eastern Mediterranean cities with a Greek majority
started to develop a system for disposing of trash. The disposal techniques
were quite primitive and used op en trenches that were close to the city
walls. An attempt was made to move garbage further from the cities as the
population grew. Scavengers were given the job of transporting trash to
landfills outside the limits around. But in smaller towns, the majori ty of
residents continued to throw trash into the streets. However, rubbish
collection system became the part of government roles for public safety.
The countries like Boston, New York City, and Philadelphia started
municipal rubbish collection towards th e tail end of the eighteenth
century. The techniques for getting rid of waste were still relatively
primitive as it was thrown in river or the sea.
4.6 B. PROBLEMS WITH SOLID WASTE AND
CONSEQUENCES
Garbage Collection
Planning a collection route and sched uling it is another difficult challenge
for the administration. The route needs to be planned for the most
effective utilisation of labour, machinery, people, and fuel. Just a few of
the factors that must be considered while formulating a route and schedul e
are the service type, distance, population density, and even the climate. To
achieve this, sophisticated computers and algorithms are used.
Solid -waste disposal
For the preservation of the environment's quality, safety, and public
health, proper solid -waste collection is crucial. As it makes up around
three -quarters of the overall cost of solid -waste management, it is a labor -
intensive operation. The work was handed over to local municipal
corporation with the help of labours and small as well as big vehi cles like
trucks and lorries under the contract system. The taxes were imposed and
the system was regularized where the commercial workers were hired and
paid on reasonable rates. For each collecting truck, a driver and one or
two loaders are needed. It i s possible to load from the front, back, or side.
The amount of waste and process of collection and dropping was decided.
Choosing the best collecting route is a difficult issue, particularly in big
and heavily populated cities. An optimal route is one tha t yields the most
economical use of labour and equipment. Collection frequency, hauling
distance, service type, and climate are among the variables. Due to low
population densities and high unit costs, garbage collection can be
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92

Due to the requirement for specialized machinery and controls, highly
qualified technical staff, and auxiliary fuel systems, waste -to-energy
systems are more expensive to construct and run than standard
incinerators. The recovery of ther mal energy from trash is a feasible solid -
waste management alternative from an engineering and economic point of
view, on the other hand, since the sale of produced steam or electricity
offsets most of the additional cost. The technique of composting provi des
a way to simultaneously treat and recycle waste and sewage sludge.
Composting is projected to become increasingly prevalent as landfill and
solid -waste incinerator choices are constrained by environmental
regulations and proper restrictions. Sorting an d separating, size reduction,
and digestion of the waste are the phases that make up the process.

Image courtesy: http://thehansindia.com
Locations for dumping the trash
The location for dumping grounds is an essential part. Such locations are
situated o utside the city areas. It increases the travelling cost of trash to
such locations followed by treatment on it. One or more transfer stations
are required if the end location of the trash is far from the neighborhood
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93 collection trucks is consolidated into a bigger truck, such a tractor -trailer
unit. Non hazardous garbage can be transported in open -top trailers to a
local processing or disposal facility. There are also closed compact or-type
trailers available for dangerous kind of waste material such as bio medical
trash, however these need to include ejector systems. Several collecting
trucks empty straight onto the transfer vehicle at a station with direct
discharge. In a station th at uses storage discharge technology, trash is first
dumped into a pit or platform for storage before being hoisted or pushed
onto a delivery truck using gear. More than 2000 ton of waste is handled
daily in the cities like Mumbai.
Processing on trash dige stion
Either in covered mechanical facility or via the open windrow approach,
pulverized trash is ready for composting. Windrows are lengthwise,
slender piles of trash. Every few days, they are rotated or mixed to provide
the bacteria that are digesting th e organics access to air. It might take five
to eight weeks for the waste to be completely digested, depending on the
moisture levels. The metabolic activity was manually conducted for
bacteria generation, eliminating any harmful organisms that may be
present in the trash. Composting on open windrows takes a sizable amount
of land.
Need of mechanical composting facilities
The amount of area needed for mechanical composting facilities is an
important condition to treat the trash. One or more closed tanks or
digesters with revolving vanes that mix and aerate the shred waste are
used in mechanical composting systems. It takes roughly a week for the
trash to completely digest.
Compost that has been dug up has to be treated before it can be used as
mulch or a so il enhancer. Drying, screening, and granulating or pelletizing
are all included in processing. Such processes are expensive to transport
digested compost and there is rivalry among organic chemical fertilizers,
demand for it in agriculture is often minimal . The waste and dirt are
dispersed and compacted using a variety of heavy equipment, such as
rubber -tired dozers or crawler tractors. To accomplish high -density
compaction of the garbage, heavy steel -wheeled compactors may also be
used which is expensive.
Serious environmental pollution
Leachate is another by -product of decomposition in unclean landfills, and
it is a highly polluted liquid. The majority of leachate is produced when
runoff comes into contact with decaying waste in the refuse cells. Serious
environmental pollution issues, including the potential contamination of
drinking water sources, can arise if leachate seeps out onto the ground
surface or into the groundwater.
Methane gas is one of the byproducts of this breakdown. Methane is a
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94 air. It may also move through permeable soil layers over great distances,
and if it is allowed to build up in basements or other small spaces, deadly
situations may develop. Methane migration is regulated in contemporary
landfills by gas -venting systems and impermeable barriers. Methane gas is
sometimes recovered from landfills and used as fuel, either directly or as a
component of biogas.
4.7 C. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid waste is any garbage or refuse material coming from routine
community activities such as those performed by households, businesses,
factories, farms, and other similar enterprises. Waste materials that are
semi -solid, liquid, or gaseous are also included in this.
Tons of soli d trash are produced every day. These trashes need to be
disposed of. However, without efficient waste management, the build -up
of improperly dumped or processed trash would damage our environment
and provide a threat to the public's health. As a result, e ach local
government needs a reliable solid waste management strategy. The goal is
to decrease or perhaps completely remove the harmful effects that
generated waste material has on the environment and public health. Such
initiatives should promote a higher standard of living for all members of
society and assist economic growth.
The best possible conceptualization, planning, design, and implementation
must also go into solid waste management. This will keep the cost of
disposing of trash and processing wast es low and avoid the problems
raised out of it.

