Paper-VI-Applied-Agriculture-munotes

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APPLIED AGRICULTURE
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept
1.3 Nature of Applied Agriculture
1.4 Scope of Applied Agriculture
1.5 Summary
1.6 Questions
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To help the students to understand the scope and practical
importance of applied agriculture to the small and marginal farmers.
2) To understand the concept of applied agriculture.
3) To study the nature of agriculture.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture in India has an extensive background, which goes back to ten
thousand years. Till today it is our traditional occupation and also
depending on nature to a great extent. Even the distribution of occupations
depended on agriculture. Rural areas were self -sufficient and the needs of
the people were limited. But during the British rule the small scale and
cottage indus tries were ruined resulting in the increase of population
depending on agriculture. The village life was totally disturbed.
As there was very less work and no money in the rural areas people started
migrating to the urban areas in search of job. This resul ted in the decline
of traditional occupations in the rural areas. Agriculture gained secondary
importance in the rural areas. Farming was not affordable to the small and
marginal farmers. This led to a thought of starting other allied activities
along with the occupation they were practicing.
Mahatma Gandhi had rightly said, “Agriculture is the Soul of India.
Agriculture is the main occupation of Indian rural community.”
As the country’s economic development and progress depends on
agriculture it is the need of the hour to recognize the modern techniques
and new technology and to accept and implement it. Let us understand
what applied agriculture is.
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2 1.2 CONCEPT
India enjoys the second position all over the world in terms of agricultural
production. Farming, lu mbering, forestry, and fishing represent a high
percentage of the Gross Domestic Product of the country. These industries
have almost recruited about 50% of the overall manpower of India.
Outputs for every type of harvest have increased since 1950. The
government has put particular focus on farming operations in the five-year
plans and stable developments in the fields of engineering science,
irrigation, implementation of contemporary farming operations, and
supply of agricultural loans and grants after the Green Revolution in the
country.
Agriculture, with its allied sectors, is the largest livelihood provider in
rural India. It also contributes a significant figure to the GDP (Gross
Domestic Product). Sustainable agriculture for food security, sustainable
technology including soil conservation, natural resource management
and biodiversity protection are essential for rural development. India has
witnessed a green revolution, a white revolution, a yellow revolution and a
blue revolution in agriculture and al lied activities.
Nature tends to change, as everything in nature is mortal. Human being
also is not exceptional to this change. He has invented many things and
has been successful. He has been successful by combining the old and new
concepts. Human being accepted the principle of looking practically to the
day-to-day activity and gaining profit from that. This is nothing but called
applied science.
Applied science is a discipline of science that applies existing scientific
knowledge to develop more practica l applications, like technology. Within
natural science, disciplines that are basic science or pure science develop
information to predict and perhaps explain to make us understand —
phenomena in the natural world. Applied science applies science to real
world practice. In short basic science is a method of investigating nature
through experimental method trying to satisfy the need to know and
applied science is to use pure science for practical human purpose.
The noun form applied can be used in many terms. It can be used in terms
of applied arts or applied science as both stress on practical approach or
factors. Even in other sectors like industries, commerce and economics
applied science is very much used. The need of the hour is to
commercialize the agricu lture to gain maximum benefit.
Trying to solve different problems in the society with the help of
knowledge is nothing but applied sector.
If used in agriculture by using new techniques and technology so as to
commercialize the agriculture is called applie d agriculture. munotes.in

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illinois.edu
Applied agriculture includes agricultural science, bio- technology,
processing industries, tissue culture, horticulture, new cropping pattern,
crop protection, bird conservation, soil and water management,
agricultural structu re and environment, agricultural economics, nutritious
diet, dairy occupation, dairy market, animal husbandry, forestry.
If the commercialization of industrial sector is used in agricultural sector,
it will boost up and help in making the country’s economy stronger.
Applied agriculture will help the marginal farmers, small farmers, landless
agricultural laborers, and rural artisans, skilled and unskilled laborers.
Economic crisis also can be overcome because of applied agriculture.
1.3 NATURE OF APPLIED AGRICUL TURE:
While reviewing Indian agriculture we have to consider the pre-
independence period and post-independence period. Pre- independence
period is the period during the British rule. The British policy was that
they never wanted the Indian agricultural sector to be developed as their
need was only the raw material produced in the country. The British
policy was against the Indian agricultural development. After the partition
the fertile land remained in Pakistan.
In order to overcome this food crisis change s were made in the agricultural
policy of India. Five -year plans laid more emphasis on agricultural
development. In 1966 Green Revolution was successful in the field of
agriculture.
In 1965 Food Corporation of India was established. Also agricultural
finan cial corporations, dairy industry on co-operative basis were
established, social forestry program was undertaken, and processing
industries were started.
Green Revolution, White Revolution, Yellow Revolution, Blue Revolution
were successful only because allied and subsidiary occupations were given
importance independently along with agriculture. This further can be
made more successful with help of applied agriculture.
1.4 SCOPE OF APPLIED AGRICULTURE:
Agriculture is the source of livelihood in India. Commercia lization of
agriculture will help in eliminating many social and economic problems in munotes.in

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4 the society. It is essential to understand the different sections included in
applied agriculture.
Applied agriculture includes agricultural science, bio- technology,
processing industries, tissue culture, horticulture, new cropping pattern,
crop protection, bird conservation, soil and water management,
agricultural structure and environment, agricultural economics, nutritious
diet, dairy occupation, dairy market, animal husbandry, forestry.
1) Horticulture -
Horticulture is a science of studying garden plants. The word Horticulture
is derived from two Latin words viz. ‘Hortus’ means garden and ‘Culture’
means knowledge of growing these crops.
Horticulture is the branch of agriculture that deals with the art, science,
technology, and business of vegetable garden plant growing. It not only
includes the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, nuts; but also medicinal
plants, seeds, herbs, sprouts, mushrooms, algae, flowers, seaweeds an d
also non -food crops like grass and ornamental trees and plants. It also
deals with plant conservation, landscape restoration, landscape and garden
design, construction, and maintenance, and arboriculture.
Horticulturists apply their knowledge, skills, an d technologies to grow
intensively produced plants for human food and non -food uses and for
personal or social needs. Their work involves plant propagation and
cultivation with the aim of improving not only plant growth; but also
yields, quality, its nutri tional value, and resistance to insects, pests,
diseases, and environmental stresses.
Branches of Horticulture
There are four branches of Horticulture, which are as follows:
A. Olericulture (Vegetable culture): This branch deals with the
study of vegetable crops.
B. Pomology (Fruit Culture): This branch of Horticulture deals with
study of different fruit crops..
C. Floriculture and Ornamental Gardening: This branch of
Horticulture covers flower crops and ornamental plants. It also
includes gardening, landscaping and beautification of surroundings.
D. Post-Harvest Technology and preservation: This branch deals
with post-harvest management of fruits, vegetables, flowers and its
storage along with marketing and preservation and processing.
Importance and scope of Horticult ure:
1. Horticultural crops give more returns per unit area than the field crops.
2. Horticulture crops like fruits and vegetables are important as their
nutritional value is high with high amount of minerals and vitamins. munotes.in

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5 3. Horticulture crop beautifies the surrou ndings.
4. Horticulture crops are suitable for small and marginal farmers.
5. Variety of crops is available in the Horticulture section with wide
range of uses.
6. Horticultural plants reduce pollution, conserve soil and water and
improve socio -economic status of the farmer.
Factors affecting the scope of Horticultural crops in India are as
follows:
1. The variations in the agro climatic conditions in India, allow
growing different Horticultural crops in different regions.
2. Increasing irrigation facilities provide more scope for growing
Horticultural crops.
3. Available technical information regarding production of Horticultural
crop provides congenial condition to grow these crops.
4. Increase in communication and transport facilities provides greater
markets to Horticultural crops.
5. There is good scope for export of fresh and processed products.
6. There is great demand for Horticultural commodities in local
markets.
7. Facilities provided by the government help farmers to shift from their
traditional crops to Horticultural crops.
8. Development of financial institutions, co-operatives in rural areas
help to increase returns from these crops.
2) Plant Tissue Culture
Plant tissue culture is a technique used to maintain or grow plant cells,
tissues or organs under sterile conditions on a nut rient culture medium of
known composition. Plant tissue culture also can be defined as “The
culture of all types of plant cells, tissues and organs under aseptic
conditions.” Different techniques in plant tissue culture may offer some
advantages over tradi tional methods of propagation. They are as follows - munotes.in

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1. To produce exact copies of plants producing particularly good flowers,
fruits, or have some specific desirable traits.
2. To quickly produ ce mature plants.
3. To produce multiples of plants in the absence of seeds or use necessary
pollinators to produce seeds.
4. To regenerate whole plant from plant cells that have been genetically
modified.
5. The production of plants in sterile containers that allo ws them to be
moved with very much reduced chances of transmitting diseases,
pests, and pathogens.
6. To produce plants from seeds those having very low chances of
germinating and growing.
7. To heal particular plants of viral and other infections and quickly
multiply these plants as ’cleaned stock’ for agriculture and
horticulture.
Plant tissue culture is widely used to produce clones of a plant in a method
known as Micro -propagation. Over the last 20 years, the Ministry of
Science and Technology has supported 1 50 projects for research and
development tissue culture. Through the favorable policies from the
Ministries of Science and Technology, Commerce, Industries and
Agriculture Government of India has encouraged entrepreneurs and
technocrats to set up lots of commercial units. To encourage the tissue
culture industry, various central and state government departments have
framed several schemes and have announced incentives. Tissue culture
technique is developing day -by-day. So once again there is a chance of
green revolution on large scale in the country.
3) Biotechnology
Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop
useful products, or "any technological application that uses biological munotes.in

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7 systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make , modify or
process them for specific use". Biotechnology is one of the very highly
productive applications of biology where organisms have been modified in
order to gain financial benefits.
The main streams that biotechnology deals are cell and tissue culture,
genetic engineering, microbiology, embryology, molecular biology, and
many other. The cultivation of food plants, producing high-yielding crops,
antibiotics, enzymes, and many more other products are also involved in
biotechnology. In biotechnology, the organisms are not always modified,
but its natural process is enhanced to get the optimum product.
Biotechnology is defined as “any technological application, using
biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or
modify product s or processes for specific use.” Modern biotechnology
uses new techniques that provide much more understanding and control
over, living processes. Today, it has varied applications, predominantly in
the areas of health care, agriculture, environment and industrial processes.
Agriculture
Genetically modified crops or biotic plants are plants used in agriculture,
the DNA of which has been modified with genetic engineering techniques.
In most of the cases it aimed to introduce a new trait to the plant that does
not occur naturally in the species.
Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases,
stressful environmental conditions, resistance to chemical treatments,
reduction of spoilage, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop.
Geneti cally Modified (GM) crops are foods produced from organisms
that have specific changes introduced into their DNA with the
methods of genetic engineering. These techniques have allowed the
introduction of new crop traits as well as greater control over a food’s
genetic structure.
The food on the market derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to
human health than conventional food. If not used in excess GM crops
also provide a number of ecological benefits, However, opponents
have objected to GM crops on several grounds, including environmental
concerns, whether food produced is safe, whether GM crops are needed to
address the world’s food needs.
4) Pisciculture or Fish Farming
The breeding, rearing, and transplantation of fish by artificial means is
called Pisciculture, in other words, fish farming.Fishing in India is a
major industry in its coastal states, employing over
14.5 million people. Fish production in India has increased more than
tenfold since its independence in 1947.
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8 The marine fish harvested in India consist of about 65 commercially
important species/groups. Pelagic and mid-water species contributed about
52% of the total marine fish in 2004.India is a major supplier of fish in the
world. Shrimps are one of the major varieties export ed. The giant tiger
prawn is the dominant species chosen for aquaculture, followed by the
Indian white prawn. Farmed shrimp accounted for about 60% of shrimp
exported from the country.
Marine and freshwater catch fishing combined with aquaculture fish
farm ing is a rapidly growing industry in India. In 2008 India was the sixth
largest producer of marine and freshwater capture fisheries, and the
second largest aquaculture farmed fish producer in the world. As of
2010, fish harvest distribution was difficult w ithin India because of poor
rural road infrastructure, lack of cold storage and absence of organized
retail in most parts of the country.
The country’s rich marine and inland water resources with fisheries and
aquaculture offer an attractive and promising sector for employment,
livelihood, and food security. Fish products from India create export -
driven employment opportunities in India and provide greater food
security for the world. The Indian fisheries and aquaculture has witnessed
great improvements in craft, tackle and farming methods during the past
decades. Creation of required harvest and post-harvest infrastructure has
received due attention of the central and state governments. The culture
systems adopted in the country vary greatly depending on th e input
available in any particular region as well as on the investment capabilities
of the farmer.
The different culture systems in Indian practice include -
a. Intensive pond culture with supplementary feeding and aeration
b. Composite carp culture
c. Weed -based carp poly-culture
d. Integrated fish farming with poultry, pigs, ducks, horticulture, etc.
e. Pen culture
f. Cage culture
g. Running -water fish culture
In India, two types of aquaculture are practiced - freshwater aquaculture
and brackish water aquaculture. Freshwater aquaculture involves the
breeding of freshwater fish like carp, katla, rohu, mrugal, freshwater
prawn, freshwater pearl culture and ornamental fish farming. Brackish
water aquaculture involves breeding of fish that habitat the sea like sea
bass, grey mulle t, tiger shrimp and mud crabs. The water in which fish are
farmed is important for the development of a good harvest. The farmer
should monitor the level of water hardness, acidity / alkalinity,
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9 also ensure that there is enough dissolved oxygen in the water for the
survival of aquatic life.
Fish as food —both from fish farms and catch fisheries — offers India’s
one of the easiest and fastest way to address malnutrition and
food security.
5) Bee-Keeping and Sericulture -
Beekeeping or apiculture is the maintenance of honey bee colonies,
commonly in beehives, by humans. A location where bees are kept is
called an apiary or "bee yard". A beekeeper or apiarist keeps the bees in
order to collect their honey and other products like beeswax, propolis,
pollen, royal jelly that the hive produces to pollinate crops, or to produce
bees for sale to other beekeepers. Related to natural beekeeping, urban
beekeeping is an attempt to revert to a less industrialized way of obtaining
honey by utilizing small -scale colonies that pollinate urban gardens. A
growing trend of urban beekeeping is seen by many and have found that
city bees are more healthier than the rural bees as there are very less
pesticides and greater biodiversity. An environment of year-round,
uninterrupted bloom creates an ideal environment for colony reproduction.
Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production
of silk. Although there are several comme rcial species of silkworms,
Bombix mori is the most widely used and intensively studied silkworm.
Sericulture has become an important cottage industry in India. Today,
China and India are the two main producers, with more than 60% of the
world’s annual production. Sericulture is both an art and science of raising
silkworms for silk production. Silk reigns supreme as an object of desire
and fabric of high fashion. Being a rural based industry, the production
and weaving of silk is largely carried out by rela tively poor sections of the
society and this aspect of sericulture has made it popular and sustainable in
India.
Both these occupations create employment on large scale giving rise in
income and also gain foreign currency.
6) Forestry -
Forestry in India is a significant rural industry and a major environmental
resource. India is one of the ten most forest -rich countries of the world.
India produces a range of processed forest (wood and non - wood) products
ranging from wood panel products and wood pulp to make bronze,
rattazikistan ware and pern resin, furniture and craft industry India is
one of the world’s largest consumer of fuel - wood. India’s dependence on
fuel-wood and forestry products as a primary energy source is not only
environmentally unsustainable, it is a primary cause of India’s near-
permanent haze and air pollution. Forestry in India is more than just about
wood and fuel. India has a thriving non-wood forest products industry,
which produces latex, gums, resins, essential oils, flavors, fragrances and
aroma, chemicals, incense sticks, handicrafts, thatching materials and
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10 The government nationalized the forests in 1953. Most of the forest wood
industry and non -wood forest products industry were nationalized. The
Conservation Act of 1980 stipulated that the central permission is required
to practice sustainable agro-forestry in a forest area. These nationalization
wave and laws intended to limit deforestation, conserve biodiversity, and
to save wildlife.
Economics
Significant forest products of India include paper, plywood, saw wood,
timber, poles, pulp and matchwood, fuel wood, Sal Seeds, Tendu leaves,
gums and resins, cane and rattan, bamboo, grass and fodder, drugs, spices
and condiments, herbs, cosmetics, tannins. Since the early 1970s, as the
people realized that deforestation threatened not only the ecology but
their livelihood in a variety of ways, they have become more interested and
involved in conservation. Chipko movement in India started in the 1970s
around a dispute on how and who should have a right to harvest forest
resources. Indian forests are more than trees and an economic resource.
They are home to some of earth’s unique flora and fauna. Social forestry
program was started in 1976 so as to gain peoples participation in
planting trees. In this program trees planted are useful to the community.
Motive of ecological balance with economic development is achieved
through this program. Other benefits obtained from this program are
fodder for animals, wood for fuel and for c onstruction purpose. Even
barren lands are covered under social forestry program so as to gain
benefits.
7) Animal Husbandry :
The branch of agriculture that deals with the feeding caring and breeding
of domestic animal is called Animal Husbandry. Husbanding m eans to use
a resource carefully and without wasting. Animal husbandry is the
management and care of farm animals by humans, where in genetic
qualities and behavior, is further developed and are considered to be
advantageous to humans.
Animal husbandry plays an important role in the rural economy. A large
number of farmers in India depend for their livelihood on animal
husbandry. Mainly bullocks are the major source of power for the farmers
and dryers in addition to supplying

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11 animals, milk, meat, eggs, wool and hides. Domestic animals or live stock
are also helpful in agriculture. Animal farming or animal husbandry
requires planning for domestic animals shelter, breeding, health, disease
control and proper economic utilizati on. Livestock are domesticated
animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce food, fiber and labor.
Livestock being useful animals are reared for commercial purpose and
financial gains. In recent years, livestock are also raised for the promotion
of survival of rare breeds.
Goat is known as ‘Poor man’s cow’ in India. It is a very important
component in dry land farming system. Marginal lands not suitable for
other types of animals like cow or buffalo, goat is the best alternative.
With very low inves tments goat rearing can be made in to a profitable
venture for small and marginal farmers. Goats are reared for milk and
meat. Goat is a multi -functional animal and plays a significant role in the
economy and nutrition of landless, small and marginal farme rs in the
country. Goats can efficiently survive on available shrubs and trees in
adverse harsh environment in low fertility lands where no other crop can
be grown. Around the world, more people drink goat milk than cow milk.
An allergy to goat milk is ver y rare.
Sheep rearing is the raising and breeding of domestic sheep. It is a
branch of animal husbandry. Sheep are raised principally for their meat,
milk, and wool. Sheep’s that have grown old or are unproductive are sold
out to gain more profit. Every ye ar 20-30% sheep’s that are not useful are
sold out and get an additional income. Sheep shearing is also considered a
sport with competitions held around the world. Pig farming is a branch of
animal husbandry dealing with the raising and breeding of domesti c pigs.
Pigs are raised principally as food (e.g. pork, bacon, gammon) and
sometimes for their skin.
Pig farm activities depend on the husbandry style of the farmer. It ranges
from very little intervention (as when pigs are allowed to roam villages or
town s and dispose of garbage) to intensive systems where the pigs are
kept in a building for the majority of their lives. Each pig farm will tend to
adapt to the local conditions and food supplies and fit their practices to
their specific situation. Pigs are v alued as a source of meat, fat and for
their ability to turn inedible food into meat, and often fed household food
waste if kept on a homestead. Pigs have been farmed to dispose of
municipal garbage on a large scale. The majority of pigs are used for
human food and also for their skin, fat and other materials for use as
clothing, ingredients for processed foods, cosmetics and other and medical
use. Dairy Occupation .
A dairy is a business enterprise established for the harvesting or
processing of animal milk or both mostly from cows or goats, but also
from buffaloes, sheep, horse or camels for human consumption. Dairy
activities have traditionally been an integral part of India’s rural economy.
India is the world’s largest producer of dairy products and also the largest
consumer. Almost its entire produce is consumed in the domestic market.
Even though India is the world’s largest producer of dairy products, the munotes.in

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12 dairy sector is not yet fully developed or modernized. Indian breeds of
cows are considered inferio r in terms of productivity. Moreover, the sector
deals with many other problems like shortage of fodder, its poor quality,
dismal transportation facilities and a poorly developed cold chain
infrastructure. As a result, the supply side lacks in elasticity that is
expected of it.
Fortunately, the government and other stakeholders have shown concern
regarding this situation and efforts to increase milk production have been
intensified. Transformations in the sector are being induced by factors like
newfound in terest on the part of the organized sector, new markets, easy
credit facilities, dairy friendly policies by the government, supply of
fodder, production of green fodder on large scale, disease control, training
to the dairy farmer, training in management skills, production of hybrid
variety of animals giving more yield, etc. Dairy farming is now evolving
from an agrarian way of life to a professionally managed the Indian dairy
industry. With these positive signals, there is hope for another white
revolution .
8) Dairy Market
If proper market is provided to the dairy occupation economic
development of the rural areas will be very fast. As milk is a perishable
item it has to reach the desired destination in time. Even the processed
milk products should reach the m arket in time and also to the consumers.
For this milk centers on co -operative basis and also private milk
processing centers are functioning.
9) Poultry Farming
Poultry farming means raising domesticated birds like chickens, ducks,
turkeys and geese for the purpose of farming, meat or eggs for food.
Poultry also includes other birds that are killed for their meat, such as the
young of pigeons, but does not include similar wild birds hunted for sport
or food and known as game.
The domestication of poultry took place several thousand years ago and
keeping the birds permanently in captivity. Soon it was realized how
useful it was having a captive -bred source of food. Although some birds
are still kept in small flocks in extensive systems, most birds available in
the market today are reared in intensive commercial enterprises. Poultry is
the second most widely eaten type of meat globally and, along with eggs,
provides nutritionally beneficial food containing high-quality protein
accompanied by a low proportion of f at. This has become a boon to the
rural unemployed people especially young generation. Poultry has helped
to minimize unemployment to an extent.
10) Processing Industry
Processing industries are very important in India as majority people in
rural areas depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Processing industries
play an important role in minimizing unemployment and disguised munotes.in

