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1 1 SOURCES OF MARATHA HISTORY: INDIAN SOURCES Unit Structure: 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Maratha Sources 1.3 Sanskrit Sources 1.4 Hindi Sources 1.5 Persian Sources 1.6 Summary 1.7 Questions 1.8 Additional Reading 1.0 OBJECTIVES After the completion of study of this unit the student will be able to:- 1. Understand the Marathi sources of the history of Marathas. 2. Explain the matter written in all Bakhars ranging from Sabhasad Bakhar to Tanjore Bakhar. 3. Know Shakavalies as a source of Maratha history. 4. Comprehend official files and diaries as source of Maratha history. 5. Understand the Sanskrit sources of the Maratha history. 6. Explain the Hindi sources of Maratha history. 7. Know the Persian sources of Maratha history. 1.1 INTRODUCTION The history of Marathas can be best studied with the help of first-hand source material like Bakhars, State papers, court Histories, Chronicles and accounts of contemporary travelers, who came to India and made observations of Maharashtra during the period of Marathas. The Maratha scholars and historians had worked hard to construct the history of the land and people of Maharashtra. Among such scholars people like Kashinath Sane, Rajwade, Khare and Parasnis were well known luminaries in this field of history writing of Maratha. Kashinath Sane published a mass of munotes.in
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2 original material like Bakhars, Sanads, letters and other state papers in his journal ‘Kavyetihas Samgraha’ for more eleven years during the nineteenth century. There is much more them contribution of the ‘Bharat Itihas Sanshodhan Mandal’, Pune to this regard. In 1910, Rajwade founded this institution and began to publish several reports and journals in Marathi. They are considered as an important source material of the study of Maratha history. Historians like Thakore, Rawlinson, Patwardhan and many other Indian and Western historians tried their level best to amass the source material of Maratha history. Regarding the source material of the Maratha history, there has been ample documentary record of the Peshwa period where as the period of Shivaji is concerned there is much scarcity of the source material. There are several reasons for this scarcity of source material as the period of Shivaji was a formative period of the Maratha history. The rulers never spared any time for maintaining any records. These rulers were to fight against the enemies from the north and the south. In this state of affairs, whatever was available they got destroyed. The general illiteracy and lack of printing presses contributed to the apathy of written documentary evidences. Naturally, paucity of source material regarding the Royal period is there. Even then the available sources of Maratha history can be studied as under: - 1.2 MARATHA SOURCES There are several official papers, diaries, accounts, Shakavalies and various tables which form an important source material of Maratha history. The Bakhar has proved useful itself as important document in the construction of Maratha history. The Bakhar means to tell the news or record of happenings. The Bakhar is also called as biography of eminent state persons of the Maratha period. Such eminent persons only ordered to write Bakhars, which naturally became little more eulogy of these people. It is said that it was the order of the day of the Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-century India and considered such record as a source of writing of history. V.K. Rajwade and S.N. Joshi say that Bakhars are written in Modi script of Marathi Language after the period of Yadavas. Generally, some historians are critical about the Bakhars as they are based on hearsay and secondary information and cannot be relied upon them. Dr. Herwadkar says that Bakhars deal with historical and political matters and resemble with history. (The main task of the historian has been to interpret the fact and fiction scientifically to convey the people the prowess and spirit of their kings and heroes of the past to inspire-them for nationalism.) Bakhars are conveniently studied as follows: 1. Sabhasad Bakhar:- This is the prime and most important source of Maratha history. It was written by Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, a minister of Chhatrapati Rajaram at Jinji in 1694. Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad has described the following events detail, as the position of Maloji, the grandfather of shivaji, circumstances during the time of birth of Shivaji, Shivaji's initial campaigns, the Abzal khan episode, Shaiste Khan's attack munotes.in
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3 on Poona, Diler Khan and siege of Purandhar, and Shivaji’s visit to Agra. The writer has mentioned in it the Kharkhanas functioning during the period of Shivaji, the Chandrarao More incidence, Shiledars, Subhedars, forts, their income and expenditure. There are some subjective statements like Goddess Bhawani visited and blessed Chhatrapati Shivaji with a sword and Shivaji flew to heaven after his death. Despite these references, Sabhasad Bakhar has been one of the primary source materials of the history of Marathas. 2 Chitnis Bakhar:- Chhatrapati Shahu ordered Malharrao Ramrao Chitnis, to write a bakhar one hundred twenty five years after the death of Shivaji. Malharrao Ramrao Chitnis was a contemporary to Chhatrapati Shivaji. In this bakhar, the writer has shed light on a genealogical order of the Bhosale dynasty, the birth of Rajaram, Chhatrapati Shivaji's infantry, artillery, organization of army, Karnataka campaign and his coronation ceremony of 1674. Although, there are some lapses in the chronology of the events, this bakhar has been a valuable source material of the history of Marathas. 3.Chitragupta Bhakhar:-Chhatrapati Sambhaji of Kolhapur ordered Chitragupta to write this bakhar during the period between 1760 and 1770. Chitragupta was in close relation with Balaji Avaji a Chitnis of Chhatrapati Shivaji. This bakhar is much more similar to the Sabhasad Bakhar. It means, Chitragupta elaborated the writings of Sabhasad and also added some of his own information. The most important additional information mentioned in this bakhar is that the duties of the secretariat officers in the Maratha administration. 4 Shivdigvijay:- Khando Ballal, the son of Balaji Avaji wrote this bakhar in 1718. Although this bakhar has been the most voluminous work of the writer, has not made any mention about the working of Shivaji's administration. Khando Ballal was familiar with the western literature but the genealogy of Bhosale family, which he prepared on the basis of Mughal and Rajput sources, has proved inconsistent. The writer has given detail information regarding the first Bhosla who came to Deccan was a man of ruling family of Mewar, Rajasthan. Shivaji's campaign on Javali, Rajapur and Shaiste Khan, the maternal uncle of Aurangzeb, the contribution of Kayastha Prabhu to Royal period and their heroism in various wars against the enemies of Shivaji. Although, the writer has used highly sankritised and rich language, his references regarding Tanaji Malusare's visit to Hydrabad and Raja Jaising’s death at Jaipur in 1667 are totally contradictory with the truth. 5. Shedgaonkar Bakhar:- Although more than one writers have contributed towards the completion of this Bakhar, it gives reliable and consistent information about the Royal period. This bakhar mentions Sajjan Singh was the ancestor of Chhatrapati Shivaji, who came from Rajasthan and settled down in the Deccan. The bakhar has also given detail information of genealogy of Shivaji up to Chhatrapati Pratap Singh Bhosale of Satara. This bakhar therefore has been treated as one of the important sources of Maratha history. munotes.in
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4 6. Chandrarao Moray Bakhar:- This is one of the well-known bakhars giving authentic information regarding the Royal period of Marathas. This bakhar deals with the battle of Rakshastagadi, kingdoms of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, process of assigning watan of Javali and the title of Raja Chandrarao Moray by Adilshah and the circumstances leading to Shivaji's campaign on Javali in 1655. 7. Sashti Bakhar:- This is the Bakhar written about Chimaji Appa and his conquest of north Kokan. Chimaji Appa was the brother of Peshwa Bajirao I, who helped him to conquer the area. Chimaji Appa attacked Sasht ior Salsette in 1737 and Vasai in 1739 and brought them under the control of Marathas. This bakhar deals with the way Chimaji attacked the above places, the fall of Vasai fort, the manner in which Gangaji Naik, the lieutenant of Chimaji helped him in these affairs and the circumstances which led Chimaji to attack Sashti, which was then under the Portuguese. 8. The Peshwa Bakhar: - It is said that Shrinivas Daji, a well-wisher of the Peshwa family ordered Krishnaji Sohoni, to note down all important incidents of all Peshwas till the decline of the Marathas in 1818. Krishnaji Sohoni discharged his duties towards the Peshwa family with much love and caution in language and stile in writing rather than caring to historicity. 9.Shahu Bakhar: - Govind Khanderao Chitnis one of the close associates of Peshwa, has written this bakhar. As the title suggests, this bakhar deals with the problems and situation Shahu faced when he was in the Mughal Court as prisoner with his mother. It is said that Aurangzab called Shahu as Shah and Shahu is the corruption shah. Shahu being prisoner in his childhood could not get any formal education in his childhood. The writer has mentioned these things in detail in this bakhar. 10.Bhausaheb Bakhar:- It is said that Mahadji Shinde ordered to write this bakhar as soon as the disaster of Panipat. Although, the reliability of this bakhar is doubtful it gives some detail ideas about the existing socio- economic scenario of the Maratha country. Another bakhar in the name of Panipat is also referred to. Gopikabai Peshwa, the wife of Nanasahab Peshwa ordered Raghunath Yadav an employee in the court of Peshwa to write this bakhar as soon as the tragedy was happened. Since, it had been ordered by the Peshwa family, its reliability is doubted. However, it gives detail information about the people, who participated in the near and lost their wives in it. 11.The Shahanavkalmi Bakhar: - This is the bakhar written by unknown writer but it was a part and parcel of the official records of Anno Datto, a Sachiv of Shivaji. He was the officer who carried revenue survey of Konkan area under the guidance of Chhatrapati Shivaji. This bakhar deals with all political events of the Marathas. After considering its originality, Chandorkar published it in his periodical ‘Prabhat’ is an important source of Maratha history. munotes.in
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5 12. Rairi (Rajgad) Bakhar: - This is the Bakhar found at Rairi. In 1811, Prof. Sir Forrest Scott-Waring translated it into English. Forrest Scott-Warring says that this Bakhar is highly authentic. It deals with several events of the Royal period as well as the Peshwa period. Justice Telang doubts about its English translation, because of its inaccuracy and inadequacy of the language. Even then, this bakhar has been important source of the history of Marathas. 13. Tanjore Bakhar : - There is one more Bakhar, whose writer is not Known. This is the bakhar carved on the walls of the temple of Brihadishwar of Tanjore. Raja Sarfoji Bhosale of Tanjore Maratha branch had ordered to write the Bakhar. Naturally, this bakhar covers and deals with each event of this ruling family. V.K.Rajwade and G.S.Sardesai substantiated the importance and originality of this bakhar. Rajwade published the bakhar in Marathi periodical ‘Prabhat’. Hence, this is also one of the sources of the history of Marathas. 14. Shakavalies:- There are several Shakavalies available of Maratha period. They are treated as important source material of the history of Marathas. These Shakavalies give references regarding the political conditions in Maharashtra before the birth of Shivaji, his life, important events, during the life of Shivaji as his campaign on Javali, Afzal Khan episode, his administration and his policy towards his people. There are several Shakavalies which repeat one another; therefore, they stress upon biographical details and family matters. Among such Shakavalies Jedhe Shakavali is there. This Shakavali describes the activities of Jedhe family only. Hence, it is the history of Jedhe family. As Jedhe Shakavali, there is one more document, which was written during the period of the Marathas. That is called genealogical table. This also describes the family history and, the achievements of the eminent members of the family. Even this document talks about military career, political position and status as well as the property of the family. Naturally, this document can be used as an important source material of the history of Marathas. 15. Official files and Diaries: - The objective source of Maratha history is the administrative record, which was prepared during the course of administrative functioning. Although, these have been more facts and naked statements, income and expenditure tables, they are not corrupted or diluted documents. They were written daily in office only. They give exact picture of wars, campaigns moved, soldiers killed, strategies undertaken, judgments delivered and the area brought under control during these campaigns. This is with the historian to interpret those facts and build the history of Marathas. Check your progress 1 What is Bakhar? Why the Sabhasad Bhakar is called an important source material of the history of Marathas? munotes.in
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6 1.3 SANSKRIT SOURCES As Marathi sources are there, there are some Sanskrit sources for the history of Marathas. These sources can be divided into several heads as under:- 1.3.1 Parnala-Parvata-Grahan-Akhyanam:- It means the chapter of the fort of Panhala. This is a poem in Sanskrit found to S. M. Divekar in Saraswati Mahal, Tanjore. Sadashiv Mahadev Divekar published the poem in 1923 with its translation into Marathi language. The poem consists of 350 stanzas. Jayaram Pinde, a Sanskrit scholar composed in Sanskrit. The scholar poet was a contemporary poet to Vyankoji, the Maratha ruler of Tanjore and brother of Chhatrapati Shivaji. The poet composes in it that how he met Shivaji, his return journey to Tanjore, Shivaji's sack of Surat, the meeting of this poet with Chhatrapati Shivaji at Raigad and the battle of Umrani, which was fought in 1673. Hence, this is one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 1.3.2. Radha Madhava- Vilasa- Champu:- Jayram Pinde has also written this poem in Sanskrit. V.K.Rajwade has published this poem with its translation into Marathi. In this poem, the poet has composed stanzas on Shivaji's early life, his second sack of Surat, his attack on fort Tryambak, city of Karanja, fort of Salher, Harich and Raigad, Kingdom of Jawhar and Shivaji's raid on Shaista Khan. 1.3.3. Shiva-Bharat:- This is one of the most important poetical biography of Shivaji. Chhatrapati Shivaji ordered Parmananda to compose a poem on the Raja, Parmananda referred to the early history of the Bhosale family which is from the period of Maloji. He has also dealt with the period of Shivaji. It, therefore, is called as poetical biography of Shivaji. 1.3.4. Rajvyavahar Kosh:- This is a Sanskrit dictionary complied by Raghunath Pandit-at the instance of Chhatrapati Shivaji. This document deals with the prevalent conditions during the period of Shivaji. The writer has provided Sanskrit synonyms for all Persian and Arabic word in the practice. The writer was well versed with all institutions, Karkhanas and their functioning under the Marathas. In addition to this, the writer has given ample information on the civil and military organizations of Maratha. Kashinath Gangadhar Shastri, a well-Known Sanskrit Scholar published this document in 1860. Thus, this is one of the most important sources of the Maratha history. Check your progress 1 What is mean by Pranala- Parvata-Grahan-Akhyanam? 1.4 HINDI SOURCES Although, there are very few Hindi sources about the Maratha period, they add some information about the history of Shivaji. They deal with the life and career of Shivaji, his conflict with the Mughal and the Muslim rulers of the South. Among such literary pieces, the work of poet Bushan is name munotes.in
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7 worthy. His work as ‘Shiva Raja Bhushan’ and other poems of the same poet considered master pieces in the literature. Although, Shiva Raja Bhushan and ‘Chhatra Prakash’ of Lalkavi do not provide substantial information about the Maratha administration but they radiate much light on the Socio- political conditions during the period of Marathas. 1.5 PERSIAN SOURCES The Persian was the official language of the Mughals who were contemporary to the Marathas. It is but natural that almost all record of that period is written in this language. There is one more reason to have many records of Marathas in the Persian language that, the Mughal emperors often launched campaigns against the Deccan of Marathas. The Mughal officers who were on such campaigns wrote their experience and maintained correspondence with the Marathas. Among such officers of Mughal, the names of Diler Khan and Raja Jaising are important. These officers were involved in the conflict with Shivaji. Apart from this, there are several other literary works, which can be studied as under: - 1.5.1. Tarikh-i-Firishta:- This is the history of Muslim rule in India. It is written by Muhammad Qasim Hindushah alias Firishta. The writer has noted down the relations between the Mughal and the Deccan. The writer says that he accompanied several Muslim campaigns to the Deccan. Therefore, he was an eye witness to these campaigns and many other events in the Deccan. Although, this is the work based on the history of Nizamuddin Ahmad, it gives detail information of the Maratha rule in the Deccan. 1.5.2. Masir-i-Alamgiri:- Persian writer, Saqi Mustad Khan has written this book on the events between the Marathas and the Mughal. This writer was highly influenced by Aurangzeb and used to accompany the Mughal army in the Deccan. Naturally, the writer described all exploits of Aurangzeb minutely and not noted down the facts which were adverse to the emperor in the south. Even then this work has one of the important source materials of Maratha history as well as it gives ample information about the Mughal Maratha relations. 1.5. 3. Muntakhab-ul-Lubab:- Muhammad Hashim alias Khafi Khan is the writer of this book. He was in the court of Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb. Jadunath Sarkar said that Khafi Khan's account has been authentic and far from being a dry record of events in the Deccan. He had been a petty revenue officer in the court of Mughal. He used to accompany the Mughal army to Deccan and was an eye witness of all conflicts between the Mughal and the Marathas. Apart from the information of military and administrative activities, he described about the then existing systems like Mansabdari and Jagirdari as well as on agrarian crisis. Hence, this has been an important source of Maratha history in Persian language. munotes.in
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8 1.5.4. Nuksha-i-Dilkhush:-This is the work of Bhimsen Burhanpuri, who was in the service of the Mughals for a long time. He has written about the Mughal-Maratha relations between 1700 and 1707. Although he was in the Mughal court, his writing bears no influence of the Mughals. His works on Maratha leaders during the above period is well known and considered one of the important sources of Maratha history. 1.5.5. Fatuhat-i-Alamgirl:- This is the work of a Gujarathi scholar, known as Ishwardas Nagar. The author of this book was popular for writing on the achievements of Rajputs, the Mughal activities in the South, murder of Sambhaji, the relations between the Marathas and the rulers in Karnataka, Rajaram's journey to Jinji, the problems Rajaram faced at Jinji and his shift from Jinji to Raigad. Therefore, the work of Ishwardas Nagar has considered one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 1.5.6. Siyal-ul- Mutakharin:- The author of this work was in Mughal Service. He was posted in Bengal for the whole span of his life. His work has not been biased or subjective. Although, he was not a trained writer of history, whatever he wrote, is called as an authentic information. Among his writing, the work on the conflict between Tarabai and Shahu, the role of Nizam and other petty Maratha Sardars and the civil and military administrations of the Marathas are noteworthy. Naturally, the writer, Sayyad Gulam Hussein Tabatabi was an important source of the history of Marathas. Check your progress: 1. Who was the author of Tarikh-i- Firishta 2. Bring out the importance of Masir-i-Alamgiri and Muntakhab- ul- Lubab as source material of the Marathas. 1.6 SUMMARY: The history of Marathas can be best studied with the help of first-hand source material like Bakhar, State papers, Court histories, Chronicles and accounts of contemporary travelers, who came to India and made observations of Maharashtra during the period of Marathas. The Maratha scholars and historians had worked hard to construct the history of their own land and their own people. Regarding the source material of the Maratha history, there has been ample documentary record of the Peshwa period, whereas the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji is concerned, there is scarcity of the source material. In this state of affairs, the state, whatever material had with it got destroyed. The general illiteracy and the lack of printing press contributed to the apathy of written documentary evidences. Naturally paucity of source material regarding the royal period is felt too much. Among the Marathi sources, there are several official papers, diaries, accounts, Shakavalies and various other tables which help as source material of the Maratha history. Along these letters Bakhars also are munotes.in
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9 important in the construction of history of the Marathas. Some other historian say that Bakhars are based on hearsay and secondary information and cannot cent percent be relied upon them. In Marathi language, Shakavalies and official files and diaries also are treated as sources of this history. Apart from Marathi sources, there are some Sanskrit sources also. Among the Sanskrit sources Parnala- Parvata- Grahan -Akhyanam means the chapter of the fort of Panhala, Radha Madhava Vilasa Champu. Shiva-Bharat and Rajvyavahar Kosh are important documents, which deal with all events of the Chhatrapati Shivaji's life career and his relations with the neighboring rulers of that period. There are some Hindi Sources also regarding the Maratha period. Among them Shiva Raja Bhushan has been considered the masterpiece in the literature. Along with this literature Chhatra Prakash of Lalkavi also gives important information about the socio- political conditions of the Maratha period. In addition to Hindi Sources there are some Persian sources, which give detail information about the Marathas. The Persian was the official language of the Mughal empire and the Mughals had continuous conflict with the Marathas, this led to have much correspondence between the Mughal officers in Deccan and the Mughal emperors, this referred to the situation in the Deccan and that can be treated as the source material of the history of Marathas. Among the Persian volumes, which give first hand information about the Marathas are Tarikh-i-Firishta, Masir-i-Alamgiri, Muntakhab-ul-Lubab, Nuksha-i-Dilkhush, Futuhat-i- Alamgiri and Siyal-ul-Mutakharin. The writer of Tarikh-i-Firishta is Muhammad Qasim Hindushah alias Firita. Iswardas Nagar has written about Rajaram, his journey to Jinji, the problems he faced there and again his shift to Raigad. Thus, the account of the Guajarati scholar is an important source of Maratha history. Sayyad Gulam Hussein Tabatabi noted down the information about the conflict between Tarabai and Chhatrapati Shahu and their civil and military administration. Thus, these volumes written in Persian language form the important source material of the Maratha history. 1. 7 QUESTIONS 1. Critically examine the sources of Maratha history written in Marathi language. 2. What do you understand by Bakhar sources? How far they are treated as sources of the Maratha history? 3. Give a brief account of the sources of Maratha history written in Sanskrit language. 4. Enumerate the sources of Maratha history written in the Persian language. munotes.in
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10 1.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS a. R. P. Patwardhan and H. G. Rawlinson, Source Book of Maratha History, K. P. Bagchi and company, Calcutta. 1978. b. J. N. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times. c. S. N. Sen, Shiva Chhatrapati d. V. S. Bendre, Sadhan Chikitsa and Maharashtra of Shivshahi Period, Bombay, Phoenix Publication, 1946. munotes.in
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11 2 EUROPEAN SOURCES Unit Structure: 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 French Sources 2.3 Portuguese Sources 2.4 English Sources 2.5 Douch Sources 2.6 Summary 2.7 Questions 2.8 Additional Readings 2.0 OBJECTIVES After the study of this unit, the student will be able to :- 1. Understand the sources of Maratha history written by the French people, historians and travelers. 2. Explain the sources of Maratha history written by the Portuguese travelers, historians and missionaries. 3. Perceive the sources of Maratha history written in English language. 4. Summarize the sources of Maratha history written in European languages. 2. 1 INTRODUCTION European sources:- There were several European companies functioning in India on the orders of their mother countries. Naturally, there were many Europeans from various walks of life in India who were pursuing their own business for profit. These people noted down and referred to the rules in India, the general conditions prevailed there and existence of the Marathas as an important power in the country. The writing of these people can be categorized as 1. Factory records 2. Memoirs 3. Travelogues. The European people who came to India and whose writing has been considered as an important source of the history of Marathas can be divided as under: - munotes.in
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12 2.2 FRENCH SOURCES: There were a numerable French people who came to India for various purposes. They were as under: - 2.2.1 French Physician Dr. Dellon: - This French physician came to India during the period of Marathas. He travelled throughout India specially Maratha territory of the country. He interacted with many people over there. He published his travel account when he reached Paris. His account on the Marathas is very significant for the student of Maratha history. He has dealt in detail the campaigns of Shivaji, his administration, his military strength and his policies towards his subjects. Although, his writing is based on the hearsay, it is quite authentic. It, therefore, is considered one of the important source of Maratha history. 2.2.2. Bernier, Tavernier and Thevenot: - These French travelers visited India when Shivaji was in power. They witnessed many things in the administration of Chhatrapati and noted on Shivaji's attack of Surat in 1664, his concern towards the subject and the learned people in kingdom, his military exploits, his treatment to the people of character and piety. Although, these travelers wandered through out the Maratha kingdom and collected detail information about the Marathas but the account of Thevenot is based on hearsay and is proved incorrect. Thevenot says that Shivaji was born at Vasai, he was only thirty-five when he sacked Surat for the first time and He captured the daughter of Shaista Khan. These references are totally wrong. Thevenot’s account of Shivaji’s escape from the Mughal court, Agra is again highly inaccurate. Even then, these accounts are called important sources of the history of Marathas. 2.2.3. Martin's Memoirs: - Francois Martin a French traveler and administrator has noted down several incidences which we experienced in India. He was born in 1634 in the family of a rich trader. Martin left Paris in 1650 and reached India with the group of French missionaries. He married his friend Marrie Cuperey. In the year 1665, Martin joined French East India company at Surat. His memoirs in India as a French administrator on various events of Marathas bear much significance. They are about Shivaji's Karnataka campaign, second sack of Surat, Rajaram's government at Jinji, his ministers, Rajaram's death in 1780, subsequent administration of Marathas under Tarabai and the Maratha Mughal conflict after Rajaram. Apart from the Martin's Memoirs, the account and letters written by Jesuit Missionaries are important sources for the history of Marathas. 2.2.4 Valentine's Account: - One more French traveler Francois Valentine joined the French East India Company and noted down his observations about the then situation in India. His observation regarding the sack of Surat in 1670, Aurangzeb's approach towards Shivaji, Shivaji's Visit to the Mughal court at Agra, Aurangzeb's treatment to Shivaji, Shivaji's escape from the Mughal court, the activities of Marathas while Shivaji was in north are authentic and reliable. Therefore, they are called important source material for writing history of the Marathas. munotes.in
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13 2.2.5 Abbe Carre's History of Shivaji: - In 1668, Abbe came to Surat with a Dutchman, who came to be known as Caron later. Colbert appointed Caron as the Director of the French East India, Company and held him responsible for the activities of the company. caron supported Abbe Carre for his stay at Surat and other parts of India. Abbe Carre collected every minute information about Chhatrapati Shivaji and prepared two volumes. Abbe Carre’s account on Shivaji is considered important and authentic. He was a great admirer of Shivaji and spent maximum time on writing of Shivaji's qualities. Abbe Carre referred to Shivaji as one of the greatest men in the East. He dealt in detail the sack of Surat by Shivaji, his army, his navy, civil institutions, his way of dispensation of Justice, his courage and administrative abilities. He also mentioned that Shivaji has very good places under him as ports and forts which were defended very well. He treated his guests with honour and respect. Abbe Carre further says that Shivaji was great general and firm on his decision, which led him for victory in several campaigns. Abbe Carre moved from place to place. He described Chaul as one of the prosperous ports and marts during the Maratha period. Thus, the description of Abbe Carre is very important source of Maratha history. Check your Progress: 1.Discuss briefly the accounts of the French travelers as one of the sources of the Maratha History. 2.3 PORTUGUESE SOURCES: Students of history should refer to the European sources to understand the history of Marathas, because it is considered that these sources are impartial and without bias. The writers of these sources were unaware about the conditions and culture prevailed in the country. They noted down the information as they observed apparently and committed several lapses but their accounts are informative and accurate in several other aspects. The people who visited India from Portugal were many and were from various sections of the Portuguese society. The description of some of them can be studied as under: - 2.3.1. Guarda's life of Shivaji: - Cosme da Guarda was one of the earliest Portuguese biographers of Chhatrapati Shivaji. He was a citizen of Mormugoa, which was under the Portuguese rule then. The writer claims that he wrote this biography of Shivaji in 1695- but it was not published for a long time. Cosme da Guarda dealt in detail about Shivaji's Judicial administration, his approach towards the welfare of common people, Shivaji as the youngest son of Shahaji and how he was named as Shivaji in the honour of the lord Shiva. Guarda was a staunch admirer of Shivaji. He described that Shivaji took quick actions intelligently. He was like a magician and was present at all places. Shivaji's campaign against Afzal Khan scared the rulers and powers during that time and nobody tried to defeat him. He further mentioned about Shivaji's relations with the Mughals, the Treaty of Purandhar, his Agra visit and escape from Agra. Guarda’s accounts on the birth place of Shivaji, references regarding munotes.in
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14 chronology are confusing and wrong. He has also written about the trading places during the time of Shivaji and mentioned about his death. Thus, the account of Guarda proves one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 2.3.2 The Work of some prominent writers: - There are several prominent historians and writers who have written about the Maratha country. Among them the name of Justice Biker, Lopes Menedes, Cunha Rivara, Phillipe Xavier and Ismael Gracias are worthy. Justice Biker's work contains Shivaji's political and administrative setup, diplomatic dealings with various neighbors. He has also written about the Treaties in 1667 and 1670 between the Portuguese and the Chhatrapati Shivaji. The Portuguese were neighbor to the Marathas for many centuries. The original letters regarding the relations are placed in the Historical Records at Goa and Lisbon, which are important as source material for writing and studying the history of Marathas. The Village community has been one of the outstanding features of the Maratha history. This arrangement had been continued from the ancient period. The village community enjoyed all rights and prerogatives. The Portuguese government held enquiries about the rights and privileges of the village community under their jurisdiction. Lopes Menedes, Afonso Mexia noted down in detail the conditions of the Village community under the Marathas. Thus, it is one of the important sources of the Maratha history. Along with Lopes Menede’s writings, the work of Saldanha, Moniz, and Amancio, Gracia give us substantial information regarding the Maratha history. Another Portuguese writer Cunha Rivara has written about the Maratha period. He has dealt in detail the civil, administration, Military and diplomatic relations of Shivaji. The original work of Cunah Rivara has been translated in various other languages. Thus, this is also important for the study of the Maratha history. Ismael Gracias is one more Portuguese writer and historian. He has written about the proceedings of Shivaji, his civil institution, eight ministers, his naval organization and the whole military set up. He also mentioned various campaigns of Shivaji against his enemies. Ismael gracias gave a good description about the campaigns of Sambhaji on Goa. He narrated about the strategy, diplomacy and the area covered by Sambhaji. Gracias further writes about the naval power of Marathas, their officers, activities they undertook and major achievements of the navy. There is much more important campaign of Marathas, which is known as the Maratha conquest of Bassein. This writer has written every aspect of that campaign in detail. Thus, this document also is called as important source of Maratha history. 2.3.3 Marquis of Alorna:- Being contemporary to Marathas, he has written about the conditions prevailed under the Marathas. Marquis was a Portuguese Governor of India. While, he was in office, he described in detail the Maratha administration, their military system, their military munotes.in
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European Sources
15 strength, civil organizations, tax system and the lapses committed by the Marathas while executing them. He has also referred to the Weakness, which were inherent in the administration of the Maratha rulers. The work of Marquis is translated in English by F.N.Xavier. Danvers has written a book, which is known as ‘Portuguese in India’. In this book, the writer mentioned about to the Maratha administration. Thus, this is also as one of the important Sources of the Marathas. Check your Progress: Q.2. Who were the Portuguese travelers visited India during the period of Maratha history? 2.4 ENGLISH SOURCES The English people came to India to establish their trade relations with the country. The initial attempts of the British people led them to establish their factories in India. Several factors and agents began to stay in the country, under the banner of the East India Company. These people in the process of trade and commerce, began to prepare the record of Indian situation, rulers, their own factories and activities, which they used to send to England on regular basis. Thus, this was the record which was required by the Government stationed in England. This record consisted the reports of their administration, their decisions, reasons on which decisions were taken, proposals, minutes of their meetings, proceedings and consultations. Although, these dispatches were rules, regulations, explanations, and letters of British Presidencies in India, they were the free and frank opinions of the British people in India, about their contacts, their relations or the treatment they received from the Indian rulers. Thus, these facts are used as the source of history of Marathas. Initially, when the company had only commercial interest in the country, did not concentrate their attention on other matters but knowingly or inadvertently there were some references or remarks regarding the political organizations or administrative set up of the indigenous rulers. For example, the factors mentioned the incident of Killing of Afzal Khan by Shivaji and the Company relations with him. The reason, which brought the Marathas in contact with the Company, was that Shivaji needed some guns from the Company but the Company did not supply the guns to him. Therefore, Shivaji attacked on Konkan towns of the Company including Dabhol. The second reason was that the Subhedar of Adil Shah, who was enemy of Marathas sought refuge at the Company establishment of Rajapur. The Maratha official over there, informed the Company to hand over the Adishahi Subhedar as well as his ship stationed at Rajapur to the Marathas. But the Company officials refused to do the same. The Maratha official arrested the Company officials at Rajapur, who were rescued later. The same Company officials at Rajapur sold some ammunition to Siddi and helped him to siege the fort of Panhala and created difficulties for Shivaji. Naturally, Shivaji wanted to teach the Company official a lesion, munotes.in
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History of Maratha
16 he sent his contingent, arrested the Company officials, put them in prison and shifted them from place to place. The factory records also refer to Shivaji's encounter with the Company officials second time in 1664. When Shivaji had been to Surat, he required some money from the European traders including the British, the demand of Shivaji was as per the tradition existed during that time, but the British traders did not help Shivaji. When Shivaji went to Surat in 1670, the European traders and merchant helped Shivaji with Some money and presents. Chhatrapati promised them to protect their possessions at and around Surat. Shivaji came into contact with the East India Company when the Siddi of Danda-Rajapur had become quite troublesome for him. Shivaji wanted some help from the Company officials at Bombay. Although, the East India Company at Bombay wanted to help Shivaji, due to the apprehension of the Mughal emperor, the Company officials did not help as the Siddi was the protégé of the emperor. Thus, such references regarding the Maratha history are available in the Company records, which are considered as sources of the Maratha history. There are several other English writers, travelers and historians, which can be studied as below:- 2.4.1 Fryer:- Although, there are several English travelers who visited India and noted down the information they came across. The information collected by Fryer has much importance in the history of Marathas, Fryers, a British Physician came to Bombay, visited several places of the East India Company and the Marathas. He also went to Chaul, a town in Alibag taluka of Raigad District in Konkan region. Dr. Fryer writes that Chaul, was a thickly populated town and flourishing trade centre during the period of Marathas. It was controlled by Chhatrapati Shivaji in 1670 and remained with him still it was totally ruined in the wars with the Mughals. It was a great mart of all commodities of South India and distanced two miles away from the Portuguese city lower Chaul. In the year 1674 there were around three thousand houses in the upper Chaul gutted into fire. The fire affected people were forced to take shelter in lower Chaul and in the British controlled island of Bombay. Naturally, the trade and commerce of that place was shifted to Kalyan. Dr. Frayer describes that he Visited Kalyan in 1675 and found that it was a flourishing trading centre during the period of Marathas. Thus, it was easy for any one to slip into Maratha territory from Bombay. Hence, the account of Frayer has been important source of Maratha history. 2.4.2. Mannucci's Storia Da Mogor: - There is one more English version of travel account of Nicolo Mannucci an Italian traveler, who wrote Storia Mogor. Mannucci had come to India for a considerable time between 1658 & 1708 and visited several places of Marathas. Mannucci mentions in his writing that he accompanied Raja Jai Singh in his Deccan campaign and met Chhatrapati Shivaji at the time of Treaty of Purandhar. Naturally, the account of Mannucci, is treated one of the important sources of Maratha history. This valuable account is translated into English by Major Jervis a British revenue officer, who had conducted revenue survey of whole Konkan. munotes.in
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European Sources
17 2.4.3. Major Jervis’s Geographical and statistical Memoir of the Konkan :- He was in the service of the East India Company during the time of Elphinstone’s , as Governorship of Bombay Presidency . Major Jervis was assigned the duty of conducting revenue survey of the Konkan region. During this survey , Major Jervis came to understand many things about the Maratha rule in the country . He has given detail account of the land revenue settlement of Shivaji and Annaji Datto's survey and revenue assessment system .Major Jervis says that the barren or fallow or warkus land was assessed by the plough and not by the bighas . It was measured loosely , as six to seven bighas of this land was considered as one bigha for the revenue settlement . Many a times , the revenue of barren or banjar land varied and was not based on the fertility of the land but the nature of the crops grown in such land . Major Jervis also noted down the information of assessment of second crops at a special rate as Turmeric and Hemp five maunds per bigha while sugarcane 6 1/4 maunds per bigha. Major Jervis has also written about the revenue system of Malik Ambar, who was basically an Abyssinian and adopted India as his own country. Major Jervis says that Malik Ambar worked hard with open mind under the Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmednagar. During the Mughal attacks on this kingdom, it was on the verge of total collapse due to exhaustion of all economic resources. Malik Ambar then undertook the revenue system in such a way that the Nizamshahi Kingdom could withstand the onslaughts of the Mughal successfully. Thus, the account of Major Jervis is treated as one of the important sources of Maratha history. 2.4.4. Scott- Waring :-He is one more English historian, who tried to write a detailed history of the Marathas. His account on Chhatrapati Shivaji's revenue system, administration,navy and armed forces is an important source of the Maratha history. He says that although Shivaji was busy in several campaigns throughout his career, he was never inattentive to the growing interest of his people and the state. He secured and defended the land in the region of Konkan. He always took suitable measures for the extension of cultivation and improvement of agriculture in his kingdom. Scott-Waring's history of Marathas was published in 1811 which met the needs of the readers of the political history of Marathas. 2.4.5. Grant Duff:- Captain Grant Duff came to India in the third decade of the 13th Century and worked as a political agent of the British Government at various places under the Governorship of Elphinstone. He was able to refer to various original papers of Marathas placed at several places. Grant Duff, while working as a revenue officer at Satara, had been in direct access to all the papers like Bakhars and diaries kept in the Satara archives. Chhatrapati Pratap Singh, the descendent of Chhatrapati Shivaji helped him in every possible manner and handed him over all the important state papers. Thus, Grant Duff has written two volumes on the Marathas which are treated as important source material of the history of Marathas. 2.4.6. Kincaid and Parasnis:-These joint authors have written the history of Marathas on the basis of huge document that Rao Bahadur munotes.in
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History of Maratha
18 D.B.Parasnis possessed. These historians used published as well as unpublished material to write the history of the Marathas. They have given detail information about the history of Chhatrapati Shivaji. Thus, this has been called important- source of the history of Marathas. 2.4.7. Mahadeo Govind Ranade:- A western educated Maharashtra historian attempted to write a comprehensive history of Marathas . Ranade worked in various capacities and wandered throughout the state for his multi-dimensional responsibility and collected important document for his writing the history of ‘Rise of the Maratha Power’. Ranade's work has been treated authentic source of the Maratha history because he was destined to know the language, traditions, customs and conventions of the Marathas as well as he was fully conversant with the methodology of writing of history. As he had worked at different places, he was in access to all original papers of the Marathas. Ranade dealt in detail all battles and conflicts and searched out the circumstances and reasons of those conflicts. He could find out the causes and factors which led to the rise, progress, expansion and decline of the Marathas. This forced him to survey the whole administrative set up, civil institutions of Chhatrapati Shivaji. It is very well made known by Ranade that Chhatrapati was the most genius Maratha ruler, who manifested the Maratha aspirations. Ranade is the first historian, who has written in detail about Chhatrapati Shivaji's administrative system and compared Shivaji with Napoleon in organisation and building of civil institutions, Thus, Ranade's history of Rise of Maratha Power has been the most important source of Maratha history. There are several other historians whose writings can be treated as sources of Maratha history:- 2.4. 8. H.G. Rawlinson: - Prof. H.G. Rawlinson's book ‘Shivaji- the Maratha’ Gives ample information about the history of Marathas. 2.4.9 Takkhav and Keluskar: - These two professors have written on the life of Shivaji Maharaj, which gives detail information about Chhatrapati Shivaji , his administration and civil institutions. 2.4.10 Henry Oxinden:- He was an employee of the East India Company. He visited Raigad, the capital of Chhatrapati Shivaji in 1674. He attended the coronation ceremony of Shivaji and witnessed the glory of the celebration. The Diary of Henry Oxinden is one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 2.4. 11. Sydney Owen: - He has written a book titled India on the Eve of the British Conquest. In this book the writer has taken a survey of Chhatrapati Shivaji's life and career, his conquest, administration and his policy towards his people. 2.4.12. Pringle Kennedy:- He is the author of the book History of the Great Mughals. In this book he has depicted clearly the achievements of Chhatrapati Shivaji and the existing conditions in Maharashtra. The munotes.in
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European Sources
19 book gives detail information about the civil institutions of the administration of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 2.4.13. Jadunath Sarkar: - His book, Shivaji and His Times is based on the various sources of the Maratha history. It, therefore, is an important source for the study of the Maratha history. Check Your Progress: Q.3.Elucidate the sources of the Maratha History written in English. 2.5 DOUCH SOURCES: As there are various sources in English language, there are also some sources which are written by Dutch travelers and people, they can be classified as under:- 2.5.1. De Graaf: - He was a Dutch Surgeon and adventurer. He travelled very widely in the Eastern countries for more than six times. He visited India for the last time in 1679 during the period of emperor Aurangzeb. When he was in Bengal, he learned about Chhatrapati Shivaji's campaigns in the territories of the Mughal and developed keen interest about the Chhatrapati's adventure, and administration. De Graaf began to collect the detail information about the Chhatrapati’s institutions, campaigns, strategy and his relations with his neighbouring rulers like the Mughals and the Portuguese. The account of De Graaf also gives information about trading centres under the Mughal and the Chhatrapati. Thus, this account can be treated as one of the important sources of the Maratha history. 2.5.2. Goutier Schouten:- He was the second Dutch traveller, who visited India and referred to Chhatrapati Shivaji as one of the important rulers of the country. Goutier Schouten descended the territories of Marathas in the year 1658. He travelled widely in Konkan and the places of Portuguese. He had been to Surat and collected every minute information about the trading position over there. Goutier Schouten was present when Shivaji attacked Surat to teach a lesson to the British traders for the issue of non-payment of taxes to the Chhatrapati. He says that the Chhatrapati's attack on Surat created long lasting positive consequences in the history of India which would be remembered for a long time by the people. Thus, this account also treated as a source of Maratha History. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: 1. Assess the Factory Records, proceedings; consultations and travelogues as the sources of the Maratha history. 2. Comment on M.G. Ranade’s writing as one of the important sources of the Maratha history. munotes.in
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History of Maratha
20 2.6 SUMMARY The Europeans came to this country for various other purposes and one of them was trade with the country. Those Europeans established their companies in India and pursued their trade as per the orders and commands dispatched by their mother countries. On other hand the European companies in India began to send the whole report of their activities in the country to their governments. Those reports were in various forms as factory reports, Memoirs and Travelogues. Naturally, those reports were not the reports of their naked activities only, but they reported directly or indirectly the existing conditions in India, the accounts of native rulers, their administration. Their strength, their relations with various neighbours and the chances of trade of European people. Among the French officials, armed forces, merchants and traders, there were some travelers who were from every section of the society, as physicians and missionaries. Bernier, Tavernier and Thevenot were other French travellers, who also visited Chhatrapati Shivaji's kingdom during his lifetime. As the French sources, there are some Portuguese sources also, which are written by Portuguese officials and travelers, when they were in India. Among them Cosme da Guarda was well known Portuguese traveler, who came to India and became a citizen of Marmugoa, which was under the Portuguese control that time. Cosme da Guarda wrote a biography of Shivaji in 1695. Among such eminent personalities Judice Biker, Lopes Mendes, Cunha Rivara , Phillipe Xavier and Ismael Gracias were well known. Judice Biker’s account contains the treaties of 1667 and 1670 between the Marathas and the Portuguese. Lopes Mendes Affenso Mexia , another Portuguese writer dealt in detail about the village community , its rights and powers in travel account. Ismael Gracias referred to the civil and military administration, campaigns of Shivaji and Sambhaji against the Portuguese. Marquis of Alorna was a Portuguese Governor of India. He had his own observation of the neighbouring rulers of Marathas, and the goofs they committed by them in the administration . In addition to these sources there are some British sources for the study of the history of Marathas. After British established their factories, the Company officials began to send the report of their activities in India to England. Along with these reports, proceedings and consultations of the Company activities in India, there were several references regarding to the local conditions and indigenous rulers. As Chhatrapati Shivaji wanted to purchase some guns from the British East India Company, but the Company officials did not sell them to Shivaji . Apart from these references and correspondences , there were some travelers and historians who came to India and have written about the Marathas . Among them Fryer was an important traveler, who visited munotes.in
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European Sources
21 various places under Chhatrapati Shivaji . Major Jervis ,Scott Waring , Grand Duff , were some of the prominent writers. Kincaid and Parasnis have jointly authored the history of Marathas on the basis of original document Rao Bahadur D. B. Parasnis possessed, which treated as source material of the history of Marathas. Ranade M. G. a westerned educated Maratha historian As justice has done a detail study of the Marathas. Like Ranade, G. S. Sardesai also has written in detail about the Marathas. There are several other historians as H. G. Rawlinson, Takkav , Keluskar, Henri Oxinden, Sindney owen, Pringle Kennedy and Jadunath Sarkar have their own writings, which are treated as source material of the Maratha history. 2.7 QUESTIONS 1. Briefly discuss the French sources of the history of Marathas . 2. Examine the Portuguese sources of the history of Marathas . 3. Analyse the English sources of the history of Marathas. 4. Enumerate the European sources of the history of Marathas . 2.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. R.P. Patwardhan and H.G. Rawlinson, Source Book of Maratha History . 2. Sen S. N., Foreign Biographies of Shivaji, Administrative system of the Marathas. 3. Rajwade , Marathyanchya Itihasachi Sadhane. munotes.in
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22 3
INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL
FACTORS ON SOCIO- ECONOMIC LIFE
OF MARATHAS
Unit Struct ure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Geographical Features of Maharashtra
3.3. Geographical Influence on the Economic Life of Marathas
3.4. Influence of Geography on Social Life of Marathas
3.5 Summary
3.6 Questions
3.7 Additional Reading
3.0 OBJECTIVES:
After the study of this unit the student will be able to:-
1. Understand the geographical c onditions in Maharashtra.
2. Explain the geographical regions under the rule of Marathas.
3. Know the influence of geographical factors on the economic life of
the people during the period of Marathas.
4. Explain the influence of geographical factors on the social l ife of
the people under the Marathas.
3.1 INTR ODUCT ION:
In order to understand the whole set-up of the Marathas including t heir
rise to power, reasons and their expansion, it is necessary to understand
the geography of the area in optimum detail. As a matter of fact, the
people in any piece of land are shaped, nourished and nurtured by their
own geography. Not this much, the environme nt of the area fixes the way
of deeds and development of the people. Accordingly, t he peop le in
Maharashtra are determined by the geography of Maharashtra. Whatever
geographical advantages the people in Maharashtra enjoy are denied to
the people of low la nds, the people of valleys of Ganges and other rivers,
which flow into the Arabian Sea or the Indian Ocean.
munotes.in
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Influence of Geographical
Factors on Socio- Economic
Life of Marathas
23 Maharashtra lies between 15- and 23 -degrees latitudes and connected
with the Decc an lavas above the Ghats. It, therefore, forms a part and
parcel of the Indian geological division which is known as the Decc an –
Trap. This Trap gave rise and life to many mountains of black rock, black
soil and to many more rivers. The characteristics of the geography of
Maharashtra are its mountain ranges as the Sahyadri ranges which run
from the north to the south and other ranges are of Satpura and
Vindhya, which run from the east to the west. There are some other minor
ranges which are offshoots of these big ranges and spread unevenly. These
minor ranges created rugged outline of the area and bereted many streams
and rivers which finally joined Godavari and Krishna, the big rivers of
Maharashtra. The terrain of Maharashtra is divided by the western Ghats
into the low and the high-level tracts. The table land of Maharashtra, runs
parallel to the coastal-line till the end of the border of Maharashtra. The
western coastal line below the ghats is known as Konkan. This is the
strip between the Sahyadri and the Arabian sea. Another tract towards
the eastern side from the ghat is known as the Deccan Plateau or
popularly known as Dash . This is the table land or ghat matha or the top
of the mountain ranges, which includes the valleys lower down the river.
This table land has almost all hill-forts which protected the land and
people of Maharashtra from the onslaughts of the enemies from time
to time.
3.2 G EOGRAPHICAL FEATUR ES OF MAHARASHTRA
The geography of Maharashtra has two divisions namel y the Decc an
Plateau and the Konkan. The Deccan plateau is the part and parcel of the
Deccan table land while the Konkan is a strip between the Decc an plateau
and the Arabian sea. The ranges of Sahyadrian mountains formed the
western rim of the Dec can plateau . It is the main water divide and
separating the drainage of the Godavari and Krishna rivers from the
rivers of Konkan. There are other ranges of mountains like Satpuras
which are in the north of the Deccan plateau. While other several minor
hill ranges are spread mostly with a west -north –west to east- south-east
and the Decc an plateau.
The geological composition of Maharashtra is made of rocks of
volcanic origin or lavas. The south western part of Maharashtra in the
Ratnagiri area belonged to a complex formation of metamorphosed
rocks . While the geology of area covering the districts of Bhandara,
Chanda , Nagpur and Wardha is made of Arch aean and the Dharular
rocks. The rocks outcropped in the Wainganga basin are the oldest
exposed rocks in Maharash tra. Then the rocks in Vidarbha, the Lava
cover in the st ate the alluvium in the Tapi basin and the alluvial
accumulations in the coastal area come successively in the age. The main
geological event that influenced the physical struct ure of Maharashtra is
one which threw up lava on a wide regional scale and brought up the
formulations which affect the life of people the most. Among such
changes are the Sahyadris , the Satpuras, the Tapi and Narmada valleys
and the Arabian seacoast. There are several other hills, mountains and munotes.in
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History of Maratha
24 valleys which are created due to climatic changes and the flow of running
water from one end to the other end. The joints and fissures developed on
the basaltic s urface are the initial features of the geographical changes in
the state. These features t hrough their weathering and stream actions
introduced other features l ike deep and shallow valleys, which also
exercised the stre am pattern and created a lineament of the landscape in
the state.
There are some common features of geography of Maharashtra as
staircase like appearance, domed peaks, flat summit plateaus and terraced
flanks. They are created by horizontal lava flows which spread in
succession one upon another. These ups and downs in the geography of
Maharashtra helped the Marathas during the royal period as well as in
the Peshwa period to protect themselves and withstand onslaughts of
mightier enemies. As a matter of fact, the lava beds are the distinc tive
features of the geography of Maharashtra. These lavas became black and
massive girdles to the Sahyadri ranges. The landscape created by lava
beds in Maharashtra separated the broad river valleys from that of residual
ranges under its recurrent theme. In the same way the streams flowing on
flat beds are developing shallow courses, wide banks and meanders to
the geography of Maharashtra. The streams also affect the upper and
lower beds radically t hrough their strong gorges and a series of
cascades. Unless a study of outstanding features of the geography of
Maharashtra one cannot understand its influence on the socio-
economic life of the people in Maharashtra. The outstanding features
are as under :-
3.2.1 The Maharashtra Plateau: - This plateau has covered around
nine-tenth area of Maharashtra and tilt ed towards the east and the south-
east directions slightly. There are several rims on the western side where
its elevation is 900m above the sea level and has several peaks like
Mahabaleshwar, Saptshri and Kalsubai whose heights are 1438m. and
1646m. respectively. But the central and the average elevation of the
Maharashtra plateau is around 300 to 400m from t he sea level .
3.2.2. The Sahyadri Rang es :- The western edge of the Decc an plateau,
which is extended from Maharashtra to Mysore and has two flanks which
are sharp relief but contrast to each other, came to be known as the
Sahyadri ranges. The lava flows made the western face of the ranges,
that is dark, bare and with alternative slo pes. These slopes are made of
weathered beds and covered with monsoon vegetations. The eastern
flank of the ranges is rounded and low gradient. There are several peaks
as the ranges as Saptashri, Rajmachi and others are attractive and bear
natural beauty.
The tops of these helped the Marathas to build forts and secured
establishments. Such tops were like Rajmachi near Lonavala . There
are several saddles in the ranges which are known as ghats routes. These
ghat routes are connecting the Konkan regions and the Table land of
Maharashtra.The Marathas used these routes only during the emergency munotes.in
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Influence of Geographical
Factors on Socio- Economic
Life of Marathas
25 and faced their mightier enemies. They also defeated them and forced
them to retire from the land of Marathas.
The Marathas also used the other ranges like ghatmatas, Balaghat and
Mahadev, which were developed due to lavas and have elevation around
200 to 300m. Although they are extension of the Sahyadri ranges, their
tend is west-north-west and east-south-east. The top of the area and the
saddles developed helped the rulers in warfare strategy as and when
required by the circu mstances.
3.2.3. The Satpura Rang es: - These ranges are occupying the northern
part of the Maratha territory. It is said that the Satpura ra nges are
conne cting the rift valleys genera ted by Nar mada and Tapi river basins.
As a matter of fact, these ra nges are jutted out between the parallel rift
valleys of these two rivers. There are many cliffs and peaks in these
ranges, one of them is Toranmal, whose height is around 1000m. There
are other tops also, which are in the Melghat ranges . The Melghat
ranges are in the Vidarbha region. They are connecting Tapi and
Chik aldara plateau. In this re gion there are several rocks l ike granite,
limestones and associated rocks which have developed irregular hill
features of the land. There are other hills known as hummocky hills in
the districts of Chanda and Bhandara. They are also c alled the irregular
hills, which were often used for military activities. Generally, these hills
have elevation of around 400m . While tops in this area have heights up
to 1200m.
3.2.4. The Konkan:- This is a littoral re gion between the wall of Sahyadri
and the Arabian sea, which varies from 45 to 75m in its width. This
Konkan strip is nestled between the Dama nganga River in the north and
Terekhol river in the south. It is hilly criss-crossed and furrowed region
due to the fast-flowing streams from various ranges, mostly S ahyadri
ranges. It is, therefore, said that these ranges from the Konkan support the
Sahyadrian ranges. Naturally, this landscape proved advantageous to the
Marathas variously. One most important benefit was from the estuarine
rivers for their communications and security. It is said that the middle belt
and the coastal headlands are known as the lateritic plateaus. They are
bleak, project a slaggy heap-appearance and singularly infertile. This
has taken place due to heavy deforesta tion of this area and still be
continued. Konkan, therefore, has not been developed economically. The
Konkan land has several c haracteristics as low- running hills, bulging
convex slopes on side, its tapering ends and hogback appearance. This
landscape of Konkan helped the Marathas on and often while fighting with
the enemies.
3.2.5. Local Land scape:- There are several features of the local land of
Maharashtra which came to help the Marathas in emergency and
difficulties. These features are as 1. Occasional rounded summits on lava
hills 2. Particular knobs 3. one or two terraces 4. Some shoulders on
ledges 5. small amphitheaters created by stre ams flowing 6. Emanated
talus cones 7. Several ju nctions of hills 8. Rough surface as gentle sloping
apron of outwash material and 9. Gullies developed by water flowing munotes.in
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History of Maratha
26 from the hills. As the hill ranges from the prominent features of the
elevated landscape of Maharashtra, in the same way, streams and river
valleys are the low l evel counterparts of the same landscape. The streams
sluggishly meander on the resist ant surface of a lava flow. This
meandering stream cannot easily cut into the land surface but the
actions of side sweeping waters create several features, which helped
the Marathas in their daily life of ruffled period.
The sun’s heat loosens the rock, the chemical rot sets in due to rain
water, the rain water washes the loose material downhill. All these erosion
and deposition in the hill ranges and the river valleys introduced good
variation in the landscape of Maharashtra. These variations generated
several implications as affected the human use of the land, the eroded
surfaces hardly s uppo rted grass, depositional features sustained a
luxuriant forest and good agriculture. There are several exposed faces of
the lava sheets, some of them work as natural ramparts and bear some
important historic forts of Marathas.
3.2.4 Rivers and Ri ver basins: - The rivers in Maharashtra drain both to
the Bay of Bengal as well as to the Arabian sea. There are several rivers
of the Maharashtra plateau. Among the major rivers of the plateau are
Tapi, Godavari , Bhima , Krishna , Wardha, Wainganga and Narmada.
Tapi has 31,360 KM drainage area while Na rmada has around 54 KM
drainage area in the state. Tapi river flows westwards in a valley which
lies between two faulted edges of the lava plateau of Maharashtra. Thus,
river created bad land at various places, its south margin is fertile while
the northern margin is sandy. Godavari is the principal river of
Maharashtra, which has several tributaries, as Manjra and Pra nhita rivers
which join G odavari River at Andhra border, while Pravara river flows
through the whole length of the state. Wardha and Wainganga
originate from Madya Pradesh hills, flow t hrough the central part of
Vidarbha and join each other after the drainage of 295km southwards.
Penganga is the tributary river joining them after draining through
Buldhana and Yeotmal plateau. Bhima and Krishna are other two big
rivers of Maharashtra; they join each other in Karnataka. Bhima originates
from Bhimashankar and has two main tributaries as Sina and Nira.
Krishna river originates in Mahaba leshwar, flows through the state. This
river has three main tributaries as Koyana , Varna and Panchganga .
Naturally, these rivers helped the Marathas at each and every movement
during their period.
As in the plateau, there are several rivers in Konkan, some of them are as
Vaitarna, Ulhas, Savitri and Vasisthi. They originate from Sahyadri tracts,
flow fast and they are mostly s easonal in their regime. These rivers at the
point of joining the sea, became wide, shallow and their mouths sandy
due to the action and reaction of the sea waves. There is one more
characteristic of these rivers of Konkan that they developed ravines and
deeply entrenched water courses with shallow mouths. Thus, these rivers
helped a lot to the Marathas in the period of exigency.
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Influence of Geographical
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27 CHECK YOUR PRO GRESS:
1 Highlight the Geographical features of the Maratha country.
3.3. GEOGRAPHICAL INFLU ENCE ON THE
ECONOMIC LIFE OF MARATHAS
Maharashtra comes under typically monsoonal character, as it has hot,
cold and rainy weather. Due to this atmosphere, the plateau as well as the
Konkan regions are in extreme heat during the months of March , April
and May of the year.
Although, the months of April and May are torrid, they experience the
moderate thunderstorms mostly, which bring relief from the heat and the
dust in the atmosphere. This is also supportive to irrigation, irrigated
crops and fruits. But when the moderate thunderstorms turn into gale
and hailstorms, they dama ge the crops and the fruits like mango and other
fruits.
As a matter of fact, the southwest monsoon is onset in the month of
June. It is followed by a sultry weather, thunder-showers and heavy rains .
In this month only the rains spread from the south- western and western
side means through Konkan to all over the state. This is the month and the
atmosphere helps the people in the state to start sowing activities.
Although there is variation in rains in June, almost the whole state comes
under the process of sowing and plantation of kharip crops. If any part
of the state has no sufficient rains for sowing season, the subsequent
month that is July gives good amount of rains throughout the state and
support the sowing activities positively. Although, there are several crops
of different period and seasons, July is the best month for all parts and
regions in the state for sowing season. The subsequent month of August is
almost rainy heavily, which is boosting nurturing the crop. Although, the
month of September weakens the south-west monsoonal current, it brings
moderate showers to nourish the maturing crops. The month of October
is the transition from the rainy s eason to the winter season. This month
is the beginning of Rabbi season means sowing of wheat, gram, and
other crops. The Rabbi season is mostly harvested in the area of Desh
means presently t he western Maharashtra. This month brings high
humidity and greater sunshine which create a peculiar atmosphere to
sustain the familiar October heat and push up the Rabbi crops.
Maharashtra experiences a cool dry spell from the month of Novembe r to
February. These months bring gentle breezes, pleasant weather and some
very urgent showers badly required for the winter crops. Many a times,
this period fetches cyclones from the Bay of Bengal, that persist for a
while even after crossing the coast and travel through the inland.
This is open secret that the most important factor that affected the life of
people and economy is the rain fall, in its regime, amount and
variability. Konkan and Sahyadrian ranges receive the major rain fall
during the period of four months i.e. from June to September. Whereas
the Central Maharashtra and the Plateau has little lower precipit ation. munotes.in
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History of Maratha
28 That is spread from the month of June to Oc tober. The month of
September is much more important because the majority of rain fall is
received in this month in the central part of Maharashtra. The heaviest and
the highest rain fall in Maharashtra occur in the main Sahyadris that is
Mahabaleshwar, it is around 6226mm; while the Konkan region
receives the rain fall around
2500 to 3500mm. But the most remarkable feature of the rain fall is its
tendency of rapid decrease towards the east of the Sahyadris. Panchgani is
only 15km to the east but receives only1865mm rain fall, while Phaltan is
around 30km from the Sahyadri ranges receives only 500mm. This
transition affects the whole econom ic set up, as composition of
population, revenue, industry and the trade and commerce. The total
annual precipit ation is little improved towards the further eastward
because of two factors as one there is a little reduction in the shadow
effect of the western Ghats and second the little extension of the Bay of
Bengal monsoonal currents westwards. For example, Solapur area
receives the precipitation around 678mm.
Generally, the agricultural production depends on the annual rain fall and
its distribution the area under consideration . These matters only create
various agricultural zones as rice zone , millet zone , cotton zone ,
sugarcane zone and others. These zones help the people and in general
Government to prosper themselves. Many a times, the Marathas had
abundant agricultural production. But that was not realized due to various
wars during the period. Jervis, the Br itish officer once said that
Chhatrapati Shivaji’s s ubjects enjoyed the plenty of agricultural
production but not peace due to the threat of external attacks. But the
most striking features of the rain fall has been the variability and
irregularity throughout the state. It has been experienced that the
monsoonal rains in many years has not arrived on normal time but there
were long and unexpected breaks in it, which affected the average and the
percentage of the agricultural production. In some years the rain fall was
not on time, it was delayed and disturbed the whole season and the
production was failed. In some years there was heavy downpou rs, that
also contributed to the failure of the production of agriculture. Although
this unpredictable behaviour of the monsoonal rainfall has been common
thought the Maratha kingdom but the economic distress and the suffering
of the people was much greater than any other eleme nts. Naturally, in
some area of Maharashtra, the economic setup has been very delicate
and offers no surplus for any purposes. For example, this thin and weak
econom y did not permit the people under the Marathas to utilize fully the
total rainfall. In other words, the people in Maharashtra have not been
utilizing the total rain fall occurred in the state. The disturbing factor has
been experienced since the ages that the major portion of rainfall in t he
Sahyadri ranges and Konkan area goes to the sea. In the torrential rains,
the economy in Konkan reaches to the ground. On the other hand the same
Konkan area suffers acute shortage of water during the summer. Hence, it
affects on the performance of the economy. munotes.in
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Influence of Geographical
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29 3.3.1. Forest and the Maratha Economy :- Forest has been one of the
important sources of revenue for any G overnment since the time
immemorial. In the same way , it helped the Maratha economy variously .