During the first half of the 20th century, technological developments
persisted, leading to the creation of trash grinders, compaction trucks, and
pneumatic collecting systems. By the middle of the 20th cent ury, however,
it was clear that issues with pollution and threats to public health were
being caused by open dumping and inefficient combustion of solid waste.
In order to replace the practise of open dumping and lessen the
dependency on trash incineration , sanitary landfills were developed as a
result. Due to the quick degradation of food waste, refuse collection often
happens at least once every week. Garbage grinders or garbage disposals
can minimise the quantity of trash in a single home's trash. The ad ditional
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95

Features of Solid Waste
a) Household, industrial, educational, and industrial activities are among
the sources of solid waste. Refuse or municipal waste is any nonhazardous
garbage from a community that has to be collected and transported to a
processing or disposal location. Garbage and waste are included in refuse.
Decomposing food waste makes up the majority of garbage, which also
includes dry materials like glass, paper, linen, and wood. Bulky waste
such as old refrigerators, sofas, and enormous tree stumps are considered
trash. Trash needs specific management and pickup.
b) The construction and demolition (C&D) waste (or debris) makes up a
sizeable portion of total solid waste. C&D trash, however, is often
disposed of in municipal sanitary landfills since it is inert and
nonhazardous.
c) The properties of solid waste vary greatly between towns and countries.
Nearly 40% of waste is made up of paper and paperboard products,
whereas less than 10% is made up of food waste. Yard waste, wood, glass,
metal, plastic, leather, fabric, and other random materials make up the
remainder. Geographical location, economic conditions, the time of year,
and many other variables all affect th ese numbers. Before designing and
constructing any treatment or disposal facility, it is important to carefully
examine the waste characteristics of each community.
d) Prior to developing a waste management system, it is important to
carefully examine the characteristics of the prevalent solid wastes in each
location. Before designing or constructing any transfer station, dump,
incineration plant, treatment facility, or recycling facility, they must be
carefully analyzed.
e) Discarded Military Munitions - unused or damaged ammunition items
and components that are manufactured or used by the armed forces or the
Department of Defense are classified as solid waste. Such munitions may
be discarded, destroyed, or otherwise rendered useless. Ammunition that
has be en used, fired, or detonated is regarded as solid waste if it is
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96

Image courtesy: Hindustan imes
Collection of Solid Waste
The collection of solid waste at its source is a crucial component of solid
waste management. Following that, wastes must be transferred safely to a
transfer station, processing plant, incineration plant, or landfill. For the
sake of preserving environmental quality, public safety, and public health,
proper collection is crucial. The labor -intensive task costs about 3/4 of the
overall amount incurred for solid waste management in a particular area.
The local government entity often assigns public employees to complete
the assignment. Solid trash collection trucks are entirely cove red and
include an integrated compactor. Although there are larger trucks as well,
each truck has a capacity of 30 to 40 cubic metres of compacted rubbish.
There are typically specified collection places across the city where they
are subsequently gathered . Instead of chutes, some have designated
locations on the curb side. A schedule is also used to collect solid trash. In
big cities, collection is typically done every day. Collection occurs once or
twice a week in suburban or poorly populated areas. Addit ionally, there
are scheduled collections for specific trash kinds. For instance, one
monthly collection of burned -out fluorescent bulbs and regulated
hazardous trash may be planned. Some locations provide drop -off points
where individuals can deliver their recyclables.
Collection of biological wastes
Utilizing various sorts of containers to collect biological waste from places
like operating rooms, labs, wards, kitchens, and hallways is part of the
process. The containers or bins should be positioned such that complete
collection is made possible. Sharps must always be housed in puncture -
proof containers to protect the workers handling them from harm and
infection.
Biomedical waste is kept properly after collection has taken place. Wastes
from various type s must be collected separately in recognizable
containers. In large hospitals (with more than 250 beds), storage should
not last more than 8 to 10 hours. It is possible to properly identify each
container with the ward or room it is kept in. The labelling is done
because it could be required to track the garbage back to where it came
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97 Transporting the garbage for treatment should either be done in covered
wheelbarrows or trolleys. Av oid manually loading whenever possible.

