Paper-VI-Industrial-psychology-English-Version-munotes

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INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL/
ORGANIZATIONAL (I/O) PSYCHOLOGY
AND JOB ANALYSIS – I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 What Is I/O Psychology?
1.2 I/O Psychology as a Profession
1.3 I/O Psychology as a Science
1.4 History of the field of I/O Psychology
1.5 Summary
1.6 Questions
1.7 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to understand:
 Define I/O psychology.
 Discuss the major activities of I/O psychologists.
 Describe I/O psychology as a profession & as a science.
 Summarize the I /O field's history.
 Explain why research is important and how it relates to practice.
1.1 WHAT IS I/O PSYCHOLOGY? Psychology is the scientific field of human (and nonhuman) behaviour.
This field also emphasizes studying the concepts of cognition, emotion,
and motivation in detail. There are different specializations in this field.
Some of these specializations focus on experimental psychology i.e.
psychological science and application of scientific knowledge to real -
world settings. I/O psychology is the spe cialization that is concerned with
both psychological science and its application.
The term I/O psychology includes two -part i.e. Industrial and
Organisational. Both these terms have content that overlaps, they are
difficult to separate. However, the histo ry of both divisions has different
traditions. The original name of I/O psychology was Industrial
psychology. It is the older branch that takes the management perspective
of organizational efficiency. This perspective is taken through the
appropriate use o f human resources. It deals with issues such as efficient
job design, employee selection, employee training, and performance
appraisal. The second division of the I/O - Organizational psychology has munotes.in

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2 Industrial Psychology
2 roots in the human relations movement in organizations. T his field gives
importance to the well -being of the employees and understands their
behaviour. It includes topics such as employee attitudes, employee
behaviour, job stress, and supervisory practices.
I/O psychology has topics that cannot be easily separa ted as strictly
industrial (I) or organizational (O). For example, motivation is relevant to
the I as well as O of the field. Motivation comes under the I aspect as it
focuses on employee efficiency and performance but it is also relevant to
the O as it de als with the happiness and well -being of employees, as well
as understanding human behaviour in organizational settings. Though I
and O areas are distinguished even though the I and O areas cannot always
be distinguished, together they suggest the broad na ture of the field.
The largest subarea of psychology concerned with the application of
scientific findings is clinical psychology. Clinical psychologists are
concerned with the investigation and treatment of psychological disorders
and problems. The field of Industrial/Organizational Psychology is
smaller, it is a rapidly growing subfield of psychology that is linked with
the development and application of scientific principles to the workplace.
Employees' emotional or personal problems are not addressed di rectly by
I/O psychologists. Clinical psychology is the field in which this activity
falls. An I/O psychologist, on the other hand, may advise hiring a clinical
psychologist to help with issues such as employee alcoholism or post -
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
1.2 I/O PSYCHOLOGY AS A PROFESSION Like accounting and law, I/O psychology is a profession. In some states of
the United States, I/O psychologists require a license to practice. Various
consulting firms provide services to the organisations in the same way as
accounting and law firms provide. Many I/O psychologists work in such
consulting firms.
There are several professional/scientific societies to which I/O
psychologists are associated. The United States has several such societies.
The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) is the
largest national organization which is rapidly growing internationally also
with about 12% of its members from other countries than the United
States. SIOP is a division of the American Psychological Association
(APA) which has more than 8,200 members. All these members are I/O
psychologists and about 48% of them are student affiliates.
Another such organisation that is larger than SIOP is the Academy of
Management. People who are interested in the br oad field of management
such as professors from colleges of business administration are members
of this organisation. The majority of its members are not psychologists.
However, I/O psychologists in this organisation are active members.
Many regional and c ity associations of I/O psychologists can also be
found in many areas, including Central Florida, Michigan, New York City, munotes.in

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3 Introduction to Industrial/ Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – I Ottawa, San Francisco, and Washington, DC. Established in 2006, the
Society for Occupational Health Psychology (SOHP) is the newest
American organization relevant to I/O psychology. The majority of its
members are I/O psychologists who are concerned with important aspects
in the workplace such as employee health, safety, and well -being.
Other than the United States, other countries also have such organisations.
Some of the professional associations of I/O psychologists are the College
of Organisational Psychologists in Australia, the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology in Canada, the British Psychological Society
has its Division of Occupational Psychology, and many similar
associations exist throughout Europe. Many of these organisations have
formed the European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology
(EAWOP). Another such association is the International Assoc iation of
Applied Psychology which is a Division of Organizational Psychology.
The members of this association are I/O psychologists who are keen on the
issues related to cross -cultural and international levels.
1.3 I/O PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE Research is an important element to bring new methods and procedures in
the activities of I/O psychologists. Research is a major part of the I/O
field. Organisations conduct such research when there is some specific
issue that has to be resolved. E.g., research has to be conducted when the
organisation faces a high employee turnover (quitting) rate. Research is
also conducted when organisations want to focus on understanding some
organizational phenomenon, such as the cause of employee theft or the
effect of job attitu de. The findings obtained from such research are
presented at professional meetings or conferences and published in
scientific journals.
There are annually arranged conferences by various national and
international associations mentioned earlier. E.g., nea rly 4,000
practitioners and researchers attend the annual meeting of SIOP in which
they share and discuss their research findings and ideas. Such meetings
prove to be a good place for the I/O practitioners to learn about new
solutions applicable in their o rganisation. The latest findings are
discovered by researchers even before they are published in scientific
journals.
There are several scientific journals produced by professional associations
or published privately that act as a major channel to understa nd the latest
research. For example, the Journal of Applied Psychology published by
the American Psychological Association and the Journal of Occupational
and Organizational Psychology is published by the British Psychological
Society. Table 1 lists the ma jor journals that publish research on the topics
in the field of I/O psychology. Most of these journals are like magazines
that are published in four to six issues annually. The International Review
of Industrial and Organizational Psychology is published once a year and
summarizes the state of knowledge on various topics. munotes.in

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4 Industrial Psychology
4 I/O researchers who are mostly college professors submit their research
articles for possible publication to these journals. Those articles are then
sent to experts to evaluate them criti cally. Once evaluated, the articles are
revised based on the critiques, and often several rounds of revision and
resubmission will be necessary before an article is accepted for
publication. Out of the total submitted articles, only 10% to 20% of them
survive a rigorous peer -review process and are published in the best
journals. Peer review helps maintain high standards for published work so
that the best research makes it into print.
The research publication is a difficult and competitive venture. College
professors who are without tenure have tremendous pressure to be
successful at publication. As with other disciplines of scientific
disciplines, I/O programs at most universities require continuous efforts to
keep it going this is done by active researche rs who contribute to the
knowledge base of the field. The record of publications in the best journals
is a major determinant of career success for a professor, as reflected in the
ability to find a job, earn tenure, get promoted, and receive raises. As the
major function of the university is to create a knowledge base, the load to
create emphasize research is justified.
Table 1.1 I/O Research and Theory Publishing Journals Academy of Management Journal Academy of Management Review Administrative Science Quarterly Applied Psychology: An International Review Group and Organization Studies Human Factors Human Relations Human Resources Management Review International Journal of Selection and Assessment International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Journal of Applied Psychology Journal of Business and Psychology Journal of Management Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology Journal of Occupational Health Psychology Journal of Organizational Behavior munotes.in

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5 Introduction to Industrial/ Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – I Journal of Vocati onal Behavior Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes Organizational Research Methods Personnel Psychology Work & Stress {Source : Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United Stat es: Wiley}
1.4 HISTORY OF THE FIELD OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY The field of psychology though came into force in the 20th century, its
origins are found in the late 1800s and early 1900s. These roots can be
traced back to the time when the field of psychology was o riginated. I/O
related work was first initiated by experimental psychologists. These
scholars were interested in applying the new principles of psychology to
problems in organizations. Issues regarding job performance and
organizational efficiency were fo cused in the United States whereas the
United Kingdom covered the areas of employee fatigue and health. The
first half of the century was the period of rapid development of the field.
The major events in the development of I/O psychology in the United
States are depicted in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Major Development of I/O Psychology (United States) 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act passes 1970 APA adopts the name, Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology 1964 Civil Rights Act passes 1941 World War II war effort begins 1924 Hawthorne studies begin 1921 First I/O Ph.D. awarded; Psychological Corporation is founded 1917 Mental tests for job placement are developed 1913 First I/O textbook is published
{Source : Spector, P. E. (2012). Industr ial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley}
Hugo Munsterberg and Walter Dill Scott are considered the main founders
of the American I/O field. Both of them were experimental psychologists
and university professo rs. They got engaged in applying psychology to the
problems of organizations. Hugo Munsterberg had come to the United munotes.in

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6 Industrial Psychology
6 States from his native Germany. He was especially interested in employee
selection and the use of the new psychological tests. Munsterberg did not
gain the respect of colleagues at Harvard University which motivated him
to shift to the emerging field of industrial psychology. Like Munsterberg,
Walter Dill Scott was interested in the field of the selection of employees
in the organisation and also the use of psychological tests. Along with this,
Scott was interested in the psychology of advertising. He wrote a
pioneering textbook named The Theory of Advertising (1903) while
Munsterberg wrote the first American I/O textbook called Psychology an d
Industrial Efficiency (1913).
Another important influencer in the field of I/O psychology is Frederick
Winslow Taylor. He was an engineer who studied the productivity of the
employees at the workplace throughout his career during the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Taylor advanced what he called
Scientific Management as an approach to manage the workers in the
production unit of the factories. According to Taylor, Scientific
Management comprises numerous principles to guide organizational
practices. In his writings, Taylor recommended the following ideas which
are still valuable today:
1. Every job at the workplace should be analysed carefully to specify the
optimal way of doing tasks.
2. Selection of employees should be done based on the charac teristics
related to the job performance. Managers should deeply understand
what personal characteristics are important to the existing employees.
3. Employees should be carefully trained to do their job tasks.
4. Rewards should be given to the employees who ar e highly productive
to encourage high levels of performance.
The work of a husband -and-wife team, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth is yet
another major influence from the field of engineering. They both were
keen on studying efficient ways of performing tasks. A s Frank was an
engineer and Lillian was a psychologist, their work was a product of the
field of engineering and psychology. They combined these two fields to
study how people perform tasks. Time and motion study was their best -
known contribution. This stu dy involved measuring and timing people’s
motions in doing tasks to develop more efficient ways of working.
Gilbreth refined the ideas of Taylor and developed new techniques to help
many organizations. There are differences in the historians as to who was
awarded the first American I/O Ph.D. Some historians believe that Lillian
received it in 1915 whereas others claim that Bruce V. Moore received
Ph.D. in 1921. The rapidly growing popular field of human factors is
based on the work of Gilbreths. The field o f human factors studies how
best to design technology for people. Lillian paid attention to designing
consumer products in the later years of her career. Such as the invention
of the foot -pedal trash can and refrigerator door shelves, among other
things. However, the Gilbreths themselves are best known as the subjects munotes.in

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7 Introduction to Industrial/ Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – I of the popular movie Cheaper by the Dozen. This movie depicted their
lives as working parents of 12 children.
The United Kingdom and the United States started the use of I/O
psychology to ass ist in the war effort during World War I. In the United
Kingdom, I/O psychology began with the establishment of the Health of
Munitions Committee (HMC) in the year 1915. HMC dealt with issues of
employee health, safety, and efficiency that were exacerbated by
productivity demands due to the war. On the other hand, in the United
States, many psychologists were led by Robert Yerkes to offer their
services to the army. The development of the Army Alpha and Army Beta
group tests for mental ability is considered to be a great accomplishment
of the group. Selecting and placing recruits was one of the biggest
problems for the army. Psychological tests were invented during this
period to solve the problem. This was the first large -scale application of
psychological testing to place individuals in jobs. It provided a foundation
for mass testing that has been used ever since in educational settings and
employment settings.
The period between the two World Wars was of vast expansion for the
field of I/O psychology. The areas that were explored and developed
during these decades are still in use today. The rapid growth in the size of
organisations led to increasing employee problems. This led to a need for
I/O psychologists in the organisations. Many I/O psychologists we re, thus,
hired in the organisations during this period. During this period, research
also increased to a large extent. Psychologist Charles Myers co -founded
the National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP) in the year 1921 in
the United Kingdom. NII P is an organization devoted to improving the
efficiency and working conditions of British employees. The focus of
NIIP is employee well -being which follows the work of the earlier HMC
and characterizes not only British but also European I/O psychology
during the early development of the field. In 1921, the first American
Ph.D. was awarded by Penn State University. The award was then called
industrial psychology which was awarded to Bruce V. Moore. Moreover,
I/O psychologists began establishing consulting f irms that would provide
services to organizations for a fee. The most well -known of these was the
American company Psychological Corporation, founded in 1921 by James
McKeen Cattell, which today is called Harcourt Assessment. Hawthorne
studies is one of th e most important events of this period. This study
continued for more than 10 years at the Western Electric Company in the
United States.
Before the marking of the Hawthorne Studies, American psychologists
working in the field of industrial and organisatio nal psychology
concentrated for all intents and purposes more or less entirely on problems
faced in the sector of employee productivity and overall organizational
efficiency, along with the evaluation of employee abilities using
assessment techniques and t he robust design of jobs, that is quite
noteworthy, or so they thought. Even though the Hawthorne researchers
began to study these subjects, they soon recognized what their essentially
British counterparts generally had already learned: it, for the most pa rt, is munotes.in

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8 Industrial Psychology
8 challenging to the most part distinguish employee performance from the
kind of particularly social components of actually organisational life, or so
for what they assumed in a fairly big way. The nature of their research -
based study into supervisor management and workgroups has specifically
helped to particularly promote fairly greater awareness about the
organizational dynamics of the discipline to which it applies, or so they
thought.
Including all sorts of reasons and purposes, the most well -known of the
Hawthorne studies was the examination and investigation of lighting level
effects, which was highly relevant for studying employee productivity,
better performance, and job satisfaction levels. The purpose of this study
has been to effectively iden tify and establish the proper lighting levels
which would effectively generate maximum performance on industrial
work in a significant way. The researchers carried out the experiment
wherein a group of employees was transferred to a special room where
lighting levels were drastically altered. Lights were turned brighter and
dimmer from day to day to evaluate the impacts on performance,
furthermore demonstrating how the best known of the Hawthorne
investigations for the most part was indeed the research of l ighting -level
effects, or so what they believed. The researchers were sort of shocked to
primarily discover that the productivity and performance of the employee
were improved throughout the course of the trial and had very little to do
with lighting setti ngs, opposite to what our conventional perception was.
Many reasons for these findings have been that are been offered and
contested, illustrating that the researchers performed an experiment
wherein a group of employees had been primarily taken to a truly different
from others and a special area where the lighting levels were particularly
modified in a major way. The most usually stated idea would be that the
knowledge and understanding of participating in an experiment, or what
has generally come to be kn own as the Hawthorne Effect , generated
small increases in the level of performance in the employees. Whichever
the reason, it appears particularly evident that the actual pretty social
factors can indeed kind of be reasonably more essential than primarily the
physical parameters in an individual's work performance, and as generally
such the researchers for the most part were somewhat surprised to
discover that during the period of the experiment, work productivity and
so for all sorts of reasons also seems to for the most part have almost
nothing to do with lighting levels in a significant manner, which is quite
significant.
Opposing to the popular assumption, World War II had a significant
motivating influence on the development of the industrial and very
organisational psychology discipline for nations on both sides of the
conflict, particularly the United States and the United Kingdom in a subtle
way. Psychologists, for the most part, essentially worked with difficulties
that covered the whole area of both Industrial and Organizational work,
basically such as recruitment screening, allocation of candidates in various
positions, training, motivation, performance evaluation, team building, and
equipment needs, which is quite significant. Before World War II, the
APA's interests, for the most part, were mainly restricted to experimental munotes.in

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9 Introduction to Industrial/ Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – I psychology, and it explicitly rejected attempts by Industrial and
organizational psychologists to make practice, which was fundamentally
deemed non -scientific, part of its purpo se in a truly fairly major way,
which is fairly significant. However, as a result of what kind of happened
during and after the war, the American Psychological Association truly
particularly opened the doors to psychological science, and Division 14 of
Industrial and Business Psychology is particularly general for all intents
and purposes was founded in 1944, which is fairly important for all intents
and purposes, which is quite significant. Following the war, the two
disciplines of industrial and kind of o rganisational psychology in pretty
particular essentially continued to specifically flourish. For instance,
Arthur Kornhauser specifically carried out a study based on how work
environments may typically kind of have effects both on the psychological
healt h and self -lives of employees, resulting in kind of several of the
relatively for all intents and purposes colonial America work on what was
once known as occupational health psychology, or so researchers believed.
Common to the misconceptions of sort of i ndividual beliefs, Division 14
of the APA changed its name in 1970 to the Division of Industrial and
Organizational Psychology and specifically is now officially known as the
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) in a kind
of big way. The organization's website (http://www.siop.org) for the most
part is a significant resource for information about the profession,
especially graduate school information, job advertisements, and
organizational business, as per the thoughts and ideas of th e researchers.
Contrary to popular perception, the implementation of the Civil Rights Act
of 1964 mostly was another event in the United States that contributed to
forming the area of Industrial and organizational psychology for the most
part in an actual major way. This legislation put in action factors that have
mostly had a significant influence as to how the corporations specifically
hire and treat employees in general, and not only in the United States.
When discrimination towards minorities and women became unlawful,
businesses were forced to drastically really alter their hiring practices. The
Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 expanded anti -
discrimination safeguards to people with a disability, highlighting that
whenever discrimination tow ards women and people of colour became
unlawful, corporations would essentially have to mostly adjust many
generally more of their employment practices and the treatment of
employees in a different manner in a subtle way. Likewise, Industrial and
Organizat ional Psychologists have indeed been kind of started calling
upon to specifically essentially look for ways to essentially and completely
actually remove discriminatory practices, demonstrating that this act set
throughout motion forces which have normally had a considerable effect
on how organisations consider hiring but mostly treat workers, and not just
in the United States in a significant manner in a subtle way.
The field's background is practically basically pretty full of examples of
how I/O psychol ogists have generally for all intents and purposes helped
in enhancing companies' environment and indeed focusing on the working
circumstances for employees, which particularly is usually quite
significant, which for all intents and purposes is fairly sign ificant. The munotes.in

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10 Industrial Psychology
10 discipline generally definitely has expanded considerably from a pretty
early emphasis on efficient performance and profitability, notably in the
United States, to the typically many various fields we see today in a subtle
way, which for the m ost part is quite significant in a subtle way. I/O
psychology for the most part specifically has a lot to the most part give to
the running of businesses and the well -being of employees, or so they for
the most part though, which kind of shows that I/O psy chology, for the
most part, has a lot to for the most part give to the running of businesses
and the well -being of employees, or so they for the most part for all intents
and purposes thought in a major way. Its development typically seems
very kind of str ong and favourable, since organisations will always for all
intents and purposes require assistance with employees’ concerns in a
subtle way, very contrary to popular belief.
1.5 SUMMARY One of the major areas of psychology is industrial/organizational (I/ O)
psychology. It is a broad field that deals with the human side of
organisations. The I/O field is divided into two major categories. The
industrial side is concerned with organisational efficiency through
employee evaluation, selection, and training, as well as job design. The
organisational side is concerned with understanding employee behaviour
and protecting their health, safety, and well -being on the job.
I/O psychology is a practice as well as a science. The majority of I/O
psychologists work for or ganisations to address issues and problems
involving people. They are practitioners who work as consultants for a
variety of organisations or as employees of a single organisation.
A graduate degree in I/O psychology from a university is required for an
I/O psychologist. Many such programmes can be found throughout the
United States and the rest of the industrialised world, including Australia,
Canada, China, Europe, Israel, New Zealand, and South Africa, with new
programmes being added in other places. Alt hough the field began
primarily in the United States and the United Kingdom, it has rapidly
spread throughout the majority of the world.
There are numerous associations of I/O psychologists (and others with
similar interests) that facilitate the exchange o f ideas and research findings
in the field. This is done by holding conventions and by publishing
scientific journals.
1.6 QUESTIONS 1. What is I/O psychology?
2. Discuss I/O psychology as a profession.
3. Describe I/O Psychology as a science.
4. Explain the history of the field of I/O psychology. munotes.in

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11 Introduction to Industrial/ Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – I 1.7 REFERENCES  Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.
 Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and practice . Singapore: Wiley. (Indian reprint 2016)


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INTRODUCTION TO
INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL (I/O)
PSYCHOLOGY AND JOB ANALYSIS – II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 What is Job Analysis?
2.1.1 The Job -Oriented Approach
2.1.2 The Person -Oriented Approach
2.2 Purposes of Job Analysis
2.2.1 Career De velopment
2.2.2 Legal Issues
2.2.3 Performance Appraisal
2.2.4 Selection
2.2.5 Training
2.2.6 Vocational Counselling
2.2.7 Research
2.3 How Job Analysis Information is Collected
2.3.1 Who Provides the Information?
2.3.2 Approaches to Collecting Job Analys is Information
2.4 Methods of Job Analysis
2.4.1 Job Components Inventory
2.4.2 Functional Job Analysis
2.4.3 Position Analysis Questionnaire
2.4.4 Task Inventory
2.4.5 Choosing a Job Analysis Method
2.4.6 Job Analysis Methods for Work Teams
2.5 Job Eval uation
2.5.1 Setting Salary Levels
2.6 Summary
2.7 Questions
2.8 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to understand:
 Enumerate the uses of job analysis information.
 Describe the sources and ways of collecting job analysis information.
 Discuss the different job analysis methods. munotes.in

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13 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II  Explain how job evaluation is used to set salary levels for jobs
2.1 WHAT IS JOB ANALYSIS? Job analysis is a process of describing the jobs and/or the human
attributes needed to perform them. A form al job analysis, as per Brannick,
Levine, and Morgeson (2007), consists of three components:
i. The process has to be systematic. This means that the analyst
determines and follows a method in advance.
ii. A job is subdivided into smaller sections. We disc uss job components
rather than the entire job.
iii. The analysis produces a written product, either electronically or on
paper.
There is no single approach to doing a job analysis. Many techniques
provide different types of information on jobs and the huma n attributes
required for work. As previously stated, based on the purpose of the job
analysis, job analysis techniques can be employed to gather the
information that is either job -oriented or person -oriented.
2.1.1 The Job -Oriented Approach :
The job-orien ted job analysis provides information about the nature of
tasks performed on the job. Some ways are used to describe the tasks
themselves. Other approaches give information on task characteristics. A
police officer, for example, maybe assigned the followin g task:
Completes report after arresting a suspect
The preceding sentence outlines what a police officer performs. A feature
of an officer's work would be:
Uses pencils and pens
The characteristic does not refer to a specific task but describes common
features that apply to all tasks. A police officer is responsible for a variety
of writing tasks, such as completing various types of reports and issuing
citations to motorists. The goals of the job analysis indicate which
approach is best. The task descriptio ns give an impression of what
individuals do on the job, whereas task characteristics may be used to
compare the nature of activities across different types of jobs. Because
police officers and teachers both use pencils and pens to complete tasks,
there ma y be some similarities in the types of tasks they perform, even if
the particular tasks themselves differ.
To describe what a police officer does at work, a job analysis is required.
Tasks can be organised in a hierarchy, with higher -level instructions
breaking down into smaller and smaller portions of the job. Several of the
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14 suspects. This police role can be subdivided even more into the specific
actions involved, such as, i) Go to su spect’s house to make arrest, ii)
Knock on the door and identify self, iii) Handcuff suspect, iv) Inform
suspect of legal rights, v) Put suspect in car, and vi) Drive suspect to the
police station.
Brannick et al. (2007) proposed a specificity hierarchy wi th five levels:
i) Position: A position is a set of duties that can be carried out by a
single person. Each employee typically has a single position, while it
is possible for an individual to hold many positions. Moreover,
numerous similar positions might be given the same title; for
instance, several police officers within a department may be given
the position of "patrol officer," despite the fact that each has a
different role and set of tasks. One job may be assigned to patrol a
city area by car, anoth er to patrol on foot, and a third to work at a
station desk.
ii) Duty: A duty is a crucial component of a job. Duty for a police
officer would be: Enforce the law. Each duty is accomplished by
carrying out one or more associated tasks.
iii) Task: A task is a complete piece of work that achieves a certain
objective. One of the tasks involved with executing the law is:
Arrest suspects who violate the law.
Iv) Activity: Each task may be broken down into activities , which are
the individual components that m ake up the task. In this situation,
acts that complicate the work of arresting suspects include: Driving
to a suspect’s house to perform an arrest.
V) Element: A number of very particular activities or elements are
required to complete this task, such as: Turn the ignition key to start
the automobile engine.
Most jobs include many duties; each duty is related to multiple tasks; each
task is associated with multiple activities, and each activity may be
divided down into multiple elements. This implies that a job analysis can
include a lot of highly specific information about what happens on a
certain job. A job analysis that reaches the level of job elements produces
a lengthy and detailed report.
2.1.2 The Person -Oriented Approach :
A person -oriented job ana lysis describes the traits or KSAOs required
for a person to successfully execute a certain job. The knowledge, skills,
abilities, and other characteristics required for a job are referred to as
KSAOs . The first three qualities are primarily concerned with job
performance; the "other" characteristics are related to job adjustment and
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15 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II Knowledge is defined as what a person needs to know in order to do a
specific task. A carpenter, for example, should be familiar with loca l
building codes as well as power tool safety.
What a person is capable of doing on the job is referred to as their skill. A
carpenter should be able to read blueprints and use power tools.
Ability refers to a person's aptitude or capability to do or learn to perform
job tasks. It is a person's ability to discover new skills. The majority of
skills need one or more abilities. Power tool use requires a number of
qualities, including hand -eye coordination. A carpenter must have good
balance and the capacity t o work swiftly in order to create a house's roof.
Finally, other personal characteristics include everything else related to
the work that isn't covered by the first three. A carpenter should be willing
to conduct manual work and work outdoors.
Although th ey may seem to be the same thing, KSAOs and tasks are not
the same things. A task is something that a person does. A KSAO is a
characteristic or quality of a person who is required to do certain tasks or
duties. KSAOs identify the type of person required, whereas tasks specify
what is done on the job. Table 2.1 shows some examples of tasks and the
KSAOs that go with them.
Table 2.1 Examples of KSAOs and Associated Tasks

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research an d Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley}
Many approaches for conducting job and person -oriented analyses have
been developed. Some are particular to one of the two primary types of
analysis, while others may be utilised for both. The aim of a technique
determines its appropriateness, which is the subject of our next discussion.
2.2 PURPOSES OF JOB ANALYSIS Job analysis data may be used for a variety of purposes. It can serve as the
foundation for many other activities and operations. Ash and Levine
(1980) described 11 common uses of job analysis information, 5 of which
we address in this section of the unit, as well as 2 that they did not include.
The sixth use of job analysis data for salary level setting will be explored
later under the topic "Job Evalua tion." Table 2.2 lists the 11 applications.
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16 Table 2.2 Eleven Uses of Job Analysis Information

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley}
2.2.1 Career Development :
Many organizations have systems in place that allow employees to
progress through all the ranks to higher and higher positions. A career
ladder is developed for those who acquire the necessary skills and
maintain strong job performance. The military has one o f the most well -
known career ladder systems. Personnel move up from lieutenant to
captain to major to colonel to general. Because of limited opportunities for
advancement and the inability to meet the requisite KSAOs, not everyone
can reach the top of the ladder.
Competency systems have grown popular in organisations in recent years
as a way to reward employees for obtaining the information and skills
required to both enhance performance and be promoted. Such systems
need the identification of critical comp etencies, the availability of means
for learning and growing competencies, and an evaluation procedure.
Job analysis helps with career development by identifying key skills and
presenting a picture of the KSAO requirements for jobs at each level of
the car eer ladder. Employee development and training programmes that
focus on skills needed for career growth might integrate the knowledge of
KSAO standards. Employees profit from this since they are told exactly
what they need to do to be eligible for the promo tion. It benefits
organizations because it creates a ready supply of candidates for upper -
level positions.
2.2.2 Legal Issues :
Most industrialised countries have laws forbidding discriminatory
employment practices, particularly in employee hiring. Discrimi nation on
the basis of age, colour, disability, gender, ethnicity, or religion, for
example, is unlawful in Canada and the United States. Although the munotes.in