It played the protective and bio-aesthetic role in the economy of the
Marathas . It supplied wood for various purposes and commercial
products , which fetched considerable revenue to the rulers. The area
covered by the forest was around 75000 sq.km. The main sources of
income were the timber , fuel-wood, and forest products as Hirda ,
Catechu , Katha , sandalwood ,tendu leaves and various fruits . It also
gives revenue by way of orchard , silvicult ure and grazing facilities.
The larger forest tracts directly influenced the economic position of the
local communities to a considerable degree. Such communities were in the
tracts of Thana –Kolaba and Sahyadri ranges . Their economic life is
based on the surrounding f orest. Among such communities warlis of
Thana district formed an important group of trib al people, who played
very important role in the Maratha administration and army . The
Marathas also had to pay attention towards the destruction of forest due to
heavy soil erosion and laterization.
Although, the Marathas did not utilize mineral deposits in the underlying
geological formulations of their territory, there were several minerals
available in the geological belts of Marathas . A mong them were coal,
iron-ore , china- clay , chromate , limestone and manganese leading and
abundant minerals. There were some other minerals of economic
significance and could be used for the manufacture of fire-bricks,
refractory crucible and hard porcelai n. The minerals l ike Felspar, copper,
tungsten, Cyanide, and other were also located in Ra tnagiri and Thane
districts. T he most important mineral was salt manufactured in the
northern strip of Konkan coast, it was not only important in human
consumption but also supported fertilizing the land and generating
chemicals.
3.3.2. Geography and the major crops under the Marathas:- The
production of crops depend upon several factors as the local climate,
criteria of soil , rainfall , irrigation and other factors. The Geography
under the Marathas did not support all crops in all regions evenly. Hence,
some areas were popular for some crops, while other strips supported
specific crops. The study of the crops and regions under the Marathas can
be done as under :-
1 The crops in Konkan Region :- Farming is difficult in this region, it is
intensive and visible in many facets due to the hilly and mountainous
landscape. It is a small holding restricted to small estuaries and their
extensions along the river valleys. There is some land on the terrace
of lower hill-slopes and, some other is reclai med from marshland, which
is known as Khar land. Farmers used to construct seasonal bunds across
river courses for irrigation. That was specifically done to increase
agricultural production or yield. This is the region of rice, coconut,
nachni and mango crops. Rice is a main crop produced as a single crop in
the north and double crop in the patches of land in the south Konkan. munotes.in
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History of Maratha
30 Coconut is the second major crop, it is extensively planted in loamy land
and on the embankment. Nachni is also equally sowed but in interior
and lateritic soils. Mango is the most comm ercial product, popular in and
outside of the country, raised on lateritic soil.
2. Crops in The Sahyadris:- This region being totally f orest ,
agriculture is restr icted to scattered clearances in the mountain ranges .
The farmer has to prepare the clearance in the abandoned patches of the
ranges every year because the soil los es its fertility every year due to
heavy rain fall. Although this trouble exists in this region, the stable
agriculture is there since the ages due to innumerable bottoms of various
valleys. Mostly, rice in a rich soil and nachni in the inferior soil are
produced, Since the beginning, apart from rice and nachni , the piedmont
slopes of the Sahyadri ranges support to the fruit trees , chillies, onions
and especially t he loc al mangoes .
3 Crops in the Bhima Valley and Plateau Region :- This tract is a
semi-arid area, cultivation is done in valley flats and their immediate flank
abutting the residual hills and the plateau . Jowar and the Bajra are the
main crops of this region. Oilseeds, pulses and fodder crops are also
produced. Although, the area is arid and plateau, the crop like sugarcane
is grown in the valley of Nira, a trib utary of Bhima river.
4 Crops in the Krishna Valley :- This is the belt of fertile , and alluvial
soil as well as of adequate rainfall. Although, Bajra and Jowar are the
principal crops. Sugarcane , turmeric and tobacco are raised in the
Varna and Panchganga valleys. These two rivers are the main tributaries
of Krishna River. This is the belt popular for dairy since the beginning.
5 Crops in the Godavari Valley: - This is t he region of moderate and
reliable rainfall. Jawar and Bajra are grown here. Bajra is specially
seen in the drier area of the north west, i.e., in and around Nasik
stretch of the valley. Pulses and oilseeds are raised everywhere in this
area. Cotton is grown in the Marathwada region of the valley. Godavari
valley is divided in upper and middle valley on the basis of crops. In
upper Godavari valley, crops like jowar, bajra , wheat , sugarcane,
grapes, as well as fruits like sweet lime, guava, are grown in the area
like Pravara valley. In the middle Godavari valley crops like jawar, wheat
and cotton are raised.
In general almost all c rops were grown during the period of
Marathas, among them jawar, bajra, pulses, wheat, cotton, sugarcane,
oilseeds, tobacco were there. Among the fruit crops, mango, orange,
grapes, bananas, figs were there.
CHECK YOUR PRO GRESS:
Q.2. What was the contribution of the Sahyadri ranges to the
development of strategic warfare of the Marathas?
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Influence of Geographical
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31 3.4. INFLU ENCE OF GEOG RAPHY ON SO CIAL LIFE
OF MARATHAS
India was attacked and ruled by several foreign rulers and tribes since the
ancient period. Among them were Shakas, Hunas, Kushanas, Greeks and
Persians in the ancient period, and Turks, Gazhani, Ghor , Gulam ,
Abyssinians , Pathan , Khilgis , Sayyed , Tughlak and Mughals in
the medieval period . Maharashtra being a part and parcel of India, it
also came under these rules successively. These Muslim rulers made India
their resid ence with no specific policy of making t hem exclusi ve in the
social life of the country. It seems, there was an intense rivalry among the
Muslims in the country. Because the Muslims who came from outside had
been in almost all good positions which had been the bone of contention
among them. But these differences did not percola te to the people living in
the rural area of the country.
India is the country of Hindu people in general. They have been more than
eighty three per cent in the country. In Maharashtra, under the Marathas,
the social atmos phere of the Vedic civilization was prevailing. That means
the social structure was based on the Varna and Ashram systems. In the
Varna system, Brahmin, Ks hatria, Vaishya and Shudras were
predominant in the society. Na turally, much importance to caste system
was given i.e. superiority and inferiority was maintained. Follo wing to the
caste system, there was much rigidity in the occupation and the sources
of income, which were purely based on the castes and carried on
generation to generation. As a matter of fact, the people in lower castes
were exploited by the people in the higher castes since the ages, for
which, the Maratha period was not exceptional. On the contrary, the
rigidity of the caste system incre ased due to several factors in the society.
Considering the inhuman tre atment to the people in lo wer castes, several
saints in various sections in t he society began to criticize the caste system
and advocated the movement to reform in the situation of the peop le
in the lower castes. But there did not take place any change in the
society and the composition of society. On the other hand, the rule of
distance or untouchability was being maintained very strictly . These
less privileged peop le had no mobility; even geographical c onditions did
not help them to increase their mobility beyond the boundaries of the
country.
R.V. Nadkarni in his book, The Rise and Fall of the Maratha Empire
observes that in Hindu society the theocratic principles are predominant.
The idea of god is all pervading that everything else is subordinated to
it. The Hindu is a religious minded entity and he will perhaps be ready to
do for dharma what he will not do for his country. This theocratic
principle or idea of dharma and god is in the social instinct of the
Hindu. The king is divine, the cow is divine, the preceptor is divine, his
sacred books are divine and the mother is divine. Thus, the idea of
divinity is ingrained and lapidary in the social life of the country,
especially t he social life of people in Maharashtra. That is in some
proportion contributed by the mountainous, crag geography of munotes.in
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History of Maratha
32 Maharashtra. The social life under the Marathas was based on the caste
system whose origin was believed to be divine. It, therefore was not
changed. The caste system was handed down undisturbed from father to
son for generations together. It became hereditary and a new principle of
stagnation was introduced in the social life of the Marathas. That social
struct ure became so stationary that it seemed beyond any change in near
future. The upper caste looked after the need of education but there was
no competition from any other castes, therefore, there was no
advancement in knowledge. The upper caste transmitted whatever they
received from their preceptor. There was a firm belief in the social life of
the Marathas that the Vedas, the books of revealed knowledge contained
every aspect of knowledge which is required to satisfy the need s of the
existing s ociety for ever. Buckley says that there is clear evidence that the
society which perfectly ignores the physical laws definitely ref ers to the
supernatural causes and all the phenomena by which it is surrounded. It is
said that the social l ife of the Maratha period was somewhat superstitious.
If we consider the above viewpoints, it is clear that there were conflicting
influences of geography of Maharashtra and impact of myriad social
system on the man during the period of Marathas. He did not understand
his own mind in a critical moment. He kept himself meek , accepted
the traditional theory of Karma and believed that he must abide by the
norms of his own caste. Means there was no incentive for him to make
any Endeavour to better his social lot. Naturally, the social life did not
leave any choice to the person, he never exercised his reason and lived life
under the pressure of traditions.
uckley further says that about the woman the less said the better. The
woman led her life from the beginning to the end as a dependent. Her
social position is no better than that of a slave and when ignorance added
to the slavery it became a mighty restraini ng force on the society. On
the other hand, the woman in Maratha period had committed
remarkable work in the politics and administratio n. The list of such
women is considerable as Tarabai, Jijabai, Ahilyabai, Radhabai,
Gopikabai, Laxmibai and Yamunabai. Ca ptain Broughton observes abou t
the Maratha women that there is a strikingly difference displayed by the
Maratha woman in the ride on horse without taking any pain to conceal
her face, she gallops about and makes her way through the throng
with as much boldness and perseverance as the man. This boldness
developed in the woman due to the impact of environment and geography
of Maharashtra.
CHECK YO UR PROGRESS:
1. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of forests towards t he
Maratha economy.
2. What were the major crops grown during the period of Maratha?
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Influence of Geographical
Factors on Socio- Economic
Life of Marathas
33 3.5 SUMMARY
In order to understand the whole setup of the Marathas from their rise to
power to the down fall, it is necessary to study the geography and its
features in detail. Because it is the geography which shape , the people
who live in the specific piece of land.
Naturally, the people in Maharashtra are carved by the geography of
Maharashtra. They used each and every feature of the land for their own
advantage.
Maharashtra lies between the 15 and 23 degrees latitudes. It is connected
with the Deccan Lavas above the Ghats and forms the part and parcel of
the Indian geological division known as the Decc an- Trap. This trap gave
rise and life to many mountains of black rock, black sail and many rivers.
The most Strik ing feature of the geography of Maharashtra under
Marathas are its mountain ra nges as Sahyadri, Satpuras, Vindyas and
some other minor ranges. The minor mountainous ranges are the offshoots
of the bigger and wider ranges. They are spread unevenly, created
rugged outline of the area and bereted several streams and rivers, which
ultimately join Krishna and Godavari the big rivers of Maharashtra. The
terrain of Maharashtra is divided into the low and high level tracts by the
Western Ghats. The table land of Maharashtra runs parallel to t he
coastal line till the end of the border of the state. The Western
coast line below t he Ghat is known as Konkan. Konkan is the strip
between the Sahyadri ranges and the Arabian sea. The tract towards the
eastern side from the Ghats is known as the Dec can Plateau or Known as
Desh. This is known as Ghatmatha, which has almost all hill- forts
of Maharashtra.
The geographical composition of Maharashtra is made of rocks of
volcanic origin or lavas. There are some common features of Maharashtra
as staircase like appearance, domed peaks, flat summit plateaus and
terraced flanks. These features are created by horizontal lava flows which
spread in succession. This geography of Maharashtra helped the Marathas
to protect themselves during the emergencies. To assess the influence of
the geographical features on the Life of Marathas, it is to be studied as
under:-
1. The Deccan Plateau of Maharashtra, which has covered nine-
tenth area, titled towards the east and the south east directions slightly. Its
elevation is 900m above the sea level and has several peaks like
Mahaba leshwar, Saptashri and Kalsubai.
2. The Sahyadri Ranges: - The western edge of the Decc an plateau,
extended from Maharashtra to Mysore has two flanks. These flanks are
sharp relief but contrast to each other and are known as the Sahyadri
ranges. The western face of the ranges is made of lava flows, it is dark,
bare and alternate slopes. The eastern flank of the ranges is rounded and
low gradient. There are several peaks on these ranges as Saptashree and munotes.in
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History of Maratha
34 Rajmachi. They all are attractive and bear natural beauty. These tops
helped the Marathas.
3.The Satpura Ranges:- These ranges have occupied the western part
of the Maratha territory . These are connected to the rift valleys of Tapi
and Narmada rivers.
4. The Konkan:- It is a littoral region between the walls of Sahyadri
and the Arabian sea . This is between the Da manganga river in the
north and Terekhol river in the south . It is a hilly criss-crossed and
furrowed region due to the fast flowing streams from various hills of
Sahyadri ranges
.5. Local landscape :- This landscape has features as occasional
rounded summits on lava hills , particular knobs, terraces , some shoulders
on ledgers , small amphitheatres , emanated talus cones , several
junctions of hills , rough surface and gullies developed by water
flowing from the hills
.6. Rivers and their basins: - The rivers in Maharashtra , drain both to
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea . These are Krishna , Bhima , Tapi,
Godavari, Wardha, Wainganga and Nar mada. There are several tributaries
to big rivers as Penganga , Manjara , Koyana and Varna . The rivers like
Vaitarna, Ulhas , Savitri and Vashisti, which origin from the Sahyadri
ranges and flow in Konkan region . These rivers have developed ravines
and deeply entrenched water courses with shallow mouths , which helped
the Marathas variously .
Maharashtra comes under a typically monsoonal character as it has
hot, cold and rainy weather. As t he result the Konkan and the plateau
are in extreme heat during the months of March, April and May and
experience some time the moderate thunderstorms. G enerally, the
agricultural production depends on the amount of annual rain fall and its
distribution during the year. This only creates zones like rice zone , millet
zone and so on . For est has an important role in the economy of the
region. During the period of the Marathas it played a protective and bio-
aesthetic role and also helped in generating good revenue . The Konkan
region had rice, c oconut, nachni and mango as main crops. While the
other regions produced almost all crops ranging from jowar to s ugarcane
and cotton to nourish the people and generate good revenue. The
geography and the climate created several zones on the basis of
production as the rice-coconut –nachni –mango region of Konkan.
Coastland, the rice – nachni trac ts of Sahyadris, The jowar-bajra-oilseed-
sugarcane zone of the Bhima and Krishna valleys and jawar-bajra-wheat-
cotton-sugarcane zones of Godavari and Tapi valleys. In short, almost all
crops were raised during the period of Marathas subject to the good
monsoon and evenly distribution of rainfall throughout the year .
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Influence of Geographical
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Life of Marathas
35 The Maratha social life had several features based on geography and its
factors, which helped to nourish all communities, groups , religions , castes
and cultures . As there were Muslims in India, they were under the
Marathas, in their administr ation and army. According to R.V. Nadkarni,
in the social life the principle of theocracy predominated means all other
things subordinated to it. Buckley made an observation about the Maratha
social life that the society which ignores the physical laws refers to the
supernatural causes and the phenomena by which it is s urrounded.
3.6 QUESTIONS :
a. Examine the geographical influence on the socio- economic life of
Marathas.
b. Bring out the geographical features of Maharashtra under the
Maratha rule.
c. How did the geographical conditions influence socio- economic life of
Marathas?
d. Trace the special features of Geography of Mahara shtra. Discuss
its impact on the socio- economic life of people during the period of
Marathas.
3.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS:
1. G.S. Sardesai, New History of the Marathas, vol. I.
2. Sarkar J adunath, Shivaji and His Times, Calcutta, 1961.
3. Bhave V.K., Shivraj and Sivakal , Poona ,1957.
4. Deshpande C. D., Geography of Maharashtra, National Book Trust,
New Delhi, 1971.
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36 4
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
Unit Struct ure:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Causes of The Rise of Bhakti Mo vement
4.3 Important Features of The Bhakti Mo vement
4.4. Important Saints of the Bhakti Movement
4.5. Effect of Bhakti Mo vement
4.6 Summary
4.7 Questions
4.8 Additional Readings
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing the study of this unit, the student will be able to:
1. Understand the meaning, origin and concept of Bhakti in Hindu
religion.
2. Explain the causes responsible for the rise of Bhakti
movement.
3. Know the basic and important features of the Bhakti
movement.
4. Brief about the major exponen t saints of Bhakti Movemen t.
5. Bring out the significant changes or effects brought out by the Bhakti
movement.
4.1 INTR ODUCT ION:
Bhakti is the Hindu concept of supreme love and devotion to the God. It is
the most popular way of achieving salvation in the Life of Hindu people.
As a matter of fact, devotion to God is meaningful only if it is blended
with love towards all human beings and creatures in the world,
without any bias or reservations. Such devotion is bound to be reflected in
the devotee's personality radiating powerful and luminous divine energy.
This Bhakti or devotion leads to ecstasy and expels all forms of hate,
envy, lust, greed and attracts only truth, goodness and righteousness.
It is often observed that such devotion or Bhakti culminates the munotes.in
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Bhakti Mo vement
37 devotees in dancing exuberantly with the name of God on their lips, which
always attracted and inspired the observers towards them.
Bhakti movement was a movement of realization of God with in oneself
and the union of the individual with God through the loving devotion
of the devotee towards God. This Bhakti movement began in India before
the rise of Sufism in Islam and its percolat ion in India. The origin of
Bhakti was traced in the Vedas and the Up anishads. It was an
established element in the post-Vedic age and the Bhagwat movemen t.
During this period Bhakti was considered with Jnana and Karma as paths
to Salvation. There are two aspects of Bhakti as one is the path of
devotion based on service to God. The devotee throwing himself
completely at the mercy of God, which is known as the path of
surrende ring to God. The other one is the bond based on pure love and
equality rather than service to God. This is exemplified in the legends
of Vishnu and Bhagwata Puranas.
Bhakti as a loving devotion to Siva and Vishnu was emphasized by a
series of flourished saints in South India. During the period of Pallava
rulers of Tamil land, Bhakti movement spread to Pandya Kingdom of
South Tamil land and the Chera kingdom of Kerala-with its new and
popular features. The saints who preached and spread the Bhakti came to
be known as Nayanars and Alvars, who were the worship ers of Shiva and
Vish nu respectively. The broad based character of this movement was that
the saints mentioned above were not only Bra hmins but were from all
castes and sex. It gave a clear message that the loving devotion was not
meant for any one section but for all segme nts, irrespective of caste,
family or sex in the society and based on egalitarian approach in
denigration of caste system. They preached Bhakti in a si mple language
of common people and could make a strong emotional appeal to them and
converted the Bhakti movement in to a mass movement.
In the 12th century, the Bhakti movement was represented by the
followers of Vir Shaiva or Lingayats, who were the worship pers of Shiva.
They laid emphasis on love towards God and Bhakti as the means of
attaining the goals of human life. They attached great importance to the
guru and rejected fasts, feasts and pilgrimages. they propounded human
equality and denounced caste system and disapproved all social ills.
4.2 CAUSES OF THE RISE OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT
As mentioned earlier, t he Bhakti movement originated in South India
and spread to each and every c orner of the country. It became a
mass movement in North India from the 13th to the 16th centuries as the
result of fermentation made in those parts of the country. There were
several other factors responsible for the rise of Bhakti movement,
important some of them are explained as under:- About the origin of the
Bhakti movement two distinct periods are given as the first period starts
from the earliest time to the 13th century. The second period starts from
the 13th century to the 16th century. In the first period there was a
concomitant of two tendencies as the pantheism of the intellectual munotes.in
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History of Maratha
38 people and the deistic polytheism of common people. In the second
period the influence of Islam religion forced Hindus towards monotheism.
Naturally the emergence of Islam in India posed a great danger to
Hinduism. The Muslim rulers destroyed a large number of Hindu temples,
converted maximum poor people in the country to Islamic faith forcibly
and offered them then some concessions and posts of monetary advantage.
On the other hand, the Islamic message of universal brotherhood and
equality was a serious challenge to the Hindu society which was
based on the caste system and untouchability. In order to thwart this
challenge, the Hindu religious leaders and philosophers began to reform
Hindu religion and tried to eradicate all evils and outdated practices from
Hinduism. Thus, the rise of Bhakti movement took place in the country.
Prof. K. M. Pannikar says that the Hindus were incre dibly fed up with
the atrocities of the Muslims for several centuries. They, therefore, sought
solace in Bhakti and the movement began in the country. It means, the
Bhakti movement was the direct result of the impact of the Muslim rulers.
Even, it is also said that Rama nanda, a great saint of India, who initiated
this Bhakti movement, was influenced by the princip les of universal
brotherhood, human equality propagated by Islamism. But this argument
is not accepted by majority of historians in the country. Prof. A. L.
Srivastva, one of the scholars and authority on this movement says that
the Bhakti movement was not a totally new involvemen t in the India
society and it did not owe its origin to the advent of Islamism to India.
However, he says that the Bhakti movement definitely received great
impetus from the tactics of iconoclastic Muslims in India during the
13th and 14th centuries. However, Prof. A. L. Srivastva further says that
the history of the Bhakti movemen t goes back to the great reformer,
Shankaracharya, whose philosophy formed the solid background for the
rise of Bhakti movement in the country. Shankaracharya who was placed
at the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century,
systematized the Vedanta philosophy and was the great exponent of the
philosophy of non- dualism (advaitas). Shankaracharya further says that
the separation of God and the phenomenal world was due to ignorance
and the way to salvation was through realization of them by way of
knowledge (Jnan), that God and the created world was one. Thus, this was
the beginning of the movement, according to Prof. A. L. Srivastava.
Max. Weber, a well-known sociologist says that an apocalyptic movement
like Bhakti movement was often the ideology of a defeated ruling class,
with some aspects of quietism and suffering due the defeat by the foreign
powers. But this argument is not agreed by most of the scholars. They say
that this argument hardly explains the rise of the mass movement of
Bhakti in the southern part of India.
There is one more argument in the northern part of India that Bhakti
movement grew and spread in north India as a defense mechanism to save
Hindu society from the threat of the foreign invasions and the challenge
of their Islamic ideology. But Nizamudd in Auliya says that although the
Muslim invaders captured Hindus, war prisoners, women and children
converted and enslaved them in the initial period, the Hindus did not munotes.in
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Bhakti Mo vement
39 face any problem after the initial phase of warfare came to an end.
Nizamuddin further says that the Hindu rel igion is too strong to be
affected either by any threat of force or the ideology of brotherhood and
equality of Islamism. As a matter of fact there was no equality sustained
following the conversion of artisans and low c astes Indian to
Islamism. According to Nizamudd in Auliya the Turkish rulers looked
down upon the Hindu converts. Even then this was considered one of the
causes for the rise of Bhakti movement in the north India.
Follo wing the Muslim invasion on India, a number of Indians were
converted to Islamism by force. This fact convinced the Hindu saints
and reformers that unless they carry out certain reforms in the country.
It was not possible for them to withstand the Islamic ideological c hallenge
and retain the low castes Hin dus in Hinduism.
There is also an argument that some of the people were not happy with
the highly philosophical exposition of Hinduism, which they were not
able to understand it. Therefore, the saints and reformers turned towards a
set up which these people easily comprehended. This led to start Bhakti
movement in the country.
The major reason for the rise of bhakti movement was the medieval
Hindu society, which was unde r several s ocial problems, systems,
tradition and customs. These social evils did not keep social harmony but
increased severe differences in it. Among them the problems of caste,
untouchability and subservience of women were there. These elements
were to sustain several atrocities and were to be victims of dominant
segments. Therefore, the Hindu saints and reformers were convinced
that there should be a movement to topple or mitigate these ill-treatments
and create a new setup which would not believe in these outdated systems.
4.3 IMPORTANT FEATUR ES OF THE BHAKTI
MOVEMENT
Although, there were several factors ascribed to the rise of Bhakti
movement, several philosophers propounded several principles. There was
some kind of uniformity amon g them on stressing upon eradication and
condemnation of some social evils and practices. These principles,
practices and social evils were as under:-
As mentioned above, the most of the philosophers and saints of the Bhakti
movement strongly oppo sed to the caste system and untouchability as the
social evils and impediments in the development of social harmony.
These saints stood for the eradication of those evils from the
society. They professed that God could be pleased and attained by way
of bhakti by any person of any section in the society, irrespective of his
caste, colour, race, or sex. Naturally, they emphasized on the principle of
brotherhood and equality among the people.
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History of Maratha
40 The second important feature of the bhakti movemen t was that the saints
of the movement denounced idol worship and professed that God has no
colour, no shape, and no sign. God needs pure bhakti or devotion.
Therefore, they criticized the people who were involved in idol worship.
Namd eva, a bhakti saint from Maharashtra said that a stone god and
false devotee cannot please each other. The Turks, who invaded India,
broke such gods into pieces and threw t hem overboard. Th ese stone gods
neither cried nor cursed the ico noclasts. In the same way Kabir, one of
the pioneers of the bhakti movement, satirically said that if God were a
stone then I would worship mountains. Na turally, these saints wanted to
reform the Hindu religion and bring rationality in it.
The third feature of this movement was that these saints protested against
the redundant rites and rituals followed in the Hindu religion. They
oppo sed to outdated religious practices and wanted to discard them
totally from the religion. They also put stress on the pure, sincere and
unalloyed bhakti or devotion of God.
The fourth feature of the bhakti movement was that of the adoption of
local language. The common people were unable to understand the literary
language of that period which was Sanskrit. Naturally to propagate their
philosophy, the bhakti saint used the language spoken by common people.
They said that God knows no language except the language of heart.
The fifth outstanding f eature of the bhakti movemen t was that these saints
did not claim that they were initiating any new religion or they were
accepting any rel igious scripture blindly. They only tried to ref orm the
Hindu religion for which, they propagated their ideology in the language
of common people.
These saints and reformers were in favour of unity of God means the
worship of monotheism or one God. They were against the multiplic ity of
God or polytheism or the theory of various inc arnations. They bent upon
the contemplation or recitation of the name of God rather than the ritual-
for ultimate satisfaction of the devotee and attainment of God.
The bhakti saints stressed upon the importance of Guru because Guru is
the linkage between the devotee and God. Guru only le ads the devotee
from darkness to light from ignorance to knowledge and enables the
devotee to detach itself from the worldly attachment and also
convinces the importance of total submission to God for the attainment
of moksha or God itself.
4.4. IMPORTANT SAINTS OF THE BHAKTI
MOVEMENT
There were many saints from various part of the country who involved
themselves in this movement and contributed a lot towards the reforms of
Hinduism to meet the Islamic ideological c hallenges.
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41 Saint Dyaneshwar:-He was the most revered and the prime saint of 12th
century Maharashtra. He came to prominence due to his commentary on
Gita, the holy book of the Hinduism. Saint Dyaneshwar made equal
stress on Dyana, Karma and bhakti of devotee towards his God as ways
for attainment of God. The most important contribution of Dyaneshwar
inter alia to the bhakti movement was that he wrote the Dyaneshwari in
the language of common people, that is Marathi. Had he written in
Sanskrit, the message, which he wanted to give, would have not reached to
each and every man of the state.
Namde va: - Saint Dyaneshwara had several successors but Namdeva was
eminent among them. Namdeva popularized the bhakti movement
through out Maharashtra as well as India Dr. Tarachand says that the
whole credit of changing mind of priest- ridden and ceremonial creed of
people towards t he love of God- goes to Namd eva. Namdeva who was
born in 1270 A.D in Maharashtra preached intense love and devotion to
God. He opposed to idol worship in religion and caste system in society.
Namdeva asserted that salvation could be achieved through bhakti or
devotion to God and not through any rel igious ritual. He often declared
that a true devotee neither needed any pilgrimages nor fast or
austerities, but he needed to concentrate his attention on the name of Hari
i.e. God. Namdeva travelled a lot in the northern parts of India and
engaged himself in discuss ions with many saints of that period.
Naturally, his followers belonged to all sections of society.
Ram anand a: - He contributed a lot to make the bhakti movement popular
in various parts of the country. Ramananda was born at Pra yag, Allahab ad
and followed the philosophy of his guru Ra manuja. He popularised the
worship of Rama as one of the inc arnations of Vishnu. Means he
believed in the philosophy of Vaishnavism. Although, Ramananda did not
isolate himself from the tra ditional value in the society, he disregarded
caste barriers and preached equality in society. He encouraged common
kitchen for people belonged to different castes and eating together without
observing any distance. Ramananda had chosen his followers from
various sections of the society as Ravidas was a cobbler, Kabir was a
weaver, Sena was a barber and Sadhana was a butcher.
Naturally, these saints sent the massage of equality and Hindu- Muslim
unity to each and every part of the country.
Kabir :- He was being one of the closest discipl es of Ramananda, could
learn Vedanta philosophy very well from him and involved himself in
bhakti movement more than any other saints. He spread the message of
bhakti to his optimum possible among the people and became the
propagator of Hindu- Muslim unity. He strongly criticized on idol worship
and caste system in the society. Although, he was a great saint of bhakti
movement. There is no certainty about his early life and his birth. There
are stories galore abou t him. Historians say that he was Hindu by birth but
he was brought up by his adopted father, a Muslim weaver at Kashi.
While Kabir began to follow his father in weaving profession, he came
into contact with bhakti saints that led him to denounce image worship, munotes.in
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History of Maratha
42 pilgrimage and all religious rituals. He said that in order to attain God,
there is no need for any one to abandon his normal life for the sake
of saintly life, he can attain God by his devotion in his routine life.
Although , Kabir had considerable influence of the Nath-Panthis, he did
not profess asceticism and yogic practices for attaining God. He stro ngly
criticized the religious leaders of both the Hindus and the Muslims , who
exploited common people for their own sake. Therefore, the common
people should not fight among themselves on religion because t he
Hindu and the Muslim religions are different paths to attain the same
goal . He emphasized the unity of God and called them by different
nomenclatures like Rama, Hari, Govind, Allah, Saint and Sahib. He
said that the highest goal of man should be his absorption with the
supreme God. Kabir had his discipl es from various sections of society
as well as from Hindus and the Muslim religion. This fact created a
scuffle after his death among his disciples on his last rites and ritual. But
there is a legend that the sheet which covered his dead body was
disappeared and replaced by a heap of flowers, which were divided
equally between the Muslim and the Hindu disciples for his last rites
as per their faith. Thus, Kabir created unity among the Hindus and the
Muslims and was himself the symbol of humanity, which continued for
ages to guide the posterity.
Guru Nanak :- He was the most important saint of the bhakti
movement. Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhis m, was born in 1469 on the
bank of river in a family of Khatri community. The village Talwandi,
where Guru Nanak was born, now came to be known as Na nakana.
Although, Guru Nanak was trained and groomed for the profession of his
father, he had no interest in that and preferred to be in the company of
saints, sadhus and holy peop le. He had a bent of contemplative mind
and began to compose various sacred hymns and sang them for the people.
Guru Nanak had travelled widely and visited various parts of the country
with his faithful attendant and attracted a large number of people around
him. Guru Na nak denounced image worship, pilgrimages and rites and
rituals.
He emphasized on the one God and attaining salvation by way of love and
devotion without distinc tion of caste, creed or any sect. He advocated that
one should have a purity of character as pre condition for approaching
God and attaining salvation. He strongly denounced the caste system and
believed in human equality, brotherhood, peace, good will and unity
between Hindus and Muslim.
Ram anuja:- One of the exponents of Advaita philosophy was born in
the year 1017 A. D. at Sri Perumbudur, in present Tamil Nadu State of
South India. After his initial education at Canjeevaram and Shrirangaon,
became a staunch disciple of the Vaishnavite saint Yamunamuni.
According to Nilkant Shashtri, Ramanuja contradicted the argument of
Shankaracharya of Mayavad and propounded the philosophy
Visishtadvaita i.e. the soul of man is a part and parcel of God, he can
achieve bliss by way of existence of soul near God and not by
assimilation of soul with God. He said that individual soul is a particle munotes.in
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Bhakti Mo vement
43 of Brahma, the supreme God. The individual can attain salvation by way
of bhakti irrespective of his caste, creed, colour, sex and his position in the
society. It means, Ramanuja protested against the caste system. Thus, this
created a stir in the society and generated several saints, who followed
Ramanuja. It, therefore, is said that the bhakti movement, in real sense,
began from Ramanuja.
Madhava Charya:- He was one of the learned saints of the bhakti
movement from southern part of India and travelled widely to every
corner of the country for propagation of his philosophy. Madha va Ch arya
propounded the philosophy of two beings as independent and depended
beings i.e. dualism. He says that God is the only omniscient and therefore,
is independent being. The all others i.e. matter and soul are dependent
beings. He further says that the individual soul is absolutely dependent on
Brahma and can be divided into three categories as viable to achieve final
bliss, rotating the cycle of birth and death and sinner, viable for eternal
hell. He emphasized on the importance of Guru in the attainment of
salvation through love and bhakti towards God. Madhava Charya had
several books to his credit on Brahma Sutra, Upanishidas, Bhagwat Gita
and Mahabharata. Thus, Madhavacharya was the most influential saint of
the bhakti movement.
Nimb arka:- He was one of the well-known saints of bhakti movement
from south India and spent almost all his life in north India, Nimbarka
was a contemporary to Ramanuja and a writer of commentary on Brahma
Sutra. Nimbarka delt in detail about Brahma, soul and matter in his book
Dasa sloka. He also made it clear that the individual soul is a part and
parcel of Brahma, the supreme God and popularised the Radha- Krishna
Cult throughout India. Nimbaraka tried his level best to combine the
philosophy of Du alism and Advaitism. Roma Chaudhari says that
Nimbaraka tried to satisfy man's heart and head as well as intellect and
feeling in the process of attaining God by way of bhakti. He did not over
emphasis head on the heart or intellect on the feeling he tried to keep them
balanced.
VallabhaCharya:- He was one more philosopher from South India, who
had involved actively in the bhakti movement and came to be Known as
one of the philosophers of Advaita philosophy. V allabhacharya
propounded the philosophy of pure non dualism without the idea of Maya
and universal relig ion irrespective of caste, sex creed and nationality. He
empha sized on the doctrine of grace, the ideal of self-dedication and
sublimation of human life. Vallabhacharya wrote several commentaries on
Brahma Sutra, Jaimani Sutra, A nubhashya, Tattvarthadipa and four vedas.
Naturally, Vallabha charya had exerted much in fluence on his large
followers, which he selected from various corners of the country and
from various sections in the society.
Chaitanya:- He was a Bengali bhakti saint, and became a wande ring
monk after receiving initiation from his Guru at the age of twenty two.
Chaitanya went on pilgrimage to holy places of India like Mathura,
Dwarka, Vrinada ban, Somnath, Pandharpur, Kashi and R ameshwar. munotes.in
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History of Maratha
44 He protested against t he caste s ystem in the society and laid stress
upon the principle of universal brotherhood among people of the country.
He said that any individual can attain salvation by way of bhakti of
Krishna or Hari, the supreme God. Chaitanya emphasized on the
importance of Guru in the attainment of Salvation by way of bhakti. He
said that the Guru only could rele ase his disciple from the maya or
illusionary world and could lead him to the feet of supreme G od,
whom he called Hari or Krishna. He said that the presence of that
supreme God could be felt through devotion or love towards him.
According to Radha Kumud Mukherjee, Chaitanya's contribution to
bhakti movement was his empha sis on the morality, good character and
celibacy of the monks and saints, throughout their lives, which exercised
much more influence on the people in general.
4.5. EFFECT OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT
As there were several bhakti saints from various parts of India. The scope
of this movement was the whole of country. It spread each and every
province of our country. This movement tried to achieve regeneration
in Hinduism in order to make it enough strong to withstand the
attack of Islamism and consequently c onversion of Hindus to
Islamism. The bhakti movement also aimed at the cordiality and
brotherhood between the Hindu and the Muslim communities. As a
matter of fact, the movement could liberalize Hinduism in order to
include all segments in the country in to it and either stop or minimize
the proselytization of Hindus to Islamism. Although, the movement
failed in rec onciliation between the Hinduism and the Islamism, it brought
out several consequences as under:-
Developm ent of Loc al and Region al languages:- The saints and
philosophers involved in this movement were from various parts of
the country and belong to various local or regional language
background. Th ey used the local or mass language to propagate the
message of the movement among the people. Therefore, the bhakti
movement created literature in the local language, which stimulated the
development of local and regional languages.
The Rise of Sikhism:- During the bhakti movemen t the Sufis and
bhakti saints challenged the old traditions, customs and conservative
principles of the Hinduism and the Islamism on the basis of liberality
of Sufism and nirgun devotion of bhakti movement, which forced
the orthodox segments in both religions to find out common meeting
points and redefine their old faiths to tackle these challenges. The
Sikhi sm got birth from the confluence of two trends as one the liberal and
non-sectarian and the other orthodox and traditional. The teaching of Guru
Nanak was the result of these two trends. Guru Nanak wanted to create
an atmosphere of peace, good will and mutual interaction between the
Hinduism and Islamism. He postulated an ideal State presid ed over by a
moral, just and a philosopher king. He never wanted to found a new
religion but his catholic approach, his teaching wh ich based on munotes.in
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Bhakti Mo vement
45 human equality, brotherhood, morality and justice led his disciples to
start a new religion. Thus, the Sikhism came into existence.
Social Change:- Al most all bhakti saints professed the philosophy of
social cordialit y, friendliness, universal brotherhood and the unity of god.
They also criticized and protested against the out dated and useless
traditions, customs and systems like caste and untouchability. Naturally,
this led to reduce the austerity of these social evils and weakened
them considerably. Thus, the bhakti movement paved the way of change
in society.
Bhakti Movement Stimul ated change in religious thinking. When
almost all saints began to attack on the orthodoxy of the religious, then
the period of soul-searching exercise began in the religions minded
people. These saints also tried to align them with some other philosophers
and sects other than their own traditional faith.
As the bhakti movement created stir in society and religion, it also
enhanced the change in the approach of rulers then in India. Due to bhakti
movement only, the rulers were forced to understand the religion of the
masses for their smo oth and uninterrupted administration in the country.
Although, the bhakti movement did not bring revolutionary and radical
changes as the Reformation brought about in Europe, but it created a deep
lapidary impact on the mind of each and every person in I ndia of the
Sixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries which was towards the
positives changes and was based on the human equality.
CHECK YO UR PROGRESS
1 Discuss briefly the background of the bhakti movement.
2. Enumerate any four causes of the bhakti movement.
4.6 SUMMARY
Bhakti is the Hindu concept of supreme love and devotion to the God. It is
the most popular way of achieving Salvation in the life of an individual
in Hinduism followed sin ce the ages. Bhakti or devotion has meaning
only if it is blended with love towards all human beings and creatures in
the universe without any bias or reservations. Such bhakti is bound to be
reflected in the devotee's personality, radiating powerful and luminous
divine energy, aiming at welfare and compassion towards huma n beings.
Bhakti or devotion leads to ecstasy and expels all forms of hate, envy,
lust, greed and attracts only truth, goodness and righteousness.
The origin of bhakti movemen t was traced in the Vedas and Up anishidas.
It was an established element in the post-Vedic age and the Bhagwat
movement. During this period, it was considered that bhakti, Jnana and
Karma were three different paths to Salvation. There are two aspects of
bhakti as one is the path of devotion based on Service to God, i.e. the
devotee throws himself completely at the mercy of God, which is known
as the path of surrende ring to God. The other one is the bond based on munotes.in
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History of Maratha
46 pure love and equality rat her than service to God. This is exemplified in
the legends of Vishnu and Bhagwat Puranas.
Regarding t he origin of the bhakti movement, two distinct periods are
given as one from the earliest to the thirteenth century and the second
from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century. These periods had some
distinct c haracteristics- as the first period represented the combination
of pantheism of the intellectuals and the deistic polytheism of commoners
and the second period bore the impact of monotheism of Islam religion.
Naturally, the presence of Islam in India posed a danger to the Hinduism.
Hence, the bhakti movement was one of the solutions to the problems in
the then India. The second reason was the defeat of Hindus at the hands of
the Muslim rulers. Prof. K.N. Panilkar says that the Hindus Were
incre dibly fed up with the atrocities of the Muslims for several centuries.
They, therefore, sought solace in the bhakti and the movement began.
Max Weber says that bhakti movement was the ideology of a defeated
ruling class. Some other scholars say that bhakti movement grew and
spread as a defense mechanism in north India. As a matter of fact the
Muslim invasions on India converted Hindus to Islamism f orcibly, this
fact awakened the Hindus philosophers and saints, who began to
advocate reforms in the religion. Thus, the movement began in India.
Even, there was a group of people that was not happ y with the highly
philosophical exposition of Hinduism. Therefore, the saints advocated a
set-up which was easily comprehended by the people and the movement
began in the country.
As there were some several factors responsible for the rise of the
movement, there were some important features of the movement. As the
bhakti movement saints opposed to the several social evils in the society
and paved the way for reforms in the society. These saints criticized on
the idol worship and professed that God has no colour, no shape and sign;
they protested the rites and rituals and said that God needs pure devotion
only. The saint never claimed as they initi ated any new rel igion but they
were in favour of unity of God and the importance of Guru in the
attainment of Salvation.
As the bhakti movement was initiated by several saints, among them
saints like Dyaneshwara, Namdeva, Ramananda, Kabir, Guru Na nak,
Ramanuja, Madhavacharya, Nimbarka, V allabhacharya and Ch aitanya
were very active and due to their contribution only, the movement began
spread and flourished in every part of the country. Bhakti movement
brought out several c onsequences as it developed the local and
regional languages, the rise of Sikh religion t ook place there , it brought
about social re generation as these saints criticized on the out dated rites,
rituals, castes, untouchability and many other social evils.
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Bhakti Mo vement
47 4.7 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning, origin and concept of Bhakti mo vement.
2. Examine the circumstances that led to the rise of Bhakti
movement.
3. Discuss briefly abou t the major saints of Bhakti movement.
4. Analyze the important features of Bhakti movement. What were its
effects?
4.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Satish C handra, Medieval India, Hara nand Publications Pvt.
LTD. New Delhi
2 Satish Candra, Introduction to Savitri Chandra's social life and
concepts in Medieval Hindi-Bhakti Poetry, Delhi. 1983.
3. Satish Chandra, Parties and Politics at the Mughal court.Del hi.
4. A. L. Srivastava, The Sultanate of Delhi, Delhi.
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48 5
SUFISM
Unit Structure:
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Origin of Sufism
5.3 Nature of Sufism
5.4 Concepts and Teachings of Sufism
5.5 Silsilas or orders in Sufism
5.5.1 Chishti Silsilah
5.5.2 Subravardi Silsilah
5.5.3 Sufism in Deccan
5.6 Bhak ti Cult and Sufism in Maharashtra
5.7 Summary
5.8 Questions
5.9 Additional Readings
5.0 OBJECTIVES:
To trace the origin of Sufi cults and philosophy in India.
To understand the nature of Sufism in India.
To make student aware about the concepts and s ilsilas (orders) in
Sufism.
To analyze the relation with other religious groups.
To observe the spread of Sufism in Deccan
To trace the spiritual coexistence in Maharashtra
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The most interesting aspect of Islam in its medieval Indian envir onment is
Sufism. The medieval period witnessed the rise and development of a
large number of Muslim religious movement, mystic organization
(zawiya), religious cult and attitudes. The Islamic mysticism was known as munotes.in
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Sufism
49 Sufism. As a matter of fact, both Hindus and Muslims had mutual
admiration for each others culture, since the early days of the advent of
Islam into India. Famous Muslim scholars and saints lived and laboured in
India during the medieval period. They helped the dissemination of the
ideas of Isla mic philosophy and mysticism in India. The early Sufis traced
their ideas to some verses of the Quran and Tradition of the prophet
(Hadis). However, they gave a mystic interpretation that they differed
from the orthodox Muslims who insisted upon a literal interpretation.
They lived as ascetics, wearing garments of coarse wool (suf) as a badge of
poverty. From ‘suf’ derived the name sufi. The spiritual coexistence
established with Bhakti cults in North India has difference colors in
medieval Indian culture which has unity and secular values in Indian
society for national integration.
5.2 ORIGIN OF SUFI MOVEMENT
Sufism is typical mysticism. According to Tarachand, 'sufism is a complex
phenomenon, it is like a stream which gather volume by the joining of
tributaries from many lands. Its original source is Quran and the life of
Muhammad. Christianity and neo -platorism swelled it by a large
contribution. Hinduism and Buddhism supplied a number of ideas and
the religions of ancient Persia Zoroastrianism etc. bro ught to it their share
is. The Islamic mysticism, known as Tasawwaf or sufism, was as old as
Islam itself. It was born in the bosom of Islam. It is said that during the very
lifetime of Prophet Hazarat Muhammad there were some men of virtue
and of retiring nature who embraced Islam with pleasure but showed
laity in the observation of its ritualistic or dogmatic aspects. Such liberal
minded men of God drew their inspiration from the Quran and the life of
the Prophet. But instead of parading about their relig ious orthodoxy, they
laid greatest stress on the purification of one's inner self in order to attain
acting spiritual.
Sufism had no creed or dogma other than that of Islam and for a long time,
it had no organization or monastic order. It is said that it a ssumed the form
of a regular movement in Persia in the ninth century as a reaction against
the rigid formalism of Islam. It received a theosophical basis during the
age of Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad and the sufi saints drew freely from the
mystic concepts o f other peoples and religions, including Christianity,
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The credit for bringing about
reconciliation between orthodox Islam and sufism goes to Al Ghazali
(1057 -1112 A) an Arab Philosopher. He provided a metaphysical basis to
mysticism as a part and parcel of the Islamic theology.
In Eight century, the Arabs and Iranians (Persians) who sailed from
Yemen and the Persian Gulf controlled the trade between Indian
subcontinent and China in the East Asia, middle East and Egypt -
Mediterranean Sea region. The Zamorin of Calicut is believed to have
patronized Arab merchants in Kerala coast. Many locals of Kerala,
Lakshadweep Islands and Ceylon embraced Islam. The Sufi orders and
the saints from various cults came to India with these merchants. These
Sufis worked as experts in religious law (Sharia), Imam in congregational munotes.in
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History of Maratha
50 prayers (Salat or Namaz), spiritual guide for passengers and intermediaries
between merchants and locals in social tasks. Many Khanqahs (sufi
hospic) of Abu Ishaq Kaziruni established all Islands between Yement to
China. Traveler Ibn Battuta mentioned about Sufi khanqahs at Kerala
coast to Canton in China during his journey in Asia. Before twelfth
century in India, many Sufism came and established Sufi Taqiyas or
Khanqahs from Sind, Kathiyawad to Kerala, Ceylon and Lakshadweep,
Maldives Islands. Sufism gained a foothold in Punjab before the
establishment of Muslim rule there by Sultan Mahumad of Ghazni. In the
eleventh and twelfth centuries Lahor and Multan attrac ted many well
know sufis from countries outside India by land route. The greatest figure
in the history of sufism in India, Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, arrived at
Lahor from Ghazni in 1161 and settled at Ajmer during the reign of
Prithviraj. There he died in 1235, his tomb continues to attract many
pilgrims even now. After the establishment of the Muslim rule in northern
India, the sufis from the Muslim countries of Central Asia, began to
migrate to India in large numbers. They moved about in the robber and
styles of the Indian sadhus and established their hermitages at a number of
places. They set up their abode in the residential quarters or colonies of the
low castes on the periphery of the Hindu towns. There first object was to
win their love and confidenc e and reconcile them to the alien rule.
Secondly, they persuaded them to embrace Islam on merit. The sultanate
of Delhi was confined to only a part of India most of the time but sufis
spread themselves throughout the country and carried on peaceful
propaga tion of Islam.
In Islam, the term ‘Mysticism’ is synonymous with Ihsan
(embellishment of conduct), Qurb (approaching Allah), Tariqat
(road, i.e., the Journey unto Allah), Suluk (journey, i.e. unto
Allah), and Tasawwuf (etymologically means – to don woole n
cloth). This last term, oddly enough is most commonly used.
Sufism or Tasawwuf is variously defined.
These are many opinions regarding the origin of this word.
They may be summarized as follows:
Ahl us Suffah : Some Sufis like to link the name to Ahlu s
Sufaah (people of As Suffah) who was at the time of the Prophet
(pbuh). They claim that there are read resemblance between the
sufi adept and Ahlu Sufa. These were poor people from the
Muhajireen who migrated from Mecca to al Medina fleeing the
persecuti on of the pagan Arabs. They were driven away from
their homes and had neither money nor families, nor a place to
stay. The prophet Muhammad and the companions assisted them
and he allowed them to stay in a courtyard by his Masjid, Masjid
e Nabwi. The Sufi s would like to establish a linkage with the
Prophet’s era and claim as well that Muhammad approved the
early weed of Sufism exemplified in Ahlus Suffah (followers
seated on the bench of the Mosque at Medina in the time of the
Prophet). munotes.in
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51 As – Saf al -Awwal: Some Sufis claim that Sufism comes from
As-Saff al -Awwal (First Row) ‘standing before the Hands of
Allah, the Most Mighty and Most, Majestic, by virtue of the
high determination and eagerness towards Allah in their hearts
and by positioning their inner m ost before Him’.
As – Safaa : On the Sufis claim that the term is derived from As
– Safaa which means clearness, purity, sincerity.
As-Suf: Many Sufis from the past and present consider that the
term Sufism refuse to the wearing of woolen clothing (soo f).
This is also the opinion of Shaykh ul -Islam Ibn Taymeeyah.
Also Ibn Khaldoon inclined to this opinion in his famous
Muqaddimah.
Tasawwuf, an Arabic term, is generally translated as Sufism.
The term for the process of realizing ethical and spiritual i deals;
meaning literally – becoming a Sufi. The ideal Qualities evoked
by their derivations are the key to the concept of Tasawwuf as
formulated by authors of the tenth century, such as Sulami (d.
1021 AD), while acknowledging that the term Sufi was not
current at the time of the Prophet. Sufi theorists maintained that
this specialization in spirituality arose in parallel with other
disciple such as Islamic law and Quaranic exegesis. But the
heart of Sufism, they maintained, lay in the ideal qualities of th e
Prophet Muhammad and his association with his followers.
Sufism described ethical and spiritual goals and functioned as
teaching tools to open up the possibilities of the soul. In
practice, the term Sufi was often reserved for ideal usage, and
many othe r terms described particular spiritual qualities and
functions, such as poverty (faqir, darvish), knowledge (alim,
arif), mastery ( pir) etc.
Check your Progress:
1) Give an account of origin of Sufi Movement.
5.3 NATURE OF SUFISM
The sufis were men of deep religious feelings. They led ascetic lives and
laid emphasis on the practices of self discipline. They sought personal
communion with God through self -surrender, meditation and total
dedication to the service of mankind. The sufis did not form an orga nized
sect. They neither had a Prophet, nor a sacred book, nor a uniform code of
religious doctrines. They accepted Muhammad as their prophet and the
Quran as their sacred book According to an observation, the orthodox
Muslims depend upon external conduct while the sufis seek inner purity.
The orthodox believe in blind obedience to, or observance of religious
rituals while the Sufis consider love to be the only means of reaching God.
The sufis used singing and dancing, forbidden by the orthodox as means munotes.in
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History of Maratha
52 of inducing a state of ecstasy which brought a sufi nearer to his goal of
union with God.
There is different opinion about the term 'sufi' derived from. According to
some, the term sufi was derived from 'safa' (pure) because of the purity of
their thoughts an d the nobility of their action. Other derive the term from
saff (line, queue) and hold that the sufis were so called because they were
in the forefront of the line or queue before God. According to a third
definition, the sufi has been derived from the wor d suffa (a bench) as the
virtous character and qualities of there saints were similar to those of
'Ashab al suff - or 'People of the Bench' who were attached to the prophet.
They were called his companions (sahaba).. The term sufi also bears
resemblance wit h the word suf or coarse wool, suggesting thereby that the
sufis might have been so called because of their habit of wearing a woolen
blanket purpose sheet of cloth.
The Sufis were the peaceful scholars, missionaries and preachers of Islam.
They used local languages to explain the Quran and traditions of Prophet
Muhammad (Hadis message). Also spread the message of humanity and
equal rights without any cast and creed system. They established
Khanqahs which was Sufi hospice of lodge with educational and rel igious
duties. They established orphanage, services for humanity during flood,
famine and war time. They dedicated their lives to the service of making
and the spread of the Islamic faith. The propagation of Islam was regarded
by them to be the greatest and the most meritorious service to be rendered
to the people. Many text and written material regarding Sufi cults during
medieval period has historical importance. The social and religious
sources of medieval history give importance to the Sufic literat ure in many
languages. The Arabic, Persian, Punjabi, Urdu, Bengali and other many
vernacular languages have Sufi literature or source material in India too.
Sufi literature has been classified in various categories by
different historians and scholars of Sufism. The broad categories
include the following:
1. Malfuzat (the collection of conversations and discourses of
the Sufis compiled by their disciples.
2. Maktubat (the collected correspondence of the Sufis).
3. Treatises written by the Sufis on themes related to Sufism.
4. Tadhkirat (compilation of anecdotes and biographical
accounts of the Sufis composed by the disciples or devotees
of the Sufis; often referred to as hagiographical literature).
5.4 CONCEPTS AND TEACHING OF THE SUFISM
Most of the Sufi saints bel ongs to the liberal school of thought. Their
popularity in India was due to their understanding of the Indian conditions
and the religious attitudes and aspirations of the Indian people. They
adopted many Hindu customs and ceremonies in the initial stages of the
development of their silsilas in India. They laid much emphasis on the
service to mankind. The monistic philosophy of Sufism was based on the
theory of wandat ul wajud or 'the unity of Being' according to which the munotes.in
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Sufism
53 creator (Haq) and the created (Kha lq) were identical. Means God was the
Unity behind all plurality and the Reality behind all phenomenal
appearance. Sheikh Muhiuddin Ibnul Arabi, the author of the theory,
explain it in these words, 'There is nothing but God, nothing in existence
other than He, there is not even a there', where the essence of all things is
one.'
The sufis stood for the establishment of harmonious relationships with
God could be attained in this very mortal life (Khaki Jame) through
intense love for and total surrender and de dication to the Supreme Power.
The sufi saints, in their capacity as pirs were the living teachers or spiritual
guides. They showed the path and suggested the means to their followers,
called (murids) for the attainment of eternal bliss which was called un ion
(ma'rifat and wasl) by them. According to sufi saints, the presence of the
God could be felt by any one who attended to his call with a loving heart.
The Sufis held that God was an invisible. Absolute Reality and an Eternal
Beauty which they named as J amal and this universe was not a mere
illusion either. It was the visible manifestation of God and it was named as
Husn (lovable beauty). They argued that 'self manifestation and desire to
be loved was an essential attribute of the Eternal Beauty. Thus the sufi
philosophy was based on the principal of 'Love' which was the essence of
all the religions.
Sufis felt that purity of heart was far greater than rituals and ceremonies
and that it was only way by which truth could be realised. According to
one versio n, a sufi had to pass through ten stages of dedication to God
before he could attain communion with him, these were
Tauba(Repentance), ware (Abstinence), Zuhd (Piety), Faqr (Poverty), Sabr
(Patience), Shukr(Gratitude) and Khauf (fear), Raja (hope), Tawakku l
(contentment) and Riza (submission to the Divine will). Some of the sufi
saints observed celibacy while other married and lived as ordinary
householders. Like the bhakti reformers, most of the sufis renounced the
materialistic pursuits of the world. it w as called ' Tark Ki Dunya'. They
mostly depended on `futuh' or 'unasked fort charity'. Some of them took
up to the cultivation of waste land as the means of their livelihood. The
sufilived in the hermitages, called 'khanqahs' (monasteries) or
jamaitkhana.
Check your Progress :
1) Describe nature and meaning of Sufi movement.
2) Comment on the concept and teaching of the Sufism.
5.5 SILSILAS OR ORDERS IN SUFISM
Just like the bhakti reformers, the sufi also differed with one another in
many respects as reg ards their methods of teaching. That is why, in the
final phase of its development sufism came to be organised into a number
of silsilas or orders. The founder of each silsila was said to have made
some special contribution. They gave an individualistic to uch of the munotes.in
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History of Maratha
54 mystic philosophy or organisational set up of his disciples. The sufis were
divided into number of sects, called silsilahs or orders. According to one
estimate, as many as 175 such orders of sufis came into existence in the
Muslim world. Abul Fa zal lists 14 orders of the sufis which apparently
found their way to India. Out of which only two took deep roots in the
Indian soil. These were Chisti and the Suhravardi orders. The Subravardi
silsilahs made its presence felt in sind and north -western Ind ia. Whereas
the Chistis silsilah became most prominent throughout the country.
5.5.1 CHISTI ORDER
The chisti silsilah established itself at Ajmer and gradually spread to other
parts of Rajasthan, Punjab, Utter Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and
Deccan. The chisti order was founded by khwaja Abdul chisti. It was
introduced in India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti, a native of Sijistan in
Persia. He reached India and settled down at Ajmer which was a place of
considerable political and religious importance. He wor ked amongst the
low caste people and spent his life in the service of the helpless and down -
trodden. He died in 1236 A.D. Thus, he won over the hearts of the people
around him by selfless service to the poor and needy. He made many
converts to Islam throug h peaceful means. Since then Ajmer became an
important centre of pilgrimage for Hindus and Muslims alike Sheikh
Hamiduddin and Sheikh Farid or Baba Farid, Shaikh Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar
Kaki, Shaikh Nizmuddin, Auliya Chishti of Delhi, Shaikh Salim Chisti
and m any other disciple popularized chisti order throughout the India.
The Chishtis favoured asceticism and isolation from public life. Most of
the Chisti saints belonged to the liberal school of thought. Their popularity
in India was due to their understanding of the Indian conditions and
religious attitudes and aspirations of the Indian people. They laid much
emphasis on the service to mankind. The Chishti mystics were believers in
pantheistic monism, which had its earliest exposition in the upanishad of
Hindu s. Many of the Chishti saints lived in utter poverty and refused to
accept any grants from the state. They were of the opinion that possession
of any kind of private property was an obstacle to spiritual advancement.
5.5.2 SUHRAVARDI SILSILAH
It was the se cond most popular order of the sufis which flourished in north
western India. It was founded by Shihabuddin Suhravardi (1234), a
teacher in Bagdad. Its foundation on Indian soil were laid by Sheikh
Bahauddin Zakariya of Multan. He carried on his missionary work at
Multan for about twenty -five years and rose to be the most prominent
muslim divine of his age in north -western India. The Chishtis and
Suhravardis differed in respect of religious practices as also their attitude
towards secular activities. Unlike the Chishti saints, the exponents of the
suhravardi order did not believe in excessive austerity or self -
mortification. Rather they constituted an influential and affluent
priesthood of the muslims. They lived comfortable family live's and felt
no scruple s in accepting expensive presents and patronage from the
muslim aristocracy. They took active part in the state politics. Thus munotes.in
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Sufism
55 Surhravardi silsilah was confined mostly to upper strata of the Mughal
society.
Many other sufi mystic orders also were introduce d in India. But they did
not make much impact on the people of India. Some others silsilah were
limited to certain regions only some of them were:
The QadiriSilsilah - introduced in India by ;‘,Iyyid Muhammad Gilani
(1517), The Firdausi Silsilah Shaikn Bad ruddin. The Shattari Silsilah -
Shaikh Abdullah Shattari. The Nagshahandi Silsilah - Khwaja Baki Billah.
In the fourteen century the influence of the sufis declined. They were
weakened by doctrinal differences among themselves as also by the
unfriendly att itude of some of the muslim rulers. However, sufis played an
important role in spreading the muslim culture among the masses in
various parts of the country. Sufism also contributed to a great extent in
moulding the character of the medieval Indian society .
5.5.3 Sufism in Deccan: After the Khilji and Tughluq dynasty
Deccan ruled by Bahamani rulers. Bahamanis conquered
Telangana in 1373 AD and Warangal in 1421, and the coastal
Andhra 1472 AD. On the dissolution of the Bahamani Empire in
1482, its dominions were distributed into the five Muslim states
of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmednager, Bihar and Berar. Berar
Imadshahi had been annexed by Nizam Shahi Ahmednager in
1572, and Bidar (Baridshahi) was absorbed by Bijapur in 1109.
Ahmednager was conquered by Mughals in 1616 AD, Bijapur, in
1686, and Goldkonda in 1688. Nizam ul Mulk established the
seat of an independent government at Hyderabad and
Aurangabad in 1724. In thirteenth century, Ala ud Din Khilji
conquered Deogiri Yadava state (now Daulatabad, in Dist.
