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CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.0 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Management
1.2.1 Meaning and Definition of Management
1.2.2 Principles of Management
1.2.3 Nature, Scope and Need of Educational Management
1.2.4 Systems Approach to Educational Management -Input -Process -
Output, and Contingency Approach to Management
1.2.5 Functions of Management
1.3 Know your progress
1.4 Summary
1.5 Key terms
1.6 Questions
1.7 Reference
1.1 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit can be summarised as below:
Explain the meaning/concept of m anagement
Explain the principles of management
Explain about the Concept of educational management
Discuss about the need of educational management
Describe about the nature of educational manageme nt
Discuss about the scope of educational management
Describe the Input -Process -Output model of Systems Approach
Enumerate the functions of Management
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Many scholars consider Education to be the driving force behind
economic development an d social development in a country. For an
education institution to function effectively, a competent management and
administration system needs to be created. Educational management
ensures the smooth operation of an educational system by managing its munotes.in
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Educational Management
2 day-to-day activities. Planning is another strong component of educational
management and it proves to be conducive in removing any issue which
may develop in the foreseeable future. It has been observed that by the 21st
century, the major theories of manageme nt and administration were
developed in accordance to the educational system. Many theories were
adopted from the industry sector so that specific educational requirements
could be met. Hence, it can be said that education; management and
planning first st arted out as a field of study which depended on the other
settings and eventually became established field with its own ideas. These
ideas later progressed to alternative models like systems approach and
many more which were gains through observation and e xperience of
various educational institutions.
This this module 1 is written in the instructional mode where in it begins
with an ‘Introduction’ to the topic followed by an outline of the
‘Objectives’. The detailed content is then presented in a simple an d an
organized manner, interspersed with ‘Check your progress’ questions to
test the understanding of the students, A ‘Summary’ along with the list of
‘Key Terms’ and a set of ‘Questions and Exercises’ is also provided at the
end of the module for effectiv e recapitulation.
1.2 CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT
1.2.1 Meaning and Definition of Management
What is Management?
Etymology
The verb 'manage' comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle,
especially tools), which derives from the Latin word manus (hand). The
French word mesnagement (later ménagement) influenced the
development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and
18th centuries.
Management is a universal phenomenon. It is a very popular and widely
used term. Allorganizations - business, poli tical, cultural or social are
involved in management because it is themanagement which helps and
directs the various efforts towards a definite purpose.
According to Harold Koontz, “Management is an art of getting things done
through and with the people inf ormally organized groups. It is an art of
creating an environment in which people can performand individuals and
can co-operate towards attainment of group goals”. munotes.in
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3 According to F.W.Taylor, “Management is an art of knowing what to do,
when to do and see th at it is done in the best and cheapest way”.
Management is a purposive activity. It is something that directs group
efforts towards the attainment of certain pre - determined goals. It is the
process of working with and through others to effectively achiev e the
goals of the organization, by efficiently using limited resources in the
changing world. If course, these goals may vary from one enterprise to
another. E.g.For one enterprise it may be launching of new products by
conducting market surveys and for other it may be profit maximization by
minimizing cost.
Management involves creating an internal environment. - It is the
management which puts into use the various factors of production.
Therefore, it is the responsibility of management to create such con ditions
which are conducive to maximum efforts so that people are able to
perform their task efficiently and effectively. It includes ensuring
availability of raw materials, determination of wages and salaries,
formulation of rules and regulations etc.
Therefore, we can say that good management includes both being
effective and efficient. Beingeffective means doing the appropriate taski.e,
fitting the square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes.
Being efficient means doing the task correctly, at least possible cost
withminimum wastage of resources
Management can be defined in detail in following categories:
1. Management as a Process
2. Management as an Activity
3. Management as a Discipline
4. Management as a Group
5. Management as a Science
6. Management as an Art
7. Management as a Profession
1.2.2 Principles of Management
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4 Introduction
A principle refers to a fundamental truth. It establishes cause and effect
relationship between two or more variables under given situation. They
serve as a guide to thought ' actions. Therefore, management principles are
the statements of fundamental truth based on logic which provides
guidelines for managerial decision making and actions. these principles
are derived: -
a. On the basis of observation and analysis i.e., pract ical experience of
managers.
b. By conducting experimental studies.
There are 14 Principles of Management described by Henri Fayol
1. Division of Work.
2. Balancing Authority and Responsibility.
3. Discipline.
4. Unity of Command.
5. Unity of Direction.
6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest.
7. Remuneration.
8. Centralization.
9. Scalar Chain.
10. Order.
11. Equity.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel.
13. Initiative.
14. Esprit De Corps.
Henri Fayol, a French industrialist, is now recognized as the Father of
Modern Managemen t. In the year 1916 Fayol wrote a book entitled
“Industrial and General Administration”. In this book, he gave the 14
Principles of Management.
1.Division of Work:
In practice, employees are specialized in different areas and they have
different skills. Di fferent levels of expertise can be distinguished within
the knowledge areas (from generalist to specialist). munotes.in
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5 Personal and professional developments support this. According to Henri
Fayol specialization promotes efficiency of the workforce and increases
productivity. In addition, the specialization of the workforce increases
their accuracy and speed. This management principle of the 14 principles
of management is applicable to both technical an d managerial activities.
2. Authority and Responsibility:
In order to get things done in an organization, management has the
authority to give orders to the employees. Of course, with this authority
comes responsibility. According to Henri Fayol , the accompanying power
or authority gives the management the right to give orders to the
subordinates.
The responsibility can be traced back from performance and it is therefore
necessary to make agre ements about this. In other words, authority and
responsibility go together and they are two sides of the same coin.
3. Discipline:
This third principle of the 14 principles of management is about
obedience. It is often a part of the core values of a mission statement and
vision in the form of good conduct and respectful interactions. This
management principle is essential and is seen as the oil to make the engine
of an organization run smo othly.
4. Unity of Command:
The management principle ‘Unity of command’ means that an individual
employee should receive orders from one manager and that the employee
is answerable to that manager.
If tasks and related responsibilities are given to the emp loyee by more than
one manager , this may lead to confusion which may lead to possible
conflicts for employees. By using this principle, the responsibility f or
mistakes can be established more easily.
5. Unity of Direction:
This management principle of the 14 principles of management is all
about focus and unity. All employees deliver the same activities that can
be linked to the same objectives. All activitie s must be carried out by one
group that forms a team. These activities must be described in a plan of
action.
The manager is ultimately responsible for this plan and he monitors the
progress of the defined and planned activities. Focus areas are the effort s
made by the employees and coordination.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest:
There are always all kinds of interests in an organization. In order to have
an organization function well, Henri Fayol indicated that personal interests
are subordinate to the interests of the organization (ethics). munotes.in
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6 The primary focus is on the organizational objectives and not on those of
the individual. This applies to all levels of the entire organization,
including the managers.
7. Remuneration:
Motivation and productivity are close to one another as far as the smooth
running of an organization is concerned. This management principle of the
14 principles of management argues that the remuneration should be
sufficient to keep employees motivated and productive.
There are two types of remuneration namely non -monetary (a compliment,
more responsibilities, credits) and monetary (compensation, bonus or other
financial compensation). Ultimately, it is about rewardin g the efforts that
have been made.
8. The Degree of Centralization:
Management and authority for decision -making process must be properly
balanced in an organization. This depends on the volume and size of an
organization including its hierarchy.
Centraliz ation implies the concentration of decision -making authority at
the top management (executive board). Sharing of authorities for the
decision -making process with lower levels (middle and lower
management), is referred to as decentralization by Henri Fayol . Henri
Fayol indicated that an organization should strive for a good balance in
this.
9. Scalar Chain:
Hierarchy presents itse lf in any given organization. This varies from
senior management (executive board) to the lowest levels in the
organization. Henri Fayol ’s “hierarchy” management principle states that
there should be a clear line in the area of authority (from top to bottom and
all managers at all levels).
This can be seen as a type of management structure. Each employee can
contact a manager or a superior in an emergency situation without
challenging the hie rarchy. Especially, when it concerns reports about
calamities to the immediate managers/superiors.
10. Order:
According to this principle of the 14 principles of management, employees
in an organization must have the right resources at their disposal so th at
they can function properly in an organization. In addition to social order
(responsibility of the managers) the work environment must be safe, clean
and tidy.
11. Equity:
The manageme nt principle of equity often occurs in the core values of an
organization. According to Henri Fayol , employees must be treated kindly munotes.in
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7 and equally. Employees must be in the right place in the organization to do
things right. Managers should supervise and monitor this process and they
should treat employees fairly and impartially.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel:
This management principle of the 14 principles of management represents
deploy ment and managing of personnel and this should be in balance with
the service that is provided from the organization.
Management strives to minimize employee turnover and to have the right
staff in the right place. Focus areas such as frequent change of po sition
and sufficient development must be managed well.
13. Initiative:
Henri Fayol argued that with this management principle employees should
be allowed to express new ideas. This encourage s interest and
involvement and creates added value for the company.
Employee initiatives are a source of strength for the organization
according to Henri Fayol . This encourages the employees to be involved
and interested.
14. Esprit de Corps:
The management principle ‘esprit de corps’ of the 14 principles of
management stands for striving for the involvement and unity of the
employees. Managers are responsible for the development of morale in the
workplace; individually and in the area of communication.
Esprit de corps contributes to the development of the culture and creates
an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding.
Conclusion
The 14 principles of management can be used to manage organ izations
and are useful tools for forecasting, planning, process management,
organization management ,decision -making, coordination and control.
Although they are obvious, man y of these matters are still used based on
common sense in current management practices in organizations. It
remains a practical list with focus areas that are based on Henri Fayol ’s
researc h which still applies today due to a number of logical principles.
1.2.3Nature, Scope and Need of Educational Management
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8 Introduction
Educational management is a field of study and practice concerned with
the operation of educational organizations. Educ ational management is
centrally concerned with the purpose or aims of education. These purposes
or goals provide the crucial sense of direction to underpin the management
of educational institutions. Unless this link between purpose and
management is clear and close, there is a danger of "managerialism . . . a
stress on procedures at the expense of educational purpose and values".
"Management possesses no super -ordinate goals or values of its own. The
pursuit of efficiency may be the mission statement of ma nagement - but
this is efficiency in the achievement of objectives which others define".
Meaning of Educational Management
The origin of the development of educational management as a field of
study began in the United States in the early part of the twent ieth century.
Development in the United Kingdom came as late as the 1960’s.
Educational management, as the name implies, operates in educational
organisations or institutions.
There is no single accepted definition of educational management as its
developm ent observed in several disciplines or fields like business,
industry, political science, economics, administration and law. So, while
defining the meaning of the term educational management can be said
that, “Educational management is a complex human ente rprise in which
different resources are brought together and made available to achieve and
to accomplish the desire and expected goals or objectives.
It is being mainly a human endeavour should be properly planned without
emphasizing the rigid application of mechanical and physical principles. It
is fundamentally a social organisation where inter human relationships
must play a major role. For success of educational management, there
must be adequate freedom and flexibility on the one hand and necessary
discipline and decorum on the other hand in the educational institution.
Thus, management of education or educational management implies the
practical measures for ensuring the system to work for achieving the goals
or objectives of an educational institution . So educational management
operates in educational organisations or institutions.
There is no single accepted definition of educational management as its
development has drawn heavily on several disciplines like economics,
sociology and political science. But some specialists in this area have
propounded their views in the form of giving their definitions on
educational management which are given below.
Definitions of Educational Management:
“School management, as a body of educational doctrine, comprises a
number of principles and precepts relating primarily to the technique of
classroom procedure and derived largely from the practice of successful munotes.in
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9 teachers. The writers in this field have interpreted these principles and
precepts in various ways, usually b y reference to larger and more
fundamental principles of psychology, sociology and ethics”. —Paul
Monore
“Educational Management is theory and practice of the organisation and
administration of existing educational establishments and systems.” —G.
Terrypag e and J.B. Thomas
In the light of above discussion, it is clear to visualize that educational
management is a comprehensive effort intended to achieve some specific
educational objectives. It deals with the educational practices, whereas
educational philos ophy sets the goals, educational psychology explains the
principles, educational administration tells how to achieve educational
objectives and principles. It is the dynamic side of education.
It deals with educational institutions – right from the schools and colleges
to the secretariat. It is concerned with both human and material resources
which are essential. Because the degree of success of the educational
management of any educational programme depends upon the degree of
co-ordination and organisation of these resources.
Hence educational management in broader perspective says about:
Setting directions, aims of objectives of educational organisations or
institutions.
Planning for progress of the programme.
Organising available resources —People, time, m aterial.
Controlling the implementing process.
Setting and improving organisational standards.
Nature of Educational Management:
It is the management of educational institutions to foster teaching and
learning. As a field of practice, it has some aspe cts in common with other
fields of management, such as public administration, hospital
administration and business management. As a field of study emerged first
at the Teacher’s Training College of Columbia University and was
followed shortly by graduate progr amme of Stanford University,
University of Chicago and other institutions in the U.S.A. Indian
Universities it had its place only in the 1670s. Since the 1950s educational
tration has become a field of study in its own right. As an applied field it
has muc h in common with other applied fields such as medicine,
engineering, etc. It builds upon psychology, sociology, economics,
political science and other behavioural sciences. For the part twenty to
thirty years emphasis has increased on the development of th eory and
research in educational management. Also has increased understanding of
educational Notes organization and the people working in them yet, there
is much to be achieved. munotes.in
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10 With the beginning of 1970s a new era has emerged in the field of
educational management. Changes have been taking place in all its
aspects, conceptual as well as operational. At the conceptual level new
terms, constructs and approaches are being introduced and used. Even the
very nomenclature of the field seems to be changing. The terms
educational management and educational organization are frequently
being used in place of educational management.
(1) Dynamic Function
As a dynamic function, educational management has to be performed
continuously, in an everchanging environment. It is constantly engaged in
the moulding of the enterprise. It is also concerned about the alternation of
environment itself so as to ensure the success of the enterprise. Thus, it is
a never -ending function.
(2) Practicability
The school management must not be a bundle of theoretical principles, but
must provide practical measures to achieve the desired objectives
Whatever the objective that is decided must be made achievable and
practicable to avoid frustration.
(3) Distinct Process
Management is a di stinct process to be performed to determine and
accomplish stated objectives by the use of human beings and other
resources. Different form of activities, techniques and procedures, the
process of management consists of such functions as planning, organizi ng
staffing, directing, coordinating, motivating and controlling.
(4) Needed at All Levels of the Organization
According to the nature of task and the scope of authority, management is
needed at all levels of the organization, e.g. top level, middle leve l and
supervisory level. Like the executive the lowest level supervisor has also
to perform the function of decision -making in way or another.
(5) System of Authority
Authority to get the work accomplished from others is implied in the very
concept of ma nagement since it is a process of directing men to perform a
task. Authority is the power to compel men to work in a certain manner.
Management cannot work in the absence of authority since it is a rule -
making and rule -enforcing body. There is a chain of a uthority and
responsibility among people working at different levels of the
organization. There cannot be an efficient management without well -
defined lines of command or superior - subordinate relationships at
various levels of decision making.
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11 Scope of Educational Management:
By scope, we mean the area within which functioning of educational
management takes place. The scope of educational management today is
as vast as that of education itself. Any activity conducive to the,
achievement of educational goal, is a part of educational management.
Such activities could be at the school level, at the college level, at the
university level or at the control level. Anything done to improve the
quality of education at any stage may be ranging from the supply of
material, human and financial resources to the highest cultural or
academic needs -comes under the scope of educational management.
Hence, we shall consider the scope of educational management under
the following heads.
1. Scope of educational management is very wide and includes history and
theories of management sciences, roles and responsibilities of
educational manager as well as managerial skills.
2. Its scope also includes a study of educational planning at macro level,
its goals, principles, approac hes and procedures and at micro level
institutional planning and educational administration.
3. It also helps in decision and solving problem.
4. Co -curricular planning and time -table construction is also included in
the scope of educational management.
5. Motivating staff and students is a part of the scope of educational
management.
6. Its scope also includes conducting staff meetings and managing
confliucts and stress.
7. Developing healthy and conducive school climate it also a part of scope
of educatio nal management.
8. Scope of educational management also includes organization of health
and physical education, organization of exhibitions and fairs.
9. Its scope also includes maintenance of school records, evaluating
students’ achievements.
10. Financin g and budgeting also comes under the purview of the scope of
educational management.
Need of Educational Management:
Policy at the national level focuses on social, economic and cultural
development. The best means to achieve the development in these sphe res
is through human resource development and education.