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13 employment in the country along with maintaining geographical balance.
Different processing industries are seen in different areas ha ving different
climatic conditions in the country. For examples processing industries are
based on the products like sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, rubber, tea, coffee,
cocoa, jute, different types of fruits, coconut, oil -seeds.
Forest based industries, seric ulture, industries based on spices, woolen
industries; dairy are some of the industries providing employment
opportunities to the rural people. Continuity in the production and stable
price, have helped to eliminate poverty and unemployment to large extent .
This also has helped to keep regional balance along with reduction of
migration from rural to urban areas and in turn raise in the income of rural
people. Transport and communication facilities have helped in rural
savings. Primary facilities have increa sed to a great extent.
Still there is lot of scope to establish industries processing on raw the
available raw material. This in turn will raise the standard of living of rural
people and overall change can be brought out.
11) Soil and Water management
In toda y’s situation it is very important to practice scientific farming. New
technique and technology has to be used to its fullest. Soil and water play
an important role in the increase of agricultural production. For this it is
very essential to know the soil type and its requirement. For this the soil
has to test in the lab. A record of the soil ingredients, its PH value, the
chemicals present, its salinity, presence of nitrogen, sulphur, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, sodium, lead, boron, copper, iron etc. is kept. Even
the fertility of soil, capacity to hold water, wetness in the soil, density of
the soil particles etc. is seen.
Water also like soil management keeps record of the quality of water.
Water salinity, presence of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potass ium,
chloride, sulphate, bi -carbonate, carbonate, etc. are the criteria to decide
the quality of water.
Soil and water management helps the farmer to understand to know their
quality, so that he can take measures to improve them, add the necessary
ingredie nts to increase the fertility of soil and the quality of water. In
return he can increase the production on a large scale. Soil and water
management will help him decrease the production cost, and also save 30
– 40% water.
12) Cropping pattern and environment
Water supply, type of soil, climate and other factor are taken into
consideration while doing the agricultural operations. The different
patterns of sowing the crops are kharif crops, seasonal crops, rabbi
seasonal crops, summer crops that are seasonal and crops taken during the
whole year. Farmers get expected production only when the climate and
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14 13) Agricultural Scientist and science
Agricultural scientist is needed to do research in agriculture to invent new
technique and technologi es for agricultural operations that would be
beneficial to the farmers. Research should also be done in the field of
animal husbandry, dairy, poultry, pisciculture, tissue culture, horticulture,
nursery etc.
Indian agricultural research conference, Indian agricultural research
institutes are functioning and doing research in the fields of rice, potato,
tea, dairy, sugarcane, cotton, forest, animal husbandry, vegetables and lac
research. Indian government has established centers and sub centers to do
researc h in the fields of sugarcane, cotton, jute, oil -seeds, coconut etc. It is
the result of the research that India has developed in various fields of
agriculture. So we can say there is great scope for applied agriculture in
our country.
14) Agricultural Economic s
Application of principles of general economic to agriculture is called as
agricultural economics.
Importance of agriculture in the National Economy:
India is an agricultural country, and 70% population depends on agriculture
and is the main source of inc ome. The contribution of agriculture in the
national income in India is more, so we say that agriculture is the
backbone of Indian Economy.
1) Share of agriculture in the national income:
Agriculture contributes a major share in the national income of India. But
it is seen that the share of agriculture in national income has been
decreasing. This steady and gradual decline is due to the rapid
Industrialization in the country.
2) Agriculture as a source of livelihood:
About 65 to 70 per cent Indian population depe nds on agriculture as a
source of livelihood.
3) Importance of agriculture in industrial development:
Many industries depend on the available agricultural raw material e.g.
sugar industries, Cotton Industries, Paper Industries, tobacco industries,
Chilies, tu rmeric etc. Many industries supply the inputs to the agricultural
industry e.g. fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, implements and
machineries like tractors etc.
4) Role of agriculture in the field of International trade:
Many agricultural products like te a, sugar, oilseeds, tobacco, spices
contribute the major share in export. We also are exporting basmati rice,
some fruits, vegetables and flowers to the many other countries. Many munotes.in

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15 agriculture products like food-grains, fruits are transported by roadways
and railways. Thus, providing employment to many people in this field.
We can say that the prosperity of the country depends on the prosperity of
agriculture.
1.5 SUMMARY
Sustainable agriculture for food security, sustainable technology including
soil conservati on, natural resource management and biodiversity
protection are essential for rural development.
Agriculture is the source of livelihood in India. Commercialization of
agriculture will help in eliminating many social and economic problems in
the society. I t is essential to understand the different sections included in
applied agriculture.
Applied science is a discipline of science that applies existing scientific
knowledge to develop more practical applications, like technology.
Applied science applies science to real world practice. In short basic
science is a method of investigating nature through experimental method
trying to satisfy the need to know and applied science is to use pure science
for practical human purpose. All the above factors are included in scope of
applied agriculture. If applied agriculture is used as an occupation in the
true sense rural development can be achieved to its maximum.
1.6 QUESTIONS FOR SELF -STUDY
1) Explain the concept of applied agriculture.
OR
What is applied agriculture?
2) Expl ain in detail the scope of applied agriculture.
3) Give the importance of agriculture in national economy.
4) Write short notes on:
a) Applied agriculture
b) Horticulture
c) Plant tissue culture
d) Pisciculture
e) Beekeeping or sericulture
f) Animal Husbandry
g) Dairy occupation
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16 2
AGRO -ECOLOGY -I
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Agro -Ecology -meaning
2.3 Agro -Ecology -definition
2.4 Principles of Agro -ecology
2.5 Scope of Agro -Ecology
2.6 Importance of Agro -Ecology
2.7 Summery
2.8 Questions for self-study.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To understand meaning of Agro -Ecology.
2) To know the definition of Agro -Ecology .
3) To understand the relation between ecology and farming methods.
4) To know the Principles of Agro -ecology
5) To know the importance of agro -ecology .
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Before starting the topic agro -ecology, we wi ll try to understand the world
wide situation, regarding ecology and activities of human being and its
effects on man and its environment. Humans have stated various activities
on earth like industrialization, urbanization, space activities and so called
modern agricultural practices. Today’s agriculture practices are making
great adverse effect on the ecology of many species. Humans on earth are
also suffering and facing lots of challenges, even after great achievements
of science and technology. Hunger, m alnutrition, climate change,
biodiversity loss and environmental degradation have led to increased
focus on the world’s food system in recent years. All these issues are
interconnected with environment and ecology.
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17

agroecologyen
In this context, agro -ecology is the topic, on which human being need to
focus keenly to avoid future problems in front of coming generations. The
term agro ecology began to be used in scientific publications in Europe
and the US in the late 1920s, when scientists started to comb ine principles
from ecology and agronomy in an attempt to better understand different
agricultural systems. 1 Perceiving the field and the farm as ‘domesticated
ecosystems’, scientists focused on the interactions between plants,
animals, soils and climate t o develop knowledge on, among other things,
nutrient cycling, biodiversity and energy efficiency in crop production.
The science of agro ecology initially focused on the environmental
impacts of different productive systems at the scale of the field or the
farm, and in certain contexts, for example Germany and parts of Europe,
this is predominantly still the case. 1,3 In other parts of the world however,
particularly the Americas, academic understandings of agro ecology have
broadened to incorporate ‘the eco logy of the entire food system’. Many
scholars working on the topic now reject purely scientific or technical
understandings of agro ecology, and instead promote a trans disciplinary,
participatory, action -oriented approach combining insights from natural,
environmental and social sciences.
2.2 AGRO -ECOLOGY MEANING :
Agro -ecology is a science that draws on social, biological and agricultural
sciences and integrates these with traditional knowledge and farmer’s
knowledge. This gives rise to basic principles t hat materialized in specific
technological forms. At the heart of the agro ecology strategy is the idea
that an Agro ecosystem should mimic. The functioning of local
ecosystems, thus exhibiting tight nutrient cycling, complex structure and
enhanced biodive rsity. The expectation is that such agricultural mimics,
like their natural models, can be productive, pest resistant and
conservative of nutrients. Come. Learning from nature allows
development of agro ecosystems with a minimum dependency on
agrochemical inputs and energy, emphasizing interactions and synergism,
among the many biological components, of agro systems to enhance
recycling and biological control, Thus improving overall ecological
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18 Agro -ecology, which use s, ecological concepts and principles, for the
design and management, of sustainable agriculture systems, has
consistently proven, capable of sustainably increasing. The total output of
diversified firms and has far greater potential for fighting hunger,
particularly during economically and climatically uncertain times, without
depleting environment.
In other words, Agro ecology is a technique of sustainable farming that
focuses on utilizing natural resources comprehensively without letting
them be susceptible to damage. With this type of farming at hand, farmers
can instantly develop better solutions to improve their environmental and
economic pressure s.
Agro ecology seeks to optimize the relationships and interactions between
animals, plants, people, and the environment while addressing social
issues for a fair and sustainable food system.

https://wl e.cgiar.org
2.3. AGRO -ECOLOGY DEFINITION
“Agro ecology” is an interdisciplinary combination of agronomy,
agriculture, scientific ecology, economics, and social sciences . It
integrates practices such as organic farming, regenerative agriculture, and
some asp ects of permaculture and therefore contributes to sustainable
development.”
“Agro -ecology can also be defined as the study of applying the most
efficient ecological processes to agricultural production systems. It is
similar to sustainable farming, a scien tific framework integrating human
socio -economic systems and ecological concepts into agricultural
operations.”
2.4. PRINCIPLES OF AGRO -ECOLOGY
In aiding the transformation of food and agricultural systems to
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19 principles of agro -ecology; were developed. diversity, synergy, co -
creation, and sharing of knowledge, efficiency, resilience, recycling,
human and social values, responsible governance, culture and food
traditions, and circular and solidarity economy.
1. Diversity: Diversification is important in transitioning agro -ecological
processes to ensure food nutrition and security while protecting,
conserving, and enhancing natural resources. Agro -ecological systems are
very diverse, and the y optimize the diversity of genetic resources and
species in different ways.
Agro -ecological diversification strengthens socio -economic and ecological
resilience, like creating new market opportunities. Having a diversified
source of income from new and di fferentiated markets helps stabilize
household incomes.
2. Synergy : Developing synergies help enhance key functions across food
systems and support the production and multiple ecosystem services.
Agro -ecology focuses on designing diversified systems that c ombine
perennial and annual crops, aquatic and livestock animals, soils, trees,
water, and other components that enhance synergies within an increasingly
changing climate.
By optimizing biological synergies, agro -ecological practices enhance
ecological fun ctions, resulting in greater resource -use efficiency and
resilience. By maximizing synergies, food crops significantly improve
yields, weed control, dietary diversity, soil structure, fertility, pest control,
and biodiversity habitat.
3. Co-Creation and Shari ng of Knowledge : There is a better response
to local challenges when agricultural innovations are co -created through
participatory processes.
Agro -ecology depends on context -specific knowledge; it does not offer
fixed prescriptions. Instead, agro -ecologica l practices are tailored to fit the
social, environmental, cultural, political, and economic context.
Through co -creation, agro -ecology blends indigenous and traditional
knowledge with traders’ and producers’ knowledge and global scientific
knowledge.
Enco uraging participatory processes and institutional innovations that
develop mutual trust enables sharing knowledge and co -creation that
contributes to relevant agro -ecological processes.
4. Efficiency: By implementing agro -ecological practices, we can
achieve more while utilizing fewer external resources. Agro -ecological
systems improve the use of natural resources, especially those in
abundance, and are free, like atmospheric carbon, solar radiation, and
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20 Producers can reduce costs, use fewer externa l resources, and reduce the
negative environmental impacts of external resources by enhancing
biological processes and recycling nutrients, biomass, and water.
Producers can increase autonomy and resilience to natural and economic
shocks by reducing depend ency on external resources.
5. Resilience: Agro -ecology enhances the resilience of communities,
people, and ecosystems to sustain food and agricultural systems. Having a
diversified agro -ecological system is more resilient because there is a
greater capacity to resist pests and disease attacks and recover from
unfortunate disturbances, like extreme weather events.
By maintaining a functional balance, agro -ecological systems can resist
pests and disease attacks and promote a necessary community of
interacting o rganisms to self -regulate pest outbreaks.
Agro -ecological practices also enhance socio -economic resilience.
Producers can reduce vulnerability through integration and diversification.
6. Recycling: In the natural ecosystem , there is no such thing as waste;
it is a human concept and the unwanted residue left behind after human
activities. Recycling can be done on both landscapes and farm -scale
settings through diversifi cation and the building of synergies between
different components and activities.
Agro -ecology imitates the natural ecosystems in supporting biological
processes that propel biomass, water, and nutrients recycling within
production systems, minimizing poll ution and waste while increasing
efficiency .

vikral.com
7. Human and Social Values : Agro -ecology emphasizes human and
social values, including equity, dignity, justice, and inclusion, which
contribute to improved livelihoods.
By encouraging autonomy and ada ptive processes to manage agro -
ecosystems, agro -ecological processes empower people and communities
to overcome hunger, poverty, and malnutrition while promoting human
rights.
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21 8. Responsible Governance: Effective governance mechanisms at
different scales, fr om local to national to global, are important in
implementing sustainable food and agricultural practices.
An accountable, transparent, and inclusive governance system is essential
in creating an enabling environment that supports producers to transition
their systems to agro -ecological practices and concepts.
9. Culture and Food Traditions: Agro -ecology contributes to food
nutrition and security while maintaining the health of the ecosystem when
healthy, diversified, and culturally appropriate diets are suppo rted.
Some major components of human heritage are food and agriculture, so
they play a vital role in shaping human behavior. Agro -ecology rebalances
modern and traditional food habits and brings them together to promote
healthy food production and consumpt ion.
10. Circular and Solidarity Economy: A circular and solidarity
economy assists in living within the planetary boundaries while ensuring a
social foundation for sustainable and inclusive development.
Agro -ecology reconnects producers and consumers through a circular and
solidarity economy, prioritizing local markets and supporting local
economic developments.
2.5. SCOPE OF AGRO -ECOLOGY:
Generally, agro -ecology can be classified into five different levels. This
was created by Gleissman, who used his brilliant m ind to transform food
systems into diverse groups.
While the first three are based on local practices, the remaining involves
the food system. All of these levels are significantly helpful that farmers
can use to transform their farms into conventional agr o-ecosystems.
Improves Existing Practice Efficiency
This is the level that focuses on the improvement of current practice
efficiency. Every industrial i nput like fertilizers is tried to make efficient
so that its harmful effects can be reduced considerably.
Over the years, many researchers have stud ied this approach, and it works
like magic. That is what has been able to create several innovations in this
field.
Improvement in seed, planting design, and intelligent application of farm
chemicals are some of the changes that have occurred under this le vel. So,
it can be advantageous.


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22 Change Inputs and Practices
At this level,
Agro -ecology focuses on creating renewable, eco -friendly, and naturally
sourced practices for better efficiency and benefits. So, it typically
embraces the idea of Organic farmi ng. This concept is similar to keeping a
check on our daily diet to foster well -being. So, instead of using synthetic
nitrogen fertilizers, we could replace them with nitrogen -fixing cover
crops. Incorporating natural pest control and organic compost could also
help foster soil fertility more dramatically in the long run.
Restructuring the Agro -ecosystem
Level 3 incorporates extensive research on d iverse factors relating to the
entire system of conversions. It also helps understand the primary yield -
limiting aspects to be noticed.
To help bring the suitable design alterations into action, continued
research is conducted in agro -ecological design, fu nction, and structure.
Reintroduction of farm biodiversity could be a great example of level 3
implementation. Agroforestry, multiple cropping, and permaculture could
also be significant actions to implement here.
Foster Improved Relationships
At this point, organic farming culture expands, and people are encouraged
to consume home -grown foods. The purchasing and eating of in -grown
and processed foods locally is a good practice at this level .
Food citizenship occurs by performing these significant steps that become
the trailblazer to push agro -ecological changes in the food system.
By focusing on this level of agro -ecology, a lot of things can change for
the better. Also, the relationship between local growers and consumers can
get better.
Build a Better Tomorrow
At this level, it becomes signific ant for you to focus on curating a new
global food system that goes beyond the usual measures. So, your focus
should be on creating sustainability that proceeds towards the path of
restoration.
This way, you can help make the most of your natural resources and
protect the Earth. So, creating a sustainable food system no longer feels
like a tedious task.
This is a deeper level of agro -ecology that can tra nsform the entire
food system. It encourages the idea of embracing sustainability and
dumping unnecessary food wastage.
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23 Introduction: Agro -ecology is very different from other approaches to
achieving sustainable development be cause it is based on territorial and
bottom -up processes. It combines science with traditional, practical, and
local producers’ knowledge.
Instead of improving unsustainable agricultural practices, agro -ecology
seeks to transform agricultural systems by ad dressing the root cause of the
problems in an integrated way and providing effective and long -term
solutions as under:
i) Improves the Soil Health : There are different agro -ecological methods
to improve agricultural practices. One of which is Integrated Soil
Fertility Management, which relies on the combination of mineral and
organic fertilizer to achieve optimum soil health. Agro -ecology improves
the health of t he soil so natural functions can be performed easily. To
grow

https://grocycle.com
healthy crops, the soil must be healthy, and with agro -ecology, the soil is
improved, making the growth and production of crops effici ent.
ii) Economic Development : Regardless of how developed a country is, if
the agricultural industry is not advancing, every part of the country will be
affected.
Implementing agro -ecology practices boosts the economy of every country
because there will b e a massive reduction in the application of outputs like
pesticides and chemicals. This will give rise to the development of other
industries.
iii) Improves Quality of Life : Agro -ecology recognizes and accepts the
multi -functional aspects of agriculture, l ocal, and indigenous practices and
knowledge.
So, with agro -ecology, farming is not only improved, but there are also
benefits to the social, cultural, and environmental aspects of life.
Producing food by implementing agro -ecology will result in enough foo d
to feed the ever -increasing population of man. 2.5. IMPORTANCE OF AGRO-ECOLOGY
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24 iv) Increases Efficiency : Agro -ecology involves using efficient processes
that reduce the inputs of industrial products and their adverse effects .
The methods used in agro -ecology are the effective use of water, better
seeds, planting density, design, and efficient use of farm chemicals. These
processes reduce the negative effects of agriculture on the en vironment
and improve efficiency.
v) Improved Agricultural Operations:
Agro -ecology seeks to change the input -intensive and environmentally
harmful practices and services to renewable, eco -friendly, and naturally
sourced practices. Instead of relying on t he old, traditional agricultural
processes that have various negative impacts on the environment, food
grown, and people, there are better practices that are safe.
2.6. SUMMERY
Today’s agriculture practices are making great adverse effect on the
ecology of man y species. Humans on earth are also suffering and facing
lots of challenges, even after great achievements of science and
technology. Hunger, malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss and
environmental degradation have led to increased focus on the w orld’s food
system in recent years. All these issues are interconnected with
environment and ecology.
Most of the social, economic, and environmental crisis we face in the
world today is a result of the way we organize our food systems. And by
implementing agro-ecological processes, we have a way to respond to
instability and meet a significant increase in our food needs without
causing any economic, environmental, or social damage.
2.7. EXERCISE
Q.1. Explain the meaning of Agro -Ecology.
Q.2. Write the definitio n of Agro -Ecology and state its importance in human
health.
Q. 3. State the relation between ecology and farming methods.
Q.4. Elaborate the various Principles of Agro -ecology.
Q.5. Write the importance of agro -ecology .


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25 3
AGRO -ECOLOGY -II
Unit Structure :
3.1. Objectives
3.2. Introduction
3.3. Zero Budget Farming
3.4. Bio-farming
3.5. Mix cropping pattern
3.6. Summary
3.7. Exercise.
3.1. OBJECTIVES
i). To understand meaning of Zero budget faming .
ii) To know the definition of Zero Budget Farming.
iii) To understand the relation between ecology and bio farming.
iv) To know the importance of mix cropping pattern in farming .
3.2. INTRODUCTION
Agroecology is an integrated approach that applies ecological and social
concepts to the design and management of food a nd agricultural systems.
Agroecology has some common principles and basic approaches that rely
on nature’s wonderful and complex processes and products. This is
regardless of what a particular school of agroecology —organic farming,
bio-dynamic farming, per maculture, natural farming, Subhash Palekar
Natural Farming (SPNF) , Zero Budget Farming (ZB F), NatuEco
farming , adivasi traditional farmin g—might propagate in terms of
practices and techniques to be adopted at the farm level.
However, there has been a raging debate around ZB F, starting from the
time that the Andhra Pradesh government announced that it would use this
approach to scale up agroecological agriculture in the state.
This debate became louder when the Government of India announced its
support to ZB F through the Finance Minister’s Union Budget speech and
recently, in the UNCCD Conference when the Prime Minister himself
made a mention of ZB F. Plus, certain sweeping, preposterous, and invalid
statements made by Subhash Palekar on some matters di d not help; now it
is agroecology proponents and organic farming activists that are attacking
ZBF, not just the pesticides/fertilisers industry or conventional -intensive -
agriculture -supporters like National Academy of Agricultural Sciences
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26 I make a clear distinction between SPNF and ZBF as is being scaled up in
Andhra Pradesh, in explaining wh y I support the government’s move to
promote ZB F. I would also like readers to know that I am basing my
statements on recent visits to at least ten villages of the Andhra Pradesh
ZBF programme in Anantapur, Cuddapah, and Vizianagaram districts, and
detaile d interactions with around 90 farmers and programme functionaries
in all.
3.3. ZERO BUDGET FARMING
The concept was promoted by an agriculturist, Padmashri. Subhash
Palekar, in the mid -1990s as an alternative to the Green Revolution’s
methods driven by chemica l fertilizers and pesticides and intensive
irrigation. Recently Government of India has taken cognisance of the
method and principles behind the agricultural practices mainly to deal with
the issues of suicides of farmers in the country, and continuous dem and of
support price for the agricultural goods.
Agriculturalist Mr. Subhaash Palekar focuses on cost of production of the
agricultural produce, which is day by day continuously increasing because
of capitalist approach. Today such approach is not afforda ble to the small
and marginal farmers in the country.
Mr. Palekar”s some basic principles behind the practices are:
PRINCIPLES OF ZERO BUDGET FARMING:
i) No external inputs.
ii) Use of local varieties.
iii) Mixed cropping.
iv) Microbial Seed treatment.
v) Integration of trees into the farm..
vi) Microbial inoculants for soil health
vii) Crops covering method: Cover crops for biomass mulching and bio -
mass incorporation for creating a suitable micro -climate for
maximum beneficial microbial activity.
viii) Integration of trees: into the farm.
ix) Integration of livestock: Integration of livestock, especially of native
breed for cow dung and cow urine as essential inputs for several
practices.
x) Water conservation: Water conservation and moisture conservation.