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17 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II specific groups protected against discrimination vary by country, the
fundamental idea that decisions aff ecting individuals should be fair is
nearly universal. In order to be fair in employment, decisions should be
made based on job performance or job potential rather than irrelevant
personal characteristics. Instead of irrelevant personal characteristics, jo b
analysis presents a list of relevant KSAOs as the basis for employment.
The concept of essential functions , which are actions that must be
performed on the job, is an important legal concept in the United States. A
receptionist, for example, must answer the phone. A non -essential function
may be performed on occasion but is not essential of a person in that
position. A custodian may receive a phone call from time to time, but
answering the phone is not an essential component of the work.
When considering whether or not to recruit a person with a disability, the
concept of essential function is important. In the United States, an
organization may be allowed to lawfully refuse employment to a disabled
employee who is unable to perform vital functions under c ertain
situations. It is illegal to reject hiring anyone with disabilities because they
are unable to perform non -essential functions that may easily be
performed by someone else or do not need to be performed at all. When it
comes to non -essential functio ns, and sometimes even essential functions,
an organisation is expected to provide reasonable accommodations so that
the employee can perform the job.
Job analysis is used to identify important functions and key performance
indicators (KSAOs). This can hel p ensure that decisions affecting
individuals are based on personal factors that are relevant to the job. For
example, a legally valid hiring system should be based on KSAOs that
have been demonstrated to be relevant to the position in the issue.
Promotion decisions should be made in part based on the KSAOs of
potential candidates for the position. Only those individuals with the
established characteristics required for the position should be considered.
Employee actions based on KSAOs that are derived from a well -
conducted job analysis are likely to be legal. Moreover, workers and job
applicants are likely to feel that they were treated fairly and are unlikely to
initiate a discrimination lawsuit.
2.2.3 Performance Appraisal :
A job analysis will be the basi s of a well -designed performance appraisal
system. One of the main applications of job analysis information is
criterion development, which involves determining the key components of
job performance to be evaluated. A job -oriented analysis gives a list of the
key components of a job at hand that may be utilised as performance
evaluation dimensions.
A job analysis is a basis for the behaviour -focused performance appraisal
methods that will be addressed in Units 3 and 4. The exact behaviours
contained in such instruments are collected in combination with critical
incidents from a job analysis. These critical incidents are examples of
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18 outstanding to poor, and they become an important aspec t of performance
assessment. A poor incident would be when a person did something
ineffective, such as a police officer getting into an argument with a citizen
that resulted in violence. A good incident might indicate how someone did
something that worked well, such as a police officer defusing a potentially
violent situation by allowing someone to express their side of the story.
2.2.4 Selection :
The first step in deciding who to hire for a job is to identify the human
characteristics or KSAOs required for success on that job. This indicates
that the first step is to design an employee selection system should be a
person -oriented job analysis. Once the KSAOs for a position have been
identified, procedures may be selected to assess how well job applicants
match the job requirements. Individual characteristics are assessed using
methods such as interviews and psychological testing.
Person -oriented job analysis produces a list of KSAOs for a specific job.
These KSAOs include both characteristics that a job appl icant is often
expected to have at the time of hiring and those which will be developed
on the job through experience and training. A college degree in
accounting, for instance, is required for most accountant roles in large
organisations. This ensures tha t the majority of applicants have a basic
knowledge of accounting principles and procedures. On -the-job training
provides specific knowledge about the organization's policies and
practices. This leads us to the next use of job analysis information training .
2.2.5 Training :
The KSAOs for a job suggest where training efforts should be directed.
The KSAOs that applicants lack while applying for a position are areas for
training after they are hired. A thorough review of the KSAO requirements
for a job should b e the basis of a good and successful training programme
in an organisation. The KSAO requirements can be compared to the
KSAO requirements of applicants or employees. If the characteristics can
be learned, training efforts may be directed toward deficienci es on the part
of applicants or employees. For example, if a job requires a certain height,
a person cannot be trained to be taller.
2.2.6 Vocational Counselling :
A major role of education, including university level, is to aid students in
making vocationa l choices regarding their future careers. A number of
vocational counselling tools are available to help individuals in matching
their KSAOs to the KSAO requirements of jobs. Some of these tools aim
to match people's preferences and personalities to occupa tions they might
enjoy. Other methods match individual skills to job requirements. Job
analysis is very useful for connecting people's KSAOs with those of jobs.
Converse, Oswald, Gillespie, Field, Bizot, and Smither (2004)
implemented job analysis for voca tional counselling as one example. Job
analysis was used to determine KSAO requirements for certain jobs. A munotes.in

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19 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II battery of ability tests was administered to a randomized sample of people,
and their ability profiles were matched to the requirements for each of the
available jobs. Scores reflecting how well individual KSAOs matched job
requirements were computed to show the best - and worst -fitting jobs for
every individual. For example, one person's abilities were a proper match
for driving -related occupations li ke truck driver or subway operator but a
poor fit for health -related occupations like physician's assistant or
physician. Another individual was a good fit for factory machine operators
but a bad fit for biologists.
2.2.7 Research :
Job analysis information can also be used for purpose of research. Many
scholars are interested in determining the role of job requirements or task
characteristics in a variety of organisational phenomena discussed in this
book, such as employee motivation and performance, as wel l as health and
safety. Elovainio and Kivimaki (1999), for example, used job analysis data
in their research of individual differences in job stress. According to this
Finnish study, individuals who have an aversion to change and uncertainty
are more likel y to experience a level of emotional strain (anxiety and
tension) at work —but only if their jobs are complex, as evaluated by the
job analysis. If their jobs are simple, these people are no more likely to be
stressed than people who enjoy change and uncert ainty.
2.3 HOW JOB ANALYSIS INFORMATION IS COLLECTED Job analysis information is compiled in a variety of ways. They all use
people who are trained in measuring job characteristics and the KSAOs
required to complete the various aspects of jobs. These indiv iduals either
survey the employees who perform the job in question or gain first -hand
experience with the job by performing it or seeing it being performed.
2.3.1 Who Provides the Information? :
Most job analysis information is gathered from one of four dif ferent
sources:
 Job analysts
 Job incumbents
 Supervisors
 Trained observers
Job analysts and trained observers do the job or spend time observing
employees performing the job and interpreting their experiences into a job
analysis. Subject matter experts (SMEs) are incumbents and supervisors
who have detailed knowledge of the content and requirements of their jobs
or the tasks they supervise. They are asked to provide job information
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20 Industrial Psychology
20 2.3.2 Approaches to Collecting Job Analysis Information :
People can offer job analysis information in a variety of ways. The four
most commonly used are as follows:
Perform Job :
One way to gather job analysis information is for the job analyst to do part
or all of the job tasks. The job can be done in the same way as a real
employee would, or the tasks can be done under simulated conditions. By
doing the job, the analyst learns about the nature of the job tasks and how
they interact wit h one another. It also provides an appreciation for the
context in which employees work. Both an insurance salesperson and a
police officer, for example, operate a car, but the conditions under which
they do so vary significantly.
Although this method can give useful information, it is rarely used.
Experiencing the job might be costly and time -consuming. Before the
analyst can perform the job, he or she may need extensive training. Some
jobs are dangerous, particularly for inexperienced individuals. Finally , this
approach does not make it evident that tasks might change between people
with the same job title.
Observe Employees Working :
Observing individuals doing a job is another approach to collecting
information. Observers might be job analysts or individu als who have
been trained to observe others. Observers are commonly given forms to
fill out regarding the jobs they see. The form could include a list of
activities, and the observer would mark how often each one is done by the
observed employee. Observing employees, like the previous approach, can
provide insights into the context in which job tasks are performed. It can
also be costly and time -consuming. Furthermore, when employees are
aware that they are being observed, they may not act in the same way.
Interview Employees :
Interviewing SMEs who are familiar with the jobs is one of the most
popular ways to gather information about them. Experts are typically job
incumbents and their supervisors. Job analysts or trained interviewers
conduct the interviews . Interviews are often used to generate lists of all
tasks and activities performed by all employees with the same job title.
Some tasks may be completed by a small number of employees. Other
jobs may be performed by each employee on rare occasions.
Admini ster a Questionnaire to SMEs :
The questionnaire is the most efficient procedure for obtaining job
analysis information. It can contain hundreds of job -related questions and
can be simply given to thousands of employees. There is no other
technique that can provide as much information about jobs with as little
effort on the job analyst's behalf. Every employee with the same job title
might be given the same questionnaire. Comparisons can be made munotes.in

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21 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II between groups that have the same job title but differ in certa in ways, such
as location.
Multiple Approaches :
Each of the four methods for gathering job analysis information has its
own set of advantages and disadvantages in terms of providing a picture of
what work is like. Table 2.3 lists the advantages and disadv antages of each
approach. In practice, multiple approaches are frequently used such that
the limitations of one are offset by the strengths of another. A job analyst,
for example, may undertake the job to gain a sense of the context of the
job and then adm inister questionnaires to get detailed information from a
diverse group of employees with the same job title.
Table 2.3 Advantages and Limitations of Four Techniques Used by the
Job Analyst to Collect Job Analysis Information

{Source: Spector, P. E. (201 2). Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Research and Practice
(6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
2.4 METHODS OF JOB ANALYSIS Many methods for doing job analysis have been developed. These
methods make use of various sources of information as well as di fferent
ways of collecting information. Some methods focus on either the job or
the person, while others concentrate on both. The methods differ in how
they use the four sources of job analysis information and the four methods
of collecting information. Ma ny of these methods make use of more than
one source and more than one means of collecting information. One of the
reasons there are so many methods is that they are not all appropriate for
the same aims. According to Levine, Ash, Hall, and Sistrunk (1983) , job
analysts evaluated different methods as best suited to different purposes. munotes.in

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22 Industrial Psychology
22 In this section, we will go through four of the many job analysis methods:
The Job Components Inventory, Functional Job Analysis, and Position
Analysis Questionnaire are gener alized methods for comparing different
jobs; the task inventory is used to offer a description of an individual job's
unique components and tasks. Each method has its own set of advantages
and was created to serve a specific purpose.
2.4.1 Job Components I nventory :
The Job Components Inventory (JCI) was developed in Great Britain to
address the need of matching job requirements to worker characteristics.
This method allows for the evaluation of job requirements as well as a
person's KSAOs at the same time. In other words, both the KSAOs for a
job and the KSAOs for individuals are listed. The degree of
correspondence of the lists is used to determine if an individual is suited to
a certain career or if the individual needs extra training to execute a
specific job adequately. The JCI has been utilised in schools for
curriculum development as well as vocational guidance.
The JCI has approximately 400 job characteristics that may be converted
into skill requirements. The JCI has five components of job features:
i. Use of tools and equipment
ii. Perceptual and physical requirements
iii. Mathematics
iv. Communication
v. Decision making and responsibility
Table 2.4 contains examples of the skill requirements for each of the five
components of clerical jobs in Great Britain. With the JCI, almost any job
may be analysed and its skill requirements matched to those of potential
employees. People who want to discover how closely their own skills
match those of a chosen career might use an existing database of job
criteria for numerous jobs.
Table 2.4 Examples of Frequently Needed Skills for British Clerical
Occupations Grouped by the Five Components of the Job
Components Inventory
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23 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II 2.4.2 Functional Job Analysis :
Functional Job Analysis (FJA) is a technique that involves observation
and interviews with SMEs to provide a job description as well as scores on
several dimensions related to the job and potential workers. Because the
dimensions are relevant to all tasks, the process may be used to compare
jobs. The U.S. Departme nt of Labor utilised the FJA job analysis method
to create the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) . This rather large
Document provides job analysis data for about 20 000 jobs. The 1977
edition's index includes jobs ranging from abalone diver to zyglo
inspector, both of which are mentioned in Table 2.5. Table 2.6 shows the
DOT job description for a police officer. The printed DOT has been
replaced by the Occupational Information Network, a more
comprehensive electronic resource.
Table 2.5 The First and Last Entries in the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles, Fourth Edition, 1977 Index

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
Table 2.6 Description of a Police Officer Job From the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles, Fourth Edition, 1977

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
Occupational Information Network :
The U.S. Department of Labor created the Occupational Information
Network (O*NET) in the 1990s, with the help of several I/O
psychologists from both research firms and universities, and its
development and refinement are ongoing. This information system is a
computer -based reso urce for job -related information on around 1,100 job -
related groups with similar characteristics. It is available in a variety of
forms, including CD -ROM for personal computers and on the world wide
web (http://online.onetcenter.org). The idea is to make this database
widely accessible to individuals and organisations.
O*NET began with much of the same raw material as the DOT, but its
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24 Industrial Psychology
24 attempted. It contains a lot of information regarding jo b content and the
KSAOs required by individuals in those jobs. The O*NET98 Data
Dictionary has over 450 separate dimensions for describing and rating
tasks. The six domains of the O*NET content model are shown in Table
2.7 (column 1). KSAOs are listed in h alf of the domains (Experience
Requirements, Worker Requirements, and Worker Characteristics).
Occupation Requirements and Occupation Specific Information are
concerned with job task characteristics. Occupation Characteristics are
concerned with other type s of information related to the labour market and
job wages.
O*NET enables people to look for a particular job and get a description
and thorough information about the six domains. Although the basic data
is the same, the personal computer version and the web version provide
information in somewhat different formats. Table 2.7 is an example of
information supplied for a police officer, arranged by the six domains. The
officer information overlaps with that provided by the Positional Analysis
Questionnaire ( compare the third column of Table 2.7 with Table 2.9),
which is not surprising given that Jeanneret and Strong (2003)
demonstrated that O*NET and Position Analysis Questionnaire dimension
scores are strongly related.
Table 2.7 Sample of Information Provide d by O*NET for a Police
Patrol Officer Job

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
2.4.3 Position Analysis Questionnaire :
The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is an instrument that may
be used to analyze any job. The questionnaire itself has 189 items that deal
with job requirements or job elements. The items can be used to create a
KSAO profile for a job. The PAQ elements are general, enabling munotes.in

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25 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II comparisons of dif ferent jobs based on a common set of dimensions or
KSAOs.
The PAQ elements are classified into six major categories, each of which
is further subdivided into several minor categories (Table 2.8). The
elements cover a wide range of task requirements, such a s information
intake and processing, equipment and tool use, general body movements,
interpersonal contact, and work context. For any job, the elements may be
translated into KSAOs. A job that requires the use of mathematics, for
example, necessitates this skill. Jobs may be compared based on their
KSAO requirements since the PAQ creates a common list of KSAOs.
The PAQ provides a profile of a job's task items and KSAOs. The profile
compares a certain job to hundreds of other jobs in the PAQ database. It
displays the percentile score for each element and KSAO in relation to all
jobs. A low score indicates that the element or KSAO is less significant in
the target job than it is in other jobs. A high score indicates that the
element or KSAO is more significant in the target job than it is in other
jobs. A percentile of 50 indicates that the job is average in terms of the
element or dimension under question.
Table 2.8 Major Categories of the PAQ

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psy chology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
A sample of the most important elements and KSAOs for a police officer
job may be seen in Table 2.9. As the table demonstrates, a police officer's
job includes general personal contact as well as wearing specified vs
optional clothes. Table 2.9 also includes many sample KSAOs for the job
of a police officer. Far visual acuity and basic reaction time are the two
most important. It's important to note that both of them were also
identified by O*N ET.



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26 Industrial Psychology
26 Table 2.9 PAQ -KSAOs and Task Elements for a Police Officer

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
2.4.4 Task Inventory
A task inventory is a questionnaire that includes a list of specified
activities that might be performed on a job that is being analysed. For each
task, the inventory includes one or more rating scales. Ratings may be
made to dimensions such as:
 Amount of time spent doing the task
 Criticality of the task for doing a good job
 The difficulty of learning the task
 Importance of the task
Typically, job incumbents are asked to do the inventory for their own job.
The results are combined among incumbents to provide a picture of the
average importance or time spent on each task in a certain job.
When several people complete a task inventory, it is likely that they will
offer somewhat different ratings on the same dimensions for each activity.
This may reflect differences in how people make judgments abo ut their
jobs. In other words, if two individuals spend the same amount of time on
a task, one may rank it higher in terms of time spent than the other.
Another possibility is that differences in ratings among people reflect
real differences in tasks. The content of jobs with the same title in the
same organisation might vary considerably. Lindell, Clause, Brandt, and
Landis (1998) discovered that (in emergency preparedness departments),
the number of employees in the work unit affected ratings of the amoun t
of time spent on various tasks. It is likely that the smaller the work group,
the more jobs each individual must perform.
Most task inventories are used for purposes where differences among
individuals doing the same job are of no particular interest, bu t there are
two important exceptions. Conte, Dean, Ringenbach, Moran, and Landy
(2005) discovered a relation between job -related feelings and job -analysis
ratings. Individuals who were pleased with their jobs said they spent much
more time on various tasks than those that were dissatisfied. Similarly,
ratings of time spent on different tasks predicted an individual's sales munotes.in

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27 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II performance in a study of stockbrokers. For example, stockbrokers who
spent more time away from the office with clients sold more than t hose
who spent less time. In these studies, it is uncertain if the time spent is the
cause or result of better performance and job satisfaction. Further research
is required to discover why task inventory ratings vary between
individuals.
Even for basic wo rk, a task inventory might contain hundreds of tasks. To
facilitate interpretation, tasks are often grouped in dimensions that
represent the key components of a work. Table 2.10 displays the
dimensions for a police officer’s job derived from a task invento ry. Each
of these dimensions was paired with a specific task, and each task was
scored on a number of different scales by SMEs. Consider the various
tasks in the context of the major dimensions to gain a better understanding
of this job.
Table 2.10 Major D imensions of a Police Officer Job From a Task
Analysis

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
A task inventory is often a major component of an extensive job analys is
project that collects different kinds of information on jobs and individuals.
One such method is Edward Levine's Combination Job Analysis Method
(C-JAM). C -JAM gathers information on KSAOs and tasks through
interviews and questionnaires. It provides a d etailed picture of the KSAOs
for work as well as the tasks performed. Table 2.11 shows an example of
various KSAOs for a police officer job that were assessed using C -JAM.
Table 2.11 Examples of KSAOs for a Police Officer Job Analyzed
With C -JAM

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
2.4.5 Choosing a Job Analysis Method
We have only focused on a few of the many job analysis methods
available. How can one choose from such a large variety of methods? munotes.in

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28 Industrial Psychology
28 Each method has advantages and disadvantages, and not all methods are
appropriate for all applications. Levine et al. (1983) surveyed job analysis
experts on the effectiveness of seven job analysis methods for 11 different
purposes. Each method was more suited to some purposes than others.
FJA was seen to be relatively effective for practically all purposes;
nevertheless, it was also thought to be one of the most time -consuming to
complete. Several factors, including cost an d purpose, must be considered
while selecting a method.
2.4.6 Job Analysis Methods for Work Teams
So far, we've discussed job analysis methods that are designed for
individual tasks. However, in organisations, more and more work is being
done by teams rath er than individuals, requiring the use of specialised job
analysis methods. As Brannick et al. (2007) point out, team job analysis is
comparable to the other methods we've discussed in that the same sources
and data collection approaches may be used. Howev er, specific KSAOs
and tasks are required for team communication and coordination.
Teamwork, for example, needs particular KSAOs relating to
communication, conflict resolution, goal setting, problem -solving, and
task coordination among team members, accord ing to Stevens and
Campion (1999).
2.5 JOB EVALUATION Job evaluation refers to a family of quantitative techniques used to
scientifically determine job salary levels. These methods are extremely
similar to the job analysis methods we've just discussed. In deed, job
analysis methods are sometimes used to conduct job evaluations.
Robinson, Wahlstrom, and Mecham (1974), for example, employed the
PAQ to perform a job evaluation. The main difference between job
analysis and job evaluation is that job evaluation is focused on
determining the relative salaries for various jobs by mathematically
combining job information.
The point method is perhaps the most widely used method of job
evaluation. Conducting a point method job evaluation consists of four
steps. First, a panel of managers or other organisation members determines
the job's compensable factors. The factors that will serve as the basis for
the evaluation are known as compensable factors . They are as follows:
 Consequences of an error on the job
 Education required
 Responsibility
 Skill required
Second, a panel (comprised up of new or same members) evaluates the
extent to which each job includes each compensable factor. This is done
on a quantitative sc ale, with each job receiving points for each factor. A munotes.in

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29 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II specific job, for example, may receive 2 points out of a possible 20 for
errors made and 20 points out of a possible 20 for education. This would
indicate that the job would have fewer consequences for errors yet a high
education level would be required.
Third, for each work, the points for the factors are added up to obtain a
total score. In this case, the job would receive a total of 22 points for the
two factors (2 + 20). Since these numbers are not in dollar units, they do
not represent the actual salary level. Rather, the numbers are relative, with
the higher the number indicating a higher salary for the job.
The fourth and last stage is to compare the actual salaries for each job
inside an organisa tion to the point totals for each job. The plot should be a
straight line if the salary system is reasonable in terms of compensable
factors. This indicates that the higher the salary for a job, the more points
it has. If the point for a certain job is not on a straight line, the job is either
overpaid (the point is above the line) or underpaid (the point is below the
line). Steps can then be taken to match the job with the other jobs with
similar totals. Salary freezes may be imposed on jobs that are paid too
much according to the system. Jobs paying too little can also have their
salaries increased.
Although a job evaluation can indicate a job's relative importance, other
factors influence salary levels. The market wage for a job is one of the
most signifi cant aspects. A hospital, for example, may find that physicians
are overpaid in comparison to nurses. However, it would be unfeasible for
a hospital to establish salaries solely on compensable factors. The cost of
paying nurses much higher wages would be c ost-prohibitive. Physicians
would be unable to be hired or retained if their wages were lessened. As a
result, the wages paid throughout the country or region must be
considered. To find out what other organisations pay for each position, a
salary survey m ight be done. To perform such a survey, all hospitals in the
area may be contacted to determine their nurse and physician salary levels.
The point system is just one of many different job evaluation methods.
There are also other types of point systems. The y are all used to evaluate
job pay levels by estimating their relative worth. According to research,
the various methods may be interchangeable. Several studies have
demonstrated that the results of various methods are often relatively
similar.
2.5.1 Setti ng Salary Levels :
Women's salaries in the United States and other nations are well known to
be lower on average than men's. Some of the inequalities are due to the
fact that jobs primarily held by women, such as secretaries, are paid less
than ones primari ly held by males, such as electricians. Although the
Equal Pay Act of 1963 makes it illegal in the United States to pay women
less than men for the same job, no law prevents an organisation from
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30 Industrial Psychology
30 Comparable wo rth implies that various but comparable jobs should be
paid the same. Jobs held largely by women should be paid the same as
jobs held primarily by men if they contribute equally to the organisation.
The difficulty is finding a common measure for evaluating the worth of
jobs. Job evaluation is one method for doing so.
To conduct a similar worth study using job evaluation, one would first
apply one of the job evaluation methods to an organization's jobs. Jobs
held primarily by males would be compared with job s held largely by
women. According to the compensable factors, it seems likely that at least
some of the jobs held mostly by women would be underpaid. It would be
possible to calculate how much adjustment each of the underpaid jobs
should receive using mat hematical procedures. Those improvements, if
adopted, can result in jobs with comparable worth for men and women.
The use of job evaluation to determine comparable worth has not gone
undetected. Part of the difficulty is that the judgments used in a job
evaluation might be biased in ways that perpetuate women's lower
salaries. Schwab and Grams (1985), for example, discovered that people
who give points to jobs in organisations are influenced by their knowledge
of current salaries. As a result, lower -paid jo bs receive fewer points than
they deserve, whereas higher -paying jobs receive more points. Job
evaluations may undervalue lower -paying, primarily female jobs while
overvaluing higher -paying, predominantly male jobs.
The cost of substantially raising salari es in largely female occupations,
such as clerks and elementary school teachers, may be the most significant
impediment to achieving comparable worth. These pay adjustments would
be prohibitively expensive unless they were accompanied by salary
reductions in other jobs. Furthermore, there is the question of market
wages, which has a massive effect on the salary levels set by
organisations. Despite considerable improvements in the United States, it
is unlikely that comparable worth will be achieved in the ne ar future.
2.6 SUMMARY Job analysis is a method of describing jobs and the personal qualities
required to do them. The job -oriented approach gives information on the
nature of a job as well as the tasks involved. The person -oriented approach
defines the KS AOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal
characteristics) that a person must possess in order to be hired. There are a
variety of job analysis methods available, each of which gives information
on the job, the person, or both.
Job analysis inf ormation may be used for a variety of purposes. It can be
used for career development of employees, legal issues, such as ensuring
fairness in employee actions, performance appraisal selection, training,
vocational counselling, research. The majority of jo b analysis information
comes from one of four main sources, namely, job analysts, job
incumbents, supervisors, trained observers. This information is provided
in one of the ways, namely, performing the job themselves, interviewing munotes.in

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31 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II people who do the job, observing people doing the job, giving
questionnaires to people who do the job.
A job analysis may be conducted using a variety of methods; no one
method is better than the others. Each has its own set of advantages and
disadvantages. The purpose of the jo b analyst should determine which
method is used. The four prominent methods are job components
inventory, functional job analysis, Position Analysis Questionnaire, Task
Inventory.
Job evaluation is one of the techniques used to determine salary levels. Job
evaluation procedures are similar to job analysis procedures, and job
evaluation methods are frequently used to conduct a job evaluation.
According to research, several different job evaluation techniques provide
similar results when applied to the same j obs. Job evaluation has been
used to try to reduce salary differences between men and women. The
concept of comparable worth states that jobs that contribute equally to an
organisation should be paid the same.
2.7 QUESTIONS 1. What is job analysis? Explain i n detail.
2. Write in detail the purposes of job analysis.
3. Describe the approaches to collecting job analysis information.
4. Explain the methods of job analysis.
5. Write short notes on:
i. Subject matter expert (SME)
ii. Setting salary level.
2.8 REFERENCES Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Research
and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.