Segregation
Segregation is the fundamental separation of various waste types created
at the source, lowering the hazards and expenses associated with
management and disposal. The most important stage in the managem ent of
biomedical waste is segregation. Good biomedical waste management is
only possible with effective segregation.
 The amount of garbage that requires specific handling and treatment is
reduced through segregation.
 Sharps and other medical trash cannot be mixed with regular
municipal rubbish because to effective segregation processes.
 It prevents the illicit reuse of some medical waste components, such as
old syringes, needles, and plastics.
 It offers the chance to recycle some parts of medical waste, su ch as
plastics,

following rigorous and appropriate cleaning.
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98 The benefits of segregation of wastes.
 Recycled plastic can be utilized in applications that are not intended
for food.
 The biodegradable garbage from the general rubbish can be composted
on the hospital grounds and utilized for gardening.
 Recycling is a responsible environmental practice that may also
provide income.
 It reduces the expense of treatment and disposal (80% of hospital trash
is general garbage, which doesn't need special treatme nt if it isn't
contaminated with other contagious waste).
Storage
Storage of unwanted bio wastes is another problem. If it is infectious, it
may create problems to others. To disinfect it another issue but it cannot
be ignored. Such bio waste material shou ld be disposed off immediately or
if necessary it should be kept in special storage which is made for it.
Transportation
Before shipping, the bags or containers carrying Bio Medical Wastes
should be fastened or lidded. To restrict access to and direct cont act with
the garbage by transportation operators, scavengers, and the general
public, special trucks must be utilized. The shipping containers need to be
completely covered. The driver must get training on the protocols he must
follow in the event of an ac cidental spillage, and the design should take
into account the impacts of traffic accidents. The inside of the containers
should also be able to be completely cleaned.
All employees handling trash should be required to wear safety
equipment.
Gloves: The ga rbage retrievers should handle waste with heavy -duty
bright yellow color rubber gloves. The gloves should be rinsed twice after
handling the trash. After each usage, the gloves should be cleaned with
carbolic soap and a disinfectant. The operator should be able to wear it.
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99 Reduce Infection possibility
To reduce rodent or insect infestation and disagreeable odours, most towns
require household waste to be kept in sturdy, readily cleaned containers
with tight -fitting lids. Although some towns utilize bigger containers that
may be physically lifted and dumped into collection vehicles, most
communities use galvanized plastic and metal containers. For curbside
pickup, plastic bags are typically utilized as disposable containers or
liners. Dumpsters can be used as temporary holding until the waste is
dumped in areas where huge amounts of trash are produced, such as in
retail malls, hotels, or residential complexes. On -site compactors are used
in some business and office buildings to cut down on garbage volume.
Solid Garbage Management: The process of collecting waste and
processing or discarding it is referred to as solid waste management. It is
crucial for children to understand where solid waste originates.
Solid home trash, solid agricultural waste, solid cons truction waste,
sewage sludge, solid waste material from various industries and more are
the sources of solid waste. Municipal solid waste management, solid waste
management regulations, and other topics should be taught to the students
in the beginning.
Recycling: Solid Waste Management
The collection, transportation, recovery, and disposal of trash, as well as
the oversight and control of the waste management process, can all be
summed up as waste management.
The more recent approach to waste management, however, emphasizes the
seven R's: Rethink, Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Regulate, and
Research.

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100 1. Recycling is the process of turning outdated products into new ones in
order to c onserve resources. For instance, used newspapers may be
recycled to generate cardboard and tissue paper. Cans made of aluminum
may be recycled to make new ones. Recycling is the process of identifying
parts of solid waste that may still be useful economica lly and recovering
them for reuse. Recovering and using thermal energy is one sort of
recycling; this process is covered separately under incineration. Since
composting recovers the organic components of solid waste for reuse as
mulch or soil conditioner, it may also be thought of as a recycling process.
Other waste products could be put to good use again. This article discusses
the recovery of these materials, which include paper, metal, glass, plastic,
and rubber.
2. By utilizing used objects repeatedly, reuse means preserving the
resources in those items. Glass bottles, for instance, may be gathered,
cleaned, and filled once again.
Common Methods of Disposing of Solid Waste
The following are typical and beneficial intermediate solid waste
treatment, reuse , and disposal procedures used in rural communities:
1) Composting: Both urban and rural regions utilize composting as a
method of waste reduction to cut trash. Its organic components
disintegrate into smaller forms and become organic fertilizer for the
plants.