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27 Four main Elements and Model of ZERO BUDGET FARMING :
1. BIJAMRITA -Seed Treatment using local cow -dung and cow urine
The seeds are treated with formulations prepared using cow dung and cow
urine from native cow species as they have highe r adaptability to our local
climatic conditions and easy to maintain by the small and marginal
farmers. While Bijamrita is used for seed treatment, extracts of Neem
leaves and pulp, tobacco and green chillies are used for insect and pest
management.
Benef its: The seeds sown in the field may be affected by fungus and other
seed born/soil born diseases. The seed treatment using “Bijamrita
“protects the seeds from diseases.

https://rainwaterrunoff.com
2. Jiwamrita/Jeevamrutha
Cow dung is a natural source used to revive the fertility and nutrient value
of soil. One gram of cow dung may have betw een 300 to 500 crore
beneficial micro -organisms. These micro -organisms assists in
decomposing the biomass present in the soil and convert it into
available/ready -to-use nutrients for crop.
Jiwamrita is prepared using Cow dung and cow urine. It is used as an
input for the plants. It is a fermented microbial culture obtained from cow
dung, urine, jaggery, pulse flour and uncontaminated soil. This fermented
microbial cu lture when applied to soil, adds nutrients to the soil besides
acting as a catalytic agent to promote the activity of microorganisms and
earthworms in the soil. About 500 litres of jeevamrutha should be sprayed
twice a month per hectare of land; after thre e years, the system is supposed
to become self -sustaining. One indigenous cow is sufficient for 30 acres of
land.
Benefits: This culture will be applied in soil instead of chemical
fertilizers. This culture stimulates microbial activity in the soil and
enhances nutrient availability for the plants, protects the crops against soil
pathogens and increases carbon content of the soil.
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28 3. Mulching
Mulching is the process of covering the top soil with crop wastes/organic
waste or with cover crops
Benefits: Mulching materials decomposes and produces humus which
conserves top soil, increases water retention capacity of the soil, decreases
evaporation loss, encourages soil fauna besides enriching soil nutrient
status and controlling weed growth.
4. Waaphasa (So il Aeration).
Good aeration is required in the soil for plant growth and development.
ZBNF concept opposes the use of vermi compost as it introduces the most
common composting worm the European Red Wiggler to Indian soil,
which absorbs toxic metals and po isons ground water and soil.
Benefits: Due to the application of Jiwamrita and mulching, the aeration
of the soil increases, thus improves humus content, water availability,
water holding capacity and soil structure which is most suitable for crop
growth especially during drought periods.
ZBF - Cropping Model
The model is based on raising poly crops i.e., growing short duration and
long duration crops (main crop) together so that the cost of raising the
main crops will be recovered from the income generat ed from the short
duration crops resulting in “zero” expenditure for the main crop. Hence
the term “Zero Budget Farming “is used for this farming model.
Why ZBF?
National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) data indicates that more than 70
% of the agricultural households spend more than they earn and more than
50 per cent of all farmers are in debt due to increased cost of farm inputs
like fertilizers and chemical pesticides.
In order to achieve the Central Government aim to double the farmer’s
income by 2022, the farm expenditure is to be brought down and natural
farming like ZBF has to be encouraged to reduce the dependence of the
farmers on external inputs like chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which
they cannot afford. Moreover, intercropping also increas es the farm
returns.
Zero budgets farming model brings down farm expenditure to a greater
extent and ends dependence on farm loans. It also reduces dependence on
purchased inputs as it encourages use of own seeds and locally available
natural fertilizers and farming is done in synchronization with nature.
Government Initiatives to support ZBF:
Government of India has been encouraging organic farming through
various schemes like Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) since
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29 In the revised guidelines of PKVY scheme during the year 2018, various
organic farming models like Natural Farming, Rishi Farming, Vedic
Farming, Cow Farming, Homa Farming, Zero Budget Natural Farming
(ZBF) etc. have been i ncluded and flexibility is given to state governments
to adopt any model of Organic Farming including ZBF depending on
farmer’s choice.
In June 2018, Andhra Pradesh Government rolled out a plan to become
India’s first state to practice 100 % natural farmi ng by 2024 by converting
state’s 60 lakh farmers to ZBF method.
To take this further, Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman also
announced a proposal of zero budget farming in her first Budget speech,
which she said is like "going back to basics". She said “we need to
replicate this innovative model to help the farmers in doubling the income
by 2022’.
Constraints:
 Agricultural scientist opined that multi location studies are needed to
scientifically validate the long term impact and viability of ZBF Model
before it is promoted country wide in a large scale.
 Large scale adoption of ZBF may have serious impact on farmers
income and food security. Hence a proper scientific validation
regarding success of ZBF has to be done. Why Forward:
 Few state Gover nments in our country started supporting this concept .
Andhra Pradesh Government has recently announced several plans to
assist 3000 farmers to adopt ZBF .
 NITI Aayog is also one of the foremost promoters of ZBF method.
 The Andhra Pradesh Government exp erience is also being monitored
closely to judge the need for further public funding support for ZBF.
 The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is also studying the
ZBNF method practiced by basmati and wheat farmers in some parts
of India, evaluating th e impact on productivity, economics and soil
health including soil organic carbon and soil fertility.
 If found to be successful, an Institutional Mechanism is to be created
to promote the technology across the farming community.
Though it is the need of the hour to move towards chemical free farming
and no doubt ZBF, an environmentally sustainable farming method is the
right way to achieve that, enough studies to be conducted to conclusively
prove that ZBF is an excellent solution to improve the farmer’s income
and to achieve food security of the country.
For many years our farmers are involved in natural farming but slowly
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30 income. Therefore, necessary trials to be conducted for a reasonable
period before implementing methods, which are unproven scientifically
3.4. BIO-FARMIMG
INTRODUCTION:
The bio -farming concept is very old, but its limited knowledge as
compare to traditional farming, keep society away from this. The bio -
farming efficiently using natural and easily available resources and
techniques like green manure, natural waste, crop residues, crop rotation,
biological pest control, compost and weed management. Biological
farming works hand -in-hand with nature. It balances your soil to produce
healthy, pest - and disease -resistant crops while reducing the use of
chemicals. When fed to livestock, these crops lead to healthy and
productive animals. The impact of bio - farming on natural resources
favours connection within the agro ecosystem which is essential for both
production and natural preservation.
This farming technique converts traditional management to organic
management. Crop production is controlled by cultural and b iological
means. Bio -farming is modern form of agriculture and combination of
science, technology and nature. It include following methods which
combine to form bio agriculture: soil management, weed management,
livestock, genetic modification, crop divers ity, compositing, bio -
fertilizers, vermin -compost and other green manure.
PRINCIPLES OF BIO -FARMING:
1. Pollution free environment and resilient to climate change:
2. Maintain fertility of soil:
3. Plant diversity by using green manure crops and tight rotations:
4. High nutritional value of food:
5. Healthy environment for sustainable agriculture:
6. Produce required quantity of food with good quality
7. No toxic spray, free from chemical pesticides and fertilizers

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31 8. Uses organic materials and the balance of soil, air and water.
9. Biological pest control, compost and weed management.
10. To allow each person who involved in bio -farming production and
processing a quality life which meets their basic needs.
IMPORTANCE / BENEFITS OF BIO -FARMING:
• It is eco - friendly and maintaining ecological balance:
• Bio farming helps in conserving natural resources:
• It produces good quality products with less input cost:
• It increases the soil fertility and its texture:
• It easily cops up with adverse effect of climate change and reduces risk
of crop:
• It minimize the contamination of food products
• It induces self -protection mechanism in the plant
• It reduces the water requirement of the plant.
bio- farming system sorts out soil erosion whic h is one of the major
problems in various agricultural zones.
This economic farming process minimizing the crop failure
Bio-farming methods deliver agronomic and environmental profits
through structural changes and tactical management of farming syst em
 soil stabilization,
 waste recycling,
 carbon sequestration,
 nutrient cycling, predation,
 Pollination and habitats.
Conclusions
The bio –farming provides several avenues to the farmers through which
they generate more income and higher status in the society. It resulted in
better performance per unit area as compared to conventional farming.
However, managements involved in biofarming confer good prospects to
improve soil fertility and minimize soil degradation with the help of
natural resource conser vation and bio agents. The Bio - farming has made a
lot of impact in India during last few years, but lack of sector specific
policy of the government and research institutions which help in
strengthening its position in farm society and spreading knowhow a cross
the country, therefore an improvement in policy making issues can further
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32 3.5. MIX CROPPING PATTERN
INTRODUCTION:
Mixed cropping, including intercropping, is the oldest form of systemized
agricultural production and involves the growing of two or more species
or cultivars of the same species simultaneously in the same field.
However, mixed cropping has been little by little replaced by sole crop
systems, especially in developed countries. Some of the advantages of
mixed cropping are, for example, resource use efficiency and yield
stability, but there are also several challenges, such as weed management
and competition. The boreal -nemoral region lies within the region 55 to
70°N. In this area, for example in Finland, th e length of the thermal
growing season varies from >105 to over 185 days. Typically, variation
between locations and years is marked. However, during the year, there
can be a wide range of temperature extremes between −70 and +30°C. The
majority of croppin g systems in this region are usually monocultures,
except for forage grass mixtures.

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The possibility of having several crops in a mixture is very challenging in
the region due to the short gro wing season and extreme cold temperatures,
meaning that crop earliness and overwintering capacity are a considerable
restriction for year -round mixed cropping. A further restriction is the
quality requirements set by the industry. Our review will explore a range
of mixed cropping possibilities for the boreal -nemoral region, including
different possible combinations of spring, winter, perennial, biennial,
catch, and cover crops. The reviewed mixed cropping systems could
considerably improve the sustainabilit y and efficiency of crop production.
DEFINITIONS:
“When two or more crops are grown on the same land
simultaneously, it is known as mixed cropping.”
“Mix -cropping is the practice of growing more than one crop on the
same field at the same time in a definit e row pattern.”
As per the above definitions minimum two or more crops grown on same
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33 same time is mixed cropping. This practice minimizes the risk of failure of
one of the crops and ins ures against crop failure due to abnormal weather
conditions.
The crops to be grown together should have a different maturation time
and different water requirements. One tall and one dwarf crop should be
grown together. The nutrients required by one crop should be less than
those required by the other. One crop should have deep roots, others
should be shallow. All these criteria lead to a successful mixed cropping
pattern.
Advantages of Mixed Cropping
Mixed Cropping can give many benefits including enhanced yield,
nutrient use efficiency, stability, abiotic and biotic stress resilience and
enhancing biodiversity.
Advantages
 The crop yield increases : This cropping system helps farmers to
double their crop productivity and income. Resource use efficiency
and yield stability, but there are also several challenges, such as weed
management and competition.
 The pest infestation is minimized : Mixed species cropping has been
shown to be an effective disease manag ement tool, especially in
cereals. Reduce the attractants that invited the infestation or the
increase in pest numbers Reduce the attractants that invited the
infestation or the increase in pest numbers.
 Reduction in the risk of crop failure : mixed croppin g systems could
considerably improve the sustainability and efficiency of crop
production.
 The soil is utilized properly : Farmers can keep their fields under
continuous production. More than one variety of crops can be
harvested at the same time.
 Increases productivity per unit area: Intercropping is the practice of
growing more than one crop on the same field at the same time in a
definite row pattern. After one row of the main crop, three rows of
intercrops can be grown. This increases productivity per un it area.
 Reduction in cost: Reduction in the overall cost of input decreases,
cost spent on fertilizers, irrigation, labour, etc. reduces because of
growing two or more than two crops on the same field .
 Better farm management: This results in better farm management
and increased income of the farmer. Although only 5% of global rain
fed cropland is under multiple cropping, whereas 40% of global
irrigated cropland is under multiple cropping.
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34 3.6. SUMMERY
Agro -ecology is an integrated approach that applies ecolog ical and social
concepts to the design and management of food and agricultural systems.
Agro -ecology has some common principles and basic approaches that rely
on nature’s wonderful and complex processes and products. Zero budget
faming, Bio -farming or orga nic framing are the methods to maintain
ecological balance, it means agro -ecology, which is essential to sustain
agricultural sector.
3.7. EXERCISE
Q.1. Write the meaning of Zero budget faming . State its importance in
context of India.
Q.2. Write the definiti on of Bio -farming with its various advantages.
Q.3. Write detail note on the relation between ecology and bio farming.
Q.4. Elaborate the importance of mix cropping pattern in farming .














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35 4
HORTICULTURE - I
Unit Structure :
4.1. Objectives
4.2. Introduction
4.3. Horticulture
4.4. Scope of fruit production
4.5. Climatic zones and horticultural crops
4.6. Selection of site
4.7. Wind Breaks
4.8. Shelter Belts
4.9. Preparation of Layout for Orchard Management
4.10. Questions for self-study
4.1. OBJECTIVES
1) To study the scope of horticultural crops
2) To know the factors helpful for horticulture
3) To study the climatic zones and the fruits grown
4) To know how to prepare a plan layout for orchard management.
4.2. INTRODUCTION
Horticulture is a branch of agriculture, dealing with the art, science,
technology and business of growing plants, which includes cultivation of
medicinal plants, fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, herbs, sprouts,
mushrooms, algae, flowers, seawe eds and non- food crops such as grass
and ornamental trees and plants. Conservation of plants, restoration of
landscapes, designing of landscape and garden, construction and
maintenance, and arboriculture are also included in this. Horticulture
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36

hindriseorg.
Horticulturists apply their knowledge, skills, and technologies to grow
intensively produced plants for human food and non -food uses and for
personal or social needs. The work of horticulturist s involves plant
propagation and cultivation with the aim of improving plant growth,
yields, quality, nutritional value and resistance to insects, diseases, and
environmental stresses. Horticulturists work as gardeners, growers,
therapists, designers, and technical advisors in the food and non-food
sectors of horticulture.
Over the years, horticulture has emerged as one of the potential agricultural
enterprise in accelerating the growth of Indian economy. It is playing an
important role in the country’s nu tritional security, poverty alleviation and
employment generation program. It offers a wide range of options to the
farmers for crop diversification and also provides ample scope for
sustaining large number of Agro -Industries generating a huge employment
opportunities.
Earlier plan periods focused attention on horticultural research and
development. As a result India emerged as a leading player in the global
scenario. India has emerged as the world’s largest producer of coconut and
tea and the second larges t producer and exporter of tea, coffee, cashew,
spices, and exports of fresh and processed fruits, vegetables, cut flowers,
dried flowers is on the increase.
Horticulture in India has become a sustainable and viable venture for the
small and marginal farme r, because of thoughtful research, technological
and policy initiatives and inputs farmer’s food consumption levels and
household income has increased. There is great scope for the horticultural
industry to grow and flourish as this sector has attracted en trepreneurs for
taking up horticulture as a commercial venture.
4.3. HORTICULTURE
Horticulture is broadly defined as the science and art of growing fruits,
vegetables and flowers and crops like spices, condiments and other
plantation crops. It is the science of cultivation of garden plants. The
word horticulture is derived from the Latin word Hortus which means
enclosure (garden) culture i.e. cultivation. Thus in short we can say
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37
Horticulture science is the most distinct branch of agricultural sciences. It
is divided into four different branches:
(A) Main Branches –
Pomology, Olericulture, Floriculture, Fruits and Vegetable Preservation
are the main branches. Pomology branch deals with the cultivation of fr uit
crops. Olericulture deals with the cultivation of vegetable crops.
Floriculture deals with the cultivation of ornamental flowers and land
scaping. Fruits and Vegetable Preservation deals with the principles of
fruit and vegetable preservation .

(B) Sub Branches - Plantation and medicinal plants, Ornamental
Gardening, Landscaping grading and Nursery plant production.
Importance of Fruit Growing
Since long back fruit growing has been practiced in India. The art and
science of horticulture has now de veloped into one of the most skillful and
intensive form of land utilization. Fruit growing is now one of the
important and paying branches of horticulture. The fruit production and
per capita conservation of fruits lets you know the standard of living of the
people in the country. There are many economic advantages of fruit
growing.
They are as follows -
1) Per Unit Yields are High - We get best returns than many of the field
crops from the well maintained and established orchards. More yield and
income is gene rated than any of the agronomic crops from a unit area of
land. For example - the average yields of papaya and banana are 10 to 15
times more than of agronomical crops.
2) High Net Profits - The initial investment for the establishment of an
orchard is high. But it is compensated by high productivity or else due
to high value of produce. For example the cashew nut – average yield per
tree is less but due to its market value it fetches higher economic returns.
Fruit farming a source of Raw Material for the Agro Based
Industries:
Fruit farming provides raw material for various agro-based industries like
preservation of fresh fruits and canning.
1) Efficient Utilization of Resources: Farmers have to engage
themselves in other occupations during slack season, as agronom ic crops
are seasonal in nature. The farmer is busy or is engaged throughout the
year in farm operations as fruit growing is an perennial occupation in
nature. He can fully utilize the resources and assets like machinery in
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38 2) Utilization of Waste and Barren Lands for Production:
Most of the fruit crops need perennial and good soil for taking the
production. But there are also many other fruit crops that are hardy in
nature like mango, ber, cashe w, custard apple, apple, jamun etc. that grow
on poor, shallow, undulated soils which are considered to be unsuitable for
growing grain or agronomical crops. Traditional farming have proved
uneconomical on waste -lands. But mango and cashew plantations on h ill
slopes in konkan have proved to be successful and have brought additional
income to the growers.
3) Ability of Earning Foreign Exchange:
Export of many fresh fruits and processed products and spices have
enabled the country to earn a good amount of foreig n exchange.
a) One Time Capital Investment:
As most of the fruit crops are perennial in nature, there is no recurring
expenditure of planting and layout of a fruit orchard.
b) Continuous Flow of Money:
Most of the fruit harvested are perennial in nature and are highly
perishable. So they need to be marketed immediately after harvest, which
provides a source of continuous flow of inputs and for other expenses of
immediate nature while agronomic crops are harvested in specific seasons
only.
i) Fruit growing in kitchen gardens help to reduce the family budget on
purchase of fruits.
ii) Fruit tree farming reduces soil erosion, silting tanks and air pollution.
iii) Planting trees help to maintain ecological balance and increase the
precipitation of the locality.
iv) Fruit tree farming is highly intensive and skillful enterprise, generate
employment even for trained persons.
4.4. SCOPE OF FRUIT PRODUCTION
1) Need to Increase Production to Meet Dietary Requirements:
In India fruit consumption per capita is very low compared to other
countri es. The reason is that only a very small fraction of the total cropped
area is under fruits crops. The fruit production in India has to be increased
to the level at which both rich and poor can afford to buy it. The prices of
fruits are very high that the fresh fruits are out of reach of large
population. With efficient production and marketing, the price could be
reduced to increase consumption of fruits and also give good profit to the
grower.
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39

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2) Increasing Irrigation facilities in Maharashtra:
Most of the commercial fruit trees require perennial irrigation. By
exploiting all the resources the maximum area that can be brought under
irrigation would be 25% of the total cropped area. There is still vast scope
to increase irrigated area and help to increase area under fruit crops as the
government is giving priorities to such works.
3) Scope for Increasing Area under Dry Land Fruits:
All the fruits do not require perennial irrigation there are some fruits like
ber, custard apple, cashew nut etc. hardy in nature and can grow under
rain fed region. In Maharashtra around 35lakh hectare land is available for
rain fed horticulture. There is good scope to use this land for fruit crops.
4) Increasing Urbanization and Change of Food Habits:
Due to industrial growth and increased urbanization demand for fruits also
has increased. Change in food habits due to education and assured income
is also the reason for increased demand for fruits.
5) Increased Transport Facilities :
Most of the fruits have less storage life and are highly perishable, so they
need quick disposal immediately after harvest. As the transport and
communication facilities have developed quick transport by road, rail and
air enables the farmers to transport fruits to long distance markets in short
time and in good condition. Increasing transport facilities provides great
scope for fruit farming.
6) Increase in the Cold Storage Facilities and Pre-Chilling Centre:
Fruits are highly perishable and have less shelf life. The market gluts
reduce th e prices of fruits during the peak harvest periods. Cold storage
facilities help in regulating the market supply and stabilize the rates of
fruits, and also pre cooling after harvest helps to extend shelf life.
Government of Maharashtra and other agencies provide funds to develop
these facilities in production centers, so as to increase more area under fruit
in the coming years.
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40 7) Scope for Agro -Based Industries:
Even though after industrial development in the country we depend on the
agricultural sectors fo r employment. So more and more agro -based
industries are to be set up to keep our economy on sound footing. There is
potential to develop agro-based industries like canning and preservation
from fruit farming besides sugarcane.
8) Development of New Technique s:
Special horticultural practices like ringing, girdling, notching, bahar
treatment, high density planting etc. and use of growth regulators,
grafting, drip irrigation and tissue culture have helped to increase the
productivity in fruit crops and bring mo re land under horticulture
cultivation.
9) Evaluation of New High Yielding Varieties and Introduction of
New Crops:
Development of new high yielding varieties of fruits like pomegranate,
guava, mango, grapes, cashew nut have led to bring more area under
fruits along with the commercial cultivation of the ber, anola etc.
10) Availability of Loan Facilities:
Lack of capital was a major hurdle in the expansion of area under fruit
crops as fruit crop is capital intensive. But today there are many co -
operative and comm ercial banks providing finance for fruit farming.
11) Government Initiative:
Government of Maharashtra had started a very ambitious program of fruit
crops development in which a 100% subsidy is given to marginal farmers
and for reserved categories and 70% subsidy for others on the
establishment and maintenance of orchards for a period of 3 years. This
led to an increase in the area under fruit crops cultivation.
12) Scope for Export of fruits:
Indian fruits like mango, grapes, banana, pomegranate, citrus, ber, and
cashew have a good market in the European and gulf countries. As a result
the exports are on the increase.
Availability of cheap labor, very high production of fruits and suitability
of climate for fruits are also other factors for the increase in the fruit crops.
4.5. CLIMATIC ZONES OF HORTICULTURAL
CROPS
One of the important complex factors influencing fruit production is the
climate, which includes basic environmental conditions like temperature,
rainfall, humidity and light. Fruit growing zones are based on these
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41 and Arid Zone. There are certain exceptions to this. For example - grapes
can be grown in temperate and sub -tropical regions, while papaya can be
grown in tropical and sub-tropical condition.
A) Temperate Fruits :
Fruits belonging to this class grow efficiently in cold regions where
temperature falls below freezing point during winters. During winter, the
trees shed their leaves and go in the resting period. A definite chilling
period is required to break this rest period. Fruits growing in the temperate
regions are apple, pear, walnut, almond, plum, peaches, strawberry etc.
B) Tropical fruits:
Tropical fruits require hot and humid climate in summer and mild winter.
These fruits are unable to endure cool temperature.
The fruits included in this class are mango, sapota, papaya, cashew,
pineapple, banana etc.
C) Sub-Tropical Fruits:
The fruit crops in this class are intermediate in character to tropical and
temperate regions. They grow mostl y on the plains where the climate is
hot, comparatively dry and very mild winter. The fruits in this class are
citrus, phalsa, fig, guava and pomegranate.
D) Arid Fruit Crops:
The arid region has extreme climatic conditions. In this region rain is very
low an d its distribution is erratic leading to low plant standard and
productivity. The water storage capacity of soil in this area is very low.
Soil is poorly textured, shallow and has high evaporative losses.
The arid fruit crops can be grouped in two categori es:
1) The fruits in this category have deep rooted roots, are short flowering,
and fruit set on the commitment of the monsoon. Complete development
of fruit is while the soil is moist. Fruit grown are custard apple, ber,
tamarind, anola etc.
2) Flowering of thi s fruit starts after rainy season and harvesting during
summer season. Such crops are very handy. Fruits in this group are
mango, jamun, phalsa, wood apple, charoli, cashew nut, jackfruit, kokum,
karvanda, mulberry, etc.
4.6. SELECTION OF SITE
Selection of site is important in fruit industry as the fruit plants are
planted permanently and if any mistakes committed on the onset are
difficult to rectify at the later stage. Investment in the orchard is a long -
term investment and requires careful planning and organ ization. Many
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42 Mistakes made in the initial stage like the selection of location site,
planning distance, soil, climate, irrigation facilities, varieties, nursery and
nursery plant material used considerably reduces the returns on
investment done in an orchard. The failure of orchards not only results in
the loss of capital and wastage of long range efforts of the growers but
also proves detrimental to the spread of gardening in the lo cality. This
makes other fruit growers apprehensive and difficult to invest their money
in long -term enterprises like fruit growing. It is therefore essential to seek
guidance from an experienced fruit grower before starting the business in
horticulture.
Factors to be considered while selecting the site for Fruit Crops -
1) Climate and Soil:
The main natural factors on which the success or failure of the fruit
growing depends are climate and soil. As a fruit cannot be grown in any
type of soil and every type of climate the fruit grower should have the
knowledge of the effect of various soil and climatic conditions on fruit
growing. Factors responsible for climates are temperature, rain,
atmosphere, humidity, wind, and hails, light. Soil has factors like physical
condition of the soil and its fertility, nature of sub-soil, its drainage
condition, temperature texture and its consumption.
2) Transport Facilities:
The site selected should be nearer to a co-operative marketing center and
should be connected by a good road or railway, that will reduce the
transportation costs, as most of the fruits are perishable, so quick
transport to the market without wasting much time is important.
3) Irrigation Facilities:
Irrigation facilities should be adequate and all the year round. Water
supply should be abundant and be available at a reasonable price, or else
the cost of production will be increased. Again the water should be free
from impurities.
4) Cheap Man Power:
Availability of large no of labor should be taken into consideration while
selecting the site. Cost of production can be kept down if there is
availability of cheap labor.
5) Owner’s House:
For easy and effective supervision the owner should have his home in
his orchard. So the availability of medical, educational and social
amenities in the vicinity of the site should also be considered.
6) Market:
There should be a good demand for the variety of crops selected.
Therefore market facilities should be available in the nearby area of the
site selected.
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43 7) The site should not be close to any diseased plantation or else must
be isolated from old plantation.
8) The selected site should be free from cyclones, frost, hails, storms,
strong and hot winds.
After selecting a site clear the land of all vegetation including shrubs,
bushes and standi ng local trees. Plough the land deep both ways and level
the land if it is uneven. The leveling of land may involve shifting of major
soil layers. To improve the physical and chemical composition of soil
green manuring crop should be grown and crushed by ploughing operation
before it starts flowering.
To protect the fruit trees from stray cattle and other animals fencing
should be done before planting fruit trees. Though initial cost is high
barbed wire fencing is very good. While the temporary fencing requ ires
frequent replacement and repair. Some times live fence also is used and
the plants used as live fence are julifora, corrisa, caronda (karvanda) or
claespiniasepiara (chillary) and can be planted at the onset of monsoon.
4.7. WIND BREAKS
Planting of tall g rowing trees all -round the orchard is called windbreaks.
Fruit orchards bear heavy losses when exposed to strong wind. Loss of
moisture by transpiration and surface evaporation is heavy due to strong
winds. Strong winds cause damage to the fruit trees by b reaking of
branches, destruction of blooms, dropping of immature fruit and erosion of
surface soil. Fruit production in the exposed orchard is reduced due to
drying of a stigmatic fluid yield and also due to reduced activities of
pollination by the insects . The protected orchard growth and yield is high
as compared to the exposed orchard. It is therefore necessary to plant tall
trees as windbreaks to protect the orchard.
Selection of Wind Breaks:
The Wind Break should be erect and tall growing, hardy and drought
resistant and occupy less space. The trees should be mechanically strong
and dense to resist maximum wind. So while selecting windbreaks more
emphasis should be given to the height than to thickness. They will give
full protection covering a distance of 4-5 times the height of trees and
partial protection for some distance where there is leveled land.
Planting and Spacing of Wind Breaks:
Wind Breaks are planted at least two years after planting fruit trees.
They are planted in rows. The first row of i t is planted 40 feet away from
fruit plants. One to two rows of such trees are planted on the west and
south side of the orchard at a close spacing of 12/12 or 12/15 feet to form
thick screen.