There has been tremendous advance in the field of technology - this can be
made available to the society only through education. munotes.in
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Educational Management
12 Thus,
Education has to make its curriculum more relevant to life and as per
the needs of thechanging society in an effective and efficient
manner.
Education therefore has to be dynamic, so that it can contribute
towards accomplishment of National development goals.
Education must also enable students to bring about desir able social
change.
And at the same time in order to fulfil the above stated role of education,
effectively and efficiently, there is a need to manage education
professionally and move beyond the traditional role of educational
institutions. Thus, knowledg e of the educational management is the need
of the hour due to following aspects:
1. The knowledge of educational management theories, principles,
concepts techniques skills and strategies, when applied to education
will bring about effective and efficient functioning of educational
institutions.
2. Scientific and systematic management of educational institutions is
necessary to bring about qualitative changes in the educational system.
3. Knowledge of educational management is also necessary to train the
present teachers to learn and run educational institutions
professionally.
1.2.4 Systems Approach to Educational Management -Input -Process -
Output, and Contingency Approach to Management
Introduction:
The term "system" means systematic analysis and devel opment of any
task/activity to take appropriate decision. Systems approach brings to the
teaching -learning process a scientific approach for solving instructional
problems and accomplishing desired objectives. In othex words, systems
approach is a problem -solving method of analysing the educational
process and making it more effective.
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13 Meaning and Concept of a System
Let us try to understand the concept of a system with the help of some
concrete examples. A watch is a system but the parts of the watch
separated and kept in a tray do not constitute a system. Similarly, the
human body has a digestive system for digesting the food and converting
it into nutrients. Various parts of the digestive system put separately do
not constitute the digestive system. Let us study various characteristics of
system with the help of these two examples. You must have studied
various those parts of the digestive system. They are also called
components of the digestive system. You are aware that every part i.e.
component of the digestive system contributes to and supports the
functioning of the digestive system as a whole. Thus, one may say that a
system consists of some components; each of these components
contributes to and supports the functioning of the system. If one is
suffering from toothache, the mouth component will not function properly
which in turn will affect the functioning of other body systems including
the digestive system. Or, if all the components are working in unison. the
efficiency of the digestive system wi ll increase. This happens because all
the components of digestive system are interrelated. Change in one
component in its structure or function -affects the functioning of all other
components directly or indirectly and of the system as a whole. This
means that various components of a system are interdependent. If one
component of a system is affected the whole system gets affected. The
components come together to form g whole. A car, a school library, a
grinder are some other examples of system. The digesti ve system is geared
to digest the food, the school library system creates interest in the students
about reading and provides information, a grinder grinds the grains into
flour.
From the above discussion three main characteristics of a system emerge.
These are as follows:
1. A system has certain functions to perform.
2. A system has many components/ parts each of these may have a
different function to perform butall of these together contribute to the
function(s) of the system.
3. The components of a sy stem are interrelated and interdependent.
Meaning of Systems Approach:
System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a
problem towards specific objectives. Webster’s dictionary defines a
system as “a regularly interacting or independ ent group of items forming a
unified whole.” The characteristics of a system of may be explained with
the help of an example – various parts of the digestive system may be
called as components of digestive system. Every component of the
digestive system co ntributes to as supports in functioning of the digestive
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14 In the context of education, system is a unit as a whole incorporating all its
aspects and parts, namely, pupils, teachers, curriculum, content and
evaluation of instructional obje ctives. The teaching -learning process is
viewed as communication and control taking place between the
components of a system. In this case, the system is composed of a teacher,
a student and a programme of instruction, all in a particular pattern of
intera ction.
The System Approach focuses first upon the learner and then course
content, learning experiences and effective media and instructional
strategies. Such a system incorporates within itself the capability of
providing continuous self -correction and im provement. It is concerned
with all elements of instruction including media, including hardware and
software. Its purpose is to ensure that the components of the organic whole
will be available with the proper characteristics at the proper time to
contribu te to the total system fulfilling the objectives.
In the systems approach to instruction, the teacher has to plan completely
the utilization of selected resource material and the classroom activities.
The teacher should have a good overall view of the subj ect, know his/her
limitations, know all about his/her pupils and the individual differences in
their learning capacities and plan accordingly. The system approach
involves continuous evaluation of learning outcomes and utilization of
knowledge gained by an alysis of results of evaluation to suitably modify
the plan of approach to achieve the stated objectives.
Input -Process -Output Model of a System
In this model there are various components
1. Inputs
2. Process
3. Output
1. Inputs: Following make up the inputs of any ed ucational system:
Human resources: Students, teachers, non -teaching staff.
Material resources: Building, equipment, library -books.
Financial resources: Fees, donations, grants
Ideology: Values, knowledge, curriculum
2. Processes: There are two supporting p rocesses in any educational
system:
Primary: Teaching -learning, evaluation
Supporting: Planning, organizing, directing, controlling etc.
3. Output: It includes effective and efficient accomplishment of aims and
objectives of education by -Utilising the inp uts through processes. The
desired outputs of any systems are
Development of individual.
Development of academic discipline through research.
Development of society. munotes.in
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15 Output
Process
After the completion of this cyclical process of this model, Feedback is
received. Feedbac k refers to the response to the output, enabling a system
to modify its functioning. Feedback can be positive or negative in nature.
Feedback can be stimulative; it can bring about corrective action leading
to improvement.
This Input - Process -Output Model is explained through an example:
Let us now study how a system works. You have seen that every system
has specific function. to perform or goals to achieve. These can be termed
as outputs. In the case of a clock, the function or the goal is to show time
accurately. Similarly, the school library may aim at providing its students
one book per week. Now, in order to achieve this output, the school
library, for example, requires some input such as certain minimum number
of books.
This relationship of input a nd output is shown in Fig. ‘A’
Figure ‘A’: Input -Output Model of a System.
But by just possessing a requisite number of books, the output will not be
achieved. The librarian will have to plan and develop certain procedures
for storing, issuing a nd returning books (and also for motivating users)
These procedures form a part of the process. Now the above relationship
of input and output is modified as shown in Fig. ‘B’.
Figure ‘B’: Input -Process -Output Model of a System.
The librarian would also like to know whether the goal (output) of issuing
at least one book per student per week is achieved or not. This implies that
the librarian would have to compare the actual output with the expected
output. If the difference between the expected and a ctual output is
minimal, the system is effective and efficient. If this gap widens, the
system becomes less effective and less efficient. If the gap widens a little
more, the librarian would have to study the d problem area. He therefore,
has to develop a feedback system which would give him information
about this gap between the expected output and the actual output. This
may be represented as shown in Fig. ‘C’.
Fig. ‘C’: Feedback -based Model of a System. Input
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16 One may have to modify the procedure (proc ess) or the inputs (number of
books, number of cupboards, number of library assistants, etc.) to achieve
the expected output/goal. Or one may even like to rethink the expected
output considering the constraints on the inputs.
In the educational system, th e planned input (learning material) and
process (learning strategies) are organised to cater to the needs of the
students. The learning material is sequenced in such a way that it leads the
student to achieve the desired standard of output i.e. terminal pe rformance.
Monitoring the system through feedback help improve, revise and evaluate
each component of the system. This discussion shows that the system can
be represented as an input -process -output model.
Advantages of Systems Approach:
1. Systems approach helps to identify the suitability of the resource
material to achieve the specific goal.
2. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of
machines, media and people for attaining the defined goal.
3. It helps to assess the resource needs, their sources and facilities in
relation to quantities, time and other factors.
4. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be
required for systems success in terms of student learning.
5. It avoids rigidity in plan of action as con tinuous evaluation affords
desired beneficial changes to be made.
Limitations of Systems Approach:
1.Resistance to change: Old ways are difficult to erase. There is always
resistance to any new method or approach.
2. Involves hard work: Systems approach re quires hard and continuous
work on the part of school personnel. Some are not prepared for the
extra load.
3. Lack of understanding: Teachers and administrators are still not familiar
with systems approach. Though it has been successfully implemented
indus try, it has still to make headway in education.
Conclusion.
As systems approach is basically a process of problem solving, it can be
applied to many areas in the field of education, such as instruction,
research, management of educational institutions, cu rriculum development
and so on. One may apply it to any problem situation as the process and
the mode of thinking remains the same.
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17 Contingency Approach to Management
Introduction:
The contingency approach, often called the Situational Approach is based
upon the premise that all management is essentially situational in nature.
All decisions by managers will be affected (if not controlled) by the
contingencies of a given situation. There is no one good way to address
any decision. Contingencies arise from various environmental factors. As
such, managers must take into account these contingencies when making
decisions that affect the organization.
Contingency theory builds upon accepted elements of System Theory. It
recognized that an organization is an open system made up of interrelated
sub-units. It adds, however, that the behaviour of individual sub -units is
contingent upon internal and external environmental contingencies.
These might include the relationship between two other sub -units or
external syst ems. This is particularly true when these internal or external
units/systems have an effect on the desired outcome of a sub -unit.
Characteristics of the Contingency Approach:
The primary characteristics of contingency theory include:
Non-universality of management theory - There is no one best way
of doing things.
Contingency - Management decision making is contingent upon the
situation.
Environment - Managerial policies and practices to be effective, must
adjust to changes in the environment.
Diagnostics - Managers must possess and continue to improve
diagnostic skills so as to anticipate and ready for environmental
changes.
Human Relations - Managers should have sufficient human relations
skills to accommodate and stabilize change.
Information and Commun ication - Managers must develop a
communication system adequate to deal with environmental changes.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Contingency Theory
The primary advantages of contingency theory include:
It provides a realistic view of management and orga nization.
It discards the universal validity of principles.
Managers are situation -oriented and not stereotyped.
Lends itself to an innovative and creative management style. munotes.in
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The negatives of contingency theory include:
It does not have a theoretical base.
Executive is expected to know all the alternative courses of action
before taking action in a situation that is not always feasible.
It does not prescribe a course of action.
A situation can be influenced by many factors. It is difficult to analyse
all th ese factors.
Thus, it is concluded that, the contingency approach defines not only
patterns of internal interaction but also suggests organization designs and
management approaches most appropriate for specific situations.
1.2.5 Functions of Educational Ma nagement
Introduction:
Management has been described as a social process involving
responsibility for economical andeffective planning ' regulation of
operation of an enterprise in the fulfilment of given purposes.It is a
dynamic process consisting of vari ous elements and activities. These
activities are differentfrom operative functions like marketing, finance,
purchase etc. Rather these activities arecommon to each and every manger
irrespective of his level or status.
Different experts have classified fun ctions of management. According
toGeorge &Jerry, “Thereare four fundamental functions of management
i.e. planning, organizing, actuating andcontrolling”.
According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan,
to organize, to command, ' tocontrol”. W hereasLuther Gullickhas given a
Keyword ‘POSDCORB’ where P stands for Planning, O for Organizing, S
for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co -ordination, R for Reporting' B for
Budgeting. But the most widely accepted are functions of management
given by Koo ntz and O’Donnell i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing,
DirectingandControlling
For theoretical purposes, it may be convenient to separate the function of
management but practically these functionsare overlapping in nature i.e.
they are highly inseparable. Eachfunction blends into the other '
each affects the performance of others.
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19 Functions of Management:
1. Planning:
It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future
course of action & deciding in advance the most appropriate course of
actions for achievement of pre -determined goals. According to KOONTZ,
“Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to do. It
bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be”. A plan is a
future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision
making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired
goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for
accomplishment of pre -determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensu re
proper utilization of human & non -human resources. It is all pervasive, it
is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion,
uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.
2. Staffing:
It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it
manned. Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due
to advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of
human behaviour etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right man on
right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes.
According to Koontz &O’Donell, “Managerial function of staffing
involves manning the organization structure through proper and effective
selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles desig ned
un the structure”. Staffing involves:
Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching,
choose the person and giving the right place).
Recruitment, Selection & Placeme nt.
Training & Development .
Remuneration .
Performance Appraisal .
Promotions & Transfer. munotes.in
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20 3. Organizing:
It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human
resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for
achievement of organizational goals. Acc ording to Henry Fayol, “To
organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its
functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel’s”. To organize a
business involves determining & providing human and non -human
resources to the organ izational structure. Organizing as a process involves:
Identification of activities.
Classification of grouping of activities.
Assignment of duties.
Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility
Coordinating authority and responsibility relationsh ips.
4. Directing:
It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational
methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It
is considered life -spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action
of people b ecause planning, organizing and staffing are the mere
preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert -personnel aspect of
management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising,
motivating sub -ordinate for the achievement of organi zational goals.
Direction has following elements:
Supervision
Motivation
Leadership
Communication
Supervision - implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their
superiors. It is the act of watching & directing work & workers.
Motivation - means inspiring, stimulating or encouragi ng the sub -
ordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non -monetary
incentives may be used for this purpose.
Leadership - may be defined as a process by which manager guides and
influences the work of subordinates in desired direction.
Commun ications - is the process of passing information, experience,
opinion etc from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding.
5. Controlling:
It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and
correction of deviation if any to ensur e achievement of organizational
goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in
conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to munotes.in
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21
predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo
Haimann , “Con trolling is the process of checking whether or not proper
progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting, if
necessary, to correct any deviation”. According to Koontz & O’Donell
“Controlling is the measurement & correction of performanc e activities of
subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans
desired to obtain them as being accomplished”. Therefore, controlling has
following steps:
a. Establishment of standard performance.
b. Measurement of actual performance.
c. Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding
out deviation if any.
d. Corrective action.
Management is a collection of processes, including such
things as decision -making, problem - solving and action -
planning. These processes involve the management of
resources including human, material, financial and time. These
processes are also known as the functions of managers.
1.3 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. State the 14 principles of Henry Fayol
2.Input -Process -Output Model of systems Approach.
3.State the functions of Management.
1.4 SUMMARY:
The verb 'manage' comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle,
especially tools), which derives from the Latin word manus (hand). The
French word mesnagement (later ménagement) influenced the
development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and
18th centuries.
According to Harold Koontz, “Management is an art of getting
things done through and with the people informally organized groups. It is
an art of creating an environment in which peop le can perform and
individuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals”.
Management can be defined in detail in following categories:
Management as a Process
Management as an Activity
Management as a Discipline
Management as a Group munotes.in
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22 Manageme nt as a Science
Management as an Art
Management as a Profession
There are 14 Principles of Management described by Henri Fayol
1. Division of Work.
2. Balancing Authority and Responsibility.
3. Discipline.
4. Unity of Command.
5. Unity of Direction.
6. Su bordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest.
7. Remuneration.
8. Centralization.
9. Scalar Chain.
10. Order.
11. Equity.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel.
13. Initiative.
14. Esprit De Corps.
Management of education or educational manag ement implies the
practical measures for ensuring the system to work for achieving the goals
or objectives of an educational institution.
“Educational Management is theory and practice of the organisation
and administration of existing educational establi shments and systems.”
—G. Terrypage and J.B. Thomas
Nature of Educational Management:
1. Dynamic Functions
2. Practicability
3. Distinct Process
4. Needed at All levels of the organization
5. System of Authority
Scope of Educational Management:
The scope of educational management today is as vast as that of education
itself. Any activity conducive to the, achievement of educational goal, is a
part of educational management. Such activities could be at the school
level, at the college level, at the university level or at the control level. munotes.in
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23 Anything done to improve the quality of education at any stage may be
ranging from the supply of material, human and financial resources to the
highest cultural or academic needs -comes under the scope of educational
management.
Need of Educational Management:
knowledge of the educational management is the need of the hour due to
following aspects:
1. The knowledge of educational management theories, principles,
concepts techniques skills and strategies, when applied to education
will bring about effective and efficient functioning of educational
institutions.
2. Scientific and systematic management of educational institutions is
necessary to bring about qualitative changes in the educational system.
3. Knowledge of educational manage ment is also necessary to train the
present teachers to learn and run educational institutions
professionally.
System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of
a problem towards specific objectives. Webster’s dictionary defines a
syste m as “a regularly interacting or independent group of items forming a
unified whole.” The characteristics of a system of may be explained with
the help of an example – various parts of the digestive system may be
called as components of digestive system. E very component of the
digestive system contributes to as supports in functioning of the digestive
system as a whole.
Input -Process -Output Model of a System
In this model there are various components
1. Inputs
2. Process
3. Output
The contingency approach, often ca lled the Situational Approach is
based upon the premise that all management is essentially situational in
nature. All decisions by managers will be affected (if not controlled) by
the contingencies of a given situation. There is no one good way to
address any decision. Contingencies arise from various environmental
factors. As such, managers must take into account these contingencies
when making decisions that affect the organization.