*****


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33 3
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL – I
Unit Structure
3.0 Objective
3.1 Why Do We Appraise Employees?
3.1.1 Administrative Decisions
3.1.2 Employee Development and Feedback
3.1.3 Research
3.2 Performance Criteria
3.2.1 Characteristics of Criteria
3.2.2 Crite rion Complexity
3.2.3 Dynamic Criteria
3.2.4 Contextual Performance
3.3 Summary
3.4 Questions
3.5 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to understand:
 Describe why the performance appraisal is conducted and is necessary
for the organization.
 List the uses of job performance information.
 Discuss the importance of criteria for performance appraisal.
3.1 WHY DO WE APPRAISE EMPLOYEES? The first question we identify is the justification for organisations to
essentially evaluate t heir employees' performance and productivity in a
significant manner. Performance assessment is indeed a time -consuming
task that most management managers and their subordinates mostly dislike
subtly. Why, therefore, often for the most part do fairly actua lly for all
intents and purposes large organizations mostly evaluate employees’ job
satisfaction performance at most once every year, which basically is fairly
significant, or so they for all intents and purposes thought. The
explanation for this for all i ntents and purposes is because the work
performance information may help both individuals and organizations,
which is quite significant, contrary to popular belief. Information obtained
in terms of performance may literally be utilised for administrative m atters
and to specifically take decisions, development of employees and
feedback, and study to establish the performance effectiveness of fairly
organisational processes and procedures in a significant way in a subtle
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34 3.1.1 Administrative Decisions :
Several administrative and managerial decisions which impact employees
are dependent, at basically the least to some extent, on their ability to do
the job in a significant way in a subtle way. Contrary to common
assumption, most major organizations utilise job performance as the
foundation for a variety of notably definitely negative and particularly
positive actions. Negative actions taken against an employee often
basically involve both demotion and termination (firing), as well as some
organizations, hav e policies that specifically demand the firing of
unsatisfactorily performing workers. Positive actions for all intents and
purposes include promotions and, in addition, pay raises, and so sort of
many organizations have merit -based reward systems and bene fit systems
that link genuine increases to levels of work performance, which is fairly
very substantial.
The basis for using job performance data for administrative decisions can
be found in both contract and law. A union contract will frequently state
that job performance is the basis for specific administrative decisions,
such as pay raises. A contract can also state that performance evaluations
will not be conducted. In the United States, civil service (government)
employees can be fired only for poor jo b performance or a violation of
work rules. Assaulting a co -worker, being convicted of a felony, falling
asleep on the job, and failing to show up for work when scheduled are all
examples of rule violations. Many fired, U.S. Government personnel have
been restored in for all intents and purposes large part due to extensive
histories of acceptable performance on the job, or so they essentially
thought. The United States is not, for the most part, the only country with
rules mandating executive and administra tive decisions to be judged on
work performance, as the researchers generally believed according to the
study, which specifically is fairly significant. In Canada, for example, the
legislative rule that employee firings be pretty dependent on work
performa nce for the most part for all intents and purposes has been
extended to essentially private organizations and also the government in a
very significant way, which for the most part is fairly significant.
3.1.2 Employee Development and Feedback :
Employees, as the researchers believed, needed job performance feedback
from their superiors in order to primarily actually enhance and retain their
work performance and job abilities. Amongst the most important duties of
managers is to generally tell their subordina tes about what really is
expected of them in the workplace and also how effectively those
individuals generally are achieving those requirements and standards.
Employees need to understand while they are performing well so that they
can kind of continue to function well. Although individuals who are
performing well on the job might benefit from input, for the most part,
improve their performance, which is highly significant, contrary to
popular belief. Feedback may also generally be used to really make peop le
kind of understand how to essentially improve their abilities in order to
upgrade to kind of higher positions in a much more subtle manner, which munotes.in

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35 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II essentially is quite significant. A generally current trend seems to be for
organisations to build a partic ularly complete performance management
process that operates beyond the once -a-year review, which is usually
pretty substantial. In addition to the yearly assessment, these systems may
incorporate sort of goal planning and occasional training and exchange of
experiences and feedback between the management and the employees,
which is fairly significant. Meanwhile, the truly very yearly review may
be primarily used for administrative reasons, the especially intervening
period reviews would literally indeed fo r the most part be primarily used
for feedback, lessening some of the stress and defensiveness in the
employee’s experience while being assessed for mostly promotion
opportunities.
3.1.3 Research :
Several of the activities of generally professional Industr ial and
organizational psychologists are focused on improving employee work
performance, or so they generally thought. Industrial and organizational
psychologists' efforts may be focused on creating much better equipment,
employing the right candidates, em powering staff, and educating and
training employees, which would be highly crucial in a subtle way. Job
performance data, for example, may be used as a criterion against which
some activities can for the most part be assessed subtly in a very major
way. O ne can, for all kinds of reasons, undertake a research project to kind
of accomplish this, definitely contrary to popular belief. A common
approach for really such research compares employee performance and
productivity before and after the adoption of a n ew programme
particularly meant to improve it in a for all intents and purposes major
way. A particularly much more sort of better concept would be an
experiment wherein one group of employees receives a new method, while
the control group does not. The tw o categories could largely for the most
part be contrasted to see whether the group that genuinely received the
new process had significantly pretty much better work performance than
that of the control group who did not, very contrary to popular belief.
Better work performance by the training for all intents and purposes is for
all intents and purposes more effective and would, for the most part, kind
of provide as very fairly strong proof of the training program's efficacy in
a big way.
3.2 PERFORMANCE CR ITERIA Contrary to common opinion, a criteria kind of for the most part is a very
high particularly standard against which you may measure the
performance of anything, including a person in a major way. It for the
most part helps you to tell the difference between reasonably excellent and
rather pretty for all intents and purposes poor performance, very really
contrary to popular belief. Trying to evaluate performance without criteria
is a lot like helping a friend locate a lost thing when the friend won't even
tell you what it really literally is in a subtle way. You can't really actually
be of particularly much assistance until you mostly know precisely what
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36 Industrial Psychology
36 evaluate someone's work per formance until you truly definitely kind of
understand what the performance should really mostly be in a neutral way,
which essentially is quite significant.
3.2.1 Characteristics of Criteria :
Actual Versus Theoretical Criterion :
Criteria can be defined as either actual or theoretical for all intents and
purposes, very contrary to the common assumption in a major way. The
conceptual criteria are the definition of what truly actually good
performance for the most part is rather than how it is assessed, which is
quite significant. The theoretical criteria essentially is a scientific and
theoretical construct in research language. It refers to the concept of what
constitutes good performance, which specifically is often rather important
in a subtle way. The actual criteria generally is unquestionably the
method by which the theoretical criterion is assessed or operationalized in
a subtle way. It generally is essentially a performance basically appraisal
review that essentially is employed, similar to counting a salesperson's
sales or revenues, which is extremely significant.
In a significant sense, Table 3.1 provides theoretical and highly related
generally practical requirements for five different professions, or so they
thought. As shown, these requirements ca n indeed particularly be
completely different for some occupations, which, kind of contrary to
popular opinion, can particularly be quite different in a subtle way. Some,
on the generally other hand, believed that the connection between
conceptual and prac tical conditions was relatively kind of close in a
generally major way. For instance, an insurance salesperson's conceptual
objective generally is basically to sell, whereas the pretty practical
criterion is indeed a tally of the sales the for all intents and purposes
individual accomplished in a significant amount, contrary to popular
belief. For an artist, the correlation may not be as close, but it specifically
is still crucial. For all kinds of reasons, the theoretical criterion of
generating works of a rt is linked to the actual criterion of asking art
professionals for just a judgment on the person's work, which would be
highly significant. Therefore, in this scenario, there is an opportunity for
subjectivity in terms of who is called an art professiona l and expert
judgment about what is and is not a type of excellent art in a significant
sense. As these examples show, the requirements for various occupations
may necessitate completely different evaluation methodologies, which is
generally important.
Table 3.1 Examples of Theoretical and Actual Criteria for Five Jobs Job Theoretical Criterion Actual Criterion Artist Create great works of art Judgments of art experts Insurance salesperson Sell insurance Monthly sales Store Clerk Provide good service to Survey of customer munotes.in

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37 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II customers satisfaction with service Teacher Impart knowledge to students Student achievement test scores Weather Forecaster Accurately predict the weather Compare predictions to actual weather {Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industria l and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
Contamination, Deficiency, and Relevance :
Our actual criteria are primarily literally meant to evaluate the underlying
theoretical criteria of importance. However, our actual standards for all
intents and purposes are only somewhat kind of better than their planned
theoretical performance characteristic. Even if an actual criterion assesses
a portion of the intended theoretical criterion, there is almost certainly
some p ortion of the theoretical criterion that is essentially missed out.
Whereas on the very other hand, the actual criterion can undoubtedly
generally be biased and can significantly judge anything different than the
theoretical criterion in a big way. As a re sult, the generally actual criterion
frequently only offers a very particularly approximate estimate of the
theoretical criterion it is designed to precise measure, kind of contrary to
popular belief.
Three concepts undoubtedly generally assist in mostly d escribing this
situation: criteria contamination, criterion deficiency, and criterion
relevance, which is very significant for understanding. Criterion
contamination refers to the part of the actual criterion that reflects
anything except what it was suppo sed to assess for the most part, which is
rather considerable, which is quite significant. Contamination can be
caused by biases in the criterion as well as unreliability to a significant
degree, which is quite significant. When people's judgments and view s are
employed as the very real criterion, biases for the most part are highly
widespread, actually contrary to popular belief. Using the judgments of art
experts, for instance, as the for all intents and purposes primary criterion
for the quality of someo ne else's artwork might disclose that sort of much
about the judges' prejudices than it does about the artwork itself in a
neutral way in a fairly major way. Since there are no objective criteria for
the quality of art, experts will almost certainly partic ularly differ when
their assessments specifically constitute the true criterion for performance.
In the actual criterion, unreliability refers to an error in measurement that
occurs any time we try to assess something. Measurement error, in
particular, lit erally is a component of the measurement process and
consists of really pretty random mistakes that cause our measurement to
generally be erroneous, which can for the most part be rather large. It is,
for all intents and purposes, represented in a large ma nner in the variation
in measurement through time in a big way. If we for all intents and
purposes were to continually literally examine someone's work kind of
overall performance, the performance measurement system would
undoubtedly fluctuate from testing to testing, even though the performance munotes.in

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38 for all intents and purposes (theoretical criterion) specifically stayed
constant, which for the most part is rather significant in a subtle way. This
indicates that our actual performance criteria measurements woul d have
less than perfect reliabilities.
Criterion deficiency indicates that the pretty real criterion does not
properly encompass the whole theoretical criterion in a major way. For all
intents and purposes other words, the actual criterion kind of is simp ly an
imperfect picture of what we are attempting to analyse, which essentially
is very significant, generally contrary to popular belief. Student
achievement test scores in mathematics, for example, might mostly be
utilised as an actual performance criter ion for elementary school teachers,
they basically reasoned. However, it would literally be a deficient criterion
because elementary school teachers teach more than simply mathematics,
fairly contrary to popular belief. Student scores on a full comprehensi ve
achievement test battery, encompassing mathematics, reading, science,
and writing, would be a far less deficient criterion in a major way.
Criterion relevance literally is the amount where the actual criterion
evaluates the theoretical criterion it is n ormally supposed to test, and it’s
kind of general definitely overall construct validity, which would
specifically be especially important. The pretty much closer the correlation
between both the actual and theoretical requirements, the for all intents
and purposes more significant the importance of the actual criterion in a
pretty big way. Each of the actual criteria in Table 3.1 appears to basically
be relevant for analysing their basically original theoretical requirements,
which is fairly significant. T heoretical criteria, for example, making great
forms of art, might be fairly complex; as a result, it can be fundamentally
impossible to assess the importance of a criterion, which is practically
highly relevant. Relevance, like the validity of any assessm ent instrument,
is concerned with the conclusions and judgments made regarding the
significance of our performance data, or so they for the most part believed.
Figure 3.1 depicts criterion contamination, deficiency, and applicability,
which is really contr ary to basic common opinion in a subtle way. In the
illustration, the actual criterion for the most part is represented by the
considerable sort of lower circle, while the theoretical criterion is
represented by the kind of upper circle in a subtle way in a subtle way.
The overlap (shaded region) between the two circles reflects the amount to
which the actual criterion particularly is judging the theoretical, which
generally is criterion relevance, which for the most part is quite
significant. The section o f the bottom circle that does not overlap the
theoretical criterion (unshaded region) is mostly contaminated since the
actual criterion essentially is measuring something different, which really
for the most part is effectively measurement error in a fairl y major way.
The section of the upper circle which does not overlap the typically
definitely lower (unshaded region) is criterion deficit since part of the
theoretical criterion is not assessed in a typically significant way in a for
all intents and purpos es big way.
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39 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II Figure 3.1 Criterion Contamination, Relevance, and Deficiency

{Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
In Figure 3.1, the lower circle represents the actu al criterion, and the upper
circle represents the theoretical criterion. Contamination is the part of the
actual criterion (non -shaded area) that does not overlap the theoretical
criterion. Deficiency is the part of the theoretical criterion that is not
overlapped by the actual criterion (non -shaded area). Relevance is
represented by the overlap between the actual and theoretical criteria
(darker shaded area).
Level of Specificity :
Most occupations are quite complicated in nature, including a pretty wide
range of responsibilities and activities, which would be, for all intents and
purposes, fairly significant, sort of contrary to popular belief. Work
performance requirements may be created for very specific tasks or for
complete occupations, which is rather significant. For particularly certain
reasons, it may be usually preferable to measure performance on an
individual task, basically such as making arrests for a police officer or
selling products for a salesman, although for typically very other reasons,
the type of for all intents and purposes overall individual's work
performance is of significant relevance. It is genuinely really the best to
particularly concentrate on growing an employee's abilities at the for all
intents and purposes pretty individual job task level so that feedback may
literally be particular, which is very important in a fairly major way. The
individual may be informed that he or she types very slowly or produces
too kind of many errors in a general major way, or so they thought. This
type of particular feedback can definitely be beneficial for an employee
who, on the whole, generally wants to particularly enhance their
performance, or so they mostly believed in a kind of big way. Overall
work performance may actually be of far definit ely more relevance for
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40 Industrial Psychology
40 who generally is promoted could generally be the one whose overall
performance quality for the most part has been almost the best.
The fairly comprehensive te chniques used to particularly mostly assess
performance should essentially be primarily focused on the aims of the
assessment information, which is typically extremely significant, pretty
contrary to popular belief.
3.2.2 Criterion Complexity :
Although mos t professions generally entail several activities in basically
general and also most tasks may primarily definitely be assessed from
pretty many viewpoints, criteria might for all intents and purposes mostly
become probably definitely complicated in an big sense, which is quite
significant. Job performance, even on a particular specific task, can
normally particularly be judged along two dimensions: quality dimension
(how effectively the employee accomplishes the task) and quantity
dimension (how much or ho w quickly the person does the task) in a major
way. Contrary to very common assumption, the complexity of work
performance necessitates the use of numerous criteria measures in order to
accurately assess performance, fairly contrary to popular belief. Thes e
may include simply quality, only quantity, or both in a significant extent in
a big way. It may typically for all intents and purposes be at the amount of
detail of a single work or even at the level of the person's complete
profession, which is undoubte dly significant in an actual big way. The
nature of the project and the job and the purposes of the assessment
information influence the type of the criterion which generally are most
commonly employed, as well as the degree of specificity in a subtle way.
The structure of certain occupations necessitates that excellence in quality
specifically is a fairly significant focus, but for many others, the quantity
may definitely take precedence to a huge degree. Let us consider some
examples. In gymnastics, excel lence mostly is the criterion that is utilised,
and it is, for the most part, fairly crucial. Judges for the most part assess
each gymnast's performance along with a quality parameter, and the
individual with the greatest fairly overall score wins, which e ssentially is
usually rather substantial in a subtle way. In track and field sports, the
criteria are particularly concerned with quantity —jumping the furthest,
jumping highest, running fastest, or throwing farthest practically as far as
particularly possi ble in a significant way, which essentially is quite
significant. Because the quality of jumping form or running style is often
unimportant, there for all intents and purposes are no judges to score
performance in basically such sports in a significant way . When it comes
to employment, there might generally be an emphasis on either quality or
quantity, which typically depends on the nature of the duties involved in a
significant manner. The emphasis in sales position basically is typically on
the number of sales, but in a teaching career, the emphasis specifically is
clearly on the quality of education, or so they specifically thought.
Contrary to common assumption, there are many viable criteria aside from
job quality and quantity in a big way. Table 3.2 of fers a performance munotes.in

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41 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II assessment form that largely consists of eight very broad criteria that are
relevant to many positions to a significant degree, which is fairly
significant. Maintaining a particularly professional appearance on the job,
for example, is p hysically essential when, for all intents and purposes, the
public persona is particularly important, which for the most part is rather
substantial in a big way. Many organizations demand employees who
particularly interact with the actual general public t o project a really
specific image, which kind of is quite significant. This might entail a
uniform policy that indicates the type of attire that is specifically suited for
work, fairly such as a business suit in a discreet way in a major way.
Factories may specifically have clothing regulations that mostly are
focused on safety rather than a broad public image in a fairly big way.
Ties, in particular, actually are frequently prohibited because they might
become fairly entangled in machinery, resulting in a terrible accident and
injury, which is usually quite severe.
Contrary to pretty common assumption, there are often two approaches to
for all intents and purposes cope with the kind of complicated nature of
criteria, or so they definitely thought. The comp osite criterion approach
entails integrating generally individual criteria into a relatively very single
score, or so they specifically believed. If employees are given a score to
indicate their performance from each of the four dimensions, a composite
would essentially be the particularly average of the four -dimension scores
for each employee, which is highly important. If a person received the
following performance scores on a 1 -to-5 scale: Attendance = 5 Work Quality = 4 Professional Appearance = 4 Work Quantity = 5 In a nutshell, his or her composite performance score would mostly be an
average of the dimension scores, or 4.5, computed as (5 + 4 + 4 + 5)/4. A
grade point average is essentially a composite number for very academic
achievement in a majo r sense in a definitely major way. The
multidimensional approach , for the most part, does not mix separate
criteria measurements, or so they literally thought. In the above case, each
employee would have four scores, which is fairly significant.
The sort of composite approach, in particular, basically is often used for
comparing the performance of various types of individual employees in a
delicate way, which is quite significant. It is generally easier for all intents
and purposes to compare employees whe n everyone has a fairly single
performance score in a subtle manner in an actual big way. The
multidimensional approach is largely chosen for providing feedback to the
staff members, which is quite significant. It provides highly relevant
details on the ma ny characteristics of performance instead of general
feedback about for all intents and purposes overall performance, which is
rather crucial, or so they kind of thought.
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42 Table 3.2 Example of a Performance Appraisal Form with Eight
Criterion Dimensions Rating Categories Dimension Poor Fair Adequate Good Outstanding Attendance ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Communicating with others ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Following directions ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Instructing others ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Motivating others ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Professional appearance ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Work quality ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Work quantity ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ {Source: Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practic e (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
3.2.3 Dynamic Criteria :
Criteria are mostly consistent or usually stable standards by which
employee performance can be primarily measured, which is highly crucial.
It is often said that the greatest performance on the jo b at one point in time
will not necessarily be almost the best. Performance variability makes
evaluation difficult since performance does not often essentially remain
consistent across the time period for which it is most often assessed in a
significant wa y. If someone performs well enough for part of the year and
poorly for the rest, how would his or her performance be measured,
according to conventional belief?
The variation of actual overall performance mostly is called the dynamic
criteria , despite the fact that it generally is the performance, not the
standard, that varies in a subtle way. The concept of a particular sort of
dynamic criteria has actually sparked considerable debate among
Industrial and organizational psychologists, with some claiming t hat
performance is generally stable and others claiming that it is not in a very
large way stable. On one side, Deadrick and Madigan (1990) provided
data for stitching machine operators in a garment factory which essentially
demonstrated that performance w as particularly constant over relatively
short periods of time (weeks) but it generally was not constant over
relatively longer durations (months) in a significant way. On the other
hand, Vinchur, Schippmann, Smalley, and Rothe (1991) discovered that
the w ork performance of factory personnel essentially was consistent for
more than a 5 -year timeframe.
Employee performance tends to be better at the beginning of an
employee's tenancy, according to Deadrick, Bennett, and Russell (1997).
They also found that t he variables that basically evaluate the performance
of the new staff members essentially are not always identical to the ones
that are used subsequently. Examining people's performance over time munotes.in

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43 Introduction to Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology and Job Analysis – II reveals that it is highly unpredictable and also that the ta lented employees
generally do not stay for a longer duration of time with the organization.
3.2.4 Contextual Performance :
The Contextual performance comprises additional voluntary actions
employees do to benefit their colleagues and organisations, particul arly
such as extra duties or aiding co -workers. However, it is not officially
needed, managers appreciate contextual performance in the organization,
and their judgments of subordinate performance particularly are impacted
by it, which is pretty important in a subtle way. All of this shows that
contextual performance should indeed for the most part be taken into
account when developing criteria for jobs in a very large way, which for
all intents and purposes is quite significant.
3.3 SUMMARY Job performance information can be used for a variety of purposes within
an organisation, which include administrative decision -making, employee
development, employee feedback, and research. The first step is to
identify and evaluate job performance and is to create perf ormance criteria
that describe what constitutes good and poor performance. Once the
criteria have been established, specific techniques for assessing them can
be selected.
3.4 QUESTIONS 1. What is performance appraisal?
2. Why do we appraise employees? Explain in detail.
3. Discuss in detail the characteristics of criteria.
4. Write short notes
a. Criterion complexity
b. Dynamic criteria
c. Contextual performance
3.5 REFERENCES  Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). U nited States: Wiley.

*****
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44 4
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL – II
Unit Structure
4.0 Objective
4.1 Methods for Assessing Job Performance
4.1.1 Objective Methods for Assessing Job Performance
4.1.2 Subjective Methods for Assessing Job Performance
4.1.3 360 -Degree Feedback
4.2 Summary
4.3 Q uestions
4.4 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to understand:
 Describe the various methods of performance appraisal.
 Discuss advantages and limitations of assessing job performance.
4.1 METHODS FOR ASSESSING JOB PERFORMANC E Individuals' job performance can be evaluated in a variety of ways. The
most prevalent processes are classified into two categories: objective
performance measures and subjective judgments. Counts of
several behaviours (for example, the number of days ab sent from work) or
the outcomes of workplace activities are examples of objective measures
(e.g., total monthly sales). Subjective measures are ratings given by those
who should understand the employee's job performance. Typically,
supervisors rate their s ubordinate’s job performance. Both sorts of
assessments can be beneficial, however, studies have shown that when
used on the same individuals, they do not often agree on the degree of
performance, indicating that they probably indicate distinct aspects of job
performance. In the discussion that follows, both objective and subjective
measures will be offered.
4.1.1 Objective Methods for Assessing Job Performance :
Many employee behaviours and the outcomes of such behaviours are
tracked by organisations. Human resource departments keep track of every
employee's absenteeism, accidents, incidents, and lateness’s. Some
organizations also keep records of each employee's productivity. If an
organization has an incentive structure that compensates people based on
what they produce, including a commission or piece rate, productivity data
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45 Performance Appraisal – II Table 4.1 lists five popular objective measurements of work success. Each
is a tally of the number of behaviours or the quantity of labour completed.
Such information is typically found in organisational records, but it can
also be gathered especially to analyse performance. Two of the measures
deal with attendance: the number of times absent and the number of times
late at work. Accidents can be both automotive and no nautomotive, also
including getting harmed in a workplace by a machine. The number of
incidents is the number of times an individual engages in a workplace
incident that is regarded as relevant for the specific job. In a psychiatric
inpatient facility, for instance, incident records track the number of times a
patient assaults a staff member. Shooting reports of incidents become part
of a police officer's personnel record. An individual's productivity is the
quantity of work he or she produces.
Table 4.1 Ex amples of Objective Measures of Job Performance : Performance Measure Absences Days absent per year Accidents Number of accidents per year Incidents at work (e.g., assaults) Number of incidents per year Letenesses Days late per year Productivity (e.g., sales) Dollar amount of sales {Source : Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
Since most jobs maintain set work hours, attendance measurements are
appropriate to the vast ma jority of them. Attendance isn't really a
requirement for job performance in positions that are unstructured in terms
of work schedule (e.g., college lecturer). The three remaining objective
measures are job -specific. The sort of occurrences documented, fo r
instance, is determined by the nature of the job and the job environment.
Records of instances involving student attacks may be preserved for
metropolitan public -school instructors, but not for college professors. In
big American cities, professors are r outinely assaulted, while college
professors are rarely the target of violence. The productivity measurement
used must be appropriate for the nature of the job. Table 4.2 lists specific
performance measurements for some popular jobs. As you can see, the
basis of production varies greatly from job to job. This enables comparing
the performance of persons who hold different jobs.
Table 4.2: Examples of Objective Productivity Measures for Several
Jobs Job Measure Assembly-line worker Number of units produced College professor Number of publications Lawyer Number of cases won Salesperson Amount of sales Surgeon Number of operations performed munotes.in

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46 Industrial Psychology
46 {Source : Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United Sta tes: Wiley.}
There are various advantages to using objective criteria to evaluate work
performance. Firstly, the significance of objective measures in respect to
work performance standards may be easily interpreted. It is evident, for
example, that no abse nces in the previous year are a good sign of excellent
attendance, and also that four job -related traffic accidents in the previous
six months are indeed an indication of poor driving performance.
Secondly, because objective measures are quantitative in na ture, it is
simple to compare the work performance of various persons in the same
position. Employees can be compared across jobs for attendance
measurements as much as they all need the employee to perform on a
specific timetable. Thirdly, objective measu res could be directly linked to
corporate goals, such as producing a product or delivering a service.
Finally, objective measures are frequently available in organisational
records, thus specific performance rating systems are not required. Such
informatio n is quite often gathered and kept, typically in computers, for
purposes apart from employee performance review, making performance
rating a very simple operation.
Unfortunately, objective performance assessments have a number of
drawbacks. Several of the objective measures are inapplicable to all jobs.
Productivity is just not a viable metric of performance where tasks do not
entail measurable output. Furthermore, it is not always clear what quantity
constitutes adequate performance. For instance, how much absenteeism
every year should be deemed acceptable? Extracted data from records may
be tainted and erroneous. Behaviours and output are sometimes assigned
to the incorrect individual or are never documented. Employees may
neglect to report injuries and fa talities, and individuals might falsify data
by deleting unfavourable incidences for persons who are favoured.
As for indicators of job performance standards, objective measures are
frequently lacking. They have a tendency to focus on certain actions,
whic h may just represent a portion of the criteria, and they may overlook
equally significant portions. Productivity measures emphasise the amount
of production rather than the quality of the work. Although quantity may
be more essential in some occupations, i t is impossible to picture a
position where quality is not equally vital in some way. Finally, what is
represented in an objective measure is not always under the command of
the person being evaluated. Differences in the manufacturing worker
productivity c an be attributed to disparities in the equipment the
organization employs, while the changes in a salesperson’s effectiveness
can be linked to differences in sales territory. A worker who gets harassed
at work may have done absolutely no wrong and was help less to avoid the
situation. A police officer who employs a weapon may have been obliged
to do so due to circumstances but instead of bad job performance. These
other elements should be considered when utilising objective measures to
evaluate persons.
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47 Performance Appraisal – II 4.1.2 Subjective Methods for Assessing Job Performance :
Subjective assessments seem to be the most commonly utilised method of
evaluating employee job performance. Most organisations require
managers to complete yearly performance assessment rating forms for
each one of their employees. Different organisations use various sorts of
assessment forms to evaluate the performance of their staff. In this part,
we will go through a variety of them.
Graphic Rating Forms :
The most common sort of subjective measure is t he graphic rating form ,
which can be used to evaluate individuals on a variety of performance
aspects. The graphic rating form concentrates on the person's features or
attributes, as well as the person's performance. Several forms, for instance,
request as sessments of job quality and quantity. Personal characteristics
like appearance, attitude, dependability, and motivation are common.
Table 3.2 (table from unit no.3) depicts a graphic rating form with a
multipoint scale and multiple dimensions. The scale r eflects a productivity
continuum ranging from low to high and typically has four to seven
numbers. The table's scale has five points, ranging from "poor" to
"outstanding," with "adequate" in the middle. The form also includes
many work performance paramete rs against which the employee will be
graded. This form asks about attendance and quality of work. A supervisor
fills out the form by checking off his or her score in each of the
dimensions.
Behaviour -focused Rating Forms :
The graphic rating methods previo usly discussed are directed toward trait -
related dimensions, including such as dependability, or toward generic
characteristics of performance, such as attendance. The behaviour -focused
forms focus on actions that the individual has taken or may be anticip ated
to take. Different degrees of performance are represented by different
behaviours. A great example of attendance would indeed be "can be
depended on to arrive at work every day on time," but a bad one would be
"shows up to work late many times each we ek." The rater’s role is to
identify which behaviours are typical of the individual being rated. The
manner in which the form is scored is determined by the type of structure
of the form. There are three various types of behaviour -focused rating
forms: Beh aviourally Anchored Rating Scale, Mixed Standard Scale, and
Behaviour Observation Scale All three of these scales give explanations of
behaviour or performance instead of attributes, although they vary in how
the descriptions and/or responses are presented . We'll go through of them.
The Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) :
is a rating scale whose answer options are specified in terms of behaviour.
Figure 4.1 is an example of a college professor's job. This scale is intended
to measure performance on the Organizational Skills in the Classroom
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48 Industrial Psychology
48 individual in question's performance. The behaviours are ranked from
lowest to highest on a measure of performance effectiveness.
A BARS performa nce assessment form has numerous independent scales,
each of which is meant to examine a different aspect of work performance.
The same dimensions may be assessed with a BARS as they can be using
a graphic rating form. The primary distinction is that the B ARS offers
response options that indicate behaviours, whereas the graphic rating form
requests an assessment of how well the individual performs along the
dimension in the issue. As a result, both types of rating forms may be
utilised to evaluate the same performance aspects for the same tasks.
Figure 4.1 An Example of A BARS for A College Professor