Aurangabad). That time many disciples of Nizam ud Din Auliya
Dehlawi migrated to Daulatabad, Khuldabad (Rauza) and
Aurangabad. Shaikh Nizam ud Din Auliya sent to Khwaja Aziz
ud Din Chishti and Kamal ud Din Chishti to Deccan. They were
grandsons of Shaikh Ni zam ud din Auliya’s spiritual master
Shaikh Farid ud Din Ganj I Shakar. Khwaja Aziz ud Din settled
at Daulatabad.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq took historic decision to make Devgiri
(Daulatabad) ‘a second administrative city / capital’, of his
Empire. He forced the ‘ulama and the mashai’kh of Delhi to
migrate to Daulatabad (Deogiri). Many of the Saints who left for
Daulatabad like Shaikh Burhan ud Din Gharib Maulana Fakhru
ud Din Zarradi Amir Hasan Sijzi, Syed Yusuf Raju Qattal
Husaini (father of Syed Muhammad Ge su Daraz of Gulbarga),
Khwaja Husain, Khwaja Umar and other Chishti saints were
brought up in the Chishti mystic traditions of Shaikh Nizam ud
Din Auliya and had imbied from him the Chishti mystic
principles. Shaikh Burhan ud Din Gharib was the senior most
disciple of Shaikh Nizam ud Din Auliya. Maulana Ghulam Ali munotes.in
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History of Maratha
56 Azad Bilgrami calls him Sahib i -Walayat of the Deccan, which
shows that his supreme position amongst the mystics was
recognized even by the later generations.
In Deccan since Thirteenth century to Seventeenth century,
many Sufi Silsilas and Khanqahs established including Chishti,
Quadiri, Rafai, Naqshbandi and Suharawardi. In Deccan,
Khuldabad, Daulatabad, Aurangabad, Burhanpur, Balapur,
Bidar, Gulbarga, Bijapur and Hyderabad has number of Sufi
shrines. Many Hindu Muslim devotees visited regularly for
occasion of Urs festivals or death anniversary of the saints.
Khuldabad and the Daulatabad region was the early center of
Sufism in Deccan. During Khijli and Tughalaq dynasty rule,
Deccan region has saw the spread of Sufism in Daulatabad,
Khuldabad, Gulbarga, Bijapur, Bidar, Balapur, Burhanpur and
Hyderabad. Burhan al -Din Gharib’s Dargah has situated at
South Gate of Khuldabad town. He was studied under Nizam ud
Din Auliya (Awliya) of Delhi. He was Khalifah (spiritual
successor) of Nizam ad -Din Auliya in Deccan. Contemporary
writers states, that the death of Shah Munajabu -udDin at
Daulatabad, his brother Burhan al -Din was sent to succeed him,
and was sent to succeed him by Nizam al -Din Auliya, a nd was
accompanied by 1400 disciples (Murid). It appears more
probable however, that Burhan ud -Din succeeded the Sultan -i-
Mashaikh as Khalifah, and that he immigrated to the Deccan
(Dakhan) when Sultan Muhammad Tughalaq transferred the
capital from Delhi t o Daulatabad. After Burhan al Din Gharib,
many Sufis settled and spread spiritual ideas in Khuldabad,
Daulatabad and Aurangabad region. Shah Muntoji Bahamani,
Muntjib Zar Zari Baksh, Hamid Qalandar, Rukn al din Kashani,
Farid Adib Chishti, Zayn al Din Sh irazi (1301 -1369), Shah
Jalaluddin Chishti, Yusuf Husaini, Amir Hasan Sijsi (author of
Fawaidul Fuwad book) etc. Sufism settled in Khuldabad and
buried there in many shrines. In Daulatabad region, Hazrat
Momin Arif Suharawardi was famous sufi saint. Shai kh Chand
Bodhale Qadiri was another famous Sufi in Daulatabad town.
Khwaja Sarwar Maqdoom Haji Sayah Rafai was the famous sufi
saint who came from Iraq and settled at Kandhar fort area in
Nanded during Bahamani period. Sayed Nizamuddin Chishti
and Shah M uizuddin Chishti sufi saint settled in Paithan.
Khwaja Abul Fazl Kochakshah Shahenshah Wali was famous in
Beed region. Mansur Shah sufi shrine was regularly visited by
Maratha ruler Mahadji Shinde during Peshwa Period. Malik
Ambar established new town n ear Khadki village beside
Daulatabad fort in 1608, which known as today Aurangabad.
This town developed during Nizamshahi and Mughal rule. Many
Sufism settled here and established Khanqahs and Sufi shrines.
Shah Noor Hamwi Qadiri came from Iraq and died here in 1692.
His shrine is very famous today in Aurangabad. Baba Shah
Musafir and Shah Palangposh Naqshbandi came from Central munotes.in
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Sufism
57 Asia to Aurangabad during Mughal rule. Their shrine known as
Panchakki Naqshbandi Dargah in Aurangabad today. In the
1860, one British visitor, Major Robert Gill, wrote about
Panchakki in 1864 that, ‘the place is much resorted to by the
English for purposes of eating and drinking: by the Moslems,
and even Hindoos, in honor of the Peer (Shah Musafir), and for
purposes of venera tion’. Nizamuddin Chishti Aurangabadi
Dargah also famous in Aurangabad. These shrines has many
grants and properties sanctioned by Sultanate period to Maratha
rule. Shivaji Maharaj also visited the Khanqah of Baba Yaqoot
Sarwari of Kelashi, near Suwarnd urg, Ratnagiri. He granted
land for mosque and shrine there. Baba Yaqoot died in 1681.
His Dargah is famous today in Konkan region.
Check your Progress :
1) Assess the achievements of Chisti Silsila.
2) Explain the Sufism in Deccan.
3) Write the Sufi cen ters of Maharashtra.
3) Explain the Suhravardi Silsilah in Sufism.
5.6 BHAKTI CULT AND SUFISM
Hinduism particularly Bhakti cult and sufism largely borrowed from each
other. They were complementary to each other in several respects. Bhakti
cult in medieval times was radically different from old traditions. Many
Sufi Silsilas has spiritual relations with Yogi Nath cult people in North
India. They practices breath control practices for recitation (Zikr). String
similarities between sufism and Bhakti cult were as follows.
Concept of lanai in Sufism was originally a Hindu idea. Approach to God
is through love and intelligence or Yogic exercises or 'Karma' are hurdler,
is the central idea of Bhakti, which we find reflected in sufism also.
Submission to pir or Guru, recitation of sacred names of God is both
common in Bhakti and Sufi Cults. Vedent Philosophy of Shankaracharya
found in Sufism also. It is due to the simplicity and broad humanism of
Sufi Saints, Islam received its largest number of converts. These two
parallel movements based upon doctrines of love and self -less devotion,
helped a lot in bringing the two communities closer together. The eastern
version of Sufism which was in Bengal, Assam and Bihar was an offshoot
of Vedanta of the Hindus. These two cults also brought cultural synthesis.
Bhakti cult and Sufism emerged and became powerful forces because both
Islam and Hinduism became orthodox, rigid. Saints in Bhakti and sufi cult
found a personal method of self -expression, a convenient vehicle for
intellectual, philosophical and emotional enjoyment for spiritual
attainment.
The Marathi school of Vaishnavism or the Bhagavata Dharma
has a long history. By the close of the 13th century, steady
enrichment and vigor was imparted to the Bhakti movement in munotes.in
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History of Maratha
58 Maharashtra by a number of poet -saints.The most outstanding of
these was Dnyaneshwara a Brahmin who is considered to be the
greatest exponent of the Maratha Vaishnavism. He wrote a
Marathi commentary on the Bhagavadgita called Bhavartha
Dipika or Jnanesvari . The main centre of the movement started
by him was and Alandi – Newasa, Pandarpur region. The shrine
of Vithoba of Pandarpur later became the mainstay of the Bhakti
movement in Maharashtra. The Krishna Bhakti movement of
Pandarpur was intimately linked t o a temple and a deity, but it
was not idolatrous in nature. Vithoba was more than a simple
deity; its importance lay in its symbolism. The main features of
the Vaishnava religious devotion -anti-ritualism and anti -castes
(ism) in Maharashtra -were similar to those of other non -
conformist movements in the North India.
The poet -saints tried to bring religion to the lowest strata of the
society. By interpreting the Bhagavad -Gita in melodious Marathi
tunes, Jnyaneshwar laid the basis of the Bhagavata Dharma in
Maharashtra by giving a fillip to the Varkari sect which had
initiated and instituted regular popular pilgrimage to the shrine
of Vithoba (the form of the great God Vishnu) at Pandarpur.
Vithoba was the god of the Varkari sect. Its followers were
household ers who performed pilgrimage twice a year to the
temple. Its membership cut across caste boundaries. The
movement in Maharashtra witnessed mass participation by
different social groups such as sudras, Atisudras, Kumbhera
(potter) Mali, mahar (outcaste) and Alute balutedars . Some of
the saints belonging to lower strata of society were Harijan
Saint Choka, Gora Kumbhar , Narahari Sonara , Banka Mahara ,
etc. In the post -Jnyaneshwar period, Namdeva (a tailor by
caste), Tukaram, and Ramdas, were important Marathi saints.
Eknath (a Brahman) furthered the tradition laid down by
Jnyaneshwar. Tukaram and Ramdas also raised anti -caste and
anti-ritual slogans. Eknath's teachings were in vernacular
Marathi. He shifted the emphasis of Marathi literature from
spiritual text to narrative compositions. He wrote the Hindu
Turk Samvad in Dakhani. His philosophy influenced by Sufism
in Daulatabad and Paithan region. Tukaram's teachings are in
the form of Gatha , very influencing in society . It is an important
source for the stud y of the Marathi Vaishnavism. The Varkari
Maratha saints developed a new method of religious instruction,
i.e. Kirtan and the bhajan . The Maratha movement contributed to
the flowering of Marathi literature. These saints used popular
dialect which paved the way for transformation of Marathi into a
literary language. The literature of the Varkari School gives us
some idea about the plebeian character of the movement. It
addressed itself to the problems of the Kunbis (farmers), Vanis
(traders) and the artisans , etc. M.G. Ranade points out that this
movement led to the development of vernacular literature and
up-liftment of lower castes, etc. munotes.in
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Sufism
59 According to Tara Chand, the Marathi literature and culture
developed in Medieval Maharashtra region with the synthesis o f
Muslim mystics and ruling elites. From the end of the thirteenth
century and the middle of the fourteenth century, Muslim rulers
had not only completely conquered the Deccan but the
established an independent Muslim kingdom there. The
Bahamani rulers of the Deccan like their contemporaries in
Bengal, fostered the growth of the literature and art of the
people whom they governed. The Marathi language was used in
the offices of the Adilshahi and Qutb Shahi kingdoms, and
Marathas were employed as revenue off icers and even as
commandants. Qutb Shah was a patron of culture and himself a
poet of considerable power, and wrote extensively in the
Dakhani language which was a mixture of Hindu and Persian.
The Marathi saints and hymn singers affected the same kind of
synthesis of the two faiths as was done by Kabir and Nanak in
the north India. The poetry of Baba Farid Chishti has been
noted in Guru Granth Sahib of Sikh religion.
Mahadev Govind Ranade described the beginning of the
movement thus: ‘The severity of the monotheistic creed of the
Muhammadan was distinctly impressed upon the minds of these
personalities (Kabir, Nanak and others). The worshippers of
Dattatraya or the incarnation of the Hindu Trinity, was oftern
closhed their God in the garb of a Muhammadan Faqir. Kamal,
the son of Kabir wrote about Namdev in his poem (Hindi):
“Dakhanmai Nama darzi, Unko Banda Vitthal hai,
Aur seva kuch nahi jaane andar bhitar keshav hai ||
Uchar Myaane Bhayo Kabira ramacharankaa bandaa hai
Unko put hai Kamal donoka b olbalaa hai ||”
Kamal, the son of Kabir said that, Saint Namdev was bounded
by the Bhakti of Shri Vitthal of Pandharpur. He had the Bhakti
of Keshava inside and outside. And Kamal has the very respects
about Kabir and Namdev.
This same influence was at work with greater effect on the
popular mind in Maharashtra, where preachers, both Brahmans
and non -Brahmans, and ensure their freedom from the bonds of
formal ritualism, and caste distinctions, and unite in common
love of man and faith in God. As early as the twelfth century the
Marathi language had pushed Sanskrit out of the administrative
and literary spheres. A significant role in the cultural
development of the region and in heightening the people’s self -
consciousness was played by Dnyaneshvar (end of the thirteenth
century) who wrote a Marathi version of the Bhagvadgita. After
him Marathi literature developed rapidly and one of the main
themes was praise for the Marathi language and patriotic pride munotes.in
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History of Maratha
60 for Maharashtra. Mukteshvar, a seventeenth century poe t said:
‘Maharashtra is the most important of all lands and even gods
fear it and are put to shame by it’.
Maharashtra was an important centre of Bhakti. Varkari cultu
worshipped the local deity Vithoba who was supposed to be an
incarnation of Krishna. Th e main centre of Varkari tradition was
the city of Pandharpur, to which the devotees still make annual
pelgrimages. Ths school of Bhakti gave birth to a galaxy of
poets like Namdev, Narhari, Bahinabai, Chokha Mela and of
Course, Eknath and Tukaram. They ma de a rich literature, which
exists on the Marathi saints and Bhakti poets. Their life stories,
based on the eighteenth century works by Mahipati were
translated and published by Justin E. Abbott.
These Marathi Bhakti traditions had the biggest support in the
villages’ area from Maharashtra in historical times.
Dnyaneshwar completed his Marathi commentary of the
Bhagvad Gita in 1290 AD. Dnyaneshwar had tremendous
influence on the language and thought of Maharashtra, but the
first of the saintly array of m en who changed the faith of the
country and turned the minds of men from the priest -ridden
ceremonial of a narrow creed to freedom and love was Namdev
(1270 – 1350 AD). He is remembered by every saint of
Maharashtra, North India, Rajputana and the Punjab a s the first
historical name in the long list of Bhaktas. The Bhaktas or
Bhakti in Maharashtra centred round the shrine of Vittoba at
Pandharpur on the banks of Bhima (Dist. Solapur). Tukaram was
contempoarary of Shivaji Maharaj. He was born at Dehu, near
Poona, about 1608 AD. He wrote:
“Allah deve, Allah dilaave, Allah deve, Allah khilave, Allah bin
nahi koy,
Allah kare sohi hoya.” “Jikir karo Allah ki, Baba Savalya Andar
Bhes.
Tuka jo nar buze sohi darvesh.” “Nabi Ek tu. Allah ek tu, Nabi
Ek tu.”
(Allah , you are only one, and Muhammad (nabi) you are also
one).
Saint Eknath was the another famous saint in Marathwada after
Dnyaneshwar. He born at 1533 in Paithan. He was the disciple
of Saint Janardan Swami of Daulatabad fort. His books named
‘Eknathi Bhag avat’ and ‘Bhavarth Ramayan’, are famous today.
According to Nandapurkar N.G., Eknath was the ‘Ek’ (the one)
‘Nath’ (saint god / guide) of the Maharashtra Varkari cult
devotees. Samadhi of Eknath situated at Paithan near Godavari
river bank. Chand Bodhal e Sayyad Qadiri was the Muslim poet
in seventeenth century. His guru was haikh Raje Muhammad munotes.in
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Sufism
61 Qadiri. His name is quated in ‘Shijara -i- Quadiri’, by Shaikh
Muhammad Shrigondekar Sayyad as Sayyad Chandsaheb Qadiri.
Chand Bodhale was the Guru of Shaikh Muhamm ad
Shrigondekar and Swami Janardan of Dualatabad.
Shaikh Raje Muhammad Qadiri
↓
↓ Shaikh Chand Bodhale Qadiri ↓
Shaikh Muhammad Shrigo ndekar Swami Janardan → Saint Eknath of Paithan
The tomb of Chand Bodhale Qadiri situated at Daulatabad near
Fort. This Dargah visited by Hindu and Muslim devotees.
Many Marathi and other regional language literature with folk
touch had been develope d between fifteenth to Nineteenth
century. Number of Muslim poets and author has been
contributed Marathi literature in Medieval Maharashtra. These
authors were influenced from Jain, Shaiv, Mahanubhav, Nath,
Bhagvat Varkari sects. Shaikh Muhammad, Shah Mun di, Husain
Ambar Khan, Jamal Shah, Allam Khan, Shaikh Sultan etc.
authors had contributed Marathi literature. These curious
literature facets had made synthesis culture with harmony in
Medieval Maharashtra. Allamkhan was the devotee of Nagesh
cult in medie val Marathwada. Bhanji Trimbak Deshpande wrote
the book on Nagesh cult, ‘Nageshlilamrut’, in 1824. In this
book, he wrote the ‘Alamkhan Aakhyan’, in 39th chapter. The
Samadhi (tomb) of Alamkhan situated at Karali Karle in
Osmanabad District of Marathwada. He wrote the spiritual
Abhang on Nagesh Nath. He was very famous today in this
region.253 Ajam was the Muslim Marathi poet in seventeenth
century Maharashtra. He was one of the disciples of Shaikh
Muhammad Shrigondekar. Ajam’s folk Aarti lyrics are famou s
today to the glory of Shaikh Muhammad Shrigondekar Saheb, in
District Ahamadnagar.
Hazrat Ladle Mashaykh Raghavchaitanya (c. 1460 – 1560) was
the Marathi saint of Datta sect in Marathwada – Karnataka
frontier region. Muslim called him as Hazrat Mashaykh Aland
Sharif Awliya. Hindu, Jain and Lingayat Veershaiv devotees
called him as ‘Sadguru’, the best teacher / guide. His tomb or
Samadhi situated at Aland, District Gulbarga.255 Shah Muni alias
Sahsen (1730 – 1808) was originally from northern India. His
parents migrated to Maharashtra and settled at Shrigonda,
Ahmadnagar. He had born at Shrigonda. He wrote Sindhant
Bodh. He died at Shah Gad, Beed. Husain Ambarkhan (1603 –
1653) was famous Marathi poet in seventeenth century
Maharashtra. He wrote ‘Ambarhus aini’, the edited book on Gita,
after Dnyaneshwar. His gitatikaa was contained 871 lines in
Marathi. In his words, that was the Gita Bhavarth Dipika. His munotes.in
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History of Maratha
62 father Yakut Khan, was a servant at Daulatabad fort in
Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar. Vaijyanath of Tanjor (Tamil Nadu)
has written in his book ‘Chidambarjayanti Strot’, about Ambar
Khan.
Shaikh Muhammad Shrigondekar was the famous Marathi
Muslim Sufi saint in seventeenth century Marathwada. He was
from Dharur village. He wrote Yogsangram, Nishkalank Bodh,
Pawan Vijay and Dnyansagar. His devotees are both Hindu and
Muslim come to his Dargah / Samadhi at Shrigonda. Shaikh
Muhammad known as ‘Kabir’ of Maharashtra. His father was
Raje Mahammad and mother Phulai. He was belonged to Qadiri
Sufi silsila.
Spiritual Genealogy of Shaikh Muhammad Shrigondekar
Abdul Qadir Jilani (Baghdada, Iraq)
↓
Sayyad Abdul Razzak Tajoddin Qaudiri
↓
Sayyad Mahammad Gaus Gwalihery Qadiri (Gwaliar)
↓
Shaikh Raje Muhammad Qadiri
Sayyad Chand Saheb Qadiri (Spiritual guide of Swami Janardan
of Daulatabad)
Sayyad Shaikh Muhammad Shrigondekar.
Shaikh Muhammad wrote in ‘Yogasangram’:
“Namo Shri Chand Bodhale.
Yani Jyanopanta Angikarile.
Jyanobane Ekaa Upideshile.”
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Sufism
63 Muslim Marathi Poets
Name Place of
Death /
Region Features /
Writings /
Relations with
Sects Political
Dominion
Allam Khan alias
Allam Prabhu
(14th Century) Karali -Karli
(Dist.
Osmanabad)
Shrine Nagesh Sect,
Devotees come
both Muslim and
Hindu Tughalaq
Period in
Deccan
Hazrat Ladle
Masha ykh
Raghvachaitanya
(1460 -1560) Aland
(Gulbarga) Relation with
Datta
Sampradaya. Bahamani
Empire
Shah Allam
Prabhu
(1478 -1538) Daulatabad
Dist.
Aurangabad Famous as
Malang Fakir of
Datta Cult Bahamani
Empire
Husain
Ambarkhan Marathwada
periphery He wrot e
‘Ambarhusaini’,
in Marathi, the
translation of
Bhagvad Geeta Nizam Shahi of
Ahmednagar
Chand Bodhale
Sayyid Quadiri Daulatabad Fort Sufi Pir Nizam Shahi of
Ahmednagar
Shah Muni
(14th Century) Shah Gad
(Beed) Marathi poerty Nizam Shahi
Shaikh
Muhamma d
Shrigondekar (17th
Century) Samadhi /
Dargah at
Shrigonda in
Dist.
Ahmednagar ,
originally from
Dharur, Beed Well Known as
‘Kabir’ of
Maharashtra.
Author of
‘Yogsangram’. Mughal Empire
Check your Progress:
1) Write a note on Bhakti cult and Sufism i n Maharashtra.
2) Explain the contribution of Muslim authors in Marathi literature.
5.7 SUMMARY
They early Sufis were known for their asceticism. They thought that it was
the world that distrached their attention from God. The Chisti and the
Suhravardi order helped the rulers in their own way by creating a climate
of opinion in which people belonging to different sects and religious could
live in peace and hormony. While Mecca remained the holy of holies, the
rise of popular sufi saints provided a useful point of veneration and
devotion to the mass of Muslims within the country. Even today many
Hindu and Muslim devotees visited the Sufi shrines on occasion of Urs
festival (death anniversary). District administration announced local
holidays for the Urs f estivals in many places. Many rulers sactioned Waqf munotes.in
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History of Maratha
64 properties or grants for the administration and financial assessment for the
Khanqahs and Dargahs (Sufi Shrines) in medieval India from Bahamani,
Tughlaq to the five Shahis of Deccan, Marathas, Asafjahni n Nizam and
later Mughals.
In the fourteen century the influence of sufi declined. They were
weakened by doctrinal differences among themselves as also by
unfriendly attitude of some of the Muslim rulers. However, Sufis played
very important role in sprea ding Muslim culture and its brotherhood
policy among the masses in various part of country. The interaction with
various Bhakti cults, the Sufi practices also influenced vernacular culture,
literature and music tradition. Specially the Chishti Silsila ma de the
classical synthesis with Indian music with Samaa and Qawwali tradition.
Sufism is the symbol of communal harmony and cultural synthesis with
spiritual coexistence in the subcontinent.
5.8 QUESTIONS
Q1 Discuss the Philosophy of Sufism? To what ext ent sufism was
influenced by Bhakti Movement?
Q2. Write a critique on religion and spiritual trends during Mughal rule?
Q3. Critically examine the religious policy of Sufism in India?
5.9 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. S. R. Sharma -"The Religious Policy of the Mu ghal Emperors"
Calcutta, 1940.
2. Hussain Y. -Glimpses of Mediaval Indian Culture’Bombay, 1957
3. Arberry AJ, ‘Introduction to History of Sufism’, London, 1942
4. Field Dorothy, ‘Religion of Sikhs’, London 1942
5. S.A.A. Rizvi, ‘A History of Sufism in India’, Munshiram Manoharlal
Pub. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi 1978
6. Shaikh Musak Rajjak, ‘A History of Sufism in Deccan’, Brown Pub.
New Delhi 2015
7. Sen, K.M., ‘Medieval Mysticism of India’, New Delhi 1974
8. Nile Green,; Indian Sufism Since the Seventeenth Century:
Saints, Books and E mpires in the Muslim Deccan., Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group, London 2006
9. Nizami K.A. ‘Sufi Movement in the Deccan’, in H. K.
Sherwani and P. M. Joshi (eds.) History of Medieval Deccan
(1295 – 1724), 2 vols, Hyderabad 1973 munotes.in
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Sufism
65 10. Pagadi, Setu Madhavarao. Sufi S ampraday (Marathi),
Parchura Prakashan, Mumbai 1953
11. Nizami, K.A. Some aspects of Religion and Politics in India
During the Thirteenth Century, Published by the Department
of History, Muslim University, Aligarh 1961
12. Carl W. Ernst. 2004. Eternal Garden: Myst icism, History,
and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
13. Pathan, U. M., Musalman Sufi Santanche Marathi Sahitya
(Marathi), Maharashtra Rajya Sahitya Aani Samskriti
Mandal, Mumbai 2011
14. Tara Chand. Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, Allahabad
1954
15. Trimingham, J. Spencer, ‘The Sufi Orders in Islam’, Oxford
University Press, London 1973
16. Hamid Hussain, Sufism and Bhakti Movement: Eternal
Relevance, Manak Pub., Delhi 2007
munotes.in
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66 6
VILLAGE COMMU NITIES
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Village Communities Under the Mughals
6.3. Village Communities During the Period of Maratha
6.4 Check Your Pro gress
6.5 Summary
6.6 Questions
6.7 Additional Readings
6.0. OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this unit the student will be able to
1. Understand the village communities under the Maratha with their
antecedents.
2. Know the officials of the Village communities.
3. Comprehend Patil, the head of the Village communities, with his
duties, functions, rights, powers, privileges and dues.
4. Know Kulkarni, the accountant of the village communities with his
duties, rights, privileges and dues or income.
5. Understand Deshmukh, his duties, power, privileges and dues.
6. 1. INTR ODUCT ION
The Village community has been one of the important features of Indian
life since the ages. India is a country of villages and agriculture is its main
source of livelihood . Indian village communities were termed as a
small republic. Many rulers came and gone, but there took place no
change in the struc ture, arrangement, life style and administration in the
village. They consumed what they produced & they produced whatever
they needed to be consumed in their daily life.
The Village, during the period of Marathas was called by various names
as Grama, Dehe, Mouja and Khede. The people who used to live in
villages came to be known as village communities There are several
perceptions about the village communities as some historians say that
the members of a family acquired some lands from their ancestors or
forefathers collectively or individually and began to live in village and
came to be known as village communities later. Some other scholars
say that the members of the communities held the village land, had munotes.in
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Village Communities
67 proprietary rights over the whole land and apportioned it among all the
members for cultivation.
Although, the meaning of village comm unities, differed scholar to sc holar
and historian to historian, the village communities produced goods
required for markets in urban area and for consumption of the fellow
villagers and village artisans. Th ey also produced the goods for weekly
markets in neighboring villages. This weekly market only served the
linkage between the rural and urban India and enhanced the idea that the
Indian village was a small republic, a self-sufficient unit of the country.
6.2. VILLAGE COMMUNITIES UND ER THE MUGHALS
Before turning towards the study of the village communities during the
period of Marathas, it is very essential to have some glimpses of the
village comm unities under the Mughal Empire in India. During the
Mughals, there were around six groups of people in the society as hand
lords, who were
1) Zamindars who followed the profession of money lending to the
people in general.
2) Rich cultivators
3) Peasants who had their own land.
4) Ordinary peasants, who had not enough and were forced to turn
towards money lende rs for loans.
5) There were some free individuals, who had no land of their own,
they worked on the lands of rich cultivators. But they were not
attached to the land of anyone.
6) There were some groups of people as scavengers, cobblers, agricultural
workers and luggage carriers like Coolies. These people had to suffer
very much because they had no fixed source of income. Generally,
they belonged to the last rung of the society.
The Village communities and the various groups in the medieval society
mostly based on the caste system and helped to create rigidity of
profession.
6.3 . V ILLAGE COMMUNITIES DURIN G THE PERIOD
OF MARATHAS
The village commun ities under the Marathas had some outstanding
features which can be enumerated as under:-
During the Maratha period the village communities referred to 1) Wandars
2) Mirasis 3) Up aris Watan the word is an Arabic found in the Muslim
record of Decc an, it means once own homeland. Generally, watan was a
grant sanctioned by the ruler to its officer, who held the office and the
grant lasted till the officer remained loyal to the ruler and discharged munotes.in
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History of Maratha
68 his services efficiently and own the mercy of its ruler. Watandar was
paid by the villagers for his services to them, which became rights of
the watanda r and dealt in detail in the watan deeds of the particular
watandar. The watandar was being a permanent official, his position did
not change even if there was change in the government. There
were s everal watanda rs during the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji, who
had served the earlier M uslim rulers.
Apart from watandars the other two elements as Mirasdars and Up aris
also were part and parcels of the village communities of the Maratha
period. The Mirasdar was a Landholder, he had absolute proprietary rights
in the land inherited from his forefather. The mirasdar was also called as
Thalkari or original inhabitant of the village. The uparis as the title
suggests that he was an outsider, migrated to the village from some other
areas. Initially, he was to le asehold the land for some time and used to
become a mirasdar when he acquired proprietary rights of land holding or
the land he held temporarily earlier. They were in every village. Each
village was as independent as a State. The Vish nu Samhita, Mahabharat
and Manu Smiriti suggest that the king to appoint head or the chief or lord
of each Village. In the administrative set up village, Tarfs, Pra nt cand
Parganas were successive divisions. The head of each division had to
discharge some duties. V. K. Rajwade says that the Paripatyagar, the head
of some Tarfs was to act as police Magistrate. There are several references
regarding the village management in Kautilya’s Arthashastra and other
ancient scriptures– like the villages communities of Marathas.
Officials of the Village communiti es: -
There were several officials of the village communities required to
administer the same. Some them were as under
1. The Patil :-
He was the chief revenue officer, Chi ef Police Magistrat e, Chief Judicial
Officer, and the chief of the village. Patil worked as the linkage between
the village and the Government of Marathas. He functioned as exponent of
the authority of Peshwas in the village and appeared before the
Kamavisdar or any other officer of the Peshwas as the authorized
representative of the village. Patil being the responsible revenue collection
officer of the village. Kamavisdar often consulted him at the time of
assessment of revenue of the village. It was the duty of Patil to protest if
the revenue assessment was too high or exorbitant and excessive. Despite
the protest of Patil. The Kamavisdar did not listen, Patil should move to
different village leaving the whole process to the Kamavisdar. But, it is
said that Patil took such step seldom or in extreme cases only. Because,
the Kamavisdar was not able to collect revenue of any village in absence
of Patil. Hence the Kamavisdar, usually agreed with t he suggestions of
Patil.
Patil as a Judicial officer was to convince and induce the parties to their
dispute amicably and if that was failed Patil was to appoint a Panchayat
for the settlement of the dispute. As a Police officer Patil with the help of munotes.in
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Village Communities
69 his watchman was to enquire into the cases of theft and robbery in his
village.
The post of Patil was neither elected by the people of the village nor it
was appo inted by the Governme nt. But it was hereditary or descended
from the forefathers. The office of Patil was easily sold and purchased by
anyone but generally, peop le were not ready to s ell the post of Patil but in
the rarest cases only. The sale was due to the economic constraints and
even it was seen that there were two Patils in a village. The hereditary
Patil used to sell some of his rights to another person, who would become
Patil. Although the rights of Patil were enjoyed by all the members of the
family, the preference was given to the elder branch of the family or the
rule of seniority was observed very strictly in the family of Patil.
Mostly, post of Patil was held by the dominant caste of Marathas but at
several place it was also held by either Brahmin or a Muslim.
Rajv yavaharakosh says that during the period of Marathas usually Patil
was a Maratha and his symbol was plough, which could bear with his
name on all official papers which si gnified the duties of Patil.
2. Duties of Patil:-
Patil as the head of the Village had several duties to be performed in the
village. Some of the important duties can be mentioned as under :-
1. As agriculture was the main source of income, the Maratha Government
wanted to incre ase the production of agriculture. The Patil was assigned
the important duty, that he was to help bring under cultivation whatever
fallow land or barren land was there under the jur isdiction of the village
and enhance the revenue of the village and the King.
2. The second important duty of Patil was that he was to prepare an
estimate of the standing crop in the village every year and send it to the
higher officers in the State administr ation for rough idea of the inc ome of
the ruler.
It was the duty of Patil that he should prepare some remission in the Land
revenue in case of failure or partial failure of land production due to the
flood, draught or of any reason, and submit it to the officer for further
action.
4) Patil was to supply in detail the information regarding the total land, the
crop grown its Kin ds in acres, the revenue collected last year and the
tentative collection of revenue during the current year to the
Government.
5) Patil was to shoulder the responsibility of collecting land revenue. He
was to pay the stipulated amount equal to the land revenue of the village
into the Government treasury. He was also to bear on his own if there
was any short fall in the collection of the land revenue of his village.
munotes.in
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History of Maratha
70 6) It was one of his duties that Patil was to assure and stand surety to the
Government for the assessed Land revenue collection of the village on
beha lf the village. Patil was compe nsated for this noble work by the
villagers with stipulated amount and customary honors.
7) As stated above, Patil was being the Judicial magistrate of the village,
he was to call meeting of the village ‘Gothsabha,’ consult it smoothly and
pass the decree, which needed his assent and no judicial decree was legal
without his signature.
8) Patil was the chief Police Magistrate of the village. He was to maintain
law and order in the village. Patil was responsible for peace and smooth
functioning of the village It was said that it was not possible for anyone to
be in any village without the mercy of Patil. Th us, Patil was the whole and
soul of the village community under the Marathas.
3. Rights and P owers of Patil :-
Patil being the head and the watandar of the village had several rights and
powers over t he villagers, which were known as privileges (Haks)
and dues (Lajimas). Haks means rights or services which Patil got done
from the people of the village. While Lajimas had no legal sanction from
the Governme nt but they were optional, even then Patil enjoyed them as
rights. These Haks or Privileges and Lagimas or dues deferred place to
place and time to ti me. As a matter of fact, Patil entitled to some payments
from the villagers in cash and kind. Generally, the share or the
payment which Patil received from the village was fixed and confirmed
by the Government. Following were the Haks and Lajimas of Patil
under the Marathas: -1. Manpan :- These were the rights if seniority and
precedence of Patil over the people in his village. Patil presid ed over each
and every function and festive occasion in the village as celebrations of
Holy, Ganpa ti, Sankrant, Dasara, Diwali, Padva, Nagpanchmi and Pola
which were carried publicly by the people.
4. Cash Payment or Khunda :-
Patil was entitled to receive certain share of the total Land collection in
cash and kind which was fixed by the Governme nt.
5. Payment in Kind :-
Patil used to receive some production in kind from each and every
producer or farmer in the village. They were known as Ghugri, Phaski
and Hurda. Ghugri means recovery in kind of each and every
production the cultivator produced. Phasaki means handful of corn or a
partial s hare of production of every Land holding whereas Hurda means
unripe corn or Jowar, which was baked and eaten being very testy, was
received by Patil as his rights. Besides, these rights. Patil used to get many
articles which were consumed daily from the producers land shopkeepers
without any payment as oil, coconuts, ghee, fowl and mutton. Patil used to
get some articles of daily use from almost all artisans such as a pair of munotes.in
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Village Communities
71 shoes, Pasodi or Chudder, Cholkhan or a piece of cloth which was used to
tailor as blouse or bodice for his wife.
6. Levies :-
Apart from the above payments in kinds, the Patil used to get his share in
various levies , which were imposed on people and collected by the
Governme nt. Among such levies, marriage tax, divorce tax and tax
imposed on the transition of cattle were important and generally
fetched much income to the Governme nt as well as to Patil.
7. Services :-
Patil had right to get free services from several sections in the
village for example, he was chief of the village, he was bound to get the
services of village watchman as and when he required him. In the same
way he used to get services of all other artisans at the village, starts from
washerman to cobbler.
8. Kulkarni: -
After Patil the next important village official of the village communities
under the Marathas was Kulkarni. He was referred variously in various
records as Gavkularni and Gramlekhi or village accountant. The records
of the Marathas referred to the watan
grant of Kulkarni as Lekhanvrtti. This Kulkarni usually maintained the
record of individual land holding and the revenue each individual
was to pay to the Governme nt. He was to work unde r the supervision of
Patil and record the revenue paid in his record and he was to keep
record of the revenue if any was in arrears. This was his cardinal duty;
he was punished if he failed in this duty of recording the revenue or any
misappropriation inti. Kulkarni also was to help Patil in the task of
inducing cultivators to bring more and more barren land under
cultivation.
As a matter of fact, there was no separate Kulkarni for each village the
reason was that there was no sufficient education imparted to each
Kulkarni and qualified him for the job of Keeping records. This sc arcity
of educated Kurkarni led the Maratha Governme nt to a lot more than one
village to one Kulkarni. The available records say that there were
several Kulkarnis who were keeping the records of eleven villages each.
If the Kulkarni happened to be Brahmin he used to work as astrologer
and guided the village peop le in Palmistry. In case of one Kulkarni
over several villages, the Kulkarni -in-charge appointed deputies to help
him in making entries of revenue collected and maintaining rec ords. This
arrangement led to mal-practices as collection of more revenue than the
fixed amount by the Government or not making entries of the revenue
collected. But Chhatrapati Shivaji had his own machinery to trace s uch
practice and punished the guilty Kulkarni or his deputy severely. There is
writer evidence that Chhatrapati Shivaji re primanded sternly to the munotes.in
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History of Maratha
72 Kulkarni of Chaul for not discharging his duties properly and involving in
mal practices.
Kulkarni was also to keep record of payment the Patil made to the
representatives of the Government. Kulkarni’s services were indispensable
for both the villagers and the Government Due to his absence the work of
maintaining records was distorted at many occasions. Although, the Patil
was the head of the village and senior in the village comm unities, he could
not get the revenue collection rec ord done due to unava ilability of
Kulkarni. Even the Patil had complained on several times that he became
only a titular head of the village and the real power of the village rested in
the hands of Kulkarni. Not this much in many cases Kulkarni was
responsible for removal of the Patil. As all offices n the village
comm unity were hereditary the office of Kulkarni was the main
reason behind it. There was no much literacy percentage during the
Maratha period. The educated family of the Kulkarni was obliged to
work as Kulkarni and keep the tradition alive forever. As a matter of fact,
the office of Kulkarni was being lucrative, the people tried to deserve
themselves for that office. There are some evidences that the office of
Kulkarni was auctioned and purchased for 150 hons. It is said that the sale
of the office of Kulkarni t ook when the family of Kulkarni was
extinguished and the money received from the sale was used to remit the
dues of the village or credited to the village account. Insome cases in
some villages when the position of Kulkarni was vacant the villagers
appo inted a Mutalik till the permanent Kulkarni was searched to carry on
the work of maintaining records. Once the new or permanent Kulkarni
resumed the office, the villagers promised him all security and rights due
to the official of Kulkarni.
Whenever, the Kulkarni was removed by the Government on the pretext
of corruption or other reasons, the Government took into account the
claims of other members of the family of the Kulkarni. The Kulkarni
was to deal with the representatives of the Government and other
rulers, it was natural to the villagers to take approval of the Government at
the time appointing a new Kulkarni. K ulkarni’s office was not hereditary
in Konkan for some time. During this period, Government appointed
some clerks known as Huzurdars, who were paid in cash. But when the
whole Konkan region was brought unde r the Marathas. The Patil of
each village was assigned the duty of collecting the dues of Kulkarni and
remitting it to the Kulkarni in kind.
a. Right and P owers of Kulkarni:-
Whatever the mode of appointment of Kulkarni was there, whether he was
appo inted by the Village Community or inherited or appointed by the
Government. Kulkarni, generally enjoyed the following Haks and Lajimas
or privileges and dues:-
1. Cash Payments:-
In is mentioned in some of the papers that Kulkarni was to receive some
payment from the villagers for purchasing stationery for his office use, munotes.in
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Village Communities
73 which was called Nakhta. This payment was additional to his regular
salary.
2. Revenue from Each Holding :-
Kulkarni was to receive some amount from each land holder. This re venue
was based on a piece of land as per carver or on certain production per
Khandi. This payment or revenue was called Mahasul.
3. Paiposhi :-
The Kulkarni used to have right to get some production from shoe- make
of his village and that was a pair of shoes.
4. Padewari :-
There were several servants working in the village communities
Watchman was one of them. As he worked at Ch avadi or village
community office he also worked at the house of the Kulkarni and he
was at the disposal of the Kulkarni for any work. The services of the
watchman to Kulkarni came to be known as paiposhi. Under this, the
watchman was instrumental to remove cattle as well as supply with fuel
wood to the house of Kulkarn i.
5.Sel-Bail :
Kulkarni used to get certain amount on the transport of cattle from his
village to another village.
6. Kadba :-
Kulkarni used to have some animals like milk-cow or buffalos for them
he needed fodder of Lower or grass, which was known the then as Kadba.
Kulkarni had right to get several sheaves of fodder from each cultivator
based on their land holding.
7. Khar chapatti and Sadilwar Patil :-
Among others, these were some of the charges the village officers and
servants levied on the villagers as a matter of their rights or Haks or dues
on the villagers. Kharchapatti means the recognized dues of the village
officers and servants to be paid by the villagers while the sadilwar Patti
was the extra assessment then the public revenue levied by the local
officers for meeting the contingency expenditure during the year. It is said
that Kulkarni used to get some share from these taxes to meet his
expend iture.
8. Ghee :-
The Kulkarni used to get certain quantity of ghee from the butter dealer of
the village as a matter his privileges.
munotes.in
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History of Maratha
74 9. Veth Begari :-
This was a system of forced Labour, which was brought into practice
by money Lenders. They advanced some loan to poor people and got done
free services from the indebted poor. But during the Maratha period, the
people in power availed services of poor people without paying anything
for the same.
10. Ghugri :-
Usually, during the Maratha period, almost all artisans were present at the
harvest time of crops, the owner or the cultivator used to share his
corn with each one present there, as per their share fixed. The Kulkarni
also used to be present over there at the time of harvest and measuring the
grains. The cultivator or farmer used to keep a small quantity of grain
aside as the share of Kulkarni. The same quantity of grain was known as
Ghugri. The Kulkarni had the right of Ghugri, Hurda as well as lobia.
11. Wanawala :
During the Maratha, period, the Governme nt officials used to get some
samples of corn and fruits, which were ripen for the first time, as Ma ngos,
Fibs or groundnuts.
It is mentioned in the Diary of the British Resi dent at Pune and Poona
Residency Correspondence that the privileges of the Kulkarni varied
from place to place and time to time and they were fixed according to the
traditions and customs of the place.
Deshmukh:-
He was also one of the important officials of the village commun ities
under the Marathas Deshmukh held some of the lands of the village
community. He supervised the work of Patils within his jur isdiction.
Deshmukh was put in charge of the fallow or barren land of his Pargana
or region. He allotted the same land to bring unde r cultivations and
increase the production of food grain in his Pargana as there was a fair
chance to the Government to use progressive rates of assessment and get
enough taxes or revenue from that land. Deshmukh toured every village in
his Pargana at least once in a year to get correct information about the
villager and the land they possessed and the land which was barren and
unallotted to anybody. He was to settle the revenue of the land brought
under cultivation newly in the village as well as to check the entries
whether made properly in the records of Kulkarni in case of change in
ownership due to certain reasons. Des hmukh was to see to it whether Patil
of the village made land revenue payment correctly. If any deficiency was
traced the Deshmukh reprimanded the Patil. There are several incidences
that the Government took severe actions against the Patil and the
Deshmukh for non-payment of revenue of villages.
munotes.in
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Village Communities
75 During the period of natural calamities or failure of crops due to several
reasons, it was the duty of the villagers to bring it to the notice of the
Deshmukh and convince him about their inability to pay the land
revenue . In case, the Deshmukh came to know the reasons of crop failure
and was convinced about the inability, the Des hmukh should represent the
case of that village to the Government for remission in land revenue with
the village officials. Na turally, it was required that the Deshmukh and the
village officials like Patil, K ulkarni, Shete Mahajans and others in the
Pargana should remain in good terms with each other.
The Deshmukh established the linkage between Government and the
villagers. He was expected to work very speedily and quickly in case of
external attack. Deshmukh was responsible f or the safety and security of
his Pargana. He was to lead the people of his Pargana to safety. Available
record of Rohidkhore mentions that Chhatrapati Shivaji had instructed
the D eshmukh of Rohidkhore that he should take the peop le over there
to a safer place below t he Ghat because there was a possibil ity of attack
from the enemy. The Des hmukh worked and abided by the command of
Chhatrapati of shifting peop le to safety. As the Deshmukh helped the
people to protect themselves in the emergency he was also to help the
Government officers in forts in his area for various works like
constructi on, repair or any other work in the forts. He was to procure
the labour force of villagers. This was the additional responsibility of
the Deshmukh and the people in his Parghana. In addition to this duty,
the Deshmukh was to take over the charge of Patil in case the post of
Patil was vacant due to several re asons.
As mentioned earlier, the Deshmukh was higher and superior in rank
to Patil - It was natural for him to enjoy privileges, perquisites and
dues more than Patil in his Parghana . He used to collect his taxes in kinds
and cash from the cultivators and secured the services and goods of daily
consumption from the servants merchants and artisan of the villages in his
Pargana. In the goods of daily consumption all fruits and vegetables were
included like mangos, coconuts , dates , grains , folder and fuel wood ,
ghee , shoes, oil, earthenware, prasad, and chicken were incl uded . The
Deshmukh was treated as guest of each village in his Pargana, He was
legally permitted to collect some provision from them. In addition to
this, he had right to change payment in cash as one hon to each village
under him. Even the Deshmukh received articles from the shopkeepers,
hawkers, Vendors, and Morning after attending weekly market of the
village. The articles he received were silk threads, betelnuts and leaves
from Pan-dealer, fire- crackers from the fire work manufacturers during
the Diwali festivals, sweets from the vender, meat, perfum e, grocery,
liquor and cloths from the respective merchants. The Deshmukh had
right to collect yearly dues from village artisans like washerman, barber,
blacks mith, carpenter, weaver, tailor and 2 percent surcharge on the
octroi collected by the Governme nt. He collected 2 Rukas on the sale
and purchase of cattle per head, a quarter - mound of sault per Khandi,
two and half seer jaggery per Khandi and ten seers of Jinger and turmeric
per Khand from the share of the Government of that Village. The
Deshmukh was entitled to receive taxes on marriage, divorce, Khavastaka munotes.in
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History of Maratha
76 means tax on body guard of a rich persons, Gavataka means levy i mposed
on the village free coating or plating of utensils, oil seeds crushing
whole village free coating or plating of utensils, oil seeds crushing from
oil-seed presser and free services of village watchman for two months
a year. In the basis of Haks and Lajimas, it is said that the Deshmukh
was as important as Patil to a villager. But it was also correct that the
Deshmukh could not receive these rights and privileges as Patil in every
village unde r, his Jurisdiction. Deshmukh was empo wered by the
Government to collect one hon from each village on the occasion of
village festivals and some fees from disputing parties in the village. Harki
was collected from victorious parties while Gunhegari was collected only
from defeated party in the dispute. The rights and powers of Patil and
Deshmukh, differed from place to place and region to region. For
example, the claims of a Deshmukh were different in Konkan then the
region of Ghatmatha or Desh area. But in short, the Deshmukh secured
much more privileges than any other official of the village community
during the period of Marathas.
Deshpande :-
As Deshmukh was one of the officials of the village communities,
Deshpande was one more official, who was working above K ulkarni,
i.e. he supervised the work of village Kulkarni. He was called variously as
Desh-Kulkarni or Deshlekhak. As referred earlier, due to lack of
literacy, there was a shortage of learned and trai ned Kulkarni , Therefore,
the responsibil ity of more than one village was entrusted to Kulkarni.
In order to get the work of Kulkarni done properly the appo intment
of Deshpande was made. As Kulkarni was subordinate to Patil,
Deshpande was subordinate to Deshmukh in the offical rank of the
Maratha administra tion.
Privileges and Dues of De shpade :-
Although, De shpande did not belong to a village community but held
some land as Deshmukh at the villages in his Pargana. His in terests were
accrued therein and he was treated one of the village officials. Naturally,
he enjoyed several privieges and dues which c an be mentioned as
under :-
1. Deshpande rendered his services as Kulkarni, whenever he was not
available or not appointed. Hence, Deshpande was gifted with some land
of the village in li eu of his services. Thus, the Deshpande became
watandar of the village Many a times, Deshpande also appointed some
agents to look after the accounts of the village and his watan.
2. Deshpande used to rec eive his payment in kinds and cash. The mode of
his payment was not different than the payment of Des hmukh. Generally,
Deshpande received half of the payment to that of Deshmukh.
munotes.in
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Village Communities
77 3. In the kinds, Deshpande got some jack-fruits per jac k-fruits tree, ten
percent managoes per mango groves, Jaggery five seer per sugarcane
caver in addition to this a bundle of sugarcane and a jar ful of
sugarcane juice, vegetable from the vegetable farmer, a garment from
each weaver and a Hon from the village for purchasing til on the
occasion of Sankranti.
4. Deshpande was entitled to get a pair of shoes from each cobbler,
prasad from gurav, betel-leaves from tamboli, oil from oilman of each
village under his Parghana.
5. Deshpande had some other privileges as he received shela-pagote
means sugar, betal nuts and Pan on the occasion of marriage from each
party, and some amount from the disputing parties in the village.
6. As Deshmukh sought same free services from the village servants.
Deshpande also secured free s ervices from village watchman for fifteen
days a year, free services from barber. Carp enter and gurav as and when
he required.
It is clear that Deshpande and Deshmukh wanted prosperity and well
being of villages for their own prosperity.
4.1.5 Chaugule : He was also a part and Parcel of the village communities
during the period of Marathas. Ch augule stood below t he Patil and above
the watchman in the rank of village officials. He helped almost all
officials in general and Patil in particulars in the village administration. It
is said that Chaugule which was related to the Patil or to his ancestors.
Chaugule helped Patil in village administration, in collection of village
land revenue , in bring back the villagers, who had left the village due to
several reasons and looked after the village storage of food grain and
village office of Patil. He worked as a messenger for Patil and village
administration Chaugule had the responsibility of carrying the village
revenue collection to the Parghana head quarter and handed it over to the
Deshchaugule. He also helped Patil in the measurement of village land as
and when Governme nt ordered.
There is no unanimity about the symbol of Chaugule. In some state papers
of Maratha, a plough is referred as his symbol while in other papers a pole
is shown as his symbol. Although, difference in symbols is mentioned.
The meaning of both is one and the same and that signified the duty of
Chaugule was very much related to village land and its fertility and
incre asing production in it. Although, the position of Chaugule was next
to the Patil in Gotsabha, he was preceded by Desh Chaugule, his
counterpart in Parghana. The post of Chaugule was hereditary in the
administra tion of village communities under the Marathas.
Village Watchman :- Although, the village watchman was from the
lowest rung of the society, he proved, himself very useful official of the
village communities. He looked after the village office of the Patil, which
came to be known as Chawadi and helped Patil now and then in every step
of village administra tion. The work of village watchman was specially munotes.in
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History of Maratha
78 remembered in the collection of land revenue. He used to call every
cultivator to the office of Patil for the payment of land revenue and
convinced them for the said payment. The village watchman was to take
care of the village sanitation and remove whatever pollutants he came
across. It is said that he was to sweep clean the whole village for
paltry and rudimentary gains. As per the 1776-77 papers of Pargana
Parner, the village watchman claimed following as his rights and
privileges: -
1) The village watchman claimed that he had right of Naibedya or
offering on the occasion of Dasera and Bail Pola festivals.
2) The offerings to God and Goddesses on the occasion of other
festivals should belong to them only.
3) On the eve of marriage, the bridegroom of the community of village
watchman should ride on the horse back without any interference from
any other community in the village.
4) The village watchman had right to share balute as other officials and
artisans of the village.
The Potdar :-He was one of the important village officials during the
period of Marathas. The Potdar or shroff was usually sonar or goldsmith.
He was to assess the coins in circulation. He was to test the genuineness
of the coin and check the metal used to mint the coin, weight and size of
the coin. It was not the duty of the Governme nt to see whether the coin
was defaced, debased or counterfeited or sustained any deformity but it
was the duty of the potdar. The Potdar only exchanged the coins in
circulation on the order of the ruler. He issued new coins of the
denomination and weight of the old coin. But he kept some difference in
the value of the new coin. He only fixed the value of the coin on the basis
of metallic content in it. It is observed that there was at least one Potdar at
each village. This was not a fixed rule, it depended upon the demand and
supply principle. A document dated 1740-41states that three brothers
namely, Balaji Rudra, Keso Rudra and Moro Rudra Shenvi were looking
after the Tarf Rajapur as Potadars, in which around four to five villages
were together. The document of 1742-43 states that Ganeshet Sonar was
appointed Potdar of two parganas on the remuneration of one Damadi a
rupee of the revenue collected. The third document dated 1765-66 says
that Laxman Sonar was appointed Potdar of Parghana Newese on the
allowance of RS 4 per month by the Government. In addition to this, he
was paid Rs. 2 per village as remuneration. It is clear from the above
evidence that the Government needed services of Potdar more than the
villagers.
Shete and Mahajan :- It is rightly said that the village in ancient &
medieval India was a small republic in which everything was produced
which the villagers needed and everything was taken care of by the
Government. During the Maratha period as attention was paid towards
increasing the agricultural product, and its proper distribution, the
Government appointed Shete and Mahajan were such officials, who paid munotes.in
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Village Communities
79 attention towards the marketing of agricultural products in each village.
They possessed the land specially provisioned for market in each village.
It was their duty to establish a peth or market at each village and receive
some rights and lajimas or dues in cash and kinds from the villagers - as
other village officials and watanda nds. They also became hereditary
officials of the village communities. Mahajan worked as the accountant to
Shete and helped him in all deliberations of the village communities
and present various long term and short term market development devices
or plans.
Baluted ars :These Balutedars formed an important part and parcel of the
village communities under the Marathas. As mentioned above, there were
several officials of the village communities. Who held some village land
or watan and served as the linkage between the village communities or
administration and the Government. There were also several other
people who held the village land as watan, some time it was rent free land
and rendered their essential services for economic growth, prosperity and
stability of village life. Due to the contribution of these people to the
village life, it created a separate identity as well as self-sufficiency of the
village life. These people were taken together and conveniently called as
Balutedars, who were around twelve in number. These Balutedars
Performed specific duties individually in the village communities and
received specific share of grain produced by the villagers, which was
called balute, mean some share of each grain from each villager. The
Balutedars were the village artisans, who helped in agricultural process to
the farmers. The farmers paid these balutedars or village artisans annually
as and when the grain was ripped in the harvest, which included their fees,
perquisites and rights for their services t hroughout the year. They were
twelve in number, mostly barber, potter, washerman, Gurav, Joshi,
Watchman, carpenter and Shete- Mahajan which were traced in every
document of the Marathas.
Divisions in Ba lutedar :-
For the convenience of study, these balutedars or the village artisans can
be categorized as under :-
1. Village Artisans and Professionals:
These artisans or professionals were in great need in every village life.
They supplemented the work of farmer throughout the year and rec eived
fixed share of grains produced by the farmers every year. In this category
the artisans like shoe-maker, Washerman, barber, blacks mith, potter, and
carpenter were included.
2. General Servants:-
Generally, less privileged class es were included in this category. As a
matter of fact, they performed all essential work of the village
communities during the Maratha period. The general servants worked as
the village eyes, village-watchmen and village- messenger, it means the
work of security of the village, the work of espionage and commu nication munotes.in
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History of Maratha
80 had been performed by them. These general servants received ‘Balutas’
or certain share of grain produced by the farmers.
3. Religious Servants:-
These servants of the village comm unities used to meet the religious
need s of the various sections in the village commun ity. In this category
peop le like Brahmin, Gurav, Thakur, Koli, Jangam and Maulana were
inclu ded. Brahmin, who was called Joshi, worked as priest, astrologer
and read almanac or calendar (Panchang) for the people. Gurav and Koli
were the priests of village temples while Thakur worked as a family
priest of the same tribe. The Jangam functioned as priest of the
Lingayat people whereas maulana was the priest of Muslims and looked
after the Mosque and the burial ground. Maulana also worked as butcher
for the Muslim Com munity in the village. In short, these religious
servants catered the religious and social need s of the village communities.
These rel igious servants being very essential units or sine qua non, the
village community paid them without any stint. These balutedars attended
the meetings of village council and expressed their approval or
disapproval. They signed or put their thumb impression as well as put
their symbol against their name. They had their own symbols which were
based on their professions or arts.
In addition to these balutedars, there were several other professionals like
Tamboli, Dhangar, Metal Worker, Painter, Co ppersmith, Oil man and
weaver who were called as alutedars. It is said that the services of these
professionals were not essentials as the balutedars. Th ey, therefore ,
were not included in the category of Balutedar. But they were present
in the village communities under the Marathas.
Cultivators :
They formed the major important part of the village commun ities. The
Culti vators were the only original land owners in the village. They were
divided into two categories as (1) Mirasdars and (2) Uparis.
The Mirasis or Mirasdars were also called Th alkaris or Kunbis, who
possessed the permanent proprietary right in their land. Naturally.
Enjoyed all rights and privileges arising out of their land in the
village community. Uparis as the title suggests, they were new and
stranger to the village. It so happend that whene ver, there were mirasdars,
who cultivated their land, the village headman invited some cultivators
from other villages for cultivating the fallow land and thus they came
to be known as uparis. Na turally, they did not take part in the business of
the village communities. From this fact it is observed that, there was a
class of cultivators in the village communities, who had no hereditary
claims to the land. Whenever the uparis settled down permanently in the
village as cultivators, they acquired hereditary rights in the lands they
cultivated. Thus, there existed the various categories of uparis, K unbis,
Mirasdars, B alutedars and hereditary officials in the village communities. munotes.in
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Village Communities
81 There was no much difference in the village communities existed during
and before the period of Shivaji. Chhatrapati Shivaji was much concerned
about the foreign powers present in Maharasht ra. He was busy in
extirpating these foreign powers from this land, i.e. he sought the help
of village communities and did a politica l Revolution. Sabbasad
Bakhar and Ra mchandra Pant Amatya mention that Chhatrapati
Shivaji tried to abolish the watanda rs and their watan system. But this is
said that although he confiscated some of the watans due to their
irregularities, he never wanted to abolish them totally, he tried them to
reform and also created some new watan - systems to bring stability in his
rule. Chhatrapati often brought new areas and territories under him. The
ryot or cultivators in the newly acquired and annexed territory was unde r
the influence of watanda r, Shivaji, therefore did not dissoc iate this ryot
class from the watandar and allowed them to enjoy their traditional way of
life undisturbedly. It means Chatrapati helped his ryot a lot and tried to
reform their conditions whene ver it was possible.
The Industr ial Organization :
Charles Metcalfe, a revenue officer of the East India Comp any
described the village under the Marathas as a little republic. It produced
everything they wanted in the village and it was almost independent
politically, economically and in other aspects of the life in the village.
The Village had Patil as head and he was assisted by Kulkarni, Ch augule,
Watchman, and Potdar symbolized autonomy of the village in politics. In
the same way the village was autonomous in its industrial organization, in
which it brought into existence the twelve balutedas or village artisans.
These artisans were legal watanda rs of the village, who held particular
trade and enjoyed monopoly in it. Naturally these artisans stressed upon
this point that their successors should also enjoy monopoly and claim
them in the trade they followed. The trades, these artisans followed in
succession, were granted to them and they were called legal descendants
of the same. This is clear from the cases they filed and won in the process.
It is also observed that the civil suits about the ownership of watan
holding unde r the Marthas were neither lost easily nor the suitor
lost his heredity on his own intentionally. Neit her the suitor’s long
absence nor his descendant’s resumption to their hereditary tra de after a
considerable gap of years deprived them from the same. there are several
evidences regarding this issu e, which proved the spirit of industry 1)
1779-80 in Kasba Pune, Abaji Khadake was a barber he migrated to
some other villages due to scarcity of the job in the Kasba. After a
gap of several years his sons Raghoji and Satbaji came back to Kasba
and claimed for the watan. The Watan of a barber was divided evenly
between the Khadke family and the family who had engaged in the watan
in the absence of the Khadke family.
2) In the same way, jakoji and Yamaji the sons of Santa barber of watan
Chikade in Sirale Tarf of Pargana Ne wase recovered their watan at
Chikote after the gap of two generations. These two sons clai med that munotes.in
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History of Maratha
82 their forefathers had left the village watan due to the dearth and
inability of their subsistence within the income of the watan at Chik ote.
3) In 1763-64, four sons of a Blacks mith recovered their watan at Khodad,
Tarf Nara yangaon, Prant Junner. It came to light that their forefathers had
willingly left the watans. Although, the people from the watan village had
repeatedly re quested them, the Black smith Santu, the forefather did not
want the watan. But when his descendants returned back to the watan
village, they were given the watan back. This rule was applicable to
every artisan and watanda r including Patil to watchman, Balutadar and
Alutedars also. But in case of Joshi or Jyotishi or astrologer never
succeeded to the watan if he failed in proving the legality. Even the illegal
children or descendants had no locus standi to succeed the watan of their
father. Thus, industrial organization also was one of the important features
of the village communities.
The financial Arrangem ents:-
Although, the village officers, were not appo inted by the Government,
they were to obey the orders of the Government. These officers were
under the moral obligation of the public opinion because they were
directly paid by the village communities. The village communities had to
pay for several need s. These were divided into two as (1) Recurring (2)
Non-recurring.
The recurring charges were again divided into two heads as (1) c onstant
recurring c harges and (2) non -constant recurring c harges, but these were
not less constant charges. The constant recurring charges were raised by a
permanently fixed charges known as salabad (yearly) charges. While
the non-constant charges were raised by extra assessme nt which were
called sadilwar Patti.