According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan,
to organize , to command, ' to control”. Whereas Luther Gullick has given
a Keyword ‘POSDCORB’ where P stands for Planning, O for Organizing,
S for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co -ordination, R for Reporting' B
for Budgeting. But the most widely accepted are func tions of management munotes.in
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24 given by Koontz and O’Donnell i.e., Planning, Organizing, Staffing,
Directing and Controlling.
1.5 KEY TERMS:
Management, Educational Management, Systems Approach, Continceny
Approach.
1.6 QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the principles of Henry F ayol
2. “Educational Management is the need of the hour”. Explain.
3. Explain Input -Process -Output model of Systems Approach.
4. Explain the concept of Contingency Approach.
5. State the functions of Management.
1.7 REFERENCES:
1. https://www.slideshare.net/geminorumgem/concept -of-educational -
management
2. The Principles and Practice of Educational Management: Tony Bush,
Les Bell, SAGE Publisher, 2002.
3. Educational M anagement: Strategy, Quality, and Resources, Margaret
Preedy, Ron Glatter, Publiser Open University Press, 1997.
4. Educational Management: Theory and Practice, J.A. Okumbe, Publisher
Bairobi University Press, 1998.
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25 2
THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT AND
LEADERSHIP
Unit structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2.1 Management:
2.2.2 McGregor’s theory X & Y
2.2.3 Vroom’s expectancy motivation theory
2.2.4 Herzberg’s theory
2.3 Scientific Management
2.4 Theories of Management as applicable to educational manage ment
2.4.1 Modern Management theory (Peter Drucker)
2.4.2 Theory Z approach
2.4.3 The learning organization (Peter Senge)
2.5 Leadership Management
2.5.1 Roles
2.6 Differences between leaders and managers
2.7 Leadership styles
2.8 Summary
2.9 Exercise
2.10 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand the conce pt of leadership
To evaluate the X & Y theory
To appreciate the motivation theory
To understand the scientific management
To appreciate the difference between a manager and a leader
To explore different leadership styles
To understand leadership management
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26 2.1 INTRODUCTION
Just as management knowledge is supported by various theories, the
leadership function of management too is authenticated by various
theories. While the behavioural theories of leadership focused on
discovering the constant relationship betw een leadership behaviours and
the group performance, the contemporary theories emphasized the
significance of situational factors (such as stress level, job structure,
leader’s intelligence, followers’ traits, etc.) as well.
This unit deals with the concep t of leadership, its styles and different
theories of management specially pertaining to leadership.
2.2 MANAGEMENT
2.2.1 McGregor’s Theory of X & Y
1. Introduction to McGregor Theory
Douglas McGregor was born in the year 1960. He was a great a thinker,
leader, manag ement and leadership theorist. Douglas postulated over three
decades ago that every leader has core assumptions about human nature
and these assumptions influence the style of leadership practiced by the
leader. His views on leadership are of great signifi cant value because he
was the 1st to apply behavioral science findings to the world of business
and leadership. Douglas McGregor postulated the core leadership
assumptions namely Theory X and Theory Y to assist leaders to question
their underlying assumpti ons and perceptions about people.
2. Understanding Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor work is established in motivation theory. Mr.
McGregor postulated 2 theories on human management and leadership
which are Theory X and Theory Y.
Theory X advanced the v iew that human beings have an innate
dislike for work. They can only be made to get results at work by the
application of coercive methods and by direction. Theory X stresses on the
authoritarian style of leadership where results are the focus of leadershi p
and it is more work -centered than people -centered.
Theory Y approach to management is more people -centered. Here
the individual is valued and appreciated. Theory Y submits that when
workers are given the right kind of environment, they can reach their
highest potential and can be of great value to their organizations.
A few numbers of authors consider McGregor’s work as a basic
theory of motivation, whereas others feel it is a philosophy of human
nature and fits more logically into a discussion of leade rship than basic
motivation theories. munotes.in
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27
Figure 1: Tabular representation of McGregor’s Theory X & Y
McGregor’s ideas about leadership and managerial behavior had a great
effect on management and leadership thinking and practice. Traditional
leadership had been hierarchical and highly controlling where employees
always looked up to leaders and depended on them.
This could be very disempowering and a waste of human talent and
potential. McGregor thought that if leaders did not scrutinize certain core
assump tions they have about people; it could restrict their appreciation
and view of the strength of the human capacity for growth, collaboration,
and development.
3. Choosing a Management Style
McGregor postulated, that leaders who hold Theory X assumptions
belie ve that people are lazy, abhor responsibility and not motivated and
therefore need to be coerced before they will work and show
commitment.
Such a leadership assumption leads to very close supervision and
control of workers and siphons the ingenuity of wo rkers and results in
a lack of motivation in workers.
Leaders, who practice Theory Y assumptions, on the other hand,
involves workers to engage in joint problem solving, to understand the
needs of team members and to integrate personal needs of achievemen t
with organizational objectives.
Although with such an approach the leader facilitates and initiates the
control process, it is done with the involvement of the workers in mind
and can be encouraging and motivating for them. munotes.in
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Figure 2: Management and st aff relation using X & Y Theories
2.2.2 VROOM’S EXPECTANCY MOTIVATION THEORY
a. Introduction
Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation is a process theory of
motivation. It says that an individual’s motivation is affected by their
expectations about the future .
b. Motivation Theory
Specifically, Vroom says that an individual’s motivation is affected by
how much they value any reward associated with an action (Valence), how
much they believe that by putting effort into something they will be able
to generate good r esults (Expectancy) and how much they believe that
generating good results will result in a reward (Instrumentality).
It’s important to note that rewards could be intrinsic or extrinsic. Extrinsic
motivations are external things such as money and promotion . Intrinsic
motivations are internal things such as a sense of fulfillment and
achievement.
M = V x I x E
Vroom says that an individual’s motivation is product of factors viz:
Valence : How much they value the potential rewards associated with the
specific results or behaviors,
Expectancy : How much they believe that their additional effort will help
them achieve the target results of behaviors, and
Instrumentality : How much they believe the rewards will actually appear
should they achieve the desired outcome s or behaviors.
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29 From an individual perspective this means that if any of these factors are
lacking, you may lack motivation.
If, as an individual, you find yourself feeling unmotivated in the world of
work, it’s worth stepping back and considering these f actors. It may be
that one or two of them are lacking for you. For example, you may not
value the intrinsic or extrinsic rewards associated with the work you are
doing. Similarly, you may simply believe that you don’t have the ability to
achieve an outcome that would trigger a reward.
If you assess your motivation through the lens of Vroom’s expectancy
theory, you may identify root causes for your lack of motivation. In turn,
this might help identify actions you could take to restore it. As ever, you
may ne ed help from others to restore your motivation. you may benefit
from discussing your thoughts with a peer, friend or even your line
manager.
# Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation for leaders and
organizations
Vroom’s model helps make clear that leaders or organizations need to:
1 – Provide rewards that individuals value
These could be intrinsic aspects designed into rewarding role descriptions,
they could be recognition, they could be new opportunities or they could
be financial rewards. In fact, they c ould be a huge range of things. The
important point is that you find the right rewards for your people.
2 – Set achievable objectives for individuals
The objectives you set don’t need to be easy. But they do need to be in the
power of your team members to achieve. This may mean that the
individuals in your teams need to be empowered to achieve things and it
may mean that they need to be supported to do so. It also means that the
system that you are asking them to operate within isn’t stacked against
them.
3 – Provide promised rewards when they are earned
This is all about trust. To be trustworthy in this context you need to
provide the implicit and explicit outcomes and rewards that you have
agreed to provide. If you don’t do this, trust will be broken. When trust is
broken individuals will cease to be motivated by your proposed rewards.
2.2.3 HERZBERG’S THEORY
a. Introduction
In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two -factor
theory or the motivator -hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, ther e are
some job factors that result in satisfaction while there are other job factors
that prevent dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, the opposite of munotes.in
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30 “Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction” and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is
“No Dissatisfaction”.
Figure 3: Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction
b. Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories -
Hygiene factors -
Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for existence of
motivation at workplace. These do not lead t o positive satisfaction for
long-term. But if these factors are absent / if these factors are non -existent
at workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene
factors are those factors which when adequate/reasonable in a job, pacify
the employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors are
extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfies or
maintenance factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction. These
factors describe the job environment/scenario. T he hygiene factors
symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals wanted and
expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:
Pay –
The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must
be equal and competitive to those in the same industry in the same
domain.
Company Policies and administrative policies - The company policies
should not be too rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include
flexible working hours, dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.
Fringe benefits –
The employees should be offered health care plans (mediclaim), benefits
for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.
Physical Working conditions –
The working conditions should be safe, clean and hygienic. The work
equipment should be updated a nd well -maintained.
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31 Status –
The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and
retained.
Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employees with his peers,
superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. Ther e
should be no conflict or humiliation element present.
Job Security –
The organization must provide job security to the employees.
Motivational factors -
According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as
motivators. The motivational factor s yield positive satisfaction. These
factors are inherent to work. These factors motivate the employees for a
superior performance. These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors
involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors intrinsi cally
rewarding. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were
perceived as an additional benefit.
i. Motivational factors include:
Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their
accomplishments by the managers.
Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of
achievement. This depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some
sort in the job.
Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and
advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the
employees to perform well.
Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for
the work. The managers should give them ownership of the work.
They should minimize control but retain accountability.
Meaningfulness of the work - The wo rk itself should be meaningful,
interesting and challenging for the employee to perform and to get
motivated.
ii. Limitations of Two -Factor Theory
The two factor theory is not free from limitations:
The two -factor theory overlooks situational variables.
Herzb erg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But
the research conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored
productivity. munotes.in
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32 The theory’s reliability is uncertain.
Analysis has to be made by the raters. The raters may spoil the findings by
analyzing same response in different manner.
No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used.
An employee may find his job acceptable despite the fact that he may
hate/object part of his job.
The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural
reaction of employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction
and dissatisfaction at work. They will blame dissatisfaction on the external
factors such as salary structure, company policies and peer relationship.
Also, the employees will give credit to themselves for the satisfaction
factor at work. The theory ignores blue -collar workers. Despite these
limitations, Herzberg’s Two -Factor theory is acceptable broadly.
iii. Implications of Two -Factor Theory
The Two -Factor th eory implies that the managers must stress upon
guaranteeing the adequacy of the hygiene factors to avoid employee
dissatisfaction.
Also, the managers must make sure that the work is stimulating and
rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work an d perform
harder and better.
This theory emphasize upon job -enrichment so as to motivate the
employees.
The job must utilize the employee’s skills and competencies to the
maximum.
Focusing on the motivational factors can improve work -quality.
2.3 SCIENTIFI C MANAGEMENT
1. Introduction
The scientific theory of management focuses on individual efficiency and
productivity. The father of this theory is Fredrick Winslow Taylor (1890 -
1940), from his text Principles of Scientific Management (1911). His
proposal was t o apply principles of the scientific method to the practice of
management. His influence is such that the scientific theory of
management is often referred to as Taylorism.
2. Scientific Management Theory
The objective of the scientific theory is to increas e production within
an organization by increasing the productivity of the individual.
Taylor envisioned one best way to perform an organizational task.
Taylor's research focused on repetitive, routine tasks - rather than
complex or problem -solving acti vities. Each task was carefully
specified and measured. munotes.in
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33 If these tasks could be standardized they could be made more
efficient. For example, these types of activities could be largely automated
through the introduction of technology.
Taylor employed tim ing measures to routine tasks to identify
efficiencies and reduce wasted effort. He also sought to optimize
equipment or resources employed in these routine tasks. By customizing
equipment (or technology) he was able to add efficiency to individual
effort.
Further, Taylor proposed an award and punishment system to
incentivize efficient practice. Employees who adapted to efficient
techniques were rewarded as a result of higher productivity. Employees
who were unable or unwilling to adapt were punished.
3. Taylorism, can be summarized as follows:
Use the scientific method in planning activities - replace any existing
practices or rules of thumb.
Separate the planning function from the actual work activity.
Standardize the process, time, equipment, and costs ac ross all
processes.
Workers must be selected and appropriately trained for his/her
respective role.
Time, motion and fatigue figures should be employed to determine the
allocation of effort between workers.
Cooperate with or facilitate workers in the execu tion of their
responsibilities.
Work must have functional supervisors who have the knowledge to
oversee the respective field of work.
Responsibilities should be specifically allocated between workers and
managers.
Provide financing incentives as motivation for employee productivity
increases.
As you can imagine, this system is based upon principles of
comparative advantage. Individuals are prepared to perform specific
tasks as part of a greater process. This specialization allows for greater
efficiency.
4. Negative aspects of Scientific Management Theory
Taylor's principles functioned well for routine tasks, such as
assembly lines or production facilities. These principles did not function
as well in organizations where knowledge and decision -making are centra l
at each level of the value delivery process. This is particularly true for
service -based (rather than product -based) industries.
Further, Taylor's principles garnered significant criticism for their
effect on workers. Many argued that it treated humans as beasts of burden,
dehumanizing them. It often leads to poor working conditions in which munotes.in
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34 employers reaped greater benefits while employees earned very small
increases in compensation.
While the scientific theory focused exclusively on efficiency, it di d
little to understand the employee or to develop the manager as a leader.
Naturally, these shortcomings lead to subsequent innovations in
management theory.
2.4 THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT AS APPLICABLE
TO EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
2.4.1 MODERN MANAGEMENT THEORY
In 1954, Peter Drucker introduced Management by Objectives (MBO)
which is a modern approach / philosophy / idea towards Management
wherein effectiveness of institutional and individual performances is
judged in terms of contributions made by them to achieve a goal .Drucker
was considered a management visionary for his recognition that dedicated
employees are key to the success of any corporation, and marketing and
innovation should come before worries about finances. Below, we look at
some of his key theories.
Decen tralisation
A common theme across much of Drucker’s enormous body of work was
his firmly held belief that managers should delegate tasks in order to
empower employees, the decentralisation of management. As he saw it,
many business leaders would attempt to take on all responsibilities as a
display of power or to maintain a level of control, with the suggestion that
they were the only ones capable to undertake those responsibilities. In his
ground -breaking 1946 book, ‘Concept of the Corporation’, Drucker sta ted
decentralization was a good thing as it created smaller teams where people
would feel that they could make an important contribution. His suggestion
to achieve this was to move businesses away from having one central
office toward having several more i ndependent, smaller ones.
MBO
MBO is an acronym for Management by Objectives, and was a phrase
coined by Drucker in his 1954 book ‘The Practice of Management’. MBO
is a measurement by which the performance of employees is considered.
The process involves s uperiors and their subordinates working together to
identify common goals, defining each employee’s area of responsibility
and expected results, and using these as a plan for a team and to measure
its performance. In this way, an organisation’s goals and p lans flow top -
down and those same goals become personal objectives for each member
of the organisation. The system was formulated by Drucker but it was
actually one of his students of the class he taught at New York University,
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35 popularised by companies like Xerox, DuPont, Intel, and Hewlett -Packard,
who all became great advocates of the practice.
SMART Method
Following on from MBO, Drucker suggested the SMART method as
means of checking the validity of a planned objective. The first known
mention of this principle was in a 1981 issue of the ‘Management Review’
by George T. Doran. However, it was Peter Drucker who recommended
that managers who are implementing MBO goals use this handy
mnemoni c as the criteria to verify that those objectives are specific in their
aim, measurable in order to track progress, assignable to a specific person,
realistic in their attainability, and time -related to confirm when its
completion should be expected by.
Knowledge worker
In his 1959 book, ‘The Landmarks of Tomorrow’, Drucker suggested “the
most valuable asset of a 21st -century institution, whether business or non -
business, will be its knowledge workers and their productivity”. More of a
term than a theory, k nowledge workers are workers whose value is found
in their expertise, such as architects, software engineers, lawyers, and
those who engage in problem -solving or creative thinking. Whereas in the
20th century organisations focused on the productivity of ma nual work,
Drucker anticipated that in the future (from 1959, remember) knowledge
work would become increasingly vital with a focus on handling and using
information. He believed that by understanding the needs of the
knowledge worker, managers can impleme nt leadership practices that are
both consistent and lasting.
Even today, Peter Drucker’s legacy lives on. It is testament to his far -
seeing ideas that they are still considered the standard practice in nearly
every business in the Western world.
2.4.2 THEORY Z (by Professor William Ouchi)
1. Introduction
Management professor William Ouchi developed the Theory Z —a
development beyond Theory X and Theory Y that blended the best of
Eastern and Western management practices. Ouchi’s theory first appeared
in his 1981 boo k, Theory Z: How American Management Can Meet the
Japanese Challenge. The benefits of Theory Z, Ouchi claimed, would be
reduced employee turnover, increased commitment, improved morale and
job satisfaction, and drastic increases in productivity.