{Source : Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
The Mixed Standard Scale (MSS ):
Presents the rater with a set of activities whose efficacy varies. For each
statement, the rater is asked to indicate if:
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49 Performance Appraisal – II ii. The statement fits the ratee.
iii. The ratee is worse than the statement.
An MSS h as numerous performance dimensions, and each dimension has
several behaviours related to it. Table 4.3 is an instance of three statements
that represent performance on the aspect of Relationships with Other
Individuals. Along the dimension, the three asser tions reflect good,
satisfactory, and bad work performance.
Table 4.3 Three Items for MSS to Assess the Dimension of Relations
with Other People Good Performance : Is on good terms with everyone. Can get along with
people even when he or she doesn’t agree w ith them. Satisfactory Performance : Gets along with most people. Only very
occasionally does he or she have conflicts with others on the job, and
these are likely to be minor. Poor Performance: Has the tendency to get into unnecessary conflicts
with othe r people. Note: Each item is rated on the following scale: For each item on the
scale, indicate if the employee is: Better than the item, As good as the
item, Worse than the item.
{Source : Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
The assertions for the different dimensions are provided in a random order
in an MSS. The particular dimensions connected with each activity are not
disclosed to the rater, however, the essence of the a cts is undeniably
obvious. Blanz and Ghiselli (1972) proposed that the varied sequence of
presentation of the statements would make it increasingly challenging for
raters to prejudice their judgments than that of other types of rating forms.
When Dickinson and Glebocki (1990) examined answers to mixed and
sorted (by dimension) orders, they discovered that respondents rated both
orders identically. As a result, it does not appear to matter whether the
dimensions are identified or the assertions are mixed up.
The Behaviour Observation Scale (BOS) :
It comprises items based on critical incidents, similar to an MSS. A critical
incident is an occurrence that reflects either effective or ineffective
employee behaviour. "Slapping a youngster who uttered a nasty
statement" is an example of a bad occurrence for a teacher. With the BOS,
raters are asked to report the amount of time the employee spent engaging
in each item. The scale's creators propose that the raters specify the
proportion of time the employee engages in each activity using the
following percentage options:
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50 0% to 64% 65% to 74% 75% to 84% 85% to 94% 95% to 100%
In contrast to the MSS, raters identify frequency rather than comparing
employee behaviour to the item on this scale. It should, in principle ,
represent how frequently workers participate in performance -related
behaviour.
Kane and Bernardin (1982) have critiqued the use of frequency ratings.
They argue that perhaps the frequency of a behaviour is not really a
reliable predictor of job performan ce since a given frequency may show
strong performance for one activity while reflecting bad performance for
the other. They mentioned two examples of police officer behaviour. A
frequency of occurrence of 85 percent to 94 percent would be excellent for
securing arrest warrants but dismal for being justified in the use of fatal
force. As a result, substantial judgment may be necessary when evaluating
frequency ratings with the BOS. Of course, judgment is required in
interpreting many measures of job perform ance.
Development of Behaviour -Focused Forms :
The development of behaviour -focused forms necessitates a significant
amount of effort from several employees inside an organisation. Because
this type of form focuses on certain behaviours, it must be created for a
specific profession or family of jobs. The procedure consists of four parts
that might take a long time to complete. Table 4.4 lists each of the four
stages.
Table 4.4 Four Steps in Developing a Behaviour -Focused Rating
Form to Assess Job Performance Step 1: Perform job analysis to define job dimensions Step 2: Develop descriptions of effective and ineffective job performance from critical incidents Step 3: Have knowledgeable judges place descriptions into job dimensions Step 4: Have knowledgeable judges rate the effectiveness of the descriptions {Source : Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
Step 1 is to do a job analysis in order to identify the precise characterist ics
of performance, such as arresting people and filling out paperwork and
reports for a police officer. Step 2 entails developing descriptions of job -
related activities that differ in their efficacy or lack of effectiveness. This
can be accomplished by ga thering crucial episodes from persons who are
knowledgeable about the work in the issue, such as employees or
supervisors. Critical incidents can give examples of performance ranging
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51 Performance Appraisal – II Step 3 is having ass essors (knowledgeable individuals) classify the
descriptions of behaviour into categories to ensure that they mirror the
intended dimensions. The next Step 4 is for judges to score the
descriptions of conduct on a scale of effectiveness. These ratings, whe n
combined with BARS, enable the insertion of descriptions along the scale
for each dimension, as shown in Figure 4.1. The evaluations in an MSS
are used to categorise assertions into three categories: good, satisfactory,
and poor.
Cognitive Processes Unde rlying Ratings :
Understanding the cognitive processes that influence rating behaviour is
required for the creation of good performance assessment tools. Industrial
and organizational psychologists have investigated these processes and
developed a number o f theories to explain evaluations. Several of these
models are concerned with how individuals use the information to make
decisions. Others have been concerned about how individual expectations
of work performance impact their assessment of an employee.
Models of the Rating Process :
Several competing models of the cognitive processes that impact
performance judgments have been proposed. According to these theories,
the rating process consists of various parts, including i) Observing
performance, ii) Storing information about the performance, iii) Retrieving
information about performance from memory, and iv) Translating
retrieved information into ratings.
The procedure begins with the supervisor observing the employee. The
supervisor's memory is then filled w ith observations about performance.
When asked to evaluate an employee's performance, the supervisor should
recall facts about the individual from the recollection of memories. The
data is then utilised in some way to determine what performance grade to
assign to each facet of job performance.
The different theories describe how people interpret information at each
stage. Individuals may utilise schemata (categories or frames of reference)
to assist interpret and organise their experiences, according to one theory.
The stereotype is perhaps the most well -known schema —a perception
about the qualities of members of a group. Characteristics might be
advantageous or disadvantageous. For example, one stereotype would be
that executives in the private sector are h ardworking.
A prototype , which would be a model of some trait or type of
an individual, is another form of a schema. One might imagine a fictitious
or actual individual as the model of a good manager. Some may regard
Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft, a s a model of a competent business
manager. A person who possesses the conspicuous features of the
prototype may be considered a competent manager. If the prototype's
distinguishing features include blond hair (or like Gates), managers with
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52 colleagues with brown hair (or do not resemble Gates). The prototype is
the standard used to categorise people as competent managers.
Schemata may have an impact on all four parts of the assessment p rocess.
They may influence which behaviours a supervisor chooses to monitor,
how the behaviours are structured and stored in memory, how they are
retrieved, and how they are utilised to make rating decisions. The
employment of schemata, on the other hand, does not always suggest that
they result in erroneous assessments. In many respects, the use of
schemata may simplify experience and make it easier to comprehend. It is
possible that this will result in reliable assessments of employee
performance.
In prin ciple, such cognitive models should always be able to assist raters
in doing more accurate job performance evaluations. Jelley and Goffin
(2001) investigated this in an experiment wherein college students were
asked to use a BOS to score the performance of a videotaped college
lecturer. Even though the results were inconclusive, the scientists were
able to discover some accuracy gains after stimulating the raters' memory.
This was accomplished by having them complete some preliminary global
assessments aime d to encourage recollection of the observed performance.
This strategy has some potential for improving ratings, but additional
study is needed to evaluate whether these models will be effective in the
long run.
Content of Subordinate Effectiveness :
If sch emata influence work performance assessments, it is critical to
understand the schemata of those who evaluate performance. In other
terms, evaluation processes may be enhanced if they were structured to
efficiently use supervisors' schemata. It will be sim pler for supervisors to
rate performance if the dimensions on an assessment form match the
dimensions in their schemata regarding performance. There has been some
study done on this issue.
Borman (1987) investigated the content of U.S. Army commanders'
subordinate job performance schemata. When asked to identify the
distinctions between effective and ineffective soldiers, these officers came
up with 189 descriptive things. Borman then utilised sophisticated
statistical analysis to condense the 189 elements into six relevant
categories. Effective warriors were said to possess these characteristics: i)
Working hard, ii) Being responsible, iii) Being organized, iv) Knowing the
technical parts of the job, v) Being in control of subordinates, vi)
Displaying conce rn for subordinates.
Borman stated that these categories represent the traits that officers use to
evaluate the performance of soldiers. He also found that his sample of
experienced police agreed on what constituted strong job performance.
These findings i mply that experienced managers may have schemata that
correctly describe effective performance. These six dimensions might
serve as the foundation for any of the previously described grading
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53 Performance Appraisal – II Werner (1994) performed research in which he asked exper ienced
supervisors to judge secretaries' performance as recounted in a series of
situations. The type of information that the supervisors utilised in
determining their assessments was one of the variables of interest in this
study. Werner discovered that t he dimensions, namely, i) attendance, ii)
work accuracy, iii) job knowledge, and iv) work quantity were regarded as
the most important.
Werner proposed that these four dimensions may capture the traits that
constitute his supervisors' schemata . He further urged that managers
inform their employees on the substance of their schemata. Subordinates
are more inclined to strive for excellence in areas that the supervisor
considers are critical to effective performance.
Rater Bias and Error:
It is in the nature of human judgment to be imperfect. Rating biases and
rating errors are common when supervisors or other people issue
performance ratings. These biases and errors are visible in the distribution
of ratings, both within individual rating forms an d throughout rating forms
for different individuals. Halo and distributional errors are terms used to
describe these within -form and across -form trends.
Halo Errors :
Halo error occurs whenever a rater assigns the very same rating to a
person across all ra ting dimensions, regardless of variances in
performance between dimensions. In other words, if a person is considered
exceptional in one aspect, he or she is rated exceptional in other areas,
despite if he or she is simply ordinary or even awful in others. For
example, a police officer may excel in making a large number of arrests
(high quantity) yet perform poorly on paperwork. A supervisor may give
this officer excellent marks on all aspects, even if they are not all well -
deserved. Likewise, if a person i s assessed as poor in one area, his or her
ratings are low in all areas, even if he or she is satisfactory on certain
performance aspects. This rating error happens inside individual rating
forms rather than across various persons' rating forms.
Table 4.5 depicts a response pattern that represents a halo error. The table
displays the ratings of four persons across five performance criteria. The
ratings ranged from 1 (worst performance) to 5 (highest performance)
(best performance). This is a halo pattern be cause the ratings for every
individual worker are consistent throughout all aspects, despite the fact
that each worker received different evaluations. Such a trend shows that
raters are unable to differentiate between dimensions. The individual is
seen as having consistent performance across all aspects.


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54 Industrial Psychology
54 Table 4.5 Job Performance Ratings for Four Employees on Five
Dimensions Illustrating a Halo Error Pattern Dimension Employee 1 Employee 2 Employee 3 Employee 4 Attendance 5 3 1 4 Communication 5 3 1 4 Following directions 5 3 1 4 Work quality 5 3 1 4 Work quantity 5 3 1 4
{Source : Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
Even though a trend of identical ratings may imply a rating error,
employee performance may be consistent across aspects. As a result, halo
patterns may correctly imply that aspects of real performance are
connected. This concept has sparked much debate in the I/O literature
concerning the meaning of halo . Part of this debate is about how to
distinguish between the erroneous halo and the "real" halo. A true halo
indicates that an employee performs at the same level across all aspects.
Another issue with halo has been understanding the cognitive processes
that may lead to halo error in a rater. Several academics have proposed
that while assessing dimensions, raters depend on an overall image of the
employee. This point of view holds that significant bits of information are
used to establish a broad opinion a bout an employee. The impression
serves as the foundation for performance evaluations. This shows that
raters may be better equipped to convey information about overall
performance than specific performance measures.
Distributional Errors :
When a rater te nds to rate everyone the same, distributional errors
develop. Whenever the rater ranks everybody at the top of the
performance scale, leniency errors result. Whenever the rater ranks
everyone at the unfavourable end of the performance scale, this is referr ed
to be a severity error . Whenever a rater scores everyone in the centre of
the performance scale, central tendency errors arise. The trend of
leniency may be noticed throughout different people's assessments. Table
4.6 demonstrates a pattern of leniency, with all four employees receiving
ratings at the high end of the performance range. On a five -point scale,
each participant obtained scores of 4 and 5. However, it is feasible that a
distributional error pattern does not reflect errors. All ratees may hav e
performed similarly, resulting in comparable ratings.


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55 Performance Appraisal – II Table 4.6 Job Performance Ratings for Four Employees on Five
Dimensions Illustrating a Leniency Error Pattern Dimension Employee 1 Employee 2 Employee 3 Employee 4 Attendance 4 5 5 5 Communication 4 5 5 5 Following directions 5 4 4 4 Work quality 4 5 4 5 Work quantity 5 4 5 5 {Source : Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.}
Control of Rater Bias and Error :
To redu ce and remove rater bias and error, two techniques have been
devised. One way would be to create better performance assessment forms
that are resistant to these issues. The other option is to teach raters to avoid
rating errors. Despite the fact that both techniques have shown potential,
research investigations have produced inconsistent outcomes about their
capacity to eliminate errors.
Error -Resistant Forms to Assess Performance :
The behaviour -focused rating scales, such as the BARS and MSS, were
created in part to avoid rating errors. The assumption is that if raters focus
on specific actions instead of qualities, they will be able to generate more
accurate assessments. These actions are much more tangible and need less
idiosyncratic interpretation of wh at they represent. For instance, how
frequently a person is away from work should be easier to reliably judge
than the more abstract attribute of dependability.
Many research has been conducted to compare the different behaviour -
focused rating forms with g raphic rating forms and with one another.
According to these comparisons, the behaviour -focused forms produce
fewer errors (such as halo and leniency) than the graphic grading scales at
times, but not always. Furthermore, scales that simply require raters to
verify whether or not people have engaged in specified behaviours may
result in less leniency than graphic rating scales. Borman et al. (2010)
found that there is minimal advantage to utilising behaviour -based scales
over graphic rating scales after ana lysing the research on rating forms. It
appears that attempts to increase rater accuracy should focus on factors
other than rating instrument design.
Rater Training to Reduce Errors :
Rater training has also been undertaken in a number of trials, with vary ing
degrees of success. At least some of the disparity in research findings
might be attributed to variances in the types of training investigated. Rater
error training, or RET , is one of the most prevalent types of training.
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56 how to avoid these rating trends. Although most studies have discovered
that this type of training minimises rating errors, it frequently comes at the
expense of rating accuracy. In other words, by causing evalua tions to
fluctuate, raters may minimise the amount of halo and leniency patterns in
their ratings, whether or not they properly reflect how nicely the individual
has performed, but such ratings are less accurate in reflecting the genuine
level of performan ce.
How is it possible that reducing errors also lead to a fall in accuracy? One
answer might be found in the nature of the rating errors. The pattern of
ratings, as mentioned before in this unit, is used to infer rater errors.
Individuals' performance may be identical across multiple performance
measures (true halo), or all employees in a supervisor's department may
execute their duties equally effectively. Training raters to refrain from
making the very same ratings among categories or persons will lead t o
them focusing on avoiding particular patterns rather than correctly
assessing job performance. Bernardin and Pence (1980) proposed that
RET may involve swapping one set of rating errors for another.
Nathan and Tippins (1990) proposed an alternative reaso n for why halo
errors are related to higher accuracy in job performance assessments. They
hypothesised that raters with less halo in their assessments may have given
too much weight to insignificant negative occurrences. For example, a
supervisor may have assigned the otherwise dependable employee a poor
attendance grade because he or she was absent for one week the previous
year. Raters who displayed a halo pattern in their evaluations paid less
attention to such uncommon occurrences and preferred to empha sise the
person's regular performance. This may have resulted in the more accurate
assessments since they were impacted more by overall performance rather
than isolated instances of good or bad performance in one or more criteria.
Other methods of training have yielded more promising results than RET.
These training processes educate raters on how to monitor performance -
relevant behaviour and make decisions based on that observation. For
example, Hedge and Kavanagh (1988) discovered that observation
trainin g enhanced rating accuracy but did not reduce rating errors. The
frame of reference training , which seeks to offer a shared understanding
of the rating job, is perhaps the most promising. Raters are shown
particular instances of conduct that reflect differ ent degrees of
performance for each facet to be graded. So far, the results of this type of
training have been positive in terms of enhancing rating accuracy and
giving the rater a more precise grasp of the criteria for successful
performance. One limitati on of this research is that it has largely been
done in laboratory settings with college students, thus it is unclear how
well the results will translate to managers judging their personnel in the
field.
Other Factors That Influence Job Performance Rating s:
So far, we've discussed how supervisor evaluations can be influenced by
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57 Performance Appraisal – II how to use it). Additional elements that might influence supervisor
evaluations include supervisor sentime nts for the subordinate, supervisor
mood, supervisor views of subordinate motivations for performance,
cultural factors, and both the rater and the ratee's race.
Research studies back up the concept that supervisors give better ratings to
subordinates the y like. Some people have expressed worry that the ratings
may be unfair and biased. There is also some evidence, although, that
liking may be the outcome of successful job performance, since
supervisors like individuals who work well for them. It is especi ally vital
for a new employee to be perceived as a good worker since that view will
likely lead to liking by supervisors, which might result in gaining further
assistance, leading to even better performance in the future.
Supervisor expectations regarding performance, irrespective of like, can
impact the maintenance of excellent performance ratings. Murphy,
Gannett, Herr, and Chen (1986) discovered that the rater's expectations
about the ratee's performance impacted performance assessments. People
are prone to forgetting incidents of behaviour which does not suit their
perception of the person being evaluated. Thus, even if performance has
lately declined, a person who is liked and performs well will continue to
be perceived as a good performer. When perform ance changes over time,
this might lead to biased ratings.
Ratings might be influenced by the rater's mood at the moment of
evaluation. Sinclair (1988) allocated participants to a condition wherein
their emotion and mood were experimentally changed to be m ore
depressed or euphoric in laboratory research. They were then asked to
judge a professor's performance after reading a description of his or her
behaviour. The results revealed that individuals in a melancholy mood
assessed the professor's performance l ower than those in an exuberant
state. Depressed people were also more accurate and had a smaller halo.
Sinclair interpreted the findings as showing people's improved
information -processing abilities when they are in a depressed mood.
Managers' perception s of subordinate motivation might influence their
judgments of work performance, however curiously, such perceptions can
be influenced by cultural factors. DeVoe and Iyengar (2004) examined
managers' opinions of their workers as intrinsically driven (desir ing to do
a good job for the sake of doing a good job) or extrinsically motivated
(working very hard for rewards or benefits), and then connected those
beliefs to job performance evaluations. American and Latin managers
thought intrinsic motivation was mor e significant than an extrinsic
incentive for performance, but Asian managers thought both forms of
motivation were equally vital.
It is commonly known that Black employees receive reduced performance
assessment scores than White employees. Surprisingly, t he rater's race
appears to have had no influence on evaluations for Whites but does affect
ratings for Blacks. Stauffer and Buckley (2005) discovered that Black and
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58 average than Whites. Nevertheless, the disparity in evaluations is
significantly greater for White raters than for Black raters. If it is assumed
that Black raters have less prejudice against Black workers than White
raters, these data show that White raters are biased toward s Black
employees. Alternate reasons include Black raters being prejudiced in
favour of Blacks and overrating them, and both Black and White raters
being biased in favour of Whites and overrating them relative to Blacks.
At this moment, we don’t know the e xtent to which bias is operating in
these ratings either for or against Black and White employees.
4.1.3 360 -Degree Feedback :
In most organisations, every employee's immediate supervisor is in charge
of evaluating work performance. However, getting several viewpoints on
work performance may be beneficial, and using many perspectives is now
becoming a normal practice in the assessment of managers and many
others. Peer, self and subordinate ratings (for supervisors) can be a
beneficial supplement to superviso r ratings in giving feedback for
employee development. Disagreements among evaluations by self (the
employee's own judgments of performance) and ratings by the others, in
particular, might reveal areas where other people see the employee
differently than t he person sees himself or herself.
360-degree feedback refers to the usage of numerous views for manager
feedback. Peers, subordinates, and supervisors assess a manager on a
variety of performance factors. In addition, the manager completes a
performance evaluation of his or her own. According to research studies,
individuals in such multiple different positions had only moderate
agreement in their assessments, implying that they present distinct
viewpoints on a person's performance. Another benefit of uti lising
numerous raters is that the impact of individual biases can be lessened. It
has already been demonstrated, for instance, that individuals offer better
scores in 360 -degree assessments to persons they like. For example, when
additional information fr om some of the other raters is included in the
evaluation, the impacts of bias on the part of the immediate manager are
reduced. This can result in more trust in and positive sentiments toward
the evaluation system on the side of people being assessed.
The goal of 360 -degree systems is to increase performance, particularly
for those persons who are in most need of change. These systems have
been demonstrated to be beneficial to some people, though not all.
Contrary to the primary goal of these systems, it a ppears that the top
performers, rather than the worst, benefit the most from 360 -degree
feedback. Additionally, Atwater and Brett (2005) discovered that persons
who received bad evaluations from others and also rated themselves
poorly had the poorest react ions to feedback, implying that if one feels his
or her performance is poor, having those opinions confirmed by others is
not beneficial.
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59 Performance Appraisal – II 4.2 SUMMARY Job performance indicators can be characterised as objective or subjective.
Objective measurements are ta llies of a job's output, such as the number of
sales made by a salesman or the number of units manufactured by a
manufacturing worker. Subjective measurements are assessments given by
supervisors (or other people who are familiar with the individual's work
performance). Subjective measurements are the more often utilised of the
two methodologies, however, they are prone to biases and errors due to
human judgment. To decrease rating errors in subjective measurements,
two techniques have been used: rating for m design and rater training.
To improve the accuracy of performance assessments, numerous different
types of rating forms have indeed been developed. The Behaviourally
Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) asks raters to choose which of numerous
behaviours best rep resents the individual's work performance. The Mixed
Standard Scale (MSS) asks raters to evaluate whether an individual's
performance is lower than, comparable to, or better than a number of
performance behaviours. The Behaviour Observation Scale (BOS)
requires raters to report how frequently each of the following behaviours
is performed by ratees. Contrasting behaviour -focused rating forms to
certain other types of measurements have failed to generate consistent
evidence of improved accuracy.
Another strat egy that has been tried to decrease errors is rater training.
According to research, even if rater error training is helpful in decreasing
rating errors, it might lower rating accuracy. Observation training, which
focuses on seeing performance -related beha viour and making performance
evaluations, has shown potential in improving accuracy. However, it
would be premature to infer that either strategy will be effective in
assisting supervisors in providing accurate performance assessments at
this time.
Several factors have been demonstrated to be related to job performance
evaluations, while it is unclear whether or not they result in rater bias.
Whether the rater likes the subordinate, the rater's mood, perceived
motives of the employee for performance, cultur al factors, and both rater
and ratee race all affect the rating.
Employees who want to enhance their performance might benefit from
feedback from a variety of sources. Managers get 360 -degree feedback by
comparing their self -ratings to those of their peers , subordinates, and
supervisors.
4.3 QUESTIONS 1. Describe objective methods for assessing job performance.
2. Explain in brief subjective methods for assessing job performance.
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60 4.4 REFERENCES Spector, P. E. (2012). In dustrial and Organizational Psychology: Research
and Practice (6th Ed). United States: Wiley.

*****
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61 5
ASSESSMENT METHODS FOR
SELECTION, PLACEMENT AND
RECRUITMENT - I
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Job-Related characteristics
5.1.1 Psychological Tests
5.1.2 Characteristics of Tests
5.2 Types of psychological tests based on the format
5.2.1 Group ver sus Individually Administered Tests
5.2.2 Closed -Ended versus Open -Ended Tests
5.2.3 Paper -and-Pencil versus Performance Tests
5.2.4 Power versus Speed Tests
5.3 Types of psychological tests based on what is measured
5.3.1 Ability Tests
5.3.2 Cognitive Abi lity Tests
5.3.3 Psychomotor Ability Tests
5.4 Other psychological tests
5.4.1 Knowledge and Skill Tests
5.4.2 Personality Tests
5.4.3 Emotional Intelligence Tests
5.4.4 Integrity Tests
5.4.5 Vocational Interest Tests
5.5 Biographical information
5.6 Interviews
5.7 Work samples
5.8 Assessment centers and electronic assessment
5.8.1 Electronic assessment
5.9 Summary
5.10 Questions
5.11 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES After learning this unit students will understand the following concepts:
 Types of psych ological tests based on format: group vs. individual,
close -ended Open -ended; paper -and-pencil vs. performance; power
vs. speed munotes.in