2) Solid trash that cannot be recycled or repurposed should be disposed of
through controlled tipping or burial. It is a technique for isolating garbage
of any kind without sorting or separating it first.


Here are a few techniques for isolating t he garbage:
a) To start, the disposal site should be located, and garbage that is close
to water sources, highways, and walkways, among other places, should
be collected from the location.
b) Dispose of the daily rubbish or solid waste collection in the pit.
c) Every day, cover the soil over the rubbish that has been dumped in the
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101 d) Keep the dirt covered over the garbage that has been dumped in the pit
each day and let it decay. After the trenches have been filled, the
plants may be planted.
3. Plowing in the Fields: Plowing in the fields aids in the separation of
organic, biodegradable waste, which aids in the recovery and reuse of
waste for soil conditioning.
4. Incineration: An incinerator converts organic and combustible garbage
into inorgani c, incombustible stuff through a high -temperature dry
oxidation process, significantly reducing waste volume and weight.

Other Methods of Disposal
Sanitary Landfill Waste: A way to dispose of trash on land without
endangering the health or safety of the people. The qualities of a sanitary
landfill that set it apart from an open dump include:
a. The trash is disposed of in a properly specified way at a landfill site that
has been carefully chosen and prepared.
b. Using the required heavy machinery, the was te materials are dispersed
and compacted.
c. A layer of compacted earth is placed on top of the garbage every day.
Treatment and Disposal of Solid Waste
Treatment of solid waste frequently starts at the source of the trash. Many
local government agencies h ave laws requiring generators to separate their
trash first. Additionally, producers are urged to cut back on waste output
by recycling, reusing, or composting.
Composting - You may compost organic waste, including grass clippings
and food scraps, right at the source. Compost uses worms, enzymes, loam
soil, and the natural process of decomposition. Compost is the end
product, and it may be applied to the soil or used as fertilizer.
Segregation - In the final facility, waste materials may be further divided
into categories. The segregation may be carried out swiftly and efficiently
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102 Any item that is to be recycled must first be processed and separated from
the raw garbage. Separation may be carried out at the waste's origin or at a
centralized processing plant.
Curbside separation, also known as source separation, is carried out by
private persons who separate newspapers, bottles, cans, and rubbish before
setting them out for collection. Many towns permit the "commingling" of
recyc lables other than paper (glass, metal, and plastic). Municipal
collection of source -separated trash is more expensive than regular trash
collection in both scenarios.
Recycling materials and trash can be separated at centralised mechanical
processing facil ities in place of source separation. Experience has shown
that contamination with wet waste and broken glass lowers the quality of
recyclables recovered from these facilities. The optimum method, as it is
presently understood, is to have people divide thei r trash into a small
number of categories, such as rubbish and other non recyclables,
magazines and other wastepaper, mixed metals, glass, and plastics, and
newspapers. An electromagnetic separator removes steel cans ("tin" cans
are actually steel with onl y a thin covering of tin), and the remaining
material is then sent over a vibrating screen to remove shattered glass.
Aluminum, plastic, and lighter glass containers are separated from each
other on the conveyor using an air classifier. Aluminum cans are s eparated
from plastics using an eddy -current separator, which repels the aluminium
from the conveyor belt, and glass is manually sorted by colour.
Hazardous and nonhazardous garbage were separated into two categories
in several nations, and different proce dures were created for their disposal.
Risks to human health and the environment were reduced via landfill
design and operation. In order to meet strict air quality regulations, new
rubbish incinerators were built with significant air pollution control
equipment and were designed to recover thermal energy from the waste.

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103 Chemical or mechanical treatments -Some solid wastes may need to go
through chemical or mechanical treatments in order to be sterilized before
they can be disposed of properly. In a vacuumed drum, for instance,
discarded fluorescent bulbs must be pulverized. The hazardous mercury,
which may be recycled, is removed from the bulbs using a vacuum. The
shattered glass is then either packaged for disposal or repurposed as
aggregate.
Incineration - Waste may be burnt at an incineration facility through the
process of incineration. These incinerators are built with numerous
incineration chambers, allowing for the oxidation of even the gases
released during th e burning process. A considerably cleaner gas is then
discharged into the environment as a result.
In a furnace, there are two phases of combustion: primary and secondary.
Primary combustion causes the trash to ignite and volatilize while
removing moisture from the air. The leftover unburned gases and particles
are oxidized during secondary combustion, which removes odours and
reduces the quantity of fly ash in the exhaust. Sometimes, supplemental
gas or fuel oil is utilised to initiate primary combustion w hen the waste is
extremely wet.
Air must be extensively mixed with the burning waste in order to supply
enough oxygen for both primary and secondary combustion. Air is
injected into the space above or supplied through apertures beneath the
grates. To ensur e optimum combustion efficiency, the plant operator must
establish the proportions of this under fire air and over fire air. A natural
draught in a tall chimney or mechanical forced -draft fans may both
maintain a constant flow of air.
Operation of an Incin erator
Burning solid trash is a very efficient way to reduce its volume and
weight, but it does produce greenhouse gas emissions. In contemporary
incinerators, garbage is burnt inside a professionally constructed furnace
under strict control. The waste's c ombustible material reacts with oxygen
to produce primarily carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat. An inert
residue of ash, glass, metal, and other solid materials termed bottom ash is
left behind after incinerating garbage, which can reduce the volume of
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104