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44 Precaution after planting of Wind Breaks:
Wind Break trees may sometimes compete with the fruit trees for water
and nutrient. So to prevent this trench should be dug about 3 feet deep
and 20 feet away from the row of wind break trees and all the roots of
windbreak trees are exposed and are cut off from reach to the fruit trees.
Species used as Wind Breaks:
The trees commonly used as wind break are as follows:
Polyithialangifolia, casurinaequsitifolia, erythrinaindica, eucalyptus
clirddors, gravillarobustus, dalbergiasisso, syzgium cumin,
mangiferaindica, averhoacaram bola, bambusa species.

To stop soil erosion by wind the wind break trees used are eryhinaindica,
bionomiamegaputomica, millingtioniahortensis, cassia pungent etc.
Banana, Papaya and Beetle Vine orchard are protected by sysabenia
species.
Advantages of Wind Breaks:
1) Reduces wind velocity.
2) Prevents the damage caused by cold wind and frost.
3) Checks evaporation losses of water from the soil surface.
4) Increases fruit production.
4.8. SHELTER BELTS
Shelter Belt is a belt of trees or shrubs maintained for the purpose of
shelter from wind, sun and snow. It is a wide range of trees, shrubs and
grasses planted in rows right across the land at right angles to the direction
prevailing to reduce wind velocity and to give general protection to the
cultivated area, to prevent so il erosion and to decrease the effect of hot
winds.
A typical shelter belt has triangular cross section. This is done by planting
tall trees in the center, flanked on both sides successfully on other trees,
tall shrub s and then low spreading shrubs and grasses. There should be a
systematic mixture of trees, shrubs and grasses keeping in view their
usefulness, height, shape, crown form, longitivity and resistance to insects
and pests.
Density of Width:
A certain amount of penetrability is desired in shelter belts. It is seen that
though solid walls provide considerable protection the effect disappears
after a short distance and there is great fluctuation. But in partially Shape and Composition of shelter belts: munotes.in

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45 penetrable shelter belt zone the influence is gre ater and velocity curve
shows a smooth and slow declining trend, which is more effective. This
partially penetrable belt is created, by planting trees and shrubs adequately
in rows. The shrubs should be planted 1 to 1.5m apart and trees 2 to 5m
apart in rows. The width of shelter belts depend on the climatic conditions,
wind velocity and the type of soil.
Orientation:
The orientation of shelter belt depends upon the wind direction and
velocity, particularly during the vulnerable season. Shelter belt should be
oriented as early as possible at right angles to the prevailing wind or to the
winds that are more damaging at the prevailing time of the year. Wherever
winds blow from different directions shelter belt should be raised in
quadrangles.
Height and Spacin g:
Height of the shelter belt is more important. It affects the distance to
which protection will be given on the leeward side. If the trees forming
shelter belt are higher, more beneficial effect on the leeward side. Shelter
belt protects the area upto 15 to 20 times the height.
Choice of species:
The trees to be planted for shelter belt are selected on the basis of climate,
soil and topography of the area. Local species should be preferred for
plantation, as they adjust easily. The species selected should be fast
growing, draught resistant and to keep the animals away from the orchard.
Species recommended for shrubs are calotropica, procers, crotolonia,
brubia, cailigoman, polygonides, clear adendronphymodes, cassia
craicaulum, dedonaevisosa, jutrop hacurcas, sysabenia aculeate.

Species recommended for small trees are acacia, jacyumental, acacia
lecucophillea, saydoraoleodes.
Trees species recommended are Acacia Arabica, A senggal, Albrizza
Labback, A Ordirchata, Dalbergia Sisso, Lannea Coromendoice,
prospopisjulifora, Progemia Pinnata, Eucalyptus sp.
Advantages of shelter belts:
1) It reduces wind velocity and erosion of soil from the orchard.
2) It retards the evaporation process.
3) It can increase the humidity up to 50% as it reduces the faster rate of
evaporation from soil and crops. As result moisture is retained due to
the reduced movement of air.
4) It increases soil moisture.
5) It can increase or decrease the temperature.
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46 4.9. PREPARATION OF LAYOUT FOR ORCHARD
MANAGEMENT
It is advisable to prepare a sketch plan on paper before actually planting
the trees. It will enable the farmer to provide for a most economic orchard
management. The farmer also can show the economic layout and
location of roads, drainage system, irrigation channels, hedge, wind
breaks, etc. in the plan.
1) Roads and building :
The owner’s residence and layout quarters should be located fairly close to
a public road or in the center of site or near the water source in the site.
The area necessary for construction should be left unplanted even though
the construction is delayed. Straight roads of 8 feet to 10 feet at right
angles to each other should be constructed. This is for easy movement and
to carry garden machinery. The roads sh ould have gentle slopes on either
side of the road to drain off excess rainwater.
2) Position of Well:
The wells should be dug before planting trees if it is a source of irrigation
because the trees would require water as soon as they are planted. The
well should be located and dug at the highest point to facilitate easy
distribution of water by gravity at minimum costs.
3) Fencing:
To prevent destruction of trees from stray cattle and protection from
thieves the orchard should be fenced from all sides before planting the
trees. Fencing of thorny bushes requires frequent repairs and
replacements, so barbed wire fencing is a good option but its initial cost
is too high. The best option is to build a live fence, which needs no initial
investment except watering and maintenance during summer months.
Some of the thorny plants like prosophusjulifora, chillan, etc. make a very
good live fence.
4) Wind Breaks:
Exposures of orchard to wind increase the losses of moisture by
transpiration and surface evaporation. Strong winds cause damage by
blowing off branches and fruits. To reduce the damage, a wind break is
necessary for every orchard. The trees commonly used as wind breaks are
eucalyptus, casurina, jambul and mango trees for crops with low height
like banana or papaya. Windbreak of shewari is grown on southern and
western sides of the plantation.
5) Shorter fruit trees be planted in the fore-ground and taller trees further
away to facilitate better watching at the orchard.
6) Fruit trees requiring water should be planted near th e water source
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47 7) High fertile area of the orchard should be used for costly fruit crops.
8) Fruits that ripen at the same time should be planted in a good
conditioned compact block.
4.10. QUESTIONS FOR SELF -STUDY :
1) What is the importance of horticulture and give the importance of
fruit growing?
2) Explain - The scope of fruit production.
3) What are the different climatic zones of horticultural crops?
4) How the selection of is site important and give its factors?
5) What are windbreaks? Explain in detail.
6) Explain in detail the shelterbelts.
7) What are the different steps in the preparation of layout for
Orchard management?

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48 5
HORTICULTURE - II
Unit Structure:
5.1. Planning an Orchard
5.2. Different Methods of Planning Orchard
5.3. Planting and selection of plants for Orchard
5.4. Propagation Methods in plants
5.5. Questions
5.1. PLANNING AN ORCHARD:
A careful plan of orchard should be prepared.
a) Plann ing of an orchard helps in making it most economic and can be
managed efficiently.
b) It is necessary for economic layout and location of roads, drains,
irrigation channels, path, hedge and wind breaks. Knowledge of
following points is a must while preparing plan for a big orchard.
1) Building of the owner should be at the center or at high level for
proper supervision.
2) Plant fruits plants according to their soil requirements.
3) Optimum spacing is kept to give maximum number trees per
hectare.
4) Irrigated trees shoul d be planted near the water source.
5) Do not mix large trees in small trees.
6) Big trees should be planted at the back and small trees should
be in front.
7) Evergreen trees should be in front and deciduous trees should be
behind.
8) Trees requiring spacing should be grouped in one block.
9) Pollination should be provided to self-compatible fruit trees e.g.
mango, ber, etc.
10) Watchman’s shed should be close, to protect the fruit crop
production from beggars, thieves and animals.
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49 5.2. DIFFERENT METHODS OF PLANNING
ORCHARD:
Different methods of planning an orchard are Square, Rectangular,
Hexagonal, Triangular, Diagonal, Contour.
a) Square system:
In this system of plantation a tree is planted on each corner of a square no
matter the planting distance. This plan is commonly used, a s it is easy to
layout. In this system inter cropping and cultivation is visible in two
directions, for e.g. mango, banana, and citrus crops.
b) Rectangular System:
This system is similar to that of square system. Except in this system row
to row and plant to plant spacing is not the same. For e.g. grapes.
c) Hexagonal System:
In this system the trees are planted at each corner of equilateral triangle. In
this way six trees at the corners and one tree in the center are planted. The
trees are spaced equally from e ach other, so inter cultivation or cropping is
difficult in this system.
d) Triangular System:
In this system the trees are planted as in the square system but are planted
in alternate rows i.e. in the 2nd, 4th, 6th and other alternate rows. This
system gives more space for the trees and intercrops which we do not have
in square system. It is difficult for layout cultivation.
e) Diagonal System:
It differs from other system of planting trees. In this system an additional
tree is planted in the center of each squa re of planted trees. The central
tree is usually used as filler, which is planted for a short period. In this
system of layout the plant production is doubled than the square system
of planting. For e.g. mango+papaya + mango + fig
f) Contour System:
This syst em is followed on hills with high slopes. The tree rows are
planted along a uniform slope and usually at right angles to the slope. The
main intention is to reduce the loss of top soil due to erosion.
5.3. PLANTING AND SELECTION OF PLANTS FOR
ORCHARD
Planting:
After planning and preparing a layout of an orchard planting is carried out.
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50 filled with F.Y.M leaf mold, fertilizer. While planting the bugged and
grafted trees joint should be inside the pits or covered with wet soil or else
it will be infected at the bud joint. Stagnation of water should not be there
in the pits during rainy season. During summer young plants must be
protected from heavy sunshine. For the proper growth of plants regular
management practices should be followed.
Selection of plants:
It is necessary to select a plant carefully. While selecting it should be seen
that it should be of good parentage, should have been propagated on right
root stock, should be free from pest s and diseases, should have a healthy
bark, should have a robust and vigorous look and the bud or graft joint of
medium sized plant with healthy and normal growth with well-placed
branches all round is the best. The age of trees at planting is also
importa nt. Older plants are not preferable. Plants selected should be within
one year of grafting or budding and one year old plant with a height of 2
to3 feet is to be selected.
High Density Planting:
Increasing the plant population per unit area for increasing the production
of fruit crops is called high density planting.
Advantages of high density planting :
1) Best utilization of land and resources.
2) Increase in the yield per unit area.
3) Easy for inter culturing operations, plant protection and
harvesting.
4) Quality production of fruit crops.
5) To obtain export quality of the harvest.
Disadvantages:
1) The life span of fruits is very less.
2) It is difficult to manage the tree canopy.
3) Require high techniques for the maintenance of fruit trees.
5.4. PROPAGATION METHODS IN PLANTS
Plant propagation is defined as “ Controlled reproduction of a plant by
man in order to perpetuate a selected individual, or group of individuals
which is having specific value to him.”
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51 A) Sexual Propagation in plants - Multiplication of plants by using
seed is called as sexual propagation.
Advantages -
1) The plant raised by seed is planted live.
2) These plants are hardy and deeply rooted. So their growth is
vigorous.
3) There is a possibility to obtain a change in the seedling, the
performance of those are better than their parents. For e.g. variety of
mango Alphonso , Dasharia.
4) The poly embryonic phenomena - In this phenomena propagation of
more than one seedling from single seed produce true to type, nuclear
embryonic seedling which could be used as rootstock for uniform
performance. E.g. Mango varieties color and bappakal. It is also
common in jamun and citrus trees.
5) Seed propagation is necessary when vegetative propagation is
unsu ccessful or expensive. E.g. papaya, coconut and areca nut.
6) Exploitation of hybrid is possible only when the hybrids are multiplied
in the first instance through sexual propagation although subsequent
fixing of heterocyst is effected through vegetative propagation. E.g.
sapota (cricket ball x oval) and ratna mango (alphanso & neelam).
7) Roots stock is generally raised by seed. E.g. rangpur lime and jamberi
for citrus.
8) Seed propagation is the only method when seedling are required in
large numbers. E.g. dry land fruit and forest species.
Disadvantages:
1) Choice tree or any hybrid tree cannot be perpetuated true to type of
seed. (except in Apomixes)
2) When Progenies are not true type, they become inferior because in the
commercial orchard, it is necessary to have uniform quality, growth
and yielding capacities.
3) Seedling has along juvenile period. In crops like citrus, cocoa and
rubber the seeds must be sown afresh i.e. immediately after extraction.
Many varieties are seedless.
4) Seeds lose its viability in short period.
5.4.1. Seed Germination and Seed Propagation : Seed propagation
is necessary in the following cases -
i) Where vegetative propagation is unsuccessful, difficult or
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52 ii) It is necessary for raising rootstock for grafting and budding.
E.g. rangpur lime and jambe ri for citrus, khirni for sapota.
In all such cases rootstock plants have to be raised mostly through seeds.
Seed Formation and Maturity:
Seeds develop along with the fruits. Fruit reaches full size and maturity,
when the fruit ripens. Hence seed should b e extracted only from ripe fruit.
Seeds gathered from immature fruit may not germinate under favorable
conditions and may loose viability more quickly than fully matured seeds.
Seed Storing:
Normally seeds should be stored in relatively dry condition at low
temperature. Some seeds should be sown immediately after extraction.
Others must be kept for some time depending on the type of plant. Most
of the plant seeds retain their viability for a longer period when stored at a
relatively low temperature than hig h temperature. So store the seeds in
cool and dry place. If somehow exposed to damp atmosphere, even though
after thorough drying seeds absorb moisture and rapidly deteriorate. Some
seeds are to be kept moist and exposed to cold or freezing temperature
known as stratification –to ripen after dormant and to modify seed
coverings.
Dormancy:
This term is used to describe a seed that will not germinate in any
condition associated either with the seed itself or with existing
environmental factors such as tempera ture and moisture. Some seeds may
even germinate inside the fruit. For e.g. jackfruit, avocado, papaya. It is
called as viviparous germination.
Best period of germination:
Some seeds do not germinate immediately after harvest even in the
favorable conditio ns. This is due to physiological conditions. This is
because the seeds are in the resting period after ripening period.
Seed Viability and Longevity:
Seed viability means the presence of life in the seed and longevity means
the length of time the seeds will retain their viability. Some seeds like
citrus seeds are short lived.
5.4.2. Pre-germination Seed Treatment:
1) Chemical (Acid Scarification):
The aim behind soaking seed in concentrated sulphuric acid is an effective
method to modify hard or impermeable seed covering. Depending on the
species the time of treatment may vary from 10 minutes to 6 hours. The
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53 them free from acid and are then again sown immediately. The seeds of
cotton, ber, asparag us are treated with 50% concentrated sulphuric acid for
3 to 5 minutes.
2) Mechanical (Scarification):
Seeds of a few species have impermeable seed coat. The hard seed coat
can be rendered permeable to water and gases. Their germination is
greatly improved by mechanical scarification by taking care that the
seeds are not injured. This can be achieved by –
a) Placing the seeds between two sand papers, one stationed and other
revolving.
b) Passing seeds through the machine that scratches the surface of the
seed.
c) Filling and notching to make the seed coat permeable to water.
d) Using a hammer.
3) Seedling (Boiled Water Treatment):
Pouring boiling water over the seeds and let it to be cooled gradually
about 12 to 15 hours to soften dry and hard shelled seeds. E.g.
coffee, chi cku, canna, babul.Chillar etc. this will hasten the process of
germination.
4) Soaking in water:
To modify hard seed coats, to remove inhibitors, to soften seed and to
reduce the time of germination seeds are soaked in water. The time of
soaking seeds in cold water depends on the hardness of the seed coat. E.g.
gulmohar, peas, beans cassia tree seeds, etc.
5) Stratification (Moist Chilling):
To bring about prompt and uniform germination seeds of woody trees or
shrubs are exposed to low temperature. Stratification has some benefits in
softening the seed coats. In this method the seeds are arranged in alternate
layers of sand in shallow boxes for pits or trenches. This helps in rapid
germination of seeds. For e.g. peach, cherry, plum, oats, grapes, etc.
B) Asexual Prop agation in Plants -
Asexual propagation or Vegetative Propagation is the multiplication or
perpetuation of any plant from any vegetative part as plant other than seed.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation:
1) The progenies are of true type like that of the mother plant.
2) Vegetative propagation is used where no seed is formed or
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54 these cases there is no other alternative than vegetative propagation.
For e.g. banana, pine, apple and roses, seedles s grapes.
3) Some rootstocks have the capacity to resist or tolerate the adverse
environment factors such as frost and adverse soil factors like salinity
or alkalinity. E.g. frost resistant - foncirus trifoliate (Trifoliate orange)
Rangpur lime.
4) The ability of certain rootstock to resist pest and diseases can be
advantageous. An apple when grafted on rootstock like merton 778,
793 is resistant to wholly aphid.
5) The plans propagated by vegetative method are generally dwarf in
nature than the seedlings. Dwarf trees facilitate pruning, spraying and
harvesting easy on the seedling. As a result more number of plants can
be planted in a unit area.
6) It is undesirable to replant an existing tree either with reference to its
quality or susceptibility to pests and diseases. This defect can be
overcome easily by vegetative propagation through grafting or
budding of desirable scion to the existence tree by working techniques.
7) Many plants are propagated by vegetative methods because of speedy
multiplication.
8) Novelty can be deve loped by grafting or budding many varieties on
single plant. E.g. roses.
9) This is advantageous to convert inferior varieties into superior
varieties.
Disadvantages:
1) Plant is not vigorous and long-lived.
2) No new varieties are evolved or can be developed.
3) This method is expensive, laborious and time consuming.
5.4.3.Plant Propagation by Cutting
Cutting is a method of asexual propagation. In this method a portion of
any vegetative part such as stem, leaf, root is cut from the parent plant
and is placed under favorable environmental condition to form roots and
shoots, producing a new independent plant.
A) Stem Cutting:
This is the most important type of cutting and can be divided into three
types based on the nature of the wood used in cutting. I) Hard wood
cutting, II) Semi-hard wood cutting, III) Soft wood cutting. In
propagation by stem cutting, segment of shoots containing lateral or
terminal buds are handled under proper condition to develop adventitious
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55 I) Hard wood cuttings:
This method is easy and less expensive. As hard wood cuttings are not
readily perishable they can be shifted safely over a long distance if
necessary. Usually the cutting is prepared during the dormant season.
Wood from the previous season growth is used for hard wood cutting.
II) Semi -hard wood cutting:
The cuttings are prepared from the new shoot just after it has grown a
little bit and which is partially matured.
III) Soft wood cutting:
This type of cutting is always made with leaves attached to stem. This type
of cutting is made from coleus, pilea, alternanthea, etc. and also from
succulent, herbaceous green plants like carnation, potulaces, etc.
B) Leaf cuttings:
In this method the leaf blade, sometimes the petiole is utilized in
germinating a new plant. In most cases adventit ious roots and shoot
develop at the leaf base. Various types of leaf cutting are as follows:
I) Leaf Blade Cuttings:
Two to three pieces of the long tapering leaves are inserted into the sand.
After some time a new leaf is seen at the base of the piece. E.g. snake
plant.
II) Leaf Vein Cutting:
In this method of cutting a new plant develops from the leaf vein at the
base of the leaf piece. E.g. begonia rex.
III) Leaf Margin Cutting:
In this method new plants arise from the foliar embryos in the notches at
the leaf marg in.
IV) Leaf Bud Cutting:
This method consists of a leaf blade, petiole and a short piece of the stem
with the attached axillary bud. For e.g. blackberry, camellia.
C) Root Cuttings:
In root cutting method the period when the plant is growing rapidly root
cutting must be avoided. It is very important to maintain the correct
polarity when planting the root cuttings. For e.g. guava, pahadi -gulab,
India cork tree.
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56 5.4.4. Plant Propagation by Layering
Layering is a form of vegetative propagation where cuttings are made to
form adventitious roots while the cutting is still attached to the mother
plant. Stems of the mother plant are covered in a growing medium in
various ways to exclude light, increase the moisture level, and stimulate
root growth. Once the roots are formed t he new plant or layer is dug and
transplanted to the desired location. This method is used for propagating
native species where time or resources may be scarce.
Advantages of layering:
a) Less maintenance.
b) Allows propagation to be performed on site.
c) Natural accumulation of photosynthetic and hormones due to
girdling, incision or bending.
d) Many times a large plant is the product.
e) Little investment is required.
f) Major advantage is that it requires less maintenance. As in layering
method they are still attached to the mother plant and therefore
require less maintenance. Also their supply of water is not decreased
because of the attachment to the mother plant. It also eliminates the
need for resources and labor intensive practices such as shading o
regularly misting of young cuttings. Layering also reduces the need
to harden off cuttings before planting since they already are in the
native environment.
Disadvantages:
a) It takes long time to produce new plants.
b) This method produces only a few plants per mother. It is not ideal
for plants where you want a lot of plants from only a few mothers or
sites where resources and time are not particularly in short supply.
Key to success of Layering:
Layering method can be successful if light is excluded from the rooting
section of the stem. If light is allowed to penetrate root formation will not
be successful. Girdling, incision, bending or cracking the stem or
wounding the stem in some form triggers the release of hormones as a
result propagation can be successful.
Root Formation during Layering:
Root formation during layering is stimulated by various stem
treatments.
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57 They are as follows:
1) Bending of shoots to a sharp V shape.
2) Giving a cut or incision at the lower surface of the shoot.
3) Girdling -by removing a ring of bark or by wrap ping copper wire
around stem.
Different methods of Layering:
a) Simple Layering or Tongue Layering:
In simple layering method a branch of the tree is bent to the ground and
some portion of it is covered by soil. The terminal end of the branch is
exposed. Root initiation takes place at the portion that is buried. After
allowing sufficient time to grow the layer is separated from the mother
plant by cutting the layered shoot. For e.g. guava, jasmine, etc.
b) Compound Layering:
This method is the same as simple layering. But in this method the branch
is alternately covered and exposed along length. The branch selected for
compound layering should be long, so that it can be layered at different
places to branch. This method is mostly followed for creepers.
c) Serpentine Layering;
It is like compound layering except that individual nodes are covered with
media. Usually there is an alternation where every second node is covered.
This method is most effective with plants that yield flexible shoots.
d) Air Layering:
This techniq ue is performed without placing the layered branch or shoot
below the soil line of the mother plant. The stem is first girdled and then
wrapped in media like peat moss for working with ease. Proper girdle is
the key to causing accumulation of carbohydrates at the cut. Adding
hormone to the media or directly applying to the stem is more beneficial.
Then the media is enclosed in plastic and tied. Once the roots are formed
the layer can be removed from the mother plant and planted.
e) Mound Layering:
It is a type of layering that is useful with heavy -stemmed closely branched
shrubs. Cut the plant back to 1 inch above the soil surface in the dormant
season. The dormant buds will produce new shoots in the spring. Mound
soil over the new shoots as they grow. Roots wi ll develop at the base of
the young shoots. Remove the layers in the dormant season and either
transplant directly or place in containers.