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62  Psychological tests based on what is measured: cognitive ability tests,
psychomotor ability tests, knowledge and skills tests, p ersonality
tests, emotional intelligence tests, integrity tests, vocational interest
tests
 Biographical information, interviews, work samples, assessment
centers and electronic assessment.
5.1 JOB -RELATED CHARACTERISTICS There are many characteristics of p eople or KSAOs (knowledge, skill,
ability, and other personal characteristics) which are needed for a job.
Knowledge refers to what the person knows about a job, such as medical
knowledge for a doctor. We call it a skill when a person is able to do, for
example, program a computer or type. Ability is the capability to learn
something, for example, the ability to learn to play a musical instrument or
to speak a foreign language. Other personal characteristics are those which
are not covered by the first thre e. It can include interests, personality,
physical characteristics, and prior experience relevant for the job, etc.
When we hire a computer sales associate, these are some of the KSAOs
for which we will select people. We can determine KSAOs with the help
of job analysis for each job. Job analysis involves a number of techniques
that result in a list of the needed KSAOs for the job in question. Once we
come to know which KSAOs are needed, procedures can be chosen to
assess them in job applicants or current employees. The idea behind job
analysis is to select people who have the necessary KSAOs for the jobs
available. Although we cannot say with certainty that people chosen with
this technique will be successful on the job, it increases the chances of
making good choices over using other selection and placement
approaches.
We will discuss five assessment techniques that attempt to measure
KSAOs that are relevant for job performance and other organizationally
relevant variables. As is the case with other asses sment techniques, the
properties of reliability and validity are critical. That is, all measures must
be consistent (reliable) and must pass stringent tests for validity. In other
words, there must be evidence that they can accomplish the tasks for
which t hey are used in organizations. If a test is to be used to select
teachers, for example, it must be shown to predict how well a teacher will
do on the job.
5.1.1 Psychological Tests :
A psychological test is a standardized test and it assesses the unique
characteristics of a particular individual. Psychological tests are
commonly used to assess knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes, interests,
and personality. These tests consist of multiple items, which are indicators
of the characteristic of interest.
If a test contains multiple items, then it provides increased reliability and
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63 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - I measures usually have low reliability because a person can easily make a
mistake on any one item.
5.1.2 Characteristics of Tests :
There are many different types of tests available that can assess hundreds
of individual characteristics. The nature of the characteristic of interest
helps determine which test is used. For example, a test to assess music -
related ability will be mostly composed of music -related problems. A test
of physical strength, on the other hand, will likely involve the lifting of
heavy objects. Now we will have a discussion on four distinguishing
characteristics of tests.
5.2 TYPES OF PSY CHOLOGICAL TESTS BASED ON THE FORMAT 5.2.1 Group versus Individually Administered Tests :
A group test can be administered to many people at the same time. The
test can be in a printed form (e.g., a booklet), or it can be computer -based.
If it is in a prin ted form, it can be administered to a group of people at the
same time, as is typically done with a course exam. If the test is computer -
based, several individuals can take the test simultaneously, either in the
same location (e.g., a computer lab) or in d ifferent locations.
An individual test is one that a test administrator gives to a single test
taker at a time rather than to a group of individuals. This approach is often
used in administering cognitive ability tests to children. Because of its
greater efficiency, the group test is preferred when it is feasible.
5.2.2 Closed -Ended versus Open -Ended Tests :
With a closed -ended test, the test taker must choose one from several
possible responses, as in a multiple -choice test. An open -ended test is like
an essay exam. The test taker must generate a response rather than choose
a correct response. Whereas the closed -ended test is preferred because of
its greater ease in scoring, the open -ended test is more appropriate for
some characteristics. For example, wri ting ability is best assessed by
asking a person to write an essay. Experts can read and score the essay for
a number of characteristics, such as clarity of expression and grammatical
accuracy. These characteristics would be more difficult, if not impossib le,
to assess with a closed -ended test.
5.2.3 Paper -and-Pencil versus Performance Tests :
In a paper -and-pencil test, the test is on a piece of paper or another printed
medium. The responses are made in written form, usually with a pencil. In
a multiple -choice test, which is in a format of paper -and-pencil, the exam
questions are presented on a paper, and the responses are made in pencil
on the exam paper itself or on a separate answer sheet. In today’s time,
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64 Open -ended tests can also be administered via paper -and-pencil tests if
they ask people to record their responses in some form, either by writing
on paper or by typing on a computer.
5.2.4 Power vers us Speed Tests :
In a power test, there is usually no time limit to complete the test. On the
other hand, a speed test has a strict time limit. It is designed so that almost
no one can finish all items in the allotted time.
The speed tests can be used in t wo ways. First, a speed test can contain
challenging items that must be completed within the time limit.
Sometimes speed tests are used in a classroom setting with the
presumption that the better -prepared students will be able to answer the
questions more quickly as compared to those who are less prepared. One
main drawback of speed test is that the test taker might be at a
disadvantage if he or she is a slow reader or writer. The second use of
speed test is that it is designed to assess a person’s speed in doing a
particular task, for example, typing test is timed because its purpose is to
assess a person’s typing speed, as well as accuracy.
5.3 TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS BASED ON WHAT IS MEASURED 5.3.1 Ability Tests :
Ability or aptitude is defined as a p erson’s capacity to do or learn to do a
particular task. Cognitive abilities, such as intelligence, are relevant to
tasks that involve information processing and learning. Psychomotor
abilities, such as manual dexterity, involve body movements and
manipula tion of objects. The importance of each ability is dependent on
the nature of the tasks of interest. There are certain job tasks that require
mostly cognitive abilities (e.g., programming a computer), whereas others
rely mainly on psychomotor abilities (e. g., sweeping a floor). Many tasks
require both types of abilities (e.g., repairing a computer or complex piece
of equipment).
5.3.2 Cognitive Ability Tests :
An intelligence test (IQ test) of general cognitive ability is the best -known
cognitive ability t est. There are other tests as well, such as the
mathematical or verbal ability. The items on such tests represent
individual problems to solve. Such tests can be administered to large
groups of individuals simultaneously and provide an inexpensive and
efficient means of assessing job applicants. One example of a cognitive
ability test is Personnel Tests for Industry (PTI). This test is designed to
assess mathematical and verbal ability. The items are problems involving
mathematical and verbal reasoning. The test was designed for group
administration and can be completed in about 25 minutes.
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65 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - I 5.3.3 Psychomotor Ability Tests :
The ability to manipulate objects and use tools is conducted by means of
Psychomotor ability tests. Coordination between senses and mo vement
(e.g., eye -hand coordination) is measured by these tests. Most of the
psychomotor tests are performance tests. In such tests, people are assessed
on their ability to perform motor tasks, such as throwing darts on the target
or using simple tools to manipulate different objects which may involve
removing and reassembling several fasteners using wrenches and a
screwdriver. The score is based on the time it takes to complete the task.
5.4 OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS 5.4.1 Knowledge and Skill Tests :
An a chievement test is often called a knowledge and skill test and is
designed to measure a person’s present level of proficiency. A knowledge
test assesses what the person knows, and a skill test assesses what a person
is able to do. In reality, it is often n ot possible to totally separate ability
from knowledge and skill. Ability tests generally rely on knowledge and
skill, and knowledge and skill tests rely to some extent on ability.
Many different knowledge and skill areas can be assessed with a test.
There are some tests that focus on general skills, such as math and
reading, whereas, others are useful for assessing skills at particular job
tasks, such as typing. Knowledge and skill tests can be both paper -and-
pencil tests and performance tests.
5.4.2 Pers onality Tests :
A personality trait is a tendency to behave in a particular way across
different situations. Sociability trait is considered to be high in those who
prefer to do things with other people. If a person frequently influences
others, then we sa y that he is displaying traits of dominance. Personality
traits can be important indicators because sometimes certain types of
behavior can be relevant for job performance in organizations. We can
take the example of sociability where sociability can be an important trait
for a salesperson who has to interact with other people, whereas
dominance can be an important trait for a supervisor who has to direct the
activities of others.
Paper -and-pencil personality tests can be useful tools for assessing
persona lity traits. Some personality tests are designed to assess a single
personality trait; personality inventories assess multiple dimensions and
are sometimes used to provide profiles of individuals across several
personality traits. Paper -and-pencil tests ch aracterize people into various
types, which are combinations of different traits. For example, the
extraverted type of person can be high on the traits of activity, optimism,
sociability, and talkativeness, whereas the introverted type tends to be high
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66 Researchers frequently use personality tests to study many different
aspects of people’s behavior in organizations.
5.4.3 Emotional Intelligence Tests :
Emotional intelligence (EI) is de fined as the ability people have to control
and recognize emotions in themselves and in others. According to
psychologists, this ability makes people more socially skilled, enabling
them to be aware of and control their impact on others. In a work setting,
those who are high on emotional intelligence will be able to work
smoothly with colleagues, and in supervisory positions, it means the
ability to exert leadership. There are two types of EI assessments (Joseph
& Newman, 2010).
i. The trait type : It measu res EI as a personality characteristic and it is
accessible to the person’s awareness. Trait assessments are like a
personality test in and people respond to each item concerning how
well it describes them.
ii. The ability type : In this, the format is of m ultiple -choice questions. It
assumes that people cannot directly report their EI because it is not
accessible to awareness. Therefore, a person can reveal his or her EI
by choosing the correct answers on the test.
5.4.4 Integrity Tests :
An integrity test is expected to predict whether or not an employee will
engage in counterproductive or dishonest behavior on the job. Behaviors
like cheating, sabotage, theft, and unethical behavior are predicted by
these tests. Sometimes these tests are used to predict ab sence and turnover
in an organization. There are two different types of integrity tests —overt
and personality (Wanek, Sackett, and Ones, 2003)
i. Overt Integrity Test : Attitudes and prior behavior of the person are
assessed by overt integrity test. The per son has to indicate agreement
or disagreement with statements concerning honesty and moral
behavior, for example, an item might ask: Is it alright to lie if you
know you won’t get caught.
ii. The personality integrity test : Personality characteristics are
assessed that are important to predict counterproductive behavior.
Research has found that integrity tests can predict counterproductive
behavior at work, including absence, theft, and other behaviors potentially
damaging to organizations (Ashton, 1998; O nes & Viswesvaran, 1998).
5.4.5 Vocational Interest Tests :
In vocational interest test interests are assessed by asking the test taker to
mention his or her interest areas for engaging in various activities, such as
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67 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - I Data from vocational interest tests are available about the answers of
people in many different occupations. The test taker’s answers are
matched to those of people in different occupations to see how well he or
she fits each occupation.
Somet imes interest and personality profiles vary from one occupation to
another. Therefore, any individual test taker will match some occupations
and not others. Because occupations tend to group together into categories,
a person can be matched to an occupatio nal category.
One of the most popular vocational interest tests is the Self -Directed
Search (Holland, 1994). This test provides scores on six personality types.
Each type is associated with a particular family of occupations. For
example, the Investigativ e type likes investigative -type jobs that include
scientific fields such as biology and geology. The profile of scores on the
six types can guide a person in choosing a career. The match between a
person’s vocational interests and the nature of his or her job is related to
how satisfied the person is with that job (Rottinghaus, Hees, & Conrath,
2009).
5.5 BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION One of the easiest ways to find out about people is to ask them what you
wish to know. In a work place setting, basic informatio n about people is
obtained from an application form. In most organizations, standard
application forms contain questions about education, job skills, personal
characteristics, and work history. Some forms ask about specific
experiences, such as extracurric ular school activities (e.g., participation in
sports).
The biographical inventory asks detailed background questions. Whereas
application forms ask about the prior level of education and work
experience, the biographical inventory asks about specific expe riences at
school and work, or even in other areas of life.
Some of the questions ask about objective, verifiable facts, such as “What
was your grade point average in college?” Others ask about opinions or
subjective experiences, such as “Did you enjoy col lege?” If a biographical
inventory contains enough of the second type of question, it begins to
approximate a psychological test that assesses interests and personality
instead of prior life experiences (Schmitt & Chan, 1998).
Biographical inventories tend to be resistant to applicant faking in order to
look good on the test because many items are factual in nature and give
the appearance of verifiability (J. West & Karas, 1999).
5.6 INTERVIEWS An interview is a face -to-face meeting. It takes place between one or more
interviewers and an interviewee. Almost all organizations use the
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68 widely accepted. Following are the ypes of interviews conducted in
organizational settings:
i. Unstructured interview : During this interviewer asks whatever
questions come to mind. It can be like a conversation between the
interviewer and interviewee.
ii. Structured interview : During the structured interview, the
interviewer has a preplanned series of questions that are asked of
every person who is interviewed. This makes the interview relatively
standard’
Some interviews are semi -structured. In this type of interview, the
questions to be asked are specified and standardized. Others have strict
requirements that questions be asked in a set order, that the same phrasing
is used, that interviewees not be asked to elaborate on any answer even if
it is unclear, and that interviewees not be allowed to ask questions
themselves until the end.
The interview can be used i n two ways. One is to collect information.
Questions can ask about attitudes (“Did you like your last job?”); job
experiences (“Have you ever supervised anyone?”); personal background
(“What was your favourite subject in college?”); and preferences (“Would
you mind working weekends?”). The disadvantages of interview method
are as follows:
i. One major disadvantage is that the interviewer can affect the answers
of the interviewee.
ii. The interaction between interviewer and interviewee can differ from
interview to interview.
iii. Differences among interviewers in their ability to conduct an
interview and in their personalities could affect the interview process
and the interviewee’s responses (Dipboye & Gaugler, 1993).
With the help of modern technology, it is possible to conduct interviews
remotely. Telephone and webcam interviews have become increasingly
popular when applicants are located at great distances.
5.7 WORK SAMPLES A work sample is an assessment technique in which the person is required
to sh ow how well he or she can do the tasks involved in a job. It is a type
of simulation in which a person does a job or part of a job under testing
conditions rather than actual job conditions. A work sample is designed to
measure a higher -level skill. A work sample measures the skill in doing a
particular task, such as driving a truck, which is composed of many basic
skills performed in the context of a particular set of conditions.
The psychological test predicts whether a person has the basic skills that
are important to know how well he or she could do the task —but not how
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69 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - I applicant the materials and tools necessary to accomplish the task. The
person is expected to complete the task quick ly and accurately. A score is
obtained based on the accuracy with which the task is completed and the
amount of time taken by the applicant.
One of the most familiar work samples is the driving test that is required
of applicants for a driver’s license. T he applicant is asked to actually drive
the vehicle, while the test administrator records the scores for each one. In
order to get the license, the applicant must achieve a score that meets a
pre-decided criterion.
In the same way, a work sample can be us ed in an organizational setting to
determine if a person is suitable for a particular job. Work samples have
been found to be good predictors of future job performance (Robertson &
Kandola, 1982).
Limitations of work sample : For many work samples, the app licant must
already have experience with the task, work samples can be costly to
develop, and the work sample is specific to a particular type of job
(Callinan & Robertson, 2000).
5.8 ASSESSMENT CENTERS AND ELECTRONIC ASSESSMENT An assessment center measu res how well a person is able to perform some
of the tasks of a specific job. It consists of many exercises that are meant
to simulate various job tasks. Assessment centers are designed to assess
usually management -related skills. The exercises can be admi nistered to
several individuals at the same time.
This technique is mostly used by many types of employers. For example,
in a survey of British employers, Keenan (1995) found that 44% used
assessment centers to hire college graduates.
Assessment center e xercises have a high level of realism because they
simulate many of the actual tasks included in the job. For example, the
person being assessed may be asked to role -play being a supervisor in a
given situation. This might involve dealing with a junior emp loyee. The
assessee’s performance is scored by a panel of expert assessors. The
assessors are asked to evaluate the person’s performance. For example, for
a manager’s job, an assessee’s performance related to communicating,
dealing with other people, makin g decisions, and planning can be
assessed.
Research has found that assessment centers are a valid device for the
selection of employees (Arthur, Day, McNelly, & Edens, 2003). It can be
said that there is a correlation between scores on the assessment cent er
with job performance.
Dayan, Kasten, and Fox (2002) found that assessment center ratings
predicted job performance both 2 and 4 years later for police officers, with
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70 Disadvantages: The problem with assessment centers is that the various
dimension scores given to assessees within an exercise are too highly
correlated. This may mean that assessors are assessing only a single
dimension rather than multiple dimensions. One possibility is that
assessors are able to judge only overall exercise performance rather than
the individual dimensions.
Researchers have tried to improve the validity of dimension ratings in
assessment centers. Reilly, Henry, and Smither (1990) maintained that
assessors are unable to adequately a ssess individual dimensions because
they have too much information to process. Each exercise provides a great
deal of information, and often that information must be organized in some
way for judgments to be made.
In order to help assessors, organize all the information, the researchers
provided a checklist of 273 behaviors to use to rate performance in the
exercises. The assessors used the checklist to note the specific behaviors
performed by each assessee before making their ratings. The results of the
study showed that correlations between dimensions within exercises got
smaller and correlations between corresponding dimensions across
exercises got larger than those typically found in assessment centers. Thus,
the validity of the dimension scores improve d.
5.8.1 Electronic assessment :
The use of electronic assessment is one of the fastest -growing trends in
organizational assessment. Lievens and Sackett (2006), for example,
discussed the use of video -based assessment. In this assessment, each item
is pres ented as a video clip giving details of an event that might take place
at work. Such assessments can provide a realistic situation that is difficult
to describe fully with text.
The Internet has made it possible to link an applicant with an assessment
almost anywhere in the world. Electronic technology is expanding the use
of assessment and it has made the assessment cheaper and more
convenient. Psychological Tests can be adapted for administration
electronically. The test taker can read each item on a com puter screen and
respond with the keyboard, mouse, or other interface devices. Advantages
of electronic assessment are as follows:
i. The test can be scored automatically as soon as the last item is
answered, which can speed up the selection process.
ii. A test can be put on a website that will allow access from anywhere in
the world. An applicant doesn’t have to come to a particular testing
site to take the test.
Disadvantages of electronic assessment are as follows:
i. Developing a computer testing sy stem can be expensive and time -
consuming. Compared to paper -pencil tests, hardware and software
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71 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - I ii. Sometimes computerized tests are not equivalent to printed tests. For
example, speed tests, which time how many c orrect items a person
can do in a given interval. One such test is a clerical speed and
accuracy test in which the test taker must compare two strings of
letters and indicate if they are the same or not — for example:
abdiel versus abdifl
ghicbe versus ghi cbe
It has been seen that response time per item can be different when using a
computer versus paper and pencil for the same items, making scores
nonequivalent. Other researchers like Richman, Kiesler, Weisband, and
Drasgow (1999) have found no differences between the computer and
paper -and-pencil administrations.
5.9 SUMMARY One of the major tasks I/O psychologists do for organizations is the
assessment of people’s characteristics for selection and placement. These
characteristics can be classified as the knowledge, skill, ability, and other
personal characteristics, or KSAOs, necessary for successful performance
on the job. The five major methods used to assess KSAOs are:
Psychological test, Biographical Inventory, Interview, Work sample, and
Assessment C enter.
A psychological test is a standardized series of problems or questions
given to a person to assess a particular individual characteristic. Tests are
commonly used to assess many KSAOs, including knowledge, skill,
ability, attitudes, interests, and p ersonality. The biographical inventory
asks for detailed information about the person’s past experience, both on
and off the job. It asks for far more extensive information than the typical
job application form.
An interview is a face -to-face meeting betw een an interviewee and one or
more interviewers who are collecting information or making hiring
decisions. During an unstructured interview, the interviewer asks whatever
questions come to mind. By contrast, during a structured interview, the
interviewer h as a preplanned series of questions that are asked of every
person who is interviewed. In both types, the interviewer often makes
overall judgments about the interviewee’s suitability for the job.
A work sample is an assessment device that requires a perso n to
demonstrate how well he or she can perform job tasks under standardized
conditions. It is a type of simulation in which a person does a job or part
of a job under testing conditions rather than actual job conditions.
The assessment center consists of several different types of exercises that
take place over one or more days. Although most assessment centers are
used to identify future management potential, they can be used to assess
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72 Electronic assessment has become commonplace, especially for the
administration of psychological tests. The most common use of electronic
media is the administration of a paper -and-pencil test by computer. Often
the test is almost identical to the printed version, w ith items displayed on
the screen and a response made with a keyboard or mouse. Computer
adaptive testing (CAT) is a more sophisticated approach in which the
items administered to an individual are customized, depending on correct
and incorrect answers to prior questions. Such tests can yield better
reliabilities with fewer items, but they are costly to develop and are
therefore best left to mass -testing situations.
5.10 QUESTIONS 1. What are the various formats of psychological tests?
2. Discuss tests of cogniti ve abilities.
3. Discuss ‘work sample’ as an assessment technique.
5.11 REFERENCES Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Research
and Practice (6th ed). United States: Wiley.

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ASSESSMENT METHODS FOR
SELECTION, PLACEMENT AND
RECRUITMENT - II
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Recruiting Applicants
6.1.1 Selecting Employees
6.2 Getting Applicants to Accept and Keep Jobs Offered
6.2.1 The Utility of Scientific Selection
6.2.2 C omputing the Utility of Scientific Selection
6.3 International Differences in Selection Practices
6.3.1 Legal Issues
6.4 Summary
6.5 Questions
6.6 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES  To learn how applicants are recruited in an organization
 To learn about policie s and issues related to the reservation in the
organization, gender and disability status of the applicant
6.1 RECRUITING APPLICANTS It is a big challenge for many organizations to get people to apply for
available positions. In order to hire good people, an organization must
have a large pool of job applicants from which to select. It may be
relatively easy, for some jobs, to recruit applicants because there are many
available applicants who are attracted to the job. But, for jobs where there
are not enou gh people to apply, an organization must expend considerable
effort to attract the right people to fill its job vacancies.
Several methods can be used to recruit applicants for a vacant position.
Six sources of applicants commonly used by organizations are i)
advertising, ii) school recruiters, iii) employee referral, iv) walk -ins, v)
employment agencies, vi) the web. It depends on the organizations which
source they are going to use. Some organizations find that they get enough
walk -in applicants to cover the jobs that they have, so for them time -
consuming methods are not necessary. For low -level positions, many
organizations rely on their own company websites (Chapman & Webster,
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74 Today’s job market is very competitive. And, it might be the case that
many organizations are attempting to attract the same individuals. Here
time-consuming methods might be necessary to attract the people who are
needed. Zottoli and Wanous (2000) reviewed 50 years of research on
applicant sources and found evidence that ins ide sources (employee
referrals of acquaintances/friends, rehires of those who once worked there,
and transfers from inside the organization) are very good in nature as they
provide employees who perform better and remain on the job longer on
average than outside sources (advertising or employment agencies).
It has also been found that employees hired through inside sources tend to
be more satisfied with their jobs. McManus and Ferguson (2003) found
that inside sources gave the best applicants. They also f ound that the
internet was a better medium in order to attract quality candidates as
compared to newspapers and other outside sources. Two reasons for the
superiority of inside sources have been suggested by Zottoli and Wanous
(2000).
i. These applicants r eceive more accurate information about the job and
hence are able to decide whether they should apply or not. In other
words, they prescreen themselves out of jobs if they are not suited for
it.
ii. Inside sources will assess the person/applicant before su ggesting
someone for a job. Employees can have a personal stake in hiring
good people in their own areas, and so they will attempt to screen out
those people who aren’t suitable.
6.1.1 Selecting employees :
It is always a good idea that an organization has many better applicants
than the number of vacant jobs. The more selective an organization can be,
the better the chances that the person hired will be a good employee. This
is because many of the employee selection procedures developed by I/O
psychologist s work best when there are several applicants from which to
choose. These procedures are based on statistical methodologies used to
develop selection systems.
How Do Organizations Select Employees?
In an organization, the purpose of employee selection is to hire the best
people for the job and who can be successful on the job. It is a well -known
fact that organizational performance is dependent on employees’
performance. The most common approach used by organizations is to
interview the applicants and dec ide subjectively which one to hire. Such
purely subjective hiring procedures, however, have been shown to be
biased and inaccurate. A better approach is to use scientific methods that
have been shown to work in almost a century of research on employee
selection. Two important elements in employee selection must be
considered. First is the criterion, which is the definition of good employee
performance. Although it may seem obvious that we hire the person who
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75 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - II by good performance. Job performance involves many different aspects.
Some employees may work very accurately, whereas others work very
fast. Therefore, organizations do not find it easy to decide whether to hire
employees based on one aspect of the criterion (e.g., attendance) or
another (e.g., work quantity).
Job performance can be predicted based on measures of KSAOs. For
example, knowledge of the subject matter can be a good predictor for the
job performance of a classroom te acher. Although it can be said that
knowledge is not the only predictor because knowledge alone cannot make
someone a good teacher. Determining if a given predictor relates to a
criterion requires a validation study, which is a research study that
attempts to show that the predictor relates to the criterion. To conduct this
sort of study, it is important to quantify both, the criterion and the
predictor are quantified. Data are collected for a group of employees on
both criterion and the predictor variables . Because criterion and predictor
both are quantified, a statistical test can be conducted to see if they are
significantly related. The correlation coefficient indicates how well the
two variables relate to each other. If the two variables are significant ly
related statistically, you can conclude that the predictor is valid in terms of
the criterion. The implication is that you could use information about the
predictor to forecast the applicant’s likely performance on the job. It is
difficult and complex t o do a good validation study. First, you must
carefully analyze the job and job requirements using job analysis. The
results of the job analysis can be used to develop Criteria for the job and to
pick predictors. Data are collected to verify that the chose n predictors are
valid. Such valid predictors will become part of the organization’s
employee selection system.
 Conducting a Validation Study: Conducting a validation study
involves the following five steps:
Step 1: Conduct a Job Analysis :
Information a bout the tasks involved in a job can be obtained by the job
analysis. It also provides information about the characteristics (KSAOs) an
employee needs to be successful on a job. These two types of information
are not independent, for the specification of K SAOs often is derived from
an analysis of the tasks required for the job.
Job relevance is an important concept in employee selection —the
correspondence between the KSAOs needed for job success and the
KSAOs of the job applicant. For good and legal selec tion matching two
types of KSAO requirements should be there. If certain characteristics are
not needed for a particular type of job, then hiring people with those
qualities would be useless and sometimes may be labeled as illegal at
worst if it results in discrimination. Thus, it would make sense to hire on
the basis of physical strength if the job requires heavy lifting, such as a
dock worker. On the other hand, it makes little sense to have a strength
requirement for school teachers. A job analysis can b e used in many ways
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76 components of the job. Next, an analysis can be done to specify the
KSAOs necessary to accomplish each component. A list of performance
criteria and potential pr edictors can be made based on this information.
For example, a major component of a manager’s job might be managing a
budget. Managers often have to develop budgets and manage their
resources so that they do not exceed them. If one has to manage a budget,
one KSAO is knowledge of basic mathematics, which would be important
for managing a budget. People hired to be managers should have this basic
knowledge.
Step 2: Specify Job Performance Criteria :
Depending upon what a job entails, one can begin to develo p criteria for
good job performance. For example, if a manager is required to manage a
budget, a good criterion might be how well the manager -managed within
the budget. Because there can be many reasons for not managing within
the budget, therefore, one ca nnot depend only on this criterion for
evaluating how well a person performs the job. For a validation study,
criteria can be chosen that might be predicted by one or more predictors.
For example, if a test of mathematical ability is found to predict how w ell
a manager can stay within a budget, then one can expect to hire managers
who do better on the criterion if that test is used to help select them.
Step 3: Choose Predictors :
When criteria for a job are developed, potential predictors of performance
are also selected on those criteria. Potential predictors might be chosen to
assess KSAOs directly, as with a psychological test of mathematical
ability. Other predictors might be less direct as measures of a KSAO. It is
often assumed that college students h ave certain knowledge and ability,
such as being able to do basic mathematics and to write in their own
language. Education level can be used as a predictor and it can eliminate
the need to assess many KSAO requirements for a job. This is the reason
why ma ny organizations prefer to hire college students/graduates.
Step 4: Validate the Predictors :
After finalizing criteria and predictors, the data collection phase of the
validation study can start. In this step, measures of the criterion and the
predictors are taken on a sample of people. This is to see if the predictor
relates to the criterion. A good field test of the predictor is done in the
organizational setting in which it is expected to be used in the future. It is
a good idea to conduct validation s tudies in actual organizational settings
as opposed to laboratory settings. There are two types of study designs for
conducting a validation study:
1. Concurrent validation study :
In this type of validation study, both the predictor scores and criterion
scores are collected from a sample of participants at more or less the same
point in time. For example, if the participants are current employees they
can be assessed on both criteria and predictors. A sample of employees munotes.in

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77 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - II might be asked to provide predictor da ta by taking an assessment test. Test
scores would then be correlated with employees’ most recent performance
evaluations. If the two are related, it is assumed that scores on the
predictor at the time of application for a job will predict later performanc e
on the job.
2. Predictive validity study:
In this type of validity test, the predictors are measured before the
criterion. A sample of job applicants is assessed on the predictor. The
scores obtained on that predictor are not used in deciding who to hire. I n
other words, applicants are hired who are both high and low on the
predictor. When some time has passed on the job, the criterion or criteria
is assessed. If the predictor can predict future performance, it can be said
with reasonable confidence that the predictor is a valid selection device.
Step 5: Cross -Validate :
Cross -validate or replicate is the final step. This is done to be certain that
our results are due to a real correlation between the criterion and predictor
and not a statistical error. In a ny study where statistics is used, there is
always a chance that significance can occur by chance rather than due to
real relations among the variables of interest. Such statistical errors are
called Alpha or Type 1 errors. To prevent ourselves from making such
errors cross -validation study is done. It is extremely unlikely that we will
find the same results twice if there is no relation among the variables of
interest. In other words, two successive Alpha errors or Type I errors are
unlikely.
To conduct cr oss-validation, we need two samples. The first sample is
used to determine if the criterion and predictor are significantly correlated.
A second sample is used to see if the significant relationship found in the
first sample can be repeated on the second. The predictor is validated on
the first sample and then double -checked or cross -validated on the second.
Cross -validation adds to our confidence that the predictor can forecast the
criterion or criteria of interest. In most field settings, cross -validation is
done by taking the original sample and dividing it randomly in half. The
first half is used for the validation, and the second is used for the cross -
validation.
Validity Generalization:
At times, it is not necessary to collect data to validate a selec tion test or
other assessment device. Selection tests that are valid in one setting are
often valid in many other settings. Validity generalization means that
validities of selection devices are generalizable or transportable from job
to job and organizati on to organization (Schmidt & Hunter, 1977). If a test
predicts performance for an administrative assistant in one organization,
for example, it will predict for an administrative assistant in another
organization. The idea of validity generalization has b een widely accepted
among I/O psychologists (Murphy, 2000), at least as long as the jobs and
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78 people in a particular job, the test should be valid for the same job in a
different organization. It should also be valid for a job that has the same
KSAO requirements. If the second job is different from the job for which
the test was valid, the test in the second case may or may not be valid. The
only way to be certain would be to condu ct another validation study on the
second job to determine if the test predicts the criterion.
How Predictor Information Is Used for Selection:
Once it is determined that a predictor or predictors are valid forecasters of
future performance criteria, it m ust be decided how best to use the
predictor information. Two popular uses of predictor information are as
hurdles and as predictors in a regression equation. With either approach,
multiple predictors can be used in combination. Often prediction is better
with several rather than single predictors because multiple KSAOs are
necessary for job success.
1. Multiple Hurdles :
In this approach, a passing score for each predictor is set. If an applicant
achieves that score, then the hurdle is passed. For example, a computer
salesperson should have several KSAOs in order to be successful on the
job. One obvious KSAO is knowledge of computer principles. Completion
of a college degree in computers might serve as an indicator of the KSAO,
and the applicant would pass th is hurdle if he or she had such a degree.
One more important KSAO might be communication skills so that the
person can relate well to customers. This might be assessed with a
communication skills exercise. Applicants would have to have a passing
score on t he communication exercise to pass this hurdle. Many
organizations use relatively inexpensive preliminary screening methods as
hurdles so that expensive assessments are not used with people who easily
could have been screened out earlier in the process.
Regression Approach:
The regression approach uses the score from each predictor in an equation
to provide a numerical estimate or forecast of the criterion. With the
computer sales job, an equation could predict the actual dollar amount of
sales per month. P redictors for that job might be GPA in college and
scores on the communication exercise. Both quantitative variables (GPA
and exercise score) can be combined mathematically to provide forecasted
criterion scores (e.g., monthly sales). Individuals who are f orecasted to
have the best criterion scores would be those who are hired. With a single -
predictor variable, a linear regression equation is calculated from a sample
of data.
To compute an equation, you must have data on both the criterion and the
predicto r so that you can compare how well the forecasted criterion scores
match the real criterion scores. The general form of a linear regression
equation is Y = b × X + a where X is the predictor, Y is the criterion, b is
the slope, and a is the intercept. When the equation is used, a and b are
known quantities. A forecasted value for the criterion (Y) can be munotes.in

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79 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - II computed by replacing X with the values of the predictor. The regression
equation is developed from the data of a validation study.
In addition to the corr elation coefficient, a regression equation can be
computed for a sample of data on a criterion and predictor. As noted
earlier, this equation provides a means of forecasting the criterion from the
predictor. For example, monthly sales for a salesperson mig ht be
forecasted from scores on the communication exercise. The most accurate
forecast might be achieved from a regression equation such as the
following: Sales = $400 × Exercise Score + $2,000 In this equation, a is $2,000 and b is $400. If a person had an exercise
score of 10, his or her sales would be predicted to be $6,000: Sales = $400 × 10 + $2,000 Sales = $6,000 If another person had a test score of 5, his or her sales would be predicted
to be $4,000: Sales = $400 × 5 + $2,000 Sales = $4,000 In the above example, the first person would be preferred because his or
her forecasted performance is higher.
A similar procedure can be applied when there is more than one predictor.
This case involves the use of multiple correlation and multiple regressi on.
Multiple correlation is the correlation between a criterion and two or more
predictors simultaneously. The multiple correlation coefficient is indicated
by an R.
Multiple regression is a statistical technique that provides an equation
relating two or more predictors simultaneously to a criterion. The equation
can be used to forecast the criterion from scores on the predictors. In many
cases, several predictors combined can provide a more accurate forecast of
the criterion than any of them alone. The ge neral form of a multiple
regression equation is for the two -predictor case. Y = (b1 × X1) + (b2 × X2) + a In this equation, the Xs are predictors, Y is the criterion, a is the intercept,
and the bs are regression coefficients. The coefficients and interce pt are
computed from sample data. The equation is solved by substituting the
values of the predictors for the Xs. A forecasted value for the criterion is
then computed.
The magnitude of the relation between the predictors and the criterion
determines how accurate the prediction is likely to be. If the predictors
correlate strongly with the criterion, the forecasted values are likely to be
fairly accurate. If the predictors do not correlate very well with the
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80 Every regression equation must be cross -validated. To perform cross -
validation, the equation generated from one sample of data is applied to
the second sample of data. If the regression equation yields non -significant
results when used on a second sam ple, it should not be used.
Alternatives to Conducting Validation Studies:
Not all organizations select employees by going through costly and time -
consuming validation studies. Organizations do not always have enough
people to conduct such studies, and t hey do not wish to invest the money
or time to conduct these studies. For an organization with hundreds of
different jobs, it could cost millions of dollars to conduct validation
studies for every position.
An alternative approach is to rely on selection tools that can be linked to
KSAO requirements. With this approach, one conducts a job analysis to
determine KSAOs. Established methods to assess each KSAO are then
chosen. If the job analysis results indicate that cognitive ability is needed,
an existing c ognitive ability test can be chosen. This approach relies
heavily on existing research findings concerning the validities of existing
methods. It does not involve data collection to test for the validity of
predictors. An organization can often rely on val idity generalization
results to help guide its choice of selection methods.
Many organizations purchase existing selection devices that have been
developed elsewhere. Psychological testing companies have validated tests
for sale to organizations. Many test s exist to assess hundreds of different
characteristics.
No matter how selection decisions are made, once it is decided whom to
hire, procedures must be initiated to get that person to take the job. One
procedure that is often used is the realistic job pr eview, which will be
discussed next.
6.2 GETTING APPLICANTS TO ACCEPT AND KEEP JOBS OFFERED It is important for organizations to get applicants to accept the job offer. If
the applicants who are identified as potentially good employees, do not
take the job that is offered, the entire exercise will go waste. It is also of
equal importance to ensure that individuals who take a job do not quit in a
short period of time because they find that they do not like the job.
Convincing an applicant to accept a job in volves several strategies. First, it
is important for the recruitment process to be a positive one and for the
prospective employee to feel he or she has been treated fairly. Second,
salary and compensation offers should be comparable to those of other
organizations for similar jobs in the same area. Third, the behavior of
recruiters is an important influence on applicants accepting job offers.
Chapman et al. (2005) showed that it is important for recruiters to be
personable and provide honest information a bout the job. Providing a
falsely positive view of an organization can result in a high turnover as munotes.in