1. Constant Re curring Charges or Salabad Ch arges :-
Under this head, the charges were several, they were paid for the needs of
the village itself. Therefore, the village had to raise them from among the
villagers. According to Elphinstone, they were as (1) The maintenance of
the village temple. (2) Annua l pension of the temple keeper (3) The
annual charities which the village made. (4) The expenditure of the village
ceremonies (5) Religi ous festivals (6) Al ms to beggars in the village (7)
The expenditure on the entertainment to guests mostly G overnment
officers (8) The change of the Peons stationed in the village. There was no
government sanction to pay these taxes from the share of Govt. land
revenue. Therefore, it was paid by the Mirasdars or Villagers.
2. Non-constant Re curring charge or Sardar waril Patti :-
These charges were uncertain but they were recurring and they were
paid by the villages conjointly. Mostly, the bulk was borne by the
Mirasdars of the village because, they only had much capability of
payment. Although the non-constant recurring charges or sadar waril
Patti were more in number but some of them important were as under :- munotes.in
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Village Communities
83 1) the expenditure on the repair of the Village wall or compound. As a
matter of fact, the period of Marathas was one of the insecure times, the
repair of the village wall was very necessary re quirement of the village.
The Government also sanctioned some amount for the construct ion of
village wall but it was very rare occasion.
(2) The villages were to purchase the peace from invader.
(3) Many a times, the villagers were to pay the insurgent, who prepared
often to disturb the villagers. B ecause these insurgents or enemies carried
often with t hem the arms and ammunitions. Naturally, it had no
option then payment to them. Many a times, the Government tried to
defray the same but it was again very rare. If such amount was very
heavy, the village mortgaged or granted land to a sahukar, which came to
be known as Gaon Nisbat Inam. The creditor enjoyed such inams with
all rights and without any rent to the village communities.
Thus, the Maratha Government gave a freehand to the village
communities in the financial matters. This was the reason that the village
communities enjoyed real self- Government and self- sufficiency under
the paternal supervision of the Marathas.
6.4. CHECK YO UR PROGR ESS
1. What do you unde rstand by the village commun ities under the
Marathas?
2. Who were known as officials of the village communities during the
period of Marathas?
6.5. SUMMARY
The Village communities has been one of the important features of life in
India. Since the time immemorial India is a country of villages and
agriculture is the main source of their livelihood . The Indian
community was termed as a small republic. Many rulers came and gone
but there took place no change in the structure and arrangement of village
administration. They consumed what they produced and they produced
what they needed to be consumed in their daily life under the village
comm unities.
Before turning towards the study of the village comm unities under the
Marathas, it is essential to have some glimpses of village communities
under the Mughals. During this Period, there were six groups of people
in the village life, as Landlords and Zamindars, rich cultivators,
Peasants, Ordinary peasants landless worked and the last rung in the
society was of coolies.
During the period of Marathas watandars, Mirasis and uparis were
referred as the focal points. Watan means one’s own homeland. It was
also a grant given by the Government to the officials for discharging their
duties properly. There was no change in the watandars even if the munotes.in
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History of Maratha
84 government changed. There were several watanda rs under Chhatrapati
Shivaji, who had already served the earlier Muslim rulers. Mirasis had
proprietary rights in the land and were called Thalkari or original
inhabitants of the village. Uparis were also there. One who migrated to
the village from another area, secured leasehold of a land for temporary
purpose was called uparis. He could become mirasis after securing
proprietary rights in the land he held. There are several references
regarding the village arrangement in the ancient scriptures as the Vishnu
Samhita, Mahabharata and Manusmiriti alike village communities under
the Marathas.
There were several officials in the village communities as Patil, K ulkarni,
Deshpande,Deshmukh, Chaugule Potdar, Shate Mahajan and watchman.
They had certain functions to be discharged and they secured certain
privileges dues and remuneration for their survival. In addition to the
above officials, there were village artisans, who were twelve in number
and called balutedars. These balutedars helped the farmers in the
agricultural process and received certain share of grains which was called
balute. Among the balutedars Barber, Potter, Washerman, Gurav, Joshi,
Watchman, carpenter and Shete-Mahajan were i mportant. Th ese
balutedars were divided into three categories as village artisans and
professionals, general servants and religious servants.
One more category of professionals was also traced in the village
communities as of Tamboli, Dhangar, Metal Worker, Painter,
Coppersmith and weavers. They were called aluteders. Th ey also helped
the village communities in various functions and were one of the essential
elements of the village communities under the Marathas.
Culti vators were the most important element of the village communities.
The cultivable land in the village was divided into mirasis and uparis
on the nature of their possessing the land proprietary rights. Chhatrapati
Shivaji tried his best to improve the conditions of cultivators as and
when it was possible. Culti vators also were called ryots; they were
attached with the watanda rs to some extent. Although, Shivaji Punished
the watandars for their irregularities but he never tried to disturb the
cultivators.
As cultivators industrial Organization also formed an important part of the
village communities. The village artisans followed their trades or
professions hereditarily. They claimed monopoly and wanted their
descendants to claim the same. Thus, the chain of industries continued and
it was built firmly in to the organizations, there also was financial
arrangement. The villagers paid directly many taxes to the Government as
well as to the village officials and servants. In addition to these, they were
forced to pay other charges, which were divided into recurring and
non-recurring charges. The rec urring charge were again divided into
two other head s as constant recuring changes and non-constant recurring
charges. The constant recurring charge were raised by a permanently fixed
charges known as salabad charges. While the non-constant charges
were raised by extra assessment, which to be known as sadar waril Patti. munotes.in
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Village Communities
85 This financial arrangement continued generation to generation under the
paternal supervision of the Maratha Government. This is the Governme nt,
which gave free hand to the village comm unities in economic
development and helped it to be self-sufficient and self-reliant village
communities.
6.6 QUESTIONS
1. Give a brief account of the village comm unities during the period of
Marathas.
2. Br iefly discuss the important components of the village
communities under the Marathas.
3. How far was the village comm unities self-sufficient and self-
reliant during Maratha Period? Discuss it with suitable
examples.
4. Examine the position of Industrial organization and financial
arrangement in the village communities during the period of Marathas.
6.7 ADDITIONAL REEDINGS
1) A. R. Kulkarni - Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji
2) A. R. Kulkarni & G. H. Khare Mara thyancha Ititas.
3) S. N. Sen - Administrative system of the Marathas.
4) Elphinstone -A report on Territories Conquered from the Peshwa.
4) Altekar - Village comm unities in western India.
munotes.in
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86 7
SOC IAL STR UETURE : CASTE AND CLASS
Unit Struct ure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Origin of The Caste System
7.3 Com munal Taboos
7.4 Organization of Caste
7.5 Summary
7.6 Questions
7.7 Additional Readings
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After the study of this unit the student will be able to -
1. Understand the origin of caste
2. Know the different aspects of caste during the period of Marathas.
3. Explain the organization of caste.
4. Understand some important disadvantages of caste
5. Know the positions of caste in the society of Marathas.
6. Explain the caste in other areas
7. Understand the future of caste.
7.1. INTR ODUCT ION
Caste is a largely static organization; it is exclusively social class and its
membership is determined by the birth. Caste involved with particular
customary restrictions and based on certain privileges. The word caste
is derived from the Portuguese word ‘c asta’, meaning breed, race, or
Kind. It was used first to denote the Hindu social classification on the
Indian subcontinent. Although, this is the basic connotation of the word
caste, it is used to describe in whole or in part social systems that
emerged at various times in other parts of the world.
Generally, caste was organized with a chief and council acting in
concerted authority . It was often united for t he celebrations of certain munotes.in
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Social Strueture :Caste and
Class
87 religious festivals and cultural functions. The member of a caste further
bounded by occupation and common customs relating particularly to
marriage, food and the question of pollution. Thus, food and drinks ware
limited within a caste, means only members of the same caste used to
eat together. Further, the caste means the collection of families or groups
who bore a common home and clai med a common descent from a
mythical ancestor, human or divine. The caste was almost invariably
endogamous in the sense that a member of the large circle was
denoted by the common name was not able to marry outside of that
circle. Even in the same circle there were several smaller circles, each of
them was also endogamous group.
7.2 ORIGIN OF THE CASTE SYSTEM
There are several theories regarding the origin of the caste in India
Which are summarized as under :-
1) The Tradition al Sanskritic Theory :-
This Theory says that the caste system came into existence due to four
varnas, the origin of these varnas is ascribed to a mythical deity as
the Brahmin sprang from his mouth, the Kshatriya born from his arms, the
Vaishya got birth from his thighs and the Shudras originated from his feet.
2) The Racial Appro ach:
According to this theory, the caste came into being due to contact between
the Aryans and the Dravidians.
3) The Family and G entile Theory:-
This theory puts forth the view that similarities and parallelisms in the
ancient Iranian, Roman, and Indian social systems were res ponsible for
the origin of caste in India.
(4) The occupational theory:-
This theory says that caste came up in society due to cultural and
occupational difference among the people.
5) Theo ry of stratification of society:-
This theory is based on the division of Labour mean s man’s caste is his
natural and correct place in society. It further says that caste and class
differences in both the East and the west were based on merit and only
Later tended to become hereditary and economic.
The caste system in India is an unique social organization in the history
of world. Although, this organization came into existence from the
time immemorial, its origin is believed to be divine.
munotes.in
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History of Maratha
88 According to the traditional theory of origin of caste system caste is as
old as time and takes its earliest from in the varna organization of the
Vedic Age. It was a simple four-varna system during the Vedic
period but it grew into a complex and elaborate system in the course of
time.
It is handed down undisturbedly from father to his son. Therefore, it is
neither changed nor eradicated. It became hereditary, stagnated stationary
and lost its original elasticity with the passage of time.
4. Various Aspects of Castes during the period of the Marathas
The main object of studying the caste system during the period of
Marathas is to try to estimate the influence of the system on the then
society. During this period, the caste became comparatively stable and had
succeeded the period of flux in which it broke into subcastes. It c ame to
be organized into close social units with fixed social comitial status, which
governed the nature and extent of inter-caste relationships
1) The caste of t he person was determi ned by his birth.
It was neither possible for him to change his caste nor escape from the
ignominy of his caste, even if the person changed his religion, he was
notable to escape the rules and regulations of his castes. These regulations
were more binding than any other ethical codes of social institutions and
considered them as the duties of the concerned person toward his
comm unity. These codes or regulations had no geographical barriers and
the community of the person was demanded from him his observance of
the codes.
2) The caste of t he person was attached to his occupation :
According to Ghurye, occupation was the most important factor for the
emergence of caste system in the country. Each caste was fixed with
certain occupation. If the person wanted to change his occupation
attached to his caste it was not permitted by his community.
It is said that the community did not allow its members to follow any
occupation, which was considered degrading or impure. This was moral
restraint exercised from one’s own community on the choice of the
person abandoning his own occupation for another for lucrati ve reason.
Apart from the economic factor, the members of other castes very
vehem ently re acted when there was encroachment on their occupation by
the people of other castes.
3) The Caste system established a system of hierarchy:-
In this system, the social st atus of a person depended upon the adherence
to certain st andard of ceremonial purity. It mean s, the social hierarchy
considered the ritual factor more important than the economic factor while
ascertaining the position. of a person in the society, which was totally
illogical. The top most caste claimed the highest ritual purity whereas
some other caste said to be believed in possessed negative ritual purity. munotes.in
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Social Strueture :Caste and
Class
89 Therefore, the first one was at the highest rung and the second one was
at the lowest rung in the social s tructure during the Period of the
Marathas.
4) The birth determi ned the initial Ritual status of the Person :
During the Maratha period, as stated above, the birth was the only
criteria to determine the initial ritual status of the person. For
example, the person who born in a particular caste was entitled to the
status of that caste only. But the inherent ritual status was never elevated
in any case. There are several instances that the inherent ritual status
was lowered or degraded. For example , the ritual status of
illegitimate children was lower than the legitimate children. Therefore,
one was required to sustain the inherent ritual status only by strict
adhe rence and observance of the code of conduct prepared by one’s
own caste.
5) Some mystical Beliefs of Purity and Pol lution :-
During the process of caste system, concepts like purity and pollution
came into existence. It is said that impurities accrued to a person due to
several ways as unde r :-
1) by contact of a person to another person with lower ritual status
through touch, food and sexual relations.
2) by comm itting certain sacrilegious deeds as killing a cow.
3) by such occurrences like, birth, death and menses.
4) by contact with a person whose ritual status lowered, that caused
pollution and consequently, the ritual status was degraded.
The impurities caused due to contact with the women during her menses,
death and birth are treated as technical impurities and lowering the status
for tempo rary period, that was attained back after undergoing the
prescr ibed act of atonement.
It is said that the pollution had always overcome purity. A high caste
person used to get polluted due to his contact with the low-caste person
but this did not happen that the low-caste person was never purified by his
contact with the high caste person. Therefore, one was to abide by the
code of conduct prescribed by his own caste. This implied several
commensal or marriage taboo s or restricti ons, which became outstanding
characteristics of the caste system during the period of Marathas.
7.3 COMMENSAL TABOOS
There were several commensal taboos, but the most important were
as under :-
1) Prohibition of acceptance of food - If there was acceptance of cooked
food from the person belonging to a lower cast e. munotes.in
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History of Maratha
90 2) Prohibition of acceptance of water from the hands or a lower caste.
3) Prohibition to dine with a person of low ritual status. It is said that the
degree of pollution involved in these cases was not the same. Except
the prohibition of acceptance of food from the lower castes, all other
had laxity in certain degrees. Even it was observed that dining with the
lower ritual status was permitted but it was said that it should not be
insisted upon in case the person of higher ritual status was reluctant for
doing the same.
1) Taboos on Ma rriage conne ctions:-
During this period, marriage was closely associated with the ritual status
of the people. Na turally, marriages were solemnized within their
endogamous groups. Th ere were some other considerations which were
taken into account for marriage connections as sapinda and sapravara
groups. Alt hough, these groups were endo gamous, they were called
exogamou s sections within, therefore, marriage connections were avoided
with them. This was not for maintaining ritual purity but for some other
considerations.
2) In fr action to connubial Taboos was unde sired :-
The person who did infraction of connubial taboos sustained undesirable
change as lowering of his ritual status. If a person tied marriage knot with
the prohibited caste, his ritual status was rest ored by undergoing the
atonement after the dissolution of such marriage. Therefore, the person
was required to avoid the bodily touch and encouraged caste to caste
relationships
3) Untouch ability had its own Peculiarities :-
During this period, it was believed that pollution was carried through the
bodily contact. Hence the bodily contact was avoided during the period of
impurity. This impurity was caused due to the death or birth of a
person in blood rela tion or consanguine. In case of woman when she
is in her menses. But the untouchability imposed in these cases was
temporary and the untouchability imposed on the person having lower
ritual status was permanent. It means, the untouchability practiced during
this period was relative. Some of the castes considered untouchable by
some but not by other caste. It means, ritual purity was not Co-terminus
with untouchability. The castes which were termed ritually impure with
whom, no commensality was practice d. But they were not called
untouchable castes. There was some degree of difference in pollution.
Although, some of the castes were called untouchables, they were
permitted to chores, on other hand, some of the castes were treated
extremely untouchables based on the convenience of the upper castes,
behind which, there was no logical reason. But these castes which were
treated as total untouchable, sustained the most unkind and the extremely
humiliating treatment. There were several neglected castes included in this
category. They were called Atis udras or Antyajas which means the most munotes.in
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Social Strueture :Caste and
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91 despicable castes, who were not allowed to live with in the village but
outside the village.
4) The Lower castes were denied several Civil Righ ts :-
It is said that the atishudras were not allowed to enjoy several civil rights
because their touch was considered defiling or polluting by some castes.
They were denied the services of the village priest, barber and the access
to the drinking water well used by the other people in the village. They
had no economic source for survival but were to be scavengers and
porters for their subsistence. The upper castes claimed the highest ritual
purity in the society. Naturally, they were at the top in the caste hierarc hy
and superior in the structure of the society. They declared certain civil
and religious functions as their absolute rights and privileges as well as
imposed certain disabilities on other castes mostly shudras to sustain their
superiority.
5) The Upper Castes claimed the study of Vedas their exclusive
Righ ts :-
The upper castes during the period under study, enjoyed the socio-
religious rites performed according to the Vedic mantras. They claimed it
was their exclusive right or privileges. They did not allow it to be
performed by any castes. The lower castes were forced to perform their
socio- religious rites according to the puranic mantras. Whosoever
violated this regulation was punished by the upper caste. There is a case
of goldsmith, who was punished with cutting of his tongue for
transgressing the above regulation. In the same way, a Jangam, the
priest of Lingayat caste was also punished for performing Rudrabhisheka,
a Vedic rite, which was the exclusi ve right of the upper caste.
6) The Lower caste members were not allowed to enter
Temples :
The members of the lower castes were not permitted to enter the temples
of the upper castes. It is said that Nanaseheb Peshwa had framed the
detailed rules and regulations regarding the maintenance of
Tryambakeswar temple at Nasik. The Peshwa had ordered that no
member of the lower caste should enter the temple but they should pray
the god from outside the temple.
7) The upper Caste imposed several social & Religious
Disabilities :
During the period of Peshwa Sawai Madha vrao several civil and religious
disabilities were imposed on lower castes, which were as under :-
a) Even if they knew the Vedic Mantras, they should not use them.
Should use only Puranic Mantras.
b) They should not use rice balls as offerings to their ancestors as was
used by the upper castes. munotes.in
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History of Maratha
92 c) They should not invite home and offer cooked food to upper castes
or give them dinner.
d) As a rule the lower castes were not permitted to employ a Bra hmin
man or women as a cook, water-carrier or as a servant.
e) Lower castes were not permitted to worship the Brahmanical gods
or permitted to visit Brahmanical temples.
(f) The upper castes forced the lower castes for complete
prostrati on as greeting, which was called ‘Dandavata’.
(h) The upper castes informed the lower castes not to object re-
marriages of their widows. These practices in society elevated upper
castes to gain upper level and the lower caste relegated to gain lower
social s tatus.
8) General Tenden cy of superior and Inf erior social status :-
During this period the matter of privileges and disability became the
major source of inter-caste tensions and rivalries in the then society some
important were as under :-
1) Rivalry between Tambats and Vanis :-
These two castes claimed themselves that they had privilege to take
marriage procession through the market place with an ornamental pot of
water generally used in religious rites. This was a long standing rivalry
and was not solved amicably even after the period of Marathas.
2) Rivalry between potters versus carpenter, Tambat and
Iron smith :-
These castes had struggle on their privilege of taking newly marrying
couple on a horse in marriage procession. This was also a longstanding
rivalry, which was not solved during this period.
3) Rivalry between the Brahmins and the Prabhus :-
It is said that while considering the social status, ritual status of the caste
was considered or both were interdependent on each other. Dur ing the
period of Peshwas, the Maratha rule was expand ed. The Maratha
Kingdom was converted into the Maratha Empire. This change opened
new avenue s for attaining personal merits, valour, and distinctive position
in society irrespective of their castes. Several peop le from various castes
achieved prosperity and they competed with the higher castes for
higher ritual status. As the lower castes people tried their level best
for the higher ritual status, there was another group of higher ritual
status rivalrous to oppose to them to their claims. Thus, this rivalry
continued for a long time. Although, the Peshwas invited the highest
authority from B anaras to settle the Pro blem. But it was not solved even
after the period of Peshwas. Because, there was no satisfactory
solution. The judgements given were not firm. They were sometime in munotes.in
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Social Strueture :Caste and
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93 favour of the Brahmins and other times went in favour of the
Prabhus. Thus, the rivalry continued for a longer time.
7.4 ORGANISATION OF CASTE
As mentioned above, due to rivalries amon g various castes tensions
used to grow every now and then in the society. There rivalries were there
in various groups of the same caste. Although, the caste was a closed
group in comparison with class in the society, There was the status in
the caste hierarc hy which was determined by birth and not by individual’s
achievements. The ritual status of either caste or one of the groups in the
caste depended upon the maintenance of code of behaviour, which was
framed by the caste. If that code was not observed, the ritual status
was degraded. This process gave birth to several groups in the caste,
the specific administration of caste in the society.
The caste as a corporate group maintained its ritual status and safeguarded
the interest of its members. It regulated the behaviour of its members and
wielded wide judicial powers involving violation of caste rules regarding
inter dining, matrimonial alliances and re- admission to the caste. The
caste was also authorized to deal with c ases of adultery, divorce and
several other disputes within the caste. In order to service these purposes,
the caste evolved its own s eparate organization. The head of the caste was
called by various names and held the post by inheritance. It is also said
some of the caste head had granted watan by the government. The head of
the caste had enjoyed some rights and perquisites from his caste members.
These perquisites were as
1) Shela means upper garment.
2) Some money on the occasion of marriage and re-marriage of its
caste member
3) He was exempted from house tax and cattle tax
4) He used to get same consideration like mark of sandle paste, betel-
leaves and mark on his forehead.
Apart from these rights, t he power of administering Justice was
considered important - but it was not exclusive, it was reviewed in the
meeting of its own castemen . For example, the decision of the head of
Agari-Kunbis of Bombay, was investigated by the other members of the
same caste. Because the head of the Agari-Kunbi caste had admitted to
their caste some degraded members without their consultation by which
the social status of the same caste in the opinion of the other members,
was lowered. Thus, the powers were not free from internal investigation.
It is also observed that the caste disputes were gene rally decided by the
council of the caste members under the chairmanship of the head of the
same caste. The caste council was popu larly known as Jati-Sabha.
Although, there is no clearcut information available about the composition
of the caste council and the procedure of Judicial trial followed by the munotes.in
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History of Maratha
94 same caste council, there are certain versions gathered from the various
pape rs available, which are as under :-
1) The caste council met at the residence of the head man whene ver
the occasion took place and discussed the incidence. It is not clear
whether the head s of other caste or any government representative
was invited, but the issue was settled and the verdict was abided by all the
members of the same caste.
2) By another document, it is made clear that the Pathare Prabhus of
Cheul and Revdand a used to settle the caste issues among themselves.
They never referred their caste disputes to any Government officer or
institution and final verdict was left with the elder in their caste as a mark
of respect.
3) The next issue of one Sidanak of Kasba Nate says that, the complainant
Sidanak came to Peshwa and complained that while he was away to
Nagpur on military services, his wife being lonely, was staying with her
mother. Some one sonak went to the house of Sidanak’s mother-in-law,
coaxed Sidanak’s wife and took her to fort Prat apgad, far away from Nate.
Sidanak approached the Gotasaba or caste Panchayat, which directed
Sonak to hand over Sidanak with his wife but sonak refused to do so.
Peshwa, then ordered the Ha waldar of fort Pratapgad to conduct a fresh
meeting of the Gotasaba or caste Panchayat of Sidanak and get the matter
settled judiciously. Here the decision is not important but the way the
Gotasabha functioned and settled the matter is important. The Ha waladar
of fort Pra tapgad reported back to the Pashwa that the issue was settled by
the caste Panchayat.
4) One more document highlights the functioning of the caste panchayat
during the period of Marathas. According to V.T. Gune, the Judicial
matters during the initial period of Marathas were settled by the
Majlis i.e. the caste assembly. But during the latter period of the Marathas,
they were dispensed of by the caste Panchayat, which was organized in
small and regional units. Generally, the small units of Gotasabha or caste
Panchayat investigated the issues of minor importance while the issues of
greater importance like purification, admission of outcaste or out casting
somebody required to be referred to the various district caste - Panchayat
or the caste - Panchayats of the region and sought their approval. This is
very well illustrated by the dispute between the tailors of Poona and
Saswad. There was so happened that the tailors of Poona admitted back to
the caste a person who had married with a lower caste person. The
tailors of Saswad - objected to this admission on the ground that the
tailors of Poona did not consult the tailors of Saswad.
In the Judicial power of the caste Panchayat the authority of punishing
offender also was there. There were two kinds of punishments as (1)
Imposing Fine (2) Excommunication. These Punishments were inflicted
on the member of the caste on the ground of his infringement of the code
of conduct prescr ibed by its own caste such as munotes.in
Page 95
Social Strueture :Caste and
Class
95 (1) Inter- dining and Inter-marrying with a person of lower caste st atus (2)
non-Observance of the days of impurity after the death of its’ own
kinsman. (3) Cau sing death of human beings or cow (4) Practic ing
witchcraft and sorcery.
Excomm unication means avoiding all social contacts with the person
who was excommunicated by its own caste as (1) N o- commensality
and connubium (2) stoppage of services of barber and washerman (3)
No performance of religious ceremonies by the priest at the house of
such person. (4) The excommunicated person was not permitted to
apply Kumkum mark and perform sandh ya rites. This excommunication
was suppo rted by the Government and many a times the property of such
person was attached and Government officers were depu ted to execute the
punishment. Such serious powers were there to the caste panchayat.
1. Disadvantages of caste :-
It helped the upper castes to enjoy s everal favourable positions and
privileges in t he society, but in general it generated enumerable
disadvantages for the lower castes as (1) It imposed several restr ictions on
individual about food and marriage conne ctions (2) Cas te was
absolutely, intolerable social burden because of its rel igious sanctions.
If any infringement was there the governme nt machinery took action
against s uch member and forced him to abide by the rules prescr ibed
by the caste. In many cases government ordered to attach the watan of the
person behaved contrary to the caste. (3) Caste exercised a very strong
hold on the society and created social and economic stability in case of
some upper castes. It worked as boon for them but for lower caste it was
a bane because it had no source of income and therefore, there was no
stability in the society for there. (4) Caste fostered a spirit of division and
disunion which resulted into fission, that damaged the society unde r the
Marathas to a large extant. (5) Castes were independent social units whose
economic and social in terest were separated from the rest of the
society, which had no scope for social intercourse. (6) The basis of the
caste was the ritual status in the society, this created caste as the closed
group of some people, which left no source f or development of the
individual. (7) Caste proved the barricade in the upward social mobility
unde r the Marathas. (8) Each caste created several groups in itself,
which tried to prove their own ritual purity to elevate their social status
and upgrade themselves in the hierarchy. This generated bitter social and
political rivalries in the society. 9) In comparison with class, c aste could
not adjust and prove adaptable of Marathas was under domination of
caste, it, therefore, was unprogressive, rigid and static.
2. The caste at present :-
The caste or varna complex still exists and functions in less or more
modified forms within its own frame work. Members may be expelled
for violating the moral and ethical codes of the caste and readmitted to its
caste after undergoing the expiation directed by the respective caste munotes.in
Page 96
History of Maratha
96 council Naturally, the social status of an individual is determined by its
own caste.
However, the rights and duties assigned to the different castes or varnas
have been undergoing ra dical changes. The third varna has evolved a
different economic pattern for itself while the fourth varna has changed
considerably since the independence of India in 1947. Migration of
population from rural to urban areas has been bringing ra dical changes in
the set up caste. In the same way some exogamou s groups, that had grown
quite large are breaking into smaller groups, which are diluting the
status of caste in the society. Migration is changing occupation and
changed occupation is abandoning some religious or social customs as
well as changing caste attitude. Even then, there is no evidence that the
caste system as a whole has lost its grip on the Indian society. The current
trend in each caste is to organize its elf for social, economic and political
purposes as it is seen that each election is contested on the basis caste
organizations.
1. Caste in other Areas :-
It is said that caste is immobile class and class is mobile caste. This is
experienced in every society, in the world. In ancient Rome Patricians and
Plebeians were almost engaged in such tangle. Whenever Rome grew
econom ically and militarily, the society permitted free play consequently
the classes struggled among themselves to move upward. Whenever
such struggle obstruct ed the maintenance of law and order in the society,
the demand for stable social system was made in the name of Justice. The
class es often struggled for achieving equality in Roman society while
caste at later stage tried to avoid internal bicker ing by protecting status
quo in the society. This caste-class continuum is experienced in all
societies whether ancient or modern in the world. When society is
dynamic and marching towards change it definitely leads to the expansion
of class s ystem on other hand when the society wants to conserve the
class, it is transformed into the caste or it is done under the
superintendence of caste. The older social groups in Europe have
never been lost their all elements of caste system. Even during the time of
social mobility and democratic behaviour no inter marriages were easy or
occurred as natural. Some of the social scie ntists have also traced some
caste - oriented Philosophies in twentieth country European Bolshevik and
Nazi movements based on their theoretical aim of egalitarian society. In
the United States, although there is no caste but it is very difficult to
deny the existence of some sort of class s ystem and very wide and vast
distinction between the Whites and the Negro.
Generally, the caste is extending due to religious- mythical and economic
- pedantical reasons and revolved around the struggle for power. The
European caste s ystem is considered of economic - political type while
Indian caste is of religious - mythical type but some postmodern social
scientists traced that it is acquiring the rec ent traits of economic political
type. In Europe, there is a trend of dissolution of caste into class and class
is solidifying the caste. But in India this trend has never been completely munotes.in
Page 97
Social Strueture :Caste and
Class
97 surfaced because the caste in India has always been functioned as a
political power myth, which is widely accepted by majority mostly rural
India.
CHECK YO UR PROGRESS
1. What are the different theories of origin of caste?
7.5 SUMMARY
Caste is a largely static organization, it is exclusively social class and its
membership is determined by the birth. It is involved with particular
customary restrictions and based on certain privileges. Cas te is derived
from the Portuguese word casts meaning breed, race or kind and used
first to denote the Hindu social classification on the Indian subcontinent.
There are several theories regarding the origin of caste in India as the
traditional Sanskritic theory, the Racial Approach theory, the Family
and Gentile theory, the Occupational theory and the theory of
Stratification of society. These theories are not unanimous and give
different accounts of the origin of caste but they agree that it became
hereditary, stagnated and stationary and it also lost its original elasticity
with the passage of time.
The main object of studying the caste system during the period of
Marathas is to try to estimate the influence of the system on that society.
During this period caste became comparatively st able, succeeded the
period of flux in which it broke into subcastes and organized into close
social units with fixed social cum-ritual status which governed the nature
and extent of inter- caste relationship. There were several features and
aspects of the caste of this period. As caste of the person was determined
by his birth, it was neither possible for him to change his caste nor escape
the ignominy of his caste. Even the person changed his religion, he was
unab le to escape the rules and regulations of his caste. The caste of the
person was attached to his occupation. According to Ghurye, each caste
was attached with certain occupation. The community never permitted to
follow any other occupation other than its own occupation. The caste
established a system of hierarc hy in the society on the basis of
ceremo nial purity and the negative ritual purity. Naturally, this created
taboos on commensality, marriage connections and on several issues of
social intercourse. It denied several civil rights to lower castes, imposed
various social and rel igious disabilities and generated rivalries among
lower caste on the ritual status in the society. Caste as an
organization, had a caste council and its head. This head had several
rights and privileges for administering the caste organization. Alt hough,
some people pointed out some advantages for their own interest there
were several disadvantages of caste during the period of Marathas.
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History of Maratha
98 7.6 QUESTIONS
1. Give an account of caste during the period of Marathas.
2. Examine the important characteristics of castes under the
period of your study.
3. Ass ess the organizational struc ture of caste during the period of
Marathas.
4. Com ment on (a) C aste rivalries (b) D isadvantages of caste.
7.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Ghurye G. S., Caste, Class and occupation in India, 4th edition, New
York, 1961.
2. Hutton J. H., Castes in India : its Nature.
3. Prasad N., The Myth of the caste system, Patna, 1957.
4. Ghurye G. S., Caste and Race in India, popular prakashan,
Bombay, 1969
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99 8
UNTOUCHABILITY
Unit Struct ure
8.0 Objective
8.1 Introduction Next Page
8.2. Untouchability During the Period of Marathas
8,3. Nature Of Untouchability During the Period of Marathas:
8.4. Untouchability and Fifty-Two Rights
8.5 Summary
8.6 Questions
8.7 Addition Readings
8.0 OBJECTIVE
After the completion of this unit, the student will be able to-
1. Understand the origin of untouchability.
2. Explain the nature of untouchability during the period of
Marathas.
3. Know the position of untouch ability in the society unde r
the Marathas.
4. Un derstand the fifty-two rights mentioned in a letter written by
Saswad people to the Peshwa in connection with the untouchability.
8.1 INTR ODUCT ION NEXT PAGE
According to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Untouchability is the notion of
defilement, pollution, contamination and the ways and means of getting
rid of that defilement.
The problem of untouchability was in existence since the Primitive
society. Dr. Ambedkar says that the Primitive society not only believed in
the notion of defilement but their belief had given rise to a live system of
well-defined body of rites and rituals. The primitive society believed that
defilement was caused by (1) contact with certain things (2) Contact with
certain persons (3) and the occurrences of certain events like birth,
initiation, puberty, marriage, cohabitation and death. The primitive society
also believed in the transmission of evil from one person to another on the
occurrences me ntioned above. munotes.in
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History of Maratha
100 There are several theories about the origin of untouchability the one which
is generally accepted is as unde r :
It is said that there are more than 3000 castes in India, which are
greatly varying in size and number. Originally, Indian society was
classi fied into four divisions on the basis of varnas (meaning colour in
sanskrit). The first reference to the varnas is found in the Rigveda, one of
the oldest Indian classics. According to the Rigveda, Indian society is
composed of five hierarchical divisions. The first four varnas are the
Brahmins i.e., priests and scholars, the Kshatriyas i.e. warriors and rulers,
the Vaishyas i.e. merchants artisans and husbandmen, and the Shudras i.e.
servants and slaves, the fifth division is composed of the out varnas i.e.
untouchables. The members of first three varnas had access to the sacred
literature because they unde rwent an initiation ceremo ny after birth. The
shudras were divided into cle an and unclean categories. The food and
drink touched by the unclean Shudras were not acceptable to the first
three varnas and the clean shudras. Thus, the problems of untouchability
came into existence in society. It lost the elasticity of initial period and
converted into rigid social s ystem during the Maratha period.
It is very difficult to ascribe any particular cause to the origin and growth
of untouchability in Hinduism in the country. The menials in H indu
community were looked down upon as chandals means deserved to be
condemned or Dasyas i.e. defeated since the Vedic period. They were
segregated totally and considered worse than beasts by t he majority
comm unity in the country. They were deprived of the right to enter the
Hindu temple, join any Hindu congregation and seek education for their
development. Although, the population of untouchables constituted a large
chunk of the society, that did not matter for the majority of community
in India and they were kept totally cut up from the main stre am in
the society so such so that their shadow was treated impure. Consequently,
they were reduced to abject poverty, complete beggary illiteracy and
ignorance.
8.2. UNT OUCHABILITY DUR ING THE PERIOD OF
MARATHAS
According to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar untouchability is an integral part
of Hindu philosophy. Even if untouchability was bann ed it could not be
ousted from the minds of Hindus. Hindus often say that there is
deplorable condition of untouchables, let us do s omething to
untouchables. If the untouchables can be cured, the untouchability will
automatically be vanished. There is nothing required to be done to change
the touchable. This assumption is not correct. The touchable should
change themselves and then the problem of untouchability would vanish.
But this did not take place and the problem was not solved for several
ages.
During the period of the Marathas, the Peshwas began to exercise
maximum authority as prime minister. Therefore, orthodoxy and
caste restrictions got primacy in the society. Jadunath Sarkar s aid that munotes.in
Page 101
Untouchability
101 national glory and prosperity resulted due to the victories of Shivaji
Chhatrapati and Bajirao I created a re action in favour of Hindu
orthodoxy and increased caste distinc tions and ceremo nial purity of
daily rites. Thus, the caste and tra dition bound Maratha society began to
practice untouchability widely.
8.3. NATUR E OF UNT OUCHABILITY DUR ING THE
PERIOD OF MARATHAS :
During the period of Marathas untouchability was relative because certain
castes were regarded as untouchable by some people and not by all other
people. There were certain castes which were regarded as ritually impure
in relation with some other castes. Naturally, they did not practice
commensality with those castes which were considered ritually impure.
Even then, they were not regarded as untouchables. There was the idea of
pollution, which was considered caused by the bodily touch of certain
lower castes to the upper castes. These lower castes were called
untouchables, but they were permitted to do some works at the houses of
upper castes like cutting vegetables, cleaning utensils and others. There
were several other lower castes, which were regarded extremely
untouchable even their shado w was also regarded polluting. In case of
these lo wer castes, untouchability was not considered rela tive but it was
absolute. Naturally, these c astes were the lowest ru ng of the caste
hierarchy. They were extremely humiliated and subjected to incredibly
harsh tre atment at the hands of the upper caste in the Maratha society.
They were not permitted to live within the village but forced to live
outside the village walls during the Marathas period. They were not
allowed to enter the city of Poona between 3 p.m. and 9 a.m. to avoid the
defilement of upper caste people due to their long shed shadow during
this time of the day. Not this much, whenever they used to enter the
village, they were to tie an earthen pot around their neck to spit in and
carry in hand a thorny branch to remove their foot prints. Because
both their sputum and foot prints were regarded defiling by the upper
castes.
There was no question of their availing any civil rights. They were denied
everything on the ground that everything they touched was defiling. They
were not provided with any essential services. Neit her Priest nor
barber used to serve them. They were to get their work done on their own.
They were neither allowed to draw water from the common well nor
allowed to do any job and earn living as others were doing in society.
Peshwa Nanasaheb had framed rules and regulations regarding the
management of the Tryamba keswar temple, Nasik, which denied entry to
the untouchables, they were to offer their prayers from t he outside of the
temple.
During the period of Marathas, the topmost caste claimed the ritual purity
and imposed their social superiority in the society. This caste also
claimed the performance of certain civil and religious rights was their
exclusive privilege and established their monopoly in performance of
those rites and rituals by using every. available means mostly political munotes.in
Page 102
History of Maratha
102 power. Among such privileges. the study of Veda s and the right to
perform socio-religious rites as per the Vedic hymns were prime.
Naturally, the topmost castes forced the untouchables to get done their
socio - religious rites and rituals as per the Puranic hymns, which were
considered lower to the Vedic hymns in ritual status. Those who
oppo sed to this arrangement, they were fined and punished severely. In
several cases infringed persons sustained cut off of their limbs or tongue s,
which was done to established superior status of the topmost caste in the
society.
While talking about the nature of untouch ability Dr. B.R. Ambed kar said
that untouchability was analogous to the problem of Jews who also
suffered a lot at the hands of Gentiles ( Christians) in various European
countries for centuries together. What Gentile (Christian) was to the
Jews, the touchable was to the untouchables. But there was one aspect in
which the Jewish problem stands in contrast to the Gentile problem. The
Jews and the gentiles are separated by an antagonism of creeds. The
Jewish creed opposed to that of the Gentile c reed. The touchable and the
untouchables were not separated by any such antagonism, they had a
common creed and observed the same cults. Despite this, the Gentiles
made several attempts in the past to assimilate the Jews. The first
attempt was in 1795. When the Batavian Republic was established. While
the second attempt was in 1806 during the period of Napoleon Bonaparte.
The Jews preferred to be separate to conserve their Judaism and observed
obedience to their faith. But the touchable never realized their
responsibility of assimilating the untouchables. There was no gulf between
the touchable and the untouchables of religious antagonism. There was
every possibil ity of bringing them together. But it was not done, the
untouchables are segregated compulsorily. Therefore, untouchability was
inflicted upon the lower castes; it was not a choice of them.
8.4. UNCH OUCHABILITY AND FIFTY-TWO RIGHTS
During the period of Marathas, all economic functions were carried out
exclusi vely on the basis of castes. Untouchables were forced to take up
certain menial functions for their living. There was no way out for them
to get rid of such menial unproductive functions. Na turally, they were
compelled to lead an extremely abject and wretched life. The wide
prevalence of untouchability during the Maratha period was a serious
defect in the social organization. There was no one to listen the severity of
this problem but nourished it by various means and regulations at various
levels. In such situation a document known as a letter written by the
peop le of Saswad to the Peshwa Bajirao I came to light, in which fifty two
rights were referred, which were to be observed by t he
untouchables. It is said that those rights were given originally to the
untouchable by the Bahamani king of Bidar in the preceding century to
the Marathas. Some of the important rights were as under :-
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Untouchability
103 1. The untouchable were to take up all the functions regarding t he
measureme nt of land belonging to the landlords in the village.
2. They were to undertake the work of actual collection of land revenue
of the village.
3. The untouchables were supposed to guard the standing crops in the
village.
4. The untouchables were an important linkage between the villagers and
the superior officials in the police department.
5. They were the important witnesses in the disputes regarding t he
watan land.
6. They were to act as informants to the Governme nt regarding the
happening in the village.
7. They were to act as escorts to the postman who carried letters from one
village to another village.
8. They were to help dispose or undertake menial work in the village.
9. The untouchables were to clean public places, road and places of
residence of important village officials.
10. Since the untouchables were suppo sed to guard the village, their
depositions in the criminal cases were considered very important.
11. In certain cases like theft and dacoity, if the real culprit was not
apprehended, the untouchables were constrained to make up the loss
of the victim of such theft and dacoity.
12. The untouchables were to render services like cutting fire wood,
during the religious festivals and functions in the village. They were
also to paint the houses of the village Patil, put on ornamental strings
of flowers on the eve of religious festivals.
CHECK YO UR PROGRESS
1. Discuss in brief the origin of untouchability.
2. Explain the nature of untouchability during the period of
Marathas.
8.5 SUMMARY
It is difficult to ascribe any reason to the rise and growth of untouchability
in India. Mostly, the menials in Hindu community were looked down
upon as chandals which means deserved to be condemned or Dasas i.e.
defeated, since the Vedic period. They were treated as untouchables
and segregated by the majority community in the country. They were
deprived of all the rights such as to enter the Hindu temple, join any
Hindu congregation and seek constituted a considerably la rge chunk of munotes.in
Page 104
History of Maratha
104 population, the majority education for their development. Although, the
untouchables constituted a considerable large chunk of population, the
majority community kept them cut up totally from the main stream in the
society-so much so that their shadow was treated impure Co nsequently
they were reduced to abject poverty, complete beggary, illiteracy and
ignorance.
According to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, untouchability is an integral pa rt
of the Hindu philosophy. Even if untouchability was banned it could not
be ousted from minds of Hindus. Dur ing the period of Marathas, the
Peshwas began to exercise optimum authority as prime-minster. Which
led to the orthodoxy and caste restrictions in the society. Untouchability
became relative because certain castes were treated untouchable by some
people. In the same way, there were certain castes which were regarded as
ritually impure in rela tion with some other castes. The caste, which were
considered themselves ritually pure did not practice commensality with
the castes which were ritually impure. Even then, they were not
considered as untouchables. There existed the idea of pollution. Which
was consider caused by the bodily touch of certain lower castes to the
upper castes. These lower castes were called as untouchables, but they
were permitted to do some certain works at the houses of upper castes like
cutting vegetables and cleaning utensils. There were several other
lower castes which were cle aning utensils. There were several other
lower castes which were regarded extremely untouchable, even their
shadow was also re garded polluted.
During this period, all economic functions were carried out on the basis of
castes. The untouchables were forced to take up menial unproductive
work. Hence, they led extremely abject and wretched life. In such period a
letter written by Saswad people to peshwa Bajirao I came to light in
which the reference of fifty-two rights of untouchables mentioned there.
Originally, that charter was given by Bahamani king of Bindar to
untouchables, in which all menial and non-productive works were
included .
8.6 QUESTIONS
1) Give an account of untouchability during the period of Marathas.
2) Examine the nature of untouchability during the period of your study.
3) Discuss the social s tructure under the Marathas.
4) Explain briefly the problem of untouchability during the period of
Marathas.
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Untouchability
105 8.7 ADDITION READINGS
1) Dr. Badasaheb Ambedkar , writings and speeches , vol. 7 edited by
Vasant Moon, Education Department, Government of Maharashtra,
1990
2) Ghurye G.S., Caste, Class and occupation in India, 4th edition, New
York, 1961.
3) Hu tton J. H., Cas tes in India : Its Na ture, Fu nctions and origins,
Cambridge, England, 1952.
4) Ghurye G. S., Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Bombay,
1969.
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Page 106
106 9
SLAVERY AND VETHBEGARI
Unit Struct ure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sources of Slavery Under the Marathas
9.3 Nature Of Slavery Under the Marathas
9.4 Male Slavery
9.5 Slave Trade
9.6 Female Slavery
9.7 Position of Sales in The Society
9.8 Manumission
9.9 Bonded Labour
9.10 Summary
9.11 Question
9.12 Additional Readings
9.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing the study of this unit, the student will be able to
1. Understand the meaning and origin of slavery.
2. Know the various sources of slavery.
3. Co mprehend the nature of slavery which was existed unde r the
Marathas.
4. Understand the male and female slavery.
5. Know the scope of slave trade during this period.
6. Comprehend the position of slaves in the Maratha society.
7. Understand whether manumission was considered under the
Marathas.
8. K now the system of Bonded labour and the jobs for which
bonded labourers were yoked. munotes.in
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Slavery and Vethbegari
107 9.1. INTR ODUCT ION
Slavery was involuntary servitude imposed by some members of the
human race on other human. This was the condition which existed in
society since the beginning of history.
Slavery was generally the effect of war, of debt or of violation of laws.
Slavery is termed variously in various parts of the world as serfdom,
patronage, white slavery or prisoners of war. It is true that slaves were
treated as a form of property, the meaning of which varied widely
from culture to culture. Sla ves yoked to compulsory s ervices, having
slaves with one viewed as a social status. But slavery had not always been
applied to the lowest class in the past, they had also worked as magistrat es
became kings and emperors. This is very well clarified that India ruled by
a slave dynasty in the medieval period. Slavery was one of the
characteristic features of primitive societies in Africa, Malay archip elago,
India, Indochina, Central and North coast Americans, Haida, India
and in certain island of Pacific. Ancient Egypt, Rome, Greek and other
European societies had slavery even the story of odyssey tells of men
killed and of women sold into slavery. In the medieval age slavery was
imposed not only as a consequence of war or parentage but also as a
penalty for certain crimes. Thus, slavery existed in each and every society
of the world. Naturally, it was existing in Indian society under the
Marathas.
As caste system and untouchability, the institution of slavery was also
existed during the period of Marathas. Slavery was one of the important
characteristic features of many ancient civilizations as Greece and Roman
civilizations. Although Greece was the centre of learning and democratic
institutions had accepted slavery as a natural and necessary social factor.
In the same way, slavery became more systematised in the ancient Roman
civilization. This trend continued till the medieval period in many
contemporary societies of the Marathas. The institution of slavery was
inhuman ever then there was public consciousness against the iniquity of
the practice of slavery till the eighteenth Century in the history of world
civilization. Although, the origin of slavery is involved a considerable
obscurity, there is a reference to the class of Dasas i.e. slaves in the
Vedic literature. The Pali literature mentions that the system of slavery
was very well established during the period of Buddha. The slave Dynasty
which ruled India in the thirteenth century is the most important evidence
that the system of slavery practiced in India for centuries together.
Naturally, Slavery was practiced in full swing in the society unde r the
Marathas.
9.2 SOURC ES OF SLAVERY UND ER THE MARATHAS
There were several sources of slavery in the ancient civilization and
contemporary societies. Following were some of the important reasons
responsible for the rise of slavery unde r the Marathas :-
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History of Marat ha
108 1. War and subsequent Looting
2. Birth to a slave woman .
3 Trade
4 Ransom
5 Economic Distress
6 Orphans
7 Adultery
There causes are discussed in little detail as under :-
1. War and Looting :- The data regarding the problems of slavery in
India is available today, that is collected by the British officers after
their conquest of the territories of Marathas. As per the information
collected by the British officials the most important cause of the
slavery under the Marathas was the war and the subsequent looting.
During or after the war women and girls of the defeated rulers were
captured freely or without any interruption by the victorious ruler, he took
them to his country and sold them freely as slaves. In the same way, the
armed forces of the victorious ruler with or without notice to the ruler
used to loot whatever it they came across including women and girls and
sold them in the market for various reasons and prices as slaves. Thus,
this was one of the important reasons of the slavery.
2. Birth :- It is said that the prevalent social system under the
Marathas considered that a slave womb produced sla ve. All children
born to female slave whether by her master or somebody else were
considered slaves. Thus, this also was one of the important causes of
slavery unde r the Marathas.
3. Trade : This was the cause of slavery at the national and international
level. During this period also this was one of the main causes. It is said
that, there were several groups who used to keep watch on isol ated people
and tribes, who were c aught and sold in market as slaves.
4. Ransom : As mentioned above, after wars fought, the victorious
soldiers used to capture girls, women and men for selling as slaves. But
there was a tradition that men were not sold instantly as slaves, they were
held for ransom If the ransom was not paid within the stipulated period
then the men held were sold as sla ves in distant market. Thus, this was
one of the reasons of slavery unde r the Marathas.
5. Economic Distress :- There were several economic problems during
the period of Marathas as failure of crops, flood, draught, and
famines. In addition to these problems political disturbances also created
severe scarcity of food. That led to several poor parents to sell their
children, brothers and sisters as slaves. munotes.in
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Slavery and Vethbegari
109 6. Orph ans : The Maratha period had several economic distress es during
which peop le died on large-scale. Those who survived mostly i nfants
had no one to care means they used to fall orphans. Naturally, such
helpless were sold as slave or reduced to slavery.
7. Adultery :- The practice of enslaving women for the crime of adultery
was in existence. But it is said that the women who were
proved guilty for adultery were fined for the crime. If the women
who were not able to pay fine and were not from respectable
families were reduced to slavery as punishment for the crime of adultery.
Mostly, there was no any other reason of slavery. Even any Government
officer tried to enslave some body for his own benefit, that was not agreed
by the government and the officer in question was heavily reprimanded
for the same by the Governme nt. For example, a Havaldar tried to enslave
a poor woman, who was doing s ome low menial work for her living, when
the activity of the Ha valdar c ame to sight, the Havaldar was heavily
rebuked and the poor woman was released and set free from the bondages
of Slavery.
9.3. NATURE OF S LAVERY UND ER THE MARATHAS
Slavery during the Maratha period was limited to the middle rung in the
society. Neither the Brahmin nor the untouchable was enslaved on any
account and at any cost. It is said that some of the slave tra ders had
enticed away some of the women from the respectable families and sold
them in the far-off market as slaves. When it came to notice, the Peshwa
ordered f or investigation and punished the guilty traders and warned all
others about the consequences of such heinous activity. Even there
was no debt - bondage seen in the society and the person was enslaved
for the failure of repayment of his debt to the creditor. There was a
practice in the society that the debtor on his own used to offer his services
to his creditor in the matter of repayment of his debt. But there was no
such condition existed in the dealing and that never led to enslave anyone.
In case it happened and brought to the notice, the creditor was heavily
punished for the crime. It has also come to the notice t hat a debtor had
agreed to render his services to the creditor for this debt. But the debtor
died before the expiry of his sc hedu le term. Neit her the children of the
debtor were held under obligation to complete the remai ning term of
service to the creditor nor they were enslaved for the debt of their father.
Slavery unde r the Peshwa was subject to caste discriminations. As per the
orders of the Government neither Brahmins nor the untouchable were
enslaved. The f ormer being res pected and the latter being not of any use to
the society, they were spared from enslaving and becoming victims of the
age-old system. There are ref erence of Muslims and Abyssinians who
were either ensla ved or bought as slaves from other countries. But
generally, people form the middle rung of the society like Prabhu, Sonar,
Dhangar, Marathas and Kunbis were enslaved on various pretexts
mentioned above. Slaves from upper castes were generally admitted into munotes.in
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History of Marat ha
110 houses of rich and upper caste people and they were able to get any
work done from them. During this period the slaves, generally held the
caste of their mother not of their father. But the shudras raised the
children of their female slaves into their caste only. These was no
objection raised by any section in the society.
Slavery unde r the Marathas was basically dome stic. These slaves were
used on the field also but, this slavery never assumed the comprehensive
nature of industrial slavery, which was Practiced in several western
countries. Even than the treatment meted out to them was not lesser, then
the treatment given in the western countries. The slave was certainly
lashed as a punishment for their refractory. There are ample references
regarding the master or owner beat their slaves to death. Even for
pardonable mistakes. Therefore, slaves used to run away from the
cultches of their master. Although the slaves were treated well, their life
was not without troubles. The master or the owner of the slave was
not under the obligation to maintain his slaves in their old days or age. the
mater used to release his aged slaves without any provision for their
living. The slaves who were too old to work and too old to sell as well
as those who were economically liability were released by their masters
without providing any maintenance or arranging for earning source.
Thus, the slavery during this period was unbearable and inhuman
system.
9.4 MALE SLAVERY
Slavery unde r the Marathas had some unique characteristics, which were
not found in the slavery of western countries. One of such characteristics
was that men were mostly enslaved. Many a times invaders held the war
prisoners but they were held for ransoms only. They were released as and
when the ransom was paid. As per the Government order males above the
age of ten were not sold at any cost, if it was traced the Government
punished the seller for the crime of infraction of the Government order.
According to the prevalent practice, children born to a female sla ve used
to become sla ves of the master. But out of them, males were held into
bandages of slavery for one generation only. It means the children of
male slave were treated as free men. While talking about the sla very in
the central India, Sir J ohn Malcolm says that it was confined to
female slavery only. No males were enslaved and were not seen in that
territory. There were several peop le of rank and property, who had
maintained a lot of servants to keep their property but they all were
servants and not slaves.
9.5. SLAVE TRADE
Trade was one of the sources of the slavery during this period. Women
and children were freely sold and purchased in market. But this slave
trade was not so wide and extensive as the slave trade which was carried
out in the contemporary western societies. As per the available
documentary evidences, there were several wande ring comm unities like
Vanjaris, Banjaras, Gwarriahls, Hede and Charanas carrying out the slave munotes.in
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Slavery and Vethbegari
111 trade during this period. It seems, there was no connection of these
communities with the international slave traders. Their catchment area
was very limited. Their sla ve trade was confined to women and children
only, whom they entangled them and sold them either to prostit utes or any
rich persons as slaves to work as dome stic or farm labourers. the slave
trade used to be in boom during the period of scarcity of food grains and
famous. Not this much, the slave traders also used to steal women and
children for the purpose of trade only. Such women and children were
taken to far- off markets and sold them there. Acc ording to Malcolm,
there were several Marathas and Brahmins who were involved in this
trade. They purchased women slaves and sent to Poona where these slaves
fetched high prices. Because Poona was the capital of the Peshwas and
almost all nobles and high-ranking people who needed to be resided in
that city. It is said that some of the slave traders of Poona had
amassed a great wealth in this trade. While talking about the slave trade
under the Marathas. It was local as well as moderate in comparison with
the sla ve trade carried out in the western counties. The prices of slaves
during this period differed from slave to slave. They were paid from Rs.
35 to Rs. 400 depending on their look, youth and caste. Generally, good
looking girls and beautiful women were purchased in order to reduce them
to concubinage and prostit ution. Naturally, such slaves were paid higher
prices. The slaves purchased for domestic labour were healthy and
strong. The Government also purchased slaves for various functions. The
Slaves who were black, Tall slender and quick at heels were preferred
because such slaves only kept pace with the soldiers on state expeditions
and processions under taken by the Governme nt on various occasions.
9.6 FEMALE SLAVERY
According to the information collected by the British officers regarding
the system of slavery, the male slave was called Gulam and the female
slave was called either Batkin or Kunbin. Female sla ves were deployed
and employed for house hold work as sweeping the floor, plastering it
with cow dung or popularly known as mopping the floor, cle aning
utensils, washing clothes, cleaning and cutting vegetables, grinding and
pounding c orn and making beds of their masters and mistres ses. As per
the survey condu cted by Bro ughton, it seems that the female slaves of rick
people in general and female slaves employed by Sindia enjoyed a very
easy day today life.
The female slaves of Sindia said that their daily routine was to
attend on the wives of Sindia and rub the feat of old and elderly people
when they retired for rest. They were left free to follow any course of
action as they deeme d fit during the night. Generally, rich people and
nobles used to retain female slaves for sexual pleasure. Army officers,
Prince and chiefs had so many female slaves in their courts, they trai ned
in dancing singing and recreational tactics and finally included them in
their concubinage.
There were several female slaves, who were employed by the Government
in their various departments as stables, department of elephants and munotes.in
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History of Marat ha
112 camels, ammunition factories, department of espionage and provisions.
Each department had general and specific duties which the female slaves
were required to do them with some odd jobs whenever required by the
government. Apart from this, there other female slaves who were hapless
and fell into the hands of prostit utes, were to live as public prostit utes in
the brothels run by the head prostitute or Naikin i. According to Jenkin’s
report, female slaves under the Marathas were treated very much liberally
and humanely. The purchasers of the female slaves used to bring up
and nourish the slaves in their own family with their family members
and children. Although, they were purchased for domestic work as
servants but almost were treated equally in re gards to food and clothing
that the people who had no children, adopted their sla ves as their children
and bore huge expend iture on the marriages of female slaves. Coat one of
the foreign travellers says one of the eight families of female sla ves settled
down at Loni village near Pune was freed from the bondages of slavery
due to the good conduct rendered by the family to its master. According to
Broughton, female slaves employed in the services of Sindia were
provided with good food daily and two sets of clothes per year. In
addition to this, the female slaves were allowed to earn as much as they
were able to do by any ways and means they deemed fit. Bro ughton
further says that some of the female slaves of Sindia were required to be
in waiting during the night and remaining all others left free to go
anywhere they liked for that night only. In general, the female slaves
ultimately remai ned attached to the family of their mast er for the whole
life.
9.7 POSITION OF SALES IN THE SOCIETY
Slave unde r the Marathas were treated variously. The slaves of rich and
men of position enjoyed much facilities and liberty while the sla ves of
ordinary people could not have them and suffered some hardships.
Therefore, the question of position of slaves in the society unde r the
Marathas is raised It is said that during this period the slaves were
regarded as chattle of the master. Naturally, he could dispose them as he
liked as he could sell them as other commodities in his possession,
could mortgage them for debt and could gift them to anybody as a gift.
There are several references available that the people gifted their female
slaves to Brahmin, for performing funeral ceremonies or any other
religious ceremonies. They were also offered rich and wealthy
peop le on special occasions as well as to daughters as wedding gifts
from their parents.
There are lot of references of runaway slaves to get rid of harassment
from their masters. But the Government helped their master to apprehend
such slaves. As a rule, even if one of such sla ves discovered after a long
time, he was handed over to the master. In short, it is needless to say that
slaves were treated as property of his master. In some other cases of
female slaves, the master was to give up his claim of ownership over
the female in case the female slave after desertion or run away married
and staying with her husband. It is said that after marriage female slave munotes.in
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Slavery and Vethbegari
113 was treated and considered a respectable woman. The Government
forced the master to forsake its ownership and asked not to put such
married female sla ve into slavery. Although the final authority regardi ng
the female slave whether to marry, It was entirely with the master
and anyone challenged to this authority was punished by the Governme nt.
But the master magnanimous and forsook his ownership over the married
female slave and transferred her to her husband.
Although the master had absolute authority over his slaves, he had no
right to kill them with impunity. The Governme nt was there to reprimand
the master upon such incidences noticed or complained to them by the
relatives of the slain slaves. It is also said that slave under the Marathas
had rights to purchase another slave from his savings. The slave can hire
away such purchased slave for profit. It means the purchaser slave had
only full right and ownership over the earning of the purchased slave.
Thus, the weightage to slave during this period was not more than a
commodity, it was not treated as human but an article only.
9.8 MANUMISSION
It means liberation of slaves from the bondages of servitude.
Manumission under the Marathas was practiced in some or other parts. In
general, the system was not practic ed as harsh as it was in other countries
of the world. There are several references, that master used to purchase
on t heir own clothes, footwear, some cheap ornaments for their slaves
on the eve of festivals and important occasions. They were given presents
and even master married their slaves at their own expend iture and
liberated them from the bondages of slavery out of their generosity. In
one instance not only, the slave was freed from his bondages of
servitude but also he was given a piece of land called inam by the master
for maintenance of the Slave. During this period, there was one more
facility offered to the slave that he or she was liberated on the
supply of substitute in place of slave. For example, in the state
ammunition factory, Pune, there were two female slaves. Out of them one
had grown very old was the mother and other was her daughter, who was
also a slave. Although, the later was young. She had met with an accident
and was crippled. Both the female slaves were unfit to work. They,
therefore, were liberated on the supply of healthy substitute to the
Governme nt to work in the ammunition factory.
Manumission was not at all in desuetude unde r the Marathas. There
were several grounds on which the society unde r study considered
liberation or manumission of slaves. Some of them are summarized as
under :-
1. The Masters of slaves liberated their slaves from bondages of slavery
because, they were tired abou t the impertinence of and shirking from the
work by the slaves. munotes.in
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History of Marat ha
114 2. In some cases, the masters liquidated the bondages of slavery of their
slaves when the relatives and castes men of their sla ves offered money and
purchased them.
3. In other cases, the masters yielded to the moral pressure of requests
made by the relatives and castemen of slaves and granted them liberty. For
example, such requests were made when female sla ves were minor and
the male slave was between 10 and 15 years. The male enslavemen t was
not recognized, the field slavery was unknown and the only domestic
slavery was prevalent.
4. The practice of slavery unde r the Marathas did not acquire major
economic advantages, therefore, the masters released their slaves from the
bandages of slavery.
5. The practice of slavery neither supplied a force of cheap
Labourers to the land lords nor it proved a source of lucrati ve
avocation for traders.