2. Theory Z
Theory Z stresses the need to help workers become generalists, rather than
specialists. It views job rotations and continual training as a means of
increasing employees’ knowledge of the company and its processes while
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36 more time to receive training, rotate through jobs, and master the
intricacies of the company’s operations, promotions tend to be slower. The
rationale for the drawn -out time frame is that it helps develop a more
dedicate d, loyal, and permanent workforce, which benefits the company;
the employees, meanwhile, have the opportunity to fully develop their
careers at one company. When employees rise to a higher level of
management, it is expected that they will use Theory Z to “bring up,”
train, and develop other employees in a similar fashion.
3. Assumptions of Theory Z
Ouchi’s Theory Z makes certain assumptions about workers.
One assumption is that they seek to build cooperative and intimate
working relationships with their cowo rkers. In other words, employees
have a strong desire for affiliation. Another assumption is that workers
expect reciprocity and support from the company. According to Theory Z,
people want to maintain a work -life balance, and they value a working
environm ent in which things like family, culture, and traditions are
considered to be just as important as the work itself. Under Theory Z
management, not only do workers have a sense of cohesion with their
fellow workers, they also develop a sense of order, disci pline, and a moral
obligation to work hard. Finally, Theory Z assumes that given the right
management support, workers can be trusted to do their jobs to their
utmost ability and look after for their own and others’ well -being.
Theory Z also makes assumpt ions about company culture. If a
company wants to realize the benefits described above, it need to have the
following:
A strong company philosophy and culture: The company philosophy and
culture need to be understood and embodied by all employees, and
empl oyees need to believe in the work they’re doing.
Long -term staff development and employment: The organization and
management team need to have measures and programs in place to
develop employees. Employment is usually long -term, and promotion is
steady and measured. This leads to loyalty from team members.
Consensus in decisions: Employees are encouraged and expected to take
part in organizational decisions.
Generalist employees: Because employees have a greater responsibility in
making decisions and unders tand all aspects of the organization, they
ought to be generalists. However, employees are still expected to have
specialized career responsibilities.
Concern for the happiness and well -being of workers: The organization
shows sincere concern for the healt h and happiness of its employees and
their families. It takes measures and creates programs to help foster this
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37 Informal control with formalized measures: Employees are empowered
to perform tasks the way they see fit, and manageme nt is quite hands -off.
However, there should be formalized measures in place to assess work
quality and performance.
Individual responsibility: The organization recognizes the individual
contributions but always within the context of the team as a whole.
4. Limitations of Theory Z
Theory Z is not the last word on management, however, as it does
have its limitations.
It can be difficult for organizations and employees to make life -time
employment commitments.
Also, participative decision -making may not alw ays be feasible or
successful due to the nature of the work or the willingness of the
workers.
Slow promotions, group decision -making, and life -time employment
may not be a good fit with companies operating in cultural, social, and
economic environments where those work practices are not the norm.
2.4.3 THE LEARNING ORGANISATION (by Peter Senge)
1. Introduction
The Senge’s five disciplines of learning organizations or Senge’s learning
organisation describes how to manage the success and development of an
organiz ation and how employees give the extra mile that goes beyond the
expectations of the company.
2. Senge’s 5 Disciplines
The five disciplines of learning organizations are as follows:
1. Building a Shared vision
2. Systems Thinking
3. Mental Models
4. Team Learning
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38
Figure 4: Peter Senge’s 5 disciplines
1. Building a Shared vision
In learning organizations, the vision should be created through
interaction with the employees in the enterprise. Many leaders have
personal visions that lack transferring them t o a shared vision.
The only way to create a shared vision is by compromising the
organization’s and individual’s visions. People who do not share the same
vision might not contribute as much to the organization.
The effect of sharing the same vision is t hat employees do tasks
because they want to do so instead of they are told to do so. It changes the
relationship with the company, and it turns its performances in a learning
mechanism.
2. Systems Thinking
Instead of focusing on individual issues, systems thinking reflects the
observational process of an entire system. Managers have to
understand that every action and consequence is correlated with
another.
Many times it happens that managers focus on individual actions, and
therefore, forget about seeing the big picture.
When the correlation is understood, it enables us to see
interrelationships and patterns of change in particular situations.
Managers will be able to determine cause and effect.
3. Mental Models
According to Peter Senge, the employees mus t identify the values of
the company and what the business is all about.
A correct understanding of who we are will enable us to visualize
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39 flexible in accepting changes to new mental model s and a new image
of the company.
The most successful companies are those who can learn and adapt to
new models to become faster than its competitors.
4. Team Learning
To accomplish excellent functional team dynamics, team -learning is a
primary importance . It is the discipline by which personal mastery and
shared vision are brought together.
It is crucial for the workforce to consider its colleagues as team
members instead of rivals. It is the first step to set up dialogues
wherein people dare to be vulne rable and express their real
personality. The working environment should be safe where honest
mistakes are forgiven. Otherwise, no learning can be experienced.
5. Personal Mastery
Personal mastery occurs when an individual has a clear vision of a
goal, com bined with an accurate perception of reality. The gap
between the vision and reality drives the employee to practice all
necessary related activities to realize the vision.
This creative tension depends on a clear understanding of current
reality. For thi s reason, for personal mastery and the related discipline
of a shared vision, looking at, and sharing the truth is a crucial
fundamental.
However, employees could believe they lack the competencies to
achieve their goals. A vicious circle might have estab lished and could
be difficult to remove. According to Peter Senge, we should train our
subconscious mind because it can handle more complex problems
quicker than what our consciousness can.
When people believe in their own powerlessness, it will hold them
back from realizing their vision. For this reason, we should train the
subconscious mind to tackle the stress and problems in reality.
3. Application of the Five Disciplines of Learning Organizations
Applying the five disciplines of learning organizations can be
challenging for many organizations. It would be more attractable to
only focus on one or a few of these disciplines. However, the
utilization of all disciples is critical since all disciplines are interlinked.
For instance, when an organization sta rts to build a Shared Vision with
its team, an important aspect is to have better conversations with its
team members (Team Learning). munotes.in
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40 In addition, if an organization starts to work on System Thinking to
identify common problems, its employees need to unde rstand the
Mental Models. Since all disciplines are linked to another, it does not
matter where to start.
It does not mean that the organization has to focus on all disciplines at
the same time. By focusing more narrowly on one or two disciplines
and work to the others will gain competitive advantages for the
organization.
On the other hand, the five disciplines of learning organizations focus
on long -term growth for both internal and external the organization.
Typical events within the organization are t he discussion about urgent
tasks that could affect the operations.
The real threat in this scenario is the focus of the small event because
the organization has to focus on the long -term growing process that
keeps it competitive.
Another example is the d esire from management that the team is
pulling in the same direction. According to Chris Argyris, a former
professor at Harvard Business School, most organization reward those
who follow senior’s management views.
Employees who ask questions or stir the v iew into another direction
may be penalized. As described, management should focus on
Building a Shared Vision via strategic planning.
Thus, transferring management vision into a shared vision by
compromising both the organization’s and individual’s visio n.
4. Conclusion
The key point of understanding and applying the five disciplines of
learning organizations is that they are all interrelated. Each discipline
cannot stand independently.
Even though the focus can be set at one or two disciplines before
preceding to the other, the interrelation will enable the organization to
identify complexities and opportunities both internal and external the
organization.
For this reason, the implementation of the five disciplines of learning
organizations will lead to a continuous learning process, and therefore,
created a learning and competitive organization. However, some
disabilities such as the experience of a traditional hierarchy in the
organization can make the implementation challenging.
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41 2.5 LEADERSHIP MANAGEMENT
2.5.1 Roles
1. Strategist
As a leader, your work involves developing a plan for your company
and the work you and your team members do. Your responsibilities
include outlining specific goals for your company and determining the
steps you and your employees need to take to achieve them. You
should also establish what metrics you will use for evaluating whether
you have achieved your goals and plans.
Figuring out what success looks like will help you hone your strategy
and the steps you will take to achieve it. Clearly define the best
measures to evaluate specific goals, too. What kind of data will you
generate? How can you use it to measure your efforts?
2. Communicator
Communication is crucial for all organizational leaders —and really
any employee at any s tage in her career. You need to be able to
communicate your ideas to your employees, the public, and your
managers.
You will also communicate with people on a regular basis; even
sending a quick email, running or participating in a meeting and
making a p hone call are forms of communication.
Whether you're a new manager relaying plans for the company,
implementing organizational change or simply communicating day -to-
day procedures and expectations, effective communication is one of
the most important ski lls a leader can have.
3. Innovator
You didn't rise to the top solely because you possess strong skills in
your industry —although that is surely the case. Your capacity for
innovation helped get you there, too.
Good leaders don't just continue to do thin gs the way they've always
been done or sit back and let "followers" carry out the responsibilities;
they continually develop new ideas. Not all your ideas will pan out,
but failure is part of the innovation process.
In order for a business to thrive and grow, change needs to take
place —and you are the one who should drive that change.
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42 4. Coach
Leaders certainly have their moment in the spotlight, but effective
managers also give their employees time and opportunities to shine.
Part of being a team lea der or company leader means you should
help your employees grow and thrive in their roles. That means giving
feedback —both positive feedback when they've done something
particularly well and constructive criticism when you notice a skill or task
upon which they can improve —, offering direction and celebrating
success, even if it's not your personal victory.
5. Delegator
This one goes hand -in-hand with coach. A leader can't and shouldn't
do everything. If you're good at your job, you'll know your own
limitat ions and recognize when somebody else could be doing a task or
project better than you could.
Furthermore, you'll understand that others need to learn because it
takes many people to run a successful organization, and you need to give
them a chance to de velop their own skills, even if you may have already
mastered them.
6. Adaptor
Management is not without its hiccups and bumps along the road.
All leadership positions require a fair degree of flexibility. If a plan isn't
panning out the way you wanted or expected it to, you need to be capable
of recognizing that and changing course when it becomes necessary.
No one likes admitting defeat, but part of being a leader means that
you have to stop wasting time and resources on something that just isn't
going to pan out.
You also need to adapt to changing environments. Sometimes
market trends force a company to adapt and change with the times. For
instance, new technologies are changing the way industries across the
board perform their work, and as a leader in your industry, you need to
make sure your company keeps up with trends. You don't want to be the
one lagging behind.
7. Networker
Networking, networking, networking. It is a crucial aspect of any
professional's life, and none more so than a leader. Depend ing on your
specific leadership position and function, you may be the face of your
company; if that's the case, or even you're not at the very top, you need to
constantly promote your company and its values. Networking isn't just
important for your company 's growth; it's also essential for your personal
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43 Conclusion (of Roles of Leadership)
No one said being a leader is easy, and with so many different roles you
have to fill at a given time, it can feel like you are working around the
clock. But great leaders who manage to juggle their responsibilities can
accomplish great success for both themselves, their employees, and their
organization. Take your responsibilities seriously, spending time and care
on each individual role. It will be well worth it w hen you achieve your
vision.
2.6 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEADERS AND
MANAGERS
It is possible to be a manager and a leader at the same time. But keep in
mind that just because someone is a great leader doesn't mean they'll be a
great manager or the other way ar ound. So, what factors distinguish these
two roles? Moving ahead in this leadership vs management article, we
explore those factors.
1. Differences in Vision
Leaders are considered as visionaries. They set the pathways to
excel the organizational growth. T hey always examine where their
organization stands, where they want to go, and how they can reach there
by involving the team.
In comparison, managers set out to achieve organizational goals by
implementing processes, such as budgeting, organizational st ructuring,
and staffing. Managers' vision is bound to the implementation strategies,
planning, and organizing tasks to reach the objectives set out by leaders.
However, both of these roles are equally important in the context of
business environments and n ecessitate associative efforts.
2. Organizing vs Aligning
Managers achieve their goals by using coordinated activities and
tactical processes. They break down long -time goals into tiny
segments and organize available resources to reach the desired
outcome.
On the other hand, leaders are more concerned with how to align and
influence people than how to assign work to them. They achieve this
by assisting individuals in envisioning their function in a wider context
and the possibility for future growth that t heir efforts may give.
3. Differences in Queries
A leader asks what and why, whereas a manager focuses on the
questions how and when. To do justice to their duties as a leader, one
might question and challenge the authority to reverse decisions that
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44 block, a leader will be the one to step up and ask, What did we learn
from this? and Why has this happened?
On the other hand, managers are not required to assess and analyze
failures. Th eir job description emphasizes asking How and When,
which assists them in ensuring that plans are carried out correctly.
They prefer to accept the status quo and make no attempt to change it.
4. Position vs Quality
A manager is a role that frequently refer s to a specific job within an
organization's structure, whereas the term leader has a more ambiguous
definition. Leadership emerges as a result of your actions. You are a leader
if you act in a way that inspires others to do their best. It makes no
differe nce what your title or position is. On the other hand, a manager is a
job title that comes with a fixed set of responsibilities.
2.7 LEADERSHIP STYLES
1. Autocratic leadership
This is defined by a top -down approach when it comes to all decision -
making, proce dures and policies within an organisation. An Autocratic
Leader focuses less on collecting input from team members and tends to
make executive decisions that others are expected to follow.
The phrase most illustrative of an Autocratic Leadership style is “ Do as I
say”. This command -and-control approach is used less and less in
organisations today, however, it may be appropriate in certain situations.
You might use an Autocratic Leadership style when crucial decisions need
to be made as a matter of urgency a nd there’s no time to wait.
One example of when the Autocratic Leadership style could be effective is
if there was a fire in the building where one person needs to direct
everyone safely out without being questioned.
The pros of Autocratic Leadership inclu de:
Can be efficient, especially when it comes to decision -making.
One person taking charge can keep teams cohesive and consistent.
Can reduce an individual’s stress by the leader making decisions
quickly.
May make everyone’s individual roles clearer since they are delegated
specific duties and are not encouraged to step outside of that role.
The cons of Autocratic Leadership include:
Can stifle creativity, collaboration, innovation and diversity in thought.
Highly stressful because the leader feels respons ible for everything.
Often resented by individuals as the leader lacks flexibility and often
does not want to hear others’ ideas, leaving them feeling that they
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45
2. Authoritative leadership
Authoritative Leaders take the time to explain th eir thinking to others, they
don’t just issue orders. Most of all, they allow people choice and
autonomy on how to achieve common goals.
Leaders using this leadership style are often confident people, who map
the way and set expectations, while engaging an d energising followers
along the way. This style may also be called Visionary Leadership. The
phrase most illustrative of an Authoritative Leadership style is, “Follow
me”. Authoritative Leaders help people see where the organisation is
going and what is g oing to happen when they get there.
One example of when the Authoritative Leadership style could be
effective is in changing and uncertain times, as these leaders give a clear
vision of what needs to be done to succeed.
The pros of Authoritative Leadership include:
Motivating for the team.
Beneficial for building strong relationships and encouraging
collaboration.
Empowers team members with autonomy to do their jobs.
Can lead to more creativity and innovation.
The cons of Authoritative Leadership include:
Pressure on the leader, who needs to lead by example.
Can cause feelings of instability by disrupting the status quo.
May not be a good culture fit for a more “traditional hierarchical”
organisational culture.
3. Pacesetting leadership
Pacesetting Leadership focuses on performance and achieving goals.
Leaders expect excellence from themselves and their teams, and will often
jump in to make sure that goals are met.
Whilst the pacesetter style of leadership is effective in getting things done
and driving for res ults, it is an approach that can cause stress to the leader
and team members in the long run working under this kind of pressure.
Pacesetters set the bar high and push their team members to run hard and
fast to the finish line. The phrase most illustrative of a Pacesetter
Leadership style is “Keep up!”.
An example of when this leadership style is most effective is when an
energetic entrepreneur is working with a like -minded team developing and
announcing a new product or service ahead of the competition.
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46 The pros of Pacesetter Leadership include:
Highly self -motivated and a strong desire to succeed.
Reaching time critical, short -term results.
Leading teams that need little direction or co -ordination.
Inspiring high performance, high pace and high quality.
The cons of Pacesetter Leadership include:
Values results more than anything, including the team.
Detrimental for employee engagement and motivation in the long
run.
Individuals can feel stressed, overwhelmed and receive little or no
feedback or development .
Group of people in a meeting
4. Democratic leadership
This is the most participative leadership style. A Democratic Leadership
style gets people to do what you want to be done but in a way that they
want to do it. It motivates individuals by empowering the m to take a full
part in the decision -making process. Ideas and suggestions can be brought
forward by any team member, and the Democratic Leader facilitates and
asks questions until there is consensus in decision -making.