The incinerator airstream carries the gaseous byproducts of incomplete
combustion as well as the finely separated particulate debris known as fly
ash. There are cinders, dust, and soot in fly ash. Modern incinerators must
be fitted with elaborate emission control mechanisms in order to capture
fly ash and gaseous by -products before they are released into the
atmosphere. If harmful metals are discovered to be present in the ash, it
must be handled as a hazardous waste.
Energy Restoration is a technique that uses the heat and steam produced
by burning solid waste to power turbines within an incineration plant. The
electricity generated by these turbines is subsequently sent into the
neighboring grid or used to run the fac tory. The final disposal of these
procedures' remaining materials takes place at a landfill.
Depending on the amount of paper present, the energy value of waste can
be as high as one -third that of coal. The heat released during incineration
can be captured using a refractory -lined furnace connected to a boiler.
Boilers allow the energy content of the waste to be recycled by converting
the heat of combustion into steam or hot water. Waste -to-energy facilities
are incinerators that utilise this method of ther mal energy recycling.
A water -tube wall furnace can also be utilised for energy recovery in place
of a separate furnace and boiler. Vertical steel tubes placed near enough
together to form continuous wall sections line the interior of such a
furnace. To p revent heat loss, the outside of the walls are insulated. In
addition to helping to regulate combustion temperatures without the need
for too much air, the water that is circulated through the tubes absorbs heat
to generate steam, which lowers the cost of air pollution management.
Waste -to-energy facilities run using either mass burning or fuel obtained
from waste. A mass burning system burns all the waste without any prior
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105 separates c ombustible material from non -combustibles like glass and
metal. Cogeneration is a method that may create both steam and electricity
if a turbine is put at the facility.
Reuse
Broken glass that has been recovered can be crushed and utilised in
asphalt pavin g. Crushed color -sorted glass is sold to glass producers as
cullet, a crucial component in the production of glass. Aluminum is baled
or compacted for use by smelters, and steel cans are baled and transported
to steel mills as scrap. Although it makes up a modest portion of municipal
solid trash, aluminium is the most valuable recyclable commodity. Due to
the numerous distinct polymeric components used in its creation, recycling
plastic is difficult. Mixed thermoplastics can only be used to create
inferior goods like "plastic timber."
Old newspapers are manually sorted on a conveyor belt in the paper
stream to eliminate corrugated debris and mixed papers. They are then put
loosely or in bales into trucks for transport to paper factories, where they
are recyc led to create new newspapers. For sale to tissue manufacturers,
mixed paper is separated from corrugated paper. Despite the fact that
pulping, de -inking, and screening wastepaper normally costs more than
producing paper from raw wood fibres, the market for recycled paper has
expanded as more processing facilities have been built.
Re-vulcanization is a technique for recovering rubber from solid waste;
however, the recycled rubber is typically not as durable as the original.


Image courtesy: Indian Express
Importance in the management of garbage
Sanitary landfills often offer the most cost -effective solution for non
recyclable waste disposal in places where suitable sites are readily
accessible. Finding locations, nevertheless, that provide sufficient
capacity, accessibility, and environmental conditions is become more and
more challenging. However, landfills will always be important to the
management of solid waste. Not all parts of solid waste can be recycled,
and there will always be leftovers after inci neration and other treatment munotes.in

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106 procedures that will ultimately need to be buried. Furthermore, landfills
may really make bad land better. In some towns, legally finished landfills
are transformed into parks, playgrounds, or golf courses for recreation.
In th e second half of the 19th century, a technical approach to solid -waste
management started to emerge. In the United States, the first watertight
trash cans appeared, and heavier trucks were utilised to collect and carry
rubbish. The first rubbish incinerato r was built in England in 1874, which
represented a significant advancement in solid -waste treatment and
disposal techniques. 15% of the main American cities around the turn of
the 20th century were burning solid trash. But even then, the majority of
the b iggest cities continued to use archaic disposal techniques like open
dumping on land or in water.
Nowadays, a lot of cities have source -separation and recycling systems
whereby residents and businesses sort recyclables from trash and put them
in different containers for collection. Additionally, some towns provide
recycling drop -off locations where locals may bring their recyclables.
Shredding and sorting
Through sorting and separating processes, the decomposable components
of waste are separated from glass , metal, and other inorganic elements.
Utilizing variations in the physical qualities of the waste, such as size,
density, and magnetic properties, these are carried out mechanically. By
reducing the size of the waste materials, shredding or pulverizing cr eates a
homogenous mass of material. Rotary shredders and hammer mills are
used to achieve this.
Clean landfill
The most popular management technique for municipal solid trash is land
disposal. A sanitary landfill, a disposal location that has been careful ly
chosen, developed, built, and maintained to preserve the environment and
public health, is where refuse may be securely dumped. The fact that the
buried garbage is never in touch with groundwater or surface water is one
of the most crucial aspects of la nd filling. There must be a minimum
distance between the landfill's bottom and the groundwater table, which is
seasonally high, according to engineering design specifications. Most
brand -new landfills must feature a system of groundwater monitoring
wells a nd an impermeable liner or barrier at the bottom. To prevent
precipitation or surface drainage from the completed landfill sections, an
impermeable cover must be placed on top of them.
To prevent precipitation or surface runoff from contaminating the burie d
garbage, finished landfill portions must be covered with an impermeable
lid. Flexible plastic membranes, clay soil layers, or a mix of the two may
be used as bottom and cap liners.