6. Although, the maintenance of slaves during this period was a projecti on
of once wealth and status, it was liquidated on the pretext of old age and
good service by the slaves and in some cases rel igious motive seemed
dominant.
9.9 BONDED LABOUR
The Marathas period generally is divided into one as the Royal period and
the second as the Peshwa period for the convenience of study. These two
period had some outstanding features based on social stratification and
social systems. The Royal period was entirely suppo rted by feudalistic set
up of society where as the Peshwa period experienced the emergence of a
totally new cla ss in society which was the class of the Maratha Sardars.
This was the direct consequence of the existence of the system of
Watandari int he society. This class had its own natural requiremen ts.
Hence, the social set up under the Peshwas stimulated several systems
like Khoti system and Bonded labour. Bonded labour was known as
Vethbigar or compu lsory labour. In the society where slavery as an
institution flourished in every corner, it was quite possible that the system
of bonded labour was practiced everywhere on a very wider scale.
Although there were several reasons responsible for the emergence of this
system, the inability of paying back debt of the creditor led the debtor to
accept this compulsory la bour. It was but natural that the people coming
from the less privileged sections and lower caste were compe lled to take
up this bonded labourship. Bra hmins and other higher caste people were
exempted from the compulsory work. Bonded labours were gene rally used
for the following purposes:-
1. Bonded labourers were assigned the work of constructi on of forts,
police stations, public, private and Government buildings, dams, and
lakes. Th ese structures were very useful and were the basic needs of any
Government. Enemies often attacked and disrupted these structures first. munotes.in
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Slavery and Vethbegari
115 The Governme nt, therefore, needed bonded labourers for the work of
repair of them. Thus, it was the major work, which was assigned to
them.
2. For constructi on of the above struct ures, there was a great need of
feasible woode n logs. Hence, Bonded labourers were used to fell frees,
cut them into suitable planks and pols and carry them where ever they
were need ed.
3. During the period of Marathas, there was not a much advancement
of science and insecticid es. Th ere was not a much advancement of science
and insecticid es. There were several enemies to the standing crops.
Naturally, bonded labourers were assigned one of the duties to protect the
standing c rop in general and to protect the crops in the field of eminent
people in particular.
4. During the period under study various animals were used in wars and
fights like horses, elephants, bullocks and buffalos to rear them and to
feed them, a class of cheap labourers was needed. Bonded labourers were
deployed to cut grass grown in Government owned land and to tie it into
bundles of appropriate size and weight.
5. Bonded labourers were assigned the work in Government office and
public places.
6. Bonded labourers were placed for doing domestic chores in the private
establishments of the king as well as official residences and palaces of the
king and later in the court of the Peshwas.
7. Under the Marathas, there was no regular police force, the
Government, therefore, used bonded labourers to man the various
chaukies at different places in cities commercial centres holy places,
bazzars and the places of recreation, sports and gymnasiums for care and
protection.
8. During the period of Marathas, there were Watandars and
Maratha Sardars, who need ed bonded labourers at their Watan for various
works. Thus, they were deployed for work whatever the Watandars
required.
In the era of existence of several systems like slavery khoti system, and
untouchability, the presence of compulsory la bourer was not untenable.
The work in society was divided and got done from them. Their
services were requestioned on a number of occasions like public
functions, rel igious festivals and periodical f airs. G enerally, bonded
labourers were not on and often called to work free. Such occasions
were very limited. Local and petty officials were not authorized to ask
anyone to work free more than the period stipulated. Even then, there
were several complaints that some individuals were forced by the local
officers to work free of charges as well as more than the time which was
stipulated consequently, bonded labourers on number of occasions fled munotes.in
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History of Marat ha
116 away to avoid the compulsory work and sought refuge at some safer
places.
Normally, requisitioning of free services of private individuals and
institutions by the Governme nt on certain occasions was not out of order.
Even in modern era, Governments are obliged to requisition services of
private individuals in the time of need, scarcity, distress, war and natural
calamities. The people in every corner res ponse tre mendously till the
problem is settled. It is, therefore, not surprising that the bonded
labour was practiced during the period of Marathas on a wider scale.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) What were the different constraints which worked as sources of
slavery unde r the Marathas?
9.10 SUMMARY
Slavery was involuntary servitude imposed by some members of the
human race on other human. This situation existed in society since the
beginning of history. Slavery was generally the effect of war or the
violation of some serious laws or non-payment of debts.
This system existed in every ancient and Medieval societies. It was one of
the characteristic features of Egypt, Rome, Greek, America, Africa and
European societies. It was also prevalent in India and one of Slave
dynasties also ruled India in the Medieval period.
There were several sources of slavery unde r the Marathas as war and
subsequent looting, birth to a slave woman , trade, ransom, orphanness,
and adultery. Slavery during this period was limited to the middle rung of
the society. If anyone tried to enslave to anybody from the upper caste,
the Governme nt heavily reprimanded the guilty persons. Available
sources say that the children of a debtor were not under any obligation to
render any service to the cre ditor after the death of their farther, who died
before the repayment of his debt. Slavery unde r the Marathas was
basically domestic and not industrial as was in the western countries.
Slavery, unde r the period of your study was limited to female only. Male
was neither enslaved nor sold as slave. Even if he was born to a female
slave, he was set free after the age of ten. It means male never held in
bondage for more than a generation. Sir J ohn Malcolm observed that in
Malva only female slavery was in existence and male was very rarely
enslaved. In slave trade wande ring trib es like Banjaras, Bhats, and
Charans were involved the most. They were engaged in the traffic of
women and children who were ultimately sold as dome stic servants or
prostit utes. Malcolm has referred to some Bra hmin slave traders. Who
purchased some female slaves and sent them to Pune where they fetched
very high prices. Health, caste, youth were some of the factors considered
at the time of purchasing sla ves. But generally, black, tall, slender and
stronger women were often purchased for various works. munotes.in
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Slavery and Vethbegari
117 Female slaves during the Peshwa period were called Batkinis or Kunbinis.
Since slaves were treated as property, the Government levied tax on the
number of slaves one who passed them. The Master of slaves could easily
sell, mortgage or dispose them as he pleased. Although, the master had
full authority on his slaves, he could never kill his slaves with impunity.
There are some evidences that the master used to purchase foot wear,
cloths and some cheap ornaments for their slaves. It mean s slaves during
this period were tre ated rather liberally. Even some of the slaves mostly
old and enable to work, were permitted to purchase other slaves for
hiring out or using them as substitute slaves for themselves. They
were also allowed to possess property of their own. Some of the slaves
remained attached to the family of their master till the end of their life.
9.11 QUESTION
1. Give an account of Slavery and Bonded Labour during the period
of Marathas.
2. Discuss briefly the nature of slavery during the period of your study.
3. Examine the position of slavery during the period of Marathas.
4. Ass ess the factors which were responsible for the rise of slavery
and Bonded labour under the Marathas.
5. Write notes on 1) Slave Trade 2) Male slavery 3) Female
slavery 4) Manum ission.
9.12 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1) Joshi S.N. Marathe K alin S amajdarsan, Poona, A. V. Graha
Prakashan, 1960.
2) Kale D. V., Social l ife in Pre-British Maharashtra.
3) Sudha Desai, Social l ife in Maharashtra under the Peshwas.
4) B. G. Gokhale, Poona in the Eighteenth century.
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118 10 CONDITION OF PEASANTRY Unit Structure: 10.0 Objectives. 10.1. Introduction. 10.2. Division of land. 10.3. Nature of land. 10.4. Cultivators or Peasants During the Period of Marathas. 10.5. Restoration of Peasantry. 10.6. Encouragement to Agriculture. 10.7. Agricultural Production. 10.8. Irrigation 10.9. Gardens and Forests. 10.10 Colonization. 10.11. Summary. 10.12. Questions. 10.13. Additional Readings. 10.0. OBJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to 1. understand the various divisions of land. 2. know the nature of agriculture made under the Marathas 3. perceive the plight of peasantry and its problems 4. comprehend the policy of Maratha rulers towards the encouragement to agriculture 5. understand the agricultural production and products 6. know the efforts made by the Maratha rulers for irrigation of agriculture munotes.in
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Condition of Peasantry
119 7. understand gardens, forest and colonization during the period of Marathas. 10.1 INTRODUCTION Land was the main profession of the people during the period of Marathas. It was the basic support of the economic position of the Marathas. Although, there were some activities of trade and commerce, agriculture was indispensable, because almost all commodities produced in agriculture were used for trade and commerce in addition to food for survival of the people. Consequently, farmers or cultivators used to call land as mother earth. It is to be noted that the principle of private property in connection with land was agreed . It is evident from the transactions like sale and purchase of land , mortgage and gift of land , and direct settlement of revenue between the king and the cultivators, that the cultivators had property rights in land during the period of Marathas. Although, the private property was agreed upon , all people shared the agricultural production proportionately, as per their contribution to the cultivation of land. 10.2 DIVISION OF LAND Land under the Marathas was divided into various categories on the basis of its use done by the people as 1. The land let out to permanent landholder for the purpose of cultivation. 2. crown or domestic land. 3. Forest land and 4. Waste land. The Cultivable land or arable land was divided into (1) Jirayat (2) Bagayat land. Jirayat land is further categorized into 1. superior 2. inferior 3. ordinary 4. rockey land 5. marshy land 6. salty land and so on. While the Bagayat or irrigated land was divided into 1 Patasthal and 2. Motasthal. The classification of land was done in ancient period also. Aryachanakya or Vishnugupta or Kautilya, a great diplomat and political philosopher wrote ‘Arthashastra’ and divided land in various classes as flower gardens, fruit gardens, vegetable gardens , wet field , field where crops were grown by sowing roots for seeds, which was popularly known as Malvapati and forest as game forest, timber forest, and elephant forest. Kautilya made a clear distinction between the sita or produce from grown land and bhaga or portion of agricultural production payable to the king as a revenue. The Marathas accepted some of the important features of the Muslim rule regarding the land system. They also adopted several outstanding features of the land system prevailed in older Hindu system in India. This so happened that the officials like Deshmukh and Deshpande who worked in the pre- Muslim administration continued in their positions hereditarily with their title and the inam or watan granted to them. Naturally, the land system under the Marathas was a sum total of all better systems prevailed in the country. The most of the land in the village apart from the waste land, forest land or the land controlled by the Government was called as Thals or Estates. The people who were cultivating it came to be known as Thalwahiks. But in later period Thalwahiks came to be popularly known as Mirasdars means the people munotes.in
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120 holding the land with hereditary proprietary rights. The Thals or Estates were divided into sub divisions. These sub- divisions were headed by various individuals or kin groups of mirasdars which came to be known as Jathas of mirasdars. The jathas was jointly responsible for the payment of revenue, taxes or any dues in connection with the land which they held with proprietary rights. The each member of the Jatha of mirasdar could cultivate its share of the land as he wished or he could lease out that portion of land to somebody else for more production but the each member of the Jatha was responsible for the payment of the revenue jointly. This arrangement of joint payment was made to ensure the whole payment of the revenue. Even if one of the Jathas could not pay the revenue ,there were other members of the Jatha to pay the revenue in toto. Despite the division of land into various Jathas, there was one more division of land and that was called inam land or Watan land. These inams or watans were granted to several people and institutions on several grounds by the king or the Government. Such land holders were religious institutions like temples, mosques, Samadhis, Varshasanas, artisans and village officials, which later on became hereditary Watandars. Thus, these were some of the divisions of land under the Marathas. 10. 3. NATURE OF LAND The nature of land in two divisions of the kingdom of Marathas differed from each other, these divisions were 1.Desh and 2.Konkan 3.1 In Desh- the land differed from place to place and it was of following nature 3.1. Deep Dark Soil. Almost this land was formed of the weathering of the rock traps and constituted the major portion of land in this division. 3.2 . Reddish Blend Land. 3.3. Light Black 3.4 Light Brown 3.5 Black and Light Brown, found in the platue of Deccan. 3.6. Red Land, found in hilly areas. 3.7. Rich Alluvial land. or Malai Land, found along the different banks of rivers and popularly came to be known as malai land. 1 Konkan Division : - In comparison with Desh , the land in this region was not fertile . The land available in this region was of the following kinds as : - munotes.in
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121 2 Reddish Brown : - This was the land found along the slopes of hills and in some plains . This land was formed of the disintegration of laterite traps. 3 Black soil , was rare but found in Thane district. 3 Alluvial soil , found in Kolaba district. 4 .Rich Alluvial soil , found along the banks of rivers. 5 Barren land , found everywhere , came to be known as varkas land . This land was divided into two types as malvarkas and dongri varkas. Malvarkas land was found in the plains of konkan where plough was used to cultivate it. It was also known as Autland and saplings were used for replantation. While dongri varkas land was found along the hill slopes which was cultivated only with the help of manual labour . 6. Kharpat or Salty land:- This land contained salinity of varying degree, found along the creeks near the sea coast and very much fertile and favourable for garden crops. Cattle manure was mostly used to increase and improve the fertility of any kind of soil during the period of Marathas. In order to improve the fertility of soil, it was kept fallow or uncultivated for some years or a number of sheep were kept haltingly for some days over the piece of such land, whose excreta or dropping enhanced the fertility of soil, when it was mixed in the soil completely, Among the other methods of increasing fertility of soil, the system of crop rotation is the scientific method, used everywhere in the world. 10.4. CULTIVATORS OR PEASANTS DURING THE PERIOD OF MARATHAS:- As per the records available of Maratha period, the cultivator of that period was called variously as Kunbi, Mujeri, Raya or Kulawadi. The word Kunbi is derived from Kulambi or Kutumbika i.e.a husbandman or an individual of the agricultural order in other words a farmer or peasant who undertook the work of forming. Generally, the cultivator belonged to the Maratha class, which was in majority at every village during this period. The general condition of the cultivator was extremely bad and depressing. Causes for Backwardness of cultivators or peasants under the Marathas :- There were causes and circumstances which led the farmer or cultivator or peasant to depressing and bad conditions. Following were some of the important factors among them:-1 Uncertain and unpredictable rainfall. 2. Constant Warfares 3. Poor quality of soil 4. lack of credit facilities 5 Lack of fertilisers and insecticides 6. Heavy taxation 7 Backward and old tools and techniques of agriculture 8 General backwardness of cultivator and peasant 9 Availability of meagre land for cultivation . These factors are explained in detail as under : - munotes.in
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122 1. Availability of Meagre land for cultivation :- As per the requirement of population, cultivable land was not available in any village, that led to low production and low per capita income .For example, in Menoli village, Taluka Vai, the total cultivable land was around 120 bighas, out of which first quality land was only 32 bighas means it was only sixteen percent land of the total land occupied by the village. Due to lack of other sources, all members in the family used to be involved in various operations of cultivation of land from ploughing, sowing to harvesting of the crops. As the total land available for cultivation was very meagre, the only hard and sustained labour could fetch the cultivator or the peasant's family a bare subsistence from the land. Thus, lack of adequate land for adequate manpower was the situation during the Maratha power. Due to this only there were standing orders of Chhatrapati Shivaji to his officers and watandars to bring more and more barren land under cultivation. 2. Old means and Techniques of cultivation: - During this period, agriculture was cultivated with the help of old and outdated tools and implements. The method to till the land was very old and ancient. Naturally' the exercise of agriculture did not take place adequately. In absence of good exercise, the fertility of land did not increase and there was no enough agricultural production. As a matter of fact, agriculture or the peasantry under the Marathas had improved tools and appliances like tractors, sowing, thrashing and cutting machines, then the production of agriculture could have increased and the peasantry would have been rich enough. But, this did not happen, the peasant or cultivator continue to till the land with the help of a pair of bullocks and depended upon old ploughs and techniques. Moreover, the peasant used to face another problem of cattle lifters Bullocks were treated as wealth or livestock of the peasant and therefore, the cattle lifters targeted them especially, in the villages of border area or the frontiers of the Maratha kingdom. Chhatrapati Shivaji had taken precautions and issued orders to his officials that they should guard the frontiers of the kingdom and deter the cattle lifters from doing so and if found punished them severely. Chhatrapati Shivaji in order to save the rural economy, began to advance some money to purchase a pair of good healthy bullocks on easy terms. Such amount was later recovered from the cultivator in several fixed installments. It is said that the wealth of a cultivator or peasant was reckoned on the number of ploughs he possessed with him means how many pairs of bullocks he had on that the people used to guess that how many acres of land the peasant might have possessed. This led to project the prosperity of the peasant. Thus, this was the position of cultivator under the Marathas. 3. Lack of Credit Facilities : - Economic life under the Marathas was organized because , barter system was in practice and it functioned well. Whatever the cultivator needed in the process of agricultural activities, for example, agricultural implements like plough, tipan (sowing implement) kolapa (implement used for exercising infant crops ), khurpe(implement used to weed out unwanted grass while the crops is munotes.in
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123 infant ) and so on , were made , remade and repaired by local artisans. A good quality of seeds which the cultivator needed was chosen carefully, from the quality produce of the last year and was preserved for the whole year for the purpose of sowing. But many a times due to crop failure or other exigencies, the farmer was forced to buy them from the open market. Chhatrapati Shivaji being king of great vision ordered his officials to advance loan to such needy cultivators for seeds they required. Almost all people were not lucky to get loan on all occasions on the basis of one or another pretext. Such unlucky peasants were to approach private money lenders, who exploited the peasants the most. The private money lenders charged the peasants almost double the amount of their loan for the period of one year only. The local money lenders were known as Shete and Mahajan recovered almost equal amount to the loan advanced to the cultivator as interest. Thus, such situation affected the economic resources and economic position of the farmer or the cultivator under the Marathas. 4. Uncertainty of Rainfall : - Another problem the cultivator faced was the uncertain and uneven distribution of rainfall. The rainfall was so erratic that the peasants were to be always at the mercy of monsoon. That means many a times there was no rain or excessive rain or scanty rainfall, these situations almost led to the condition like draught in the country. The importance of rains during the time of sowing season is clearly mentioned by saint Tukarama. He says that even if a death occurred at the time of sowing activities, the cultivator covered the dead body with the leaves of trees and undertook sowing activities for the day, after the sowing was over, the Cultivator performed the last rights of the dead body. Therefore, it is said the cultivator was never sure about the production of agriculture, which was based on rainfall. Hence, Chhatrapati Shivaji had made provisions for the construction of water weirds, dams and tanks everywhere. It is said that the territory of Marathas come under the range of south-west Monsoon, it being erratic, recurred often the widespread droughts and famines. Due to lack of other sources of income, the people were forced to migrate to better places for survival. The Government tried its best to encourage the cultivators to undertake irrigational activities to get rid of scarcity of water and reclaim land in order to increase production and store it to be used in time of famine. These and some other more were the efforts of the king to protect the people in his kingdom. These efforts created organic relationship between the king and the cultivators and stimulated sustained development of the kingdom. 5. Protection of Standing Crops:- This had been also a problem faced by the cultivators since the ages. There were several dangers to the standing and ripped crop because it was almost ready to thrash and bring home for consumption. In such situation the crops was to be protected from 1.theft 2.birds3.animals 4.insecticides like rats and rodents. To protect from the theft and animals, the cultivator needed to fence the land ,for this he munotes.in
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124 needed funds. To protect from the birds, he was to employ some people to ward them off by hurling stones or pebbles at the birds through gophan. In the same way he was to create scare in the animals as well as birds, the cultivator found it necessary to put up a scare- crow in the middle of the standing crops. The scare-crow was like a statue of man, it was created with the help of a pole, earthen pot and some old clothes. Rodents were another type of pests who damaged the standing crops totally and deprived the cultivator from reaping fruits of his effort done throughout the year. This was a very serious problem the cultivator or peasant faced during the period of Marathas. 6. Constant warfare : - During this period, cultivators or farmers faced one more problem the constant warfare. The period was insecure, war was the order of the day, everyone wanted to solve the problem on the battle ground , which troubled the peasant much more than anybody else. The army when marched from one village to another for war, requisitioned various things for them as food grains, fodder , clothes from the villagers. When the armed skirmishes used to take place, the cultivators were forced to leave their daily business half-way and run away to safer places for several days. This development affected their lives very much. In addition to this when the army moved from one place to another that time they looted everything, they came across. Their horses used to eat the standing crops or trampled the crops and destroyed the crops in toto. Naturally that added to the unbearable difficulties of cultivators or peasants. Chhatrapati Shivaji realised the unnecessary and irrecoverable loss to the peasantry and poor cultivators. Shivaji , therefore ordered his army officers that no officer should requisition extra provisions and trouble the farmers. But in the period of Peshwa, this was not checked properly, it bore different value as Mulukhgiri and the requisition during the time of recurring warfare continued and became a regular feature . This troubled the cultivators a lot and contributed to worsen the economic position of the people. However, Chhatrapati Shivaji tried to avoid warfare in the territory of Swaraj and carry them in the territory of his enemy. But it was not always possible and many a times, Shivaji was to fight his formidable enemies from within his territories. Therefore, places like South Konkan, Panhala, Kudal, Sawantwadi, Poona, Saswad, Chakan, Vai, Javli, Kalyan and Bhiwandi became the theatres of recurring wars. During the war of independence, the whole Swaraj was in danger, the Mughal army committed several atrocities on the civilians and peasantry and made the life extremely miserable. The enemy soldiers burnt everything, terrorized people in such a way that all cultivators and civilians tried to find out safer place for subsistence. Thus, the constant and recurring warfare made the lives of farmers the most miserable. munotes.in
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125 10.5 RESTORATION OF PEASANTRY The Maratha Government did everything possible to restore and reinstate the cultivators after the incursion or recurrence of adverse incidences. The Government or the king knew very well the plight of the cultivator. After the hard work of the whole year the farmer or the cultivator could earn something for his living. Moreover, everything depended on the cultivator hence, Government tried its level best to avoid the cultivator from fleeing his own village. During the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji all village officers were instructed specially to render every possible help to the cultivator , try to bring more and more land under the cultivation and increase the production in such away that the cultivator should not face any problem in any adverse condition. The hereditary village officers like Patil and Kulkarni were held responsible for sufferings and troubles of the cultivators in the villages under their jurisdiction. These officials were also instructed that they should create favourable conditions to cultivators and provide them protection during the time of exigencies like sowing and harvesting seasons. Because, during these periods mostly thefts used to take place and the fear of total destruction of grain could happen, which affected the life of cultivators. It is said that even if the cultivator killed a thief at such period no Government official held the cultivator guilty for the offence. On the contrary the body of such thief was exposed to the public view in order to create scare in the heart of the people to deter them from committing theft and disturbing the cultivator. Thus, the Government on its part did everything possible to help the peasantry in its welfare and extend protection in every aspect to the cultivator. 10.6. ENCOURAGEMENT TO AGRICULTURE Under the Marathas, every ruler tried to improve the conditions of cultivator and extended its help to protect the agriculture from any damages. The Maratha rulers undertook the following measures to encourage the agriculture as 1. To establish new village and market towns. 2. Find out traders from various other parts and induce them to come and stay in their territory to enable cultivators to exchange commodities and articles with them and create live atmosphere in their territory. 3. They asked officials to trace artisans in the neighbouring kingdom and invite them on various good terms and conditions to inhabit in the kingdom and undertake new articles and artifacts to be sold in markets established recently. 4. There was always dearth of cultivators in the kingdom of Marathas, therefore, officers were always in quest of new cultivators, for which they used to visit other villages to induce the cultivators to come munotes.in
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126 and settle in their village and contribute to the wealth and prosperity of their village and finally the revenue of their king. Chhatrapati Shivaji had formed a policy that the new cultivators were to be provided with daily requirements and appliances needed for cultivating agriculture. For example, a good pair of bullocks, food grain and some money to buy seeds. The money advanced to the new cultivator or pleasant was recovered by the king in easy installments within the period of three to four years without any burden to such cultivator. The Peshwas also confirmed the policy of Shivaji more vigorously. In addition to this a document dated 1774 addressed to Mahadev Nana Shet reveals that Mahadev Nana Shet was the Mamledar of Amod , he was instructed by the Peshwa to bring maximum waste land under cultivation for which he was allowed to advance tagai or loan to the cultivators as incentive to speed up the work. Thus , this helped a lot to Maratha Government to increase their revenue. 5. The most important encouragement to the agriculture was that the Government allowed all farmers whether new or old, whether mirasdars or uparis to reclaim the barren land. One who undertook this task, he was given several concessions as under :- 5.1. One who brings under cultivation the entire rocky ground and puts on it a layer of fertile soil , prepares borders and embankment to the newly prepared land, the cultivator was to be given the half of that new land as inam and the remaining half land was to be given rent free to the same cultivator for twenty years, the same half land should be charged at the reduced rent to the same cultivator for another five years. Then the same cultivator should be charged fully after the total period of twenty five years. 5.2. Any cultivator or peasant, who reclaimed the coastal land was entitled for one fourth land from the recently reclaimed land as inam and the remaining land was to be kept with the same cultivator as rent free land till the recovery of the amount which the cultivator spent on the process of reclaiming the land. Then the certain period was to be fixed for rent free cultivation of the land as incentive for the same cultivator. After fully realization of all amount , the reclaimed land was to be brought under full rent. 5.3. The Government on her own constructed the irrigational facilities for the benefit of cultivators and peasants. 5.4 In case it was not possible to undertake such task, The Government motivated private enterprises to undertake such work and advanced substantial grants for the construction of irrigational facilities. 5. The Maratha Government never charged any fees to the cultivator on his purchase of any bullocks or buffaloes for agricultural purposes during the period of famine, scarcity or any exigency. This policy helped the cultivators very much. Therefore, Scoff-Waring says that the cultivators of Shivaji enjoyed plenty if not peace. The policy, which the Maratha rulers adopted to encourage the farmers and munotes.in
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127 cultivators to reclaim the barren land finds support in various ancient philosophies as Shukraniti, Vidurniti and Kautilyaniti. They all recommended the rulers to grant concessions liberally to cultivators who undertook the task of bringing barren land under cultivation. They further advised the rulers that even the farmers contributed towards the construction of dam, lake or any water storage for the agricultural purpose should also be given the same sorts of concessions which were given for reclaiming the land. 10.7. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION During the Maratha period , the village community was very powerful and functional , means it was a self-supporting unit. This village community regulated the life in villages. The people in villages consumed what they produced or what the villages produced that only they consumed. The production of villages depended mostly on two factors as 1. the quality of land of the village and 2. the availability of water in the village. There were two seasons on the basis of availability of water to the agriculture as 1. Kharip and 2. Rabi. The kharip harvest generally started on the monsoon rains, mostly in the month of June and July, because during this time only the south-west monsoon becomes active and covered the whole region of Maharashtra. The crops , generally thrashed during the Maratha period were Jawar, Bajra, Nagli, Rice, Udid, Mug,Tur and some other pulses. Although the behaviour of this south-west monsoon was erratic, the almost agricultural functions were carried under season only. Therefore, there was no guarantee of sufficient production of agriculture. The Rabi season started in the months of September, October in which crops like wheat, jowar, gram and several other grains of winter season were thrashed. Apart from the kharip and the rabi harvests, continuous production of crops was undertaken whenever and wherever perennial water supply was possible. Naturally, the cultivator having either open well, dam, lake or storage of water could trash the long term and commercial crops like sugarcane, fruits vegetable, turmeric, onions, garlic, tobacco, all vegetables and all cash crops. But such crops needed all irrigated land and the related facilities , which were absent in some parts of the Maratha kingdom. As a matter of fact the requirements of the people of the area determined the agricultural production. The land products and the requirements of the cultivators determined the industrial organization and accordingly professionals were set at a village. Thus, all professionals, industries and the Government activities were directed towards the jointly fulfilment of the needs and requirements of the people and agriculture. 10.7.1 Agricultural Products The agricultural products under the Marathas categorised into five groups as 1. Cereals ,2. Pulses , 3.Oil seeds , 4. Cash crops and 5. Miscellaneous crops. In the Konkan region of Maratha territory , rice and nagli were produced as the staple crops. In addition to these crops the other crops like vari , harik , pulses like gram , blackgram, tur, mug, horsegram, oilseeds like nigar-seeds, sasamum, san-hemp were produced munotes.in
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128 in large quantity. There were certain products popular in certain area as san-hemp, which was produced mostly in Ratnagiri. This san-hemp was used for making fisherman's rope and nets. In the Desh region of the Marathas the crops like Jowar, bajra and cotton were produced in large quantity. In addition to these crops nagli, sava and paddy were also produced. Paddy was produced in the monsoon while wheat was taken in second season. In other crops horse-gram, gram, tur , mug, peas, beans, oil-seeds, linseed, nigar -seed, ground-nuts and safflower were common products in this region. Chillies, sugarcane, tobacco and cotton were the cash crops. The striking feature of these products the chillies, which were produced in the Desh region only. There were two havests or crops were thrashed wherever irrigation facilities were available, otherwise only crop was grown during the whole year. 10.8 IRRIGATION Chhatrapati Shivaji had followed the policy of encouraging farmers to undertake irrigation of their lands, wherever possible either by reclamation of land or digging open well or storing water. Irrigation of land was the only solution to improve production and increase the revenue of king. As the maximum land under the Marathas depended on the monsoon rains, which being erratic and uncertain- needed extensive efforts to irrigate the land on large scale. The land cultivated on monsoon water was called Jirayat whereas the irrigated land was called Bagayat . The Bagayati land used the water of eighter dam or lake by way of canal which was called Patasthal land. This type of irrigation was possible, because construction of dam or lake near a river was feasible and almost all villages participated in such construction of dam for common use. On other hand digging open well was very expensive, it was not possible for every cultivator to undertake it. Moreover, there was no guarantee that the open well would strike water. Even then one who succeeded in striking water and irrigated his land with the open well water that land was called Motasthal land. But such irrigation was limited. Therefore, Government often tried to construct a dam or lake for the use of all people and recovered the expenditure by way of taxes in long term. Some the king also paid for repair of such dams and lakes. Thus, the irrigation was the only way for the Marathas to make people prosperous and increase the revenue of the Government in multiplicity. 10.9. GARDENS AND FORESTS Cultivators under the Marathas not only cultivated Jirayat land but also undertook gardening wherever possible. The land along the sea coast in Konkan region was highly favourable for gardens. In the same way land on the banks of river in the Desh was fertile and yielded much production. In the gardens of Konkan region fruits like mangoes, coconuts , betelnuts pineapples, jackfruits, sweet potatoes and vegetables of different varieties were grown . In gardens of Desh the fruits like munotes.in
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129 grapes , betel leaves sweet-potatoes , figs and vegetables were grown there. As a matter of fact , gardening needed constant attention and continuous work, thenonly it gave maximum production. Therefore, people undertook gardening as a lucrative source of income, it was the source of cash crops. The land under the Marathas also covered several dense forests. The western ghats along the Sahyadri ranges contained large tracts of forests. On the other hand area around Kalyan , Bhiwandi , Shahapur also was surrounded by forests. These tracts of forests contained several important trees, which were used for making different types of ships in the shipyards of Kalyan, Bhiwandi ,and Konkan. Among the trees in the forest used for wood were Amba, nana , hedu, kalamb, asan savi, jambul, sisam , kirja, pata, alva, hirda, mahna. The people in the area also used the woods for agricultural purposes. Amba was deemed the best for agricultural implements while the woods of ain used for construction of building, mansions and forts. Sisam was very popular for making quality furniture. Apart from wood and fuel the forest gave other important products as wax , honey , sealing wax. Even the leaves of some trees were used for bidis , baskets , leaf plates , leaf cups and other useful items. 10.10 COLONIZATION The Jagir of Shahaji contained Poona, Supa, Nagar and Haveli. This was a barren land and was infested by wild wolves, beasts as well as robbers. Naturally, no body preferred to use it as their habitation. Dadoji Kondev, the manager of this Jagir had the responsibility of colonizing the whole area. He took help of local people, who were known as Mavalas . Dadoji Kondev offered them generous rewards for liberating the area from robbers, beasts and wolves. These people were asked to colonize, cut the trees and bring the land under cultivation. Dadoji Kondev rewarded liberally the people who cleared the land and helped to increase the revenue of the jagir. In addition to these efforts, Dadoji established peths and new markets in the area and prevailed upon the traders, artisans to come and stay in the jagir. Thus, Dadoji developed the jagir as one of the prosperous areas of the Marathas. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS : - 1. Explain the various types of land in Konkan area. 2. Discuss the various types of land in Desh region of the Marathas. 3. State the factors of backwardness of peasants or cultivators. 4. What did Marathas do to encourage the agriculture ? 5. Discuss the agricultural production under the Marathas. 6. What were the agricultural products under the Marathas? munotes.in
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130 7. What is meant by irrigation ? How was the land irrigated under the Marathas ? 8. Assess the Garden and Forests under the Marathas . 10.11 SUMMARY Land under the Marathas was the main profession of the people, it , therefore, was called mother earth. The agricultural produce was shared by many people like the village officials, artisans and tillers of the soil. This land was divided as Jirayat and Bagayat land. Kautilya categorised distinctly as sita or produce from the crown land and bhaga i.e. portion of produce payable to the Government. The people who held the land with proprietary rights were known as mirasdars, The land was subdivided and was held by individuals or kins of the mirasdars were called Jathas. These Jathas were jointly responsible for the payment of revenue to the Government. Land under the Marathas was of different types. In the Desh area it was as dark deep, reddish black, light black, and light brown. The red land was found in the hilly area whereas light brown was in the plains. The rich alluvial soil was found along the banks of different rivers, which was known as malai land. In the Konkan region, the land was as reddish brown and black soil. The alluvial land was available in the district of Kolaba. In Konkan barren land was called Varkas land. This varkas land was divided into mal varkas and dongri varkas . The barren land in the plain was called mal varkas while the barren land along the hill slopes was called dongri varkas . Due to erratic nature and behaviour of monsoon, conditions of cultivators or peasants were not good. In addition to these, the other factors which affected the conditions of peasants were constant warfares, poor quality of soil , lack of credit facilities, lack of fertilizers and insecticides , heavy taxation, old and backward tools and techniques of cultivating agriculture , general backwardness of peasantry and very meagre or small pieces of good quality agriculture available for cultivation. Government took every step to help and reinstate the farmers after the happening of any adverse incidence. The cultivator could earn hardly something after the efforts of the whole year. Therefore, cultivators and peasants were helped to recover from any incursion or recurrence of adverse situation. Shivaji used to order often the village officers to assist the cultivators in the time of difficulties. Every ruler under the Marathas tried to improve the situation of cultivators. The rulers undertook several measures to encourage them as, they established new village, markets and towns, invited artisans to exchange commodities with them, traced traders in various other parts of the neighboring kingdoms and brought them to their kingdoms. Officials were ordered to help them in any eventuality, not this much the Maratha rulers also brought new cultivators to help the existing cultivators in the work of cultivations. The most important encouragement was that the cultivators were allowed to reclaim the barren land and add to their income and production. These farmers were given munotes.in
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131 concessions variously, as no taxes till twenty-five years. less rent for next five years and no taxes till the whole expenditure was recovered and the farmers reaped good profit in such reclamation. agricultural In production during the Marathas Jawar, Bajra and pulses in the Desh area, while Nagli , rice , Harik and vegetable were produced in the Konkan area . In Rabi season, wheat, gram and sunflower were reaped. Fruits and vegetables were produced in both the regions regularly. The Maratha rulers paid attention on irrigation of agriculture to increase the production and add to the revenue of the king. In order to add to the prosperity , the rulers paid attention on gardening in the kingdom as well as increases in the forest area and its commodities. Dadoji Kondev made special efforts to colonise the area which was given to Shahaji as Jahagir. 10.12 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the nature of land system under the Marathas. 2. Give an account of the conditions of Peasantry under the Marathas. 3. Examine the policy of Maratha rulers of encouragement to agriculture . 4. What were the agricultural products under the Marathas ? 5. What measures did they undertake to increase them ? 10.13 ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Atre T . N. , Gavgada . 2. Kulkarni A.R. , Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji . 3. Mooreland, From Akbar to Aurangzeb . 4. Sen S. N., Administrative system of the Marathas. munotes.in
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132 11
POSITION OF WOMEN
Unit Struct ure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Social Philosophy
11.3 The Social Institutions
11.4 Hindu Law
11.5 Religion
11.6 Property Rights of Stridhana
11.7 Role of Women
11.8 An Appraisal of the Position of Women under the Maratha Rule
11.9 Summary
11.10 Question
11.11 Additional Readings
11.0 OBJECTIVES
After the study of this unit the student will be able to:
1. understand the social philosophy during the period of Marathas.
2. know the social institutions existed during the period of
Marathas.
3. perceive the role of family in determining the position of women
4. comprehend the outstanding features of marriage system under the
Marathas.
11.1 INTR ODUCT ION
In the Maratha society the theocratic principles predominated the idea of
God was so all prevailing that everything else subordinated to it. The
Marathas were the religious minded people and perhaps they were ready
to do everything for their dharma what they did not do for their own
selves. The king was divine, the cow was divine, the preceptor was divine,
their sacred books were divine, the mother was divine - thus, the idea of
divinity was ingrained in their blood and in the society of Marathas. munotes.in
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133 The struct ure of the Maratha social organization was based on various
systems whose origin again was believed to be divine, It was therefore, not
changed since a long time and handed down undisturbedly from father to
son for generations, together. When these systems became hereditary, a
new principle of stagnation was introduced in the society. It is very
interesting to study the position of women in such social organization.
Position of women in any society mainly depe nds upon two major factors
as 1 Social Philosophy in that society 2. The Social Institutions developed
by that society. These two factors are discuss ed as under:
11.2 SOCIAL PHILOSOP HY
This factor can be divided into two sub-points as a) The level of culture
evolved in that society and b) The General outlook of the society
crystallized with the passage of time. These two factors are part and parcel
of education imparted in the society as they are whole and sole influenced
by the educational instruction of the time. During the period of Marathas
education was based on the system of education existed in ancient times.
Naturally woman was not considered equal to man and was relegated to
secondary position . In short, general outlook of society towards woman was
derogatory. Alt hough, she was the main pillar of the society but was
neglected and considered insignificant. Social outlook was not as liberal
towards woman as was towards male.
11.3 THE SOCIAL INSTITUT IONS
This was divided into several divisions for the convenience of study as
under : 1. Family 2. Marriage 3. Hindu Law 4. Religion.
3.1. Family:- It has been the most useful and fundamental social institution
the society has evolved ever. It is the family who determines the structure
of society it forms and moulds the character of its members. Family as a
basic unit of the society performs four very in dispensable functions as
sexual, reproductive, economic and educational of these, the first and
second satisfy basic biological and social needs of man and due to this
reason family is considered as a fundamental social unit. These two basic
functions are so interrelated each rei nforce and enrich the satisfaction of
other, therefore, they are generally considered together. The man and
woman are equally sharing the res ponsibility while discharging t he
above four functions, even then the women for no reason was treated
interior to man.
Family during the period of Peshwa served as an excellent school for
training the child in social etiquettes like social st ratas, politeness,
hierarc hical calibration of action, inculcating virtues of self-discipline, self-
sacrifice, obedience and service of elders and abidance by the precepts of
religion,
Although, these virtues were needed to anyone to possess them but they
were much more and harsh in case of girl child. Parvatibai’s munotes.in
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History of Maratha
134 instructions to Daryabai, the wife of Raghoji Bhosla I II are self-
explanatory in this regard . Parvatibai instructed Daryabai to pay res pect
to Ajibai the senior most lady in the house everyday morning as soon as her
religious duties were over, greet every elders on their arrival in her room
and stand up as long as they remained in the room , do not chew pan and
avoid using bolsters in presence of the elders. They inculcated in girl child
utmost obedience to one's elders and superiors and respectful acceptance of
their authority, which they regard as the highest virtues essential for
potential survival. They imbibed that the girls should not disrespect the
wishes or orders of their elders as well as not to remonstrate against them
even if they scolded or punished. It is very clear from these evidences
that all bondages and barriers were entailed on the girl child only.
3.2. Marriage: - This is the first institution created by the society which
helped the society the most in the process of socializa tion.
It is fundamental part of the family rather marriage only is res ponsible for
the formation of family. it is universally agreed that without marriage there
is no family. The family during the period of M arathas formed of a
consanguineous patriarchal group, recognizing patriarch al descent. It was a
joint family in which all members like brothers, even stepbrothers, sons,
sisters, others relatives like widowed aunts , their children and orphans
lived together with father the eldest member at the head. In such family all
decisions and circumstances went against the woman and she was proved
insignificant. Marriages in joint family were contractual and arranged at an
early age by the elders without any consideration of the marrying parties.
Consequently, s everal unwanted and unwarranted events came up as 1.
incompatibility of marrying partners took place the most.2 the possibil ity
of strengthening the ties of conjugal love between the newly married couple
correspondingly less ened.3, the members of the joint family being together
for generations, the ties of filial love or attachment about each other
developed very strong 4 husbands used to be under the influence of their
mothers, sisters and other members of the family rather than their wives.6.
newly married or young daughters-in-law were left to the mercy of their in-
laws or other senior ladies in the family. 7. the in-laws or senior ladies
often behaved as tyrants while dealing with the newly married girls. 8.
husbands due to this or that pretext used to be with their mothers or
relatives instead of helping their young and helpless wives.9. Naturally,
without any alternatives, these young daughters-in-law became victims of
the torture of their in-laws and committed suicides. Thus, the marriage, an
important social institution under the Marathas led the woman towards her
end and proved the level of position of women during that period.
The marriage system during the Marathas had some predominant and
outstanding features which influenced and affected t he position of
women if they operated c oncomitantly, the effects were utterly
disastrous. These features were as :
1 Dowry
2 Child Marriage munotes.in
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Position of Women
135 3 Polygamy
4 Restrictio ns on widow remarriage
5 Divorce
3.2.1 Dowry: Marriages under the Marathas were fixed by the families and
elderly persons, the parties concerned were given no say abou t the choice
of marriage partners. The factors that mattered in the selection were the
compatibility of horoscopes, family background, caste, suitability of gotras
and dowry. there are several references regarding dowry transactions during
the Peshwa period.Sardar Tulshibagwale's diary mentions that 1. Someone
Deshpande of Pune took Rs.800/- as dowry from his bride. 2 Sawkar
Vaidya accepted Rs. 1500/- as dowry from his bride. Macdonald in his
Memoirs of the life of Nana Fadnavis says that Nana Fadnavis accepted
dowry as high as Rs. 25000/- in the marriage of his adopted son. When the
marriage malady like dowry was practiced and the brides or their parents
were forced to pay such amount in the marriage, it highlighted the position
of woman , which was not equal but lower to man in that society.
3.2.2 Child Marriage : This was another important feature of the marriage
system under the Marathas. It is said that Hindu law makers and
Dharma Shastras strongly rec ommended child marriages or pre-puberty
marriages and advised that parents who failed to marry away their
daughters in the pre-puberty age incurred a huge sin. Peshwas were
the Chitpawan Brahmins, t hey considered themselves as the custodians
of Hindu law and religion and paid strict attention towards the observance
of the marriage laws. Peshwas even released prisoners on several occasions
to enable them to marry their daughters in the pre-puberty age. Peshwa
Bajirao II had issued orders to all Brahmins to get their daughters married
before the age of nine. Generally, girls were married before the age of
ten. In certain unavoidable circumstances, when marriage of a girl was
delayed, eleven, was considered the maximum limit of the marriageable
age. If somebody could not marry his daughter within the age of eleven,
he was ex -communicated or outcasted by the people. Although, there was
an upper limit of the marriageable age of girls but there was no mention
about the minimum age of marriage of male. There are a numerable
instance of girls married at the age of 2 and 1/2 or 3years of age. But it is
observed that five was the generally approved and practicable age of
girls for marriage. When the marriageable age of girls was below ten, life
of such newly married girl was quite deplorable and full of miseries.
3.2.3. Polygamy :- This was one more characteristic of marriage life of
people under the Marathas. Alt hough, there was a ceiling on marriageable
age of girls, there was no ceiling on the marriageable age of men. They
were able to marry any number of times at any advanced age in life. It
means men used to practice polygamy without any hesitation and nobody
raised any objection on this system for a long. it is said that men could
contract as many marriages as they desired. Thomas Coat reports that
polygamy was prevalent under the Marathas for the obvious reason of
economic benefits. Among of highly privileged people, who had more munotes.in
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History of Maratha
136 wives were Nana Fadnavis, Peshwa Basirao II and Mahadaji Shindia,
Thus , Polygamy was practiced at every level, which indicated the position
of woman during the period of Marathas.
3.2.4. Prohibition of widow Re -marriage:- This was one more
indicator of the position of woman during the Marathas period.. Society
under the Marathas did not raise even, the slightest objection to the re-
marriage of men, but the same society did not offer the same freedom to
woman even in case of exigency. Some British reports say that re-marriage
of widow was permitted among the economically weaker sections and
humbler castes but it was totally prohibited among the upper castes.
Widow re-marriage was allowed in the economically humbler class as well
as whose husband was not heard for considerable period, but such woman
was not permitted to re-marry before the prescr ibed period of waiting,
which varied from five to twelve years. On the other hand , there was no
such waiting period for males belonging to any caste or class . It is
enough transparent to understand the position of woman of this period.
3.2.5. Divorce:- This was also one of the important issues helped determine
the position of woman in the society. Although, divorce was sanctioned
among lower castes, there were some castes who never liked to sanction
divorce in their caste in order to compete with Brahmins and claim some
sort of higher ritual status. Brahmins never sanctioned divorce because
marriage, they considered was a very sacred tie and thought it was
irrevocable in any case. But the marriage was revoked when it was proved
that the marriage was concluded hastily and without proper rites and rituals.
Although , Ghatasphota is the Marathi version of divorce today , they
used it in little different sense during the period of Marathas. Ghatasphota
was total cut up of the relations of women or it was permanent
ostraci zation of woman with her husband and his family rather than
divorce. G hatasphota was concluded in case of husband's conversion to
Islamism or wife's committing adultery with a Muslim or a Shudra and
becoming pregnant from such relationship, in no other cases it was
sanctioned . As Ghatasphota, there was one more operation known as
Kadimoda, which also si gnified divorce means breaking of a marriage tie
Kadimoda was practiced among the lower castes mostly on the following
grounds
1. Differences in castes status of bride and groom coming to light after their
marriage. 2. Inability of the husband to provide maintenance to his wife .3.
Mutual dissension and consent of each other for breakage of marriage . 4.
Re-marriage of the wife while her first husband was alive. Except these
grounds , there was no any other ground on which either Ghatasphota or
Kadimoda or divorce was granted even if the husband was too brutal and it
was unbearable to the wife to live with him. Thus, the absence of recourse
of divorce incre ased the miseries of woman and left her without any
remedy, which signified the position of woman under the Marathas.
3.2.6 Sati :- Among the most heinous systems Indians continued since the
ages, Sati system was one of them. It was in full swing during the munotes.in
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Position of Women
137 Maratha period when child widows were everywhere. The society under
the Marathas was neither sympathetic towards the widows nor towards the
child widow. On the contrary it s ubjected them to several restrictions
and increased their miseries and unhappiness which led them to burn
themselves with the dead bodies of their husbands on the funeral pyre
of their husband means committing sati. This signifies the outlook of the
society towards the woman and their position in the society.
Sati was practiced among upper castes such as Bra hmins, Marathas
and warrior class es during this period. There are a number of references
of not only wives but also c oncubines and female slaves burnt themselves
with the dead bodies of their master. The main reason behind committing
sati by widows was that the status or the abject conditions to which
the widows were reduced after the death of their husbands. Widows
were pushed to such status that they tortured and separated from the
main stream of life. Naturally, they took the painful decision of committing
sati. There are several evidences of the state of widows after the death of
their husbands. For example, foreign traveller Tavernier says that in India
after the death of a man his widow never allowed to marry again , she
was deprived of all her valuables and beauty by shaving her hair off and
made her to remain for the rest of her life without being of any
considerations and worse than a slave. This unbearable life condition
caused her to detest life and prefer to be burnt herself with the dead
body of her husband. In the same way another foreign traveller
Edmand Terry s ays that widows in India ascended the funeral pyre of
their husbands to avoid the shameful life with opprobrium after the death
of their husband. James Forbes reaffirms that Indian widows were reduced
to the status of dependence, insignificance and infamy for the remai nder
of their whole life which led them to die with honour with the dead bodies
of their husbands and they comm itted sati. Thus, these evidences clearly
indicated the position of woman during the Maratha period.
11.4 HINDU LAW
A less the study of some provisions of Hindu law, the study of position
of woman can not be concluded. Because this was the law existing during
that period and affected the life of people. As a matter of fact the law of
land should have been equally applicable to man and woman but this did
not take place. There are some observations of Hindu law in conne ction
with woman are as under :-
1. The prevalent Hindu law was in favour of man particularl y, the marriage
laws were partial to male. 2. The law of fidelity was binding only on
women while men were free to do any things or indulge in concubinage or
prostit ution. 3 .Hindu law had neither sanctioned divorce nor had given and
redressal to woman against the ill-treatment of their husbands. 4. Although,
restrictions on divorce or Ghatasphota affected both men and women in
some proportion but whatever inconveniences faced by the men they
compensated by the practice of polygamy. Women had no any redressal for
that problem. 5. The marriage law unde r the Marathas was so much
against the women that even girls were kidnapped and married forcibly munotes.in
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History of Maratha
138 to some undeserving eleme nts, did not help them in any ways and left
them to suffer for the whole life. 6. Women under the Marathas were
considered as personal property of their husbands. Husbands never
treated wives as compan ions but claimed themselves as lords and
masters. A gardener once kept his wife as a deposit with his creditor
against some debt for some stipulated period. On his failure to return the
money with the creditor within the sti pulated period, the wife of that
gardener was to be put to concubinage by the creditor. The Hindu law did
not raise any objection. 7. Hindu law c onsidered woman as inferior species,
they were expected to show complete obedience to their husbands so much
so that they should not hesitate to obey their orders either to swallow
poison or jump into an open well. Not this much, the law allowed men to
enslave women freely on mere charges of adultery. Thus, the unequal
treatment of Hindu law made women to suffer a lot helplessly.
11.5 RELIGION
Another factor that affected the position of women during the period of
Marathas was religion. Hinduism was one of the most popular faiths under
the Marathas, this religion has a long history and represents various
stages of evolution, definition, consolidation, class ification and
proliferation. These stages in this rel igion had almost completed before
the period of Marathas. This rel igion was based on four purusharathas,
particul arly on the theory of Karma, Mokshya, charity, merits, incarnations,
the doctrine of Bhakti and so on since the ages. The concept of Karma, sati
and moksha dominated the religious practic es of the period of Marathas
. The doctrine of Karma says that every act produces certain returns leading
to joy or sorrow corresponding to good or bad deeds. The existence of
man is a sort of expiation for the deeds of the previous existence from
which nobody has escaped on any account, Naturally, all human conducts
suitably rewarded or punished in subsequent existence. Thus, the people
tried to accumulate merit by various ways suggested by different religious
scriptures in order to gain happiness in the subsequent existence. The
religion, which paid much more attention on the happiness in the next
birth and ignored the present life affected much more on the status of
women. It was in favour of men and against of women as under:-
1. The religion reckoned charity very high as a mode of earning merit. All
articles like- grain, cloth, cow and jewels and women were gifted to
Brahmins .
2 The religion emphasised on several rituals like Japa, Japya, upchara and
Pooja which formed part of daily rounds of one's religious duties. Women
were mostly involved in these rituals to wean these from t he other matters
in life .
3. The religion considered woman inferior species than man.
4. The religion did not oppose to the system of plurality of wives.
5. The practice of sati prevailed during this period had religious
sanction. It was said that women who self- immolated with the dead bodies munotes.in
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Position of Women
139 of their husbands annihilated sins of their husbands and raised them to
heaven on the basis of attainment of high merit to live in eternal union
with each other. But it is also s aid that not the religion but the status of
widows that they were reduced to after the death of their husbands forced
them to commit sati. The religion could have saved them by offering
support or mobilizing help from various sections of society. But the religion
did not do it and left the widows to their abject status, which led them to
take such painful decision.
11.6 PROPERTY RIGHTS OR STRID HANA
The position of women unde r the Marathas can be ascertained with the help
of their property rights or stridhana they had. Had the women enjoyed that
right, they would have overcome several problems they faced .
As a matter of fact , women during the period of Marathas were
relegated to a secondary position. They were given no right to inherit the
property of their father even in absence of any legal heir or their brothers.
It means no married women entitled for any property share of their father,
only unmarried daughters could claim certain amount which was called
patrimony and expenses required for their marriage. Women of this period
could enjoy whatever their father, brothers or any membe r gave them in the
form of gifts on various occasions and nothing more than that.
On the other hand , the share of women in the property of their husband
was limited. The women used to claim their property r ight was only
maintenance from their husbands. Otherwise the women were granted
divorce on account of their inability to provide maintenance to their
wives. It is said that widows could succeed to their husband's property in
case husbands separate d from their joint family and died without any legal
heirs. Ho wever, in such cases, not the widows only could succeed to the
property but Government also claimed certain share in that property,
which varied from two-fifths to one half of the property as well as it
differed from property to property . In case of a joint family widows were
provided with only maintenance and not they could succeed to the property
of their husbands. If the joint family failed in providing maintenance , the
Governme nt was there to reprimand the family for providing the
maintenance , even the maintenance was provided to deserted wives also.
It was liberal in r ich families and lapsed back to either sons or the joint
family after the death of women or widows.
The women duri ng the period of Marathas could hold the property
independently and had absolute rights of either disposal or gift over the
property, which came to be known as the Strid han property. Vijnanesvara
text which advocated equal share of property to women to that of their
sons. The same text says that stridhan means the property acquired by
inheritance, purchase and partition for women, who had all rights of
disposal over it. Some other sources say that stridhan means the only
jewellery conferred on women before or after the marriage and they had
all sorts of rights of disposal, gift enjoyment or partition as they wished.
There are several re ferences that even the Government helped them in munotes.in
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History of Maratha
140 receiving their ornaments from the custody of their mother-in- law to
enable them to use as they liked. In this way, the property right of women
to the property of husband and father was not considered during this period.
They had absolute right on their ornaments only. But it was not possible for
all women to get such ornaments in their marriage. Therefore, they were to
be dependent on father, husband and sons at particul ar period of life
respectively. Thus, the women had secondary position in the matter
property rights for which the Hindu law the religion were responsible.
11.7 ROLE OF WOMEN
The study of position of women is not complete unless the survey of the
actual role played by women is under taken. Education is the main key for
progress and advancement. But the women were not given any education.
They were not considered good enough to rec eive any ins tructio ns in the art
of reading and writing. Education was considered a step forward and
confined for few peop le only. Na turally, women from rich aristocrat
families under the Marathas taught the art of reading and writing to
enable them to read the religious and social literature. It was expected that
women were to spend much more time in religious and cultural activities
only.
Sir John Malcolm says that women from noble families were taught the
art of horse-riding and the use of arms like sword, dagger and lances.
Women like Yamunabai Shindia, Laxmibai, Ahilayabai Jija bai of
Karvir and Tarabai had led their armies on the battlefield and fought several
wars during their time. Captain Bro ughton could find several outstanding
features and virtues of Maratha women as 1. Maratha women were
noteable . 2. They had bold look which was absent in other women of the
country. 3. They were as bold as men4. They knew horse-riding as men
and took no pain even if horse galloped through the throng. 5 They were
more persevering than men.
There are several evidences that women from noble and aristocratic
families played very active and important role in politics and
administration either in their father , husband or son's kin gdom.
The women who contributed to the making of Maratha history and to the
cultural life of India were as Tulsabai and Ahilyabai Holk ar, Umabai
Dabhade, Laxmibai and Yamunabai Shinde the wives of Mahad ji Shinde,
Daryabai Bhosale, Tarabai, Ji jabai, Radhabai, Gopikabai, Anandibai,
Anubai Ghorpade from the Peshwa family. These and many other women
were the women of uncommon courage, political sagacity, administra tive
capacity or diplomatic skill and they had the caliber to be active in public
life during their period. Although, the names of above women flashed
before our eyes due to their active role in the administra tion, there were
several other women who were capable for many roles but participated
saliently and held the positions of Patil, Deshmukh, Des hpande,
Deshkulkarni and discharged their duties very efficiently. These women
acted as regents to their minor sons, transacted daily business, audited
accounts, carried on daily correspondence and gave a good audience to
various depu tations from within and outside their rule. munotes.in
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Position of Women
141 James Forbes in his account says that Maratha women did not observe
parda, they were bold enough and participated in public life as men.
He further says that the wife of Hiranand Diwan of Fatesing Gaikawad
of Baroda, carried out the administration very efficiently in absence of
her husband. Despite, that the society being conservative and religious
minded, continuance of socio- economic customs and practices, there
were certain women who got opportunities to safe the interest of their sons
and husbands in the competition of their opponents. They observed such
situation very clos ely and minutely, they became very conversant with such
situation and tackled them very efficiently. Thus, the Maratha women from
noble and aristocratic families did each and every task as perfectly as men
and proved them as equal as men.
CHECK YOUR PROGRE SS
1. What do you understand by the social philosophy existed during
the period of Marathas?
11.8 AN APPRAISAL OF THE POSITION OF WOMEN
UND ER THE MARATHA RUL E
After taking into account all factors like social philosophy, social
institutions and the Hindu Law and religion prevailed during the Maratha
period, it appears that these factors affected and influenced the position of
women unevenly and unequally. It was the middle rung of the society
affected and suffered the most. Woman from the upper and rich classes
enjoyed almost privileges and benefits because of the position and wealth
of their husband, son or father. Alt hough there was no education imparted
to women, the upper class women were taught the art of reading and
writing which led them to enjoy a particular position in public life and also
led them to be in power for many years. Alt hough, the marriage laws and
other traditions and customs did much injustice with them and made them
subordinate to men but the financial position of their families provided
them with at least the basic needs and blunted the edge of traditions and
customs. It is said that women in humble classes had no problem of
their position. They were almost equal to men because, men and women of
working class es were equally putting hard work for their living , or in
other words agrarian functions needed both woman and man to perform
evenly econom ic role, which led women of this class to raise their status
in society in relation to men. Religion and marriage laws were lenient
and flexible to women of the lower clas ses and castes. There was no
sati pratised no widow was forced to tonsure, divorce was granted and
widow re-marriage was permitted. In short no marriage laws were observed
very strictly and str ingently. Upper class es practised the system of
polygamy and concubinage for economic reasons, which led to lower the
position of women in rela tion to men. But those systems were not practiced
among the working class es. Thomas Coats says that although the system of
polygamy was there, it was practiced very rarely that also by rich in
absence of children by first marriage. It is also observed that women of
working class es were little affected by the law of property rights to women.
Because, they being poor had no property to share as well as these women munotes.in
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History of Maratha
142 hardly needed anything more than their maintenance. They themselves
were in dependent earners in their daily life and were hard working which
virtue was absent in the upper classes.
Women belonging to the middle class suffered the most because this class
was not well of as the upper class and had no concessions as the lower
class enjoyed. Generally, the middle class came from the high castes but
their women could not enjoy the privileges of the rich while they could
not get the concessions the law and customs offered to the lower castes.
Naturally, women of this class sandwiched on every count. The prevailing
custom of child marriage fettered their personality, the system of joint
family reduced them to a subservient position while the practices of
polygamy, concubinage, the denial of divorce and the prohibition of
widow re-marriage brought them into precarious position. These customs,
practices and systems led them to be neglected totally by their husband and
abandoned them on a very trivial offence. Widows of this class who
wanted to avoid the misera ble widowhood, the f orced celibacy,
degradation, dependence on others and continuous humiliation committed
sati honourably with the dead body of their husband otherwise led a very
humd rum life till the last.
11.9 SUMMARY
In the Maratha society theocratic principles were predominant. The idea of
God was so pervading that everything else was subordinate to it.
Marathas were rel igious minded people, they were ready to do everything
for their dharma what they did not for their own selves. The structure of
their social organization was based on various systems, whose origin was
believed to be divine. It, therefore, was not changed for a long time and
handed down undisturbedly from father to son for generations together.
When these systems became hereditary, a new principle of stagnation
was introduced in the society, Thus, it is imperative to the position of
women in such society.
Position of women in any society depen ds upon two major factors as
social philosophy and social institutions that developed. The social
philosophy is based on t he level of culture and the general outlook of
that society. In the same way the social institutions like family, marriage,
Hindu law and religion also in fluenced and affected the position of
women in that society. Dur ing the period of Marathas the system of joint
family was in existence which had no liberal outlook towards women of
that time . In this joint family system marriages were contractual and
arranged at an early age, the chances of incompatibility of marriage
partners were very high. This system lessened the conjugal love
between the newly married couple and strengthened the ties of filial love.
Husbands used to be under the influence of their mother and sister rather
than their wives. The newly married daughters-in-law were le ft at the
mercy of their mothers -in-law, who were often tyrants and forced them to
commit suicide. The marriage system during the period of Marathas had
several predominant features like the practice of child marriage, polygamy,
restriction on widow re- marriage and divorce, which affected the position munotes.in
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Position of Women
143 of women very widely. The practice of sati was glorified, it was said
that woman who comm itted sati attained high merit and annihilated sins of
their husbands. This religious base might have driven a numbe r of women
to burn themselves alive. The system of polygamy or plurality of wives
strained the conjugal love and created domination of husbands on their
wives, consequently husbands became very brutal in their treatment with
their wives in daily life.