The Democratic Leader is still the one making the final decision or
approving the decision of the team. The phrase most illustrative of a
Democratic Leadership style is “All for one and one for all”. An example
of when this leadership style is most effective is when you want to
generate tru st and promote team spirit and cooperation from individuals,
such as when reviewing and improving business processes and gaining
“buy -in” for change.
The pros of Democratic Leadership include:
Creativity and innovation are encouraged, valuing the process o f
generating new ideas.
Collaboration creates strong solutions for complex issues.
High employee engagement and involvement.
Higher productivity.
A strong feeling of team accountability.
The cons of Democratic Leadership include:
Can cause confusion, delay s and conflict.
Can lack focus and direction.
Some team members’ ideas and opinions may get more attention
than the ideas of others, causing resentment.
Collaborative decision -making is time -consuming.
The team may have limited expertise or experience to c ontribute
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47 Employees can get too used to being involved in decision -making and
expect to be included in all decisions, even when it is not appropriate,
possibly causing conflict.
5. Coaching leadership
A Coaching Leader gives people direction to help t hem develop and utilise
their abilities to achieve their full potential. They are focused on bringing
out the best in their teams by guiding them through obstacles to achieve
their goals.
Coaching Leadership depends heavily on the leader’s ability to direc t and
support. They will give directions to help team members develop their
skills, and this takes time and excellent communication skills to provide
constructive feedback on the individual’s performance, which is a core
part of Coaching Leadership.
The ph rase most illustrative of a Coaching Leadership style is “What else
could you try?” An example of when this leadership style is most effective
is when the leader takes time to manage and develop talent, setting clear
objectives and providing motivational f eedback to improve performance.
The pros of Coaching Leadership include:
Encourages two -way communication and collaboration.
Helps people improve their skills so that they can perform at their best.
Individuals don’t have to guess what is required from the m, the
objectives and goals are clear.
Having support makes meeting performance expectations motivating
for individuals.
Helps to identify weaknesses, and transform them into strengths.
Enables organisations to develop talent and grow a highly skilled
work force.
Promotes trust and empowerment.
The cons of Coaching Leadership include:
Requires a lot of one -to-one time and patience.
Doesn’t always lead to the fastest, most efficient results.
The leader must have confidence, experience and the ability to give
meaningful feedback or the effect could be negative.
Leaders often have to prioritise achieving their own goals, and
coaching takes a lower priority which can be demotivating for the
team.
Team members are not committed to the process.
Team members are res entful, defensive or disregard the feedback
given in coaching.
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48 6. Affiliative leadership
This style, also known as Collaborative Leadership, is all about
encouraging agreement and forming cooperative relationships within and
between teams. It strategicall y and explicitly focuses on people, gaining
loyalty and support to get tasks done.
Affiliative Leaders recognise and reward the personal characteristics and
behaviours used to carry out tasks as much as the delivery of the task
itself. In other words, not only what is done but how something is done.
They encourage and develop positive working relationships between often
diverse and conflicting groups and motivate individuals by supporting
them during highly monotonous or stressful times.
The phrase most ill ustrative of an Affiliative Leadership style is “People
come first”. An example of when this leadership style is most effective is
when leading a cross -functional project team to encourage collaboration
with other teams, departments and outside contractors to accomplish a
shared goal.
The pros of Affiliative Leadership include:
Offers more opportunities for diversity.
Builds trust within an organisation.
Strengthens cross -functional working relationships.
Recognises and rewards people skills.
Teams handle e motional challenges better.
Employees experience less stress and higher autonomy.
The cons of Affiliative Leadership include:
Potential for power struggles between departmental leaders.
Task -orientated individuals see interpersonal relationships as
inappro priate, unnecessary or distracting.
Can hamper results, prioritising people over the task in hand.
Underperformance can be overlooked, resulting in low standards.
Can foster a sense of favouritism and frustration.
Lacks clear direction in times of crises.
A teaching style of leadership
7. Laissez -faire leadership
This leadership style is at the opposite end of the continuum from
Autocratic Leadership. When taken to the extreme the hands -off leader
may end up appearing indifferent and remote. However, a Laisse z-faire
Leader trusts people to know what to do and works well when leading
highly skilled, experienced individuals and teams who are motivated self -
starters.
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49 Laissez -faire Leaders still provide their teams with the resources and tools
they need to succee d but they remain generally uninvolved in the day -to-
day work. The phrase most illustrative of a Laissez -faire Leadership style
is “let you do” which is also the literal translation from French.
An example of when this leadership style is most effective is when the
leader is confident in the abilities of their team and empowers them to
carry out their roles, providing them with timely feedback on headway so
that the leader can monitor progress and achievement.
The pros of Laissez -faire Leadership include:
Encourages trust between team members and leader.
Inspires independent thinking and acting.
Less fear of failure.
Can lead to increased creativity and innovation.
Empowers individuals.
Promotes the concept of self -managing teams.
The cons of Laissez -faire L eadership include:
Often hard for leaders to “let go” enough.
Leaders can appear too distant and unapproachable.
Can result in low productivity.
Not effective with unskilled or unmotivated individuals.
Conflict can occur between team members.
Team members may vie to fill the leadership void.
2.8 SUMMARY
For managers to be successful in their role, they need to have leadership
skills. And for leaders to lead successfully, they must be able to manage
their peers, employees, and stakeholders well. Leadership and
management are not the same, but they go hand in hand with each other. It
is essential that a manager helps their peers feel empowered, inspired, and
engaged. Thus, knowing these leadership theories will help sharpen
leadership skills and create an environ ment that fosters productivity and
increases engagement.
There have been several studies conducted that focus on leadership, and
this has led to an increase in leadership theories as well. Most of these
theories are put forth by researchers, philosophers, and cognitive experts
who study what goes into making a successful leader. With the help of
these theories, you will understand the traits and behaviours that may help
an individual develop their leadership skills and manage their team in a
better way.
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50 2.9 EXERCISE
1. Discuss the McGregor’s Theory of X & Y.
2. Elaborate on Vroom's Expectancy theory of motivation.
3. What is Herzberg's theory?
4. What is scientific management? What are its advantages?
5. Discuss the modern management theory by Peter Drucker.
6. What are th e Senge's five disciplines? elaborate.
7. What are the different roles of a leader? elaborate.
8. Differentiate between leaders and managers.
9. Discuss any two leadership styles.
2.10 REFERENCES
Aggarwal J.C. Educational Administration, Management & Supervision
Aggrawal J. C. Education Policy in India, Shipra Publications, 1992
Aggarwal J. C. Landmarks in the history of modem education .
Bhatnagar SS, Gupta Educational Management
Champoux, J. E. Organizational behavior: Essential tenets for new
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styles/
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52 3
INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING &
MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Institutional Planning
3.3.1 Concept
3.3.2 Objectives of Institutional Planning
3.3.3 Importance of Institutional planning
3.3.4 Scope
3.3.5 Procedure and techniques
3.4 Curricular & Co -Curricular Programs
3.4.1 Concept
3.4.2 Need
3.4.3 Schedules and Resources
3.4.4 Time management
3.5 Event Management
3.3.1 Concept
3.3.2 Importance to Educational Institutions
3.6 School and College Plant Infrastructure by using of ICT and MIS
3.7 Summary
3.8 Questions
3.9 References
3.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit carefully you should be able to:
● Define Institutional Planning.
● Explain importance and scope of Institutional Planning. munotes.in
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53 ● Explain the procedure a nd techniques of Institutional Planning.
● Discuss the concept of Curricular & Co -Curricular Programs.
● Analyse the importance of event management to the Educational
Institutions.
● State the use of ICT and MIS in the school and college plant
infrastructu re.
3.2 INTRODUCTION
The main focus of this unit is to understand the concept of institutional
planning and management. The unit deals with the concept and
importance of institutional planning. We are going to discuss the
procedure and techniques of Inst itutional Planning. It describes the various
aspects of Curricular & Co -Curricular Programs. This unit explain s the
importance of event management to the Educational Institutions as well as
effective use of ICT and MIS in the school and college plant
infra structure.
3.3 INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING
Institutional Planning is the basic grass root level of the bigger educational
planning. Each institution has its own ideology for implementing the
activities and functions for achieving the institutional goals. The main
purpose of Institutional Planning is to improve the school / college
activities and practices. It is based on the principle of best utilization of the
resources available in the schools / colleges as well as community.
3.3.1 Concept
Instituti onal plan ning is the program of development of the educational
institutions. This is mainly on the basis of the needs and requirements of
any educational institutions. The important factors of bringing about
improvements in educational institutions are planning of various school
/college activities in a systematic manner, achieving the desired
objectives, optimum use of the resources available in the schools / colleges
as well as community, proper time management and enhancing the
education system.
Definition of Ins titutional planning:
According to M.B Buch. ''Institutional planning is a programme of
development and improvement prepared by an educational institution on
the basis of its felt and the resources available or likely to be available,
with a view to improvi ng the school programme and school practices. it is
based on the principle of optimum utilisation of the resources available in
the school and the community.''
The objectives of institutio nal planning should be match with the national
objectives of educati onal development. Institutional planning requires for
both quantitative and qualitative educational development. I t deals with munotes.in
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Educational Management
54 the present status of educational institution, persistent educational goals
and objectives and the optimum utilization of availab le facilities/
resources.
3.3.2 Objectives of Institutional Planning
The objectives of institutional planning are as follows:
1. To improve the structure of the educational institutions.
2. To provide direction for effective functioning of educational
instituti ons.
3. To develop extensive program for improvement of the educational
system by utilizing the available resources in an effective manner.
4. To provide opportunities to the members of the local communities,
students and the school/ college staff to regard educ ational institutions
as joint and co -operative ventures and to bring about improvements in
them.
5. To provide autonomy to the teachers to create innovations in teaching
learning process(methods and approaches) for bringing about
improvements in education sys tem.
6. To impart concrete and practical approaches in educational planning.
7. To create a democratic environment to enable school staff, students
and parents to take part in the formulation and implementation of the
plans.
3.3.3 Importance of Institutional Pl anning
Provide proper d irections – Through institutional planning, the
individuals are able to identify their educational goals and objectives
in a very clear m anner. When giving appropria te directions the
individuals for carring out the functions of plann ing, organizing,
directing, leading, coordinating and controlling in a well -organized
manner.
Maximum Utilization of Resources – It is necessary to make an
effective use of the available resources to accomplish the desired goals
and objectives of the edu cational institutions. The most important
resources are:
1. Human resources : to upgrade knowledge, skills and abilities that
are required to carry out various tasks and functions.
2. Financial resources : Proper usage of financeto make effective
investm ent and expenditure on machines, equipment and other
materials for improvement of education system.
Providing equal opportunities to Learners – It is essential to make
provision of opportunities to the learners to render an effective
contribution. It is i mportant to generate awareness among the learners
in terms of innovative methods / techniques that are taking place and
how they would prove to be useful to them. When the students are munotes.in
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55 pursuing their course, the teachers shouldprovide equal opportunities
to express their ideas.
Strengthening Human Efforts – Institutional planning helps to
promote a democratic environment which include, principals,
teaching faculty, administrative staff, students, parents, a nd
community are participating in t he pr ocess of institutional planning.
The principals encourageparticipation and communication of all
teaching and non -teaching faculty, students and community members
in various school activities which promotes strengthening of human
efforts.
Encouraging Teamwork – When one has to achieve the desired goal
or an objective, the individuals are able to work in co -ordination and
integration with each other. It is essential for them to create good
rapports and interactions with each other. Hence, institutional planning
enco urages teamwork among the stakeholders which enables them to
form good relationships, carry out responsibilities in a well -organized
manner and experience the feeling of cooperation.
Improve the School Environment –while doing institutional
planning, t here should be provision of adequate infrastructure,
materials, equipment, technology, tools, facilities etc. Thus it helps
to improve the school environment.
Enrichment of Academic Facilities – The academic facilities can
be improved by initiating appropriat e institutional planning .
Instructional strategies should be suitable to the needs and
requirements of the students. The students are able to enhance
academic concepts and learning, through workshops, seminars and
projects. It will render a significant co ntribution in enabling the
students to understand difficult academic concepts and enhance their
skills and abilities.
Equality and Accountability – Institutional planning helps in
implementing equality and accountability in academic, managerial
and admin istrative policies. When the tasks and activities are
planned and organized, then it is apparent that priority is given to the
ones, which are more important , then the resources should also be
allocated to the ones, which are more important.
Enhancement of the Community – When institutional planning
takes place, then bringing about welfare of the community. In
educational institutions, teachers are providing training to the
students in terms of social work activities s uch as provision of free
classes f or academic subject and extra -curricular activities as well as
contributions are made to underprivileged group in terms of food
items, clothing, stationary, books and other requirements as such. munotes.in
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56 3.3.4 Scope
In an institution, the process of planning is nee ded for ensuring the proper
functioning and achieving the desired goals. The following are some of
the scope that institutional planning influences in the functioning of an
institution:
Planning is necessary for improving the administrative set up in an
institution. The planning programmes should be conducted for
increasing the effectiveness of staff meetings, improving
administration, improving principal - teaching and non -teaching faculty
relationships, maintaining the democratic environment in a school e tc.
For organising co -curricular activities, planning is required for better
use of leisure time by teachers as well as the learners in the school. It
is necessary to find out new ways or choose the new programmes for
developing good habits a mong the stude nts.
Planning is necessary in a school for removing various bad habits like
absenteeism, lack of discipline, lying, distraction, etc.
Institutional planning influences on the Education Organisations and
community relationships. The planning is made to util ize the
community resources for bringing about better improvement in an
institution. For example, arranging talks or interactions by the
members of the community (different professionals)
For maintaining a democratic environment in the school and for
deve loping the qualities like leadership, tolerance as well as self -
discipline and self -control among the learners , planning process is
necessary. For example, g iving more responsibiliti es to pupils,
involving themin the planning and executing anyactivity, mo tivating
students to generate innovative ideas etc.
3.3.5 Procedure and Techniques
The major step s in institutional planning are analysis, survey,
improvement, implementation and evaluation. Putting into operation these
steps in a well -organized manner wo uld help in achieving the desired
academic outcomes. The steps of institutional planning have been stated as
follows:
1. Analysis
The first step of institutional planning is conducting an analysis of the
educa tional institution as below,
The school environm ental conditions : needs and requirements of the
teachers and other staff members as well as leaners.
Availability of infrastructure : building accommodation to the
students
Civic amenities : teaching -learning methods, teaching materials,
transportation facilities, pattern of examinations, evaluation techniques
etc. munotes.in
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57 Availability of other school facilities: libraries, laboratories, play -
grounds and sports equipment, organization of workshops, curricular
and co -curricular activities.
It is necessary to identific ation of the areas, which are required to get
improved and planning of resources in an appropriate manner. If there
are any flaws and inconsistencies, then it is necessary to formulate
measures and procedures to bring about improvements in them.
2. Survey
On the basis of the analysis conducted, next step is to carry out the survey
of the existing resources and also the ones that would be available in
future.
For example: admission of students, i nfrastructure facilities, examination .
It is necessary to ens ure that the classroom environment should be well -
maintained. Within the classroom, there should be availability of teaching -
learning materials, infrastructure, furniture, sufficient facilities and
friendly environmental conditions.
The resources surveyed are classified into three categories.
1. The school resources are the infrastructure, equipment, technology,
teaching -learning materials, books, and other facilities.
2. Resources available through the Government are, monetary resources,
policies and sc hemes that are beneficial to the individuals in enhancing
their academic performance.
3. The resources available in the community are render an effective
contribution in enriching the academic outcomes of the students.
3. Improvement
The educational ins titutions are required to prepare a list of programs,
along with the details. For eg. (i) long -term or short -term program (ii)
certain goals and objectives to achieve. (iii) improvement programs need
to be specific in terms of utility of the institutions ( iv)financial
implications
In order to bring about improvements and progressions, the individuals
need to ensure that they make effective use of their skills and abilities to
generate the desired outcomes. The tasks and activities that are carried out
shoul d be clearly stated in terms of the resources required, effective
utilization of the resources, time required for accomplishing task and the
expected outcome.
4. Implementation
In the implementation stage consider certain aspects as below :
available resour ces and materials should be utilized in a suitable
manner; munotes.in
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58 principals, teachers, and non -teaching staff should work in integration
and co -ordination with each other
equal rights and opportunities should be provided to all individuals
The heads/ principa ls are required to supervise, guide and lead the
individuals in the right direction. The other individuals need to ensure
that they carry out their tasks and activities, as explained to them by
their superiors by following the rules and instructions.