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58 f) Tip Layering:
It is a quick way to layer a lot of branches. The branch of the existing
mother plant is bent down to the ground and the tips of the branches are
essentially buried in 3 -4 inches deep holes. The shoot grows into a U shape
with roots developing at the bend.
5.4.5. Difference between Layering and Cutting:
Sr. no Layering Cutting
1 Layering is performed only on the branches of the plant. Cutting can be accomplished by
using branches, leaves and roots.
2 Plant parts are kept attached to the mother plant till the root formation takes place. Plant parts are first detached from
mother plant and are then induced
to produce roots.


3 Layers are produced on the
spot and very few layers can
be produced from a plant. Cutting can be taken easily from
the plant and can be carried to long
distance. More number of cutting
can be prepared from a plant.
4 It is complicated an d requires
different techniques. It is very easy and simple methods
are used.
5 Plants that are difficult to root
can be propagated, by
layering. Plants that are easier to root are
propagated, by cutting.

5.4.6. Plant Propagation by Specialized Structures
1) Suck ers:
A sucker is a shoot on a plant from below the ground. This term is
precisely use to designate a shoot arising from an adventitious bud on
root. But in practice shoots that arise from the vicinity of the crown are
also referred to as suckers, even thou gh they originate from the stem
tissue. For e.g. banana, red raspberry, black berry and chrysanthemum.
2) Crowns:
The term crown is used to designate that part of a plant stem that is below
the surface of the ground from which new shoots are produced. Divisio n
of the crown is an important method of propagation. E.g. strawberry.
3) Bulb:
A bulb is a specialized underground organ consisting of a short, fleshy,
unusually vertical stem axis, at the apex a growing point and enclosed by
thick flexi scales. Bulbs are pr oduced by monocotyledon plants, in which
the usual structure is modified for storage and reproduction. Bulb scales
morphologically are the continuous sheathing leaf bases. The outer
scales are normally
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59 fleshy and store reserve food material. Miniature bulbs called bulbets and
arialbulblets are called bulbils are separated and used for propagation. E.g.
onions.
4) Corms:
A corm is a swollen base of a stem axis enclosed by the dry, scale like
labels . It is predominantly leaf scald. A corm is a solid stem struct ures
with distinct nodes and internodes. In mature corm the dry leaf bases
persist at each of the nodes and enclose the corm. This covering is known
as the tunic which gives protection against injury and water loss. E.g.
gladiolus.
5) Tubers (stem tubers):
Stem tuber is the short terminal portion of an underground stem that has
become thick due to accumulation of reserve food materials. Propagation
by tuber can be carried out either by planting the whole tuber or by
cutting it into sections, each containing a bud or an eye. E.g. potato.
6) Tuberous Roots (root tubers):
Certain herbaceous perennial plants produce thickened roots containing
large amount of stored food. The tuberous roots lack nodes and internodes.
Adventitious buds are present only at stem and these fleshy roots are
separated and used propagation.
E.g. sweet potato, dahlia.
7) Rhizomes:
A rhizome is a horizontal stem growing either growing underground or
along the surface. It is the main axis of the plant producing roots on its
lower surface and extends leaves and flowering shoots above the ground.
They may be thick and fleshy or slender and elongated and always have
nodes and internodes. Propagation by rhizome is done by cutting or
dividing it into sections each of which, is capable of producing new shoot.
8) Runners:
A runner is a specialized stem that develops from the axial of a leaf at the
crown of a plant. It grows horizontally along the ground and forms a new
plant at one of the nodes. The rooted daughter plant is dug when they are
well rooted and tra nsplanted to the desired locations in propagation by
runners. E.g. strawberry.
9) Stolen:
Stolen is a term used to describe various types of horizontally growing
stems that produce adventitious roots when they come in contact with the
soil. These are actually the prostrate stems. The underground stem of the
potato the terminal as in tuber is a stolen.
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60 5.5. QUESTIONS FOR SELF -STUDY
1) What are the steps to plan an orchard?
2) Give the different methods of planning an orchard.
3) Explain in brief the planting and selection of plants for an orchard.
4) Give the advantages and disadvantages of sexual propagation in
plants.
5) Answer in short - seed germination and seed propagation.
6) Explain - Pre-germination seed treatment.
7) Give the advantages and disadvantages of asexual propagation in
plants.
8) Explain plant propagation by cutting.
9) Explain plant propagation by layering. 10)What are the different
methods of layering?
10) Give the difference between layering and cutting. 12)Explain plant
propagation by specialized structures.

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61 6
HORTICULTURE III
Unit Structure:
6.1. Grafting
6.2. Budding
6.3. National Horticulture Mission
6.4. National Level
6.5. State Level and district level
6.6. Procedure For Approval and Implementation
6.7. Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)
Schemes
6.8. Organic Farming System
6.9. Summary
6.10. Questions for self-study
6.1. GRAFTING
Grafting is the technique of joining of parts of plants together in such a
way that they unite and continue their growth as one plant. The upper
part of the graft combination of the new plant is called the scion and the
lower part or root is called as the stock.
All the methods of joining plants are termed as grating. When the scion is
a small piece of bark or wood containing a single bud then it is called
budding.
Reasons for Grafting:
1) To change the size of the resultant plant by dwarfing or increasing
growth.
2) To change the form or variety of a plant.
3) To produce earlier flowering and fruiting.
4) To develop a plant tolerant of a wider range of environmental
conditions.
5) To increase plants that cannot be reproduced by other asexual
methods.
6) To produce nematode or disease resistance.
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62 Grafting is not an easy method of propagation. It requires considerable
skill. An experienced grafter only can give high percentage of success.
There are five requirements for any successful grafting operation:
1) There should be compatibility between stock and scion or else they
cannot unite.
2) Cambial regions of scion and stock must be in intimate contact. Cut
surfaces should be h eld tightly for proper healing and flow of water and
nutrients.
3) Grafting should be done when the stock and scion are in proper
physiological stage. Except budding operations scions for all grafting
operations should be dormant. Depending on the budding method scions
can be either dormant or actively growing. Depending on the grafting
method rootstocks can be growing or dormant.
4) All the cut surfaces should be protected from drying out, after grafting
is completed. This is done, by covering the graft with wax or tape. Even
sphagnum moss a moist material can be used.
5) Until the graft unites proper care must be taken. Shoots from the stock
should be removed as they can choke out the scion. Also the shoots from
the scion can grow so vigorously that they break the scion off unless
staked or tied.
Reasons for grafting and budding of plants:
Plant propagation with cutting and layering is very easy, cheap and
economical, however grafting and budding is necessary because -
1) When other methods are not successful grafting and budding can be of
help.
2) By using suitable root stock the plant can be made to adapt to pest,
diseases, and increase tolerance to cold unsuitable climate.
3) Converting inferior plants into superior plants. E.g. side grafting in
mango.
4) To modify the growth of fruit plant. E.g. by using dwarfing root
stocks.
6.1.1. Different methods of grafting:
Several techniques of grafting are followed in different plants, suitable in
different situations.
1) Scion Attached Methods:
In this method of grafting the scion is kept att ached to the mother plant till
the graft union takes place and then the graft is separated in stages by
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63 graft union. This technique is followed in the following methods.
a) Simple approach or inarching
b) Saddle grafting
c) Tongue grafting
2) Scion Detached Methods:
In this method of grafting the scion is first detached from mother plant and
then it is inserted into root stock, so that the union takes place and the
combination continues to grow. Following methods are used-
a) Veneer grafting
b) Wedge grafting
c) Saddle grafting
d) Whip grafting
e) Whip and Tongue grafting
f) Softwood grafting
g) Stone grafting
3) Methods of grafting on established Trees:
This method can be successfully used to convert the inferior establishe d
plants in to the superior or desired plant. The methods are as follows:
a) Side grafting
b) Crown grafting
c) Top Working
Top working is done in three ways:
i) By inarching the new shoots growing from the cut ends of branch of
stock plants.
ii) By Forket Budding
iii) By crow n grafting
4) Methods of Renovation:
These grafting methods are adopted to rejuvenate the old trees having
religious feeling or the plants that are injured deeply due to mechanical
operation, pests, diseases at their roots etc.
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64 6.2. BUDDING :
Budding is the vegetative method of plant propagation. It is defined as “
an art of insertion of a single mature bud in to the stem of the root stock in
such a manner that the union takes place and the combination continues to
grow.” It is a type of grafting where an individual bud instead of whole
stick on scion is grafted as it is done in grafting. There are several
techniques of insertion of bud into the root stock. The adoption of any
methods of grafting depends upon the plants to be budded, on the
situation, the facilities and sources available, etc.
6.2.1. Different Methods of Budding :
1) Shield Budding:
In this method of budding a single bud with a little wood or without wood
is taken from the scion plant and is given a shape of shield befo re it is
inserted into the root stock. This is done in the following three ways -
A) Shield Budding by T method:
i) Selection of Bud Wood or Bud Stock:
Fairly well matured, round bud stick of pencil thickness and of previous
season’s growth, brownish color, havin g dormant plumy buds is selected
from the desired tree. It must be in sap flowing condition. The leaves are
removed from the bud to avoid injuries to the axillary buds.
ii) Selection of Stock Plant:
Vigorous growing stock seedling with pencil thickness having height of
about 1½ to 2 feet is selected. The seedling must be in free sap flowing
condition.
iii) Removal of Bark from the Stalk Plant:
A vertical cut followed by a horizontal cut across the top at right angle is
made carefully with budding knife on the select ed seedling (root stock) at
the height of about 1½ inch to 2 inches from ground level. The cuts given
depend on the wood.
iv) Removal of bud:
A plumy bud is taken out carefully with wood by taking a V1/2 inch
below the bud from the selected bud stick. The woo d is then removed
from the bud along with portion of bark and is given a shape like that of
shield.
v) Inserting the bud:
The flaps of bark on either side of the cut on the stock plant are loosened
with very potion of budding knife and are kept ready to recei ve bud. The
bud is then inserted from top of the cut and pushed downward beneath the
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65 vi) Bandaging:
To bring about a firm cambial contact the operated portion is tied with
banana or polythene strip and the growing point of bud is kept exposed.
Under normal condition union takes place in about 5 weeks.
B) Shield Budding ‘I’ Method:
This method is adopted in the regions of heavy rains. The technique used
in this method is the same as that used in T method except that the incision
on th e stock has the transceivers taken on the root stock and is bent so that
the bark becomes loose. Then the bud is inserted and tied firmly with a
string. Union takes place within 2-3 weeks.
C) Simple Shield Budding by Insertion Method:
A simple length -wise inc ision is done on the root stock. It is bent to make
the bark loose. Then the bud is inserted and tied firmly with a string.
Union takes place within 2 -3 weeks.
2) Patch Budding:
It is a slow and difficult method of budding. But is a successful method
widely used on the plants having thick bark. The patch of the bark is
removed from the stem of the root stock. The patch of bud exactly the
same size is removed from the bud stock taken from the desired tree and is
tightly fitted on the root stock of the exposed a rea and a polythene film is
tied around it to protect it. This method is most suitable for mango plant.
The most suitable months for patch budding in mango are September and
October.
3) Flute Budding:
In this method use of rings tissues adjoining the bud of a relatively thick
barked tree are done. The thick barked tree thicker than 1 cm and in active
stage is commonly budded by this method. For e.g. in ber and cashewnut.
4) Ring Budding:
This method is more or less an extension of flute method. Budding
operatio n is done when the plant is in sap flowing condition. A complete
ring of bark is removed around the stem of the stock in order to form a
matrix. A complete ring of the bark of the same with a prominent, plumy,
healthy bud is removed from bud stick when pla ced on stock; it extends
all around the stock. After placing the ring in position tying is done in
usual manner.
5) Forket Budding:
A fair degree of success has been achieved in mango by this method in
Maharashtra. The selection of the bud sticks as well as the root stock is
the same as that in the shield budding. At the height of about 9 -12
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66 then two vertical cuts from the either end of the horizontal cut extending
downwards are taken a nd a flap of bark is pulled out exposing a
rectangular portion of about 1 -2 inches on the root stock. A rectangular
piece of bark along with a matured primary bud of the same size 1-2
inches is removed from the selected bud stick. This piece of bark is fit ted
on the exposed portion of root stock and is well protected. The panel of
the bark then is released to its original position. It is then tied with a string
as usually done. Manuring and watering the rootstock is carried out as and
whenever necessary. Af ter 15 days the strip is removed and the panel of
bark is pulled again to see the inside portion. If bud is seen sprouting the
panel of the bark is removed by taking horizontal incision on the
downside of its root stock. The bud is again tied keeping expos ed the
growing point in a usual way. The same procedure is again followed after
15 days if the bud growth is not seen. Within 3-5 weeks of operation the
bud sprouts.
6.3. NATIONAL HORTICULTURE MISSION (NHM)
National Horticulture Mission (NHM) is being implement ed in all the
States and Union Territories of India except the North Eastern States,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Uttaranchal to promote holistic
growth of the horticultural sector covering fruits, vegetables, roots and
tuber crops, mushroom, spices, flowers, aromatic plants, cashew and
cocoa, There is a separate Technology Mission for integrated development
of horticulture exists in the North Eastern States, Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu & Kashmir and Uttaranchal. Program for the development of
coconut is implemented by, the Coconut Development Board (CDB)
independent of the mission. This is a centrally sponsored scheme in which
Government of India provides 100% assistance to the State Mission. But
in the XI plan assistance of 85% from central government and 15%
contribution by the state governments was provided.
6.3.1.Mission Strategy:
To achieve the objectives of the National Horticulture Mission, the
mission adopted following strategies -
1) Ensure end -to-end holistic approach covering production, post
harvest management, processing and marketing to assure appropriate
returns to the growers / producers.
2) Promote R&D technologies for production, post-harvest
management and processing.
3) Enhance acreage, coverage and productivity through -
a) Diversification from traditio nal crops to plantations, orchards,
vineyards, flower and vegetable gardens;
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67 4) Assist setting up post -harvest facilities such as pack house, ripening
chamber, cold storages, Controlled Atmosphere (CA) storages etc.,
processing units for value addition and marketing infrastructure.
5) Adopt a coordinated approach and promotion of partnership,
convergence and synergy among R&D, processing and marketin g
agencies in public as well as private sectors, at the National,
Regional, State and Sub State levels.
6) Where appropriate and feasible, promote National Dairy
Development Board NDDB) model of co -operatives to ensure
support and adequate returns to farmers.
7) Promote capacity - building and Human Resource Development at all
levels.
6.4. NATIONAL LEVEL
a) General Council:
The Mission will have a General Council (GC) at the National level under
the Chairmanship of the Union Agriculture Minister. The council will be
the policy making body giving overall direction and guidance to the
Mission, and will monitor and review its progress and performance. The
GC will meet at least twice a year.
Executive Committee – Government of India level
There will be an executive Committe e (EC) headed by the Secretary,
Department of Agriculture & Cooperation to oversee the activities of the
mission and to approve the Action Plans.
The EC will be empowered to reallocate resources across States and
components and approve projects on the basi s of the approved subsidy
norms. EC will use its discretion in approving components of a project for
which norms have not been prescribed. The subsidy for such components
will be not more than 50% of the cost for small and marginal farmers and
30% of the c ost for other farmers.
The Horticultural Division in the Department of Agriculture &
Cooperation will provide the necessary support to the EC and the GC and
will administer the NHM. The EC will ensure smooth functional linkages
among different agencies. Th e EC shall meet every quarter but at least
once in two months in the initial stages of the Mission.
6.5. STATE LEVEL
A State Level Executive Committee (SLEC) will be constituted by the
State Government under the Chairmanship of the Agricultural Production
Commi ssioner, or Secretary Horticulture / Agriculture having
representatives from other concerned departments, the SAUs, ICAR
institutes, Growers Associations, etc. for overseeing the implementation of
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68 will be a Member in the SLEC. The State Mission Director to be
appointed by the State Government will have the freedom to nominate, or
create a suitable autonomous agency to be registered under the Societies
Registration Act for implementing the Mission Program at the state and
District levels. The Panchayati Raj Institutions existing in the State should
be fully involved in the implementation structure. State and Sub -State level
structures will be evolved keeping in view the need for getting adeq uate
returns for the produce of the farmers and eliminating middlemen to the
extent possible. The State will have the flexibility to adopt an appropriate
model viz. cooperative federations in the pattern of NDDB, incorporated
companies (with cooperatives for procurement, joint sector for processing
and cooperates for marketing) or orient existing institutions to carry out
the tasks of the Mission. The services of identified State Designed
Agencies, which have been implementing various horticulture
developme nt programs such as Integrated Development of Horticulture in
Tribal / Hilly Areas, Development of Beekeeping, may be availed for
implementing the program in the Mission framework.
The State level agency will have the following functions.
a) Prepare perspecti ve and annual State level Action plan in
consonance with Missions goals and objectives and in closes coordination
with Technical Support Group, State Agriculture Universities (SAU) and
ICAR institutions and oversees its implementation.
b) Receive funds from t he National Mission Authority, the State
Government and other sources for carrying on the missions activities,
maintain proper accounts thereof and submit utilization certificate to the
concerned agencies, release funds to the implementing organizations and
oversee, monitor and review the implementing of the program.
c) Organize base-line survey and feasibility studies in different parts
(District, Sub -District, or a group of Districts) to determine the status of
horticultural production, its potential and dem and and tailor assistance
accordingly. Similar studies would also be undertaken for other
components of the programs.
d) Assist and oversee the implementation of the Missions programs in
the State through Farmers, Societies, and NOs growers associations, self-
help groups, State Institutions and other similar entities.
e) Organize Workshops, Seminars and training programs for all interest
groups / associations at the state level, with the help of State Agriculture
Universities and ICAR institute another institutio ns having technical
expertise.
6.5.1.District Level :
At the District level, the District Mission Committee (DMC) will be,
constituted by the State Government. It will be responsible for project
formulation and monitoring. The DMC may be headed by the Chief
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69 Development Agency (DRDA) having its members, representatives from
concerned line Departments, Growers Associations, Marketing Boards,
Self-help Groups and other Non - Governmental Organizations. The
District Planning in implementing the program depends on their expertise
and available infrastructure. The Districts Horticulture Officer / District
Agriculture Officer will be the Member Secretary.
6.6. PROCEDURE FOR APPROVA L AND
IMPLEMENTATION
State will be required to prepare a State Horticulture Mission Documents
(SHMD) projecting a plan of action and will form the basis for preparing
Annual Action Plans (AAP). The AAP will be area based, on the basis of
existing potential for horticulture development, available infrastructure for
monitoring and implementation, available unspent balance out of previous
releases and capacity to absorb the funds in commissioning the project.
The Ministry of Agriculture would communicate the tentative outlay for
the year by April / May if not earlier to each State which in turn will
indicate sector -wise / district -wise allocation.
The agencies at the District level will prepare the annual action plan
(AAP) keeping in view their priority and potential and submit the plan to
the State Horticulture Mission. The State could engage TSG / Consultancy
services for preparing the SHMD and AAP. The State Horticulture
Mission in turn will prepare consolidated proposal for the state as a
whole, get it vetted by the State Executive Committ ee (SEC) and furnish
25 copies of the same to the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) for
consideration by the National Executive Committee. The SHM may spend
up to 5% of the annual allocation for formulating the SHMD and Annual
Action Plans. Attempt would be ma de in the AAP to address all the issues
relating to horticulture development covering production, post- harvest
management and marketing.
The SHM will upload the AAP, as communicated to the National level EC
indicating approval by SLEC, on the web site exclusively created for the
purpose. The same will be replaced after its approval by national level EC.
Attempt will be made to display the position regarding the AAP on line.
6.7. MISSION FOR INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT
OF HORTICULTURE (MIDH) SCHEMES - NHM
National Horticulture Mission (NHM) is one of the sub- scheme of
Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH), which is
being implemented by State Horticulture Missions (SHM) in selected
districts of 18 States an four Union Territories. For availing benef its and
assistance under the scheme, farmers / beneficiaries should contact the
Horticulture Officer of concerned district. Operational guidelines, cost
norms of different interventions being promoted under the mission etc. are
available on NHM website.
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70 HMNEH -
Horticulture Mission for North East & Himalayan States (HMNEH) is one
of the sub schemes of Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture
(MIDH), which is being implemented by State Horticulture Missions
(SHM) in the North Eastern States and Hima layan States. For availing
benefits and assistance under the scheme, farmers / beneficiaries should
contact the Horticulture Officer of concerned district. Operational
Guidelines, cost norms of different interventions being promoted under the
mission, etc. are available on HMNEH web site.
NBM -
National Bamboo Mission (NBM) is one of the sub schemes of Mission
for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) which is being
implemented by State Bamboo Development Agencies (BDA)/ Forest
Development Agency (FD A) in all the States and UTs. For availing
benefits and assistance under the scheme, farmers / beneficiaries should
contact the Officer of BDA/FDA in the concerned district. Operational
Guidelines, cost norms of different interventions being promoted under the
mission, etc. are on NBM web site.
NHB -
National Horticulture Board (NHB) is implementing various Schemes
under Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) in all
States and UTs. For availing benefits and assistance under NHB scheme,
farmers / beneficiaries should contact the Regional Office of NHB or
NHB Headquarters. Operational Guidelines, cost norms of different
interventions being promoted by NHB, etc. are available on NHB website.
CDB -
Coconut Development Board (CDB) is implementing various Schemes
under Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) in all
Coconut growing states in the country. For availing benefits and assistance
under CDB, farmers / beneficiaries should contact the Regional Office of
CDB or CDB Headquar ters. Operational Guidelines, cost norms of
different interventions being by CDB, etc. on CDB website.
CIH -
Central Institute for Horticulture (CIH) was established at
Medizipehima, Nagaland in 2006 -07 for providing technical back stopping
through capacit y building and training of farmers and Field functionaries in
the North Eastern Region.CIH now one of the sub schemes of MIDH.
However, CIH is not implementing any schemes directly.
IIHR -
The Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR) is an
autonom ous organization acting as a nodal agency for basic, strategic,
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71 such as fruits, vegetable, ornamental, medicinal and aromatic plants and
mushrooms in India.
6.8. ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEM - AN INT EGRATED
APPROACH FOR ADOPTION UNDER NATIONAL
HORTICULTURE MISSION:
During the last two decades, there has been a significant sensitization of
the global community towards environmental preservation and assuring of
food quality. Ardent promoters of organic farming consider that it can
meet both the demands and become the means for complete development
of rural areas. After many years of neglect, organic farming is now finding
place in the mainstream of development. It shows great promise
environmentally, soc ially and commercially. It has environmental
sustainability and productivity at its core, healthy soil, healthy food and
healthy people.
Definition of Organic Farming:
Organic farming is a method of farming system, which primarily aims at
cultivating the l and and raising crops in such a way, so as to keep the soil
alive and in good health. It is the use of organic wastes (crop, animal and
farm wastes, aquatic waste) and other biological materials, along with
beneficial microbes (bio- fertilizers) to release nutrients to crops, which
connotes the organic nature of organic farming. In Indian context it is also
known as “Jaiv -Krishi”.
Concept of Organic Farming:
It is based on the following principles.
1) Nature is the best role model for farming. it neither uses any
input nor demand unreasonable use of water.
2) The entire system is based on intimate understanding of nature’s
ways of replenishment.
3) The soil in this system is considered as a living entity.
4) The soils living population of microbes and other organisms ar e
significant contributors to its fertility on a sustained basis and must
be protected and nurtured, at any cost.
5) The total environment of the soil, from soil structure to soil cover is
more important and must be preserved.
6.9. SUMMARY:
Importance of fruits in human is very essential. Man cannot just live on
cereals. Fruits and vegetables are necessary for good health and also for
balanced diet. Human body cannot maintain proper health and develop
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72 source of vitamins and minerals. Fruits and vegetables also contain pectin,
cellulose that stimulates intestinal activities and energy giving substances
like oils, fats and proteins. Many fruits also serve as medicines.
Over the years, horticulture has emerged as one of the potential
agricultural enterprise in accelerating the growth of economy. Role of
horticulture has become very important in the country’s nutritional
security, poverty alleviation and employment generation programs. It has
offered a wide range of options to the farmers for crop diversification and
ample scope for sustaining large number of Agro -industries generating
huge employment opportunities.
On account of significant production increase in the horticultural crops
across the country, India has emerged as a leading player in the global
scenario. We are the largest producer of coconut and tea and the second
largest producer and exporter of tea, coffee, cashew, spices, and export of
fresh and processed fruits, vegetables, cut flowe rs and export of dried
flowers is also picking up.
Horticulture in India today has become a sustainable and viable venture
for the small and marginal farmers because of a number of thoughtful
research, technological and policy initiatives and inputs. As a result their
food consumption and household income have increased.
Horticultural sector has attracted entrepreneurs for taking up as a
commercial venture.
Plantation crops assume great importance in Indian horticulture. It is a rich
source of national inco me. Fruits have great demand in the international
market, and they are one of the potential earners of foreign exchange.
Therefore there is a great scope for the horticulture industry to grow and
flourish.
6.10. QUESTIONS FOR SELF -STUDY:
1) What is Grafting?
2) What are the different methods of grafting?
3) Explain budding and its different methods.
4) Explain National Horticulture Mission (NHM) at national level.
5) Explain National Horticulture Mission at state and district level.
6) Give the different schemes under Mission for Integrated
Development of Horticulture.
7) Write short note on:
a) National Horticulture Mission
b) Shield budding by T method
c) Organic farming
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73 7
FORESTRY – I
Unit Structure:
7.1. Objectives
7.2. Introduction
7.3. Uses of forest
7.4. Types of forests
7.5. Other classification of Indian forests
7.6. Forests Products and their Uses
7.7. Forest in Maharashtra
7.8. Questions
7.1. OBJECTIVES :
To know -
1) The forests in India and its importance.
2) Various types of forests in the country.
3) Various forest products and forest based industry.
4) Deforestation
5) Social Forestry
6) India’s forest policies and laws.
7.2. INTRODUCTION :