Hindu law and r eligion also sided with men and were very partial to
women . The law allowed men to indulge in concubinage and prostitution
on other hand forbade women to take divorce and denied widows to re-
marry. Even the law did not help the girls who were ki dnapped and
married forcibly to unde serving persons. It also expected the women to be
complete obedient to their husbands. Women of this period had no
property rights even in absence of any other legal heir but they enjoyed
only the right to maintenance in their husband's property. It is said that
women of this period enjoyed full-fledged rights over their j ewellery,
gifts and whatever was offered them on their marriage by their parents,
which came to be known as stridhana.
The study of the position of women during this period cannot be completed
unless the role played by them in politics and administration is seen. The
women from rich and aristocratic families looked after the administra tion
of father, husband and sons. They also led armies personally to
battlefields and transacted daily business in absence of their husband.
Almost all foreign travellers say that Maratha women did not observe parda
and had bold look which was absent in other women of Hindustan. Finally
it can be said that the woman from middle class suffered the most while
the women from working class worked hard as man. Naturally, the
position of working-class women was almost as equal as men.
11.10 QUESTIONS
1. Examine the position of women during the period of Marathas.
2. Explain briefly the various factors that affected the position of women
under the period of Marathas.
3. Ass ess the various facets of women under the period of Marathas.
4. Give an account of the social institutions that affected the position of
women during the period of Marathas.
11.11 ADDITIONAL READINGS
.1. R. V.Nadkarni , The Rise and Fall of the Maratha Empire.
.2. Bhave , Peshvekalin Maharashtr a.
3. Altekar A.S., Position of Women in Hindu Civilization.
4. Thomas, Indian Women Through the Ages.
.5. Sudha Desai, Social li fe under the Peshwas.
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144 12 CENTRAL AND PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION Unit Structure: 12.0 Objectives 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Difficulties Faced by Shivaji 12.3 The King 12.4 The Ashta Pradhan Mandal 12.5 Duties of The Pradhans or Ministers 12.6 Secretary 12.7 The Eighteen Karkhanas 12.8 The Twelve Mahals or Departments 12.9 Prants and Districts in The Kingdom 12.10 The Deshmukh and The Deshpande 12.11 The Kamvisdar and The Mamlatdar 12.12 The Darakhadars 12.13 Summary 12.14 Questions 12.15 Additional Readings 12.0 OBJECTIVES After the completion this unit the student will be able to 1. Comprehend the difficulties which Chhatrapati Shivaji faced at the time of organizing his civil administration. 2. Grasp the general structure of the Government of Shivaji. 3. Perceive the idea of the position of the king in the administration. 4. Understand the Ashta Pradhan Mandal of Shivaji. 5. Know the duties of the Ashta Pradhan Mandal of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 12.1 INTRODUCTION According to Ramchandrapant Amatya, forts are the soul of the Maratha kingdom. Lokhitwadi says that Chhatrapati Shivaji was the most popular king for his forts who constructed and brought under his control around two hundred and forty forts whereas Ranade says, “He had two hundred munotes.in
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145 eighty forts”. He sanctioned large amounts for repair and maintenance of his forts. These forts gave their large returns in his war against the Mughals and proved him as the unparallel military leader of the time. S.N.Sen says that Shivaji’s greatness as a military leader has never been contested but his greatness as a civil administrator is still more undoubted. Ranade says that Chhatrapati Shivaji was like Napoleon Bonaparte, a great organizer in his time and builder of civil institutions. His civil administration alone enabled the country to pass without scathe through the dangers which the Maratha country confronted after his death. He further says that Chhatrapati Shivaji did not aspire to found a universal empire under his direct rule but he tried to secure the liberty for his own people, unite them into one nation, make them powerful for self-defense and self-assertion. He had friendly relations with all the chiefs of Golconda, Bednore and Bijapur and never interfered with their spheres of influence. He allowed his brother Vyankoji to retain his father’s jagir to himself in the Southern part of the country. He levied Chouth and Sardeshmukhi on the Mughal possessions only. He made a clear distinction between the Swarajya i.e, the territories directly governed by him and the Moglai, the territories governed by any foreign kings were treated out side his Swarajya. His civil institutions were introduced mainly in Swarajya only and they were also introduced partially to the territories on the line of military forts maintained by him which were to the extreme South of the Peninsula . 12.2. DIFFICULTIES FACED BY SHIVAJI There were several difficulties which Chhatrapati Shivaji was to face while forming his central government. Some of them were long term and some were periodic difficulties, which can be enumerated as under: Disorder and Anarchy:- Before the building of central administration of Shivaji , whole Deccan was in disorder and anarchy . The Mughal had overthrown the Nizamshahi kingdom while the Bijapur Government was not strong enough to establish peace in the region. There were wars fought after a while when the neighbouring area of Poona was depopulated due to several reasons. This area was infested by wolves. Dadoji Kondev was to offer several rewards to the people to kill the wolves and increase the habitation as well as to undertake the work of cultivation after cutting trees and clearing jungle. The people in the area were not educated. They used to be rivals of each other on petty reasons and bloody feuds reigned the day. The strong used to plunder the weak, which formed the normal course of daily routine. These feuds were generated normally on the matter of property, which had more than two claimants. The party that could not possess the property certainly used to kill the rival party even would never spare widows and orphan children. The killing of the rival party never brought to an end to the feuds, that continued forever. The loyalty of an old adherent would often save a pregnant lady or an infant heir in some village or mountains far away from their native place. Such child would never be allowed to forget the damages done to his family. When the munotes.in
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146 child was grown, it was sure that he would definitely take revenge for the dead relatives, the houses plundered and the damages caused to his property. The anarchy of the time had left its marks on the families of old Deshmukhs. For such feuds, anarchy and disorder the Jagdales of Masur and the Jedhes of Rohidkhore were popular. Thus, Shivaji was to overcome this difficulty and bring these people together in his administration, which he did it most efficiently. Importance to Military Exploits:- Chhatrapati Shivaji faced a problem about his assistants and subordinates, who were totally indifferent and incomprehensive about the reorganization and reforms of the civil administration. The art of war as a source of honour and emolument appealed them more than the art of peace. If they had been allowed to follow their inclination, they would have happily renounced the work of consolidation of administration and gone to the war front to fight and defeat the enemy and shown his individual prowess. Not this much, once Nilo Pant Mazumdar had earnestly requested the Chhatrapati to relieve him from his civil duties and allow to render his military services like other warriors and capture forts and territories of the enemy. It is said that Shivaji himself had to convince Nilo Pant Mazumdar that his services in civil capacity were as important as those of a military commander and that would be appreciated as the military exploits of the Peshwa . Thus. Shivaji was to overcome this problem also and build his civil administration. The Problem of Conservation or Reform of Feudalism: - Chhatrapati Shivaji was a very practical king and statesman. He knew that he had several problems and difficulties. He was not able to afford any warfare while consolidating his civil organization. He needed strict discipline, peace and order absolutely for his existence. He was to bring together all chiefs under his banner and consolidated his civil organization. He faced a problem, which was of feudalism, whether it was to be continued or reform should be carried out if decided to continue then to what extent it should be continued or reformed. If the system of feudalism was continued then the problems of internal wars, bloody feuds, anarchy and oppression of people would be prevailed as usual. Shivaji had already seen the panorama in Bijapur and Golkonda Kingdoms where this system was in existence. On the other hand if it was reformed the chiefs who had come under his banner would be dissatisfied and would be reluctant to remain together. Because he was very well aware about the characteristics of watandars and chiefs, whom he had brought under his control. Thus, Shivaji was to solve this problem of watandars who used to consider the interest of their own watan first ,the interest of the country afterwards. General structure of Government:- The king has faced problems regarding the structure of the Government which can be enumerated as under:- The village communities had been in existence since a long time. It was flourished because the system of Central Government was not developed munotes.in
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147 fully and on the other hand the village communities served the needs of the people admirably. Shjvaji, therefore, decided to carry on with the village communities as a part and parcel of the internal organization There were several self-contained officers, who were known as the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes. These officers were originally appointed for revenue collection, they, gradually made their offices hereditary, assumed and exercised their authority as they were sovereign powers. This situation led to develop the system of feudalism, But Shivaji never wanted to prevail this situation because he knew that the existence of feudalism means the negation of a strong monarchy. Shivaji appointed his own revenue officers to negate the importance of the old Deshmukhs and Deshpandes. Although, the old officers enjoyed their old rights and perquisites, they were not in any case able to exercise their tyranny on cultivators. Sabasad says that no rayat was subjected to the jurisdiction and the regulations of the Zamindar, Deshmukh or Deshpandes. Shivaji had weakened them considerably, these feudals were not able to plunder and oppress the rayat. He had conquered some of the territories of the Mughals, the Adilshahi and Nizamshahi in the Desh. Because, in the Desh, these feudals used to recover much more revenue, submitted its very marginal part to the government treasury and kept maximum with them. Thus, the mirasdars and feudals used to be strong enough to challenge the authority of the king. These mirasdars or feudals would construct forts and recruit armed forces for their security. Thus, they became unruly. When Shivaji conquered the territories in the Desh, he demolished all bastions, castles and the strongholds of the feudal lords. Wherever he found important forts, he posted his own garrison. Shivaji never allowed the feudals to control inams as they used to do earlier, he fixed their dues in cash and grains as per yield of the village. The zamindars, the Deshmukhs, the Deshpandes, the Deshkulkarnies, the Patils and Kulkarni were never allowed to build bastions but houses. Thus, these were the difficulties that Shivaji overcame while organising his civil administration. 12.3 THE KING The king was the pivotal point of the administration of the Marathas.He was the only superman who used to run the very difficult administrative machinery. Everyone in the administration like all heads of eighteen Karkhanas, the twelve mahals, officers of secretariat as Fadnis, Sabnis, clerks, military commanders and eight Pradhans used to receive and execute orders of the king .The king was the final authority, without his sanction no one, no department could actualize any design or plan. It is said that even Panditrao, a Brahmin, who was the officer in charge of the ecclesiastical department never tried to take any decision without the sanction of the king. In the same way even Kalush, the all-powerful minister of Sambhaji had had consulted the king to readmit to a repentant munotes.in
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148 renegade into his former caste after he had under gone necessary penance. Naturally, everything depended on the personal ability and qualities of the sovereign king. There was no force to cheek him except his own good sense and the external factors like wars of formidable Muhammadan invaders. Hence, this elaborates administrative system required a very strong and farsighted ruler like the founder of this administration. All the Maratha kings from the founder, Chhatrapati Shivaji to Shahu were the most efficient and powerful kings and were able to carry out the functions of the administration properly and without any hindrances. But after the death of Chhatrapati Shahu due to changed circumstances the central administration gradually came under the influence of the Peshwas. Fadnis originally, one of the officers rose to power considerably next to Peshwa and consequently, the central administration was transferred from Satara to Poona. Although, there were gradual changes in The Central administration but there were no changes in the village communities even under. The Peshwas continued them and the provincial administration as earlier. 12.4. THE ASHTA PRADHAN MANDAL The head of Maratha kingdom was the king , he was also the head of the administration . The king was assisted by his Council of Eight Ministers, which came to be known as the Ashta Pradhan Mandal. The Eight Ministers of Chhatrapati Shivaji were as under :- 1. The Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan . 2. The Mazumdar or the Amatya . 3. The Wakins or the Mantri. 4. The Dabir or the Sumanta. 5. The Surnis or the Sachiv. 6. The Pandit Rao , or the Royal Priest. 7. The Senapati or the Commander –in –Chief . 8. The Nyayadhish or the Chief Justice . Malhar Ramrao Chitnis says that the council of eight ministers came into existence at the time of the coronation and almost all ministers had been present at the ceremony. They stood on either side of the throne to pour holy water on the head of the king from gold and silver jars and basins. Sabhasad says that the following ministers of the council of Shivaji had taken part in the coronation ceremony as Moropant , son of Trimbak Pant as Mukhya Pradhan; Naro Nilkantha and Ramchandra Nilkantha as joint Amatya; the son of Raghuvathrao as Panditrao ; Harbirrao Mohite as Senapati; Dattaji Trimbak as Mantri; Ramchandrapant, son of Trimbakji Sondev Dabir as Sumanta; Annaji Pant Datto as Sachiv ; and Niraji Rauji as Nyayadhish. It is said that the Persian designations of some of the officers like Dabir, Surnis, Wakins and Mazumdar clearly suggest that such analogous offices existed in the Muhammadan government of the south. In the same way, there is a reference in the munotes.in
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149 Shukraniti in ancient Hindu polity the Chief Priest and the Chief Justice were the members of the Cabinet. Thus, this is one of the special features of the council of ministers of Shivaji. Justice Ranade says that the council of ministers of Chhatrapati Shivaji was very similar with the British Viceroy’s Executive Council. The Peshwa was Prime Minister, next to the king in the civil and the military administration and used to be in the seat first on the right hand below the throne. The Senapati was in-charge of the military administration and used to be in the seat first on the left hand below the throne. The Amatya and the Sachiv used to be in the seat next to the Peshwa while the Mantri used to be in the seat next below to the Sachiv , who was in-charge of the king’s private affairs . The Sumant was the Foreign Secretary and used to occupy the seat below to the Senapati on the left. The Panditrao came next in succession, who was in-charge of the ecclesiastical department and the Chief Justice was the last to be in seat on the left side. Ranade further says that even in the Modern Government, the same system of organisation is followed. Sen says that although, the Ashta Pradhan Council of Chhatrapati Shivaji had resemblance with that of the Executive Council of the Viceroy , the principles underlying the two were not identical .The viceroy’s council was a bureaucratic set-up and had therein the clear cut division of duties, whereas Shivaji’s Ashta Pradhan Council was an autocratic organisation, for the benefit of his people i.e, his subjects . Shivaji was a practical statesman and acted as a benevolent Despot. His ministers were his trusted servants. They were proud to carry out his instructions and orders for the advantage of the people. There was no any clear-cut division of duties in the council of ministers of Shivaji, six out of his eight members or ministers were to perform the military duties whenever necessary as well as almost all eight ministers were to attend a Hazir Majalasi to hear appeals in both the civil and the criminal cases. 12.5 DUTIES OF THE PRADHANS OR MINISTERS Regarding the duties of the Ashta Pradhan Mandal, the document known as kanujabta i.e. memorandum gives detail account of the same. The memorandum was prepared in the coronation year of the Chhatrapati Shivaji, which gives the account of the duties as under:- The Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan:- He was to perform all administrative work and put his seal on all such letters as a matter of his consideration. He was to prepare for expeditions and wage wars whenever necessary. He was to make necessary arrangements for preservation and retention of the districts which came under the possession of the Marathas and act and execute the orders of the king very strictly . He was to accommodate all military officers within his campaign and lead them successfully as per the orders of the king. The Senapati or the Commander-in- Chief: - He was to maintain the army and prepare for the war and expeditions. He was to preserve the munotes.in
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150 newly acquired territories, keep an account of spoils and act as per the order of the king . He was to bring to the notice of the king that which soldiers were useful to what expeditions as well as lead them all to the battle field. The Amatya or the Mazumdar:- He was to keep the account of income and expenditure of the whole kingdom. In order to get all accounts assessed by him, the Daftardar and the Fadnis were kept under his superintendence and they were answerable to him for all accounts. It was his duty to inspect every account submitted to him and put his sign and seal on the letters and accounts submitted to him by Fadnis and Chitnis. He was to render military service as and when it was required and look after the administrations of districts as per the orders of the King. The Sachiv:- He was also called Surnis. He was to look after the royal correspondence and make necessary corrections as per the order of the king. The Sachiv was to execute his military duties, help the administration in adjusting newly annexed districts and territories as per the orders of the king. He was to sign and stamp all the official letters as a mark of his approval and acceptance for execution. The Panditrao or the Royal Priest: - He had jurisdiction all over the matters of religion in the kingdom. He had authority to judge the religious offences and punish them as per the orders of the king. He was to put his signature on all papers related to customs, conduct and penance. He was to perform all the religious functions necessary to appease gods on various occasions. The Nyayadhish or the chief Justice: - He had jurisdiction on all the suits in the kingdom, he was to try them righteously, find them what is right and wrong and punish them as per the order of the king. He was to put his signature on the paper of judgement he delivered. The Mantri:- He was also known as wakins. He was to conduct all diplomatic and political affairs of the kingdom very carefully. The departments like invitation and intelligence were under his direct superintendence. He was to help the administration in maintaining the newly acquired districts and perform his military duties as and when required. He was to put his sign and seal on all the official documents as his approval. The Sumant:- He was also called as Dabir and was in-charge of all foreign affairs. It was his duty to receive and entertain all political agents, representatives from various other kingdoms on various occasions. He was also to perform his military duties whenever it was required and he was to put his sign and seal on the letters, documents which came to him , as his approval. Sabhasad says that despite these regular duties of the Pradhans or the ministers , there was a committee of three ministers to look after some of the provinces , divisions or zones of the kingdom like guardian ministers in the modern era . When these ministers were away from their courts or munotes.in
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151 offices, there were their agents looking after the administration of the ministers. Naturally, these agents were also appointed by the king. The kingdom was divided into four divisions as:- 1.The kingdom from Kalyan, Bhivandi, Kolawan upto Satheri, the territories above the Ghats, the Konkan, Lohgad, Junnar, twelve Mawals and Haralya pass were into one division. Moropant Peshwa was to look after this division. 2. The Konkan from Chaul to Kopal, Dabhol, Rajapur, Kudal, Bande and Phand were taken into the second division of the kingdom. Annaji Datto was put in-charge of this division. 3. The territories above the Ghat, from Wai to Kopal in the Tungbhadra river were brought under the third division. Dattaji Pant Waknis was to look after this division, who administered this division from his station at Panhala. Thus, the kingdom was put under three ministers, who were helped by three sarkarkuns. These sarkarkuns had to submit their accounts to the king when they used to meet once in a year. There were some Darakdars appointed to look after the administration of districts and market cities to help the eight Pradhans. Sabhasad says that there were seven to eight subhedars, who were appointed to look after the territories of the Mughals conquered by the Marathas . These subhedars were to submit their report to the Peshwa. 12.6 SECRETARY After the Ashta Pradhan Council, the next segment of the administration was the Secretary or Chitinis. Bal Prabhu Chitnis was the Secretary or Chitins of Chhatrapati Shivaji. Bal Prabhu Chitnis and Nil Prabhu Parasnis had been standing next below to the Pradhans at the time of Chhatrapati Shivaji’s coronation. The Secretary of the king enjoyed much power and had much influence in the administration. Among the powerful and influential secretaries, Balaji Avji was the man of exceptional abilities and caliber. This secretary used to perform various duties of complicated nature very efficiently. He was one of the most trusted persons of the king, and was assigned several delicate tasks of the kingdom to be completed within specific period. Due to his efficiency of any ability he was once offered a seat in the Ashta Pradhan council by the king. About the duties of secretary, Malhar Ramrao Chitnis says that the Secretary was the Patralekhak or a letter writer, who used to write all royal and diplomatic correspondence in such a way that what was not achieved by war and great exploits that should be achieved by means of letters only. Rao Bahadur Sane has published a memorandum regarding the duties of the secretary of the Chhatrapati Shivaji. He says that the secretary used to write all diplomatic letters of the kingdom, in which the sanads, deeds of grants, orders issued to the officers of the districts were included. He was to put seal or take signature of the king if the letter was of special importance otherwise the secretary only should sign and put seal on the correspondence. Citragupta says that Fadnis alone used munotes.in
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152 to issue deeds and royal grants , where as the Chitins used to write letters to the district officers and provincial officers . The Gadnis used to write answers to the letters received from the officers and commanders of forts. The Dabir was the officer to write letters and responses to the foreign courts whereas the Parasnis was to keep correspondence with the Emperor of Delhi and the Muslim rulers. To discharge the departmental duties, each Pradhan of the Council was assisted by eight clerks as official staff, which were as under: - 1. Dewan 2. Mazumdar or Auditor and Accountant 3. Fadnis or Deputy Auditor 4. Sabnis or the Daftardar 5. Karkhanis or Commissary 6. Chitnis or correspondence clerk 7. Jamdar or Treasurer 8. Potnis or cash- keeper 12.7 THE EIGHTEEN KARKHANAS In addition to the eight clerks and other staff, there were several officers put incharge of eighteen kharkhanas working under the Ashta Pradhan Council. These Karkhanas were as under:- 1. Khajina or Cash 2. Jawahir Khana or Jewelstore 3. Ambar Khana or Granary 4. Sharbat Khana or Medicines 5. Toph Khana or Artillery 6. Daftar Khana or Record Department 7. Jamdar Khana or Public treasury containing all sorts of things. 8. Jirat Khana or Corn Depot, according to Molesworth but Armoury according to R.V. Kosh. 9. Mudpak Khana or Kitchen 10. Ashar Khana or Camels and their trappings. 11. Nagar Khana or Band 12. Talim Khana or Gymnasium 13. Pil Khana or Elephant shades 14. Faras Khana or carpets, tents and accessories 15. Abdar Khana or Drink 16. Shikar Khana or Games, aviary, chase and allied materials. 17. Daru Khana or Magazine 18. Shahat Khana or Conservancy Department. 12.8 THE TWELVE MAHALS OR DEPARTMENTS As several clerks and several officers of eighteen Karkhanas, there were twelve mahals under the charge of Ashta Pradhan Coneil as under:- 1. Pote or Treasury 2. Saudagir or Merchandise 3. Palkhi or Palanquins 4. Kothi or warehouse and granaries 5. Imarat or Building 6. Bahili or chariots 7. Paga or stables 8. Seri or Comforts9. Daruni or Zanana 10. Thatti or Cowsheds 11. Taksal or Mints and 12. Sabina or Guards. The historians say that these departments were managed by the officers as per the orderes issed by the king time to time. 12.9 PRANTS AND DISTRICTS IN THE KINGDOM The territories, in the Kingdom were divided into a number of Prants or districts for the convenience of administration, These Prants and districts were as under:- 1. Maval Prant:- In this prant Saswad, Junnar and Khed talukas were there. These prants were guarded by eighteen great hill forts. munotes.in
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153 2. The Prant of Wai:- In this district Wai, Satara , and Karad were taken together. These territories were protected by strong fifteen forts. 3. The Prant Panhala:- In this district Kolhapur was there and was guarded by thirteen hill- forts. 4. Prant South Konkan:- This prant came to be known as Ratnagiri and was protected by fifty eight hill- forts and sea fortresses. 5. Prant Thana:- It was called the north Konkan and it had around twelve forts. 6. Tribak and Bagalan Prants:- . There were two 6th and 7th taken prants together corresponding with the western part of Nasik and they had altogether sixty two hill forts. 8. Prant wangad:- This prant was known as the southern part of Dharwad district, which had twenty-two forts to defend the area. 9. Bednore, Kolhar and Shrirangapatan:- There were 9th, 10th and 11th districts clubbed together, which later came to be known as Mysore and had eighteen forts. 10. Karnatik Prant:- It had eighteen forts to guard this prant. 11. Prant Vellore:- It was came to be known as modern Arcot district and had twenty five forts to protect the district from the enemies. 12. Tanjore Prant:- It had only six forts and had protected the district always. The Sahyadri ranges had several forts to protect the whole area of the kingdom. It is said that there were around two hundred and eighty forts under the jurisdiction of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 12.10. THE DESHMUKH AND THE DESHPANDE They were working as the officers incharge of parghana or districts even before the foundation of the Maratha Raj by Chhatrapati Shivaji. These officials were also called as zamindars, who used to oppress the rayat on various counts. This led Shivaji to remove these Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes from their power as officers in charge of parghanas and districts. He also was well aware about the implications of the removal of these officials. Shivaji, therefore, withdrew their authority as the officers but permitted them to enjoy the customary dues and appointed some Government officers to replace the Deshpandes and the Deshmukhs. The Peshwas never changed this administrative setup of parganas and districts during their period and the system proved advantageous to the Government as well as the rayat . Elphinstone says that the relief of rayat or the cultivators from the clutches of the Deshmukhs and Deshpandes generated all healthy and good results. In due course, the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes became friends of rayat and began to help the government in checking the authority of non- hereditary officers on the people. munotes.in
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154 The Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes had several rights and perquisites. Elphinstone says that the Deshmukh’s office was as lucrative as the office of the village Patil. He had the share in the revenue around five per cent and five acres of land with this. He had various claims in kind as a pair of shoes from every shoemaker every year , a portion of ghee from the people who make it. Rajwade says that the Deshpandes and the Deshmukhs were remunerated similarly as the Patil and Kulkarni of the village community by the people in districts and parganas under them. Although, the female were skillful and managed the administration and the campaigns well, they were never considered fit for the posts of the Deshpandes and the Deshmukhs. These officers helped the king in the collection of revenue, law and order and military warfare. 12.11. THE KAMVISDAR AND THE MAMLATDAR Chhatrapati Shivaji reorganized his administrative setup of Pargana, Sarkar and Subha into Mauja, Tarf and Subha and appointed officers like Havaldar and Subhedar to look after the administration of Tarf and Subha respectively. During the period of Peshwas, this setup was further reorganized into Mahals and Divisons. The officers appointed on the smaller divisions were called Kamvisdars where as the officers appointed on the larger divisions came to be known as Mamlatdars. The mamlatdars were working under the direct contact of the Central Government except the three provinces of Khandesh, Gujrat and Karnatak. The Kamvisdars and the Mamlatdars enjoyed their remuneration variously and had several officials at their disposal in their respective administrative divisions . As these officers were the representatives of the Peshwas in their districts, their duties and responsibilities were the most comprehensive in nature and character. These officers were to look after the welfare of the cultivator, devise means to improve agriculture, encourage new industries, enquire into the disputes of civil and criminal nature, and appointment of Panchayat for various decisions. They were responsible for peace and security, control police and adjudicate social and religious questions and problems .Thus, these officers had very wide responsibilities and powers . 12.12. THE DARAKHADARS Elphinstone says that in the Maratha administration of districts various checks on the conduct of the officers were exerted. As Kamvisdars and Mamlatdars were the non-hereditary officers administering the districts, the Deshmukhs and Deshpandes were the hereditary district officers, the latter used as check on the administration of the earlier officers. It is said that the accounts sent by Kamvisdars and Mamlatdars were to be corroborated by the Deshmukh’s and the Deshpande’s corresponding accounts, otherwise the accounts of Kanvisdars and Mamlatdars were not passed by the Government as authentic and accurate. In the same way at the provincial level check was exerted through the hereditary officers known as Darkdars or fee men . These Darkdars munotes.in
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155 worked as check on every department including the departments of navy and army . Neither Kamvisdars nor Mamlatdars were able to dismiss such hereditary officers on any count nor they competed them to do any specific duty unless it was supported by a long tradition and customs in the administration. Even, it is also said that the Kamvisdars or the Mamlatdars were not able to dismiss any officers working under them or vice versa. But the Darkdars were certainly contacting the Government for dismissal or the reinstatement of such officer. This type of check at the smaller level also was brought into execution as Havaldar , a non-hereditary officer at Mahal was checked by two hereditary officers Mazumdar and Fadnis in the revenue matters . But needless to say that these officers never interfered without any valid reason interfered in the internal administration of the village. They worked cohesively with the officers at various levels. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS :- 1. Discuss the problems faced by Shivaji while organizing his civil organizations. 12.13 SUMMARY Chhatrapati Shivaji was equally popular for his military as well as his civil administration. Justice Ranade Says that Shivaji was like Napoleon Bonaparte a great organiser in his times and builder of civil institutions. Chhatrapati Shivaji’s civil administration alone enabled the country to pass without sea the through the dangers, which controlled the Maratha country after his death. Shivaji tried to secure liberty for his people, unite them into one nation and make them powerful for self- defence and self assertion. Shivaji introduced his civil institutions in the territories of Swarajya only. Chhatrapati Shivaji had to face a number of difficulties at the time of building civil administration. Among them disorder and anarchy, importance to military exploits, existence of feudalism, eminence and dominance of local officials were important. The king was the pivotal of the administration of the Marathas. He was the only person able to run the difficult administrative machinery. Every one whether at high or low position with the sanction of the king could not act upon or execute the plan or design. Even, the Panditrao, who was the head for the religious matters, never took action on his own or without consultation or order of the king. The king was the final authority in every matter of the Maratha administration. He was the sovereign power in the kingdom. After the king , the next in succession came the Ashta Pradhan Mandal or council , in which there were eight members as the Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan, the Mazumdar or the Amatya, the Wakins or the mantri , the Dabir or the Sumant , the Surnis or the Sachiv , the Panditrao or the royal priest , the Senapati or the commander-in-chief , and the Nyayadhish or the chief Justice. Except the Panditrao and the Nyayadhish all other members of the council were to perform their military duties as and when required by the circumstances in addition to their regular and civil responsibilities. Sabhasad says that despite these munotes.in
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156 regular duties , there was a committee of three members to look after the provinces in which they were put in charge . In their absence, there were agents working in their courts and looking after their portfolios, which were appointed by the king. In addition to this, there were other seven to eight subhedars, who were appointed to look after the territories of the Mughals conquered by the Marathas. After the Ashta Pradhan Mandal or council, the Secretary was the next important segment in the Maratha administration. He was the Sachiv or the Chitins of the king. Among the most powerful and influential secretaries, Balaji Avaji was the man of exceptional abilities and caliber. Despite this arrangement, the Ashta Pradhan Council was assisted by some clerks like the Dewan, Mazumdar, Fadnis, Sabnis, Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamdar and the Potnis. There were eighteen Karkhanas and twelve Mahals or departments in the administration. There were several Prants and districts in the Maratha administration- There is no unanimity on the exact number of the prants and districts. The Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes were working as the officers of the prants and districts , which led them to exploit the rayats . The king, therefore , had done away the authority of the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes and appointed new officers to look after the administration of the prant and the district . During the period of the Peshwas, the Kamvisdars and the Mamlatdars were appointed to look after the districts and parganas . But the Deshmukhs and the Deshpandes were used as checks on the authority and the accounts submitted by the Kamvisdars and the Mamlatdars to the Government. In the same way, the Darkhdars were the hereditary officers at the prant level and for use as check on the non-hereditary officers appointed by the Maratha Government. In this way, Chhatrapati Shivaji created the wellknown administrative setup in his kingdom . 12.14 QUESTIONS 1. Give an account of the central administration of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 1. Discuss the central and provincial administration of the Marathas. 2. Examine the ideal of kingship of Shivaji with special reference to his Ashta Pradhan Mandal. 3. Assess the role of the Deshmukhas and the Deshpandes in the Maratha administration. 12.15 ADDITIONAL READINGS:- 1. Sen S.N. Administrative System of the Marathas. 2. Ranade Mahadev Govind, Rise of the Maratha Power. 3. Pagadi Setu Madhavrao, Chhatrapati Shivaji. 4. Kulkarni A.R.Maharastra in the Age of Shivaji. munotes.in
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157 13 MILITARY ADMINISTRATION Unit Structures 13.0 Objectives 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Infantry 13.3 Cavalry 13.4 Military Regulations 13.5 Naval Administration 13.6 Forts and Strongholds 13.7 Reserve Fund for Forts 13.8 Fund for Repairing Forts: - 13.9 Artillery 13.10 Summary 13.11 Questions 13.12 Additional Readings 13.0 OBJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to 1. Perceive the idea of military administration 2. Understand the infantry of the Marathas . 3. Know the organization and the units of the cavalry of the Marathas . 4. Comprehend the military rules and regulations of the Marathas 5. Grasp the Naval administration of the Marathas . 6. Explain about the forts and strongholds of the Marathas . 13.1 INTRODUCTION The Maratha Empire was primarily a military organization and its civil institutions were closely connected with its military system. The military efficiency demands discipline in the men and imagination munotes.in
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158 tempered with common sense in their leaders. A military power needs above all an ideal to defend their country, an ideal to fight for their people and security. The Marathas had carried the reputation of good soldiers as early as the first half of the seventh century A.D.; but it was not before the second half of the seventeenth century that they emerged from the comparative insignificant position to prominence and obtained a place among the great powers of India. The Marathas have been very well known for the military powers from time immemorial. The ancestors of the old Rashtrikas were very popular for their military prowess. They fought various wars under the banner of different dynasties like the Chalukya prince Pulkeshi , they fought and defeated the great army of Harshavardhana. They also fought under Malik Ambar of Ahmednagar against the great army of the Mughal emperor Akbar , who was to retreat ignominiously. The rise of the Marathas under Shivaji opened a new era in the military history of India. He had a clear concept of the military organization of the Marathas. He had definite plans of military reforms, specific views and opinions based upon the past experience. Although, he believed in personal selection of military but had not faith in hereditary genius. He approved of unity of command but never tolerated military interference in the civil administration of the country. He wanted a strong monarchy as the solution to the prevailing disorder, dissentions and anarchy. Naturally Shivaji had, started his operations initially with cautions, circumspect and also with small forces attached to the Jagir of his father. Thus, the military administration of the Marathas can be studied with the help of following points :- 13.2 INFANTRY Shivaji was the superhuman military genius, who had perceived the necessity of light infantry and light cavalry in the guerrilla warfare of the mountainous area of Maharashtra. His young Mavalas were the fittest soldiers for the guerrilla campaign in the Maratha territory and were the highly appreciated warriors in the military history of the country. Shivaji selected his infantry personally, not as the basis of formal training on the parade ground but on the assessment of them on the actual battle field . The king never allowed his soldiers to rust their swords and kept them always engaged in various warfare mostly the guerrilla tactics against the formidable Muslim powers in the South and the North . This practice Naturally increased the efficiency of the infantry of Shivaji. Chhatrapati Shivaji had the organizational capability of extreme quality. He organized his infantry in various segments and groups very carefully in order to suit with the geographical requirements of the kingdom as under :- 1. The smallest unit of his infantry had altogether ten members. Out of them nine were soldiers and one was the commanding officer , who was called the Naik . munotes.in
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159 2. The second segment was headed by the officer known as Hawaldar , under whose command there were five units . 3. The next division of the infantry was kept under Jumledar , in which there were around two to three Havaldars . 4. The officer who commanded ten Jumlas was known as the one Hazari officer . 5. Above one hazari officer , there was the Sarnobat of the infantry , who controlled around seven Hazari officers. These officers were paid variously as Jumledar was one hundred hons per year while his assistant sabnis had the salary of forty hons per year . The one Hazari officer was paid five hundred hons every year where as his assistant sabnis was paid variously from one hundred hons to one hundred and twenty-five hons. Chitnis Bakher says that on the eve of special occasions like marriage or any other ceremonies, the Government used to advance financial assistance appropriately. 13.3 CAVALRY As Chhatrapati Shivaji preferred light infantry, he also recruited light cavalry as per the need of the kingdom. Naturally, the people from Maval were predominant in the cavalry and excelled in the guerrilla tactics of the king . The cavalry was divided into two divisions as 1. The Bargirs and 2. Shiledars . The State provided the Bargirs with every weapon, horse and other equipments required for warfare whereas the Shiledars were to equip themselves each of them on their own expenditure. Each Shiledar was to have his own house, weapons, arms and ammunition required for warfare and protection of his own jagir or properties. Sabhasad says that shiledars were kept under the rank and supervision of the Bargirs. Bargirs formed the bonafide part and parcel of the cavalry or paga. In other words, there was a check exercised on each other by the Bargirs and the Shiledars. As the infantry was ranked one after another officer, the cavalry also was organized properly for its administration as:- The first unit of Bargirs was formed of twenty five horses or Bargirs, the unit was kept under the officer known as Havaldar. There were two essential persons appointed to help this first unit as watercarrier and farrier , needed to look after every horse and keep the horse fit for any campaign . The second unit of the cavalry was known as Jumla, in which five havaldars were included. The officer of this jumla was known as Jumledar, who received the salary of five hundred hons per year with a palanquin as a status symbol. His assistant , Mazumdar was paid salary of one hundred to one hundred and twenty five hons for every year. The next unit of the cavalry was one Hazari in which ten jumlas were taken together. The one Hazari officer was paid the salary of one thousand hons per year where his three assistant officers, as Mazumdar, a Maratha munotes.in
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160 karbhari and Prabhu kayastha were paid the salary five hundred hons each year . They all were provided palanquins for transport and were to present together the statement of account for income and expenditure to the Government. The cavalry had one more unit the next , which was known as Panch Hazari, the officer heading this unit was known as the Sarnobat . He was paid the salary of two thousand hons every year with all other perquisites. He had several officers to assist him as a Mazumdar, a karbhari and a jemenis. There was the same arrangement and organization of the shiledars, the brigadiers of shiledars were kept under the supervision of this Sarnobat. Chhatrapati Sivaji often used to announce that he was the king first and the Hindu later. He was supported in this wise resolution by Gomaji Naik Pansambal, who was his trusted and well known officer. Naturally, the Muslims also liked to work under the king and joined his various campaigns against the Mughals and the Muhammadan rulers of the south. There was a body of around seven hundred strong Pathans who worked under Shivaji , that also kept a counter balance and proved useful in several campaigns , Shivaji was the master of all war techniques and all measures of successful expeditions. He knew that behind every successful attempt in the territories of enemy needed the support of intelligence, spies or espionage. He, therefore set up the spies’ department under the leadership of Bahirji Naik Jadhav. This department only helped him the most in organization of all successful expeditions against the rulers of the south and the north. It is said that due to Bahirji Jadhav, the head of the intelligence, the king could save his army from the loss and much damage. Shivaji knew that it was not possible for him to maintain a huge army like the Mughals or the Muhammadan rulers in the south because, the sources of income were not so regular, and the land in his kingdom was not so fertile. But he compensated these flaws by increasing the speed of his operations against the formidable enemies and humbled them at each and every time. In order to increase the agility of his soldiers he ordered to carry befitting arms, ammunition and camp equipage. He ordered them to dress in tight fitting breeches, cotton jackets, turbans and carry the arms like swords both long and short, spears and lances, bows and arrows and match locks. Naturally, the king’s army was so prepared and ready to move within a very short notice. As the army of the king was so quick in mobility, it was equally quick in demobility, due to these characteristics of this army the invading enemy army was ever unable to get any information before their actualization. Chhatrapati Shivaji had well disciplined and well armed brands of soldiers to guard himself. His bodyguards were regimented into units of twenty, thirty, forty, sixty and one hundred soldiers. These guards had dressed in richly embroidered turbans, jackets of broad cloth, gold and silver ear-rings and wristlets. They had silver rings to their weapons like sword-sheaths, guns and spears. Thus, such brands of guards marched with the palanquin of the great king Shivaji and succeeded in every attempt, which the king planned and executed. munotes.in
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161 As a matter of fact, there were forces of some feudal Maratha watandars before and after the period of Shivaji. These watandars were often ready to help the king as the Mavali Deshmukhs used to help him. Among such feudal Maratha watandars Mal Patil and Baji Patil of Birvadi were often ready to serve the king the most. These watandars desired six ruka and half anna per soldier per day for their substitution and were ready to serve the king as long as the circumstances needed their help. But the king was not in favour of taking the help of such watandars at any time unlike the Peshwas, who came to power later. Chhatrapati Shivaji was very punctual in the payment of his soldiers, who were paid either in cash or kind. Some time they were assigned to districts for their payment with necessary orders or varat. He was deadly against to the payment of soldiers by way of granting them jagir. Shivaji never allowed to fall the salary of his soldiers into arrears. If any cultivator worked as a soldier, his changed rent was deducted from his salary. It is said that the salaries paid to the soldiers were not high and they were all manageable as from Rs. 3 to Rs. 9 for infantry and from Rs.6 to Rs.20 for cavalry soldiers depending on their ranks, experience and positions. In addition to this, the soldiers and their officers were rewarded generously and magnanimously for their distinguished services rendered during their career. The soldiers sustained wounds while doing duty were monetarily compensated as per their injuries. The king personally paid attention towards the widows and children of the soldiers, who laid their lives for the kingdom were liberally and adequately granted pension as well as the major sons or relatives of such soldiers were opted into the service of the kingdom. If any slain soldier survived with no heir or son, his wife was granted the half pension for survival. Shivaji ordered to organize his soldiers after the destruction and total defeat of the army of Afzal Khan and rewarded them with cash and kind befittingly. He gave away the rewards in precious ornaments like bracelets, necklaces, crest, medallions, earrings, pearls, horses, elephants and houses to the soldiers for their meritorious services. 13.4 MILITARY REGULATIONS There are several historians, who have given different pictures and accounts of military camps of the Maratha sardars on various occasions. Elphinstone says the Maratha camp means the long lines of white tents installed tidily whereas Jone’s history says that the Maratha camp included all participants in the war, with their animals, families, and other people like entertainers, Banyas, fakeers and buffoons. Broughton says that the Sindias camp projected ugly picture of military discipline. Because it accompanied public women and the wine was sold publicly, which was against the military rules. But this was not the situation of Shivaji’s camp. He never allowed anyone to carry any female slaves or dancing girls and using wine. He punished the offender, whosoever breached his order and the camp rules with death. Chhatrapati Shivaji was the lover of military discipline and created some several sets of military rules, abided by every soldier in the strictest manner. munotes.in
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162 Sabhasad and Sen have taken together some military rules and regulations, which Shivaji executed with much care and caution in his military. These rules can be summarized as under :- 1. Shivaji had ordered them to return to their barracks in the rainy season for four months. 2. The provisions needed for them like grains, medicines, fodder and houses for men should be kept ready. In the same way there should be stables thatched with grass for horses and elephants kept ready. 3. The military should move out of their barracks the moment the Dassera was over. 4. Every one in the military should prepare inventory while leaving their barracks and going on the expedition. 5. The military should subsist themselves on the spoils they secure in the territories of their enemy by way of levy and contribution of these rulers towards the Marathas. 6. The military should not carry with them any woman, female slaves, or dancing girls on the expedition. The soldier who would breach the order or the rule invited the capital punishment. 7. The soldiers should abide by some rules and regulations in the enemy territories as they should not capture women, children, Brahmins and cows . They should capture males , bullocks and buffaloes to be used for transportation. 8. No one should commit adultery on any account , if the rule was breached , the offender was beheaded summarily . 9. The military should be on expedition for eight months in the enemy territory. 10. While returning back home on the border itself the military should take stock of all soldiers participated in the expedition and reach their barracks in the month of vaishakh. 11. The head of the unit should check items with the soldier with the earlier inventory, if anything found additional was to be valued and the same value was to be deducted from the salary of the soldier . 12. If anything valuable found, should be directly sent to the king or the royal treasury . 13 If anything, as one of the soldiers secretly concealed and came to the light, the unit officer should enquire and punish such guilty soldier. 14. As soon as the military reached their barracks, the officers or sardars should prepare the whole account of their expedition, and meet the king with all valuables like gold , silver, jewels, clothes and commodities of value and present munotes.in
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163 them to the king . In the same meeting, the officers or sardars should submit their account and explain it wherever required. 11. If any expenditure was to be made and required additional financial assistance, that was to be brought to the notice of the king and if appealed to him , to hand over to the concerned sardar. 16. The military officers should return to their barracks after meeting the king and assess the performance of their soldiers in the campaign and reward them suitably . On the other hand, if any soldier or officer had not performed well deliberately, a quick inquiry was to be made and if found guilty he was to be dismissed from the services. 17. When the military reached back to their barracks , was to wait there for months and on the Dassera day accompany the king to the expedition of the fresh year as per the plan and order of the king. These were the military regulations of the Marathas, which were brought into execution by the king strictly, even then there were some exceptional incidents of violation of these rules regulations, as in 1671, a Maratha soldier had attacked the sabnis of his regiment. In 1672 some of the soldiers had troubled to some pilgrims of the Chaphal Fair. In1676, a camp of the Maratha military at Chiplun had troubled the people of neighboring villages for the want of provisions. Although, Shivaji sorted out such incidents and punished them, such incidents were not totally removed because the military had the example of Bijapur army, which was popular for indiscipline. Chhatrapati had taken strong action against such incidents in the later period to enforce strict discipline in the forces . Despite these defects, the Maratha soldiers were good people, they were short in stature and of light built, not stout and tall as the soldiers of the Moghals . But their courage, hard work, wonderful energy, presence of mind and agility were more than the soldiers of the Mughals and the Muhammadan rulers of the Deccan. The Maratha soldiers due to these characteristics could surpass the Mughal and the Muhammadan soldiers in the open warfare on equal terms. Dr. Fryer says that the soldiers of Chhatrapati Shivaji were the fittest for any martial exploit, they were accustomed to fare hard, journey fast, and enjoy very little pleasure. Even their women did not lag behind them. He further says that although, the soldiers of Shivaji were very good for surprising attack and ransacking, they did not care much for a pitched battle and were of stirring spirit. 13.5 NAVAL ADMINISTRATION Chhatrapati Shivaji felt the need of organization of a strong naval power after his Konkan conquest to check the power of the Siddhis of Janjira , who often used to raid the coast of Marathas and pester them unnecessarily. Shivaji’s navy had several boats and ferries of various descriptions but they predominated mainly by Gallivats and Ghurabs . Sabhasad gives a detailed account of Shivaji’s naval vessels. It says that there were around four hundred Ghurabs, Tarandes , Tarus , Gallivates , munotes.in
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164 Shibals and Pagas , which were organized into two squadrons of two hundred vessels each . Each squadron was placed under the supreme command of two officers as 1. Admirals Dariya Sarang , a Muhammadan officer and 2. Mai Naik, a Bhandari. It is said that Daria Sarang was not only the Muhammadan officer in the naval administration of Shivaji, there were many other Muhammadan officers like Admiral Daulat Khan , who joined Shivaji’s fleet little later. Chhatrapati Shivaji had manned his navy mostly by Kolis and the men from seafaring tribes of the Malbar coast. There is no detail information available about their uniform but the Maratha sailors used to wear headgear which was very much similar to that of koli hat. It is said that Shivaji tried to check the European powers as the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English in the Indian waters and save the trade of Indian merchants in those waters . Robert Orme says that in 1675 the strength of Shivaji’s fleet reached to fifty seven vessels, out of them fifteen were grabs, and the rest of vessels were gallivats, which were crowded with men for all the times . Another foreign traveler Frayer says that when he was on the way to Kharepatan, which was south to Dande Rajapure , he saw a strong castle of Shivaji and his navy, which consisted of thirty small ships and vessels, the Admiral heading the naval fleet had a white flag flattering aloft. Prof. Jadunath Sarkar says that Shivaji had a large mercantile navy but developed certain weaknesses due to the lack of naval tradition and a good artillery. Robert Orme says that the Maratha navy predominantly based on two vessels namely the gallivats and the gurabs, which were suited to the Malabar coast. The Maratha grabs had two to three masts, the vessels having three masts had the capacity of three hundred tons burthen and the rest had only the capacity of hundred- and fifty-tons burthen. This vessel was some how similar to that of a Mediterranean galley and covered with a strong deck level with the main dock of the vessel. This structure of the vessel increased its speed when sailing. The deck of the prow was not enclosed with sides as the other vessels , it remains bare that the water which dashed upon it passed off without interruption. On the main deck under the fore-castle were mounted two pieces of cannon of nine or twelve pounders, which pointed forwards through the port holes cut in the bulk head and five over the prow. The cannon of the broadside was from six to nine pounders. The vessels gallivates were large row boats, built like gurabs but smaller in dimension and had the capacity of not more than seventy tons . They were of two masts boats of which the mizen was very slight , the main mast bore only one sail, which was triangular and very large . These vessels could bear six or eight pieces of cannon from two to four pounders. Although, the European vessels were bigger and larger, the naval soldiers of Shivaji attacked on the Portuguese successfully for more than one occasion . Sabhasad says that among other vessels, tarande was a sailing vessel of large dimension. The next vessel was shibad , which was a flat bottomed two-masted craft having no deck . The third vessel was Pagar , was only a well smoothed Canoe. It is said that these vessels belonged to the mercantile navy and plied munotes.in
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165 between the ports of Shivaji and the various coast towns of Arabia . That means Chhatrapati Shivaji had realized that there was a need of strong mercantile navy for strong naval power of the Marathas . Thus, the Navy of Shivaji performed several functions as policed against the siddi’s pirate fleets, took possession of foreign vessels wrecked on the Maratha coast, collected duties from the trading ships and regulated exports and import duties as per the orders of the king. The naval power started by Shivaji went on increasing in the later period under the Angrias and the Peshwas considerably. Th mercantile spirit of the Maratha traders found a greater scope with the expansion of the Maratha empire under the Peshwas and they began to ply to various places like all towns of Arabian coast and countries like China and others from the south east Asia. 13. 6 FORTS AND STRONGHOLDS Although, the military of Chhatrapati Shivaji was numerically lesser than the Mughals and the Muhammadan rulers of the south, he tried to compensate that by increasing quality of his military and made it much more efficient than his counterparts in the north and the south. In order to achieve his objectives, he introduced strict discipline, appealed to the military as well as patriotic instinct of his soldiers and succeeded in his design to the maximum extent. The Mavalis were his earliest adherents who were hardy hill men came to prominence under his leadership. He depended on these hill men and their hills because these hills constituted the best defence and the hill men accompanied him in his all bold and perilous raids. Sivaji trained his hill men Mavalis into an excellent infantry and converted all bare rocks and mountains into impregnable forts, which helped him to restrict the entry of any external power to his country. He had altogether two hundred and forty forts whereas Ranade says “He possessed major and minor two hundred and eighty forts . There was not a single taluka or pargana which was not protected at least by a fort or stronghold. His forts extended over the vast range of mountains, which skirted the western shore of India. Shivaji had regularly fortified his forts , which commanded every pass”. Chitnis says that forts were the very life of the Maratha kingdom while Lokhitwadi says that Shivaji was popular for mainly building his forts. His all hill forts were impregnable naturally, which never needed a strong garrison. In general, he had kept around five hundred soldiers to defend a fort but never put the whole responsibility of defending the fort in the hands of only one officer. Sabhasad says that there were three officers like Hawaldar, Sabnis and Sarnobat, who collectively exercised the authority of the fort . They were answerable for the administration of the fort they possessed. There were several sections in the fort and each was allotted to one officer like Karkhanis, who was looking after the store of grains and writing of all accounts of income and expenditure. Shivaji had made adequate arrangement for the defense of his forts. Where the forts were of extensive circuit, he appointed seven to eight Tat Sarnobats and the charge of ramparts was assigned to them. While appointing the officers as well as recruiting soldiers, the king took munotes.in
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166 much care as , he assessed their bravery, background, ability and intelligence. He made a team of ten persons, which was headed by a Naik. Thus, all persons put in the defense of the fort were held responsible. Even then, there was a committee of three chief officers as Hawaldar, Sabnis and Karkhanis. Hawaldar was put as the chief of the committee. He was to keep the keys of the fort with him . He himself was to make sure that every gate was bolted properly and the main gate was locked by him personally. He was not to open any gate including the principal gate during the night at any cost. Havaldar was not to delegate this duty to anybody at any cost. Chhatrapati Shivaji had tested the reliability, efficiency and firmness of officers of the fort personally on several occasions. The second officer was Sabnis, who was put in charge of the accounts in general and the muster roll in particular. The third officer was Karkhanis, who was mainly responsible for the commissariat work. It is said that these officers worked cohesively and kept check on each other. 13.7 RESERVE FUND FOR FORTS Chhatrapati Shivaji used to store sufficient provisions in the fort to be consumed during the period of any emergency or siege by any formidable armies like the Mughals. But this policy could not work for a long time due to certain difficulties. The king, therefore decided to start a Reserve Fund to meet the expenditure of extraordinary needs of the forts surrounded by armies of enemy. A document of the year 1671-72 mentions that Chhatrapati Shivaji began to raise the reserve fund from each Mahal and watan in his kingdom to be used specially when there was no money available from any other sources against the siege of forts by the Mughals. The reserve fund was fixed to one lakh twenty five thousand hons and that was raised from the following Mahals, watans and personages:- 1. Kudal, Kolen and Rajapur twenty thousand hons from each 2. Dabhol fifty thousand hons 3. Poona thirteen thousand hons 4.Nagoji Govind ten thousand hons 5.Jawali, Kalyan, Bhiwandi, Indapur and Krishnaji Bhaskar five thousand hons from each 6. Supa two thousand hons. This amount was set aside as reserve fund and was not spent on any other Government work at any cost but on the forts, which were beleaguered by the enemy. 13.8 FUND FOR REPAIRING FORTS:- Chhatrapati Shivaji was the most farsighted king, his provisions for the reserve fund and repairing forts has been testimony of the same. As the king had kept around one lakh twenty five thousand hons for reserve fund ,in the same way he set aside one lakh seventy five thousand hons for repairing his principal forts . The forts and the amount he apportioned each was as under :- 1. Sinhgad, Sindhudurga , Vijaydurg, Pratapgad,Purandhar and Rajgad had been assigned ten thousand hons each. munotes.in
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167 2. Prachandgad, Prasiddhagad, Vishalgad, Mahipalgad, Sudhagad, Lohgad, Sabalgad and Shrivardhangad had been allotted five thousand hons each. 3. Korigad and Sarasgad were given two thousand hons each . 4. Manohargad was sanctioned one thousand hons and seven thousand hons were kept for miscellaneous work. Thus, the king tried to keep the forts in tact at any cost. 13.9 ARTILLERY It was very effective and offensive weapon of long-range shooting and used on large scale in wars by rulers who came to India like Babar. He ascribed his decisive victories over his Rajput and Pathan opponents to artillery only. Due to advanced knowledge and various strategies of artillery, the Portuguese became a formidable power in south India. Therefore, it became imperative necessity for Marathas to master the art and technique of this weapon to compete and overcome their political opponents in the country. Chhatrapati Shivaji had a regular department of artillery which was popularly known as Tophkhana or Darukhana. But the king was to depend totally on European companies for supply of guns and cannons used in artillery. A document of 1671 says that Shivaji had permitted the French and the English to establish their factories at Rajapur in order to seek the guns and powder needed for his artillery. He had also purchased around two thousand mounds of lead and eighty-eight iron guns from the Portuguese at Rajapur in 1673. But Shivaji could not get any such arms and ammunitions from the English at Surat. In the same way, neither Sambhaji nor Kanhoji Angre could get any arms and ammunitions from the English. During the period of Peshwas some efforts were made to establish their own foundries for manufacturing arms and ammunition used in artillery. Peshwa Bajirao I had established his foundry in 1739, which was visited by Captain William Gordon, the English envoy at Poona. Madhavrao I had established one more factory at Ambegaon to manufacture cannon balls in 1765-66. In 1770 another factory at Poona was brought up by the Peshwas for the war ammunition. A document of 1754-55 mentions that Mahadevrao Shivdeo was the head of the artillery of the Peshwas. There were other eight officers used to help him in the department. Another document of 1777 mentions that Narona a Portuguese officer commanded the artillery of Peshwas. The trained battalion of Peshwas under the command of Boyd had employed eight Portuguese gunners on the monthly salary of Rs. sixty each and two Jamadars were paid Rs. thirty each a month. There were two Hawaldars who were paid Rs. eighteen each, whereas forty-two Golandazes or gunners were paid Rs. twelve as monthly salary and twenty-four Khalasis whose salary was Rs ten each month. Orme Says that Shivaji had supplied artillery to defend his forts. Sabhasad says that when Diler Khan had surrounded the fort of Purandhar, Murar munotes.in
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168 Baji Prabhu had a dashing sally on the siege of this Mughal officer. Scott- Waring says that Shivaji had no good artillery and was never used in wars. Dr. Fryer says that almost all forts were on the top of the inaccessible mountains and became naturally defensible needed no other artillery but stones only. which were tumbled down upon their enemies by the soldiers of Shivaji. These stones caused certain destructions not less than bullets where they were alighted. Needless to say that the Maratha soldiers had gathered huge heaps of stones at certain stations and they rolled them down upon their enemies as and when they needed their strategy to defeat the assailers. After this strategy, the Maratha soldier sallied upon the besiegers with their swords in hand and finished the enemy totally. Chhatrapati Shivaji paid his Hawaldar at the fort one hundred twenty five Hons a year. In 1680, Nagoji Bosale was appointed as Mudrahari or chief of Utlur fort on the salary of one hundred sixty Hons per year whereas Krishnaji Suryavanshi was appointed Sarnobat in the same fort on the salary of hundred Hons every year. In addition to these officers some other persons were appointed to help them in various capacities as Muzumdar who was paid thirty six Hons per year , Tat sarnobat was paid twelve Hons a year and there were seven Bargirs, whose yearly pay was nine hons . Despite their regular payment, the king procured them some additional facilities as per rank and importance as palanquin, torchbearers, personal attendants and some other persons also were there . Thus, the king had taken care of each person and their requirements in all areas. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. Describe briefly the Infantry of the Marathas. 13.10 SUMMARY The Maratha Empire was primarily a military organization and its civil institutions were closely connected with its military system. The military efficiency demands discipline in the men and the imagination tempered with common sense in their leaders. The ideal of military should be to defend their country and their people from enemies. The Marathas had earned the reputation as soldiers from the seventh century itself but they earned the reputation as the political power during the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji only in the second half of the seventeenth century. This was the new era in the history of the country. Chhatrapati Shivaji had a clear concept of the Military organisation of the Marathas. He wanted a strong monarchy as the solution to prevailing disorder and anarchy. Naturally, Shivaji began his operation with caution initially, which was with the small forces attached to the Jagir of his father. He preferred light Infantry suiting to the guerrilla warfare of the mountainous area of Maharashtra. His young Mavalas were the fittest soldiers for guerrilla campaigns in the Maratha territory and were the highly appreciated warriors in the munotes.in
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169 military history of the country. He organized the Infantry into various groups which were kept under the officers of Naik, Hawaldar, Jumledar, Hazari and the Sarnobat. These officers were paid handsome salary regularly. In the same way cavalry was organized into Bargirs and the Shiledars. State provided everything to the Bargirs from the state expenditure whereas shiledars were to spend for horses, weapon and all other things from their own. The cavalry was organized into various sections as the Infantry and had the officers of the same rank but the Panch Hazari was an additional officer. They were also paid handsome salary either in cash or kind. Chhatrapati Shivaji had prepared several rules and regulations for the advantage of people in his kingdom.These rules and regulations suggest the idea and concern of Shivaji towards his people. Shivaji felt the need of a strong naval power to check the growing power of the Siddis of Jangira, who had threatened the security of the Maraha territories in Konkan. Sabhasad gives detail account of Shivaji’s navy and various vessels as Gallivates , Gurabs, Tarandes, Tarus and Pagas, which were organized into two groups of two hundred vessels in each. Shivaji’s navy was commanded by Admiral Dariya Sarang. The most important achievement of the Maratha king, Chhatrapati Shivaji was the construction of forts and strongholds. Shivaji constructed and repaired around two hundred and forty forts whereas Ranade says that he had around two hundred eighty forts. These forts were managed by a group of several officers as per the strict orders and supervision of the king. Shivaji had set aside one lakh twenty five thousand Hons for meeting the basic needs of people in the forts during the period of emergency. In the same way he also set aside one lakh seventy five thousand Hons for repair of several forts. Shivaji had very effective and regular department of Artillery, which was known as Tophkhana. 13.11 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the Infantry and cavalry of the Marathas. 2. Give an account of the guerrilla warfare of the Marathas. 3. Write a detailed note of forts and strongholds of the Marathas. 4. Assess the role of Artillery in the military organization of the Marathas . 13.12 ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Sen S. N. , The Military system of the Marathas . 2. Sen S. N. , Adminisrative system of the Marathas . 3. Pagadi Setu Madhavrao , Chhatrapati Shivaji. 4. Ranade M. G. , Rise of the Maratha Power. munotes.in
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170 14
ADMINIST RATION OF JUSTICE
Unit Struct ures
14. 0. Objectives
14. 1. Introduction
14 2. No Separation of Power
14. 3. Panchayat
14. 4. Membes Of Panchayat
14. 5. Appeals
14. 6. Evidence In The Disp ute
14. 7. Trial By Ordeal
14. 8. Financial Implications In The Civil Suits
14. 9. Elphinstone And Hope
14. 10. Judicial Officers
14. 11. Role Of Panchayat In Criminal Cas es
14. 12. Fine And Punishments
14. 13. Summary
14. 14. Questions
14.15 Additional Readings
14. 0 OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this unit, the student will be able to
1. Understand the salient features of the Maratha Judiciary.
2. Comprehend whether there was separation of power in the
Maratha Judiciary.
3. Grasp the role of Panchayat in the judicial administra tion of
theMarathas.
4. Know the importance of appeal in the judiciary of Marathas.
5. Explain the importance of evidence in the dispute during the
period of Marathas.
6. Comprehend the meaning of Trial by ordea l in Maratha
judiciary. munotes.in
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171 14.1. INTR ODUCT ION
As a matter fact the judicial institutions are in the process of evolution in
the world. The evolutionary process has been influenced by the
changing scenario, which deferred from country to country. In England,
much emphasis has been given on the procedure, for which the country
passed various acts and made it systematic, scientific and tried to bring
clarity in the existing laws. The country had a body of professional judges,
who were experts in the laws of land and they tried to give specific
shape even to unwritten customary laws of the land. The English suitor
knows well the procedure of the judiciary, he believed in it and also
knows about the fair decision of the judiciary. On the other hand, the
Maratha judicial system and administra tion had excelled in
simplicity. It had no codified laws, there was no fixed procedure and no
financial burden of delayed suits except anxieties and worries. The
Maratha judiciary practised on the basis of customs, which varied from
district to district. There was a trial by ordeal, which again was
inconvenient, because it was not possible easily to all people concerned,
the result was that the honest poor could not claim his rights against the
dishonest rich. Alt hough, Elp hinstone criticised the Maratha judiciary, it
worked for several centuries with name and fame.