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107 Building the landfill
The trash cell is the fundamental component of a sa nitary landfill. Refuse
is spread out and compacted in thin layers in this small, enclosed area of
the site. A maximum of three metres' worth of layers can be compressed
on top of one another (10 feet). The volume of the compacted waste is
around one -fourt h that of the loose waste. To get rid of odours, insects,
and rodent issues, a layer of earth is placed over the trash at the end of
each day's operations. Thus, the daily amount of compacted waste and soil
cover is contained within one garbage cell. A lif t is made up of many
neighboring waste cells, and eventually a landfill may consist of two or
more lifts piled one on top of the other.
A new landfill's dimensions are precisely marked, and the base is ready for
the building of any necessary liners and lea chate -collection systems. To
protect it from garbage vehicles, at least 30 cm (12 inches) of sand must
be properly put over any plastic liners utilised. The trench technique of
building may be used at locations where excavations may be done below
grade. Wh en geography or groundwater issues make this impractical, the
area approach may be used, resulting in a mound or hill growing over the
original ground. The area approach doesn't need any ground excavation,
thus dirt must often be transported from somewhere to the site.
Regulating by -products
Leachate control techniques include intercepting surface water to keep it
out of the landfill and putting impermeable liners or barriers between the
garbage and the groundwater. Leachate -collection and treatment systems
as well as groundwater monitoring wells should be installed at new
landfill sites.
4.8 PERSONAL SAFETY
Boots : When handling contaminated waste in big amounts or splashes,
boots, or shoe covers offer more skin protection. Boots should have rubber
soles and be non -slip. The leg should be covered.
Safe clothes: Wearing clothing helps to protect the skin and keep clothes
clean. Examples include aprons, gowns, suits, and other clothing. It could
be constructed of fabric or an impermeable substance like plastic. People
working in incineration chambers should wear non -flammable gowns or
suits.
Masks : A protective barrier is created by wearing a variety of masks,
goggles, and face shields, either alone or in combination. Employees
working in the incineration chambe r are required to wear a mask that
covers their mouth and nose, ideally a gas mask with filters. munotes.in