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74 Forests in India are ancient in nature and compositi on. They are rich in
variety and shelter of wide range of flora and fauna. The ancient people
have preserved forests and a large number of religious ceremonies are
centered on and near trees and plants. Even today in many parts of India
the sacred groves e xists and are worshipped. India possesses a distinct
identity, not only because of its geography, history and culture but also of
its diversity of its natural ecosystem. The Indian forests ranges from
evergreen tropical rain forests in the Andaman and Nico bar Islands, the
Western Ghats, and the North Eastern states, to dry alpine scrub high in
the Himalaya to the north. In between the two extremes, the country has
semi -evergreen rain forests, deciduous monsoon forests, and thorn forests,
subtropical pine fo rests in the lower zone and temperate forest.
Forestry in India is a significant rural industry and a major environmental
resource. India is one of the ten most forest -rich countries of the world.
Forest cover of India has increased by 5,081 square km betw een 2013 and
2015. The India State Forest Report 2015 released showed that the
country’s carbon stock has also increased by 103 million tons.
Forests are essential for the sustainability of planet earth. Forests
command great influence on the climate, soil, and environment of our
world.
India is one of the largest consumer of fuel wood, which is five times
higher than what can be sustainably be removed from the forests. A large
percentage of this fuel is grown as biomass remaining from agriculture
and is managed outside forests. Forestry in India is more than just about
wood and fuel. India has a thriving non -wood forest products industry,
producing latex, gums, resins, essential oils, flavors, fragrances and aroma
chemicals, incense sticks, handicrafts, thatching materials and medicinal
plants. Non -wood forest product consumption locally is around 60% and
gives total revenue of 50% from the forest industry in India from non-
wood forest product category.
7.3. USES OF FORESTS:
People began life on this planet as fo rest dwellers. They were food
gatherers and completely depended on the forest for all their basic needs
like food, clothing and shelter. Gradually they began to grow food by
clearing a small patch in the forest to grow food. But the dependence on
forest wa s and is continued till today for paper, timber, fuel -wood,
medicine, fodder, medicinal plants, gum, lac, etc. Forest plays a vital role
in the Indian economy.
A) Direct use of forest –
It protects the wild life. It provides material for industry. It also
attracts rain and stop soil erosion. The evergreen forest yield hard wood
such as teak rose wood and bamboos. The monsoon forests provide teak,
Sal, sandalwood, etc. The hill forests give the best timber and other trees.
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75 20,000 types of medicinal plants. Around 25% of all drugs are derived
from trees. Trees also yield vital industrial oils, resins and dyes.
Forests maintain the ecological balance of the country. So forests are of
great value to us.
Fuel -wood –
Wood is an important source of energy for cooking and heating for the
rural population. Smaller stems are preferred as it is easy to collect and
carry. The wood collected should be easy to split and have low moisture
content to dry f aster. Some of the wood is converted to charcoal and used
for cooking.
Fodder –
Fodder from forest is an important source for cattle and other grazing
animals in the hilly and the arid regions. They are also useful during a
drought. Many varieties of grass es, trees and shrubs are nutritious for the
livestock. Trees that produce a large crown above the reach of cattle are
preferred.
Fencing –
In developing countries fencing with trees and shrubs are preferred as they
are cheap to maintain by giving protectio n. The plant species preferred are
those having thorns or are prickly and have stiff branches and non -edible
leaves. The species selected should be fast growing, hardy and long-lived.
Wind Breaks and Shelter Belts –
Trees grown for wind breaks are bushy and sturdy to withstand hot and
cold strong winds. Casuarina trees have been successful to check
degradation due to salt laden coastal winds. P. Juliflora planted have
successfully stopped the advance of the desert along the desert border.
B) Indirect use of forest –
The best friend of earth and man is the tree. We have the greatest
resources on the earth if we use it respectfully and economically. In short
we can say forest are the treasure -troves of useful things to man and
animals.
Cooling the environment:
Forest are the lungs of the earth as they absorb the carbon dioxide released
by the burning of fuel by man and keeps air fresh and is used by the leaves
to produce food during photosynthesis. The oxygen released thereafter a
by-product of photosynthesis is released in the atmosphere is necessary for
all the living organisms on earth for respiration. No animal or plant can
survive without oxygen. The roots of trees help in absorbing the water
from the ground and supply it to the leaves. The excess water is sen t out
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76 the environment surrounding the forest and its neighborhood. As a result
the forest have a cooling effect.
Prevent soil erosion:
The roots of the trees bind the soil preventing erosion caused by wind or
water. Leaf fall provides a cover to the soil and protects the soil. Casuarina
plant helps in binding the sand and stabilizes the sand dunes in the area.
Regulate the flow of water:
Roots of the trees absorb much of rainwater, and u se it slowly during the
dry season, thus regulating the flow of water and help in controlling floods
and famines. Trees check the flow of running water.
Increase the fertility of soil:
Rotting of the dead leaves and animals in the forest improve the fertil ity of
the soil. Forest cover prevents soil erosion. The fallen leaves of trees add
humus to the soil after their decomposition. Some species of trees have the
ability to fix nitrogen in the soil through decomposition of fallen leaves.
They have the nitrog en- fixing bacteria. So such trees are to be planted to
increase the nitrogen content in the soil. Thus forests help in increasing the
fertility of the soil.
Check on the spread of deserts:
Forests checks on the spread of deserts. The roots of the trees an d plants
bind the sand particles and do not allow their easy transportation by winds.
In the long run forests add humidity to the atmosphere and help in
checking the spread of deserts.
Forest helps in balancing the carbon dioxide and oxygen in the
atmosphe re and regulates the earth’s temperature and weather cycle. They
enhance the local rainfall. They prevent landslide and floods.
Effect on Temperature:
Forests have a far-reaching effect on climate. They ameliorate the
extremes of climate by reducing the heat in summers and cold in winter.
They also influence the amount of rainfall by lowering the temperature of
moisture -laden winds and increase relative humidity of air through the
process of transpiration. The transpiration from the leaves increases the
cloud formation bringing plenty of rain. They reduce the surface
velocity of winds and slow down the process of evaporation.
7.4. TYPES OF FORESTS :
The forests of India can be classified into several types. These are - Taiga
type (consisting of pines, spruce, etc.) , the mixed temperate forests with
both coniferous and deciduous trees, the temperate forests, the sub -
tropical forests, the tropical forests and the equatorial rainforests. These
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77 diverse. We can see that forests are distributed from the rain forests of
Kerala in the south to the Alpine pastures of Ladakh, from the desert of
Rajasthan in the west to the evergreen forests in the North East.
Some definitions of forests:
Forest cover:
All lands, more than one hectare in an area, with a tree canopy density of
more than 10% is called forest cover. Such lands may or may not be
statutorily notified as forest area.
Very Dense Forest:
All lands, with a forest cover with canopy density of 70% and above
Moderately Dense Forests:
All lands, with a forest cover with canopy density of 40-70%
Open Forests:
All lands, with forest cover with canopy density of 10-40%
Mangrove cover:
Mangrove forest is salt tolerant forest ecosystem found mainly in trop ical
and sub -tropical coastal and /or inter -tidal regions. Mangrove cover is the
area covered under mangrove vegetation. It is a part of forest cover and is
classified into three classes viz. very dense, moderately dense and open.
Non -Forest Land:
It is defined as lands without any forest cover
Scrub Cover: Defined as all lands generally in and around forests areas,
having bushes and or poor tree growth, chiefly small or stunted trees with
canopy density less than 10%
Tree cover:
Land with tree patches (blocks and linear) outside the recorded forest area
exclusive of forest cover and less than the minimum mapable area of 1
hectare
Trees Outside Forests:
Trees growing outside Recorded Forest Areas
Different types of forests are:
1) Tropical Evergreen:
These for ests are mainly found in the areas having average annual rainfall
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78 27° C -- North -East India, parts of Western Ghats, the Andaman and
Nicobar, upper Assam, lower slope of Eastern Himalayas, Orissa, along
the foothills of Himalayas, Bhabar and Tarai regions. In the areas where
the average annual rainfall is more than 250 cm, the forests are dense;
composed of tall trees (45m). Trees have multi -stored structures with good
canopies. The trees do not shed their l eaves annually and are hence
evergreen. The ground lacks grasses because of deep shade. However
there are canes, palms, bamboos, ferns, and climbers making the passage
difficult. Due to poor accessibility these forests have not been exploited
properly. In the areas where rainfall varies between 200 to 250 cm and the
mean monthly temperature varies between 24° to 27°C, the evergreen
forests degenerate into semi -evergreen forests. These forests are found
along the Western Ghats, Upper Assam, slopes of Himalay as and Orissa.
2) Tropical Moist Deciduous:
These are typical monsoon forests with teak and sal as the dominant
species. The tropical moist deciduous forests are found in the Sahayadris,
the North Eastern parts of the peninsula and along the foothills of
Hima layas. They form the natural vegetation all over the country where
average annual rainfall ranges between 100 to 200 cm. the typical
landscape consists of tall teak trees with sal, bamboos and shrubs growing
fairly close together to form thick trees. The t rees grown here are Teak,
Sal, Sandalwood, Shisam, Hurra and Khair are economically important
trees.
3) The sub-tropical Montane Forests:
These forests are found in the areas having average annual rainfall
between 100 to 200 cm and the temperature varies betw een 15°and 22°C.
they are found in the North -Western Himalayas (except in Ladakh and
Kashmir), Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh
and on the slopes of the North -Eastern hill states. Trees having broad leaf
are found in these areas but pine is the main tree. Oak Jamun and
rhododendron are the other trees found in these forests.
4) The Tropical Thorny Forests:
It is a degraded version of the moist deciduous forest. They are found in e
areas having average annual rainfall between 75 and 100 cm and the
average annual temperature between 16° and 22.5°C. these forests are
found in peninsular India, rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar
Pradesh, kachh, Madhya Pradesh and the foothills of the Himalayas. The
important trees found in this area are acacia, wild-palms, euphorbias, jhad,
tamarix, khair, kokko, dhaman, cacti, kanju and palas.
5) The Dry Deciduous Forests:
These forests are found in the areas where average annual rainfall is
between 100 -150 cm. they are characterized by uneven canopies d ue to
which enough light reaches the ground for the growth of grasses and
climbers. Grasses and shrubs appear during the general rainy season. The
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79 6) The Himalayan Moist Forests:
These are found in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
and northern hilly parts of North Bengal. The wet temperate type of forest
is found in a belt with an altitude varying between 1000 and 2000 meters.
They are as bands of crested dark green land scape of coniferous varieties.
Oak, chir, chestnut, sal, shrubs and nutritious grasses are the important
varieties of trees found in these forests.
7) The Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests:
These type of forests are seen in Jammu and Kashmir, Lahul, Chamba,
kinnaur (Himachal Pradesh), and Sikkim. These are coniferous type
forests with shrubs. Deodar, oak, chilgoza, ash, maple, olive, mulberry,
willow, celtis and parrotia are the important varieties of trees found here.
8) Montane Wet Temperate Forests:
Himalayas fr om Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh between the
altitudes of 1500m to 3300m where the temperature varies between 12° C
to 15°C, and the mean annual rainfall is between 100 to 250 cm, these
type of forests are found. The trees found here are Oak, Fir, Spruce, Picea,
Deodar, Magnolia Celtis, Chestnut, Cedar, maple, silver -fir, Kail and
Yew. These forests also contain scrubs, creepers, and ferns. The wood
obtained from these forests is durable.
9) Alpine and Sub-Alpine Forests:
These forests are found all along the Himalayas at an altitude ranging
from 2500 to 3000m. The characteristic of these forests is that it has short
dwarf conifers and lush green nutritious grasses during the summer
season. Kail, spruce, yew, firs, birch, honeysuckle, artemesia, potent illa
and small scrubs are the trees found in this zone.
10) Desert Vegetation:
It is seen in the west of Aravallis in the state of Rajasthan and northern
Gujarat. The diurnal and annual range of temperature is high and the
average annual rainfall in this zone is less than 50 cm. The main trees in
the desertsare acacia, cacti, jhar and khejra, kanju and wild palms.
11) Tidal (Mangrove):
This type of forests is found along the coastal areas of the Bay of Bengal
in the states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and
along the coasts of Kachchh, Kathiwar and Gulf of Khambat. Wherever
there are frequent tides these types of forests are found. The mangrove
attaining height up to 30 m is the most important tree and is utilized for
fuel. Sundarban is covere d by the sundri trees supplying hard durable
timber for construction and boat making. Higher grounds support screw
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80 Five largest mangroves and swamp forests in India:
Mangrove Forest is the home of different varieties of trees, low and
medium height, etc. The swamps protect coastal areas of India and home
to so many species of aquatic birds, water animals and reptiles.
Sundarbans Mangroves:
The Great Sundarbans is the largest in the world. It is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. This region is densely covered with mangroves. It is a
National Park, Tiger Reserve and a Biosphere Reserve Park of India.
Bhitarkanika Mangroves:
it is the second largest forest in India located in Orissa.
Bhitarkarnika is created by the two rivers delta of Brahmani and Baitarani
rivers and is one of the important Ramsar Wetland in India.
Godavari Krishna Mangroves:
This mangrove lies in the delta of Godavari and Krishna rivers in Andhra
Pradesh. It is under the protection of Calimere Wildlife and Pulicat Lake
Bird Sanctuary.
Pichavaram Mangroves:
It is situated at Pichavaram near Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu. They rank
among one of the most exquisite scenic spot in Tamil Nadu and is a home
of many species of aquatic birds.
Baratang Island Mangroves:
It is a beautiful swamp located at Great Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Mangrove swamps of Baratang are situated between middle and south
Andamans, capital city Port Blair.
Myristica swamp of Karnataka, Western Ghats, Konkan, Gujaratand
mangroves of Kollam are few more sites of wetland in India.
7.5. OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN FORESTS:
Apart from the major classification of Indian forests described above, the
Indian forests can be classified on the basis of statutes, owne rship,
composition and exploitability.
1) Legal or Administrative Classification:
This classification is done so as to protect the forests against indiscriminate
destruction. The Indian forests are divided into (a) Reserved, (b) Protected
and (c) Un-classed.
Reserved and protected forests are permanent forests. They are
maintained for regular supply of timber and other forests products as
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81 cover the total forest area of about 54% and 29% respe ctively. The
un-classed forests cover around 17% of the total forest areas and are
largely degraded, unproductive and unprofitable.
2) Classification based on Ownership:
The government through different departments such as forest department
owns most of the f orests. Some of the forest land is owned by corporate
bodies. A negligible portion of less than 1% is privately owned. Some
forest land in Meghalaya, Orissa, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh is
privately owned.
3) Classification according to Composition:
According to the composition there are mainly two types of forests (a)
Coniferous Forests and (b) Broad leaved.
(a) Coniferous Forests:
They cover only 3.5 million hectares and are mainly found in the
Himalayan ranges. Deodar, chir, fir, spruce, pine, etc. are some of the
species of coniferous forests. Due to their inaccessibility, difficult terrain
and lack of transport facilities they are not properly exploited though they
contain valuable softwood timber.
(b) Broad Leaved Forests:
They are widely spread and cover about 9 5% of the total forest cover of
India. It is a provider of valuable timber and sal and teak are the most
important species in these forests and they cover an area of about 16.55%
and 13.2 % of the total area under broad - leaved forests respectively.
7.48% of the total area is covered by Bamboo. Rosewood, Indian laurel,
shistram, garyan and benteak are the other species of the broad -leaved
forests.
4) Classification according to Exploitability:
The forests can be classified into (a) Exploitable, (b) Potentially
Exploitable and (c) Others from the exploitability point of view. About
half of our forests are exploitable and one fourth are potentially
exploitable. Most of the exploitable forests supply non - coniferous timber.
These forests are found in Assam, Arunac hal Pradesh, Tripura, Western
Ghats, Satpura, Maikal, Chota Nagpur plateau, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Orissa, and the adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh and
Chattisgarh. In others category a large portion of our forests are
inaccessible for effective exp loitation and are also termed as non -
merchantable. As they are in the high mountains of Himalayas in Kashmir
and Arunachal Pradesh they cannot be exploited due to lack of transport
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82 7.6. FORESTS PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES :
A forest product is any mate rial derived from a forest for direct
consumption or for commercial use, such as lumber, paper, or forage for
livestock. Wood the dominant forest product is used for many purposes –
wood fuel in the form of firewood or charcoal, or the finished structural
material used for construction of buildings, or as raw material in the form
of wood pulp used for making paper. All the other wood products derived
from forest resources, comprising a broad variety of other forest products,
are collectively described as no n-timber forests products.
Forest produce is defined under section 2(4) of the Indian Forest Act,
1927. Its legal definition includes timber, charcoal, caoutchouc, catechu,
wood -oil, resin, natural varnish, bark, lac, myrobalans, mahua flowers
(whether found inside or brought from a forest or not), trees and leaves,
flowers and fruits, plants (including grass, creepers, reeds, moss), wild
animals, skins, tusks, horns, bones, cocoons, silk, honey, wax, other parts
or produce of animals, and also includes pea t, surface soil, rocks and
minerals etc. when found inside or brought from a forest, among other
things.
Forest produce can be divided into several categories. Forest produce can
be categorized into three types, from the point of usage – Timber, Non
Timber and Minor Minerals. Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are
also known as Minor Forest Produce (MFP) or Non -Wood Forest Produce
(NWFP). The NTFP is further categorized into Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants (MAP), oil seeds, fiber and floss, resins, edible plants, bamboo,
reeds and grasses.
Timber:
More than 1500 species of trees are commercially exploited for timber in
different parts of India. It is used in timber based industries such as
plywood, saw mills, paper and pulp, and particle boards.
Bamboo:
Bambo o is common in the north -eastern and the south - western parts of
India, growing along with the deciduous or evergreen forests. The main
commercial use of bamboo is as timber substitute, fodder, raw material
for basket, paper and pulp, and other small -scale industries.
Cane:
Cane or rattan is the stem of a climber plant. They are used for a large
number of household items like walking sticks, polo sticks, baskets,
picture frames, screens, and mats.
Grasses:
Hundreds of varieties of grasses are there in the f orests of our country nd
are used for anumber of purposes. Lemon grass, palmrose grass, bhabbhar
and khus are some of the varieties.
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83 Fruit:
Fruit trees are an important source of income and food for the rural
household. Fruit trees are commonly planted in some areas along the
field borders and around the wells. Mango, coconut, orange, pear,
jackfruit, jamun, black berry, karvanda and many other fruit trees grow
wild in the forests.
Medicinal Use:
Since ancient times humans have depended on the forests to cure
themselves of various ailments. Now also man is dependent on the forest
for herbs and plants to fight against diseases. Neem is the most important
trees of the medicinal trees found in India. Leaves bark and other parts of
many trees are used to m ake various ayurvedic medicines due to their
medicinal value.
Fiber:
Plant fiber has many uses. Soft fibers like jute are derived from the
stems of a plant. Hard fiber is derived from leaves of hemp and sisal is
used to make fabrics for different applicati ons. Coir is another form of
fiber obtained from the coconut plant and is used for making ropes.
Floss:
Many species of Indian fruit trees produce a silky floss, which is
used to make cotton wool, mattresses and pillows. The most common
species is Simal.
Essential oils:
The source of essential oils from tropical grasses is lemon grass, citronella
and khus. Oil is distilled from the wood of various species such as
sandalwood, agar and pine. Oil is also derived from certain plant leaves
like eucalyptus, camph or, wintergreen and pine. These oils are used for
making soaps, cosmetics, incense, pharmaceuticals and confectionery.
Biodiesel:
Biodiesel is a clean burning alternative fuel, produced from domestic,
renewable resources. Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but can be blended
at any level with petroleum, diesel to create a biodiesel blend.
7.7. FORESTS IN MAHARASHTRA :
Every state in India has different types of forests. Maharashtra also has
different types of forest. Forests in Maharashtra are on the konkan coast,
the sahyadris, the deccan Plateau and the vidharbha region of Maharashtra.