The Maratha administration of justice was simple and it was suited to the
temper and situations prevailed during that time. The law was not
codified, its procedure was not certain and it was mostly in formal.
There are several salient features of the judicial administration of the
Marathas as
1. It depended upon the old Sanskrit treatises like Mitakshara school of
thought and Manus codes for legal theories
2. It also banked upon the old customs which prescr ibed the trial by
ordeal. The Maratha judges allowed the offender to undergo the
ordeal of fire and water. They also believed in the divine intervention
and taking oath in sacred temple.
3. The Marathas acted as patriarchs of the old laws. They were little softer
on the enforcement of the civil suits and emphasised on the amicable
settlement of these disputes.
4. They gave almost all facilities or chances to the suitor or
complainants to prove his case
5. They also showed some considerations to the defeated party or defend
to ensure the good relations between the parties in future.
Chhatrapati Prat ap Sinha, the ruler of Satara between 1808 and 1839 had
prepared a list which is known popularly ‘YADI’ of all procedural
customs prevailed during the period of Marathas. T he ruler has
emphasised on the amicable settlement, he further says that in case the
parties failed to settle their dispute amicably, they should move to the
arbitra tor and get satisfactory settlement for both the parties. In this munotes.in
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History of Maratha
172 case the arbitrator should adjudicate the issue impartiall y, without fear and
favour of any party.
14.2. NO SEPARATION OF PO WER
The judicial procedure of the Marathas followed the old Hindu law
givers as the Manu the Shukranitisara and the Vish nu Smriti, who never
practised the principle of separation of power i.e. exercising powers of
Judiciary, the Executive and the Legislation separately. The Vish nu Smriti
and the Mahabharata say that if any offence is committed in a village, let
the lord of that village suppress t he evil and set right the matter which
was wronged. If he is not able to do so it should be moved to the lord of
ten villages, then the lord of hundred villages and finally to the lord of
district if the each one failed in succession, the lord of district should
eradicate the evil totally to the best of his power. Naturally, the separation
of power was not exercised. When the amicable settlement was failed, the
dispute was taken to Patil, who was the judicial officer of the village. In
the succession of judicial institutions, after the Patil, the Mamlatdar, the
Sarsubhedar, the Peshwa and the king c ame one after another. The
Maratha king was the fountain of Justice and honour like the king of
England. In towns, there were learned judges, well- versed in almost all
shastras were appo inted for exercising the judicial duties. These judges
were popu larly known as Nayadhish. In short the theory of separation of
power of the Executive, the Legislature and the Judiciary was not
observed.
14.3. PANCHAYAT
This was the first instrument of the civil administra tion of justice under
the Marathas . It was the duty of the Patil in each village and Shete
Mahajan in the town and market places to appoint a P anchayat to
adjudicate cases of simple and minor nature. The disputing parties were
to sign an agreement regarding the abiding of the rules and regulations
of the Panchayat. It was the Panchayat to study the case and pass its
judgement impartially or without any bias to any party. Mamlatdar, the
higher officer in the succession of judicial administration was to confirm
the judgemen t. In case, the Patil refused to conduct lighter judgement or
appoint a Panchyat or the disputing parties declined the adjudication of
the dispute in their village, it was the duty of the Mamlatdar to arrange for
Panchayat at another Villege with the help of Patil and get the
dispute adjudicated. It is also said that if any matter was beyond the
jurisdiction of the Patil, the Mamlatdar was to conduct the hearing of the
case and was to finalise it in a f air manner. Generally, the Patil and the
Panchayat used to adjudicate the cases, which were upheld by the
Maratha Government.
The Government neither made any payment nor paid any allowances
to the Panchayat members or Panch like the amateur judges of ancient
Athens and Sparta in Gre ece. Elphinstone says that the pay or reward of
the Panchayat depended on the nature of the case adjudicated by them.
But it was certain that the Maratha rulers never approved any reward or munotes.in
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Adminis tration of Justice
173 gratification and private presents to members of the Panchayat. It was
noteworthy that the party never abided by the judgement which was
delivered in his absence. Such judgement was quashed by the appeal
of the absent party to the Government. It also happened that the relatives
of the absent party were arrested and put under rigorous conditions in
order to mound the pressure on the absent member to be present in
the court for the hearing. The defeated party was to sign an agreement in
which he was to renounce his all claims to the property in dispute in
favour of his opponent. The winner of the dispute was to pay the amount
around twenty five percent of the total value of the disputed property or
watan to the Government.
14.4. MEMBES OF PANCHAYAT
Although there was no requisite qualification of a member
appointed on the Panchayat , the people from the same village or the caste
men were preferred for the job. Generally, the people like Des hmukh,
Deshpande and relatives of the disputing parties were appointed to settle
the boundary disputes. Elphinstone confirms this view and adds one more
member who used to be the village watchman , considering that he knew
almost all boundaries of the individual land. There was a general practice
that when the watan was in dispute, the Zamindars of neighboring
Pargana and Patils of adjoining village were appointed on the Panchayat
to adjudicate the matter. Because it was expected that these people would
know all procedural matters and were aware of the tradition, custom and
unwritten laws relating to the landed property and watans in the kin gdom.
D. B. Parasnis says that a Majalasi or a special council was constituted to
hear and adjudicate the appeals of watan and property, in which some
Brahmins were included. It is also observed that the appointment of
such Majalasi, Panchayat and their members were to be approved and
authorised by the government in some important cases and then permitted
to perform t heir judicial duties. The Peshwas overlooked such
irregularities in several cases after going through the motive behind
the appointment of these councils and their members.
14.5 APPEALS
During this period, if any party dissatisfied with the judgement of the
Panchayat was able to appeal to the appellant court . The appeal was
made generally on the pretext of corruption of the Panchayat members.
But the responsibility of proving or substantiation of his charges used to
lie on the person appealing, otherwise, he was to pay fine, which was
known popu larly as Gunhagiri. The amount of fine was imposed after
considering the means and financial capabilities of the appellate. The
Panchayati members were being t he co-villagers of the appe llate, the
appeals were generally rare. The another reason of this was that the
appellate was to suffer teasing in day to day. Naturally, peop le very rarely
were going for appeals. The Government used to appoint a new Panchayat
for appeals or assigned the work to a Government officer like Mamlatdar.
Elphinstone says that although, the decision of appointment of Panchayat munotes.in
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History of Maratha
174 rested in the Governme nt based on the nature of the case, it was
considered gross inj ustice to refuse the right of the appeal of the appellate.
It is said that when the judgement was delivered by Patil, it was
considered one of the sufficient evidences to order a fresh investigation.
Although, Elp hinstone says that the Panchayat was generally open to
corruption and partiality but this view is totally unfounded because the
Panchayat adjudication was the most popular judgement and approved by
almost all peop le during this period. The Panchayat being plural was
called Panch- Parmeshwar or they were treated as parents of the disputing
parties. In short, the Panchayat had commanded the confidence of the
people because the people considered the voice of Panch as the voice
of God. Thus, the Panchayat judgement was the acclai med judgement
during this period.
14.6. EV IDENCE IN THE DISPUTE
There is an urgent need of evidence in any disputing case to prove one of
the parties either guilty or innocent and facilitate to deliver the correct
judgement. During this period several forms of evidences were
taken into consideration, one of them was the oral evidence and if it had
done by way of ordeal that was considered very effective evidence. There
were several peop le, who were qualified to work as witnesses and deposit
evidences in connection with the dispute. The people who were well-
versed in the history and traditions of the village, its peop le and watan-
holders were generally called to deposit their evidences and help the
Panchayat in delivering judgement. Among such people following were
some of the important people invited for presenting their evidences as 1.
the Village officers 2. the villagers 3. The caste people or gotras 4. the
Balutedars, who were familiar with the history of the village. In the case
of Joshi and Kulkarni watan the people like Patil, Chaugule,
Carpenter, Blacks mith, Potter, shoe-maker, attendant of a village temple,
fisherman, barber, village watchman and drummer were invited to deposit
their evidence to adjudicate the above case. In another dispute of Patilki
watan of Wadgaon in 1741-42, the people like a gardener, barber, village
watchman, carpenter and shoe-makers were invited to present their
evidence and help finalize the case. In some other cases the old people
were called as witnesses asked them to deposit their evidences. Thus,
the evidence was utterly necessary to comprehend the case and reach to
the conclusi on correctly.
14. 7. TRIAL BY ORDEAL
This was a very popular trial during the period of Marathas.
Because many a times, the defeated party reneged the agreement, which it
had signed before the trial. That party used to ask decision by ordeal in
water and fire or an oath in temple or mosque. These ordeals were done
till the defeated party was satisfied. The ordeals were done in order to
give justice to the defeated party. The idea of the judicial administra tion
of the Marathas was that there should not be any injustice to any party and
generate anger or rivalry among them. It is said that in one of the munotes.in
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Adminis tration of Justice
175 cases, the defeated party, although had signed the agreement was not
satisfied with the decision by the caste men. Then the party took the
Panchayat to the sacred river, the defendant and the plaintiff were made to
stand in the sacred water, the person who was to do ordeal by water he
was asked to deliver his judgment in presence of all those people in the
sacred river water. He was to take bath in the sacred water and give his
decision there its elf. The judicial system presumed that an ordinary would
never speak wrong at such auspicious time and in presence of all people
as well as the verdict would go no wrong; this was the basic principle
behind such ordeal.
Although, there were several ordeals performed in the process of
deliverance of judgment, very few were practiced for the convenience of
the administra tion, which depended on the nature of the dispute. For
example in a Patilki watan dispute between Devji and Shankararji
Dhangat in the district of Pali, the ordeal of Agnidivya was performed. In
this ordeal the contending party was asked to take out a metal piece
from the boiling oil pot. The moment the party took out the metal, his
hand was bandaged and presented him before the Distr ict officer or
Majalisi or the Council. If the hand of the party did not get any injury or
burn, the party was declared s uccessful. The ordeal was called complete
and the party was restored with for which it was fighting. Regarding the
boundary dispute between two villages, one of the Patils was to fix the
right boundary with cow's hide on his head. It was presumed that if the
person doing ordeal lied, some illness or other mishap was expected
to befall him or his family, if he did not sustain any injury or left
undisturbed, it was believed that his assertion was true and corroborated
by the God. Thus, the Maratha judicial administration sanctioned all these
ordeals.
Despite these ordeals some several disputes were taken to the court of
celebrated judges or Nyayadhish like Ram Shastri Pra bhune, who were
very popu lar for uprightness in the history of Maratha judiciary. These
Nyayadhish interviewed or examined the people or disputing parties in
their own houses in private, even they also consulted the friends of the
disputants with firmness in order to get complete and correct idea of the
dispute to give justice to the parties in dispute. The Maratha judges like
Ram Shastri were not the people to deviate from the path of justice for
any man in whatever position or for any advantage unde r the Sun. The
procedure of the Maratha judiciary was mostly informal while the
European emphasized on the form, procedure, hard and fast rules. The
absence of these formalities led the Europeans to pass several re marks on
the Maratha judicial system. Elphinstone says that in general r ich,
influential and the men of ranks received some favour across the
countries and the ages, who defined the law with more or less impun ity.
But this was not the case in Maratha judiciary, in which high rank officials
were punished for their misconduct and their watans were liquidated for
debts. It is said that observation and remarks of Elphinstone were
befitting to the European countries when feudalism was practiced. munotes.in
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History of Maratha
176 14.8 FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS IN THE CIVIL
SUITS
The Maratha Governme nt charged fees variously to different suitors based
on their cases. But that depended on the money bond s and the amount
usually realized in the dispute. The Government changed around twenty
five percent on the realized property. If the suitor was not able to pay the
amount, it was lowered to twenty percent. As a matter of fact, the
creditors very rarely approached the court for recovering their money
from the debtors because the existing tradition and customs allowed then
to recover the money from their debtors by any measures. In the
extreme cases , the creditors used to take support of Dharna or picketing,
which prohibited the debtors to take any food or drink water unless they
repaid their debt to their creditors. Broughton says that this Dharna was
executed against t he men of higher ranks. During the period of Peshwas,
some Muhammedan soldiers had undertaken Dharna to Da ulatrao Sindhia
for realizing their money.
It is said that in the Partition suits, the property up to the value of Rs.
three hundred was exempted from any charges by the Government. But
the property above the value of three hundred rupees was charged at the
rate of ten percent. In the c ase of inheritance the right of seniority that
of the son of legally wedlock was maintained, even if he was younger to
the son of widow re marriage. A mother could claim maintenance as
well as mone y for religious work and going on a pilgrimage.
Brothers used to inherit the childless brother on payment of inheritance
tax to the Government. But due consideration was made for widow sister-
in- law, she was permitted to adopt a child which required formal sanction
from the Government and secured it without difficulty. A f oreigner died
with in the territories of the Marathas, leaving s ome property, his legal
successor was searched and the property was handed over to him,
otherwise the property belonged to the Government.
14.9. ELPHINSTONE AND HOPE
Among the experts who commented on the Maratha administra tion of
Justice, the views expressed by Elp hinstone and Hope are considered very
important. Elphinstone says that the Maratha judicial system. was very
imperfect, there was no regular administration of justice, no means to
file suit and there was no fixed rule for proceeding after the suit had
been filed. It was also up to the officer to accept a complaint or to reject it
altogether.
Although, Elphinstone was critical and skeptical of the functionality of the
Maratha judicial administra tion, the system worked perfectly, because, the
plaintiff could approach the chief jus tice at Poona, the Peshwas and the
King at any time. The chief court at Poona was always kept under the
brilliant scholars and in dependent judges Like Ram Shastri and
Balkrishna Shastri Tokekar, who were always accessible to the people,
rick and poor alike. Moreover, the Peshwas went on tour every year, munotes.in
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Adminis tration of Justice
177 accepted complaints and punished guilty peop le severely. Broughton is
one of the admirers of the Maratha judicial administration who says
that the Maratha rulers were enough accessible to the people even
during the time of emergency or expedition. Dr. Hope one more European
writer expressed his views in favour of the Maratha ju dicial
administra tion. He says that there was much to admire about the
Maratha judiciary and one of them was the simplicity of the system and
there was very little to detest in that administratio n.
14. 10. JUDICIAL OFFICERS
Although, Elphinstone was very critical abou t the Maratha judicial
system, he himself admitted that the Maratha country was peculiarly
free from crimes and gang robberies were never taking place. This is the
credit goes to the system, the ruler and the people involved in it. There
were several ju dicial officers involved in it as 1. The Patil at village 2. The
Kamvisdar or Mamlatdar at the district level. 3. The Sarsubhedar at the
province 4. The Peshwa or the chief justice at Poona 5. The highest
judicial authority was the king himself, who was generally represented by
the chief Nyayadhish. In the preceding period of the Marathas, the Hazir
Majalasis worked as the final court trial which consisted of lawyers, civil
and military officers of the state. Shukranitisara says that there were
Sabha Naiks and Mahap rashnikas, who were also involved in the judicial
administration of that period.
14. 11. ROLE OF PANCHAYAT IN CRIMIN AL CASES
In the Maratha judicial administration, the authorities or judges like the
Patil, the Panchayat, the Kamvisdar, the Sarsubhedar, the Peshwas and the
king were adjudicating the civil as well as the criminal disputes as per the
laws of the land. It is said that the Panchayat had not that much
jurisdiction in the criminal cases as it had in the civil cases. But it was
called some time to make inquiries and pass judgement in those criminal
cases without hesitation. This is clear from the incidence of 1760 in
which Yashwantrao Ks hirsagar , sixty one of Kameri and two others were
killed in a land revenue dispute, after a complaint about the incident by
the victim's son. The Patil, Kulkarni and some people of the village were
summoned to the Huzur, after the enquiry, the Panchayat fixed
appropriate compensation, which was paid to the victim's son. But such
serious crimes were taking place very rarely.
14. 12. FINE AND PUNISHMENTS
The Marathas had realized that whatever punishment was inflicted should
be corrective and that should not push the offender into extreme
frustration and convert him as a sworn enem y of people and the
government. The second important provision the Marathas had and that
was that while fixing the punishment the capability of the offender was
taken into consideration and he was allowed to pay the sum of his
punishment into several installments. There was no capital punishment
during the period of Chhatrapati Shahu. The government punished the munotes.in
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History of Maratha
178 offenders of murder and treason with fine, confiscation of property and
imprisonment for several years. In short, the Marathas inflicted fine
according to the resources of the offender, i.e. it was based on the
earning sources of the culprit. For example, a resident of Peth Somvar
guilty of his wife's murder was fined as per his earning capability. As
guilty was punished, an innocent, if he was also accused of any crime
could not escape punishm ent or fine, which was based on the earning
capacity of such person. If the innocent person proved his innocence, the
accuser was punished severely . Although, there was punishment to every
offence, some of the noteworthy offences and sentences were as under.
1. Witchcraft:-This was considered a very serious offence in European
countries. England had a statutory provision during the period of Elizabeth
to suppress the offenders of this offence, which was continued till 1736.
Due to this provision more than thirty thousand men and women lost their
lives because they were accused of this offence. In the same way, one
more European country Austria also had a similar provision in their
judicial statute which was continued up to 1766. The Marathas had a
provision of fine and imprisonment for the guilty person of this
witchcraft and they used to undertake special measures against the
crimes of witchcraft and sorcery. In 1775, Martand Joshi a culprit of this
offence was jailed in Ki lla Ghagad, the officer in charge of this Killa was
instructed that the accused should not be allowed to apply sacred sandal
mark on his forehead, perform his daily religious rites and recite sacred
hymns. The accused was to be allowed to take his food once a day and
cook his own food. The Maratha judiciary also excommunicated and
remo ved some frontal upper teeth to extinguish the evil powers of the
accused. The Maratha government was so keen and serious in preserving
the properties and lives of the people from the influence of evil powers
of witchcraft and s orcery t hat the governm ent had appointed and
deployed several officers in the year 1774 in Ratnagiri, Vijaydurg and
Devgad to trace out such Wizards and punish them on the spot.
2. Adultery:- This was considered one of the offences during the period
of Marathas. There were several fines and punishme nt to the accused of
this offence. The penal servitude and slavery were the punishments
inflicted on the female offender. However, such offender was set free if
some relatives assured and ensured about the good conduct of the
accused in future and paid certain fine to the government. There was one
more provision existed in the Maratha judiciary that a slave woman was
set free if she was able to replace herself by another slave. Such case
had taken place in 1741-42; the husband of a slave woman rescued her
by providing another slave. In the same way in 1754 a Koli woman
accused of adultery was rescued by her caste men after the payment of
fine Rs. fifty. On the other hand, the punishment was little soft to the
male offender who used to pay a fine and some time he was undergoing a
term of imprisonment for the crime.
3. Slavery: - There are several references that a guilty of adultery was
punished with enslavemen t. Acc ording to Manu, the slave should not have
any property or wealth, whatever slave earns s hould belong to its master. munotes.in
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Adminis tration of Justice
179 But during the period of Marathas as Chanakya says the slave was able to
enjoy whatever he used to earn and entitled to inherit the property of his
father. In short, the sla very unde r the Marathas was different than the
slavery in Europe and America. The slaves were treated well, they were
set free on several occasions, festivals and due to their old age. They were
released on the suitable substitute for their owner and allowed to marry
with the person of their choice. The marriage of slave girl means it was as
good as her manumission.
4. Biga my and Fo rcible Marriage: -During the Maratha period, there
were several offences related to marriage of the Hindu male and female.
Many a times, male was able to get rid of any such offences but female
was punished with severe punishment. Among such offences two
offences were generally taking place as 1. Bigamy and 2. Forcib le
marriage. In case if for bigamy, the parents or guardians were responsible
then they were to be blamed. Because during this period, child marriages
were practiced and the young girls used to be victims of this offence. In
the year 1752-53 a person was punished with Rs. eighty because he had
married a girl, who was already married with somebody else and he was
present when the second marriage of his wife was taking place. Thus, the
second husband became guilty automatically because, he did not enquire
about the girl's earlier marriage. In another case of 1770-71, a
Brahmin family was imprisoned on the charge of marrying t heir girl
twice, when her husband by the first marriage was alive. In the same
way, in case of forced marriage the punishment was manyfold as 1.
The confiscation of property, 2. Excommunication of the parties 3.
Imposing fine on the parties. It is said that a family was punished with
fine when it was proved that it had married a forty-five-year-old male
with a three-year-old girl forcibly, when the parents of the girl were not in
sense. Thus, the judiciary under the Marathas worked meticulously and
adjudicated such cases and disputes.
5. Mutilation: - Elphinstone says that there were no crimes during
the period of Marathas. The most important reason for this was that the
Maratha rulers were not cruel, they used to be very considerate for a
deserving offender, they punished them with a small fine and set them
off. But this situation was not continued for a long time. the Marathas
were constrained to inflict some sort of severe and exemplary sentences to
overawe the would-be offenders. Alt hough, there was no capital
punishment during the period of Chhatrapati Shahu and the Peshwa Balaji
Bajirao, the Peshwas like Madha v Rao and Madhav Rao II were
constrained to inflict very serious punishment to serious offences like
treason , murder, dacoity, robbery and causing any serious hurt.
Madhavrao Peshwa convicted the serious offenders to death on one
occasion and on the other he inflicted the offenders to be mutilated.
It is said that there were the following punishments and sentences for the
crime of theft as 1. Capital punishment 2. Right hand and left leg were to
be cut off 3. Right hand only was to be cut off 4. Right hand, one ear was
to be cut off 5. Right hand and right leg were to be cut off 6. One ear was
to be cut off. These were sentences inflicted on criminals depending on munotes.in
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180 the severity of their crimes. Although, these punishments were cruel but it
should be noted that there was no influence of humanitarian principles on
the criminals to deter them from committing crimes. Thus, The Marathas
had judicial administration which was exemplary.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain the role of Panchayat in the judicial administra tion of
Marathas.
14.13. SUMMARY
The Maratha administration of justice was simple and suitable to the
temper and situation prevailed during that time. The law was not codified,
its procedure was not certain and it was mostly informal. It depended on
old Sanskrit treatises, old customs, which prescribed the trial by ordeal of
fire and water. The Maratha judiciary also believed in divine intervention
and taking oath in sacred temple. T he whole emphasis of the judiciary of
this period was on the amicable settlement of disputes and
establishment of good relations between the parties in future.
The Maratha judiciary followed the procedure and rulers laid down by the
Manu, Shukranitisara and the Vishnu Smriti, which had never followed
the principle of separation of power. The dispute was taken to Patil,
who was the judicial officer of the village, when the amicable settlement
was failed. The next in succession was the Mamlatdar, the Sarsubhedar,
the Peshwa and the final judgement was in the hands of the king.
Panchayat was the authority at the village level to adjudicate the disputes
of simple and minor nature. The parties in the dispute were to sign an
agreement regarding abiding the rulers and regulations of the
Panchayat. If any party was not satisfied or the case was beyond the
jurisdiction of the Patil and the Panchayat, then Mamlatdar was to
organize a Panchayat, to conduct the hearing and adjudicate the dispute in
a fair and clear manner. B ut, generally , Patil and Panchayat used to
decide disputes and the Government upheld them.
In case of any party not accepting the judgement of a Panchayat on the
pretext of corruption, the party was allowed to go for appeal to the higher
court or authority. But the charge of corruption leveled by the person
appealing was to prove the charge, otherwise, he was to pay the fine ,
which came to be known as Gunhagari . Generally, the people from the
village, like Kulkarni, Deshmukh and De shpande and who were
conversant with customs and existing laws were appointed as the mem bers
of the Panchayat.
There was an urgent need of evidence in any dispute to prove the parties
right or wrong and deliver judgemen t. During this period, several forms
of evidence were considered. In the same way, the trial by ordeal had
come to popularity. If the defeated party was not happ y with the decision,
it would ask the trial by ordeal either ordeal by water, fire or an oath in
a tem ple or masque . Naturally ordeals were done to satisfy the parties
and bring to an end to the rivalry between the parties. As a matter of fact, munotes.in
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181 there was no much financial burden of the civil suits of the parties. The
Patil, the Kamvisdar or Mam latdar, the Sarsubhedar, the Peshwa and the
king were the officers one after another in succession , who delivered
judgements during this period. Although, the Panchayat. had no that much
jurisdiction in criminal cases as it had in the civil cases, but sometime it
was asked to conduct an enquiry and pass a judgement in the case
concerned. Alt hough, there was no capital punishment during the period
of Chhatrapati Shahu, the Later Peshwa had long lists of fine and
punishments inflicted on the accused. These fines and punishments were
based on the nature of crimes and their severity. The crimes like
witchcraft, adultery, bigamy, forcible marriage was treated very seriously.
During the period of Peshwa Mahadhavrao, very serious punishments
were in flicted to offenders of treason, murder , dacoit, robbery and
causing serious hurt. It is said that mutilation also was in practice as a
punishment for a serious offence.
14.14. QUESTIONS
1. Evaluate the role of Panchayat in the judicial administra tion of the
Marathas.
2. Assess the importance of evidence in the dispute during the
period of Marathas.
3. Give an account of trial by ordeal in the judicial administration of
Marathas.
4. Write an essay on the fine and punishments in the judicial
administration of Marathas.
14.15 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Sen S.N. Administrati ve System of the Marathas.
2. Sen S.N. The Military System of the Marathas.
3. Dr. Gune, the judicial System of the Marathas.
4. Setu Madhavrao Payadi, Chhatrapati Shivaji.
munotes.in
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182 15 LAND REVENUE Unit Structure: 15.0. Objectives 15.1. Introduction 15.2. Land Revenue 15.3. Principles of Assessment 15.4. Other Taxes 15.5. Summary 15.6. Unit End Questions 15.7. Additional Readings 15.0. OBJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to : - 1. Know the land revenue system under the rule of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 2. understand the land revenue system during the period of Peshwas. 3. perceive the policy of other taxes than land revenue under the Marathas. 4. comprehend the historical perspective, application and recovery of Sardeshmukhi and Chauthai. 5. know forest as one of the sources of income of Marathas. 6. understand mint and an important source of the Marathas. 7. perceive customs duties as significant source of income under the Marathas. 8. comprehend how remission in various taxes and land revenue was made under the Marathas. 9. know the policy of taxing excise duty on various manufacturing processes. 10. understand the various revenue divisions and revenue officers who were working under the Marathas. munotes.in
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183 15.1 INTRODUCTION During the period of Marathas there were several sources generated income or revenue for the Government. A document known as the' Mestaka' mentions around eight sources which were exploited as basic sources of revenue as Jakat, Jairal , Bagait, Barnagjag, Bargujarat, Badast, Katubana and Jujuya. Apart from these sources, there were some direct taxes, which were levied on the income of individuals, professionals and properties of people. As direct taxes, indirect taxes like customs duties, transit dues, octroi, sales tax and the excise duties on manufacturers were also charged and revenue was raised Although the Administration of Justice raised some revenue as a fine and judicial fees, it was very negligible and a small amount which was even not enough to defray the expenditure of one of the years of judiciary. There were some miscellaneous sources of income as the property which was not claimed by any one went to the Government, presents received by the king, spoils of war and sometime plunder from the territories other kingdoms formed the sources of income under the Marathas. As a matter of fact whatever was collected from the people was not deposited with the Government. The hereditary officers who used to collect the taxes as well as revenue kept with them the major part of the collection as their own share in lieu of their salary and remaining part they deposited with the Government. It was not possible to trace many a times whether the officer recovered authorized or unauthorized taxes from the dues of people. The land revenue was the major source of income and was referred to it as the share of the king. The land revenue was collected in cash as well as in kind. The levies associated with land were referred to kali, kharip, bargujar, rabi, bagait, ghagria, zhadzadora and kadba. It is, therefore, in the following pages an attempt is made to describe the legal and authorised sources of income of the Marathas. They are divided into various divisions for the convenience of study as : - 1. Land Revenue 2. Other taxes 3. Chauthai and Sardeshmukhi 4. Forests. 5. Mints . 6. Customs Duties and 7. Excise Duties . 15.2. LAND REVENUE This source of income is again divided into two parts as the land revenue under the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji and the land revenue during the period of the Peshwas . 1 Land Revenue during the period of Shivaji: - Chhatrapati Shivaji was the founder of the Hindu padpadshahi and creator of civil institutions. He took care of lands under him and adopted several measures to improve the cultivation of agriculture. Therefore, his subjects enjoyed plenty of agricultural production and the status of prosperity. He introduced a very flexible system of assessment and collection of land revenue by appointing efficient officials at each and every level for the same. It is said that the peasants of Shivaji knew it better what revenue munotes.in
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184 he was to pay and he paid it easily and without any oppression. Chhatrapati Shivaji studied the revenue system of Malik Ambar, which he felt that it would suit his kingdom and he adopted it with some minor modifications. Malik Ambar was a great foreigner, who worked with the ruler of Ahmednagar in the same circumstances as Chhatrapati Shivaji. He tried to defend the tottering Nizamshahi kingdom against the onslaught of Aurangzeb by introducing several measures to reorganize the exhausted resources of the revenue system of its kingdom of Ahmednagar. He divided the land into four classes on the basis of its fertility, ascertained its production and fixed the revenue once for all. He removed the intermediary agency of revenue collection and assigned the responsibility of revenue collection to the hereditary Patil and Deshpande and he held them responsible for fully realization of revenue. Thus, this system proved useful for collection of maximum land revenue and it was adopted with some minor modification by the Marathas. 1 Land Survey of Anno Datto : - Although , Shivaji adopted the revenue system of Malik Ambar , he did not adopt it in toto and removed all defects prevailed in it. As Malik Ambar could not conduct the land survey with care and caution that Chhatrapati realized. Shivaji found that there were several units of measurement, which created variations in the measurement as traditional rope and tenab or measuring chain. These units changed in length in various seasons and gave no accurate measurement. Shivaji, therefore, searched a standard unit, which was a kathi or measuring rod. This was of five cubits and five fists (muthis) in length. Such twenty kathis made one bigha and one hundred and twenty bighas made a chavar. After fixing the standard unit of measurement, Chhatrapati Shivaji ordered Annaji Datto, his Sachiv to undertake the systematic survey of the land in the Konkan region of his kingdom. Accordingly, Annaji carried out the measurement of land accurately. But he did not rely on the Government officials, who did not possess the accurate knowledge of local land and its fertility. Annaji invited the senior local people, whose interest was directly connected with the land. In addition to this, the Pargana officials, and village officials were asked to take the help of prominent local people and carry out the survey jointly. Since in this survey of Annaji Datto, people from all sections were associated, it became the settlement of all people . This survey had outstanding features as under : - 1. The village land was categorized into four classes as first, second, third, and fourth respectively. 2. The record of each cultivator with the quality,level and quantity of land was prepared. 3. The record of land holding with crop wise estimation was prepared. 4. When the joint survey was submitted to Annaji Datto, he himself visited at least one village of each description, estimated its yield, compared his figures with the figures submitted by the joint survey munotes.in
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185 officials. This was done to avoid the over estimation and the loss of people. 5. After the completion of survey in this manner of each village, the record was forwarded to the Finance minister. 6. After taking such survey, comparison in the figures, the assessment was fixed was carried out. Regarding this survey, Chhatrapati Shivaji had issued a circular in 1678 . 15.3. PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT During the period of Shivaji, the land, under cultivation was only assessed for levying revenue. The land occupied by trees, pastures, and barren land was excluded from the assessment for the purpose of revenue. The rate of assessment was varied from land to land and it was based on 1. the quality of land. 2. crops cultivated in the land 3. the number of crops produced. 4. the number of seasons as kharip or rabi thrashed in the land 5. the nature as jirayat or bagayat of land. These factors were considered while assessing the land revenue. Naturally, the land survey, mentioned above was needed to give detail information of the land and its holders for this purpose. Annaji Datto had fixed the land revenue around thirty-three percent (33 % ) of the total production of land. Chhatrapati Shivaji made it forty percent (40%) for the administrative purposes and abolished all extra taxes. Major Jervis, a British revenue officer referred to the method of land revenue assessment of Chhatrapati Shivaji, in his statistical survey of the Konkan. He says that Shivaji after surveying, measuring and classifying all kinds of land, fixed the amount of production in the land at least two villages from each Mahal for three years. Thus, this was the basis for ascertaining the land revenue during the period of Shivaji. He further says that the cultivator was allowed to pay the revenue as per his convenience i. e. half in kind and half in cash to the Government. The land cultivating rice was classified into twelve categories as awwal-, the best quality of land; doom- the second quality of land; seem- the third quality of land; charum- the fourth quality of land; ranpal- kharwat means coast land; bawri-means rocky land; khadi- means stony land; turwat- the land cultivating pulses; khathani; manut and ruho land. These lands were levied revenue ranging from five maunds to twelve and half maunds per bighah. Major Jervis says that, although the cultivable waste land was not assessed on the basis of plough and not bighah as well as its fertility and the crops produced were also considered for the same purpose. Nachni in such land was assessed at four maunds per plough in fertile soil and three maunds per plough in infertile soil. Wari and Harik were assessed three and two and half maunds per plough respectively. Turmeric, Hemp and sugarcane were assessed from five maunds per bighah to three and half maunds per bighah. The costly products like sugarcane, coconuts and betelnut had special consideration in the assessment because, the munotes.in
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186 cultivators were to nourish them for a long time and wait little longer for reaping the production. As per the Jedhe Shakavali, Chhatrapati Shivaji had started Batai system of revenue in his Rohidkhore area in 1676. It seems that the Batai system means charging half produce as revenue did not prove profitable to the cultivators, who complained that this system raised the prices of food grains in the market. But this version is not accepted by most of the historians because this was not implemented throughout the Swaraj but in some segments of his kingdom. 15.3.1 Revenue Divisions under the Marathas :- Chhatrapati Shivaji had divided his kingdom in various revenue divisions for the convenience of recovery of the revenue in a systematic manner. But there is no unanimity on the number of revenue divisions. There are several versions of his revenue divisions as under: - 1. Justice Ranade says that there were sixteen revenue divisions, which Chhatrapati Shivaji created as Maval , Wai, Satara, Karad, Panhala, South Konkan, Thana, Trimbala, Baglan, Wanagad, Bednore, Kolhar, Shrirangpattam, Karnatak, Vellore and Tanjavar.. 2. S.N. Sen says that the revenue divisions of Chhatrapati Shivaji referred by Shankarji Malhar in his document seems to be more authentic, which were about thirty seven in total as Ramnagar, Jawhar, Bhiwand, Kalyan, Chaul, Rajapur, Kudal, Bhimgad, Phonde, Akole, Poona, Baramati, Indapur, Maval, Wai, Satara, Karad, Man, Phaltan, Belgaum, Sampgon, Gadag, Laxmeshwar, Navalgund, Nalyal, Bete giri, Malkapur, Kopal, Panhala, Tarab, Ajra, Junnar and Kolhapur. These divisions differed in size and number of talukas they contained. 15.3.2 Revenue Officers under the Marathas: - Chhatrapati Shivaji brought out several changes into the existing revenue system, which was in practice during the earlier rulers of Muslim dynasties. These changes were as:- 1. He reduced Mohammedan revenue divisions of Mauje, Parghana, Prant and Subhe to Mauje, Tarf and Prants . 2. He removed the hereditary revenue collection officers Patil and Kulkarni in the village and Deshmukh and Deshpande in the district. 3. Shivaji assigned the responsibility of collection of revenue to the officers who were directly appointed by him or the king. 4. He appointed Havalda, Karkum or Paripatyadar as in-charge of Tarf to collect the revenue of the same place. 5. He entrusted the responsibility of collecting revenue of Prant to Subhedar, Karkum or Mukhya Dandadhikari. 6.He assigned the responsibility to supervise over several Subhedars to Sarsubhedar as main officer. He had several other hands to assist him as Dewan Muzumdar, Phadnis, Sabnis, Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar and Potnis, which were shifted from place to place in munotes.in
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187 order to avoid the corruption in the process of revenue administration. Shivaji also deployed his spy agency to supervise and keep strict watch on these revenue officers. Among the officers in his intelligence department, the Pant Amatya and the Pant Sachiv were very important, who looked after the revenue collection agency, as per the orders of the king released from time to time. 15.3.3 Land Revenue under the Peshwas: - The main emphasis of the revenue system of the Peshwas was on the policy that making the Maratha country rich and the cultivators prosperous. The Peshwas encouraged the cultivators or peasants to produce more production and increase the wealth of the country. To actuate this objective, there was a need of bringing the fallow land under cultivation. The Peshwas helped the cultivators in this direction and the maximum land was brought under cultivation. The cultivator, who did this, he was exempted from the revenue and taxes for some years till he compensated the money spent on the above purpose. The Peshwas divided the land into four categories as:- 1. Shiri means cultivable land 2. Kuran means the land used as pasture or grazing land 3. Bag or garden 4. Ambarai means orchard or garden of fruits. These lands were often leased to leaseholders for better production and revenue to Government. 15.3.4 Principle of Assessment: - As Chhatrapati Shivaji had fixed some basic principles on which land assessment was carried on for the benefit of farmers . In the same way , the Peshwas also determined some principles for assessing land for revenue purposes which were as under : - 1.The Peshwas had instructed the officers who carried the land assessment to consider the actual conditions of farmers and the care must be taken to assess the land or area, which was actually cultivated by the farmers. This was done in order to avoid the over assessment and unnecessary burden of revenue on the farmer. 2. The Peshwas, in order to increase the revenue and systematize the assessment work, tried to create permanent interest of cultivators in their land. The Peshwas for this purpose began to give long leases for five to seven years and also forbade the sale and mortgage of the land of cultivators. 3. The Peshwa rulers appointed officers like Kamvisdars to look into the matter that neither the cultivators nor the Government suffer any loss on any account . In case such condition arose, the officer should compensate the cultivator for the same. It is clear from this that the above designation should see the increase in revenue as well as increase in the actual cultivators of land or area under their jurisdiction or districts. munotes.in
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188 4. The Peshwas assessed the land revenue of their farmers on the basis of standing crops in the land. Such crop was inspected by the inspectors appointed by the Government. There are several references regarding the appointment of such inspectors from various local officers and the payment made to them for the same job of inspection of the standing crops and recommendations made for the fixation of land revenue. 5. The government under the Peshwas categorized the land as superior, inferior and ordinary classes and accordingly, the land revenue was fixed or assessed. 6. For the purpose of assessment of the revenue the type of land as arable or irrigated was seen and the nature of crops had to be taken into account for the same. 7. The last and not the least principle at the time of land assessment was considered and that was the land whether being cultivated from several generations it was reclaimed recently. Thus, it is to be cleared that the scale applied for the land assessment and the manner and system used for the same differed from area to area. A document of 1740-1741 gives detail information of the land assessment crop wise as under; - 1. The land in Haveli and Tarf for rice was assessed at ten maunds per bighah, sugarcane at five maunds per bighah, vegetables two maunds per bighah while all summer crops were assessed at two maunds per bighah.2. A document of 1749-50 gives the following description of the land assessment in the Pargana of Chandwad . Jirayat land assessed at two rupees per bighah, rocky land at one Re. per bighah, new black land at four annas in the first year and rs. two in the fifth year per bighah. Bagayat land of sugarcane was assessed at ten Rs per bighah while newly irrigated sugarcane land at Rs. five in the first year and Rs ten in the fifth year per bighah. Although, the mango trees were not assessed separately, the mango trees of Patil were assessed at Re one per thousand fruits. 3. A document of 1772-73 gives a detailed description of the land assessment of Neral Taluka as under:- All Jirayat land was assessed at RS. 3 to5 per bighah, Rabi land assessed at Rs. two per bighah, hemp and sugarcane land at Rs. five per bighah, while coconut and palm land was assessed at Rs. four per bighah . It is observed that the cultivators were permitted to their land revenue either in kind or cash as per their convenience. 15.3.5 Assessment of Coconuts and Plantations: - Coconut and other plantations need much investment and a longer waiting period for getting return by way of production as well as fruits. Naturally, it was required that the assessment in this regard should be delayed till the production is reaped. The Peshwa Government knew this fact and did not levy tax on the coconut trees and other plantation like betelnuts for 15 to 20 initial years. This step was adopted in order to encourage the farmers to cultivate coconuts, betelnuts and other plantations regularly. There were some other measures also as the Government granted some concessions to the cultivators. In the same way, Brahmins munotes.in
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189 were assessed at little lower rates from Rs. two to Rs. five per bighah of land . 15.3.6 Assessment of waste lands :- The Marathas had encouraged the cultivators to bring more fallow land under cultivation to cope up some problems like shortage of food grains or poor collection of revenue. The Peshwas adopted the policy of encouraging the cultivators for the same and also granted concessions to the farmers who converted barren land into cultivable land. In addition to this, the Peshwas had announced the following measures and rewards to cultivators: - 1. A cultivator, who converted the top of a hill into cultivable land or brought rocky land under cultivation, covered it with the fertile soil and prepared embankment around the land , the cultivator was given the half of the land gratis and the other half was given the same cultivator rent free for twenty years and with reduced rate for subsequent five years . 2. A cultivator, who reclaimed the land from the sea coast, such cultivator was given the 1/4 land as inam. The remaining ¾ land was taxed after the determined period, which was considered after assessing the money spent and the labour used for reclaiming the land. 15.3.7 Remission in Land Revenue :- Although, the cultivator or the farmer contributed to the funds of the Government by way of land revenue , sometime the same cultivator needed Government help as well as remission in the land revenue paid to the Government .There were several such occasions as 1. famine 2. shortage of rainfall 3. failure of crops 4. destruction of crops due to war, wild animals and insecticides 5. any other natural or manmade calamities. The Government used to order for preliminary assessment of the loss caused and announced remission of revenue full or partial based on the circumstantial evidences. Even the Government never recovered revenue soon after such calamity. The cultivator was given respite till his recovery from the loss he had sustained. The Peshwas gave remission in revenue to all cultivators, as and when it was required in common and general distress. The Government also helped individuals on various occasions whenever such persons were affected due to misbehavior of the soldiers or other calamities. Many a times so happened that soldiers of the Government misconducted with the people, as and when they encamped near a village. The Government ordered to ascertain the losses first in such cases in the presence of the district officer and the affected person himself and compensated him suitably. The Peshwas followed the other traditional methods of improving agriculture and irrigation by way of supplying water to agriculture. The Government used to construct dams and lakes and stored up river water for the use of agriculture. Many a times the Government paid entire expenses of such construction on other time the villagers were asked munotes.in
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190 to bear the cost of its repair or desilting the reservoir. In short, the cultivators were helped and encouraged for more production and revenue. The Government under the Peshwas came to know that the cultivator used to borrow loans from private bankers or sahukars or moneylenders on the unreasonable terms and conditions and the cultivator was forced to pay much more interest than the actual amount he borrowed. The Peshwas wanted to stop this exploitation of the cultivator and started the policy of state loan or Tagai, which served double purposes as it supplied loan to the cultivator and saved the cultivator from the clutches of the private money lenders. The Peshwas had appointed special officer known as Mamlatdar. This Mamlatdar was to advance loan on his own to the cultivator less and easy terms and conditions and the cultivator was allowed to repay it in cash or kind as per his convenience. Thus, the Peshwas did every this possible to help the cultivator in distress. Justice Ranade regarding the revenue management of the Peshwas says that the Peshwas adopted a very careful policy of land assessment and revenue collection system. The Peshwas were very anxious to see that the cultivator was not oppressed at any cost. Ranade further says that Wellington a British officer, who carried his campaign of Maratha country found it highly cultivated revenue system, Jervis surveyed the whole Konkan and adopted the same in toto and Elphinstone recommended to continue the same system when the British conquered the Maratha territories later. Thus, the Peshwas paid every attention towards the betterment of cultivator, reduce problems and maximize the revenue of the Government. 15.4. OTHER TAXES During the period of Marathas, the cultivator and the people involved in trade and commerce were to pay some certain amount to several elements. These elements were as 1. Government 2. criminals 3. invaders 4. village officials 5. artisans and so on for various reasons. A cultivator was to pay land revenue to the Government, some share of food grain to village officers and artisans . The cultivator used to share his vegetable with the Patil and Kulkarni, the village officers as and when he brought the vegetable to the market . In short, the cultivator was, forced to pay several taxes to several elements on various occasions. These taxes were not alike to all and at all places or areas. They were different in nature as some of the taxes paid by the cultivator were levied once in a life time, the others were collected on special occasions while some other taxes were levied in particular locality on the eve of particular celebrations. Such taxes, the records say were around fifty in number, during the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji and they were around forty in the period of Peshwas. Some of them can be listed as under:- 5. Taxes under the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji :- The almost all taxes under Shivaji cannot be identified completely but they are referred in various documents as :- Vethbigari , Farmasi , munotes.in
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191 Balekati, Paiposi, Mejbani, Mohimpati, Kanchapatti,Talpahi, Tup , Faski , Sadilwar, Tutpatti , Idsubrati , Toranbhati, Unt , Ambe , Karujati , Hejib, Patewari, Ashwajakati, Shetsara , Bharad Taka, SalBail , Jangampatti, Peshkashi , Patisika, Humayun Kar-i-Humayuni , Thamebhat , Dasrapatti, Huzurbhat, Hal patti, Ahistari, Sardeshmukhipatti, Mashahire , Gaon khandi, Dani, Teji Bheti, Jhadjhadora, Bargujar, Inampatti , Akhduldiwani ,Karinamati, Vihirhuda , Sinhasanpatti . These were the taxes collected from the cultivator by various agencies. 6. Taxes under the period of Peshwas :- As taxes in the period of Shivaji were recovered , there were several other taxes during the period of Peshwas as under:- Duhuk Patti , Hak Chouthai, tax as the inam of village Watchman, Miraspatti, Inamtigai ,Inampatti, PundiGuna, Vihirhoonda, Gharpatti, Bat Chhapani, Tug ,Lagan Takka , Patdam, Mhais Dubhi, Kharbuzwari, Watanjapti, Nazar, Kotwali, Jastapatti or Karjapatti , in addition to these taxes the cultivator was to pay his land revenue. Some of these taxes were to be paid in kinds. There was one more feature of the taxes during this period that some of the above taxes were farmed out to the highest bidder, who used to collect them through his own agency or machinery of tax collection. 7. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi :- These were also the sources of income of the Marathas, which were legally conceded by the imperial authorities at Delhi in 1719. To understand the true nature of Chauthai and Sardeshmukhi a brief historical review is needed- 1. The demand of chauthai and sardeshmukhi was made first by Chhatrapati Shivaji, the founder of Maratha Raj in 1650 to Shahjahan, the Delhi emperor in the Prants of Junnar and Ahmednagar. Shivaji claimed that his family had hereditary rights of Deshmukhi Watan over these prants and offered to enter the Mughal service with five thousand horses. Shahjahan asked the king to submit the same in person in Delhi. 2. Shivaji made the demand for sardeshmukhi and chauthai in 1657 to Aurangze, when he secured the command of Deccan. Shivaji sent Raghunath Pant and Krishnaji to Aurangzeb to negotiate with him and allow Shivaji to conquer Dabhol and other sea-coast dependencies during the war of Aurangzeb with his rival brothers. Aurangzeb promised Shivaji about his claims and the conquest. Aurangzeb discussed the matter in detail with Abaji Sondev, the trusted advisor of Shivaji in Delhi 3. Shivaji made his claims of sardeshmukhi and chauthai in 1666 at the time of Treaty of Purandar with Raja Jaising and offered a Peshkash of forty lakhs in the instalment of three lakhs each year. Shivaji also claimed the territories of Bijapur and Nizamshahi kingdoms and agreed to maintain a body of troops on his own cost. Aurangzeb again promised for a favourable consideration provided Shivaji submitted the proposal personally at Mughal court Delhi. munotes.in
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192 4. When Shivaji reached Delhi, certain developments took place. Shivaji was insulted by the Mughal court and nothing could take place. After Shivaji reached back to his kingdom and commenced wars again the Mughal in 1667. Aurangzeb agreed to Shivaji’s claims, he was given a Jagir in Berar with the title of Raja, and Shivaji's son, Sambhaji was given a Mansab . But Chhatrapati Shivaji was not happy with these sanctions, he started dictating his own terms and conditions and imposed chauth and sardeshmukhi on Golconda and Bijapur kingdoms. Thus, Shivaji began to recover them regularly without any hinderances. 5. Shivaji received chauth and sardeshmukhi Rs. three lakhs from the Bijapur kingdom and Rs. five lakhs from the kingdom of Golconda jn 1668, which became the regular feature of the revenue of Chhatrapati Shivaji and the subsequent rulers. 6. In the year 1671, Shivaji extended his claims of chauthai and sardeshmukhi to other territories like Khandesh which was under the Mughal empire and recovered it from them. 7. Shivaji widened the area from where he recovered chauthai and sardeshmukhi to Portuguese territories in the year 1674. 8. Chhatrapati Shivaji invaded Karnataka in 1676 and forced the rulers of Bednore and Soonda to pay chauthai and sardeshmukhi. Thus, Shivaji had sadeshmukhi and chauthai a source of income in return for this tribute, Shivaji undertook to protect those rulers from the external aggressions. After the war of Independence, the Marathas extended the chauth and sardeshmukhi to Karnatak, Gangthadi, Berar, Khandesh, frontiers of Gujrat and Malwa as well as to the territories of Mughal empire. Later Balaji Vishwanath, the Peshwa of Chhatrapati Shahu received three sanads for Swarajya, Chahthai and Sardeshmukhi from the Mughal emperor in 1719. Shivaji claimed sardeshmukhi i.e. ten percent of the total collection or revenue on the basis that he considered himself as the hereditary Desmukh of his country . On the other hand the chauth recovered was twenty five percent of the total revenue and was reserved for the expenditure of the Government which was divided as under :- 1. Babti, was the twenty five percent of the total chauthai, which was for the use of the king and collected by his special officer, who was Peshwa or pratinidhi or pant Sachiv of the king . 2. Sahotra:- was the six per cent of the total collection of chauthai, which was reserved for the Pant Sachiv of the Chhatrapati 3. Nadgaunda, was the three per cent of the total chauthai, reserved for gifts and presents made by the king to various people on different occasions. The king did this out of his generousity and the needs of individuals. 4. Mokasa, was the sixty percent of the total collection of chauthai and was distributed among the sardars, who spent the amount on maintaining their troops . The sardeshmukhi also was divided in the same manner . Later on and used for various purposes of the swarajya as one of the sources of income of the Marathas. munotes.in
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193 8. Forests :- Although , forests did not yield much more income for the Marathas , they were called one of the important sources of the income of the Government . Forests gave income variously , which can be divided into following categories as 1. It was a source of wood for construction and fuel . The Government formed out the contract of wood in the forests to the highest bidder. The bidder paid specific fees to the Government and sold it to the needy people. 2. The forest gave honey to the people, which was a good source of income. 3. Grazing land. The forests were also used as a grazing land for animals and farmed out to the highest bidder. The bidder used to reserve some of the parts for grass, which was used as fodder for bullocks, buffaloes and other animals during the time of warfare. 4. Forests were also a source for various fruits, gums and a store of Ayurvedic medicines and medicinal herbs. Thus, Forests were considered as a source of income. 9. Mints :- During this period, the mints were not owned by the Government. They were owned by private persons. The duty of the Government was to assay the gold or metal brought to the mints. The Government had no right to assess the intrinsic value of the coin or it is deformed, deficient or coins are redundant in the circulation. This was the duty of the bankers, traders or the persons who owned the mint. The Government appointed some of the officers known as Shroff or Potdar, who assayed the intrinsic value, content, metal and also exchanged the coin for old after minting new coin. Thus, Mint was a source of income because the Government sanctioned licenses to the private persons to hold mints and charged fees to such mint holders. It is said that the mint holders were mostly Sonars known as Goldsmiths, who used to pay Government some sort of royalty, which varied mint to mint and area to area. The licensed mint holders were to promise. The Government for maintaining standard proportion of metals used to mint the coins and adhere to the principles of purity of the metal. If any mint holder breached with this rule, the mint holder used to lose his license or was to bear a fine for the same. During the period of Peshwas, the mint charges were seven coins per thousand coins minted i,e. the Government used to receive six coins while one coin went to the officer. The Peshwas never tolerated unlicensed mints, spurious, debased and counterfeit coins in circulation. Although, there were several coins of several rulers in circulation, the important financial transaction was done through Hundi or bill of exchange. In short, the mint was one of the important source of income under the Marathas. 10. Customs Duties :- This was one more source of income of Marathas. These duties were divided into two classes as 1. Mohatarfa and 2. Zakat . 10.1 Mohatarfa were the duties imposed on traders, even they were treated as income tax where as Zakat were the duties imposed on sales and purchases as well as called octroi duties The Kamvisdar of Mamla Revdanda had levied the Mohatarfa duties as under;-1. Goldsmith. the Goldsmith was taxed at the rate of Rs. 3 per shop per munotes.in
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194 year . 2. Oilman . The oilman was taxed Rs. 7 per oil mill per year . 3 . Shoemaker. The shoemaker was charged mohatarfa duty Rs. 6 per shop per year . Blacksmith. Mohatarfa was charged at Rs. 4 per shop per year on the blacksmith. 5. Shopkeeper was imposed with Rs. 7 as mohatarfa per shop per year. 6. Koli. Mohatarfa was imposed on Kolis Rs.8, 5, and 2 per palanquin per year on the basis of the size and nature of the palanquin . 7. Potter. Every potter was charged with Mohatarfa of Rs. 3 per wheel per year. 8. Basketmaker was taxed with Rs. 3 per house per year as mohatarfa. 9. Boatman. Every small boat was charged mohatarfa with 4 annas while every big boatman was taxed at the rate of 8 annas per trip as mohatarfa. 10. Gondhali. was taxed Rs. 3 per year for his work. 11. Stone cutter. or the stone quarry man was charged at 55 of his income as mohatarfa. 12. Mason was taxed with one Rs. for every month as mohatarfa . Thus, the tax mohatarfa varied place to place, shop to shop and profession to profession . It depended on the earning of each trader. 10.2. Zakat:- This was the tax levied on the goods in transit means movement from one place to another place. The Government charged octroi on such goods. In some countries such goods was heavily charged at various places in medieval period. Although, this situation was totally absent under the Marathas, the rulers had sternly instructed the concerned officials for not charging the same goods again. A document of 1745-46 states that Balaji Bajirao had specifically ordered officials at Burhanpur and Sironj that the goods moving between these places should be taxed zakat at one place only. Because zakat was farmed out to the highest bidders and the bidders, in order to get maximum taxes , used to charge again and again at various places. Many a times, this tendency created many difficulties in the policy of encouraging traders and merchants, inducing them to settle down in the Maratha country and generated prosperity. To remove some of the lapses in this taxation, the Maratha Government began to assess, levy and collect zakat through her officials On other occasions, the work of supervision was assigned to the officials like Darkdar and on some other time , even zamindars were authorized to supervise the process of assessment and collection of zakat. These charges were made to avoid any kind of oppression or exploitation of the traders artisans and merchants under the Marathas. 10.3 Remission in Customs Duties:- Due to several constraints , the Maratha Government agreed for remission in not only the land revenue but also in custom duties . The Government never wanted to oppress the tax payer because the prosperity of the kingdom and also the empire depended on the wellbeing of the tax payers . Due to drought in prants of Poona and Junnar, the document of the year 1763-64 states that the Peshwa Government ordered the Kamavisdars of those prants to recover only half zakat on some eatable items, which were badly hit by the drought . In the year 1769-70 there took place a total failure of crops, the Peshwa Government cancelled all duties on the purchase of bullocks and buffaloes in the same prants. In short, the Government adopted the munotes.in
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195 policy that no zakat or taxes should be recovered from the subjects, on the other hand a generous help or tagai should be advanced for them. There were some other practices also that government officials used to get transported their goods without any duty charged upon them. But in the period of scarcity that facility used to be ceased automatically and in the period of abundancy they enjoyed the facility ceaselessly. 11. Excise Duty:- Although , this was one of the sources of income under the Marathas, it was not considered a legal and popular source and was neglected in some proportion. The Peshwas did not approve of drinking liquor and hence used excise duties to control the manufacture and sale of liquor. Although the policy of excise duty of Peshwa was guided by shastras and religious ideas of the Peshwas, the Peshwas never allowed any hardship to their subjects. The Government permitted Kolis and Bhandaries, the traditional brewers to brew liquor on some terms and conditions. One of their terms was that the manufacturer should not sell liquor to Shenvis, Prabhus and Brahmins as well as to the Government servants. The Government extended the permission to the Westerners. Among them were the British, French, Portuguese officials and soldiers in India . The Government charged the excise duty on each tree which was used for manufacturing liquor, the tax was imposed on each tree as Rs.1. The documentary evidence suggests that this excise duty on the liquor was farmed out to the highest bidder with all rights of purchasing all commodities, in connection with the manufacture and sale of liquor. In addition to liquor, the excise duty was also imposed on tobacco. The license was issued to a private person to sell tobacco. The license for tobacco was farmed out to the highest bidder with some terms and conditions , one of the terms was that tobacco should be sold at the rate of Rs. 5 to ten per maund . In Konkan region, tobacco was consumed by plantation workers on agriculture. Hence, the license holder was permitted to sell tobacco to cultivator also. The Peshwa Government used to get Rs. three thousand eight hundred excise duty from the sale of license in Prant Salsette only. Salt manufacture could bear excise duty, which varied place to place . The duty was Rs. 2 and 10 annas per khandi salt. Whereas at some places each salt pan was charged with the excise duty as one Takka. Total excise tax on salt collected in kind was around seven hundred khandies of salt per year. Another item fetched excise duty was jaggery, which was paid in kind. The most important item invited excise duty was the industry of fishery, the duty was charged on each tank or lake of Fishery as Rs. 50 per tank per year. In the prant of Rajapur weaving industry was functioning, which gave Rs. three per loom per year the excise duty. Thus, under the Marathas this tax was one of the sources of income. The total revenue from all the sources bears no mention anywhere. Even it seems it was impossible to come to conclusion to a figure accurately. Because the period was insecure due to the threat of external aggression from the Mughal. However, there are certain versions about the total revenue of Chhatrapati Shivaji as Sabhasad says that Shivaji started with the jagir of his father which yielded around forty thousand hons and munotes.in
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196 went on increasing to one crore hons. The exchange value of the hon was Rs. four and total revenue of Shivaji was around Rs. four crores. Besides this regular income from various taxes, the Marathas also got revenue from chauthai and sardeshmukhi was Rs. eighty lakhs each year. Jadunath Sarkar did not agree with the version of Sabhasad. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS :- 1. Explain the land survey of Annaji Datto. 2. What were the principles of assessment of land revenue under the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji ? 3. Discuss the revenue divisions and revenue officers during the period of Shivaji . 4. What were the Principles of Land Assessment under the period of Peshwas? 5. Examine the assessment of coconuts, other plantations and waste land during the period of Peshwas . 6. Assess the policy of remission in land revenue under the rule of Peshwas. 7. What were the different taxes other than land revenue under the Marathas? 8. Give a brief account of chauthai and sardeshmukhi . 9. Assess the forests and the Mints as the sources of income under the Marathas. 10. Analyse the customs duties and excise duties as sources of income during the period of marathas . 15.5. SUMMARY During the period of Marathas several sources were used to generate income or revenue to the Government. A document known as ' Mestaka' mentions around important eight sources of revenue of the Marathas as Jakat means revenue raised from octroi, custom duties, Jaraib means revenue raised on arable land, Bagait revenue raised on garden land , Barnagjag revenue raised on mango-groves, Bargujarat revenue from creepers,Badasti revenue raised on trees , Katubana revenue raised on barren land and Jujuya. revenue from various items. In addition to these there were some direct and indirect taxes, chauth, sardeshmukhi , forests, mints and other duties . The land revenue was the major source of tax collection which was divided into two periods as land revenue under the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji and the land revenue under the period of Peshwas. Chhatrapati Shjvaji was the founder of the Hindupadpadshahi , and the build of civil institutions , was well aware about the financial situation of his kingdom. He, therefore wanted to munotes.in
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197 improve the land revenue of his kingdom . He adopted the land revenue system of Malik Ambar from Nizamshahi kingdom with several modifications. After fixing accurate measure for land survey, Shivaji ordered, Annaji Datto, his Sachiv to conduct land survey. Annaji Datto carried out very systematically the land survey and fixed the land revenue. During the period of Shivaji, the principles of assessment were the quality of land, the crops cultivated in the land , the number of crops as kharip or rabi crops, the nature of land and the crops were considered and the revenue was fixed at thirty three per cent by Annaji Datto but Shivaji raised it to forty percent due to the convenience of recovery of the revenue. Shivaji had divided his kingdom in various revenue divsions. Justice Ranade says that Shivaji had sixteen revenue divisions while S. N . Sen says he had total thirty seven revenue divsions . Shivaji as practiced by Malik Ambar created his revenue collection machinery. He changed the Mughal revenue units from Mauje, Pargana , Prant and Subha to Mauje, Tarf and Prant. He appointed officers like Havaldar, Karkun, Subhedar, Diwan Muzumdar, Phadnis, Sabnis, Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamadar and Potnis. Through these officers Chhatrapati could collect around four crore rupees revenue per year. Land revenue under the Peshwas was based as the policy of encouraging cultivators to bring maximum land under cultivation. The Peshwas asked the officials who carried the land assessment, to consider the actual condition of cultivators and standing crops in the land for assessing and fixing land revenue. In addition to these the quality of land, the type of land and whether the land is fresh i.e. reclaimed recently also was seen at the time of assessment of land revenue. The Peshwas considered the coconuts, other plantation, waste land and the remission in land revenue on account of natural calamities while fixing the revenue. Despite land revenue the Marathas recovered other fifty taxes from the subjects. Chauthai and Sardeshmukhi formed one of the major sources of land revenue. Although , Balaji Vishwanath , the first Peshwa secured the sanad of the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the Mughal emperor in 1719, the recovery of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were started by Shivaji since he came to power. The Marathas could get Rs. eighty thousand lakhs as Chauthai and Sardeshmukhi. As chauthai and sadeshmukhi, forests, mints, custom duties and the excise duties were some other sources of income of Marathas. As per the records of Sabhasad, Chhatrapati Shivaji could earn the total revenue around four crore rupees from all above mentioned sources. But Jadunath Sarkar understates the income of the Marathas to considerable extent. 15.6 QUESTIONS 1. Examine the land revenue as important source of the income of Marathas. 2. Discuss the Annaji Datto 's survey, principles of land assessment, revenue divisions and revenue officers of the Marathas. munotes.in
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198 3. Give an account of the chauthai and sardeshmukhi as source of income of the Marathas. 4. Assess the various sources of income of the Marathas. 15.7ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Dr. T. T. Mahajan, Industry, Trade, Commerce during the Peshwa Period. 2. M. G. Ranade , Rise of the Maratha Power. 3. A.R. Kulkarni , Maharashtra in the Age of Shivaji . 4. S. N. Sen , Administrative system of the Marathas. munotes.in
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199 16
WATANDARI SYSTEM
Unit Struct ure
16.0. Objectives.
16.1. Introduction.
16.2. The Village Land.
16.3. Watan and Watandari.
16.4. Types of Watandari Land.
16.5. Creation and Confiscation of Watan or inami land.
16.6. Sale, Purchase, Mortgages and gift of Watan land.
16.7. Mirasdars and uparis.
16.8. Duties and Responsibilities of a Watandar.
16.9. Importance of Watan
16.10. Watan System and the Adnyapatra
16.11. Capital Grant and Watandary System
16.12. Evolution in the Watan System.
16.13. Watan System and the Maratha war of Independence.
16.14. Summary.
16.15. Questions.
16.16. Additional Readings.
16.0 OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this unit the student will be able to
1. Understand Watan and Watandari system.
2. Know what is Khalisati land and Inami land.
3. Perceive the various types of Watandari lands.
4. Comprehend the creations and confiscation of watan or Inami land.
5. Understand the sale, purchase, mortgage and gift of Watan land.
6. Know who were M irasdars and uparis. munotes.in
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200 7. Understand the various duties and responsibilities of a watandars .