It is necessary for the individuals to possess time management skills.
3. Evaluation
Evaluation is one of the important stage, when any task or activity is put
into operation. Evaluation takes place in qualitative as well as in
quantitative terms. The evalu ation procedures have the main objective to
ensure whether pre -planned activities have been accomplished and to what
extent. Necessary feedback is required to get obtained from all the
stakeholders and beneficiaries of the programsto identify the flaws and
inconsistencies and financial status and cost should be measured in terms
of the outp ut received.
3.4 CURRICULAR & CO -CURRICULAR PROGRAMS
Every activity in school life plays a significant role in overall development
of the child . Curricular andCo -curricu lar activities are an essential part of
school life. They help in enhanci ng learning process of the learners at
school. All the school activities are necessary which is important for every
studen t to participate. Curricular and cocurricular programs are de signed
and balanced with academic curriculum so that every child gets
opportunity to enhance his/her skills and abilities .
3.4.1 Concept
Curriculum can be identified through both curricular and co -curricular
activities. Let’s see the difference between Curricular & Co -Curricular
activities:
Curricular Co-Curricular
Activities that are carried out
inside the classroom, in the
laboratory or in the workshop
and have reference to the
prescribed courses are called
‘curricular activities’.
These activities are a part of the
over-all instructional
programme.
Co-curricular activities are
those activities, which have
indirect reference to actual
instructional work that goes on
in the classroom.
Co-curricular activities are
important for developing social
skills, intellectual skills, moral
values, personality and
character appeal among the
students. munotes.in
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59 For Example: Classroom
activities, Laboratory activities,
library work, workshops
For example: Sports, Debate,
Art, Music, Drama, Debate and
discussion, Competitio ns,
Exhibitions, Celebration of
festivals
3.4.2 Need:
Both curricular and co -curricular activities are important for overall
development of the students . So it is essential to know the need of these
two types of activities.
1. Organisation of curricular activities enables students to be active in the
classroom and the organisation of co -curricular activities brings mental
health and proper physical development among the students through
organizing games and sports.
2. Proper organisation of curricular act ivities develops good study habits
among the students. And the co -curricular acti vities develop all round
development of the students for enhancing their abilities and skills.
3. Organisation of curricular activities provide both theoretical and
practical knowledge to students in their taught subject matters and co -
curricular activities provide scope to apply the obtained knowledge in
different situations.
4. Proper organisation of curricular activities enable the students to have
their academic genius by acquiring mastery over their subjects of study.
And co -curricular activities provide ample scope for the students for
social adjustment through different social activities.
3. Organisation of curricular activities give a sound theoretical knowledge
and und erstanding about useful, responsible and democratic citizenship
to the students in the classroom situation. This becomes possible
through academic treatment of civics and politics.
3.4.3 Schedules and Resources
Following precautions should be taking care w hile scheduling the
curricular and cocurricular activities in the educational institutions:
Arrange and organise curricular and cocurricular activities within t he
school hours. So that the students can take part in them.
Do not organize the activities thr oughout the year so that teachers as
well asstudents are overloaded.
Provision for wide variety of activities should be made to cater to the
individualdifferences among students.
Co-curricular activities should be integrated with the classroom
teaching -learning activities which make learning more effective.
To meet financial assistance school can explore sponsorship.
Workload should be adequately distributed among staff. munotes.in
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60 Performance in cocurricular activities should get adequate weightage
in overallevaluat ion.
Assessment of student performance should not be done merelyon
academic aspects but the co -curricular activities should also be
evaluatedtoward final grades and promotions.
Adequate rewards, incentives should be associated with co -curricular
activities .The award s need appreciation in form of certificatescan be a
great motivation.
Before launching programme of any activity (co - curricular) it should
be approved democrati cally by the staff. It is school’s responsibility to
provide sufficient resources for accomplishing the activity. For
example, funds, expertise, require infrastructure and equipment etc.
Any activity should be introduced only when the school has a need for
it and when its students are interested in it. The number and type of
activities to be developed in any educational institution or school
should be determined by the size of enrolment and the needs of the
school activities should not be over organised even in a large school.
Activities that are organise d in the school should be achievin g social,
moral and other worthwh ile values as far as possible. The number of
activities which allows students to take part in different activities in an
academic year should be according to their needs and requirements.
3.4.4 Time management
Time manageme nt is the process of planning and controlling how much
time to spend on specific activities. Good time management enables an
individual to complete more tasks in a shorter period of time, lowers stress
and energy which leads to success. Following are few benefits of time
management:
1. Stress relief : Making and following a task schedule reduces anxiety. As
you check off items on your “to-do” list. This helps you avoid feeling
stressed out with worry about whether you’re getting things done.
2. Extra time : Good time management gives you extra time to spend on
hobbies.
3. More opportunities : Proper time management leads to more
opportunities and less time wasted on trivial activities. The ability to
prioritize and schedule work is extremely desirable for any educational
organization.
4. Ability to realize goals : Individuals who practice good time
management are able to better achieve goals and objectives, and do so in a
shorter length of time.
Tips for Effective Time Management
1. Set clear goals: Set goals that are achievable and measurable. Use the
SMART method when setting goals. In essence, make sure the goals you
set are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Timely. munotes.in
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61 2. Prioritize the task : Prioritize tasks based on importance and urgency.
For e xample, divide your daily tasks as below :
Important and urgent
(Do these tasks right away) Important but not urgent
(Decide when to do these
tasks)
Urgent but not important :
(Delegate these tasks if
possible) Not urgent and not
important :
(Set these aside to do later)
3. Set a time limit to complete a task : Setting time constraints for
completing tasks helps you be more focused and efficient. Making the
extra effort to decide on how much time you need to allot for each task
can also help you recognize p otential problems befor e they arise.
4. Take a break between tasks : When doing a lot of tasks without a
break, it is harder to stay focuse d as well as motivated. Take some break
timebetween tasks to clear your thoughts and refresh yourself.
3. Organize y ourself : Write down th e deadlines for each task that are part
of completing it on time. D etermine what is important and w hat deserves
your time. Avoiding non-essential tasks/activities save more of your time
to be spent on genuinely important things.
7. Pl an ahead : Make sure you start every day with a clear idea of what
you need to do – what needs to get done that day and write out your “to -
do” list for the next day.
Thus time management skills increase your product ivity, help you to
reduce stress and prior itise your time. Effective time management clar ifies
your goals and motivate you to accomplish tasks successfully.
3.5 EVENT MANAGEMENT
Event management is a process which require the use of management
skills. It involves visualizing concepts, planning, bu dgeting, organizing
and execute events. It requires creative and technical skills to create and
deliver a focused event for a target audience.
Events have been defined as ‘occurrences designed to communicate
particular messages to targetaudiences’. Event i s a celebration of an idea
that is conceptualizedkeeping in mind the target audience with whom live
interaction takes place to achieve the desired outcome.
3.3.1 Concept
Event management means the production of an event. A number ofpeople
with different sk ills and roles are involved in its execution. Thereis
considerable interaction among people and their responsibilities.
Itencompasses all activities involved in planning, organising, staffing,
leading, executing and evaluating. munotes.in
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62 Dr. J. Gold blatt defines s pecial Event as “A unique moment in time
celebrated with ceremony and ritual to satisfy specific needs”.
For eg: Celebrating acultural activity, all operat ions such as venue, stage ,
arranging the infrastructural facilities and networking with other activi ties
such as advertising, public relations etc . fall under the previewof event
management.
3.3.2 Importance to Educational Institutions
Event management place a very important role in planning to execute the
events in any education institution. Proper plann ing and management are
vital to the success of any event. It will look forward to every b asic and
small detail in task and will take every precaution for risk in adv ance. An
event is full of uncert ainties and an effective event managementskills
determine the risk, possibility of occurrence and the implementation of
planning to remove the risk.
Let’s see why Event Managementis importance to any educational
institutions:
1. Detailed planning – In evet management believes in detailed planning
from tip to toe. A ll the imagined ideas have to be put down on paper to
make it a plan. In the education institution, event management committee
rechecks the planning procedure and left no stone unturned to make it
successful. For example, to ensure no risk in event, it ens ure flexibility,
team building and assigns dif ferent roles and responsibilities to the team
according to their interest to complete the task productively.
2. Improve thinking Ability – In the event management, bring in a lot of
knowledge, experience and cre ative into play organising any e vent,
experienced event organising committee and their team come up with
creative and interesting ideas incorporate in the event or any occasion,
they bring out the best solutions on the basis of educational institution’s
brief and theme of any e vent.
3. Smooth Execution – Handl ing a large scale event could be messy
affair, to ensure smooth execution of differe nt activities in event and to
avoid burden of ris k in events. The education institutions should have an
event managem ent committee who has been allotted to different tasks in
an efficient manner.
4. Enhance team building : Organizing and handling an event can never
be a one man show , it is a team/ building effort s and one should be
prepared to work in co -ordination with ot her people and teams. Thus,
Proper event management planning is vital for any succ essful event. Event
management encompasses all aspects of the event, from its initial
conception and idea generation stage through to the timetable and
execution of the events itself which enable the education institution to
accomplished the event successfully.
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63 3.6 SCHOOL AND COLLEGE PLANT
INFRASTRUCTURE BY USING OF ICT AND MIS
Developing and providing access to ICT infrastructure as well as
Management Information System (MIS) have been an important aspect in
the education . The infrastructure includes wireless network, hardware,
ICT-enabled learning environments, and electricity are basic requirements.
Concept of Management Information System (MIS)
A Management Information Sys tem or MIS is a central data repository
capable of gathering, organizing, and storing student data but also
processing and analyzing it and generating various reports from it.
Management Information System (MIS) is a system that monitors the
performance of education programs offered by the organization and
manages the distribution and allocation of education al resources. It
manages plans and strategize to implement work processes to execute the
education system efficiently.
MIS provides administrators and teachers with the information they need
for effective planning, policy development, and assessment. It provides
provision for recording and collecting information and also manages the
school's strategic goals and direction. The student software also manage s
student and staff academic activities, finance & other important
administrative information.
USE OF ICT and MIS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and MIS play a vital
role in supporting powerful, efficient management and administration in
education sector. It is specified that technology can be used right from
student administration to various resource administration in an education
institution .
1. Student Administration
Usage of admissions , student registration / enr olment , Availability of time
table / class schedule in electronic form , maint enance of attendance,
communication of academic details of students to their pare nts,
notifications about hostel accommodation and transportation etc.
2. Staff Administration
Usage o f computers for recruitment and work allotment of staff in the
institution , Automation of attendance and leave management of staff
members, for performance appraisal , commun ication with staff, e-circulars
from the institution regarding official matters etc.
3. Examination and Evaluation
Usage of ICT for scheduling / allocation of halls for examinations ,
Distribution of information in the institution, to apply for university munotes.in
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64 examinations , for the processing an d display of results, to make fee
payments electron ically etc.
4. Record Keeping
The school records are official transcripts or copies of proceedings of
actions, events, other matters k ept by the school administrator. S chool
records could be viewed as authentic registers or instruments or
documents of of ficial accounts of transaction or occurrence which are
preserved in the school’s office. Therefore, every school must keep certain
specified records.
Some Important School Records :
• Admission and Withdrawal Register: This is a permanent record book
into w hich is entered information regarding the entry and exit, including
the details of the education and progress of each pupil that ever passes
through the school.
• Attendance Register: An attendance register is a book in which the
presence or absence of stu dents in a school is recorded on a daily basis. It
is a statutory record that must be kept by every school.
• Log Book: The log book is a historical record of events that have
significant effects on the schools' activities.
• The Visitors Book: The book i s meant for recording the visits of
important personalities, including officials and from the ministries of
education or other related government agencies or any other school related
visitors.
• Staff and Students' Persona l records : It is necessary that th e school
should have as much information on every teacher and student as possible.
• Cumulative Record : Students' cumulative record is an information
about students' cognitive, affective and psycho -motor development.
• Students' Report Sheet/Card : It keep s data on students' academic
performance in termly basis.It assists in monitoring students' academic
progress.
• Lesson Notes/Plan : It gives information on what a teacher plans to
teach the students at a period of time.
• Scheme and Record of Work Book : It reflects estimate of academic
work which teachers expect to accomplish in each subject based on
number of lessons they will have during each term.
• Transfer and Leaving Certificate : Transfer and leaving certificate is
the formal exit of the student aft er complet ion of course or leaving during
the course of study in a school. munotes.in
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65 • Library records: The library will have many records like stock register,
issue register etc. Many of the routine function of the library can be
automated using library management software.
• Stock register: it is the record of all equipment and materials available
in the school including the laboratories .
• Cash Register : It is a record of financial transactions in schools.It gives
informatio n about income and expenditures.
Follo wing are the importance of keeping school records with Information
and Communication Technologies (ICT) and MIS :
• Administrative Efficiency : With the help of information and
communication technologies such as computers, digital libraries, e -mail,
internet and so on where information are stored and disseminated,
principals can do better in keeping records, and become effective and
efficient in performing their prescribed roles as administrators.
• Availability of Information : Information and Communication
Technologies will help maintain adequate and accurate records in our
schools and make it available with ease.
• Easy Retrieval : It also leads to easy accessibility and dissemination of
information on school records, will become available for national
planni ng, financial budgeting, effective implementation of the educational
programs and policies.
Infrastructure required:
Hardware
Desktop computers
Servers
Data centers
Hubs
Routers
Switches
Facilities Software
Content management systems
(CMS)
Customer relati onship management
(CRM)
Enterprise resource planning
(ERP)
Operating systems
Web servers
Facilities
It provide space for networking hardware, servers and data centers. It also
includes the network cabling in office buildings to connect components of
an IT infrastructure together.
Network
Networks are comprised of switches, routers, hubs and servers. Switches
connect network devices on local area networks (LAN) like routers,
servers and other switches. Routers allow devices on different LANs to munotes.in
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66 communicat e and move packets between networks. Hubs connect multiple
networking devices to act as a single component.
Server
A core hardware component needed for an enterprise IT infrastructure is a
server . Servers are essentially computers that allow multiple users to
access and share resources.
Server room/data center
Organizations house multiple servers in rooms called server rooms or data
centers. Data centers are the core of most networks.
Successf ul ICT initiatives meet three objectives: A vailability, Access, and
Demand . ICT is important in schools and educational institutions as it
assists in carrying out their activities and functions such as record keeping,
research work, instructional uses, presentations, financial analysis,
examination results management, communication, supervision, MIS,
teaching learning activities (content, curriculum, instruction, and
assessment ), and general school management functions. Thus Educational
ICT too ls and MIS are useful for creating an effect ive learning
environment .
3.7 SUM MARY
Through this unit, w e have learnt, concept, Procedure and techniquesof
institutional planning. We have discussed about the difference between
Curricular & Co -Curricular Programs as well as schedule and resources in
details. We have leant that the time management is an important factor in
school activities . We studied importance of event management to
educational institutions. We have discussed on benef its of ICT and MISin
education institutions in several ways: enhanc ing learning in classroom;
improving school man agement and related tasks; improving
responsibilities , efficiency and effectiveness in schoo l activities;
introducing usage of Power Point presentations and internet.
3.8 QUESTIONS
1. Define Institutional Planning? State its Importance and scop e.
2. Explain theprocedure and techniques of Institutional Planning.
3. Compare between Curricular & Co -Curricular Programs with example
and explain the strategies for effective time management.
4. Discuss the role of event management in the Educational In stitutions.
3. Explain the use of ICT a nd MIS in the school or college plant
infrastructure.
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67 3.9 REFERENCES
Aggarwal J.C., Educational Administration, Management &
Supervision
Aggarwal J. C., Landmarks in the history of modem education.
Kochhar S K., S econdary School Administration
Pandya S.R., Administration and Management of Education
Prasad L.M., Principles and Practice of Management
Sharma R C., National Policy on Education, Mangal Deep Publication,
2002
Sharma R.N., Educational Administration and Management.
Walia J.K., Foundations of school Administration and Organization.
https://sites.google.com/site/bethanycollegeofteacheredn/ict -for-
educational -management
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehe209.pdf
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68 4
ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE
Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of organizational climate
4.3 Characteristics of Organizational Climate
4.4 Factors affecting on Organizational Climate
4.5 Impact of organizational climate
4.6 Dimensions of Organizatio nal Climate
4.7 How can we shape organizational climate?
4.8 Organizational culture
4.9 Definitions
4.10 Difference between Organizational Culture and Climate?
4.11 References
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Organization climate is defined as the element of a professio nal
environment that has a strong influence on the action and performance of
the employees working in that workplace. It indicates whether the
expectations and beliefs of the individuals are fulfilled.