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84 1) Forests on the Konkan Coast:
The different types of forests on the konkan coast include intertidal
swampy forests, deciduous forest and semi -evergreen forests. The
mangrove forest s are the significant intertidal swampy forests of the
konkan coast are currently under tremendous pressure from urbanization
and industrialization. Mangroves in Mumbai also are getting exploited and
are in danger due to the large -scale urbanization in the metropolis and the
biotic threats and human interference (agriculture, solid waste disposal,
industry, mining, etc.) and grazing.
2) Forests in Sahyadris:
The Crestline of the Sahyadri forest is also called “GhatMaatha” as it has
the tallest peaks as well as the highest plateau that cover the entire range.
The Sahyadris have evergreen forests on the wet areas along the crest due
to cool temperature and heavy rainfall. Dry deciduous forests along with
grassland are seen in the dry and shallow areas of the cres t. Brahmi,
Aloevera, Ashwagandha, Tulsi are the herbs from sahyadris.
3) Forests on the Deccan Plateau:
Moist deciduous forests are seen on the Eastern Coast and dry deciduous
forests on the Central and Southern Deccan Plateau. The moist deciduous
forests of Vidarbha run along the low hills of the northern sections of the
eastern ghats of Andhra Pradesh, and cover the eastern parts of the
Satpura range in Madhya Pradesh.
The dry deciduous forests on the Central Deccan Plateau cover most of
the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.
Maharashtra has five types of forests and each type represents a unique
Eco-system.
1) Southern Tropical Semi -Evergreen Forests:
This type of forests is mostly seen on upper hill slope from 450 -
1050m above in the Western Ghats. The main spec ies of plants found are
kinjal, anjani, hirda, jambul, parjamun, mango, pisa, etc.
2) Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests:
Two sub-types occur under this group.
a) Moist Teak bearing forests:
From commercial point of view these are important and valuable f orests
of the state. These forest are mainly confined to Project Tiger area in
Melghat region of Amravati district, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli and Thane
districtshaving species of trees like teak, ain, shisam, haldu, moha, bija,
kalam, semal, bamboo etc.
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85 b) Mois t Mixed Deciduous Forests:
Teak is occasionally present and the evergreen component of species is
larger than in case of Teak bearing forests. The main species found are
bija, semal, behada, shisam, jambul, ain, bendara etc.
3) Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests:
This type of forest occupies a major part of the state. This forest produce
middle and small size timber while, the major species is teak. The sub-
types are -
a) Dry Teak Bearing Forests:
Main species found is teak and other species are tiwas, khair, shivan,
dhawada etc.
b) Dry Mixed Forests:
Teak is occasionnaly present and the evergreen component of species is
larger than in case of teak bearing forests. The main species found are bija,
semal, behada, shisum,jambul, ain, bendara etc.
4) Southern Tropical Thorn Forests:
This type covers the forests of the low rainfall areas of Marathwada,
Vidharbha, Khandesh and western Maharashtra. Most of the forests are
heavily degraded due to low fertility coupled with low rainfall. The
main species found are babul, hiwar, bor, palas, hingabet. These
forests are full of Euphorbia and cassia scrub.
5) Littoral and Swamp Forests:
These forests occur along the creeks and littoral in Sindhudurg and Thane
district. Though their comparative extent in the state is marg inal, they are
important for protection of seacoast and marine life. The typical mangrove
species found in this area are Avincennia species and Rhizophora species
etc.
7.8. QUESTIONS FOR SELF -STUDY:
1) What are the direct and indirect uses of forests?
2) Answer in brief the different types of forests in India.
3) Which are the five largest mangroves and swamp forests in
India?
4) Give the other classifications of Indian forests.
5) How are the forests products useful to us?
6) Explain in brief the forests in Maharashtra.
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Unit Structure:
8.1. Deforestation
8.2. Causes of Deforestation
8.3. Consequences of Deforestation
8.4. Solutions to Deforestation
8.5. Social Forestry
8.6. Types of Social Forestry
8.7. Objectives of Social Forestry
8.8. Questions
8.1. DEFORESTATION:
India is not only famous fo r its diverse wildlife, architectural marvels and
culture, but is also famous for its dense and vast forest cover. Variety of
flora and fauna are benefited by the climate in India. Forest is the second
largest land use in India other than agriculture. The National Forest
Stipulates that 1/3 of area should be under forest or tree cover. But being a
mega -bio diversity country, the nation possesses high level of endemism.
The rising demand for forest based products and resultant deforestation
and encroachment has led to a severe loss of natural resources and
destruction of habitat.

www.downtoearth.org.in
Deforestation is one of the major causes to the environmental
degradation, which affects the small farmers, ranches, loggers and
plantation companies. The expansion of cropped areas and pastures are a
major source of deforestation. The term “Deforestation” means the
complete long -term removal of tree cover.it occurs for many reasons - trees
are cut down for selling as fuel or timber, cleared land is used as pas ture
for livestock, plantations of commodities and settlements. The removal of munotes.in

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87 trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, loss
of biodiversity and aridity. The climate is influenced by the lost forest
cover and contributes to a loss of biodiversity. The economic activity of
the state and country is adversely affected by siltation, flooding, soil
degradation and reduced timber supply; in turn threaten the livelihood of
the people.
Lack of forest management and deficient environ mental laws are some of
the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many
countries, deforestation occurs both naturally and human induced.
Deforestation causes extinction of plant species, changes to climatic
conditions, desertificat ion, and displacement of populations.
8.2. CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION:
1) Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation is another cause for
deforestation. Shifting cultivation occurred due to poor fertility of soil. In
this cultivation small patch of tropical forests i s cleared, destroyed and
burned for vegetation. Crops are grown as long as soil is productive. Then
the land is abandoned and the cultivators move on to a fresh patch of land.
The abandoned land is allowed to lie as such for long periods. Due to
which the regret of vegetation takes place and natural ecosystem is
restored. Shifting cultivation thus worked in harmony with nature. In this
method the soil is unable to regain its fertility before it is put to use again.
This causes degradation of soil and failur e of crops after crops. As they
don’t get crops, more and more land is cleared of forests and put to similar
over exploitation. The overall result is that green forests are being
gradually replaced by barren wasteland.
2) Expansion of Agriculture: The increas ing demand for agricultural
product has forced to bring more and more land under cultivation for
which forests are destroyed, grasslands ploughed, uneven grounds
leveled, marshlands drained and even land water is reclaimed. This
expansion marks more ecolog ical destruction. In tropical regions much of
the mineral material is lodged in the plant biomass. The removal of trees
takes away large part of nutrients. The soil becomes infertile and is unable
to support farming for long duration.
3) Extension of Cultivat ion on Hill Slopes : Agriculture has always
been concentrated on planes and floors of valleys. But farming on narrow
flat steps cut one after another across the slope or terrace farming is an
age-old practice. The increasing population and their growing nec essities,
have forced man to go up to the mountain slopes for cultivation. More and
more mountain slopes are cleared of plants, steps carved out against many
odds cultivation is attempted. But after few cropping seasons the
productivity decreases.
4) Timber Harvesting : Timber is an important asset for the prosperity
of the country. Commercial wood is found ready in national as well as
international markets. Natural forests are being exploited due to logging
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88 of deforestation. Live trees having thick and straight trunk are cut filled
and transported to commercial establishments. Large stretches of forests
are destroyed and damaged in this process. The government, large
companies or affluent co ntractors enjoy the profits from timber trade. The
local people get very little share in the benefits while axing their own
resource base.
5) Fire Wood Collection: Wood is used as fuel for cooking and for
providing heat in chilling winters by majority of rura l populations as well
as large number of people living in small towns and cities and developing
countries. Fire wood collection contributes much to the depletion of forest
cover. The more the forests are dense the more is the production of
combustible mate rial in the form of dead twigs, leaves, etc. There is hardly
any need to cut live trees in dense forests. But in case of light wooded
forests, a slow thinning of wood lands occur due to regular foraging or
cutting of wood by the villagers due to high -press ure demands. The dead
wood is actually manufactured, trees are axed, their barks are girdled and
live trees become personal head loads to find their way to local markets.
6) Commercial Logging : Commercial logging supplies wood
(meranti, teak, Mahagony and ebo ny) to the international markets. This
commercial logging destroys trees as well as opening up forest for
agriculture. Even cutting of trees for fire wood and building material, the
heavy lopping of foliage for fodder and heavy grazing of saplings by
domes tic animals like goats.
7) Mining: Mining processes because environmental impacts like
erosion, formation of sinkholes, and loss of biodiversity and
contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals
disposed. To increase the available room for the storage of the created
debris and soil, in some areas additional forest logging is done in the
vicinity of mines. If the leakage of chemicals from mining processes is
not controlled properly it affects the health of local population. The best
example of pollution from mining activities is the coal fires, lasting for
years or even decades, producing massive amounts of environmental
damage.
8) Increase in population: With the increase in population the needs
also increase and forests resources are utilized. Agricultural lands and
settlements are created permanently by clearing forests to meet the
demands of rapidly growing population.
9) Urbanization and Industrialization: Major amount of forests land
are cut in order to promote industrialization and urbanizati on, as they need
land to grow. As a result harmful effect is created on environment and
forest ecological balance.
10) Construction of dam reservoirs: Large -scale devastation of forests
takes place for building dams, which breaks the natural ecological balance
of the region. As a result floods, droughts and landslides become a
frequent phenomenon in such areas. Forests are the repositories of
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89 the forests we lose the species having marvelo us or medicinal value even
before knowing them. These storehouses of species that have evolved over
millions of years are lost due to deforestation in a single stroke.
11) Forest fires: Forest fires may be natural or manmade, which causes
huge forest loss.
12) Overgrazing: When plants are exposed to intensive grazing for
extended periods of time or without sufficient recovery periods
overgrazing occurs. This is caused by either livestock in poorly managed
agricultural applications or by over populations of native or non -native
wild animals. Overgrazing reduces the usefulness, productivity and
biodiversity of the land and also is one cause of desertification and
erosion. Overgrazing also spreads invasive species of non-native plants
and of weeds.
13) Decreased Evapotrans piration: Deforestation contributes to
decreased evaporation, transpiration, which lessens the atmospheric
moisture. In some cases it affects precipitation levels downwind from the
deforested areas. The water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost
in runoff and returns directly to the oceans.
The degradation of forest ecosystem has also been traced to economic
incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest
conservation. Many important forest functions have no markets, an d
hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forest’s owners or
the communities that rely on forests for their wellbeing.
8.3. CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION:
Depending on the needs of the social group concerned, deforestation has
made it possible for communities to be built. Forests make way for
residential houses, office buildings and factories. Government is able to
build roads to make trade and transport easier for the convenience of
residents. Deforestation also means the conversion of forestla nd to
productive land for agricultural uses for better and more abundant
production of food and materials, which virtually eradicates periods of
want and lack. From economic point of view deforestation has contributed
much in giving many communities the opportunities to make positive
changes in their times. Unfortunately the negative consequences of
deforestation outweigh its positive effects.
1) Food Problems: The deforested area is not suitable for
conservation. Most of the deforested area is actually unsuit able for long-
term agricultural use like ranching and farming. As soon as the forest cover
is removed the land rapidly degrades in quality by losing its fertility and
arability. The soil in many deforested areas is not suitable for supporting
annual crops. Most of the grasslands are also not productive compared to
arable soils and therefore are unfit for long term cattle grazing.
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90 2) Flooding: Deforestation results to watersheds that are no longer able
sustain and regulate water flows from rivers and streams. The forest serves
as cover against erosion. Trees absorb water and keep the amount of water
in watersheds to a manageable level. As the trees are cut too much water
results to downstream flooding causing great disasters in many parts. This
results in the e rosion of the fertile topsoil and is flooded in the low - lying
areas.
Many coastal fisheries and coral reefs suffer due to the sedimentation
deposited due to flooding. This results to negative effects in the economic
viability of many businesses and fatali ties in wildlife population.
3) Exposing soil to heat and rain: By clearing the tropical rain forests
heavy rainfall and high sunlight quickly damage the topsoil in the forests.
As a result forests will take much longer to regenerate and the land will
not be available and suitable for agricultural use for quite some time.
4) Loss of Biodiversity: The most serious consequence of
deforestation is the loss of biodiversity. Deforestation means the
destruction and extinction of many species of plants and animals, many of
them will remain unknown and their benefits will be left undiscovered.
5) Displacement of indigenous communities: Deforestation threatens
the life and survival of some indigenous people and communities. Forests
workers feel insecure due to loss of forests .
6) Extinction of Flora and Fauna: Flora and Fauna are accustomed to
their habitat. Due to massive felling down of trees various species of
plants and animals are lost. The animals lose their habitat and are forced to
move from native location to new locatio n. Some of them are even pushed
to extinction as they find it difficult to adjust to the new habitats. Our
world has lost many species of plants and animals in the last couple of
decades.
7) Economic Loss : Frequent occurrence and strength of floods and
droug hts affect the economy of the country. Deforestation also counts to a
loss of future markets for eco-tourism. It is to be understood that the value
of forests is more when it is left standing than it could be worth when
harvested.
8) Health Issues: The stress of environmental change may reduce
resistance power in some species and may make them more susceptible to
the effect of insects, pollution and diseases.
9) Increase in Global Warming: Trees play a major role in
controlling global warming. The trees utilize t he greenhouse gases,
restoring the balance in the atmosphere. With constant deforestation the
ratio of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has increased, adding to our
global warming woes.
10) Climate Change: Deforestation affects the climate in more than one
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91 the lac on trees. Trees provide the required shade that keeps the soil moist.
This leads to the imbalance in the atmospheric temperature further making
conditions difficult for the ecosystem. Loss of forest cover results in
increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere and
contributes to global warming. Deforestation leads to the extreme
conditions of climate in nature.
8.4. SOLUTIONS ON DEFORESTATION:
Trees play a vital rol e in our life, but are being destroyed at an alarming
rate. Trees are cut and burnt down for a number of reasons. Forest is
logged to supply timber for wood and paper products, to clear land for
crops, cattle and housing. Other causes include mining and oil
exploitation, urbanization, acid rains and wildfires. Deforestation also
contributes to air and water pollution, a loss of biodiversity, erosion and
climatic disruption. According to the United Nation’s Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO), the 33 million acres of forestland that
are lost annually around the globe are responsible for 20% of human
caused greenhouse gas emissions. So many of the choices we make
throughout the day anywhere in the world may be we are shopping, eating,
drinking water or even driving are powered by deforestation.
Here’s what we can do about deforestation:
1) Plant a tree.
2) Go paperless.
3) Recycle and buy recycled products.
4) Look for Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification on wood
and wood products.
5) Eat vegetarian meals as often as possible.
We can take one step further by making sure the choices we make at home,
at the store, at work, or anywhere else or doing any work don’t contribute
to the problem of deforestation. Lets make the planet greener and healthier
by devising effective solutions for deforestation.
Solutions to Deforestation:
A) Improved Methods of farming: For growing crops and rearing
cattle trees, the land is to be cleared to carry out the agricultural operations
and for grazing. Farmers should use new methods of farming to prevent
clearing of land. This in turn will prevent the indiscriminate cutting down
of trees.
B) Cyclic Agriculture: In this type of agriculture land is used for
cultivation till the soil loses its fertility and then it is abandoned. After few
years the natural vegetation makes the soil fertile again. The time span in
which the soil remains barren can be utilized for cattle grazing. This helps
in preserving forests as trees are not cut and land cleared for creating
farmlands for farming.
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92 C) Crop Rotati on: In crop rotation farming, the same plot of land is
utilized to grow seasonal crops, one after the other. Cutting down trees to
clear new land for cultivation is prevented by this method. It also increases
the productivity of soil.
D) Use of High -Yielding Variety Seeds (HYV Seeds): HYV seeds are
often drought and insect resistant. The production is more by utilization of
small piece of land. This restricts cutting and clearing of forests land for
cultivation.
E) Hydroponics: It is a special technique of growin g plants in water
(without soil) containing dissolved nutrients.
G) Another solution is to curb the felling of trees, by employing a series
of rules and laws to govern it.
H) Clear cutting of forests must be banned. It is a practical solution and
is very feasibl e.
I) Land cleared of its tree cover for urban settlements should be urged
to plant trees in the vicinity and replace the older trees that were cut by
planting young trees.
Trees are being planted under several initiatives every year, but they still
don’t match the number of trees we have already lost.
International Programs:
REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
is a program initiated to provide monetary assistance to developing
countries facing the problem of deforestation. The monetary assistance
provided is utilized to roll back or limit deforestation and stop practices
that harm the environment.
Initiative by FSC - Forest Stewardship Council is a non-profit
organization aiming at minimizing the impact of commercial logging on
forests around the world. It provides certifications to timber logs and
products that have originated from sustainable forests and ensures that
logging does not exceed capacities of forests, thus allowing long -term
sustainable harvesting. A small way to help FSC to achieve its mission of
saving forests is to buy wood products with the FSC trademark.
National Initiative -As a national initiative, the government of the country
needs to impose strict rules to put stop to deforestation and take strict
action again st offenders. Initiative should be taken to plant trees both in
urban and rural areas. In urban area barren land should be used for
planting. Measures should be taken to compensate for the tree loss.
Forests should be guarded and logging practices should b e watched on.
Government should allow special incentives to organizations taking part in
afforestation. Tax cuts should be granted to corporations to get them
actively interested in reforestation.
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93 Scarcity of water will disturb the entire ecosystem and tr ees cannot grow
in areas deficient in water supply. So water management programs should
ensure that water wastage is reduced and help promote the growth of trees
in water scarcity areas.
8.5. SOCIAL FORESTRY:
The concept of social forestry aimed at the producti on of fuel wood, fodder
and small timber for local communities. It calls for a grass root initiative
in which local communities have to be both the implementers and
beneficiaries of the program. The forest department and external agencies
would only provid e consultancy and support. The central focus of this
concept is the active involvement of local people.
The need for social forestry scheme was felt as India has a dominant rural
population depending largely on fuel wood and other biomass for their
cooking and heating. The demand for fuel wood will not decrease but the
area under forest will reduce further due to the growing population and
increasing human activities. So the government is trying to increase forests
areas that are close to human settlements. The degradation over the years
due to human activities needed to be afforested. So trees were to be
planted in and around agricultural fields. Plantation of trees along railway
lines and roadsides, river and canal banks were carried out. Trees were
plante d in village common land, government wasteland, and panchayat
land. Social forestry scheme was initiated in India to increase fuel
availability in rural areas and to prevent soil erosion.
The idea behind the social forestry scheme was to create and make
available forests on any land that was available and not used for any
other purpose. This scheme was implemented with the help of society for
meeting the needs of society through the forests created and pressure on
natural forest is thereby reduced. It can be stated that social forestry is of
the people by the people and for the people.
Social Forestry means the management and protection of forests and
afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the
environmental, social and rural developmen t. The term, social forestry
was first used in India in 1976 by the National Commission on
Agriculture, Government of India. It was then that India embarked upon a
social forestry project with the aim of taking the pressure off currently
existing forests by planting trees on all unused and fallow land.
Involvement of common people:
Social forestry also aims at raising plantations by the common man so as
to meet the growing demand for timber, fuel wood, fodder, etc. so as to
reduce pressure on traditional fo rests areas. This concept has existed
through the centuries all over the country, but now it is being given a new
character. Introducing this scheme, the government formally recognized
the local community’s rights to forest resources, and is now encouragin g
rural people’s participation in the management of natural resources. The
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94 forestry scheme, as part of a drive towards afforestation and rehabilitating
the degraded forest and common lands. Plant a tree challenge movement
has been started to invoke a sense among people to come and participate
and take every occasion to plant a tree, as it is their responsibility.
8.6. TYPES OF SOCIAL FORESTRY:
Social Forestry Scheme can be categorized into groups - farm forestry,
community forestry, extension forestry and agroforestry.
A) Farm Forestry: Commercial and Non -Commercial farm forestry is
being promoted in one form or the other in almost all the countries where
social forestry program have been taken up. In many areas this tradition
of growing trees on the farmland already exists. Individual farmers are
being encouraged to plant trees on their own farmland to meet the
domestic needs of the family. At present non -commercial farm forestry is
the main thrust of most of the social forestry projects in the country. It is
not always necessary that the farmer grows trees for fuel wood, but many a
times they grow trees without any economic motive. They may plant trees
to provide shade for the agricultural crops, as w ind shelters, for soil
conservation or to use wasteland. Farm forestry is another name for
Agroforestry; a part of social forestry.
B) Community Forestry: It is also called as Rural Forestry. This is
another scheme taken up under the social forestry program. It is the
raising of trees on community land and not on private land as in farm
forestry. This program aims to provide for the entire community and not
for any individual. The government provides seedlings, fertilizer but the
community has to take responsi bility of protecting the trees. Some
communities manage the plantations sensibly and in a sustainable manner
for the benefit of the village. While, some took advantage and sold the
timber for a short -term individual profit. It is very easy to exploit the
common land, as it is everyone’s land. Large -scale planting of eucalyptus
plant is done in India, as it is a fast growing exotic plant, making it a part
of the drive to reforest the subcontinent, and create an adequate supply of
timber for rural communities .
C) Extension Forestry: Extension forestry is nothing but planting of
trees on the roadside, canals and railways and planting on wasteland.
Extension means increasing the boundaries of forests. Under this project
lots of trees were planted and there has been creation of wood lots in the
village common lands, government wastelands and panchayat lands.
D) Urban Forestry: The aim of urban forestry is to bring trees to the
door of the urban people. It lays emphasis on the aesthetic development of
urban areas. Flower and fruit trees of different varieties having different
seasons of bearing fruits and flowers and other ornamental varieties of
plants are planted along roadsides, canal banks, near village, towns and
cities. Urban forestry also includes beautification of houses, roads and
vacant lands. It also aims at creation of tree reserves in towns and cities.
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95 E) Agroforestry: In agroforestry, Silvi cultural practices are combined
with agricultural crops like leguminous crop, along with orchard farming
and livestock ran ching on the same piece of land. In short we can say
agroforestry as growing of forest trees along with agricultural crop on the
same piece of land.
In scientific way agroforestry is defined as a sustainable land use system
that maintains or increase the total yield by combining food crop
together with forest tree and livestock ranching on the same unit of land,
using management practices that takes care of the social and cultural
characteristics of the local people and the economic and ecological
condition of the local area.
8.7. OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL FORESTRY:
Social forestry schemes have been started throughout India making a
difference in forest cover and benefiting rural and urban communities. The
main objectives of the scheme are:
1) To improve the environment for protecting agriculture from adverse
climatic factors.
2) Increase the natural beauty of the landscape; create recreational
forests for the benefit of rural and urban population.
3) Increase the supply of wood fuel for domestic use, small timber for
rural hou sing, agricultural implements, fodder for livestock and minor
forest produce for local industries and ensure the release of cow dung
that can be used as manure.
4) To increase production of fruits and add to the potential food resources
for the country and to provide shade and ornamental trees for the
landscape.
5) Land rehabilitation. Help to conserve soil and water and to maintain
ecological balance by enhancing biomass.
6) To help in the creation of shelterbelts around agricultural fields so as
to increase their productivity.
7) Provide employment opportunities and thus increase the family
income and help to alleviate poverty.
8) Help to raise the standard of living and quality of life of the rural and
the urban people. To meet the recreational needs of the rural
popula tion and to include the consciousness and love of trees amongst
the people and to foster the spirit of co -operative enterprises.
9) To provide a favorable environment to the tribals to help them
preserve their cultural identity as they are intimately related to forests.
10) Social forestry aims at popularizing the planting and tending of trees in
farms, villages, municipal and public lands for their economic,
protective and aesthetic value.
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96 Mission:
a) Afforestation of abandon ed barren lands and mined areas.
b) To carry out a need based and time bound program of afforestation
with special emphasis on fuel wood and fodder development on all
degraded and denuded lands/forests.
c) Afforestation on under -utilized lands under state, insti tutional or
private ownership.
d) Green belts in urban/industrial areas.
e) Linear strip plantation of fast growing species on sides of public roads,
rivers, streams and irrigation canals.
f) Farm forestry in the form of raising rows of trees on bund or
boundaries of fields and individual trees in private agricultural land as
well as creation of wind breaks round a farm or orchard by raising one
or two lines of trees.
g) Shelter belt for the purpose of shelter from wind and sun covering
areas larger than a single farm on a planned pattern.
h) Raise flowering trees and shrubs mainly to serve as recreation forests
for the urban and rural population.
i) People’s participation involving women and young people in
conservation of forests, wildlife and environment.
j) Creating environm ental awareness and celebrating Vanamahotsava,
environment day, wildlife week, etc.
Advantages of Social Forestry:
a) Provides fruit, fuel, fodder and timber.
b) Conserves soil against erosive forces and improve the soil fertility.
c) Helps in increased rainfall through transpiration.
d) Reduces surface run-off of water and sedimentation of reservoirs,
rivers, streams etc.
e) It facilitates the infiltration of water and helps in the maintenance of the
ground water table.
f) It helps in bringing the deep -seated nutrients to the soil surface and
helps in environmental conservation by absorbing carbon dioxide and
releasing oxygen by the plants in the atmosphere.
g) Noise pollution is controlled.
h) Cottage industries can be developed in large numbers.
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97 Reasons for Failure of Social Forestry Program:
A) The main objective of social forestry program was totally ignored. It
did not fulfill the need of rural households the access to fuel wood and
fodder for domestic consumption. Women and children had to spend
their maximum time to collect t he fuel wood.
B) Involvement of landless people in the afforestation program was a
failure. In fact it aggravated poverty and unemployment in rural areas.
C) It did not involve women who collect fuel for their daily need. It did
not involve the tribals who are deeply interested in the protection and
promotion of forests.
D) Cutting of trees and cattle browsing and grazing could not be stopped.
E) The bigger farmers were the only beneficiaries of the social forestry
program.
F) Last but not the least in social forestry pro gram hardy exotic species of
trees like Eucalyptus was planted on large scale on farmlands and
public lands. This lowered the ground water table and also reduced the
growth and colonization of native plant species.
This ambitious program was not successful in our country as it lacked
community involvement, wrong selection of tree species to be planted and
lack of effective control over cattle browsing and grazing, and cutting
trees. The pressure on natural forests could not be minimized.
8.8. QUESTIONS FOR SELF -STUDY:
1) What is deforestation and give its causes?
2) What are the consequences of deforestation?
3) Suggest solutions to deforestation.
4) What is social forestry and give its types?
5) What is the mission of social forestry?
6) Write short notes on:
a) Different programs to stop deforestation
b) Objectives of social forestry
c) Advantages of social forestry
d) Reasons for the failure of social forestry
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98 9
FORESTRY III
Unit Structure:
9.1. Significance of Agroforestry
9.2. Scope of Agroforestry
9.3. Features of Agroforestry
9.4. Advantages of Agroforestry
9.5. Traditional Agroforestry Systems in India
9.6. Limitations of Agroforestry
9.7. Highlights of Agroforestry Policy
9.8. Forest Management Activities in Maharashtra
9.9. Summary
9.10. Questions
9.1. SIGNIFICANCE OF AGROFORESTRY :
Agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resource
management system . It is focused on meeting the economic,
environmental and social needs of people on the ir private lands.
Agroforestry at farm level is a set of practices that provide strong
economic and conservation incentives for landowner adoption. It provides
a different land use option, compared with traditional arable and forestry
systems. To effective ly utilize the available resources agroforestry makes
use of the complimentarily relationships between trees and crops.
Agroforestry supports the environment. The plot or land used remains
productive for the farmer and generates continuous revenue, which i s not
feasible in arable land. Agroforestry allows diversification of farm
activities and makes better use of environmental resources. Due to increase
in population of human and cattle population there is an increase in
demand of food; fodder etc. so there is slight scope to increase the area
under cultivation.
9.1.1.DEFINITIONS OF AGROFORESTRY:
“Agroforestry is a collective name for land -use systems and technologies
in which woody perennials including trees, shrubs, bamboos etc. are
deliberately combined on the same land- management unit with the
herbaceous crops or animals either in some form of spatial arrangement or
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99 “A sustainable management system for land that increases overall
production, combines agricultural crops, tree crops and forest plants and
/or animals simultaneously/or sequentially and applies management
practices that are compatible with the cultural patterns of local
population.”
“Agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resource
management practice that, thro ugh the integration of trees on farms and in
the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production for
increased social, economic and environmental benefits.”
Agroforestry system includes both ecological and socio - economic
interactions between different components. It implies that
- Agroforestry normally involves two or more species of plants (or plants
and animals), at least one of which is a woody perennial.
Agroforestry system always has two or more outputs.
The cycle of agroforestry system is always more than one year. The
simplest agroforestry system is structurally, functionally, and socio -
economically more complex than a mono -cropping system.
Agroforestry implies management of at least one plant species for forage,
an annual or perennia l crop production. The final definition of
agroforestry can be as follows: -
“Agroforestry is a form of multiple cropping which satisfies three basic
conditions - (i) there exists at least two plant species that interact
biologically, (ii) at least one of t he plant species is a woody perennial and
(iii) at least one of the plant species is managed for forage, annual or
perennial crop production.”
In simple terms agroforestry can be described as “ an efficient land -use
system where trees or shrubs are grown with arable crops, seeking positive
interactions in enhancing productivity on the sustainable basis.
Agriculture and forestry technologies are combined by agroforestry to
create more integrated, diverse, profitable, productive, healthy and
sustainable land-use systems. The important agroforestry practices are
windbreaks, riparian forest buffers, alley cropping, silvi pasture and forest
farming.
9.2. SCOPE OF AGROFORESTRY:
Agroforestry applies to private agricultural and forests lands and
communities that are highly disturbed, human dominated land - use
systems. Highly erodible, flood -prone, economically marginal and
environmentally sensitive lands are targeted. Goal of agroforestry is to
restore essential process needed for ecosystem health and sustainability,
rather than to restore natural ecosystem. Agroforestry provides strong
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100 of landscapes containing mixed owners hips, vegetation types and land
uses.
9.2.1.Benefits of Agroforestry:
When trees are combined with food crops on cropland farms they yield
certain environmental benefits – ecological and social benefits.
Ecological Benefits -
1) Reduction of pressure on forests.
2) Better protection of ecological systems.
3) Deep rooted trees on site provide more efficient recycling.
4) Constant addition and decomposition of litter -fall helps in the increase
in soil nutrients and soil structure.
5) Combination of mulching and shading improves the microclimate,
such as lowering of soil surface temperature and reduction of
evaporation of soil moisture.
6) When trees are combined with food crops on cropland farms they yield
certain erosion through impending effect of tree roots and stems of
these pro cesses. It also reduces surface run -off and nutrient leaching
and soil.
Economic Benefits:
Agroforestry systems on farmlands are economically beneficial to the
farmer, the community, the region or the nation. They are-
1) Increase in farm level income due to improved and sustained
productivity.
2) Increase in the maintenance of outputs of food, fuel-wood, fodder,
fertilizer and timber.
3) Reduction in incidence of total crop failure, common to single –
cropping or monoculture system.
Social Benefits:
Social benefit s occur from increase in crop and tree product yields and in
the sustainability of these products. The benefits are –
1) Due to increased quality and diversity of food outputs there is an
improvement in nutrition and health of the people.
2) Sustained employmen t and higher incomes have improved the rural
standard of living.
3) Elimination of the need to shift sites of farm activities have stabilized
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101 9.2.2.Possible impacts of Agroforestry:
a) By increasing the production of agroforestry products for home
consumption and market poverty has been controlled by an increase in
income.
b) Women farmer and other less-advantaged rural residents whose rights
to land were insecure were empowered through better negotiations.
c) By providing fuel wood gro wn on farms, pressure on forest and
deforestation was reduced.
d) Food security was achieved by restoring farm soil fertility for food
crops and production of fruits, vegetables, nuts and edible oils.
e) Improving soil health of the farm through ameliorated micr o- climate
and nutrition level.
f) Farmers buffering capacity has increased against the effects of global
climate change on farm tree crops and tree cover.
g) Accessibility to medicinal trees for cure of common and complex
diseases was augmented.
9.3. FEATURES OF AGROFORESTRY :
Agroforestry practices are intentional systematic combinations of trees
with crops and/or livestock that involve intensive management of the
interactions between the components as an integrated agro ecosystem.
Following criteria are to be satisfied for a land use practice for
Agroforestry:
Intentional:
Trees, crops and/or animals are combined, intentionally designed and
managed as a whole unit, rather than as individual elements that may
occur in close proximity but are controlled separately.
Intensive:
Agroforestry practices are intensively managed to maintain their
productive and protective functions. The practices involve annual
operations like cultivation and fertilization.
Interactive:
The biological and physical interactions between the t ree, crop and animal
components are actively manipulated in agroforestry management. The
goal is to enhance the production of more than one harvestable component
at a time, by providing conservation benefits such as non-point source
water pollution control or wildlife habitat.
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102 Integrated:
The tree, crop and/or animal components are structurally and functionally
combined into a single, integrated management unit. Integration may be
horizontal or vertical, and above or below ground, which utilizes more of
productive capacity of the land and helps balance economic production
with resource conservation.
9.4. ADVANTAGES OF AGROFORESTRY FROM
THREE DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES ARE AS
FOLLOWS: -
From the Agricultural Perspective:
1) Intercrops and animals are protected by the trees that have a
windbreak effect. They provide shelter from the sun, rain, wind, soil
erosion and stimulating soil micro flora and micro fauna.
2) By recycling some of the leached or drained nutrients by the deep
roots of the trees. Tree litter and the residue of the trees enrich the
soil organic matter.
3) Diversification of the activities of arable farmers by building -up of
an inheritance of multi -purpose trees, with continuous revenue from
the farm.
4) Agroforestry is an alternative to full restoration of arable land,
permitting the continuation of arable activity on land whose arable
potential is conserved.
5) Agroforestry plantations on arable land allow the development of a
quality wood resource that compliments.
6) Combining the interest of farmer and the far m there is possibility of
increased remuneration for the arable farmer for the trees.
7) In silvi pastoral plots, fodder units are available at different periods
compared to full cropped plots by extending the grazing calendar.
From the Forestry Perspective:
1) Wide spacing of trees can enhance the biomass growth of trees. Due
to the presence of the intercrops there is a large reduction in the
maintenance costs of plantation.
2) Due to arable intercropping activity there is a guaranteed follow - up
and care of trees is taken.
3) As the trees are not subjected to cycles of competition and thinning
there is improvement in the quality of wood produced.
4) Agroforestry plantations on arable land allow the development of a
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103 forestry, but are of high value and can be grown in agroforestry
systems. For example: service trees, cherry trees, maple trees, tulip
trees, etc.
From the Environmental Perspective:
1) Improvement to the development of natural resources:
The separate production obtained by an arable -forest separate cropping
pattern on the same area of land is less than the total wood and arable
production from an agroforestry plot. This is the result from the
stimulation of complementary between trees and crops on agrof orestry
plots. Thus harvested crops or pasture replace the weeds that is
spontaneously present in young forestry plantations.
2) Agroforestry plots have innovative landscaping potential that would
improve the public image of farmers to society. Creating original
landscapes are attractive, open and favor recreational activities. This can
be done in sparsely wooded areas where, plots are developed by planting
arable land. It can also be done in very heavily wooded areas where, plots
are developed by thinning th e existing forests.
3) Better Control of Cultivated areas of land:
The agroforestry plots contribute to diminishing the cultivated area of land
and better control of land can be gained by substituting for arable plots.
But the intensification of environmenta l resources used by agroforestry
systems does not result in more crop products.
4) Soil and water in particular in sensitive areas are protected.
5) Improvement of Biodiversity by the Edge Effects:
It permits a synergistic improvement, by favoring the habitat of game. The
promising way is the integrated protection of crops by their association
with trees chosen to stimulate the hyper -parasite population of crops.
6) Counteract the greenhouse effect:
Constitution of an effective system for carbon sequestration, by combining
the maintenance of the stock of organic material in the soil, and the
superimposition of a net fixing wooded layer counteract the greenhouse
effect.
7) The above favorable characteristics are coherent with the many
objectives of the laws guiding a griculture and forestry, as they are with the
directing principles of the Common Agricultural Policy.
9.5. TRADITIONAL AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN
INDIA:
Agroforestry is wide spread in all ecological and geographical regions of
India. The agroforestry systems vary in their structural complexity and munotes.in