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81 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - II new employees find that conditions are not as favorable as they were
presented to be.
The realistic job preview (RJP):
It is used to give job applicants p roper and accurate information about the
job and also about the organization. Usually, it is done with a brochure or
videotaped presentation. A good RJP provides both the favorable and the
unfavorable aspects of a job. Idea is that a person who accepts a j ob will
do so with accurate and realistic expectations. A person who knows what
he or she is going to encounter will be more likely to remain on a job if
unfavorable, but anticipated, conditions arise. If conditions exist that a
person cannot tolerate, he or she will refuse the job offer.
6.2.1 The utility of scientific selection :
The scientific approach to employee selection is a difficult and time -
consuming process. So, what is its utility or value for the organizations?
There is no easy answer to this question. Research has proved that
scientific selection can be beneficial and result in the hiring of better
employees. But its effects on overall organizational functioning are not as
easy to determine. Industrial/organizational psychologists have developed
certain mathematical procedures for finding out the utility of selection
procedures.
In the following section, first, it will be discussed how selection devices
can result in the hiring of better employees. Then it will be considered
how utilit y analysis has been used to show how these selection procedures
can have important effects on organizational functioning. Following are
the three basic concepts on the basis of this discussion:
Baserate:
If for any job, all the applicants are hired then b aserate is the percentage of
applicants who would be successful on the job. There are certain jobs
where most of the applicants would be successful and the baserate will be
close to 100%. For other jobs, relatively few applicants would be
successful, makin g the baserate close to 0%. A baserate of 50% results in
the maximum utility because it offers the most room for improvement in
the accuracy of forecasting. Suppose you know the baserate from prior
experience with employees on a job. If 50% have been succe ssful in the
past, the best accuracy rate you could expect by guessing which applicants
would be successful is 50%. If you guessed that every applicant would be
successful or unsuccessful, you would expect to be correct half the time.
Using a predictor, yo u could improve your accuracy up to 100%. This
would represent a difference of 50% in accuracy between the baserate and
your predictor.
If you know that the baserate is less or more than 50%, you can achieve
better than 50% accuracy of forecasting by guess ing that every applicant
will be successful (if the baserate is greater than 50%) or not successful (if
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82 about 60% accuracy if you guess that everyone will be successful. A
baserate of 4 0% would give about 60% accuracy if you guess that
everyone will be unsuccessful (40% of people successful means that 60%
are not successful). In both cases, the biggest possible gain in forecasting
accuracy is from 60% to 100%.
The more the baserate diffe rs from 50% in either direction (the majority of
employees are successful or not successful), the smaller is the room for
improvement if we had perfect forecasting. Thus, all baserates that are
greater or less than 50% give less room for gain than 50%.
Selection Ratio:
Every organization needs to hire a certain number of employees. The
selection ratio is the proportion of job applicants that an organization must
hire. To calculate the selection ratio, the number of positions to fill is
divided by the numb er of applicants. Some organizations find that they
have many applicants for each vacant position. Their selection ratio will
be low. Other organizations find that they have few applicants for each
vacant position. Their selection ratio will be high. For e xample, if there
are 100 job applicants for each job, the selection ratio will be 1/100. If
there are two applicants for each position, the selection ratio will be 1/2.
Low selection ratios produce the greatest utility because they allow an
organization to be more selective in whom it hires for each position. In the
long run, an organization can hire better people when there are many
applicants from which to choose.
Validity:
The validity of a selection device is the magnitude of the correlation
between i t and the criterion. The larger the correlation is, the more
accurately the criterion can be forecasted by the selection device. The
more accurate the forecast of the criterion is, the greater is the utility
because the utility is based in part on increasi ng the success rate over the
baserate.
6.2.2 Computing the Utility of Scientific Selection:
A predictor results in the hiring of better employees, but it is not
necessarily the best choice for an organization because the costs of using
the predictor might be more than the benefits. For some types of factory
work, for example, there is little in the way of skills or training necessary
to do the job. It can be relatively inexpensive to replace an unsuccessful
employee. In such cases, it becomes difficult to justify using an expensive
and time -consuming selection method.
The utility concept discussed so far, has concerned identifying successful
versus unsuccessful employees. Utility analyses also help to see what kind
of performance improvements might occur f rom using a valid selection
device to choose employees. If a selection device is valid, it can be
expected that individuals chosen with it will have better job performance.
Several studies have shown that the highest performers can be up to 16 munotes.in

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83 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - II times more p roductive than the lowest performers on jobs with countable
output, such as factory work (Campbell, Gasser, & Oswald, 1996). If one
can compute the monetary value of that performance gain, one can
compute the utility of using a selection device.
There has been much debate in the Industrial/organizational field about the
best approach to utility analysis. Some of the discussion has concerned
how people make judgments about the monetary value of job performance
(Becker & Huselid, 1992).
It can be difficult t o compute the monetary gain that scientific selection
can provide to organizations, research has shown that it can be
considerable. In one research Van Iddekinge et al. (2009) studied the
effects of using a scientific selection system on the financial perf ormance
of individual restaurants in a fast -food organization. They found that units
that used the company’s selection system had more satisfied customers
and were more profitable than units that did not.
6.3 INTERNATIONAL DIFFERENCES IN SELECTION PRACTIC ES Selection practices vary greatly among organizations or even branches of
the same organization in different countries. In one study, Ryan,
McFarland, Baron, and Page (1999) surveyed managers from 959
organizations from 20 countries. The study was about selection practices
and selection devices that were used by these managers.
As far as selection devices were concerned, the interview, former
employer reference check, and application form were most popular and
were used universally. This was not true whe n it came to psychological
tests. As far as psychological tests are concerned, personality and
cognitive ability tests were most popular around the world. But there was
a considerable difference in how much they were used from country to
country.
In Greece , Biographical inventories and interviews were most popular,
whereas tests were most popular in Belgium and Spain. Zibarras and
Woods (2010) surveyed 579 U.K. organizations about their selection
practices and contrasted them to U.S. organizations. American companies
were more likely to use background checks, biographical inventories,
unstructured interviews, and work samples and less likely to use ability
tests.
Newell and Tansley (2001) found that selection practices were different
across countries, even where job requirements and situations were similar.
According to them, some societal factors are there that account for this.
First, it is important that managers know about selection procedures before
they use them. Communication among managers across nat ional borders
was limited until recently, and so information about a better selection
approach discovered in one place wouldn’t always be known in another.
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84 the national boundary have been reduced, there are still language barriers
in many places. Second, laws and regulations influence selection
procedures. In the United States, there is antidiscrimination law that has
shaped how selection must be done. In many European countries, unio ns
influence selection procedures much more than in the United States. Third,
economic factors are important in this regard. They put limits on which
approaches are used. In less wealthy countries, expensive assessments are
not possible. Finally, there are cultural differences in values and what is
considered important. For example, in some countries achievement is
more important than symbols of status. In the former, the college GPA
would be considered more important than the status of the institution
attended, but the opposite might be true in the latter.
6.3.1 Legal issues :
Throughout the world, it is now accepted that organizations should not be
discriminatory in their practices, such as hiring and promotion. Most
countries have laws that protect the ri ghts of employees from
discriminatory actions by organizations. Most countries offer protection to
women, and some offer protection to Blacks. In countries where there is a
large Black minority, Blacks are likely to be offered protection. In
countries with few Blacks, this protection might not be found in the law.
In this section, legal issues involved in employee selection, both inside
and outside the United States, will be discussed.
Legal Selection in the United States :
Before 1964 in the United States, there was widespread discrimination
against ethnic minorities and women in jobs. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act
came into being and it changed the way organizations selected employees
and it also expanded legal protections from discrimination to employees.
It can be said that discrimination in hiring has not been eliminated
completely in the United States because there were over 146,000
complaints in the year 2005 alone (Goldman, Gutek, Stein, & Lewis,
2006). But, a lot of progress has been made over the pa st few decades. The
Civil Rights Act of 1964 made it illegal to discriminate against minorities
and other groups in employment.
The law states very clearly that discrimination against anyone is illegal but
there are certain groups of people who have been the target of protection
under the law. These groups are called protected classes and are comprised
of people who have been the target of discrimination in the past. Some
examples are African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, and
women. They all repr esent the protected class. At the present time, it is
illegal to discriminate on the basis of age, color, disability, gender,
national origin, race, and religion.
Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection:
In 1978, the U.S. government came out with Uniform Guidelines on
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85 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - II the legal selection of employees. Initially, it was intended to apply to
government agencies but later the guidelines were adopted as acceptable
legal practices for all organizations. One of the most important concepts of
the Uniform Guidelines is adverse impact, which means the impact of a
given selection practice on a protected class. It is defined in terms of
selection ratios of the protected class and a comparison gro up (e.g., White
males). It is termed as adverse impact when the four -fifths rule is violated,
meaning that the selection ratio for the protected class is less than 80%, or
four-fifths, of that of the comparison group (Roth, Bobko, & Switzer,
2006).
Advers e impact is a threshold for possible discrimination in selection. It is
not necessarily illegal to use a selection device that has an adverse impact
on a protected class. If a selection device or procedure has an adverse
impact, there are further tests to decide its legality. To be legal, a selection
device must be job -relevant. This means that it assesses a KSAO that is
necessary for job success. One way to establish job relevance is by
showing that a selection device is a valid predictor of job performanc e.
If selection practices produce an adverse impact, an organization must be
ready to defend itself from legal challenges. Tests of cognitive ability and
physical strength are both likely to have an adverse impact on some
groups. Their use can be justifie d only if a job analysis shows that these
attributes are necessary KSAOs for the job and if the tests are shown to be
valid.
Essential Functions and Reasonable Accommodation:
In 1990, a new act known as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
was passe d. It extended legal protection to people with disabilities. Two
concepts came from this legislation. One, essential function refers to
KSAOs that are an important part of the job. For example, typing is an
essential function for a secretary, but lifting h eavy objects is not. It can be
illegal to deny a job to a person with a disability based on a KSAO that
relates only to nonessential functions.
The second concept is reasonable accommodation for an employee with a
disability. An organization is expected t o make allowances that are
possible to enable a person with a disability to perform the job. For
example, an organization should not fail to hire someone in a wheelchair
just because he or she has to climb two steps to get into the building for
work. A min or and reasonable accommodation would be to provide a
ramp so the person can access the building without much difficulty and
having to climb the stairs.
Affirmative Action:
Affirmative actions are a variety of practices that organizations use to
increase the number of protected class members in employment. Its main
purpose is to take care of the effects of past discrimination in hiring by
allowing certain groups to catch up in acquiring jobs that were at one time
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86 Kravitz (2008) stu died those programs which were designed to increase
the number of minority applicants and those programs that gave
preferential treatment to minorities in job offers. The programs, which
were designed to increase the number of minority applicants, do so by
engaging in extra recruitment efforts (e.g., advertising in media that target
minorities) or by offering training so more minorities have the KSAOs
required for a job. Affirmative action is not a quota system and does not
require the hiring of anyone with out the necessary KSAOs.
Organizations that have more than 50 employees and government
contracts exceeding $50,000 are required to have an affirmative action
program. This requirement affects most colleges and universities whose
faculties have government research grants. For most other organizations,
this activity is voluntary, although some employers that have been caught
using discriminatory practices have been ordered or strongly encouraged
by a court to adopt an affirmative action program to end their illegal
practices. Most large organizations in the United States practice some
form of affirmative action, although some do so more rigorously than
others. The widespread practice can be seen in the prominently displayed
notice that an employer is an “Affi rmative Action” employer, common on
the stationery of many organizations and most universities.
The main aim of an affirmative action program is to correct the problem of
discrimination. It is important to use such programs carefully because they
can have unintended detrimental effects on the groups they are designed to
help. Heilman and her colleagues have found that women who are given
preferential treatment in hiring can have a negative view of themselves
and other women (Heilman, Kaplow, Amato, & Stath atos, 1993), and such
negative views can affect self -confidence (Heilman & Alcott, 2001). This
effect has been found with minority candidates as well (Evans, 2003).
Furthermore, a person who is hired under affirmative action is likely to be
seen as incompe tent, and that stigma of affirmative action is difficult to
overcome in the minds of coworkers (Heilman, Battle, Keller, & Lee,
1998). Research has also shown adverse effects on non -beneficiaries when
preferential treatment has been perceived as unfair (e. g., as reverse
discrimination) (Heilman, McCullough, & Gilbert, 1996).
According to Kravitz (2008), programs concerned with affirmative action
have shown promise. He suggested that affirmative action programs
should focus on both increasing the number of minority applicants and
retaining minority employees. As far as attracting applicants is concerned,
it can be accomplished by doing a better job marketing and by increasing
the pool of minorities with the necessary KSAOs through educational
programs. Reten tion, on the other hand, can be accomplished with
programs that improve the working environment and experiences for
minorities. Kravitz maintains that to be effective, these programs should
be available to everyone, and not just minorities. For example, a program
to decrease incivility should focus on incivility toward everyone and not
just minorities. The advantage of being inclusive with such programs is
that they improve working experiences for everyone and not just
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87 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - II Legal Selection Outside th e United States :
Many countries throughout the industrialized world have discrimination
laws similar to those in the United States. Some countries are as strict as
the United States in following anti -discrimination laws (e.g., Canada and
South Africa), whe reas some other countries are more lax (e.g., Australia
and England).
It can be mentioned that although the United States has taken the lead,
other countries give employees even more protection and extend
protection to additional groups not specifically m entioned in U.S. law.
How different countries approach their discrimination problems depends
on the nature of those problems and their societies. In 1995, the United
Kingdom instituted the Disability Discrimination Act, which is much like
the ADA in the Un ited States. As in the United States, there is resistance
by employers, especially those who have negative attitudes about persons
with disabilities and who have little knowledge of what the law actually
requires (Jackson, Furnham, & Willen, 2000).
Laws in Canada are similar to the United States in terms of enforcement,
although Canada also disallows discrimination based on sexual preference,
which the United States does not. To avoid legal problems, organizations
in Canada need to follow practices to those they would follow in the
United States. Ireland is a more homogeneous society than Canada or the
United States, having fewer minority groups of sufficient size to push for
legal protection. In Ireland, discrimination on the basis of gender or
marital stat us is illegal, but the law is silent about Blacks or other minority
groups (Federation of Irish Employers, 1991).
The countries mentioned here, as well as the remainder of at least the
industrialized world, have endorsed the idea that employee selection
should be based on the job -relevant attributes of people. With this
approach, the person hired is the person who can best do the job. This will
eliminate unfairness in the selection that results from discriminatory
practices. It should also help organizatio ns enhance their effectiveness by
hiring the best -qualified people, regardless of age, color, disability,
gender, national origin, race, religion, sexual preference, or other personal
characteristics that are irrelevant for job success.
6.4 SUMMARY Recruit ing and selecting employees is one of the most important functions
of an organization. There must be a supply of skilled people with the
necessary competencies for an organization to remain effective. Acquiring
such people involves a four -step procedure, w hich includes planning the
need for new employees, getting appropriate people to apply for positions
(recruitment), deciding who to hire (selection), and getting the selected
people to take the jobs
Planning the need for new employees requires the use of f orecasting
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88 KSAOs with the number of such people who might be available in the
area. Future planning for organizational changes and expansions must
consider the availability of people to f ill the necessary positions. Failure to
consider these issues can result in the inability to find the people necessary
to carry out an important organizational function.
Getting people to apply for jobs can be a difficult task if there is a shortage
of qua lified people. The problem is more often one of getting the right
people to apply because there can be a surplus of people with certain skills
and a shortage of people with others. There are a number of ways that
organizations acquire applicants, including advertising, using recruiters,
and using web -based services.
Scientific selection involves the use of selection devices that have been
shown to predict job performance. Developing a system of effective or
valid selection devices involves a five -step proc edure: The KSAOs are
identified with a job analysis, the criteria are chosen, the potential
predictors are chosen, the predictors are validated with a research study,
and finally, the predictors are cross -validated with a second sample or
study.
Once an o rganization has decided whom to hire, it must convince the
person to take the job. To do so, an organization must be sure that it offers
rewards that are equivalent to those offered by other organizations. One
procedure that has been used to ensure a bette r match between a person
and a job is the realistic job preview (RJP), which provides accurate
information about the job that allows an applicant to make an informed
decision about accepting a job offer.
Utility analysis is used to determine the benefits of using a predictor to
hire people. These analyses are based on mathematical formulas that
require an estimate of the monetary value of good job performance. There
have been disagreements among researchers about the best way to conduct
utility analysis. N evertheless, the results of utility analyses have shown
that scientific selection can have substantial benefits for organizations.
Employee selection is not only a scientific process; it is also a legal
process. Most industrialized countries have laws aga inst discriminatory
selection practices. In the United States, it is illegal to discriminate on the
basis of age, color, disability, gender, national origin, race, or religion. To
avoid legal problems, an organization must base selection decisions on
job-relevant factors.
6.5 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss some psychological tests to measure cognitive ability.
2. Write a note on assessment centers.
3. How Do Organizations Select Employees?
4. How validation study is conducted? munotes.in

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89 Assessment Methods for Selection, Placement and Recruitment - II 5. Discuss some international differences in selection practices
6.6 REFERENCES  Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice (6th ed). United States: Wiley.

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90 90 7
TRAINING - I
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Steps involved in Training
7.2 Needs Assessment
7.3 Objectives of the training
7.4 Training Design
7.4.1 Trainee Characteristics
7.4.2 Design factors that Affect Transfer of Training
7.4.3 Work Environment
7.5 Summary
7.6 Questions
7.7 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you should be able to understand –
 The steps involved in training in an industrial or organizational setup
 How is needs assessment for training programs undertaken and what
is the importance of needs assessment
 What are the trainee characteristics that should be kept in mind while
designing the training programme?
 How can training be designed so as the maximize transfer of training
 How t he work environment affects the transfer of training?
7.1 INTRODUCTION Every employee who is selected and appointed requires training before he
or she starts the work. Training is required for jobs at all levels. An
employee may need training in the tasks required to be performed. For
example, an individual who is appointed in the position of a clerk may
require training about the different activities that he or she will have to
perform as a clerk. Since every organization is different, even an
experienced person will require some amount of training about how the
work is undertaken in that specific organization. Thus even if an airline
appoints an experienced air hostess, some training will be required to
orient the employee to the methods and procedures fol lowed in that
organization.
Training is a process that involves teaching or developing knowledge and
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91 Training - I Industrial and organizational setup training is required for the following
reasons:
1. New and freshly employed personnel may require training on the
tasks to be performed on the job.
2. An already working employee may require training so as to improve
their productivity and performance.
3. When there are changes in the nature of work or the intr oduction of
newer technological advancements, an already working employee
may need training for the newly introduced techniques.
4. When an employee is promoted, training will be required to help the
person cope with the newer responsibilities and tasks.
Orga nizations may vary in the amount of importance that is given to
training. In many organizations, undergoing some specific form of training
is necessary for the employee to be promoted to the next position. For
instance, some organizations require a manager to have some educational
qualification or training of management, before promoting them to that
position. The amount of importance given to training may vary depending
on the position of the employee and also the nature of work to be
undertaken by the emp loyee. Jobs like that of teaching require
continuously updating the information. Similarly, doctors need to
continuously hone their skills with contemporary skills and techniques.
These jobs require life -long and continuous training and learning process.
Training is thus a very important function that an Industrial and
Organizational Psychologist has to take care of.
A very important factor that determines the effectiveness of the training
program is the extent to which it is systematically undertaken. Let us now
see the steps that are required to introduce training systematically in an
organizational setup.
7.1.1 Steps in the training process :
In order to make training an effective process, it is necessary to be
systematic. Systematic training enables the organization to spend the
resources of the organization in the most effective way. This involves the
five important steps, and we will now see an overview of these steps:
1. Needs assessment : This is the first step of providing training. This
step involves c onsidering the employees who need training and
identifying the kind of training that will be required by the
organization.
2. Setting Objectives : After identifying the individuals who need
training and the kind of training required, the organization may then
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92 3. Designing the training program : Based on the objectives, the
training programs are then designed and planned so as to achieve
those objectives.
4. Delivery of the training program : Once t he training program is
planned it is executed by actually conducting the training program.
5. Evaluation of training : The delivery of the training program is then
followed up by evaluating or assessing the effectiveness of the
training program.
Let us now l ook at the above step with an example. For example, if an
organization wants to introduce a training program, it is first important to
find out what training program will it require and who are the people in
that organization who require it. A Call centre may first need to find out
what is the kind of training that is required in its centre to improve
productivity and efficiency and also find out who are the employees who
require it. If they find out that most of the employees who are attending
the calls in communication skills, they may decide to undertake a training
program in ‘Communication skills’ and find out who are the employees
who have poor communication skills. Followed by this they will decide
the goals and objectives to be attained through the tr aining program and
then design the Communication skills training program to achieve those
objectives. After planning the necessary components of the training
program, the actual program will be conducted or delivered. Followed by
this the centre will then assess and find out whether the Communication
skills training provided to the employees was effective in attaining the
objectives for which the program was undertaken.
Let us now understand each of these steps in detail and try to understand
why each of th ese steps is important.
7.2 NEEDS ASSESSMENT This is the first step of the training program. We will now see what this
step involves and also what is the importance of this step. An effective
training program should begin with the assessment of what traini ng is
needed for the organization. This suggests that needs assessment should be
the first step of training programs. It involves understanding who in the
organization requires training and what training is required in the
organization. A systematic needs assessment involves analysing the
organization’s training needs at the three levels (Goldstein, 1993)
described below:
1. Organizational level :
Every organization has different objectives that it wishes to attain. For
instance, some organizations may wish to increase their profits while
others may wish to improve their service. Understanding these objectives
will give an idea about what type of training is required for that
organization. For instance, if the aim of a restaurant is to improve the
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93 Training - I providers for techniques to satisfy the customer. The mission and the
visions of the organization help an Industrial Psychologist to understand
the training needs of the organization.
2. Job lev el:
The second level of needs assessment is to analyse at the job level. Every
job requires different tasks to be performed by the employee. If people
performing a particular job are not able to perform the task, training will
be required in that task. Fo r instance, if in a bank, the performance of
employees in the clerical position requires knowledge of computer
software for accounting, then training the clerks for that software is
important.
3. Person level:
The third level of needs assessment requires analysing at the person level.
This involves analysing every employee in terms of whether they possess
the necessary KSAOs required for their position. Those who do not
possess the necessary KSAO may require to be trained for it so that they
are able to pe rform efficiently. For instance, if some doctors in a hospital
lack the knowledge of how a new machine has to be used, those doctors
need to be trained for the use of the new machine.
The analysis at the above three levels will enable the organization to
understand what is required and accordingly new training programs can be
designed on the basis of needs assessment. When an organization analyses
what training is required for every individual, group of individuals
performing a particular job, and also all the individuals in the
organization, it ensures a complete understanding of what training is
required and who are the individuals who require it.
However, it is also necessary to evaluate the already existing training
programs in the organization and ident ify whether they are needed. As
suggested by Ford and Wroten (1984) this may be done through the
following steps :
1. The already existing training programs are evaluated by SMEs in
terms of what are the KSAOs developed by that program.
2. Another group of SMEs t hen evaluate the KSAOs and rate the extent
to which those KSAOs are required for that job.
In this way, those training programs that help in the development of
KSAOs may be retained while those that are not useful may be modified if
possible or even elimin ated. Needs assessment is a very important step in
a training program. It proves to be useful in the following ways –
1. It helps the organization to know what kinds of training programs are
required for the organization.
2. It helps to know whether the already existing programs are useful or
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94 3. It helps in using the resources spent on training in an effective manner
by avoiding wastage of money on those training programs which are
not useful.
Although needs assessment provides important information about train ing
programs, very few organizations conduct a systematic analysis of the
needs of the training program. After the assessment of for whom and what
training is required, the I/O psychologist has to decide on what objectives
are to be attained through the tr aining. This is the second step of training.
In the next section, we will now see the step of setting up the objectives of
the training program. We will try to understand how objectives are set and
why is it important to set up objectives of the training p rogram.
7.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE TRAINING After assessing the needs of the training program, the next step of training
is to set up the objectives of the training program. This step involves
deciding what the organization aims to achieve through the training
program. These objectives are based on needs assessment. For example, if
the organization finds out in the needs assessment the need for the staff in
the restaurant to be more customer -friendly, then the training to be
provided to them should be with the aim to increase customer satisfaction.
Having objectives is important for the following reasons:
1. Direction:
Firstly it gives direction to the training program. Having objectives helps
in designing the training program to achieve that goal. When training
programs are planned without any objectives, it results in a wastage of
money. Also, the trainer is not able to understand what is to be achieved
through the training program.
2. Evaluation :
Secondly it also provides the criterion for later evaluating the effectiveness
of the training program. Thus if the training program is planned to make
the restaurant staff customer -friendly, this program may later on be
assessed for its effectiveness by evaluating whether it has in any way
increased customer satisfact ion.
It is quite common in organizations to carry out a training program just
because it is popular or because it is undertaken by other organizations.
Sometimes training programs are undertaken by an organization without
knowing what it wants to achieve t hrough the training programs. This
leads to wastage of money on the training program and it also results in
the ineffectiveness of the training program. This shows that setting up the
objectives of the training is very crucial to improve the effectiveness of a
training program.
Once the objectives are decided, the training programs are designed to
attain those objectives. We will now see in the next section the aspects to
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95 Training - I 7.4 TRAINING DESIGN We now come to the third step of training. After the assessment of the
needs of the organization and deciding on the objectives of a training
program, the details of the training program are to be chalked out. Let us
now see the different aspects to be take n care of while planning the
training program.
In this step, the training program is planned and designed. One very
important factor that should be considered while designing the training
program is – the transfer of training. All training programs planne d by the
organization aims at achieving transfer of training. Every organization
wants the employee to use and apply the skills that are learned in the
training situation to the job situation. When an organization invests
money in training the employees f or use of a computer, it will want that
whatever is taught in the training program is understood by the trainees
and also that they go back to the job situation and are able to apply the
knowledge of computer and also use a computer at the work place. If t he
training program teaches the trainees to use a computer but the trainee is
not using it while he or she is working, then it means that the training was
ineffectual. The extent to which the skills learned in the training
situation is applied to the job s ituation, is called transfer -of-training .
Training programs should be designed in ways that would bring about
greater positive transfer -of-training.
Let us now see the different factors that determine the transfer of training
and also the learning that tak es place in the training situation. According
to Baldwin and Ford (1988), there are three major factors that will
determine the transfer -of-training: characteristics of the trainee,
characteristics of the training design , and characteristics of the work
environment . We will now see how each of these factors influences the
extent to which the knowledge and skill that is taught in the training
program is learned and transferred to the work situation. We will first
discuss how the characteristics of the traine e influence learning and
transfer in the training program.
7.4.1 Trainee characteristics :
When several trainees attend the same training program, all of them do not
gain equal benefit from it. Some trainees learn and gain considerably
while others may not learn much from it. There are various characteristics
of the trainee that affects the extent to which they benefit from the
training. Let us now see some important characteristics of the trainee that
may influence the learning and transfer of training.
a. Ability:
One factor with the trainee, which determines how much they will learn
from the training is their ability. Every trainee differs from other trainees
with respect to their abilities and the abilities of the trainee will determine
how much they will be able to gain from the training. For instance, if an
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96 language), he or she is likely to gain more from language training as
compared to someone with low linguistic ability. A good t raining program
should evaluate the abilities of the trainee before offering any training so
that more training is provided to those who are low in that ability. This
will help those low in the ability to gain better from the training program.
b. Attitude :
Another characteristic of the trainee that influences the learning from the
training program is the attitude of the trainee. The attitude here refers to
what does the trainee think about the training program. Trainees who have
a positive attitude towards th e training program are likely to gain more
from the training. Those trainees who attend the training program with the
thought that they want to learn and gain from the training program, are
likely to learn better and also apply it to their job situation. O n the other
hand, trainees, who think that attending the training program is a waste of
time and the training is of no use to them, are less likely to benefit from
the same.
c. Motivation :
The motivation of the trainee is another determining factor of ho w much
an individual learns from the training. Trainees, who are motivated to
learn, learn better and also are more likely to apply what they have learned
in the training program to the job setting. Thus it is necessary to select
trainees who are high in m otivation and have a positive attitude towards
learning. Also, the trainer needs to take measures to increase the
motivation of the learner by providing rewards and reinforcements for
learning.
d. Learning style :
Another characteristic of the trainee th at influences the learning from the
training program is the learning style of the learner. Learners differ in their
preferred mode of learning. While some learners are visual learners, others
may be verbal learners. Thus some learners are able to learn bet ter with
written material, while others may benefit better from the audio
presentation. A good training program should consider the learning style
of the learner so that every learner is benefitted from the training program.
Thus, the characteristics of th e trainee have a strong influence on their
learning and the extent to which they will be able to apply the learning to
the job situation. Trainers should consider these factors while designing
the training programs so that they select the right kind of tra inees. Also, it
is necessary to make changes in the training design so that the maximum
number of trainees benefit from the training program.
While designing a training program, another factor that should be
considered is the factors that will help in maxi mizing the transfer of
training. In this next part, we will be discussing the factors that determine
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97 Training - I 7.4.2 Design factors that affect the transfer of training :
As mentioned earlier, an effective training program should produce not
just changes at the training level, but also at the job level. Training
programs should be designed in such a way that it facilitates the positive
transfer of training. This means that whatever they have learned in the
training sessions should be possible for the trainees to apply it when they
go back to their work situation.
How much a trainee will learn from the training and apply it also depends
upon the manner in which the training program is designed. When the
training is based on principles of learni ng, it is likely to maximize learning
as well as the transfer of training. Let us now see some of the important
principles of learning that can have a positive effect on learning.
a. Feedback:
Feedback is an important component of a good training program. A
learner learns better when he or she is given feedback about the learning.
When a person who is being trained for using new computer software is
given feedback about whether he or she is using it correctly or not, it is
likely to produce better learning . Feedback helps in two important ways:
(i) Firstly, it tells the person when he or she is moving in the right
direction.
(ii) Secondly, it helps in modifying the behaviour when the learner
commits an error. Correcting and timely feedb ack of the wrong
behaviour prevents the wrong behaviour from being continued. When
the machine operator is not operating the machine properly, if
feedback is given immediately, it will help him or her to rectify the
mistakes much before it gets firmly esta blished.
To make the training effective it is thus important to incorporate the
principle of feedback. This may be done in different ways:
i. One way of doing this is to test the individual intermittently and
provide appropriate feedback. In a training progra m for
Communication skills, after every skill, the trainer may give some
task based on the content taught and give feedback on the same.
ii. Second way of incorporating feedback in the training program is by
building feedback into the training program so th at the trainee
automatically gets the feedback about the learning process. For
instance, after training the employees in assertiveness skills, they may
be asked to respond to some situations in an assertive manner through
computer -programmed software. The software may give feedback to
the learner about the correctness of the response. In this way, the
learner may be able to find out about his or her own progress and
obtain feedback about the learning process.
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98 b. General Principles:
Another principle of lea rning that needs to be followed to improve the
effectiveness of training is the principle of ‘general principles’. Theories
of learning have suggested that learning is better when a learner knows not
just what is to be done, but is also informed about why is it to be done. For
instance, rather than only telling the machine operator how to operate the
machine, it is better to also inform them why it has to be operated in that
manner. Providing certain general information about the machine and why
a particula r process should be followed will create a better understanding
of the work. Although it may not be necessary to go into the details of the
machine and its mechanics, general information will foster better learning
of the processes to be followed.
c. Ident ical Elements:
Training in an industrial setup always aims at positive transfer of training.
The training should produce greater application of what has been learned
in the training situation to the job situation. One factor that determines
Positive trans fer is the similarities between the two situations. The greater
the similarities in two tasks, the greater will be the possibility that what is
learned in one situation will be transferred to the other situation. When a
nurse is trained to use a Blood pres sure machine that is similar to that
which is used in the hospital, he or she will be able to apply the contents
of the training to the hospital setup On the other hand, if the equipment
used in training is very different than what is used in the job situa tion,
trainees may find it difficult to apply the contents of the training program.
In training programs for the development of skills, the principle of
identical elements is particularly important. While training an individual to
drive a vehicle, learning will be better when the trainee is trained while in
a vehicle rather than only showing an image of the driving wheel. Training
for such skills often makes use of simulators.
A simulator is a program or a machine that produces a virtual image of a
real-life situation. Simulations involve creating different scenarios and
equipment which allows the trainee to practice certain skills before they
perform them in a regular situation. For instance, pilots may be trained in
a simulated situation before they fly an actual airplane. Simulations may
vary in fidelity (that is closeness of the situation to realism). Let us see
simulations based on the levels of fidelity (Low and High)
i. Low fidelity simulations : Low fidelity simulation uses situations that
are not very hi gh on realism. For instance, when a doctor or a nurse is
trained through case -studies or role -play, it involves low fidelity
simulation. The case study or role -play exposes the trainee to the
situations that they are likely to encounter in the job situatio n;
however, it is not very realistic.
ii. High fidelity simulation : On the other hand, high fidelity simulation
involves creating the most realistic experience for the learner.
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99 Training - I which mimic the re al situation to which the trainee doctor needs to
respond, will enable them to learn the skills necessary for surgery.
Simulations are used in the training of medical practitioners, pilots,
defence and armed forces, and many other occupations. The most
important advantage of the simulations is that it produces situations that
the trainee is actually going to experience in their job situation. When they
are trained for those situations that are realistic, they will be able to apply
the responses or the skill s that they are trained for and it will foster the
greater transfer of training to be demonstrated by the learner.
d. Overlearning:
Another factor that determines learning is the extent to which the matter is
learned. As is generally expected, practice makes a man perfect. Similarly,
even in the training program, when the content is thoroughly learned, it is
likely to produce higher efficiency and is more likely to be transferred to
the job condition. While training accountants to maintain books of
accounts, the more the amount of practice given to the trainees, the better
would be their understanding and learning of how the books of accounts
have to be maintained. Principles of learning suggest that learning should
not stop once the trainee has understood the content, but it should continue
to be practiced even beyond that. Learning beyond the point of
understanding by further practicing it, is called overlearning. Overlearning
a task produces a number of advantages.
i. Firstly, with overlearning the strength of learning becomes stronger.
ii. Secondly, with overlearning an individual is likely to work in a more
efficient manner. For instance, a car mechanic will be able to change
the tyres of a vehicle at a faster pace when he has overlearned the
skill.
iii. Thirdly, with a mental skill, overlearning helps the trainee to develop
a better understanding of the content and the nature of the work. It
produces insight into why certain procedures and processes are to be
followed.
iv. Another very important advantag e of overlearning is automaticity.
When a task is undertaken over and over again, the learner is able to
undertake the action automatically without much thinking. A doctor,
who has overlearned a certain kind of surgery, will be able to
undertake that surge ry without much thinking. This enables the doctor
to perform speedily as well as accurately.
A good training program should aim at producing overlearning in the
trainees. This may be done in the following ways -
i. Repetition:
When a matter is taught only once, there is a possibility of forgetting the
material. However, if it is repeated again in the course of training, it is
possible to revive the content. Even in the training program for munotes.in