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108

4.9 CLEANING TOOLS:
Brooms : The broom must be at least 1.2 metres long so that the worker
does not have to kneel to sweep. The broom should have a handle -friendly
diameter. Depending on the kind of flooring, the broom's brush might be
soft or firm.
Vacuum cleaners : Depending on the size of the rooms, either domestic or
industrial vacuum cleaners may be utilized.
Mops : The floor must be swept with mops with lon g handles. Either
rubber or fabric must be used for them. Depending on wear and tear, the
mop needs to be updated.
Dustbins: Dust from sweeping activities should be collected using
dustpans. They might be made of metal or plastic. Before each usage, they
should be cleaned with disinfectants and dried.
It's crucial to assess how much rubbish is produced at each location. The
capacity of dustbins should be sufficient that they do not overflow
between garbage collection cycles. After each round of garbage re moval,
dustbins should be disinfectant -cleaned. Dustbins may be lined with
chlorine -free plastic bags that are color -coded in accordance with the
legislation.
Trolleys
Instead of creating a new trash category, the use of trolleys will make it
easier to rem ove infectious garbage directly from the source.
Handling equipment
Wheelbarrows are used to move garbage from the point source to the
recycling facilities. Wheelbarrows come in two varieties: covered and
open. Steel wheelbarrows have two wheels, a handle, and are constructed
from the material. Only packaged trash should be transported (in plastic
bags). A further precaution is to avoid allowing fluids. The size of a
wheelbarrow might vary depending on its purpose.
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109 Risk factors
1. Open piles of solid trash serve as a breeding ground for pests that
spread illness, such as pigs, flies, and mosquitoes. Gas and garbage piles
produced by them provide a fire danger.
2. Unattended garbage frequently finds its way into drains, where it causes
obstructions that lead to floods and unhygienic conditions. Solid waste
burning contaminates the air.
3. The general degradation of the environment as a result of gaseous
emissions, particulate matter, ash, leachate, mounds of waste materials,
etc. contaminating the air, water, and soil environments.
Solid waste management benefits
1. Burning of trash destroys harmful organisms and lowers waste volume.
2. It aids in disposing of a lot of rubbish.
3. Heat energy is generated out of burning which can be utilized
elsewhere.
4. There is a decrease in the amount of solid and rotten trash in the
environment.
5. Availability of space increases.
Problems of Solid waste management's (drawbacks)
1) The solid waste management equipment is highly expensive.
2) The manpower is much needed and expens es of transportation are
increased.
3) The management must oversee the garbage collection at each interval
or it may have an impact on people's health.
4) It affects the health of labours working for it.
5) When certain solid waste is burned, very poisonous fume s are
produced.
6) A challenge in sorting or segregating the trash.
7) As the population is increased in cities so as the garbage. So extra
space is needed to accumulate and management.
8) Public awareness to tackle the issue is the challenge.
9) Local support of the people is necessary.
10) Transportation causes traffic issue in the cities.
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110 4.10 SUMMARY
Solid Waste
Solid waste is a broad category of garbage that includes frequently used,
unnecessary, and undesirable products. Residential, commercial,
industrial, agricultu ral, medical, and radioactive sources all frequently
produce this kind of trash.
Solid waste types differ from one nation to another as well. For instance,
US solid wastes are frequently less in weight and volume than equivalent
materials from Europe or Ja pan. Paper and cardboard products make up
around 40% of the solid trash produced in America, while food wastes
make up about 10%. The remainder is made up of various trims, wood,
glass, plastic, metal, and other materials.
Sources of Solid Waste
There are many sources of solid waste that can be classified as below:
1.Residential (domestic or household)
2. Industrial / Commercial
3. Medicine field or Institutional
4. Construction or Demolition Sites
5. Agricultural Waste
BIO-WASTE
Any solid or liquid waste , including its container and any intermediate
products, produced during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of
humans or animals, or during related research activities, as well as during
the production or testing of biological or in health facilitie s, is referred to
as bio -medical waste.
The biomedical waste can produce infection and it can be toxic in nature,
so one be very careful while handling it.
Human anatomical waste, such as tissues, organs, and body parts, is
included in biomedical waste.
 animal waste produced by veterinary clinics during research
 Biotechnology and microbiology waste,
 Toxic substances and abandoned medications.
 Waste including blades, syringes, hypodermic needles, used gloves
etc.
 contaminated waste, including dressings, b andages, plaster casts,
bloody materials, tubes, and catheters
 liquid waste produced in any of the diseased regions
 Chemical wastes and incinerator ash.
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111
E-WASTE
Electronic garbage, sometimes known as e -waste, is another category of
solid waste that i s possibly expanding at the quickest rate in many
industrialised nations. This category includes old computers, televisions,
phones, and other electronic gadgets. There is growing concern about this
form of waste. Among the elements of concern found in ele ctronic gadgets
are lead, mercury, and cadmium. Government rules may be needed to
control their recycle and disposal.
Management of solid waste
Solid -waste management system is a collection, handling, and disposal of
solid waste that is disposed after bein g used up or becoming unusable.
Unsanitary circumstances brought on by improper municipal solid waste
disposal can result in environmental contamination and epidemics of
vector -borne diseases, which are illnesses carried by rodents and insects.
The handlin g of solid waste involves intricate technological issues. They
also provide a wide range of management and solution challenges in the
administrative, economic, and social spheres.
B. Problems With Solid Waste And Consequences
1. Garbage Collection
2. Solid -waste disposal
3. Locations for dumping the trash
4. Processing on trash digestion
5. Need of mechanical composting facilities
6. Serious environmental pollution
4.11 C. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
During the first half of the 20th century, technological developments
persist ed, leading to the creation of trash grinders, compaction trucks, and
pneumatic collecting systems. By the middle of the 20th century, however,
it was clear that issues with pollution and threats to public health were
being caused by open dumping and ineff icient combustion of solid waste.
In order to replace the practise of open dumping and lessen the
dependency on trash incineration, sanitary landfills were developed as a
result. Due to the quick degradation of food waste, refuse collection often
happens a t least once every week. Garbage grinders or garbage disposals
can minimise the quantity of trash in a single home's trash. The additional
strain that ground waste places on sewage systems can often be handled.

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112 Features of Solid Waste
1. Collection of Solid Waste
2. Collection of biological wastes
3. Segregation
4. Storage
5. Transportation
6. Reduce Infection possibility
Solid Garbage Management: The process of collecting waste and
processing or discarding it is referred to as solid waste management. It is
crucial for chil dren to understand where solid waste originates.
Recycling: Solid Waste Management
The collection, transportation, recovery, and disposal of trash, as well as
the oversight and control of the waste management process, can all be
summed up as waste manage ment.
The more recent approach to waste management, however, emphasizes the
seven R's: Rethink, Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Regulate, and
Research.
However, the non -biodegradable wastes can be recycled or used again.
Common Methods of Disposing of Soli d Waste
The following are typical and beneficial intermediate solid waste
treatment, reuse, and disposal procedures used in rural communities:
1) Composting: Both urban and rural regions utilize composting as a
method of waste reduction to cut trash. Its o rganic components
disintegrate into smaller forms and become organic fertilizer for the
plants.