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104 species diversity, their productive and protective attributes and their
socio -economic dimensions. The systems range from apparently simple
forms of shifting cultivation to complex home -gardens, from systems
involving sparse stands of trees on farm lands to high-density complex
multistoried homesteads of humid lowlands, from systems in which trees
play a predominantly service role (shelter belts) to those in which they
provide main salable products (intercropping with plantations crops).
1) Shifting Cultivation (slashes and burn system):
This farming system is followed in north -eastern high rainfall areas in
which land under natural vegetation is cleared by slash and burn method
cropped with common arable crops for a few years and then left
unattended when natural vegetation regenerates. The fallow period has
drastically reduced due to increasing population pressure which, has
resulted in the degeneration of soil causing serious soil erosion depleting
soil fertility resulti ng in low productivity. Intercropping under or between
fast-growing trees in a fallow phase is one of the approaches while the
second approach advocated is the farming system approach base on
watershed management as an alternative to shifting cultivation.
2) Taungya System:
It is like an organized and systematically managed shifting cultivation. It
involves cultivation of crops in forests or forests trees in crop fields. In
southern India, the system is called ‘kumari’. It is practiced in areas with
an assure d annual rainfall of over 1200 - 1500mm.
3) Home -gardens/ homesteads cultivation:
This is an old -age practice in coastal states. A homestead is a operational
farm unit in which a number of crops including tree crops are grown with
livestock, poultry and /or f ish production. The main purpose is to meet the
routine basic needs of the farmer. There is a great variation in the intensity
of trees, species and crops based on the size of holding, micro -climate and
the needs of the people residing in homesteads. Domes tic animals and
poultry are the main components of homesteads. Multitude of crop species
in the homesteads helps to satisfy primary needs of the farmer such as
food, fuel, fodder, timber and cash. This system helps in checking soil
erosion, environmental health and conserve biodiversity. In spite of high
intensity of cropping it helps to conserve fertility by nutrient cycling or
organic manuring or mulching and increased microbial activity in the
rhizosphere of crops.
4) Plantation based Agroforestry systems:
The scope for integrative practices involving plant associations in these
commercial plantations is limited, except during the early phases of
plantation when some intercropping is feasible. The aim of this
commercial production is having a single commodi ty. Modern plantation
crops like rubber, coffee, poplar, eucalyptus, oil -palm and coconut
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105 5) Scattered trees on Farm Lands:
This system of growing agricultural crops under scattered trees on
farmlands is old. The species diversity in this system is very much related
to ecology. The species diversity and system complexity increases with
the increase in rainfall. There is a proliferation of more diverse
multistoried home -gardens in hum id areas and less diverse, two tiered
canopy of configurations in drier areas. Trees are grown scattered in
agricultural fields for shade, fodder, fuel, wood, fruit, vegetables and
medicinal uses.
6) Trees on Farm -Boundaries:
Trees grown in agricultural field s are also often and usually grown on
farm -boundaries. At many places succulents like agave and many cactus
plants are grown as live fence. Many of the boundary plantations also help
as shelterbelts and windbreaks, particularly in fruit orchards.
7) Wood Lots :
In many parts of the country, farmers grow trees in separate blocks as
wood lots along with agricultural fields. This practice is expanding fast
due to shortage of fuel-wood and demand of bamboo poles or pulp wood
industry.
8) Systems for soil conservation or amelioration:
The deep and narrow gullies are best controlled, by putting them to
permanent vegetation after closure to grazing. Afforestation with suitable
tree species will help in stabilizing ravines and gullies and checking their
spread. Due to incr ease in population these wood lots have decreased at a
faster rate.
9) Shelter Belt:
The arid regions throughout the year experience very high wind velocity.
So farmers build shelter belts (kana bundi) by using either dead wood or
local vegetation to check th e wind velocity within safer limits. This
permanent vegetation helps accumulation of sand near them, which is
again spread in the field. This system helps increase crop yields along
the lines.
10) Trees on Rangelands:
Trees are planted on common community graz ing lands. In tropics
coconut is the most common tree on pasturelands. Cattles are raised
usually grazing on these pastures. But in some cases special fodder plants
including legumes are also cultivated.

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106 9.6. LIMITATIONS OF AGROFORESTRY
There are certain disadvantages of agroforestry -
From the Environmental Aspects:
a) There is possible competition of trees with food crops for space,
sunlight, moisture and nutrients resulting in the reduction of food crop
yield.
b) Food crops can be damaged or destroyed during tree harvest operation.
c) The trees that serve as host to certain insects and pests can be harmful
to food crops.
d) Rapid regeneration by prolific trees may displace food crops and
take over entire fields.
Socioeconomic Aspects:
a) Competition between the food crops and tree crops can cause
aggregate yields to be lower than those of a single crop.
b) Farmers resist displacing of food crops with trees, especially where
land is scarce.
c) More labor input is required causing scarcity at times in other farm
activities.
d) The trees require longer period to grow to maturity and gain
economic value.
e) Compared to single -crop farm agroforestry is more complex, it is less
understood and more difficult to apply.
But through skillful management practices the above aspects can be
controlle d. It is easy to adopt the following strategies either all or some.
i) The tree species selected should be deep rooted to absorb
moisture and nutrients from the surface layer of soil.
ii) The legume trees selected should have small or light crowns for
sufficient sunlight to reach the food crop for photosynthesis.
iii) To reduce the competitive effect on the food crops tree spacing
should be farther apart.
Agroforestry is seen as a solution to meet the challenges of food, nutrition,
energy, employment and environment security. Earlier efforts to promote
agroforestry have failed. But the National Food Security Act, 2013 made it
a legal obligation for the government to provide food to more than 80
crore of the country’s population. A need was felt to increase agricultural
production in a sustainable manner. Agroforestry can also help in reducing
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107 9.7. HIGHLIGHTS OF AGROFORESTRY POLICY
1) Maintenance of green cover on farmlands throughout the year,
enhancement of ecosystem through carbon storage, mitigate climate
change effects, prevent deforestation, improve biodiversity, provide
cleaner water and reduce land erosion.
2) To include trees in farming systems and manage them in rural
landscapes to enhance productivity, profitability, diversity and
ecosystem sustainability .
3) To augment energy capacity through biomass, biodiesel, ethanol, bio-
char and biogas production.
4) Significant potential to provide employment to rural and urban
population through production, industrial application and value
addition ventures.
5) Only alterna tive to meet the target of increasing forest cover is to
reach from present level of 20% to 33%.
6) Creating awareness about the importance of trees is necessary through
schools, other educational institutions, seminars, stage shows, office
campaigns to creat e a basic understanding of the need for afforestation
and make them aware how cutting of trees is detrimental to life.
7) It is important that people understand the need of trees, and substitute
wood fuel with biomass, biofuel, biogas etc.
8) Using recycled pape r products can be of help to reduce the need for
cutting trees and preserve forests.
9) Initiatives for planting trees should be taken at individual level and
group level. Group initiative to plant trees on hills, fertile patches of
land in the outskirts of t he city or on riversides can surely be of help.
Planting a tree or two in one’s garden or an area around one’s school
or workplace also can make up for the loss of trees in the past and
promote a healthier environment.
9.8. FOREST MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES IN
MAHARASHTRA:
A) Forest Management Activities are carried through various
institutional Mechanisms. They are as follows -
1) Joint Forest Management (JFM) -
It is a concept of developing partnerships between fringe forest
communities and the forest department on the basis of mutual trust and
jointly defined roles and responsibilities with regard to forest protection
and development. The community level institutional involvement in
various forest protection and development activities, have made promising
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108 on the fringes of these villages. The effective and meaningful involvement
of local communities in sustainable forest management is the main
approach to solve the longstanding problems of defore station and land
degradation.
2) Forest Nurseries:
Maharashtra Forest Department (MFD) has established a large network of
permanent and temporary forest nurseries leading to production of
seedlings of several forestry species representing various agro -ecolog ical
zones of the state. Besides the MFD Public Forestry Development
Corporation of Maharashtra (FDCM), Nagpur and the Directorate of
Social Forestry, Pune have established nurseries to meet their planting
stock requirement.
3) Supply of poles and Firewood:
The Government supplies poles and firewood at subsidized rates to the
local villagers to stop the tendency of illicit felling of trees in forests.
4) Creation of Forest -based Institutions:
Samanvit Gram Vanikaran Samridhi Yojana (SGVSY) an umbrella scheme
integrating all ongoing centrally sponsored schemes (CSSs) related to
afforestation was launched through a new autonomous institution called
the Forest Development Agency (FDA) with JFM as the mainstay.
5) Maharashtra Van Sanshodhan Sanstha (MVSS):
Located at Chandrapur, has got research centres at Lohara near
chandrapur, tadgaon near Bhimaragarh. Lohara institution is a pioneer in
developing the techniques of teak bud grafting and developing a prototype
machine for teak seed treatment.
6) Afforestation by Forest Development Corporation of
Maharashtra (FDCM):
Various afforestation projects are undertaken on turnkey basis. It helps in
the process of creation of vegetative cover, which in turn benefits the
entrepreneur and the society at large. FDCM have major activi ties lie
afforestation in mining areas, urban plantation and beautification projects,
industrial plantations, thinning in teak plantations, harvesting in
government forests.
7) Sant Tukaram Vanagram Yojana:
With a view to create awareness regarding the impor tance of forest and
wildlife, to protect from illegal tree cutting, encroachment etc., Sant
Tukaram Vanagram Yojana was launched.
8) Protected Area Network in Maharashtra:
Protected areas declared under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972, include
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109 Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves. Various species of flora
and fauna along with the ecosystem is conserved due to the network of
protected areas.
9) Protection of Mangrove covers:
After direction given by Hon. High Court in 2005 certain patches of
mangroves were declared as forests areas in Maharashtra and this has
helped to protect important mangrove cover in Maharashtra.
B) Community and Community Organizations:
Community participation is a very important aspect in implementation of
resource management programs. Communities take various initiatives for
conservation – like Sacred Groves, which are forest patches protected for
religious or cultural reasons. Many of these groves are at the origin of
rivers, helping in water conservation and also protect rare varieties of
plants and animals. The examples of community’s role in forests
conservation are Chipko Movement and Bishnois in Rajasthan. The
success achieved by this protest led to simila r protests in other parts of the
country. These movements were successful because the people loved
nature and main aim was to protect the environment, wildlife and plants.
The basic philosophy followed was that all living things have a right to
survive and share all resources. The Chipko movement and Bishnois have
proved that human lives are a small price to pay to protect the wildlife and
the forests around them.
C) Individuals and Private Bodies:
Individual efforts by people have led to conservation of tree cover in a
particular area. Successful restoration activities on many acres of land for
the revival of forests ecosystem have been carried out by many
individuals and has helped to maintain green cover of the area.
D) Effective Conservation:
Some more measu res would help in conserving forest ecosystem in
addition to current measures taken to conserve forests.
Conservation at Governmental Level:
a) Before making the ‘Development Plan’, a thorough study of the
environmental issues and important aspects with respe ct to environment in
a particular city / area should be done, which in turn will help in detailing
out the area details and then planning further development in tune with
environment. For example an area with garden should specify the
inhabiting species an d other details considering local environment.
Development plan should be as such that it does not disturb the habitat and
wildlife therein.
b) Use of native trees in the plantation program will help to revive the
natural ecosystem in an area.
c) The Compensato ry Afforestation should not only be plantation but a
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110 d) Sustainable harvesting should be kept in mind while making
economic use of forests.
e) Strict enforcement of rules and regulations is necessary. The revenue
earned from eco -tourism, visits to nature parks, forests and protected
areas should be used for conservation of resources.
f) People participation should be encouraged in afforestation and
conservation schemes within towns, cities and villages in an eco-
friend ly manner.
9.9. SUMMARY:
A comprehensive program of afforestation is the urgent need of the hour.
But success can only be achieved only through the co - operation of the
local people. Population explosion should be controlled for which
intensive efforts should be made on a war - footing. Increased population
means more space for housing, fuel wood, timber, etc. Community and
individuals can be more effective in conservation of resources. People
should be alert to destructive activities, report any illegal activi ty to the
forest department and press. People should acquaint with the laws, rules
and orders issued by the government. Likeminded people should be in
touch and organized. Awareness should be created about the existence and
value of national parks and sanctuaries. Pressurize the authorities to
implement the forest and wildlife laws and rules to protect green areas.
Legal action should be taken if necessary and if possible through Public
Interest Litigation (PIL). Community can create public pressure to chan ge
rules, laws and procedures when necessary. Do not litter in forest area.
Ecologically sensitive public transport and bicycle tracks should be used.
People should participate in preservation of greenery, by planting,
watering and caring for indigenous pl ant species. Alternative things like
wise use of paper, electricity, recycling of paper, reuse of wooden
furniture, use of particle board / eco -board for furniture, avoid using
greeting cards and send e -greetings, avoid use of gift wrappers or reuse
them, etc.
9.10. QUESTIONS:
1) Give the significance, scope and benefits of agroforestry.
2) Explain in short the features of agroforestry.
3) Give the advantages of agroforestry.
4) What are the traditional agroforestry systems in India?
5) What are the limitations of agroforest ry?
6) Give the highlights of agroforestry policy.
7) Explain the Forest Management Activities in Maharashtra.

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