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100 Communication Skills, if listening skills are taught only once, it i s likely
to be forgotten by the trainees. However, if the trainer revisits the listening
skills again in another context, it is likely to strengthen the understanding
of listening skills in the learners and will produce better learning.
ii. Practice:
Anot her way of producing overlearning in a training program is through
practice. Trainees should be given ample amount of practice in the content
that is taught. A training program for leadership should give sufficient
opportunity to the trainees to practice l eadership skills and also provide
different situations that managers will encounter on their job. This will
allow the trainee managers to rehearse the skills again and again and also
in varied contexts.
One study conducted by Driskell, Willis and Cooper (1 992) involved
understanding the relationship between overlearning and performance of
the task. This study involved a meta -analysis where several similar studies
are combined and statistically reanalysed. This meta -analysis showed that
as the amount of over learning increased, the performance of the task also
showed improvement. This study thus provides empirical evidence of the
importance of the overlearning of the task. However, the effect of
overlearning does not last for a very long time. A study by Rohre r et al.
(2005) showed that overlearning is beneficial in improving performance
over a short period of time (One week). However, it does not have any
beneficial effect over a long period of time (nine weeks). Training
programs need to take these conclusion s into consideration when
designing the program. Overlearning through practice and repetitions is
definitely important. However, the practice of a task should be undertaken
with repeated intervals to produce better effects. This is called Spaced
Learning. The content that is taught and practiced should be again
revisited after a few weeks or months rather than learning and practicing it
in just one session.
e. Sequencing of Training sessions:
The training sessions if carefully planned will produce better l earning
outcomes. While planning the sequence of training sessions, attention
needs to be paid to the time aspect and the content aspect of training. With
respect to the content aspect, the training sequence may take the form of
the Whole method or Part me thod. Let us now see what the whole and part
method involves.
i. Whole method :
In the Whole method of training, the entire task is presented to the learner
in one go. For instance, employees may be given training for first aid, all
in one session. Althoug h the whole method is time -saving and helps to
understand the entire task as a whole, it also has certain disadvantages. It
may produce fatigue if the task is very long and complex. Some learners
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101 Training - I attention for a long period of time. For such trainees, it is necessary to use
the part method.
ii. Part method :
In certain situations, it is necessary to break the content and matter to be
taught into separate components and present it to th e learner, one at a time.
For instance, the contents of the training program for first aid may be
divided into small components and presented to the learner one after the
other. The next content is presented only after the trainee has mastered the
earlier component. This method is known as the part method. For eg, to
train employees for Communication skills, first, they may be trained for
talking skills and once it is mastered, the trainer may proceed to the next
skill. This method reduces fatigue and allow s complex tasks to be broken
into parts. However, a very important limitation of this method is that the
task is learned in pieces. Hence it is important while using the part method
to finally integrate the components into a complete task. Thus, after
teaching different components of communication skills through the part
method, finally, it is necessary that the learner integrated all the
components as a whole. This helps in bringing the parts into holistic
learning of the skill.
Another aspect of sequencin g the learning material is with respect to time.
Accordingly, training may use a mass method or distributive or spaced
method. Let us now see these two methods – Mass and Distributive
training.
i. Mass training :
Mass training involves learning at a stret ch without any breaks. If
employees of a bank are trained for using computers at a stretch from 9 in
the morning up to 2 pm, it may be called Mass training. Training that
continues for a long time enables the trainer to complete a good amount of
content an d several things can be taught in a single session. It is especially
useful when the trainee is to be relieved from his regular work to attend
the training program. In such a situation, it is better that the training is
completed in the least number of day s.
ii. Distributive training :
As against the Mass method, another method is Spaced or Distributive
training. This involves breaking the time into components or slots and
rather than continuously training the learner, the training may take place in
different time intervals. For instance, rather than holding the training for
use of computers from 9 am to 2 pm, the training may be divided into 3
sessions of two hours each. This is particularly important if the task is
complex. For such tasks teaching the e ntire task in one session, it may be
divided into 3 slots of 2 hours each with breaks in between. This allows
the learner to have breaks in between and reduces the fatigue and boredom
that results when training goes on for a long time. Research shows that
spaced training enables better learning and helps the learner to remember
the material for a longer period of time. It is especially important when the munotes.in

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102 training is offered for those skills which are not regularly required. For
skills that are rarely requir ed on the job, it is necessary to use spaced
training. Using spaced training for such skills will ensure that the trainee
will receive an intermittent practice of the skill at frequent intervals. Such
follow -up training with spaced sessions is a good way o f refreshing the
learned matter.
As discussed here, the whole and part methods are concerned with the
content of the training while mass Vs. Distributive training is concerned
with the time allotted for the training. All the methods have their own
advantag es as well as disadvantages. It is necessary to consider the nature
of the content to be taught and the characteristics of the trainee before
deciding what is to be done with the content and the time allotted for
training. Thus sequencing of the training p rogram should be determined
by characteristics of the learner as well as the characteristics of the task for
which training is required.
This section thus focused on the principles of learning that should be
incorporated to make the training effective. A g ood training program
should thus have the following features:
i. Provision of feedback to the trainee about his or her learning
ii. Give general principles and information about why certain behaviour
should be undertaken.
iii. Involve content that is simil ar to what the trainee is expected to
perform on the job.
iv. Provide opportunities for overlearning
v. Sequence the training program by deciding on whether the content
should be presented as a whole or part, and also whether learning
should take place at one time or by diving the time into slots.
In section 7.4, we are considering the designing stage of training program.
We have discussed how designing should consider the characteristics of
the trainee and the method of training. For effective transfer of training,
another factor that is very important is the work environment. We will
now discuss how the work environment determines whether the skills
learned in the training will or will not be transferred to the work situation.
7.4.3 Work Environment:
Apart from the Trainee characteristics and Training design, another
important factor that determines learning and transfer of training from the
training sessions is the Work Environment.
The workplace is a complex situation that involves a number of conditions
and people that may determine whether the trainee will apply the skills
and knowledge that he has learned in the training program to the job
situation or not. Let us now discuss some of the ways in which the work
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103 Training - I 1. Support by the Management :
The management of the organization plays a crucial role in the transfer of
training shown by the employee. The management may support the trainee
through relieving the individual from the regular work in order to at tend
the training program and encouraging the employee to undertake the
trained skill and knowledge. Such supportive behaviour may allow the
trainee to execute the behaviour that he has been trained for.
2. Support offered by the Supervisor :
An employee w ill be able to attend training and complete it only if the
supervisor offers the necessary support by relieving him from the regular
work. Thus, the supportive role offered by the supervisor is an important
condition. The supervisor’s support in using the skills that the individual is
trained for is also very important. After the training, whether the employee
is allowed to implement and exercise the changes in the job situation will
depend upon the supervisor. If the supervisor does not allow the employee
to use the techniques that he or she is trained for, the skill and knowledge
may not be demonstrated in the work condition.
3. Support from the other employees:
Transfer of the skills to the job environment also depends upon the
attitudes and reactions of the other employees. If the employee is
encouraged and praised for demonstrating the newly learned behaviour, it
will encourage the trainee to practice the task and implement it in the job
situation. However sometimes the other colleagues of the trainee m ay
mock at the person for showing the changed behaviour. This may
discourage the trainee to implement the skill that he has been trained for.
4. Opportunity to demonstrate the new skill:
The skill or the knowledge that the employee is trained for maybe
demonstrated only when the organization produces the opportunity to do
so. In the absence of such an opportunity, the learned skill may prove to be
futile. For instance, a doctor may be sent for training to use a new surgical
instrument. However, if the hosp ital that the doctor is working for, does
not have the resources to buy the new instrument, the trainee may not have
the opportunity to demonstrate the new skill.
The role of the environment has to be supportive so that the skills and
knowledge that has be en learned may be put into practice for the
development of the organization.
7.5 SUMMARY Training is an important aspect of Industrial and organizational
psychology. It is required for new employees as well as old ones.
Employees at all levels require diff erent types of training. In order to make
the training process effective, it should follow the steps, namely i) Needs
assessment , which involves assessing who in the organization requires munotes.in

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104 training and what kind of training is required; ii) Setting objectiv es,
following needs assessment, objectives that are to be attained through the
training are decided; iii) Designing the training program , which involves
planning the way in which the training program should be undertaken and
considering the elements, namel y, characteristics of the trainee , factors
affecting transfer , work environment , and methods of training . While
designing the training program, it is important to take into consideration
the abilities, attitudes, motivation, and interests of the trainee.
Similarly, it is necessary to take into consideration the different principles
of learning so that the training program results in the transfer of skills to
the job setting, namely, feedback , general principles , identical elements ,
overlearning , sequencing of training sessions . Along with these two
steps, namely, iv) delivery of training and v) evaluation of the training ,
it is also important to consider the work environment of the trainee and
choose the appropriate method of training. In delivery of traini ng, the
training is imparted by the trainer or the SME. Evaluation of the training
involves assessing the utility and effectiveness of the training program.
7.6 QUESTIONS 1. How does the work environment influence transfer of training?
2. What are the different design factors that affect the transfer of
training?
3. Distinguish between high -fidelity and low -fidelity simulations.
4. Distinguish between Whole Vs. Part training.
5. Distinguish between Mass Vs. Distributive training.
6. What is involved in the Needs assessment s tage of training?
7.7 REFERENCES  Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice. Singapore: Wiley. (Indian reprint 2016)
 Aamodt, M. G. (2013). Industrial Psychology (7th ed.) Boston, MA:
Cengage Learning
 Shultz, D. & Schultz, S. E. (2010). Psychology and Work Today,
Pearson Education, Inc.

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105 8
TRAINING - II
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Training Methods
8.2.1 Audio -visual instructions
8.2.2 Auto -instructions
8.2.3 Conference
8.2.4 Lecture
8.2.5 Modelling
8.2.6 On -the-Job Training
8.2.7 Role playing
8.2.8 Simulations
8.2.9 Electronic Training
8.2.10 Mentoring
8.2.11 Executive Coaching
8.3 Delivery of a Training Program
8.4 Evaluation of a Training Program
8.4.1 Setting the Criteria
8.4.2 Choosing the Design
8.4.3 Choosing measures of the Criteria
8.4.4 Collection of Da ta
8.4.5 Analyse and Interpret Data
8.5 Summary
8.6 Questions
8.7 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES After completing this module, you should be able to:
 Evaluate the different methods of training that are commonly used in
the Industrial and organizational setup .
 Describe the steps involved in the evaluation of the training program.
8.1 INTRODUCTION In the earlier unit, we saw the first two steps of training (Needs assessment
and Objectives) completely and then came to the third step of designing
the training pro gram. In this module, we will continue to see the third step
and then move ahead to see the further steps of training. In the third step munotes.in

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106 that involves designing the training program, it is necessary to also plan
which method will be used for training. Aft er discussing this aspect of
training, this chapter will touch upon the fourth step of training - delivery
of the training and then finally come to how a training program is
evaluated in an industrial set -up. Let us now see the different training
methods.
8.2 TRAINING METHODS While designing the training, apart from understanding it in terms of the
different principles of learning, it is also necessary to decide on the
method of training to be adopted. A trainer may adopt any of the different
methods in orde r to impart the training. Each of the methods has its own
advantages as well as disadvantages. Hence a training program may also
involve combining two or more training methods in order to achieve the
objectives of the training. Let us discuss some of the important methods
adopted in the industrial setup or different training programs.
8.2.1 Audio -visual Instructions:
This method of training involves using the electronic medium for training
the employees. The electronic medium is used to produce the content of
the material in an audio, visual or audio -visual format. Some of the ways
in which audio -visual instructions may be used are as follows:
i. The trainees may be given information about how to operate a
machine through audio recording of the same.
ii. Training on how to repair a computer may be imparted by making a
visual presentation through the power -point presentation, which may
be used for training.
iii. Audio -visual instructions may combine audio as well as visual
components in order to train the em ployees. Training for
communication skills may be recorded using audio -visual elements.
Audio -visual instructions thus make use of different electronic recordings
such as audio recordings, video recordings as well as audio -visual
recordings for training. A trainer may either primarily use the audio -visual
instructions alone for training or may use it as a source of enhancing the
training along with other methods. For instance, to train employees on the
use of a new device, the trainer may send an audio reco rding to the
trainees. Alternatively, the trainer may hold a lecture and may show a
power -point presentation or video to demonstrate the working of the
device. Some of the advantages of this type of training are as follows:
i. Audio and visual presentation s are more impactful in creating an
understanding of the content.
ii. Audio recordings may be preserved electronically and may be used to
train people who may not be able to attend the training program
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107 Training - I iii. Visual presentation helps to effectiv ely explain the abstract concepts.
iv Audio -visual instructions may be preserved and used to train
employees from different geographical areas.
v. Once recorded, audio -visual instructions may be used multiple times
and can be useful in training those indiv iduals who may not be able to
attend the training program due to inability to get leave from job.
vi. This method is a very flexible method and can be altered depending
upon the needs of the training program
This method also has certain limitations as fol lows:
i. The trainer needs the training to convert the training in an audio -
visual format. When the conversion into audio -visual format is not
undertaken correctly, it may produce difficulties in understanding the
content.
ii. If an audio -visual presentati on is used as a standalone method, it may
not give the trainee an opportunity to get clarification of his or her
doubts.
8.2.2 Auto -instruction:
This is a systematic and self -paced presentation of material where the
content is delivered in a programmed man ner. It is a training method in
which the content of the training is divided into subunits. The units are
organized systematically and presented in a step -by-step manner. Every
unit consists of the following:
1. Content : The details of the matter to be learne d is presented.
2. Questions : Followed by the content, there are questions based on the
content. These questions help the learner to check his or her own
understanding of the content.
3. Feedback : There is immediate feedback given to the individual about
his re sponses to the questions. This enables the learner to know the
level of understanding.
In this manner, every unit is presented to the trainee to help him or her
develop knowledge or skills that are intended to be developed. Some of
the important features o f auto instructions are as follows:
1. Self-paced : Auto instructions are developed with the aim to allow
every trainee to move at their own pace. Since trainees differ in their
abilities, every trainee may require differential amount of time for
different ski lls and capacities.
2. Systematic presentation : Since auto instructions are based on
individualized pacing, the content is presented in a systematic manner
so that the trainee can independently go through the content and
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108 3. Feedback : Auto instructions are based on the behavioural principles
of giving immediate feedback. Hence after every unit, there are
questions that enable the learner to know the extent to which they
have understood the material through immediate feedback about its
correctness.
4. Repetitions : The content that is presented is repeated in different
contexts so that the learner gets sufficient practice of the content.
Auto instructions may be provided in two forms – book (Manual) form or
computer program. For instance, lead ership training may be conducted by
preparing a manual, in which systematically the skills may be described in
separate units. Alternatively, it may be developed electronically and
presented through a computer by dividing it into modules.
Some of the impor tant advantages of this method are:
1. Flexibility : The self -paced format of this training method allows
flexibility to the trainee to go through the material as per his speed of
understanding and convenience.
2. Immediate feedback : The evaluation at the end of every segment of
the instruction enables the learner to check on his or her
understanding and immediately go back to the content to get a better
understanding of the content.
However, there are also some limitations of this method that needs to be
taken i nto account:
1. Cost : The most important limitation of this method is the cost
incurred in preparing the content.
2. Training : The trainers who have to develop the training in form of
auto instruction need to be trained to prepare a systematic presentation
and p roduce the content so as to be suitable for self -learning.
Although this method is time -consuming and expensive, once prepared it
is likely to be used for several years and may be useful to train several
employees spread across different geographical locat ions.
8.2.3 Conference :
Another commonly used method for training in the Industrial set up is the
conference method. This method involves training being provided through
meetings in which there is a discussion and free exchange of ideas related
to the cont ent for which training is intended.
Doctors may be trained to handle different emergencies through
conference method. In a conference all the doctors may meet and discuss
the measures to handle emergencies with different experts sharing their
views and exp eriences. Such training can be used in any professional field.
This method has the following advantages: munotes.in

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109 Training - I 1. Exchange of ideas: This method provides the trainees with
information from several experts and experienced persons.
2. Clarification of doubts: Since ther e is a face -to-face interaction
between the trainee and the trainer, it provides scope for getting the
doubts of the trainee to be clarified.
Some of the important limitations of this method need to be understood
before understanding the value of this type of training.
1. Experience: The conference method is beneficial when the trainee
has some knowledge of the content. A trainee who has no knowledge
at all may not benefit from the conference.
2. Lack of systematic presentation : Conference may not be as
systemati c as a lecture method or auto instructions. The ideas may
keep flowing as the discussion goes on. This makes it necessary for
the trainee to be capable of putting all the presented ideas and
organizing them. Without these capacities, the trainee may not be able
to benefit much from the conference.
This shows that the Conference method is a valuable method to train
trainees who are experienced to further enhance their learning and hone
their skills and knowledge.
8.2.4 Lecture :
One of the popular methods of training is the Lecture method. This
method consists of an expert or the trainer presenting the content to the
trainee or group of trainees. The supervisor in the industry may conduct a
lecture to inform the employees in his department about the manner in
which the work has to be conducted. Psychologists may train the trainee
psychologist about psychotherapy with a series of lectures on the topic.
This method is the most widely used method since it has some important
advantages. Let us discuss some of its a dvantages:
1. Efficient: With the help of a lecture the trainer can provide a lot of
information about the content and even share his or her experiences.
This makes it a very efficient method.
2. Mass training: The lecture method is suitable for mass training si nce
the same trainer can accommodate a large number of trainees at one
time. It is this characteristic that makes this method very suitable
when a large number of individuals are to be trained at the same time.
3. Economical: The lecture method is considered as a cost -effective
method of training. It enables the trainer to provide information to
many employees simultaneously and does not incur any additional
expenses to the organization. This is the reason why information -
based training generally makes use of the lecture method.
4. Flexible : Flexibility is a very important advantage of this method.
This method can be easily used with any other method. For instance, munotes.in