It is an organizational climate that separates one company from the other
by giving it a distinct personality.
4.1.1 Meaning
Organizational climate is a concept that was introduced in the year 1940s
and has been able to describe the patterns that have an impact on human
behaviour as well as workplace behaviour.
It is a reflection of the perceptions that an employee has about his w ork
environment. Organizational climate is also known as corporate climate as
it quantifies the culture of a corporation. It has a significant impact on job
satisfaction, productivity and motivational levels of the employees in the
organization.
4.1.2 Defi nition :
According to Forehand and Gilmer, “Climate consists of a set of
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69 organisations are relatively enduring over time and influence the
behaviour of people in it. ”
According to Cam pbell , “Organisational climate can be defined as a set
of attributes specific to a particular organisation that may be induced from
the way that organisation deals with its members and its environment. For
the individual members within the organisation, cl imate takes the form of
a set of attitudes and experiences which describe the organisation in terms
of both static characteristics (such as degree of autonomy) and behaviour
outcome and outcome - outcome contingencies. ”
According to Dr. Wayne Hoy (1990) , organizational climate of a school
is a set of internal characteristics that distinguishes one school from
another and influences the behavior of its members. It is the relatively
enduring quality of the school environment that is experienced by
participants , affects their behavior, and is based on their collective
perceptions of the behavior in schools.
4.2 TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE
The different types of organizational climate that results because of the
culture of an organization are
1. People -Oriented Climate
The organizational culture that includes a core set of values and puts its
onus on care and concer n for the employees ’ results in people -oriented
climate
2. Rule -Oriented Climate
The organizational culture that provides for featured benefits and puts its
burden on attention to details by all the members ’ result in rule -oriented
climate
3. Innovation -Oriented Climate
The organizational culture that introduces new ways and processes to
develop new and innovative things results in innovation -oriented climate
4. Result -Oriented Climate
The organizational culture that gives preference to values and puts its onus
on refining every detail of the processes to refine and achieve results is
known as result -oriented climate
4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CLIMATE
The characteristics of Orga nizational climate are
1. General expression
Organizational climate is the general expression or the perception of the
individuals about its organization as it depicts their thoughts and
impression about the internal environment in the company munotes.in
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70 2. Unique identity
It is the organizational climate that gives the organization a unique or
distinct identity
3. Multi -dimensional concept
Organizational climate is considered as a multi -dimensional concept
where its numerous dimensions include the degree of conflict, leadership
style , authority structure and autonomous nature
4. Intangible concept
An crucial characteristics of organizational climate is that it is considered
a qualitative or intangible concept as it is quite challenging to explain its
components in measurable units
5. Enduring quality
Organi zational climate is built over a certain period and is the
representation of the enduring quality of the internal environment of the
company that is experienced by its employees
4.4 FACTORS AFFECTING ON ORGANIZATIONAL
CLIMATE
● The structure of the organizat ion including rules, regulations and
constraints
● Feelings of helpfulness in the work environment
● Perception of the relative risk in the work situation
● The level of conflict and tolerance the work environment can tolerate
● Being confident of the appropriate records
● Individual responsibility of an employee
● Working with cooperative individuals
● Opportunities that have an impact on personal initiative
● Working with a competent superior
● Functions objectives, goals and mission in the organizational context
● Operating procedures of an organization
● Degree of centralization
● Leadership styles and decision -making p rocess has a direct impact on
the organizational climate
● Physical space characteristics and employee safety has an impact on
organizational climate
● Organizational values and organizational climate are interlinked
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71 4.5 IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE
Organizational climate has been directly linked with the performance of
the employees as it has an impact on their job satisfaction. The four
mechanisms through which organizational climate impacts the behaviour
of the employee is
1. Evaluation of self as wel l as others
Evaluation of self or someone else will affect human behaviour. It is a fact
that organizational variables including psychological and physiological
variables are used in the evaluation process
2. Constraint system
It is easy to influence hum an behaviour through a system of rewards and
punishments.The organization can use the constraint system in both a
negative and positive way by giving out viable information about the
behaviour and attitude that will be ignored, punished and rewarded. It is
generally used in case of employees that are interested in various
behavioural outcomes.
3. By acting as stimuli
The organizational factors act as stimuli in influencing human behaviour.
The stimuli have an impact on the arousal levels that ultimately af fect the
participation and performance level of the employees
4. Helping the employees to form perception
Organizational climate has a vital role to play in higher levels of
productivity, better human relations and greater employee satisfaction. It
influe nces employee behaviour by assisting in forming important
perceptions and impressions of the organization
4.6 DIMENSIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE
The dimensions that represent the climate of organizational are
1. Inter -Personal Relationships
The informa l groups in an organization can work both ways as it can
displace the goals and objectives of the company as well as prove
beneficial for the organization.
One of the essential dimensions of organizational climate is that the
interpersonal relationships ar e often reflected through the formation and
operation of these informal groups
2. Dominant Orientation
This is a crucial component or dimension that helps to determine
organizational clima te. When the dominant orientation is subjected to the
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72 organizational climate will be influenced by control whereas if the purpose
of dominant orientation is to produce excellence, then it will be affected
by the achievement
3. Organizational structure
It is one of the major components of organizational climate that serves as
the groundwork of interpersonal relationships between the lower and
higher levels of employees.
Who will work un der whom and which superiors are responsible for
which subordinates are clarified at the beginning through the
organizational structure? It is a proven fact that decentralization
encourages participation in decision -making whereas centralization has
the op posite effect
4. Individual autonomy
A critical dimension or component of organizational climate is individual
autonomy. It means that if individuals are given enough authority, power
and freedom, it will lighten the workload of higher executives and brin g
forth efficiency in operations
5. Conflict management
Intra -group and inter -group conflicts are an integral part of an
organization, and the organizational climate to a higher degree is
dependent upon how these are managed.
In case the conflicts are handled the work environment effectually will
show cooperation and harmony, and if not, then the workplace will show
non-cooperation and distrust.
6. Organizational control system
Another co mponent of organizational climate is the organizational control
system which can be either flexible or rigid. A rigid control system will
not have much scope for self -regulation and will result in an impersonal
environment in the organization
7. Communicat ion
The communication system of a place has a direct impact on its
organizational climate. The determinants are type, flow, direction and
dispersing of the flow of information.
The proper communication system in an organization means that
employees at the junior level are free to express their suggestions,
reactions and ideas to others
8. Relations -oriented or task -oriented management
Another dimension of organizational climate is relations -oriented or task -
oriented management. The dominant or aggressive style of the managers munotes.in
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73 or leadership is reflected via task -oriented management and will show
their autocratic behaviour.
In this scenario, the employee morale is low because they know for a fact
that they will have to show desired results or face repercussi ons. In case
the manager or supervisor is relation -oriented in an organization, the
organizational climate will be supportive.
The needs and requirements will be given importance, and th is will
felicitate team spirit and bonding
9. Rewards and punishment
Another dimension of organizational climate is the concept of rewards and
punishment. In case the reward system is directly linked with productivity
and performance, then it will encoura ge healthy competition amongst the
employees.
Everyone will work hard and try to give their best to earn promotions or
other incentives and benefits as rewards. In case the distribution of
rewards is considered bias then it will lead to low employee morale
10. Risk -taking
Another dimension of the organizational climate is risk -taking. When the
employees can try out new ideas without any hesitation, it results in
innovative ideas and a better work environment
4.7 HOW CAN WE SHAPE ORGANIZATIONAL
CLIMATE?
In one of the few studies that have explored this aspect, Grojean et al.
(2004) suggest ten ways to shape and influe nce organizational climate:
1. value -based leadership
2. setting an example of desired behaviour
3. establishing clear expectations
4. setting aligned policies and practices
5. forming formal socialization activities
6. providing feedback, coaching, and support
7. recognizing and rewarding behaviour that supports values
8. recognizing individual differences in employees
9. providing for personalities, and
10. striving for inter -person congruence and person -environment fit. munotes.in
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74 Shaping organizational climate requires leadership interventions. These
behaviours together work as leadership strategies for ethical organizational
climate. Interventions that are aimed to improve leadership behaviours
lead to improvement in the perception of organizational climate which in
turn, improves the organizat ional performance.
Climate and culture are often used interchangeably by school leaders.
However, the literature differentiates these inter -related concepts in
important ways. Climate describes the shared perceptions of the people in
a group or organizatio n, while culture includes how people feel about the
organization and the beliefs, values, and assumptions that provide the
identity and set the standards of behavior (Stolp & Smith, 1995).
4.8 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Organizational culture is the set of un derlying beliefs, values, principles,
and ways of interacting within an organization. It defines and creates a
unique environment to work in. Things like an organization ’s
expectations, vision, philosophy, image, interactions within the office and
outside of the office also define what the organization ’s culture is all
about. Organizational culture defines what every employee ’s behavior
should be and how they should interact with the rest of the organization.
It defines how you feel about working for the organization.
Organizational culture is quite complex. Every company has its unique
personality, just like people do. The unique personality of an organization
is referred to as its culture.
Organizational culture/corporate culture includes -
● The ways the organization conducts its business, treats its employees,
customers, and the wider community,
● The extent to which freedom is allowed in decision making,
developing new ideas, and personal expression,
● How power and information flow through its hierarchy, an d
● How committed employees are towards collective objectives.
4.9 DEFINITIONS:
According to Elizabeth Skringar , “Organizational culture is shaped by
the main culture of the society we live in, albeit with greater emphasis on
particular parts of it. ”
Accord ing to Abdi Osman Jama , “An organization is a living culture
that can adapt to the reality 4s fast as possible. ”
Organizational culture is a system of shared orientations that hold the unit
together and gives it a distinctive identity. Three symbol systems
communicate the basic contents of an organization ’s culture: stories,
icons, and rituals. munotes.in
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75 The subtle differences between climate and culture are important for any
leader to understand. Effective superintendents attune themselves to the
climate and culture of the schools and district to foster a safe, orderly
environment that is student -centered, high performing, and embraces
continuous improvement.
4.10 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURE AND CLIMATE?
• Organizational climate can be clearly identifie d with the perceptions of
individuals regarding the quality and characteristics of the organizational
culture.
• Culture represents the true image of the organization, whereas climate
represents individuals ’ perceptions, although there might be differences
between each of their ideas.
• Organizational culture is concerned with the macro vision of an
organization, whereas organizational climate is very much concerned
with the micro image of the organization.
• According to Rosario Longo in 2012, the relation ship between the
organizational culture and climate can be indicated as follows:
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76 Understanding how climate vs culture affects work environment will help
you make an informed decision regarding your future work environment
and career goals. Finding a lead ership style and climate that fits your
personality and skills will give you greater job satisfaction and help you
establish yourself as a valuable employee.
4.11 REFERENCES:
Organization al Climate
Defhttps://www.slideshare.net/priyanka1986/organizational -climate -ppt-
timesinition - Types and Characteristics | Marketing91
SOURCE :
https://www.slideshar e.net/priyanka1986/organizational -climate -ppt-times
https://www.ckju.net/en/dossier/organizational -climate -what -it-and-
how-shape -it
https://businessterms.org/organizational -culture/
www.iedunote.com/organizational -culture
https://connect.kasa.org/HigherLogic/System/DownloadDocumentF il… ·
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference -between -organizational …
Organisational Culture and Organisational Climate by Rosario Longo -
HR Professional
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22856467
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77 5
PROJECT COURSEWORK IN
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
List of Project Titles for the Semester V Project Report:
1. Use of ICT and MIS for Resource Management, in two colleges, in
Mumbai.
2. Use of ICT and MIS for Records -Keeping, Results -Making and
Administration
3. Application of Theories of Management in two secondary schools, in
Mumbai.
4. Application of Theories of Management in two schools or colleges, in
Mumbai.
5. Change Management in two autonomous colleges, in Mumbai.
6. Organisational Climate in two seco ndary schools, in Mumbai.
7. Organisational Climate in two colleges, in Mumbai.
8. Managing Diversity in Educational Organisations
This unit deals with the project coursework in educational management.
The purpose of this unit is to understand the implemen tation of the various
management concepts in the education context. YOU are expected to
study management concepts thoroughly. Visit various educational
institutions as a part of your project course work and collect information
about above topics. Write a project report to keep in mind the guidelines
discussed in this unit. YOU may a dd you own points as well.
PROJECT 1. USE OF ICT AND MIS FOR RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT, IN TWO COLLEGES, IN MUMBAI.
Points: Introduction about topic, Brief information about the inst itution,
Explanation on u se of ICT and MIS for Re source Management in the
institution, Conclusion.
(YOU may include some of your own points in the report apart from those
mentioned above. )
The following is the prescribed format of a report that you must re fer while
preparing the report:
Introduction:
Today the world is framed by evolution in the field of ICT. Every
education institution realizes that ICT and MIS isvery useful for their munotes.in
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78 academic work . Most institutions implement ICT and MIS intheir resource
management practices to enhance speed, ease of operation, accuracy, time
saving, effective decision making,and transparency in their work. Using
ICT and MISfor Resource Management will help to facilitate and enhance
the administration of the institution towards achie ving the goals of the
education and increase the value of resources.
Information about the Institution:
Name of the Institution: ABC Education Institute
University Affiliated: Mumbai University
Type of Institution: Co-education / only women / Minor ity (Choose
appropriate option)
Location: Mumbai
Use of ICT and MIS for Resource Management in the College:
ICT and MIS is useful in education; for digital literacy and de veloping all
kinds of resources, in infrastructure developm ent, for e -governance, in
administration and fina nce. ICT has a direct role to play in the education
sector. It ca n bring many benefits to educational institutions as well as to
the community.
1. Admission – Our i nstitute MIS admissionmodules helps in admission
process of all stude nts of the instituteare required to complete the
admissionformality by filling up onlineadmission forms writing all
theacademic and other information on thisforms . The module helps to
provide information about various academic courses and also helps in
makin g merit list as per our college norms.
2. Examination process – Management information system in
information communication technology take care of the examactivities in
the form of preparation of exam schedule, appointmentof examiners,
collection of theque stion papers, collection andcompilation of continuous
evaluationmarks, end semester marks andd eclaration of results.
3. Administration work –Through MIS we update the information related
to recruitment, selection, attendance, monthly salary payment, training and
development of all employee sof our college.
4. Academic Activities – The MIS and ICT help in maintaining the
information related tothe students roll numbers , their coursedetails . record
of onlineattendance of all lectures andpractic al’s conducted and other
curricular - cocurricular activities in a systematic manner.
5. Time Table –Preparation and display of academic calendar and
timetable with the help of MIS of our college.
6. Maintain leave records –Maintain online leave records of a ll faculty
membe rsof our institute for eg. different types of leaves, information
goesfor necessary approval of the same , record of total number ofleaves
consume by the facultythroughout the year and the balanceleave available
with faculty. munotes.in
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79 Conclusion: Thus, Information an d Communication Technology (ICT)
and MIS play a vital role in supporting powerful, efficient management
and administration in education sector. It is specified that technology can
be used right from student administration to various resourc e
administration in our institution .
PROJECT 2. USE OF ICT AND MIS FOR RECORDS -KEEPING,
RESULTS -MAKING AND ADMINISTRATION
YOU are expected to keep in mind the following points while gathering
the information about above topic (YOU may add you ownpoints as well)
Points: Introduction related to your topic, Use of ICT and MIS for
Records -Keeping, Use of ICT and MIS for Results -Making, Use of ICT
and MIS for Administration, Conclusion.
Introduction:
Records for any organization are important documents which provide
insightint o its developmenta l process. Records are accurately maintained in
educational institutions as they are evi dences of the growth of institution
over aperiod of time. ICT has become an ess ential part of education sector ,
accordingly this integration in school i mprovement is not only for the
purpose of teaching and learning, but also for educational management
use, it has become one of the most effective factors in the school
improvement. So let’s see how ICT can help the school administrators
improve various adm inistrative tasks of schools.
(i) USE OF ICT AND MIS FOR RECORDS -KEEPING:
Admission Register :
A permanent and important record book of all the students w ho are
admitted to the school
Information of the learners like birth certificate, grade card/mark
sheet of the last class attended, transfer certificate(TC), the exit of the
student, if there have been any withdrawals due to any reason etc.
Attendance Register :
Record of the presence or absence of students in eac h and every
class and section on a daily basis.
Log Book:
The log book is a systematically maintained record of events
thatoccur in the sch ool over a period of time that a historical chronological
record of the school events which have significanteffect on the school’s
activities is maintained. F or example, celebrations, cocurricular activities
etc.
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80 Staff and Students’ Personal Files :
It is necessary that the school should haveas much information on
every teacher and student as possible without violatingtheir privacy.