2) Solid trash that cannot be recycled or repurposed should be disposed of
through controlled tipping or burial. It is a technique for isolating garbage
of any kind without sorting or separating it first.

Treatment and Disposal of Solid Waste
Treatment of solid waste frequently starts at the source of the trash. Many
local government agencies have laws requiring generators to separate their
trash first. Addition ally, producers are urged to cut back on waste output
by recycling, reusing, or composting.

Composting - You may compost organic waste, including grass clippings
and food scraps, right at the source. Compost uses worms, enzymes, loam
soil, and the natural process of decomposition. Compost is the end
product, and it may be applied to the soil or used as fertilizer. munotes.in

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113 Segregation - In the final facility, waste materials may be further divided
into categories. The segregation may be carried out swiftly and effic iently
using specialized equipment.
Chemical or mechanical treatments -Some solid wastes may need to go
through chemical or mechanical treatments in order to be sterilized before
they can be disposed of properly.
Incineration - Waste may be burnt at an inci neration facility through the
process of incineration. These incinerators are built with numerous
incineration chambers, allowing for the oxidation of even the gases
released during the burning process. A considerably cleaner gas is then
discharged into th e environment as a result.
Energy Restoration is a technique that uses the heat and steam produced
by burning solid waste to power turbines within an incineration plant. The
electricity generated by these turbines is subsequently sent into the
neighboring grid or used to run the factory. The final disposal of these
procedures' remaining materials takes place at a landfill.
Reuse
Broken glass that has been recovered can be crushed and utilised in
asphalt paving. Crushed color -sorted glass is sold to glass pr oducers as
cullet, a crucial component in the production of glass.
Importance in the management of garbage
Sanitary landfills often offer the most cost -effective solution for non
recyclable waste disposal in places where suitable sites are readily
accessi ble. Finding locations, nevertheless, that provide sufficient
capacity, accessibility, and environmental conditions is become more and
more challenging. However, landfills will always be important to the
management of solid waste. Not all parts of solid wa ste can be recycled,
and there will always be leftovers after incineration and other treatment
procedures that will ultimately need to be buried. Furthermore, landfills
may really make bad land better. In some towns, legally finished landfills
are transfor med into parks, playgrounds, or golf courses for recreation.
Shredding and sorting
Through sorting and separating processes, the decomposable components
of waste are separated from glass, metal, and other inorganic elements.
Utilizing variations in the phy sical qualities of the waste, such as size,
density, and magnetic properties, these are carried out mechanically.
Clean landfill
The most popular management technique for municipal solid trash is land
disposal. A sanitary landfill, a disposal location that has been carefully
chosen, developed, built, and maintained to preserve the environment and
public health, is where refuse may be securely dumped. munotes.in

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Management

114 Building the landfill
The trash cell is the fundamental component of a sanitary landfill. Refuse
is spread o ut and compacted in thin layers in this small, enclosed area of
the site. A maximum of three metres' worth of layers can be compressed
on top of one another (10 feet).
PERSONAL SAFETY
Boots : When handling contaminated waste in big amounts or splashes,
boots, or shoe covers offer more skin protection. Boots should have rubber
soles and be non -slip. The leg should be covered.
Safe clothes: Wearing clothing helps to protect the skin and keep clothes
clean. Examples include aprons, gowns, suits, and other cloth ing. It could
be constructed of fabric or an impermeable substance like plastic. People
working in incineration chambers should wear non -flammable gowns or
suits.
Masks : A protective barrier is created by wearing a variety of masks,
goggles, and face shiel ds, either alone or in combination. Employees
working in the incineration chamber are required to wear a mask that
covers their mouth and nose, ideally a gas mask with filters.
CLEANING TOOLS:
Brooms : The broom must be at least 1.2 metres long so that the worker
does not have to kneel to sweep. The broom should have a handle -friendly
diameter. Depending on the kind of flooring, the broom's brush might be
soft or firm.
Vacuum cleaners : Depending on the size of the rooms, either domestic or
industrial vacuum cleaners may be utilized.
Mops : The floor must be swept with mops with long handles. Either
rubber or fabric must be used for them. Depending on wear and tear, the
mop needs to be updated.
Dustbins: Dust from sweeping activities should be collected using
dustpans. They might be made of metal or plastic. Before each usage, they
should be cleaned with disinfectants and dried.
Solid Waste Management: Benefits and Drawbacks.
4.12 SELF -STUDY
Q.1. Define and explain the concept of Waste management?
Q.2. What are the types of Waste Management?
Q.3. What are the benefits and drawbacks of Solid Waste management?
Q.4. What are the methods of disposing solid wastes? What precautions to
be taken while discomposing?
Q5. What are the problems with Solid Waste Management?

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