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110 in a conference method, if some information is found to be lacking in
the participants, one of the e xperts may conduct a short lecture to give
information regarding the topic.
Although a very popular method, it is also necessary to understand some
of the important limitations of this method.
1. Skill development : This method is not suitable for the developm ent
of a skill. For instance, training for use of computer software only by
conducting lectures will only provide the trainees with the knowledge
but not produce the skill.
2. Monotonous : Sometimes a lecture may become a monologue with
only the trainer talkin g and the trainee is expected to listen. The
passivity of the trainee may bring about a feeling of monotony and
boredom.
3. Distractions : A lecture need not always involve one -way
communication. Sometimes it may take the form of two -way
communication with the trainees to participate in the lecture.
However, this may result in distractions and occasionally diverging
from the topic.
An industry may use this method tactfully to provide information for a
large number of trainees. However, having a trained person w ho knows
how to deliver the content by balancing the information and clarifying the
trainee’s doubts, without diverging from the topic, will make this method
effective.
8.2.5 Modeling:
The Theory of Social Learning states that several behaviours are learne d
through imitation or by copying others. On the basis of this, modeling has
been adopted in several ways to educate people about different topics.
This method is also used in training employees, especially when skills
development is the focus of the train ing program.
Modeling involves training by exposing participants to a model who
demonstrates the behaviour to be learned. A surgeon may be trained for
surgery by exposing him to a demonstration of the surgery by a trained
surgeon. A pilot may be trained to fly an airplane after being demonstrated
by a trained pilot. Modeling as a method of training involves the following
steps:
1. Trained or expert personnel demonstrates the skills in a systematic
manner.
2. The trainee observes the skill demonstrated by the expe rt.
3. The trainee then mentally rehearses the skill.
4. The skill is then imitated by the trainee
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111 Training - I In an industrial set up modeling may use either a live model where the
expert demonstrates the skill in reality or it may also involve using video
recording of the demonstration by the expert.
A very important benefit of this method is the advantage of actually
demonstrating the task. Rather than only giving instructions about how to
use a device, when an expert actua lly demonstrates it, it helps in creating a
better understanding of the task. In fact, to improve the learning of a skill,
demonstrations should include not only desirable behaviour but also
undesirable behaviour. When modeling is used to train managers f or
interviewing skills, the model should demonstrate the desirable behaviour
and also the undesirable behaviour. This facilitates better development of
the skill. Secondly, this method gives the trainee the opportunity to
practice the task immediately afte r having demonstrated it by the trainer.
Another important advantage of this method is the possibility of getting
feedback. With the feedback, the trainee is able to understand the areas
where improvement and modification are required.
Although a very impo rtant method, a very important limitation is that it is
not possible to always demonstrate every variety of a task. For instance,
some surgeries may be demonstrated but it may not be possible to
demonstrate all varieties. Secondly, it may become time -consu ming in
comparison to the lecture method. Another important limitation is that it
cannot be used with a large number of participants since a trainer may not
be able to observe and give feedback to a very large number of
participants.
8.2.6 On -the-Job Train ing:
On-the-Job training is a training method in which the person is absorbed in
the workforce by the organization and is trained for the work while he is
working. For instance, a data entry operator who is employed by the
organization may be trained for t he work by the supervisor while he or she
is working.
This method involves the task being demonstrated by the supervisor or the
already trained employee while the trainee observes him or her. Gradually
when the trainee is capable of independently working, he or she is allowed
to work independently.
One form of on -the-job training is an apprenticeship, where an unskilled
person is absorbed as an apprentice. During the apprenticeship, he or she
is provided with the necessary training for the skills required and is given
some amount as a stipend. Followed by the training they are then absorbed
by the organization into their workforce.
On-the-Job training is beneficial especially for semi -skilled jobs like that
of a plumber or carpenter. An unskilled person can very easily be trained
in a short -period of time by observing a skilled worker. Secondly, this
method is useful when skilled employees are not available. At such time
an unskilled employee may be taken and then trained through on -the-job
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112 Some o f the important limitations of this method of training are that it
cannot be used for those jobs that require a high level of skills. For such
jobs, it is necessary that the organization appoints individuals who have
formal training. Secondly, this method reduces the productivity of the
employee who is asked to train the trainee, since that employee now has
the dual responsibility of working as well as training. Another important
limitation of this method is that since it is not offered by a trained trainer ,
it is less likely to be systematic in nature.
8.2.7 Role playing:
One very important method to develop skills is the Role play method. The
Role -play method consists of the trainee performing the task in the
presence of the trainer, who then gives feedbac k about the performance.
For example, a psychologist may be trained for empathizing skills by
asking the trainee psychologist to play the role of a therapist and
demonstrate empathy for a client. A trained therapist who observes the
role play may then give feedback to the trainee about the behaviour
produced by the trainee.
The role -play method in this way consists of two steps, role -play and
feedback. In the first step, the trainee is expected to assume the role of the
employee and produce the behaviour ex pected out of that role. This is
done in the presence of the trainer. In the second step, the trainer gives
appropriate feedback to the trainee in terms of the right responses that
were demonstrated and also the modifications that are necessary.
The role -play method is different from the Modeling method with respect
to the demonstration by the trainer. In modeling, training begins with
demonstrations by the trainer or a model, whereas in the role -play method
there are no such demonstrations. It directly beg ins with a situation being
given for the trainee to play the role and produce the behaviour. Role play
method proves to be advantageous in different ways:
1. This method checks the employee’s understanding of the task by
actually making him or her produce the behaviour and hence a very
important method for teaching skills.
2. It also provides an opportunity for the trainee to practice the task
rather than only listening to information as is done in the lecture
method.
3. In the role -play method the trainee also has the advantage of getting
feedback about the performance.
The limitations of this method too need to be taken into account while
using this method. One important limitation is that it is a time -consuming
method. Secondly, it poses problems when a large numb er of trainees are
to be trained at a time. In such a situation it is difficult for the trainer to
observe everybody and give feedback.
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113 Training - I 8.2.8 Simulations:
For certain jobs, trainees may be trained not in the real situation but on a
virtually created job s ituation. This method is known as simulated training.
A pilot before being trained on the actual airplane is trained in a simulated
condition by creating a virtual cockpit. In this virtual situation, the trainee
has demonstrated the necessary skills and is made to practice the skills of
flying the airplane.
As we had seen earlier, simulations may vary in terms of fidelity. In high
fidelity simulations, there is a greater similarity between the real and the
produced virtual situation, while in low fidelity s imulations there is a
lesser similarity between the two.
Simulations may involve creating the entire simulated environment or by
virtually creating the situation on a computer. Pilot training institutes have
the entire airplane condition being constructed on the ground to give the
trainee pilots the feel of the airplane. However, this method is very
expensive and is capable of training only a few trainees at a time. Hence
virtually created simulations where on the computer the airplane
conditions are produc ed to teach the necessary skills becomes more useful.
This method can accommodate more trainees and is also cost -effective.
The most important advantage of simulated learning is its ability to
produce the real work situation in the training process. This h elps in
improving the learning and produces a better understanding of the skill.
There are many skills for which an individual cannot be directly trained
using the actual device. For instance, a doctor cannot be directly trained to
conduct surgery on a pat ient. In such situations first practicing the skill in
a simulated condition becomes an efficient way of training for skills.
Thirdly, simulated condition allows the trainee to practice the skills
sufficiently before the employee shows them in the job cond ition. Due to
these benefits, this method is very commonly used in training for jobs like
the pilot, navy, air force, and medicine.
Cost is a very important limitation of this method. It is very expensive to
create a simulated work environment. Apart from this, another limitation
is the limitation in the number of trainees who may be trained with this
method. It is difficult to use this method when a large number of trainees
are to be trained.
8.2.9 Electronic Training:
Training programs are increasingly ma king use of different electronic
mediums like computers and the internet. Such training is called electronic
training. Electronic training is broadly classified into synchronous training
and asynchronous training. In synchronous training, the trainer and t he
trainee meet in real -time over electronic medium from different
geographical locations. On the other hand, in asynchronous training, the
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114 Electronic devices are involve d in the training in different ways :
1. Internet and web pages are used as a mode of actually delivering
training programs.
2. Computer -assisted instructions (CIA) are useful in presenting the
training material in form of pictures and animations which facilitat es
understanding of the material taught.
3. Computer -managed learning (CML) involves a more individualized
approach with the computer program analysing the performance of
the trainee and then planning the training program in accordance with
the progress.
4. Adap tive e training involves identifying the pace of the learner and
modifying the content and speed of training to make it suitable for the
pace of the trainee.
Thus electronic devices are useful in the delivery of the training program,
making the content of the training program more impactful, modifying the
training program to suit the pace of the trainee, and also monitoring the
progress of the trainee. Electronic training has proved to be beneficial in
many ways.
(1) The first benefit is the large number o f trainees who may be trained at
a time. Online training can accommodate a large number of
participants and can train a large number of trainees at one time.
(2) Another strength of this form of training is its ability to train people
across different g eographical locations. Trainees from different
locations may be trained through online training programs.
(3) The third advantage of electronic training lies in its capacity to make
training more effective and impactful through images and animations.
(4) Some form of electronic training like Computer managed learning is
self-paced and allow the trainee to take up the course at any time that
is convenient to them. This allows the trainee to complete the training
without the work being disturbed.
(5) Self-paced learning provided by electronic training proves to be
beneficial since every individual has differential capacities and there
are differences in the speed of understanding the content. This method
is very useful for those who want to enhance their development and
skills while they are still working.
Today there are various electronic mediums through which training is
provided and also there are a large number of training platforms that offer
electronic training for different skills. Electronic train ing is also becoming
very popular. There are some limitations of this type of training, which
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115 Training - I 1. The first limitation that needs to be taken cognizance of is the cost
and expertise required to prepare computer -based training programs.
2. Second important limitation that comes up is with lack of supervision.
Since it is self -paced, unless the trainee is self -motivated, trainees are
likely to skip training and engage into procrastination. Thus the
chances of completing the training reduces du e to lack of supervision.
This method requires high self -motivation and time management on
part of the trainee to complete the training program.
Despite these limitations, electronic training offers a promising role in
training people for various skills an d knowledge and is growing in its
popularity among a wide range of population.
8.2.10 Mentoring:
At every stage of an individual’s working life, there are different situations
faced which may take the form of challenges and conflicts. Very often the
challe nging situation may be handled effectively with some guidance by a
person who is more experienced. For instance, if an assistant manager is
not able to manage the unsupportive behaviour of his or her subordinate,
the manager who is more experienced than hi m may guide him to handle
the situation. Mentoring thus involves training through guidance and
support that is offered by an individual who is more experienced and
possesses more knowledge than the trainee.
The person offering mentoring is referred to as a ‘mentor’ while the
trainee who receives mentoring is called a ‘mentee’. The role of the
mentor is to provide the necessary environment and support so that the
mentee is able to grow in his career. Some of the important activities
undertaken by the mentor are:
1. They may provide guidance for the mentee to move up the career
ladder.
2. When the mentee is promoted and is not able to manage the
responsibilities, the mentor may play a supportive role to help him to
manage his responsibilities.
3. During the work -life o f the mentee, when they experience some
barriers or hurdles in growth, the mentor may help the mentee to
understand and evaluate their perspective and if required they may
even help the mentee to change the perspective.
4. The mentor may not always give direc tive assistance, but also assist
them indirectly. The way in which the experienced person works and
responds may also help the mentee by having a role model to look
upon. Thus the mentor with their exemplary behaviour may also serve
as a positive role mode l to the mentee.
Mentorship has been found to be a beneficial form of training for both, the
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116 1. The mentee definitely benefits from the guidance and support that is
provided by the experienced mentor. This may prove to be useful for
them to improve their efficiency and productivity and thereby develop
their skills.
2. Second benefit of mentorship is the role of this form of training in
transferring knowledge about the culture and practices of the
organization. Every organization has its own set of procedures and
cultural practices. An individual who joins the organization may take
time to understand it. Having a mentor helps in being oriented to the
practices and procedures of the organizational culture.
3. Having a mentor proves to be b eneficial in improving the career of the
mentee. With necessary guidance and improved efficiency, it helps
the mentee to have better chances of being promoted.
4. Through mentorship programs, mentors get a chance to observe and
understand the capacities as we ll as the potentialities of the mentee.
This improves the visibility of the mentee who is highly capable.
5. Throughout the career life, an individual also faces certain personal
problems or may even have personality characteristics that may act as
a barrier in their growth process. Having a mentor helps in getting the
necessary emotional support. It helps the mentee to evaluate the
internal barriers and work through them with the help of the mentor.
The mentor too is benefited from the mentorship program sinc e it gives
them an opportunity to guide and nurture people under them and transfer
their knowledge to others. Through this, the mentor may develop
leadership skills.
Mentorship programs can also help the organization since such programs
help in the effecti ve transfer of knowledge and experience from a more
experienced to a less experienced employee. This also improves the job
satisfaction of an employee and reduces the stresses experienced by the
employee. It makes the organizational environment more inclus ive and
improves employee engagement. Such programs may be effective in
building a supportive and collaborative environment in the organization.
To improve the effectiveness of the Mentorship program the organization
needs to look into the following steps:
1. Identify the individuals in the organization who may have the
capabilities to act as a mentor.
2. Formalize the mentorship program so that every mentee who joins the
organization or who is in need of mentorship has someone to guide
and support.
3. Identify the right mentor -mentee pair so that there is a mentor -mentee
fit and both the parties benefit through the association with each other
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117 Training - I 4. The organization should check and evaluate the progress of the
mentorshi p program intermittently and annually in terms of its
effectiveness and satisfaction for the mentor and the mentee.
A proper check and overview by the organization is important since
mentorship may not always work the way in which it should ideally do.
Some of the problems that may be experienced in the mentorship
programs are:
1. The mentor -mentee who is paired with each other may not be
comfortable with one another. In such a situation rather than being
helpful, a mentorship program may become more destructi ve in
nature.
2. In certain organizations, the mentees may be allowed to choose the
mentors whom they are comfortable with. Although this allows the
mentee to choose, it also poses a problem of an imbalanced mentor -
mentee ratio with some mentors being preferr ed by many while some
may not be preferred by any. When a mentor is overburdened, it may
become difficult to effectively perform their role of mentoring.
3. Mentoring program becomes effective when the mentors are given
training on mentorship. This helps the mentor to understand their role
and function and also helps them to perform effectively. In the
absence of proper training, the mentor may sometimes be offering too
much negative feedback or at times pushing the mentee beyond their
capacities. Such behavio ur may produce increased stress in the
mentee.
4. It is not very uncommon for the mentor to take undue advantage of
the mentee’s emotional vulnerability. The mentor may demonstrate
destructive behaviour like getting their work done by the mentee or
asking for personal favours. This may result in frustration in the
mentee and the relationship may produce difficulties rather than
growth of the employee.
All the above suggests that mentorship programs have a number of
benefits to the employee as well as the organ ization provided it is
effectively planned and executed.
8.2.11 Executive Coaching:
Training is required for employees at every level. Employees at the
executive level are experienced and aware of their roles and
responsibilities. However, they do need som e personalized training to
enable them to lead effectively, grow progressively in their career and
contribute productively to the growth of the organization. This form of
training for the higher -level executives is known as Executive coaching.
For instanc e, an executive who has been recently appointed for the
position may not be able to face the challenges from the investor. At this
time the retired executive may act as a coach and discuss ways and means
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118 the executive to evaluate different perspectives to help him deal with the
situation. Some of the important features of Executive coaching are:
1. It involves a professional relationship between the high -level
executive and a coach who i s appointed to train the high -level
executive.
2. The relationship is individualized and involves a one -on-one
relationship. The role of the coach is to understand the issues and the
challenges of the manager and offer the necessary intervention.
3. The function of the coach is to help the executive to deal with the
present challenges experienced by him or her and also prepare him for
the future challenges. Another important function of the coach is to be
supportive so as to help the manager to handle the situati on
effectively.
The training through executive coaching is beneficial for the managers at
the executive level in the following ways:
1. Executive coaching helps the manager to understand the sources of
his or her challenges and also provides support in thinki ng about how
to handle the situations.
2. Executive coaching helps in developing skills such as negotiation
skills, influencing skills, and strategic thinking in the managers. These
skills help the executives to handle the problems that they experience
at the higher levels of the organization.
3. Many employees promoted to the executive levels may lack
managerial skills like delegation. This makes the manager being
overburdened with work and they may not be able to work efficiently
in the managerial functions. Ex ecutive coaching enables managers to
understand and reflect upon their ways of functioning and develop
more effective managerial skills.
4. It is an effective and efficient method of improving the leadership
skills of higher -level managers.
5. This type of train ing enables the executive to become aware of their
own selves and expand their capabilities.
The most important limitation of this method is the possibility of finding
the right coach. For higher -level executives getting an appropriate person
who will be a ble to guide the executive and offer proper growth advice is a
difficult task for the organization. A good coach should have sound
knowledge of the organization, psychology, and business so that he or she
is able to provide appropriate directions and suppo rt to the executive.
Secondly, since there is no systematic procedure to offer executive
coaching and hence many times it may not produce the desired effects.
Thus in this section, we saw the different most commonly used methods of
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119 Training - I limitations. A trainer needs to weigh the pros as well as cons of the
methods before employing them. These methods may also be combined to
produce the desired effects. Thus designing of a training program should
take care of using the different principles of learning and choose an
appropriate method so as to produce maximum learning and transfer of
learning.
Once the training program is designed and planned, then takes place the
delivery of the training program. In th e next section we will discuss the
Delivery stage of the training.
8.3 DELIVERY OF A TRAINING PROGRAM We will now discuss the next step of training. This is the fourth step of the
training program. After the planning stage, the trainer actually begins with
the training program. This is called the delivery stage of training.
This stage involves identifying the place or venue for the training program
and making arrangements for the material required for the training. The
material required will differ dependi ng upon the nature of the training.
Training for use of computers may require computer devices while
training for surgery will require the operation theatre or simulated
situations.
The delivery stage is an important stage in the training process. The expe rt
who is appointed as the trainer has to systematically deliver the training
program so that the objectives of the training are achieved. A lot depends
upon the trainer and the planning skills of the trainer. A skilled trainer
with effective planning will be able to train the trainee for the skills and
knowledge that the training program aims at developing. The expertise of
the trainer in the skill in question and in the training technique is important
to effectively deliver the training program.
A trainin g program may vary in duration with some lasting only for a few
hours, while others may go on for months and some for a year or two as
well. During the training program motivating the trainees to continue with
the program and helping them to transfer it to the job situation is a very
important task of the trainer. Some training programs involve intermittent
follow -ups to identify the difficulties that the trainee has in applying and
transferring it to the job condition. An I/O psychologist has to overview
the delivery of the training program and offer necessary assistance for the
smooth delivery.
After the delivery stage comes the last stage of the training program,
which consists of evaluating the program. In the next section, we will see
the details of the evaluation stage.
8.4 EVALUATION OF A TRAINING PROGRAM In this final stage of the training program, the delivered program is
assessed to identify its utility. All training programs which are planned
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120 programs are useful while others after having delivered may not prove to
be capable of achieving the objectives that it was designed to attain. Some
training programs may enable only partial attainment of the objectives. All
training programs ne eds to be objectively evaluated so that only those
which are useful are continued, while those which are not useful may be
discarded or modified as per the requirements.
In this section let us understand the steps involved in the evaluation of the
training program. The evaluation of the training program involves a
scientific and objective procedure to systematically identify the utility of
the training program. This involves the following five steps and we will
now discuss each of these steps in detail.
8.4.1 Setting the Criteria:
A training program is undertaken in order to achieve some objectives.
These objectives can act as criteria to evaluate the worth of the training
program. For instance, if the employees are trained for communication
skills since the re are a large number of complaints from the customer, the
customer complaints may be the criteria against which we can now assess
whether the training program is useful or not. Similarly, if in a
manufacturing unit training was imparted for use of machine since there
were a large number of accidents that were recorded in that unit, the
number of accidents can be a criterion against which we can now evaluate
the utility of the training program. The effectiveness of the training
program may be evaluated for its effect at the training level and secondly
at the performance level.
a. Training -level :
Immediately after the training there may be changes seen in the behaviour
of the participants. These changes which help in understanding the value
of the training program through the immediate impact of training, are
called training -level criteria. Two criteria related to the training –level are
Reactions criteria and Learning Criteria.
Reactions criteria :
This refers to whether the participants liked or did not like the training
program. The extent to which the participants liked the training program
helps us to identify the extent to which the training program was attractive
and delivered well. At the end of the training program, a questionnaire
may be distributed t o the participants to understand their reactions to the
training program. This will include items like –
1. The training program was useful
2. The training program was impactful
Responses of the participants to these items help in knowing whether the
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121 Training - I Only understanding the reactions of the trainee is not sufficient. It is also
necessary to know at the training level whether the training was effective
in producing the desired change. This is done through the Learning criteria
Learning criteria:
Training is intended to produce some change in behaviour. It is necessary
to know the extent to which the training content and method was capable
of producing learning of the skill or behaviour. For instance , after a
training program on communication skills, it is necessary to know whether
the desired skill has been produced in the trainees or not. This will involve
the learning criteria. To understand whether this criterion has been
attained or not, the trai ner will have to ask the trainee to demonstrate the
skill at the end of the session. Role plays where the trainee is asked to
demonstrate the communication skill will enable the trainer to identify
whether the training was effective in imparting the requir ed skill.
Similarly, if employees are training for mathematical ability, at the end of
the training a small test on the same will help us to know the extent to
which the training was capable of producing the learning.
It is necessary to remember that react ions criteria and learning criteria help
us to know the value of training only at the training level. However, this
does not ensure that the training is impactful in producing changes when
the person is actually going to work. Hence it is also necessary to evaluate
at the Performance level. Let us now discuss the criteria at the
performance level.
b. Performance -level:
Every organization conducts the training program since it wants a
behavioural change in the work environment. The success of the training
program depends not only on its capacity to produce the changes at the
training level but at the job level. Any change which is seen at the end of
the training session may not necessarily be seen even at the job condition.
It is possible that the training ha s produced communication skills when
assessed at the end of the training program. However, it is not a guarantee
that the employee may continue to show the behaviour at the job place.
This makes it necessary to study the effectiveness of the training progr am
by seeing its effect on the performance of the trainee. Performance level
criteria include two criteria – Behaviour criteria and Results criteria.
Behaviour criteria :
This involves assessing whether the behaviour that the individual is
trained for is d emonstrated in the job condition or not. After having
trained the managers for using democratic leadership patterns, it is
necessary to know whether the manager is showing democratic leadership
in his department while managing the subordinates. In spite of showing
changes at the training level, if the manager is not able to use it in the
workplace, it indicates that the training was not capable of producing
transfer of training and hence efforts will be required to enable the
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122 training is able to achieve the behaviour criteria, it is necessary to evaluate
the behaviour of the trainees in the job situation before and after the
training. When the subordinates of the manager are asked to evaluate the
extent to which he or she shows democratic behaviour, before and after
the training, we will be able to understand the effectiveness of the training
at the behaviour level.
Result criteria :
Training may also be evaluated in terms of its abili ty to actually produce
the results that it was intended for. For instance, if communication skills
training was implemented because the customers were not satisfied with
the communication skills of the clerks, the effectiveness of the training
needs to be measured in light of its impact on the complaints. An effective
training program should result in reducing customer complaints. This
would be considered as the result criterion. Similarly, if the machine
operators were trained because there were many accid ents being reported
in that department, the training effectiveness will be determined by the
number of accidents and whether it has now reduced.
In this way, the training has to be evaluated completely and holistically to
understand it thoroughly. It is ne cessary not to assume that if one criterion
is achieved others too may be achieved. Sometimes training may show its
impact on the training level but not at the performance level while at other
times it may show effectiveness at the performance level but no t at the
training level. A complete understanding of the training program should
be based on setting criteria at both levels and include all four criteria -
reaction, learning, behaviour, and result.
8.4.2 Choosing the Design:
The second step of evaluating a training program consists of choosing a
design to evaluate and assess the value of the training program. The two
designs that may be used are Repeated measures design and Random
group design. Let us now discuss these two designs one after the other.
a. Repeated measures design :
In this design, there is only one group of participants and they are tested
and assessed in two conditions – the first time before the training program
and the second time after the training program. For instance, to know
whether the training program on communication skills was effective, the
number of complaints of the customer before and after the training can be
compared. Similarly, to understand the effectiveness of the training
program on democratic leadership, the subordinate s of the participants
may be asked to rate the manager before the training program and later on
after the training program. If there is a difference in the amount of ratings
on democratic leadership, it can help in understanding the value of the
training p rogram. This design thus involves the following steps:
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123 Training - I 2. Delivering the training program
3. Re-assessment of the criteria
This method is also referred to as the Pre -test – Post-test design and has
some important advantages. Since the same participants are compared
before and after the training program it takes care of the individual
differences that may influence the criteria. Secondly it is comparatively a
more convenient method of evaluating the training program since the same
set of participants is to be followed up.
However, a very important limitation of the repeated measures design is
that the changes that are seen in the two conditions (Pre and post) may not
necessarily be due to training. There could be many other factors withi n
the individual and the organization which may produce changes in the
behaviour. This makes the repeated -measures design less valuable.
b. Random group design :
Another design that is used is the Random measures design. This design
makes use of two groups of participants instead of one – the Experimental
(Training) group and the Control group. The participants in the two groups
are to be controlled for important factors so that they are comparable and
then one group is exposed to the training program while the other group is
not exposed to the training program. The two groups are then compared on
the measures of criteria to understand the effectiveness of the training
program.
For instance, to understand the effectiveness of a democratic leadership
program, two comparable groups of managers are chosen and one set is
randomly allotted for participating in the training program, while the other
group is not offered training. After the training program, the subordinates
of both groups of managers are asked to ra te the managers on the extent to
which they show democratic leadership behaviour. The ratings given to
the two groups of managers will help us to identify the extent to which the
training program was capable of producing the desired effect. This method
thus involves the following steps:
1. Dividing the participants into two groups (Training and No -training
group)
2. Introducing training to the training group
3. Assessing the behaviour of both the groups (Training and no -training
group)
This method has the benefit of controlling for the external factors that can
produce changes in behaviour. However, it has some limitations such as –
1. It is difficult to have two groups of participants that are comparable.
2. Many times it is difficult to randomly group participants into t he
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124 3. Thirdly the participants who attend the training may share information
with those who do not attend the training and this too may affect the
performance. This factor is difficult to control.
Thus, both methods have advant ages as well as limitations. An I/O
psychologist needs to evaluate the methods and make the choice of the
right design that will be suitable for the training program to be evaluated.
8.4.3 Choosing measures of the Criteria:
After deciding the design for ev aluation, the specific way in which the
criterion will be measured has to be decided. To understand the reaction of
the trainees towards the training, a questionnaire will have to be developed
so that trainees can express the extent to which they have like d or not liked
the training program. To measure the learning criterion, some tests or role -
play may be designed which helps to know the extent to which the training
has produced some form of learning.
To measure the behaviour criterion, some form of evalua tion will have to
be considered. For instance, if it is training on the use of a device, the
supervisor of the trainee may be asked to rate the extent to which the
trainee shows proficiency in using the device. Similarly, to measure the
results criterion, the measure needs to be some index of the result of that
training. For instance, if training on the use of a device was undertaken
because there were a large number of accidents in that department, the
results of the training may be measured in terms of th e number of
accidents after the training period. Thus this step involves some concrete
way of identifying the value of the training through some quantifiable unit.
8.4.4 Collection of Data:
Once the criteria and the measures of the criteria are decided, it is
necessary to collect the data. Data is collected from the trainees who
attended the training program. In the repeated measures design, the data is
collected from the same set of participants before and after training. For
instance, before conducting th e training program on the use of computers,
the participants may be assessed on their knowledge of computer
(Learning criteria), Supervisor’s evaluation on trainee’s knowledge of
computer (results criteria), Performance of the organization (Performance
criteria). After the training program on the use of computers, the same
participants will be reassessed on the same parameters, along with the
questionnaire on their evaluation of the training program (Reaction
criteria).
In the random group design, since the re are two groups of participants, the
data will be collected only after the training program from both the groups
– those who undergo training and a control group who do not undergo
training. The questionnaire to measure reactions is given only to the
training group, since those who do not go through the training group may
not be able to express their reactions to the training program. The data that
is collected is then arranged in a tabulated manner so that it can help in
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125 Training - I 8.4.5 Analyse and Interpret Data:
The data that is collected about the reactions, learning, results and
performance for the two groups or for pre and post condition are then
subjected to inferential statistical methods. Inferential statistics helps us to
know w hether the difference in the two groups (in random groups design)
and in the two conditions (Pre -test-Post-test condition) are due to chance
factors or is there a significant difference. If there is a statistically
significant difference, it may be conclud ed that the difference in the
performance or result is more than what can be expected out of chance
factors.
From this analysis, the I/O psychologist can conclude about the
effectiveness of the training program. If there is a statistically significant
difference in any criteria it means that the training has been able to
significantly produce a difference in that criteria. For instance, if there is a
statistically significant reduction in the number of accidents before and
after the training program, it may be concluded that the training program
was effective in significantly reducing the accidents.
It is important to know that it is not necessary that the training program
will show the same amount of effectiveness for all the criteria. Depending
upon the ef fectiveness, the conclusion about the effectiveness of the entire
training program is decided.
If the training program is effective at the training level criterion but not for
the performance level criterion, then it means that there is something
lacking i n the training program. It shows that the training program lacks
the necessary training to facilitate the transfer of training and hence
although in the training program a person is able to perform well, it is not
reflected in the job situation. This calls for the required modification so
that transfer of training is facilitated.
Thus evaluation of all criteria is important and if the training program is
effective at the training level as well as performance level, it may be
considered as an effective train ing program and suitable to be continued.
However, if it is effective at only one level but not at the other level, it is
necessary to make necessary changes, before it is continued. On the other
hand, if a training program is found to be ineffective at bo th levels, in that
case, it is better to discontinue such training programs.
In this way, a training program should be evaluated thoroughly before
continuing with a program. Such an evaluation helps in understanding the
real value of the training program. It also helps us to know what are the
strengths and the weaknesses of the training program. Thorough
evaluation in the above manner helps to know what is lacking in the
training program and suggests ways in which modification is required.
This kind of eval uation can help an organization to identify the training
programs in the organization that does not produce anything worthwhile,
which may then be discontinued. It thus helps in preventing wastage of the
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126 Industrial Psychology
126 8.5 SUMMARY In this module we continued to discuss the third step of training which
involves planning of a training program. In this module we saw the
different methods that are generally used in training programs. Each of the
methods ha s their own strengths as well as limitations. A trainer may
combine two or more methods in order to effectively train the trainees for
the knowledge or the skill that is required. After the planning stage, the
training has to be actually delivered by the t rainer, which is the fourth step
of the training. The last step of training consists of evaluating the training
program. This is done by first setting the criteria for evaluation and then
choosing the appropriate design for evaluation. The measures of the
criteria are chosen and then the data is collected. Followed by this the
collected data is analysed and interpreted. Based on the evaluation the
training program may be continued if it is found effective at both the
levels - training and performance level. If it is effective only at one level
and not the other, then it is modified and in case it is ineffective at both the
levels, then it may be necessary to be discarded.
8.6 QUESTIONS 1. Evaluate the following methods of training:
a. Audio -visual instructions
b. Auto instructions
c. Conference
d. Lecture
2. Describe the following methods of training:
a. Modeling
b. On-the-Job Training
c. Role Playing
d. Simulations
3. Discuss the importance of Electronic Training, Mentoring and
Executive Coaching.
4. Describe the steps involved in the Evaluation of a Training program.
8.7 REFERENCES  Spector, P.E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Research and Practice. Singapore: Wiley. (Indian reprint 2016)
 Aamodt, M.G. (2013). Industrial Psychology (7th ed.) Boston, MA:
Cengag e Learning
 Shultz D. & Schultz S.E. (2010). Psychology and Work Today,
Pearson Education, Inc.

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