Cumulative Record Card:
Students’ cumulative record card keeps all theinformation of the
students’ development over the period the student is in theschool.
It documents students’ cognitive, affective and psycho -motor
growthand development which are cumulatively recorded and main tained
in this card.
Students’ Report Card :
Student’s report card contains information aboutchild’s academics
progress. It also contains child’s participation in school activities,his/her
general behavior in school, his/her health condition, participatio n
incurricular and co -curricular activities and other important information.
Staff Time table Book and Movement Book:
Electronic devices are commonly used for markingattendance and
departure time for all employees which promotes regular attendance and
punct uality
Library Records:
Maintained separately by the Librarian,like stock register, issu e
register, etc. Now a day many of the routine activitiesof Library are done
using library management software.
CDS/ISIS which standsfor Computerized Documentation Se rvice /
Integr ated Set of Information Systems includes modules for
acquisition,circulation, cataloging, serials, authorities, flexible reporting,
label printing andmuch more.
Stock Register:
It has the record of all equipments and materials available in
theschool including the laboratories.
Cash Book :
It is a record of all financial transactions occurring day -to-day in
theschool. Money received by the school from different sources like fees,
fines,donations, stipends, scholarships, grant -in-aid, etc. are entered on the
credit side.On the debit side, the expenditures like the sa laries of the
teachers ,scholarships, provisional expenditure incurred, deposits made in
the Treasury, bank transactions.
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81 (ii) USE OF ICT AND MIS FOR RESULTS -MAKING:
The examinatio n process of ICT has making it more effective and
efficient. Use of ICT in evaluation involves theuse of digital devices to
assist in the construction, delivery, storage or reportingof student
assessment tasks, responses, grades or feedback.
ICT is used to createtests, record, provide immediate feedback, give
grades, analyze them students’responses with reference to the quality and
relevance of student’s response besideshelping teacher with learner’s
analytics.
The use of Virtual Labs has helped student s learn and
theirperformance can also be assessed in virtual labs.
(iii) USE OF ICT AND MIS FOR ADMINISTRATION:
1. Student Administration
Use of electronic media by students to apply for admissions
Use of computers for student registration / enrolment
Avai lability of time table / class schedule in electronic form
Use of computers for maintenance of attendance of students
Communication of academic details of stude nts to their parents
through e -media
2. Staff Administration
Use of computers for recruitment an d work allotment of staff in the
institution
Automation of attendance and leave management of staff members
in the institution
Use of electronic media for performance appraisal
Communication with staff using e -media
e-circulars from the institution regardi ng official matters
3. Office Administration
Use of e-media for scheduling / allocation of halls for examinations
Dissemination of information in the institution through e -media
Use of e-media by students to apply for university examinations
Use of e-media for the processing and display of results of students
Facility for students to make fee payments electronically
Conclusion :School record keeping is all about information collection,
storage, retrieval, use, transmission, manipulation and dissemination for
the purpose of enriching communication, decision -making and problem
solving ability in the school system. It is therefore necessary that this
process be as accurate and accessible as possible. Using ICT in keeping
school records will help to maintain adeq uate and accurate records in our
schools and make it available with ease. The digital administration saves
money, time and space. It makes information retrieval and sharing easier. munotes.in
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82 It also boosts productivity besides saving time from paper work and the
cost of paper is eliminated.
PROJECT 3. APPLICATION OF THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT
IN TWO SECONDARY SCHOOLS, IN MUMBAI.
PROJECT 4. APPLICATION OF THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT
IN TWO SCHOOLS OR COLLEGES, IN MUMBAI.
(YOU are expected to write application of one of the theo ries of
management. You can explain the implications of that management
theory in two secondary schools or college or you can add your own points
afterthorough study about theories of Management. )
Points: Information about the Education Institution (School / College),
Introduction of any one Theory of Management in brief,Application of
Theories of Management in the Education institution , Conclusion.
Information about the Institution:
Name of the Institution: XYZ Education institution
University Affiliated: Nam e of School Board/ University
Type of Institution: Co-education / only women / Minority (Choose
appropriate option)
Location:
Introduction of any one Theories of Management in brief: (Which is
included in your syllabus)
Peter Senge’s theory of lear ning organ ization.
Peter Senge’s theory of a learning organization as a group of people who
are continually enhancing their capabilities to create what they want to
create has been deeply influential. L earning organizations as those
organizations that encourage adap tive and generative learning,
encouraging thei r employees to think out of the box and work in
combination with other employees to find the best answer to any problem.
There are five characteristics of a learning organization theory of
management :
Personal mastery
how the individual looks at the
world Mental models
an individual's deeply ingrained
assumptions
Shared vision
encourages experimentation and
innovation among multiple members Team learning
more than one person acting
togethe r
Systems thinking
looking at the whole picture rather than the individual problem
Within each of these characteristics there are three levels of approaches,
including munotes.in
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83 Practice: what the individual does, which is the lowest level
Principles : what the individual does in kee ping with the guiding ideas of
the organization
Essences : what the individual automatically thinks in terms of the whole
organization, which is the highest level of mastery
Application of Theories of Management in the Education institution :
Personal mas tery: In our institution, Principal and all the faculty
members learn constant ly from everything they do. We use our own
experience and that of others to improve their performance. We learn
from our successes and also from our failures. Continuous learnin g is
systemically bu ilt into the organization’s function and infrastructure. The
value of continuous learning is adopted , driven and demonstrated by the
Principal and our managem ent. The continuous learning is expected and
rewarded by our institution. In o ur organization, comm unication is open
and everybody is informed about the school functions.
Mental models : Our Principal as well as management demonstrate they
are learning constantly by communicating what they ar e learning, Faculty
members of our instit ution are rewarded for learning with reco gnition,
growth jobs, promotionand even financial compensations. Becoming and
sustaining a true learning organization , our management has lot of hard
work and dedication, and it provides time, energy and res ources t oo. Thus
employees feel job satisfaction and proud to be a part of the institution.
Shared vision : The principal of our institution, encourage employees at
all levels to collect information across all boundaries, being sure that
information is shared – not forgotten or stored – and encouraging casual
information sharing as a way of o rganizational life.
Team learning : Our management constantly invents and implements new
technology and by recognizing the value of their stakeholders. Our
institution continuo usly improves educational system and promote new
things always with the learners at the center of its focus. They seek
feedback from their colleagues on ideas they have or actions they’ve
taken. They routinely give feedback to ot hers and also give ideas a nd
suggestions to their associates on a regular basis. This dynamic activity
assures that to promote team learning.
Systems thinking : T o create a true learning organization, our
principal believein the value of continuous learning, and heclearly
communicate the value the organization places in learning by words, and
more importantly by their actions. Our Principal gives important to
following things which help to develop system thinking ability among the
faculty members.
conduct reviews meetings after any pro gram
Talk freely about various learning experiences.
Share information about what they have learnt . munotes.in
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84 encourage experimentation and innovation.
Work to remove any conflict to learning that might appear.
Force to stay open to learning, even in difficult condi tions
Conclusion : The emphases on buildi ng a shared vision, team work ,
personal mast ery and the development of mental models and the way runs
the notion of dialogue through these does have the potential of allowing
workplaces to be more pleasant and cre ative. A lso it allows us to approach
a more holistic underst anding of organizational functions.
PROJECT 5. CHANGE MANAGEMENT IN TWO AUTONOMOUS
COLLEGES, IN MUMBAI.
(YOU may include some of your own points in the report writing apart
from those mentioned below )
Points: Information about the Education Institution (Autonomous
colleges),Introduction about change management, report on change
management in autonomous colleges, Conclusion.
Information about the Institution:
Name of the Institution: XYZ Educational Inst itution
University Affiliated: Mumbai University
Status: Academic Autonomous
Location: Mumbai
Introduction:
What is change management?
Change management is a systematic approach t o dealing with
therevolution of an organization's goals, processes or technolog ies. The
purpose of change management is to implement strategies for effecting
change, controlling change and helping people to adapt to change. Change
impacts the whole organization a nd all of the people in it. W ith good
Academic chang e management, we can e ncourage every one to adapt to and
embrace our new way of working.
Report on change man agement in autonomous college
Based on the Principles of Change Management, following modification
scan be possible through autonomous status of the college:
1. Understand Change : (Why you need to change? What will the benefits
of the change be to the organization? )
The special status is provided by UGC as a reward for institutions that
have maintained high standards, and as a step towards a liberalised
education sector.
Autonomy status permits the college with greater potential to improve
its quality of educat ion. munotes.in
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85 Autonomous college can figure out what changes could be brought
about in courses, syllabus and teaching methods.
2. Plan Change: (How will you predict the impact of the change that you
need to make? What goals do you need to achieve?)
It enables the autonomous college to design its own curricula and
devise its own methods of teaching. It also enables the college to
design its own method of evaluation. For eg: certi ficate courses, add
on courses, self -finance diploma courses etc.
Autonomy gives the freedom to take an experimental and
unconventional approach in teaching learning process.
For eg: With autonomy, freedom to recruit more fore ign faculty and
this could be a great boost for academic excellence and quality
research work
3. Implement Change : (how exactly are you going to make change
happen? )
Autonomous colleges are granted to do following changes in their
education system:
To formulate its own curricula based on relevance
To revise existing curricula based on relevance
To introduce new courses based on relevance and demand
To make changes in examinations pattern as well as evaluation
techniques
introduce new systems like the choice -based credit system
To form c riteria for recruitment and placement
4. Communicate Change : (The change that you want to implement has to
be clear and relevant, so people understand what you want them to do and
why t hey need to do it.)
Academic autonomy is considered to benefit higher education as it enables
the college tokeep up with its potential without being forced by the
common systems proposed bythe university. The university also plays an
important role in ensuringthat the quality of existing as well as newly
introduced courses i s good. Academicautonomy enables colleges to revise
and update curri cula, and is thus aimed to improve the quality of education
bylarge measures.
Conclusion: Thus c ommunication, support and technicalhelp, as well as
the development of ashared understanding of the innovation, allcontribu te
to a successful change effort .At the core of successful changemanagement
is the positive impact onstudent learning outcomes that teachersexperience
when implementing aninnovation.
PROJECT 6. ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE IN TWO
SECONDARY SCHOOLS, IN MUMBAI.
PROJECT 7. ORGANISATIONAL CLIMATE IN TWO
COLLEGES, IN MUMBAI. munotes.in
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86 (YOU may include some of your own point s in the report apart from the
mentioned below)
Points: Information about the Education Institution (Secondary school/
college in Mumbai ),Introduction , Concept of Organisational Climate,
report on Organisational climate in secondary school/ college , Conclusion.
Information about the Education Institution:
Name of the Institution: XYZ Educational Institution
University Affiliated: Mumbai University
Type of Institution: Co-education / only women / Minority
Location:
Introduction
The organisational climate is measur ed by performance of the education
institution, communication, reward system, responsibility and conflict
resolution, organ isational structure, motivational level, decision making
process, support system, belief and value system , etc. ofthe members of
the instit ution.
Concept of Organisational Climate
According to Bowditch and Buono, “Organisational culture is connected
with the nature of beliefs and expectations about organisational life, while
climate is an indicator of whether these beliefs and expectations are being
fulfilled.”
Factors of Organisational Climate are:
Organisational Structure
Mission, goals and objectives,
function etc.) Opportunities for exercising
individual initiative
Individual Responsibility Communication
Rewards Organisational Values and
Norms
Warmth and Support Opportunities for exercising
individual initiative
Tolerance and conflict Continuous f eedback and
reinforcement
Management Support Organisational Values and
Norms
Organisational Structure
(Mission, goals and objectives,
function etc.) Leadership styles,
communication, decision making
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87 Report on Organisational climate in secondary schoo l/ college
Organisational climate influences to a great extent the performance of the
employees because it has a major impact on motivation and job
satisfaction of individual employees. Organisational cl imate is directly
related to the efficiency and perfo rmance of the employees.
Enhancing the teaching learning process : our management and
principal are supportive and equipped with moderntechnologies, the
learni ng process becomes more interesting and the creative, problem
solving, etc. skills of thestudents is enhanced.
Enhancing the communication skills : Healthy and honest
communication system in our school supports improvement in theoverall
climate of the school. It strengthens the bond between the teachers,
students, parents, principal and management.Enha nces the feedback
system of the institution and build trust among members.
Training and education : Our school arranges training programmes
to improve the competencies of the teachers. It will help them to become
aware of the modern technologies andinnova tions in the education and
imply them in their teaching process.
Recognition and rewards: Our management recognise of the
outstanding work done by the teachers with appreciate with attractive
rewards. It helps to boost their confidence as well as it willac t as a positive
reinforcement.
Open Communication: Healthy communication between teachers,
principal and students are always encouraged in our school. Our school
environment is where anyone can interact with each other freely.
Continuous feedback and rei nforcement: After every activity our
principal g ives feedback, continuous positive reinforcement to the teachers
as well as students for their skill development and for maintaining their
interest and enthusia sm. The principal uses the emotions in a construc tive
manner to get teachers and students deeply involved in school activities
andattaining their respective goals.
CONCLUSION :
Each school is characterized by its own climate. The establishment
andmaintenance of an open and positive climate in schools is quite
necessary in improving teachers as well as students’ performance. The
school is the ideal place where the character of the students is
strengthened, where the attitude towards teachingand learning is
established, where the purpose for the futu re is de veloped.
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88 PROJECT 8. MANAGING DIVERSITY IN EDUCATIONAL
ORGANISATIONS
(YOU are expected to write about all the challenges in managing Diversity
in Educational Organisations. List it down and try to elaborate it and if
possible, give examples. You may add yo ur own opinion, views)
Points: Introduction , Concept of Managing Diversity, report on Managing
Diversity in Educational Organisations ,Conclusion.
Introduction : Today organizations are deeply affected by globalization
and changes in the demographic structur e of the society. The rapid
development in technology involves more trained and skilled staff and also
needsimproving intercultural collaboration skillsin the organization.
Organizations managing effectively a diverse employee are capable of
increasing orga nizational innovationand creativity, rea ching more people
and society. Educational institutions with a focus on diversity can graduate
well trained employees capable ofmanaging diversity and resolving
diversity related workplace conflicts.
Concept of Mana ging Di versity
In 21st century diversity has affected nearly every aspect of educationsuch
as access and equity, teaching methods and student learning,
quality,management, research priorities, social relevan ce, autonomy,
finance etc. The education institut ionshave a great responsibility to
develop aware ness among its students about valuing, managing and
leveraging diversity by being an active andproductive mem ber of the
society. Divers ity enhances teaching and learning effectiveness, as well as
institutiona l behavior. crosscultural, leadership and technical com petencies
amongst our intuition. In a number of ways students’ learning engagement
process outcomes andperformance/ learning outcomes are enhanced by
increasing critical thinking,problem -solving abilit y and sense of social
responsibility.
Managing Diversity in Education Sector
Diversity in education represents a broad range of ideas and initiatives to
createlearning environments that are safe, inclusive and equitable for as
many identities as possible. Diversity has affected every aspect ofeducation
such as access and equity, teaching methods and students learning,quality,
management, research work, social aspect , autonomy, finance etc.Initially
positive action and equal opportunity policiesrecognized ra ce, re ligion,
gender color and national origin,
In India presently significant educational reforms are taking place with
aperspective to expand both the primary as well as higher ed ucation for
life-longcontinuing education and easy access to quality educa tion through
ICT. But thereal challenge lies in acquisition of land, building the
institution, infrastructure,recruitment of faculty, setting up laboratories
etc., which are complex and timeconsuming processes. They must clearly munotes.in
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89 specify how theissue of div ersity has bee n addressed by. W ith regard to
the public purpose of education system, such as
1) To improve the quality of teaching and learning so as to ensure
thedomain knowledge as well as soft skills required for the workplace.
2) To provide access to q uality education and equal opportunity to
allraces, ages, ethnicities and socio -economic backgrounds and ensure
thecommitment for active participation in civic and social life.
3) To educate and prepare high quality teachers and educational leadersfor
all levels of education.
4) To undertake high quality research and scholarship as well as
promoteits implementation for social benefit.
5) To bring the benefit of acquired knowledge and skills to the
communitythrough outreach, partnership and service.
Conclusi on: Empowering teachers and students to become global citizens
is a challengingprocess that begins with the critical exami nation
ofinstitutional practices. Thus, the educational institutions need to revisit
and red efine their missions and vision in the ligh t of new challenges of
globalization and clearly specify how to address the diversity iss ues. They
must plan out how diversity is defined, valued,measured, incorporated into
planning, exec ution and evaluation process by their institute in order to
sustain i n the global competition.
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