8. Comprehend the importance of watan.
9. Perceive the watan system and Adnyapatre.
10. Understand the thoughts of Elphinstone on watan system existed
during the period of Marathas.
11. Comprehend the evolution of watan system under the Marathas.
12. Know the position of watan system during the period of Maratha war of
Independence.
16.1 INTR ODUCT ION
During the period of Marathas land was the main source of income. It was
considered much more important than any other sources and was called
Watan. Watan means one's own native place and the land it possessed
over there. The one who held land was very proud of that and was
called Watandar by virtue of its possession. The Marathas who were the
land holders were ready to do everything as well as prepared to undergo
any ordea ls to retain the title of their land because their land was called
Watan. The Maratha History is full of such ordeals or dis putes which
ensued on the issue of possession of land or Watan. The land or Watan also
was called inam was inherited by one's children as successors. In absence of
such sons or direct successors other successors made claims and counter
claims to possess the land or Watan. There are several evidences that the
land or Watan or inam partitioned among the living successors on t he order
of the Government.
16.2 THE VILLAGE LAND
The village land was gene rally divided in various sections as
1. Dwelling land 2. Arable land and 3. Waste land. The dwelling was
occupied by the villager for habitation but they did not occupy the whole
dwelling land. Some of the portion of the land was spared for newcomers to
that village and reside over there. The land which was arable was used for
agricultural purposes - means production of crops. The land which was
waste divided into 1. Pasture and 2. Com mon land which was used by
all villagers for common purposes as holding cultural programs , sports or
games and markets. There were standing orders from the Government that
the kin g's revenue should be incre ased upwardly by bringing in cultivation
the waste land that each village possessed. Na turally, Mirasdars who
were peasant proprietors and uparis means outsiders or newcomers
to that village were tenants or farmers having no rights of occupancy
were encouraged to bring more and more waste land under cultivation,
incre ase their production and add to the revenue of their king.
munotes.in
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201 16.3 WATAN AND WATANDARI
The king was the ultimate owner of the land in his kin gdom up to the
medieval period in India and other countries of the world, But in order to
cultivate the land, it was hande d over to the cultivators. Gra dually, they
possessed it and they came to be known as the owner o f the land. The king
ultimately, conferred the title of ownership of land upon the cultivators,
who were cultivating the land since the beginning. Thus, the class of
Mirasdars or the peasant- proprietors come into existence and most of
the village land was held by such peasant- proprietors unde r the
Marathas. The rest of the land was controlled by the Government
assigned it to the uparis or tenants or farmers for appropriation of revenue.
Thus the village land was categorized as 1. Khalisati and 2. Inamati.
1. Khalisati land:- it means the revenue of this land was directly deposited
in the King's treasury. Even that was also recovered by the Government
machinery.
2. Inamati land or watandari land:- This was the land which was allotted
to various inamdars or watandars by the King or Government. These
inamdars or watandars were allowed to appropriate the revenue from this
land in lieu of cash payment by the Government or King. Therefore, this
land was called Inamati or watanda ri land. In short, the land held in
perpetuity by virtue of office was called watan or watandari land or
inamati land. There were Several such inamdars or watandars in every
village as Des hmukh, Des hkulkarni, Mukadam, Kulkarni, Padewar
and several military officers. These officials were hereditary in amdars or
watanda rs, who held around twenty percent of land under the Marathas.
Although, these watanda rs or inamdars or jagirdars collected the land
revenue with the help of their own machinery, they did not dispossess
the cultivators under them from their rights. These cultivators paid the land
revenue as the cultivators of Khalisati land and other cultivators in the
village. It was with these in amdars or watanda rs or jagirdars whether to use
the whole land revenue for themselves or part with some portion either to
the king or for any other purposes.
16.4. TYPES OF WATANDARI LAND
There were several personal and impersonal kinds of land grants made by
the king or the Governme nt from which watandari or inamdari system came
into existence. These inami or watanda ri grants can be summarized as
under:-
1. Religious Grants or Watans :-These were the impersonal grants or
watan sanctioned to religious bodies or ins titutions. These ins titutions
employed cultivators to cultivate the land sanctioned to them and used the
land revenue for maintaining such institutions or defray t he expenditure
incurred by these institutions. these grants, watans or inams also were
called Devasthan inama or watans. They were granted to 1. Temple 2.
Mosque 3. Math 4. Samadhi 5. Varsasanas. These watans or inams are
discuss ed in detail as under:- munotes.in
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202
1.1:-Temple :- The Marathas sanctioned grants or watans to Temples for
religious worship or performing rel igious services or rites and rituals. As
Chhatrapati Shivaji had assigned a piece of land as watan or inam to the
temple of Dnyande va at Alandi. Dur ing the period of Peshwa not only this
watan or inam was confirmed but a new inam also was sanction for the
same temple.
1.2 Mosque :- Sabhasad Bakhar mentions that Chhatrapati Shivaji
granted land as well as sanctioned allowances to temples as well as
mosques equally for defraying the daily expend iture of them and other
purposes of those religious institutions. Chhatrapati Shivaji granted
three cavars of land to the Kazi of Indapur to look after the mosque at
Indapur. Shivaji also conferred the watan granted by Malik Amabar to
Abdulla, the Khidmadgar of the mosque at Bhabode. Thus, these watans
were also continued in later period of the Maratha rule.
1.3 Mathas:- As watan to temple and mosques, the Marathas also
granted some watans to mathas located at various places. Ch hatrapati
Shivaji granted watan and inam to Ramdas, his guru for the maintenance
of his own matha at Cha phal. He also had sanctioned some of watans or
inams to Maunibaba of Patgar for maintaining the math-located at that
place. The other mathas that received generous grants or watans were the
math of swamy Sadananda at Nimbha and the math of Moraya Gosavi at
Cinchwad.
1.4 Samadhi:- There were a number of saints during this period, who
attracted the attention of people in general by their spiritual and
religious instructions to them. Such saints received posthumously s ome
watan or grants for maintenance of their Samadhi. For example, the
Samadhi of Sopander at Saswad rec eived watan for its maintenance
1.5 Varsasanas :- This was one more type of religious watan or inam
which was sanctioned for performing rel igious services unde r the Marathas.
It was the Varsasanas. It is said that a Brahmin was granted thirty bighas of
land for performing puja to a deity as his maintenance. In the same way
Gosavi of Jejuri received twelve bighas of land as watan for the similar
work which he used to perform to a local deity. It is also said that these
Varsasanas were paid either from the treasury or at the time of collection
of revenue of the Mahals, which were mostly on the basis of year to
year mode. In this regard Adnya patra says that watan or inam in the form
of land was given for the purpose of maintenance of Dharma as an act of
eternal merit. Village land was granted to great temples where divine
presence was felt. Not this much even to the hermitages of saints, to the
places of Samadhi, where the act of worship, offerings, pilgrimages and the
distribution of food used to regularly do, such places needed watan from
the Governme nt and was accordingly granted.
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203 2. Agrahara watan or inam :- This was one more type of watan or
inam granted during the period of Marathas. Wilson defines Agrahara
in his Glossary it as a village or a part which was occupied by Bra hmins,
held either rent free under special grants or at reduced rate of assessment
for the period of their education.
Agrahara inams or watans were granted generally to Brahmins for their
sustenance during the period of their education and learning. these inami or
watan lands were either exempted completely from the taxes or were made
to pay rents at reduced rate. The Agrahara la nds which were exempted
completely wer e known as sarva- Agrahara land. Shivapur and Tulapur
villages were agrahara villages i.e. all land in these villages was granted to
different Bra hmins as agrahara watan for purpose of their learning.
There are several evidences that Chhatapati Shivaji had granted entire
villages to the Brahmins of Poona as agrahara watan.
3. Sanadi and G av Nisbat Inami or watan lands :-
The watan or inami lands granted during this period could be classi fied as
1. Sanadi inami lands or watans 2. Customary inam or watan.
3.1. Sanadi Watan:-In this watan, Sanad (charter) in connection with
the watan was given by the ruler or king to the watanda r. In this watan the
nature of the watan like free from the government taxes, perpetuity or the
period, whether any portion was reserved like an half, one third, one
fourth as government clai ms were mentioned . Therefore, such watans
were called as Nimai watan, Tijay watan and Chauthai watan. The king or
the ruler c reated and confirmed such watans by the royal firman as
and when the king wished.
3.2 Cust omary inam or watan:-This watan was not reduced to any
writing or conferred by any sanad or firman. This watan was oral and as
valid as the sanadi watan.
Chhatrapati Shivaji had created such watans whene ver circumstances
permitted him and granted rent free lands to various watanda rs. For
example Chhatrapati Shivaji granted watan to Balaji Avaji Chitnis for his
loyalty, Balaji Deshmukh of Kanadkhore for assistance and
Ramchandra Nilkanth was awarded Sabnisi watan for his valuable
service to the king. In the same way, the king also rewarded his lo yal
servant Bakaji Pharzand with the watan of Patilki of several villages.
4 Dudh-Bhat and Sadi-Choli watan :- As the king granted watans to
his loyal servants and officials for their good services to the ruler and
people in general of the kingdom. In the same way, the king also granted
some watans to the daughters of his faithful servants who had projected
outstanding bravery in the safety and security of the State. Such watan was
called Dudh-Bhat watan or Sadi-Choli watan. For example, Jijabai had
gifted one cavar of land as watan to the wife and daughter of one
Kulkarni who had rendered very faith and useful services to the king.
Jijabai, therefore, was very pleased and rewarded the watan to Kulkarni's
wife and daughter in perpetuity. In the same way Jijabai granted one cavar munotes.in
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History of Maratha
204 land as watan to a village watchman, Rajopadhe, the family priest of
Bhosale and several servants in the court on the occasion of the. Solar
eclipse. Adnyapatra re fers to the watan granted to daughters and wives of
the trusted servants as Kakan- Choli watans.
5. Watans granted to Artisans:- Artisa ns in every village were granted
some land as watan on which they were not required to any revenue or
taxes. Generally, these Artisans were given the land in watan which was
reclai med from the waste land. Such inam or watan was called as Tikanati
Begari, which means the land given to certain people for particular services
to the village without any remuneration. Artisa ns could mortgage this kind
of watan but could not sell it and they could also resume the watan even if
they failed to render the particular services to the people. Wilson in
his Gl ossary mentions such inam or watan as watan Maval means
such watans were granted in the Maval area than the Desh or the Ghat-
matha. These watans were also called Dehangi watan. Because they were
granted to variety of people like servants, musicians, dancers and the
families of the people who had made supreme sacrifice during their service
to the State as well as the village peop le. These watans or inams were
included in the Gav Nisbat inam and made out of the land of the village.
They being rent free inams, the villagers were to make good the loss of
revenue caused to the king or the state. Thus, this was also a kind of watan
granted during the Marathas.
Principally, the king was the ultimate owner of the land in his kin gdom, any
land without valid title was reverted to him any time. In pr actice, such
reversion never took place, except in case of s udden death of the
watandar or the land holder. The watandar or the land holder without issue
could adopt a son and could continue the watans till the pleasure of the
king or the Government. Whenever title to watan or inami land failed or
could not be established cle arly, that watan reverted to the king. Such la nd
was granted to others in case he established his title clearly. Before doing so
all available evidences were scrutinized minutely. It is said that this was
done in order to cultivate all available land and get maximum income
from it.
16.5. CREATION AND CONFISCATION OF WATAN OR
INAMILAND
The king or the village granted watan or inam to appropriate persons
and they terminated the watan in case of failure to perform the duties or the
functions for which the watan or inam was granted.
Chhatrapati Shivaji had confiscated watans and inams of several watanda rs
as 1. The Watan of Desh-Kulkarni of Pune was confiscated on the reason
that he had joined the Mughals. 2. The watans of Deshmukh and Desh-
Kulkarni of Muthekhore and Des hmukh of Rohidkhore were also
confiscated for their misconduct. 3. The watan of the Patil of Ranje was
confiscated by the king for his misbehavior and causing loss to the revenue
of the state. While confiscating the such watan care was taken that the state munotes.in
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Watandari System
205 or the government advanced some certain amount to landholders for their
rights attached to that land.
In case of land reverted to the king where the watan was terminated, the
actual cultivator of the land was not dispossessed. In the same way when
new areas were added to the kingdom, the actual cultivators working on the
land were never disturbed. Even, the king used to order the village officers
to employ new cultivators in case the old cultivators had fled the village
due to fear. The king ordered the village officers for doing everything
possible to get every piece of land cultivated.
16.6. SALE, PURCHASE, MORTGAGES AND GIFT OF
WATAN LAND
Watandars and inami land holders as well as other cultivators were allowed
to sell or dispose their title to the land or to the land revenue thereof.
They were also permitted to raise loans against the securities of such
lands. Vi llage officials could sell their rights to collect land revenue only
with the consent of the villagers. The villagers accepted the officers those
who were appointed for the collection of land revenue.
A watanda r or inam holder could dispose his land either wholly as and
when he was in need of money. Sometime Patil of the village was required
to pledge his watan or inam as security against the advance he received
from the government. Although, in theory, land could be sold and
purchased freely by anyone but in practic e, it was very difficult task and
invited several hurdles in its process. Therefore, watan or inam could not
find any buyer. When a village official sold or disposed his watan his rights
of performing c ertain duties were also transferred to the person who bought
the same watan or inam. In order to validate or legalize the deed of either
sale, purchase or gift of watan, it was to be reduced to writing and the same
document had to be attested by prominent members of the village
community. As a matter of fact, the transition or the sale and purchase of
watan or inam was discouraged by the government to avoid any
complication subsequently and to maintain the dignity of the inam or
watan. Pralhad Niraji, the Nyayadish of Shivaji said that no one should
purchase or sell his watan or inam and person doing so should be punished
and penalised. This action would prevent watan from becoming an
ordinary commodity, which was sold and purchased as other ordinary
commodity time to time.
16.7. MIR ASDARS AND UPARIS
There were two types of land holders in any village unde r the
Marathas as 1. Mirasdars and 2. Uparis.
1. Mirasdars :- They were the land holders who had hereditary and
proprietary right in the land they cultivated since a long. These mirasdars
held the land in perpetuity on payment of certain rent to the governme nt.
They were the absolute masters of their land as long as they paid the fixed
rent to the government. In ancient times it was believed that all land was munotes.in
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History of Maratha
206 mirasi land. These mirasdars used to pay certain taxes to the
government. Even if such mirasdars failed to pay such taxes for some
time, the government never tried to possess their land. It was considered
that if one of the mirasdars was unab le to pay taxes, it was the duty of the
other mirasdars to pay off on his behalf the rent or taxes to the government.
When a mirasdar had fled from his village to another village, the
government shifted that land to somebody else on certain terms and
conditions. It was presumed that no mirasdar would flee on his own or
without any difficulti es; it was the duty of the Patil to remove all difficulti es
of mirasdars in his village and assure the mirasdars of good treatment. Any
mirasdar who was from his land was called Parangada mirasdar. Such
mirasdar was required to renounce his la nds in writing to enab le the
Government to dispose it for better revenue to some other culti vator.
2. Upar is:- It is said that the land which was not mirasis was called
uparis land. some of the portion of such land was res erved and
cultivated for the Government. That part of land was also exempted from
the local taxes. The remaining uparis land was leased away to new comers
by Kulkarni and Patil, the village officers, Since the Patil and Kulkarni
were expected to bring more and more land under cultivation, they often
persuaded the new comers to come and settle down in these villages,
cultivate the land available there and increase the productions of the
village. Such new comers holding land in the village were called the uparis
land holders. These uparis land holders used to become mirasdars after
some years and paying c ertain amount as tribute or Na zar or gift to the
king. This was needed no special communication but only necessary
charges in the register maintained by the land record office.
16.8. DUT IES AND RESPO NSIBILITIES OF A
WATANDAR
Watan means one's own country, which signified unde r the
Marathas as a grant made by the state to a person who held certain
office with specific duties. The grant of watans continued as long as the
services were rendered efficiently and till the watanda rs remai ned loyal to
the king and the village. Sometime , the watandar was paid in cash
and kind for the services he rendered to the village. The watandar
referred to such payment as his privileges and dues. These privileges and
dues were recognized by the state and were specifically noted in the watan
deeds of the watanda r. The watandar being the permanent officer of the
state and the village no change in the Governme nt affected his position at
any level. Therefore, several watanda rs who were working unde r the
Mughals were continued by Chhatrapati Shivaji as watanda rs when
annexed the Muslim territory to his kingdom. The watandar was to perform
the following duties and responsibilities under the Marathas.
1. The main duty of the watanda r was to collect the assessed revenue of the
villages which were unde r his jurisdiction.
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Watandari System
207 2. The watandar was to undertake the systematic policy of
colonization and bring more and more barren land under cultivation.
3. The another duty of the watandar was to settle petty local disputes in
the village with the help of community council, which was called Gotsabha.
4. The watandar was to take initiative in social, religious and cultural
programmes. He was to organise i) Village festivals ii) public functions
iii) religious ceremonies iv) various games v) Programmes for public
recre ation.
5. The most important duty the watandar was to perform was to maintain
law and order in the village of his watan, it means he was answerable to
higher authority for any lapses in his watan.
16. 9 IMPORTANCE OF WATAN
Watan had much more importance during the period of Marathas. That can
be summerised as under:-
1. The watan was treated as an instrument of political career. It was
possible to any watandar to progress in his career with the help of his
watan. Because he used to come in touch with the upper rank holders even
it was possible for him to win over the mercy of his king and build his
career.
2. The watan was the most important means for livelihood . It was
main source of income.
3. It was sign of dignity and prestige. It was a coveted institution
and became a ro ot cause of disputes in the society. Watan invited
several claims and counter clai ms and generated lengthy and excessive
litigations against each other. It gave birth to severe feuds, conspiracies,
violence and ultimately led murder in the watan area.
4. Watan was considered as a matter of great honour and it was held in
such a high esteem that they preferred to remain as watanda rs rather than to
be promoted to a higher position in the government. For example, Balaji
Avaji Prabhu preferred to retain the traditional watan Chitnisi than to the
new elevated post offered by Ch hatrapati Shivaji in his Ashta Pradhan
Mandal. Even, Chhatrapati Shivaji himself liked to be called as watandar.
In 1672, Shivaji had ordered his officials to keep separate the account of his
watan lands in Konkan and use the amount to protect the cultivators
in his watan from the onslaught of various enemies.
5. Watan was treated as the last unit of the decentraliz ed administration of
Marathas. The watandar like Patil, Kulkarn i, Des hpande, Deshmukh and
Chaugule worked at the village level and decided the local issues on the
spot and helped make the Maratha administra tion efficient and people
oriented. This well-regulated watandari system brought in t he
administrati ve stability and enhanced the economic prosperity under the
Marathas as mentioned by Jervis in his statistic al survey of the Konkan. munotes.in
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History of Maratha
208 Thus the watanda ri system was very important part and parcel of the
Maratha administra tion. This was the system helped the Marathas to
survive despite the many odds for a longer period.
16.10 WATAN SYS TEM AND THE ADNYAPATRA
Ramchandrapant Amatya a well-known diplomat in Maratha administration
discussed in detail about the watan system functioning during the period
of Marathas. Amatya in his Adnyapatra says that hereditary right
holders in village administration like Patil, Deshpande, Deshmukh and
Kulkarni were called as watanda rs. Alt hough, they were the last unit of the
administrat ion, they used to contribute much more independently to t he
Maratha administration, it means without them administr ation would not
have run properly. Amatya further says that the watanda rs never used to
be happy and satisfied with whatever watan or land they possessed. Neit her
they used to be loyal to the king forever no r they abstained from
committing something less or more against each other or anyone. They
often used to try to become stronger than others by acquiring new territory
for themselves and after becoming stronger they used to seize the territory
of other people by force. This act led them to commit depredation in the
territory of other people and instability in the whole region. Consequently,
they used to f ortify their places of resid ences to avoid any loss to their
property in case of attack by their enemies. In case of foreign attack, the
watandars, who already acquired much wealth, used to buy peace from the
invader in order to protect their watans. Amatya says that many a
times, these watanda rs, during such emergencies tried to divulge some state
secretes to the enemy and posed a danger to the whole kingdom.
Ramchandrapant Amatya, therefore, warned the king abou t such watanda rs
and suggested to undertake the following steps to avoid danger and control
the watanda rs :-
1. Amatya suggests that the king that he should avoid the policy of
any extreme end as withholding the watan of an in disciplined watandar or
another hand he should not give any watanda r inordinate freedom of action
and movement by which the natural spirit of the watandars would manifest.
The king, therefore, avoid two extreme ends in formulating the state policy.
2. In such situation, the king should follow the policy of conciliation
and punishment. The king s hould see that the watanda rs, while exercising
their duties, they should not increase their power over the people and get
undue advantages The king s hould not allow the watandars to enjoy the
powerswhich were not incl uded in their watan deeds.
3. The king should make them to obey all orders issued by the king and the
central government at any cost and execute them properly and sincerely.
4. The king s hould not allow watanda rs to build stro ng houses and construct
forts in their watan to avoid the watanda rs from reaping undue advantages.
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Watandari System
209 5. In case of disobedient, overbearing and unrestrained watanda rs,
Amatya, suggests that the king should entrust them with a difficult task, if
they succeed in performing the task it would add to the king glory and
strength and other than if they fail, the king should punish them and
bring them under severe restrictions.
6. The king should never allow the watandars to quarrel among themselves.
They should be motivated and encouraged to undertake various
assignmen ts of the government to benefit both the cultivators and the
king. If they found transgressing traditional limits or provisions recorded in
their watan deeds, such watandars should be put down with heavy hand s.
7. Amatya further advises the king that he should recover regularly the
tribute from his watandars and habituate them to be punctual in all matters.
Amatya compares good, honest and disciplined watandars with marigold
flowers, which emit fragrance and make the area pleasant. Thus, it is very
imperative for the king that he should gather all his watanda rs of
caliber and talent for longer and greater interest of his government.
16.11 CAPTAIN GRANT AND WATANDARY SYSTEM
Captain Grant Duff a British political agent at Satara made some references
about the watanda ry system prevailed during the period of Marathas.
Captain Grant wrote a letter to Mountstuart Elp hinstone. Governor Bombay
Presid ency on August 17,1819 in which he mentions that Deshmukhs and
Deshpandes under the Marathas called themselves as landlords whereas the
Patils and Kulkarnis c onsidered themselves as watandars on the basis of
land or inam or watan granted to them by the king. All watans unde r the
Marathas became hereditary, it was converted in to a system and therefore,
it was called watandary system. No watandar or his successor wanted to
sell it, however it was major or minor watan and whatever it caused.
They felt proud in calling themselves as watanda r and felt very much
distres sed when they were constrained to sell their watan either on their
own or by the sanction of the government. In case of sale of a watan the
claims the next kin and the nearest neighbor were considered, as well
as the buyer was expected to pay De hangpatty, an unpopular tax to the
king at the time of the transfer of watan to him.
16.12 EVOLUT ION IN THE WATAN SYSTEM
The watandary system existed during the Maratha period was not
originated in it but, it was the sum total of the various changes took
place in it with the passage of time, means it was revolutionized and got
shape with the change of time.
The watandary system was practiced in the medieval period before the
advent of Chhatrapati Shivaji. He was a great king, creator and builder
of civil institutions and a realistic ruler of Maharashtra. He, therefore, tried
to introduce several changes in the watan system which was already
prevailed in his territory since t he medieval times. He came to know that
cultivators under the period of previous rulers, used to respect the munotes.in
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History of Maratha
210 watanda rs more than the king. Because, the watandars used to collect the
revenue, deposit very small portion of the collected revenue in the
Government treasury and keep the remaining revenue for them. The
watandars were in immediate touch with the cultivators and used to collect
much more revenue than actually assessed. This led them to be dominant,
behave independently and develop the habit of defying the orders of king .
Naturally, such watanda rs recruit ed their own army and constructed
houses like forts for their own defense in any emergency.
Chhatrapati Shivaji unde rtook several measures which Ra mchandrapant
Amatya mentioned in his Adnyapatra in later period. Shivaji
dismantled the fortifications of watandars , appointed his own peop le
to various forts and reduced the powers of the watandars considerably
and made them as ordinary peop le or cultivators in his kingdom . He
confiscated their illegally amassed property and fixed all privileges and
dues of watandars and other officials working at various levels like
villages, parganas and prants . Alt hough, Shivaji created new watans on
various occasions, he took care of their growing influence over the
cultivators and brought watanda rs under his strict control. Thus he proved
himself a strict disciplinarian and an efficient administrator . Therefore,
Ranade compared him with Napolean Bonaparte. Shivaji started paying
his soldiers in cash and offered cash rewards to those who rendered
meritorious services to the state. This led to create his utmost control
on watandars and ultimately on the administration . This was the reason
that the Maratha Swaraj could survive through the titanic struggle with the
forces of Aurangzeb for more than twenty seven years .
16.13. WATAN SYSTEM AND THE MARATHA WAR OF
INDEPE NDENCE
In order to encourage various people to do their best to save the Maratha
Swarajya from the onslaught of Aurangzeb, Chhatrapati Raj aram began
to grant watans to Maratha Sardars , who had been rendering meritorious
military services to the Swarajya .This policy of granting watans , brought
into existence a group of young and daring watanda rs , who began to do
everything for the security of the swarajya. But in the process of
granting new watans , the cautious policy of Chhatrapati Shivaji was not
observed consequently, that led to successively weakening of the Central
Government. When the young and brave Sardars began to work
independently under king Shahu, the central government weakened a step
further. King Shahu had spent his formative years in the confinement of
Mughal, he could not get any political and diplomatic education and
training which was indispensable for running administratio n. Although
Shahu was unable to get necessary education for a king, he proved himself
a good judge of man. He selected the people of talent and capability for
his administration like Balaji Vish wanath and others, who proved their
talent and tallied their metal in the passage of time. That led to divide the
power and responsibility in to two blocks as defacto Peshwa and dejure
king. The defacto Peshwa concentrated all powers in his hands and shifted
his capital to Pune as administra tive centre and hub of the Maratha Empire munotes.in
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Watandari System
211 while the dejure king became nominal head of the Maratha empire and
remained at Satara. During the period of Peshwa Bajirao II, several new
watandars and Sardars came up who extende d the boundaries of
Maratha Empire to various corners of Hindustan, which further weakened
the Central government and converted the Maratha Empire in to
Confederacy.
This led to internal bickering and committing the infamous Treaty of
Vasai in December, 1802 . Thus, the changes introduced in the watan
system with the passage of time made the Central government of Marathas
very weak and enhanced its downfall in 1818.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What are the different kinds of village land ?
2. What is the Khalisati and Inami land ?
3. What do you understand by religious grants or watans ?
4. What is me an by Agrahara watan?
5. Discuss in brief the Sanadi and Gav Nisb at watan land.
6. Why were Dudh-Bhat and Sadi-choli watans granted ?
7. Discuss the watans granted to Artisa ns.
8. Why was the watan created and confiscated?
9. Discuss sale, Purchase, Mort gage and Gift of watan.
10. What is mean by Mirasdars and Uparis?
11. What are the main duties and responsibilities of watandars?
16.14 SUMMARY
The la nd was known as watan under the Marathas. The people were re ady
to do any ordeal to possess and retain their land or watan. land was used for
dwelling, agricultural purposes and holding c ommon cultural programmes.
As a matter of fact, the king was the ultimate owner of the land in India and
abroad till the medieval period. But for the purpose of cultivation, it was
hande d over to the cultivators, who gradually came to be known as the
owner of the land occupied for tilling purposes. Thus, the terms like
Khalisati land and inami land or watan land came into existence. Khalisati
land means it's revenue was deposited in the king's treasury and the
revenue of inami or watan land was appropriated by the inamdars or
watandars for themselves in lieu of cash payment.
There were sevaral inams or watans granted for various purposes by the
king as religious grants or watan. They were granted for temples, mosques,
mathas , samadhis and varsasanas of various temples. The revenue of
those watans or inams was used to defray the expend iture of these munotes.in
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History of Maratha
212 monuments on various accounts. Agrahara watan was granted to
Brahmins for the period of their study. There were a number of watans
which were reduced to writing and a charter or sanad mentioning the
nature of the watan was given, which was called sanadi watan. While other
watans were oral which came to be known as ordinary watans. There were
some other watans also as Duth-Bhat watan, sadi-choli watan and watans
granted to Artisa ns in the villages. Creation of watan absolutely depend ed
on the king and the village community. Na turally, they were the only
confiscators of the watan. Generally, when the watan was given for
performing specific duties and those duties were not performed, then the
watan was confiscated. Here ditary watanda r was allowed to either
sale, purchase, mortgage or gift his watan. But while selling the watan the
claim of next kin or suc cessor was considered.
Watandar had to perform many duties by virtue of his office and undertake
several res ponsibilities, as he was to unde rtake the policy of colonization
for thrashing more production, collect land revenue , settle petty local
disputes, organize festivals, public functions, religious ceremo nies, public
recreation and various games. The most important duty and responsibility
of the watandar was to maintain law and order in his watan. The watan was
very important for watandar as the watandar can build his political
career, it was a source of livelihood , it was a sign of dignity and prestige, it
was a matter of great honour, even Chhatrapati Shivaji preferred to be
called himself as watandar. Balaji Awaji Pradhan preferred to retain his
watan in his family when he was elevated to As hta Pradhan Mandal by
Chhatrapati Shivaji. Watan was the last unit of the administr ation under the
Marathas, Ramchandrapant Amatya has discus sed in detail about the watan
system and watanda rs, their tendencies and their course of action in his
Adnyapatra and advised the king to take stern action against domineering
and recalcitrant watandars . Captain Grant Duff a British political agent at
Satara wrote a letter to Elphinstone, Governor of Bombay and expressed
his opinion about the status of watanda r existing during the period of
Marathas. Captain Grant said that the watandars tended to be dominant and
trying to go against t he ruler on petty reasons.
The watan system did not remain the same as was existed during the period
of medieval age. There took place several changes in the watan system
unde r the Marathas. Because, Chhatrapati Shivaji, the Maratha king and the
founder of Hindup adpadshahi in India, did not accept the watan system of
medieval period in toto. He modified it in the interest of common people
and adopted several precautions as mentioned and suggested by
Ramchandrapant Amatya in his Adnyapatra in later period. Dur ing the
period of Maratha war of Independence against the Mughal, Chhatrapati
Rajaram began to grant watans to young and daring Maratha Sardars, who
helped the king and fought very courageously against the Mughal. This
practice weakened the central Government considerably and brought into
creation the Maratha Confederacy, which finally led to the decline of
Maratha power in 1818.
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Watandari System
213 16.15 QUESTIONS
1. Examine the nature of watandari system during the period Marathas.
2. Discuss the various types of watan or inami lands under the Marathas.
3. What you understand by watan system? What were the different
duties and responsibilities of a watandar?
4. Assess the importance of watan system. What were the different
changes introduced in watan system under the Marathas?
16.16 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Dr. Balkrishna, Shivaji the Great. vol. IV.
2. C.V. Vaidya, Shivaji the Founder of Marathi swaraj.
3. A.R. Kulkarni, M aharashtra in the age of Shivaji.
4. Mountstuart Elphinstone, A report on the Territories conquered from the
Peshwa.
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214 17 ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: INDUSTRY Unit Structure 17.0. Objectives. 17.1. Introduction. 17.2. General Features of Industry Under the Marathas 17.3. Major Industries Under the Marathas 17.4. Metal Industry. 17.5. Ship Building industry 17.6. Other Industries Under the Marathas 17.7. Summary 17.8. Unit End Questions. 17.9. Additional Readings. 17.0 OBLECTIVES After the study of this unit the student will be able to 1. grasp the general features and characteristics of industry under the Marathas. 2. comprehend the industries which were under the control of Maratha Government. 3. know something about the cotton industries of Marathas. 4. explain the silk and woolen industries functioned under the Marathas. 5. understand the dyeing and colouring industries of Marathas. 6. Know the importance of the iron industry under the Marathas. 7. grasp the importance of Brass, copper, silver and gold industries of Marathas. 8. comprehend about the Ordnance factories of the Marathas. 9. explain the ship building industry, its raw material, artisans involved in it and the centers of the industry. munotes.in
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Economics and Culturel
Develop ment : Industr y
215 10. understand the other cottage and handicraft industries Like Wood work, Hornwork, and lvory work under the Marathas. 11. know the leather, liquor, Paper and the industry of fishery. 12. comprehend about the Rope-making, Jaggery-making, Salt- making and oil manufacturing industries of Marathas. 17.1 INTRODUCTION During the period of Marathas, there was no distinction between the rural and urban industries. They were mostly based on the caste system. The village artisans and servants were collectively known as balutedars who were twelve in number, as carpenter, blacksmith potter, leather worker, rope maker, barber, washerman, astrologer , Hindu temple keeper, village watchman ,goldsmith and bard . In addition to these twelve balutedars , there was another category of village people who were known as alutedars , they were also twelve in number as lingayat priest, tailor , water-carrier, gardener drum-beater, vocalist , musicians , oil-pressers-, betal- leaves seller, bearer of burdens , butcher and watchman other than the ones mentioned in the balutedars. Historian Fukazawa says that these alutedars were neither essential nor universal in the period of Marathas , even some of them were occasionally found in larger villages during this period. Along with alutedars artisans like weavers and dyers were also not seen in every village. Therefore, they were not included in either of categories. In the same way oil pressing was not ubiquitous in the kingdom. The villagers who did not have its own oil presser they would buy the oil at the nearby market. Thus, these artisans were involved in the industrial process of the Marathas. 17.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF INDUSTRY UNDER THE MARATHAS These were several features and characteristics of the industry under the Marathas. Some of them were as under:- 1. Handicrafts:- This was one of the most important features of the industry and almost all industries were small scale industries and based on the products of agriculture. These characteristics only led the economy of this period to the self-sufficiency of the village life. The artisans and the cultivators depended on each other and exchanged each other the articles they produced. Parmanand presents along list of various artisans, who produced several articles of handicrafts and artifacts, which flourished the people under the Marathas. 2. Village was the unit of Industrial organisation:- The unit of the economy was the village and the main industry under the Marathas was the agriculture. The artisans of the village manufactured the articles, which were consumed locally, they generally never needed any market for their finished products. Therefore, the villages were often in search of such skilled artisans. The people of Kasba, where bigger market munotes.in
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216 was held weekly and industrial products were exchanged also searched out for artisans. 3. Correlation between caste and occupation :-During this period the occupation, depended on the caste. The people never went beyond the calling of their family. Naturally, the village artisans had very safe and secured place in the village community. The simplicity of the village life made themselves sufficient and self-contented with whatever they produced and manufactured in the village. 4 Family as a training centre :- Under the Marathas no new industries were and occupations were undertaken except traditional source of income of the family. Naturally, what parents followed the trade or occupation was continued by the children. Father taught the son what he did. Hence, the woman, children helped the family head in his trade or occupation. 5 Demand and supply :- During this period , there was no use of any electrical power or steam power in the process of production . Consequently, there was very limited production of industries or handicrafts. It became very easy to the artisans to balance between the demand and supply principle of the commerce. 6. Constant Lifestyle (Fashion) :- The next feature of the industry under the Marathas was that there was no constant change in the taste and liking of the people. The people in general were conservative and never accepted any new faction suddenly. Thus, the fashion and type of the people remained constant. 7. Migration of Artisans:- under the Marathas there were no formal institutions for training the artisans. The artisans like Tagatis, Momins, Padmashalis, Khetris and Niralas, were in constant demand. These artisans were required for various industries and handicrafts mostly textile industry. The Maratha Government used to induce them to migrate and settle in their territories. The Marathas also helped them variously as1. provided them with a place to live. 2. Extended state patronage 3. exempted them from house taxes 4. Paid them monthly salary and. 5. Advanced financial assistance. 8 Government compensation to Merchants :- Another important feature of the industry was that the government used to make up losses if any merchant ,trader or artisan suffered due to fire ,flood or any natural calamities . Vasudeo Joshi reports that the merchants from Kalyan received Rs. seven hundred as compensation for gutting his shop in fire from the Peshwas. 9. State control over certain Industries ;- In order to guard the interest of common man, to increase production of industries and check some unhealthy practices in industry , the Maratha Government mostly the Peshwas brought certain industries under the state control, which were as under :- munotes.in
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217 10. Diamond Industry :- a) The sanad of 1753-54 records that the Kamvisdar, the superintending officer of Peshwas had ordered to Govind Ballal , the Kamvisdar of Bundelkhand diamond mine to collect all diamonds costing more than two hundred and send them directly to the Peshwa. 1.b) The Peshwa Government appointed an officer at the chanderi diamond mine for supervision and who was paid Rs.one thousand two hundred annually. 2. Salt Industry :- The document of 1742 -43 refers to the instructions issued by the Peshwas to the salt manufacturers to increase the production of salt, enhance the quality of salt and not to raise the price of salt. In order to achieve the above objectives, the Peshwas announced the following:- 3.a) exempted the workers in salt manufacturing factory from house tax for three years . 3.9 .2. b) granted salt pass to Krishnaji Raghunath at Tarf Ghodbander 3,9.2. c) also granted salt farm at Turbhe to Shaik Daud Shaik Hasan of Thana on payment of certain khandis of salt to the Peshwa. 11. Liquor Industry :- The document of 1754 -55 says that the Peshwa Balaji Bajirao permitted Kolis and Bhandaries to open distilleries for manufacturing liquor from coconut and palm trees, on condition that they should neither sell it to workers nor supply it free of charge to Brahmins , Prabhus and Shenavis . He punished very sternly to the Kolis and Bhandaries who breached the above condition. S.N Sen says that behind this policy of the Pesh was there was his Hindu religion and the idea of maintaining morality among the people of the Maratha country. 12. Tobacco : - The Peshwas had monopoly of selling tobacco. The Government had issued licenses on condition that tobacco should be sold at fixed rate to none but the traders and merchants only. 13. Mint :- The Maratha Government issued licenses to private persons to start mint under their supervision like there were private mints at Nagothana , Mahuli , Nashik and so on. The Government punished the unlicensed mint holders and the persons minting debased coins. 17.3. MAJOR INDUSTRIES UNDER THE MARATHAS Although, there were no large scale industries as in modern era, whatever industries were there they can be classified as under:- 1. Textile Industry a). Cotton :- Weaving skill was one of the basic supports of this textile industry and became one of the popular industries in itself under the Marathas. The weaving skill reached to the flourishing stage in India in ancient time itself and it led to develop cottage industry during the period of Marathas. Solapur, one of the important cities in the Maratha munotes.in
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218 country became a centre for weaving and textile industry. Solapur being close to Hyderabad, the Capital city of Nizam, it was easy to invite artisans like Momins, Khetris, Lingayat, Koshtis and Niralas from the territory of Nizam to be involved in the weaving and spinning industry at Solapur. The next important factor required for this industry was raw cotton, which was produced in and around Solapur. The raw cotton was separated from its seeds and the lint was converted into manageable planks, which were used for spinning, the lint was turned into yarn and finally it was put, in a specific mechanism, and the process of weaving was carried out. Thus, this industry gave cotton to the people. But there is no detail statistical account available. It cannot be said with some degree of certainty that the artisans were paid on the basis of day, month or they were paid on the basis of numbers which they produced. Even, there is no idea about the number of artisans working in this industry, But it is said that the cotton manufactured here came to be known as dhotis and saris, which were of better-quality cotton then the cotton manufactured at Chandwad and Nagpur the other industrial centres of the Marathas. Another centre of textile industry was Poona, which was the capital of the Peshwas. Although hand loom industry was housed in Poona, that did not give good quality of cloth to people in the city. The cloth manufactured at Poona was very course and it had no demand from the people of the Court of Peshwa. Naturally, the officials and ministers of the court of Peshwa ordered their cloths from prominent other centers of the Marathas. b) Silk :- This was one more industry functioned under the Marathas. It is said that Raghuji Naik encouraged and declared facilities to the Artisans from Gujarat, who were very skilled in this industry to settle in and around Nasik. Naturally, Yeola in Nasik became popular for this industry and created its monopoly in Silk industry in the period of Marathas. It is said that there was no silk weaving was under taken in Poona in the eighteenth century but due to the Peshwas, Poona became a thriving silk industry centre. As Raghuji Naik in Nashik, Angres encouraged the silk weavers to settle down at Chaul and provided them with several facilities. Naturally, Chaul became another important centre for silk industry. The next centre of silk industry was Paithan, in the area of Aurangabad. Paithani a very precious and attractive sari was named after the manufacturing place Paithan. Some people also called the same piece of cloth as Pitambari, which was a fascination of each woman during that period. One more silk industry centre came to prominence which was known Jalanpur or Jalana. But Jalanpur was not so popular as Paithan. Although, raw material for this industry was available in the area of Karnataka , it was also imported from Bengal , China and Persia. Then Mumbai was under the British it was a developed trading and industrial centre in the eighteenth century . Cotton, silk , dyeing and other processes of the textile industry were carried out in Mumbai under the leadership of Mukadam . munotes.in
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219 c) Woollen:- In addition to cotton and silk industries, there was one more very popular industry existed, which came to be Known as woolen industry. Satara, Shirwal, Indapur, Haveli, Dabhol, Chiplun, Karde and Junnar were centres of this industry. The raw material for this industry was furr or raw woolen. This was made available from sheep. The sheep-rearing had been the occupation of shepherds, who were in multitude in and around the centres mentioned above. The most important product of this industry was blanket popularly known as kamble in the local language. Shepherds were involved in the weaving of blanket of woolen. They converted furr into soft bundles after shuffling and reshuffling it properly to enable to spin in yarn. The wool yarn was soaked in tamarind water and dried in the open air. After it was dried for some time, it was combed thoroughly. This process was repeated for two to three times and laid on a particular mechanism for the purpose of weaving a blanket. They required three logs of wood as 1. yava, a wood about three feet long, having diameter of six inches and with angular ends.2. Otkula, a wood of one inch diameter and as long as the yava. 3. Niri, the third ken size wood covering yarn used to more from one side to another and helped to weave the blanket properly. The action of these logs of wood repeated in a particular succession and the blanket was woven. This blanket was a very useful and very durable piece of cloth used to wear it. This blanket was often compared with a shawl from Kashmir. Although this blanket was coarse in comparison with the shawl, it lasted long than the shawl. d) Dyeing or colouring :- With cotton , silk and woollen industries, one more very important industry has been functioning in the capital city of Peshwa. A record of 1765-66 mentions that the dyeing industry in Poona was much more developed than any other industry in the capital. Shetya was the head of all dyers , he purchased all required materials from various neighbouring kingdoms and foreign countries. Shetya, was only empowered to fix the price and deal with the buyers of coloured cloths. However, there is no detail account available about the dyeing units, artisans working in the unit, their payment , price, and the material required for the dyeing industry, there a reference in Rajyavyavaharkosh about the leather dyeing units, which were existed at every village. Thus, these were the different industries in textile under the Marathas. 17. 4. METAL INDUSTRY This industry also functioned very well under the Marathas. For the convenience of the study the metal industry can be divided into the following categories of industry. 1. Iron Industry 2. Brass and Copper Industry 3 . Gold and Silver Industry 4. Ordnance Factories. These industries are discussed as under :- 1. Iron Industry :- This was the most important industry during the period of Marathas. This industry was very much useful in various aspects of life. The implements and appliances of iron were used in each house for routine work, they were also needed in the agricultural processes and munotes.in
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220 in the warfare. They were as swords, daggers and lancers. The iron ore mines were found in the Kalaghat and Vajreshwari hills. The foundries for purification of iron and manufacturing appliances for domestic and also for export were located at various places. Indalwai in Nizamabad district of today's Andhra state was one of them. Moreland says that in 1660 the Dutch merchants on Coromandel were in a great need of pig iron, iron bands, iron bars and cannon balls. They wanted these weapons from the Marathas. Shivdon was one more gun manufacturing factory of Marathas indicated the high technical skill of export quality weapons. In addition to these weapons, the use of iron in daily life was immense. There were some small articles like nails, horse and bullock shoes to be fitted to them .There were certain other articles needed to prepare saddles for horses and bullocks and buffaloes. Blacksmiths and ironsmiths were the artisans involved in this industry. These artisans needed a large anvil, some hammers, and a furnace to get all these tools prepared. These artisans used to charge twelve annas per horse or bullock for their shoes, that were used in warfare for various activities. 2. Brass and Copper Industry :- Under the Marathas this industry also flourished. The artisans involved in this industry were Tambat or coppersmith, who were invited to settle down at each and every village. Because they were the people who used to manufacture utensil and vessels required in daily life. Mostly, the people from rich class or sardars used to buy the utensils made of brass and copper. Prof. Gadgil in his socio-economic survey of Poona says that in addition to utensils, the people under the Marathas used to make small and show pieces of brass and copper like clippings and bangles. Even the Peshwas ordered their officers to trace coppersmiths in the neighboring countries and induce them to settle down in Poona, manufacture the utensils more to meet the growing demands of all economically well of people. Among the important centres of this industry Kalyan was a very popular centre for brass work . A document of 1771-72 indicates that the artisans like Tambats and coppersmiths were also engaged in the manufacture of cannon balls of artillery needed in the war. One of such factories was in Poona. It seems that the coppersmiths were not in sufficient number in Poona, therefore once they were engaged in the factory, they were paid considerably good payment. In order to retain them the Peshwas granted them inami villages. The raw material for the industry of brass and copper was brought from Mumbai, which was under the British control. 3. Gold and Silver Industry :- Although, this industry was in existence at each village, it became an urban industry under the Peshwas. Parasnis and Vad say that a goldsmith family working at a village near Sangamner in the middle of the eighteenth century moved to Poona because the joint family of the goldsmith could earn only Rs. 50 to Rs. 200 a year, which was hardly munotes.in
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221 enough to manage the family. Thus, this industry became popular under the Peshwas but became an urban industry and met the demand of rich people. Gadgil says that in the first half of the eighteenth century when the Marathas achieved Zenith of power, urban industries in the western Deccan further developed in ornaments of gold and silver of most repute. Poona the de facto capital of the Marathas appeared to have been a predominantly consuming city. This city had several industries in the middle of the eighteenth century except for the karkhanas established by the Government. He further says that the industry for making thread of gold and silver was established in 1766-67 in Poona under the patronage of the Peshwas and declined the industry of gold and silver with downfall of the Marathas. A document of 1771-72 says artisans known as goldsmiths were hereditarily and proficient manufacturers of ornaments and gives a long list of articles made of gold and silver as well as available in Poona. Among such popular products pendants, chains, chest ornaments, nose rings, rubies , wristlets , mangalsutras , bracelets and all ornaments of woman were important. Bhave says that skilled goldsmiths were engaged in the work of embroidered ornaments which symbolized the prosperity of Peshwas and development of the industry. In addition to ornaments of gold and silver, there were artisans who made idols and images of gods and goddesses of gold and silver to be installed in various temples. Anandibai , the wife of Raghobadada had the idols of Parvati, Ganpati, Sharda and other gods made of gold and silver and kept in her temple constructed in the palace of Anandvalli. Despite the idols of gods and goddesses, there are some references regarding the show pieces made of gold and silver and displayed to project glory of the family. This was done mostly by the rich people in Poona and other important towns. Among such show pieces images like peacock, tiger and various birds were noteworthy. The making of various idols and show pieces and ornaments led to develop the skill of artisans, who were invited from various corners and popular places to Poona and expanded the industry. Due to the development of this industry, the Peshwas levied taxes on every goldsmith and silversmith. Bhave says that each shop of goldsmith or silversmith was charged Rs. 3 as tax per annum. The record of Khasgiwale and Vaidya and Tulsibagwale gives us a long list of ornaments and articles made of gold and silver in Poona during this period. Chafekar in his book ‘Peshvyanchya Savalit’ mentions that several ornaments of gold and silver with diamond were made during this period in Poona. Among them garlands of diamond, diamond pendants, bracelets of pearls, medals, red rubies, Panch rubies, nose rings and amulets were very popular among the people. The Peshwas invited the artisans who were proficient in the manufacture of such ornaments from the territories of Nizam, Bangalore, Mysore, Delhi and Agra. munotes.in
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222 4. Ordnance Factories:- Moreland says that the most remarkable form of industry under the Marathas was the Karkhanas. which the Marathas had established at their capital to manufacture and store arms and ammunition, robes, furniture, and ornaments. Although the Karkhanas did not always represent the general industrial development of the country but they certainly indicated the technical skills and organizational sophistication of the Maratha period. It is said that the Marathas were dependent on the Europeans for war ammunitions up to the first decade of the eighteenth century. There are several evidences that Chhatrapati Shahu had contacted the British Governor of Mumbai for arms and ammunitions. Some other records show the Kanhoji Angre had written a letter to William Aislabie, the Governor of Mumbai for supplying with some arms, ammunitions, gun powder and shots. Capton William Gordon, English envoy visited Maratha foundry at Poona in 1739 says that Peshwa Bajirao I founded the foundry for manufacturing arms and ammunition, which was the result of his own ambition of converting the Maratha raj into empire. In the course of creating the Maratha empire, hostilities had increased to the maximum height with the enemies and there was no sufficient supply of war ammunitions from the Europeans. Naturally, this situation led Bajirao to establish the above foundry at Poona, which proved very useful to the Marathas. In 1769, Peshwa Madhavrao established one more factory in Poona itself. In addition to Poona, there were Several other centres where factories for manufacturing guns, bombshells and cannon balls were produced they were Ambegaon, Junnar, Nagothana, Kalyan and Purandhar. Bhave says that the factory established by Madhavrao was larger than other factories and employed more than one hundred and fifty workers in it. Although, there is no detail account available about their payment, but it is mentioned that the female slaves who were employed there were paid one rupee each for their overtime work Thevenot and Caveri say that during the eighteenth century, the Marathas had employed all forced labourers of artisans of different kinds in their factories of arms and ammunitions. Among these forced labourers, there were some coppersmiths also, who were paid variously as some were paid monthly wages and some other were granted inam villages to motivate the artisans to work hard with optimum skill and dexterity. Moreover, factories producing guns and rockets also were established. Bagalkot and Jainabad were the important gun factories. Tin, pewter, iron and Babul wood required as raw material was acquired from the vicinity while iron was indented from Mumbai. In the same way rocket factory was established and run under the supervision of Bala Khanderao at Nasik. This factory produced around three hundred rockets per month and caused around Rs. five each. The size and shape of the rocket was like a tube of iron of eight to ten inches long and of two inches in diameter. There are several references that the Marathas used rockets of this factory in various wars. Despite working of several factories under Marathas at different places but they could not meet the requirements of munotes.in
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223 the Marathas and they were forced to import war ammunitions from the European Companies. A document of 1764-65 mentions that the Maratha Government under Madhavrao I had ordered the British in Mumbai to send thirty thousand cannonballs to be used in the war. Thus, the ordnance factories of Marathas were set up and functioned with the help of slaves and forced labourers at various places, which reveal the skill and the technique of the Marathas in this field. 17.5 SHIP-BUILDING INDUSTRY This was one of the biggest urban industries functioning under the Marathas. In the seventeenth century, in the eastern Deccan, places like Naraspur and Masulipatanam became very popular centres of shipbuilding. Because, the raw materials like timber ,iron and other necessary items were found in abundant number there. The Hindus, Muslims and Portuguese people used these centres to build their ships, which were large as well as durable and could carry the weight of six hundred tons each. In the same way ,in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Kalyan and Bhiwandi were the most popular ship building centres in the western Deccan. These centres came to prominence due to the availability of raw material in and around of those centres. Chhatrapati Shivaji encouraged this industry to a great extent in order to build up his naval and mercantile fleet. S.N. Sen says that Shivaji had around four hundred ships of various types. They were organised into two squadrons of two hundred vessels. Chhatrapati Shivaji also had a very strong mercantile fleet that plied between his various ports to the Malabar coast then to the far-off coastal towns of Arabia. S. N. Sen further says that it is not very much clear whether the trade between these centres was carried out by the Marathas or simply Chhatrapati Shivaji had leased out his ships and boats to traders. Although, no detail information regarding the organisation of this industry is available, the tradition of ship- building of Marathas was carried into the subsequent century. Agaskar says that in addition to Kalyan and Bhivandi the other centres of ship building also were there as Thana, Alibag, Vijaydurg, Suvarnadurg, and Malvan. Artisans like Kolis, carpenters and several selves were employed to build ships and boats. Mahadev, one of the ships built at the shipyard of Suvarnadurg was a popular warship of Marathas. In order to enhance this industry, the Peshwa Government extended several facilities to the ship-owners as exemption from octroi when the ship was loaded with household commodities and forced free service to the Government. Naturally, this led to flourish the industry under the Marathas. Apte says that during the period of Marathas, the families of Parsis and Wadias were known as master shipbuilders, who used to build ships for the Mercantile Marine and Indian Navy as well as for the East India Company on the models of European countries. Among the ships built by them were Bunkinghampshire, Seal and Castle were well known, Potdar says that along with the Parsi families of Mumbai, there were Parsis from munotes.in
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224 Surat, who also built several boats which were light, pliant and quick in movement mostly used for coastal traffic. Thus, this industry was also flourished under the Marathas. 17. 6. OTHER INDUSTRIES UNDER THE MARATHAS There were several handicrafts and cottage industries functioned during the Marathas. Among such industries woodwork, Horn work, ivory work, leather and saddle, making industry, rope making, pottery, Jaggery, oil-mill, building industry, fishery, salt making, Liquor and paper making industries were well known industries. These industries are explained as under:- 1. Wood work:- This handicraft was in great demand in this period. The woodwork included furniture, carts, carriages, palanquins and chariot of various stories. This industry developed due to nobles, and feudal lords, who needed the woodwork mentioned above and constructed wooden palaces which had different types of wooden designs and carving on the sides and doors. Among the popular wood carved palaces and mansions Shanivarwada, spacious houses like Shinde, Holkar, Ghorpade and Hingne's mansion were well known. The raw material like timber and teak woods brought from Savalya Ghat, Kalyan, Bhiwandi and the jungle of Jawhar. 2. Horn work :- The hornwork of different kinds like card trays, inkstands, snuffboxes, cups, idols, bulbs. deer, cobras, combs, chains and variety of animals were very popular among the wealthy people. Carpenters used to do this work from the bison's horn imported from Malbar. There were several popular centres for this work which were Malvan, Rajapur Vijaydurg , working since centuries together. 3. Ivory work :- Another handicraft developed into an industry was the ivory work . The fashion to use the ivory comb led to Audutrao Dhandhar Palkar to establish a factory at Poona. The popularity of this ivory work also pressurized Abaji Ava, a carpenter to open one more factory in Poona itself - during the period of Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao. The raw material for this industry constituted ivory, which was imported from Mumbai. But there is no detail account available regarding the total number of artisans working in the industry and the remuneration paid them. 4 . Leather Industry:- This was one of the handicrafts, spread throughout the Maratha country. Shoemakers and cobblers, traditional artisans were involved in this handicraft. They prepared shoes, saddles, leather buckets and several other articles required by cultivators in the process of agriculture. It is said that with cobblers, Jingars also entered in this handicraft, which became an industry due to crushing demand of saddles in wars. Chafekar says that due to the popularity of this industry the Government began to tax the industry. munotes.in
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225 5. Rope making :- Rope making was one of the supplementary works to agriculture. One of the village community groups involved in this industry. This group prepared several items required for agriculture, war and specially in cavalry to tie or rein horses , bullocks and all tamed animals . The raw material required for this industry was jute and fibres recovered from the flax tree and ghaypat as well as coirs of coconuts. When the demand for various articles like ropes increased,the handicraft was converted into industry with the development of a particular technique of rope making. The Maratha Government also taxed this industry as other industries. 6 Jaggery making :- This was one of the rural industries based on the agricultural product sugarcane as its raw material . The area popular for sugarcane production was all western ghat of today's western Maharashtra as Sangli, Kolhapur, Satara , Poona , Solapur and Ahmednagar. Jaggery making had been a seasonal industry, worked with a crusher of sugarcane. Sugarcane juice after boiling in an open large pan was solidified into lumps of several sizes and shapes, known as jaggery. Government taxed this industry and received the tax in kind means jaggery . 7 Oil Mill :- Oil mill had been one of the basic cottage industries , which was popularly known as Telghana in the local language. The people involved in this factory came to be known as Telis or oilmen Groundnut, sesame , gingili, flax coconut ,sunflower, cottonseeds, and castor seeds were crushed for converting them into oil of various types and category. Oil mill had been a wooden cylindrical mechanism run with the energy of a bullock as sugarcane crusher. This oil mill also had been spread throughout the kingdom and was charged Rs. five to seven as tax to each unit per annum by the Government. Solapur, Barsi, Junnar and Poona were popular for oil mill productions. 8 Fishery :- This had been one of the oldest sources of survival for coastal people. Ports like Kalyan, Bhivandi, Desai, Salsette, Bassein, Roha, Ashti, Pen, Panvel and Nagothane were centres of fishery. Fishermen popularly known as Kolis were involved in this industry. They after the monsoon used to go in deep sea, for fishing in their boats of various types, they carried with them dugouts, plank -built boat, machwa, nets and used old and crude method for fishing. Although, the industry was seasonal, the Government imposed taxes as other industries. 9. Salt making :- This was the next most oldest industry prevailed under the Marathas and catered 0ne of the basic needs of people . The ports on the seashore like Nagothana, Kalwe, Bassein, Turbe, Ghodbundar, Thana, Rajapur, Pen, Panvel, Haveli, Dabhol, Chiplun and several other places were the centres of salt manufacture. The process of salt -manufacturing has been very simple and natural. The people engaged in this process came to be known as Kolis and Agaris, used to prepare a salt pan on the sea shore in order to flow in the sea water during the time of high tide, dried the water in the pan to reduce it to salt and collected it as and when it was feasible. munotes.in
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226 The Government had levied taxes as one of the sources of income. In order to get much income and tax the Government leased out several salt pans to private individuals as salt farm at Mauje Bhoidar in Ghodbunder had been granted to a person from Thane on the condition of payment of seven hundred khandies of salt per annum. To enhance the production of salt to increase its export , the Peshwa Government had announced several concessions to the salt manufacturers as low tax , exemption from the tax as well as no tax on its transport in the internal market. 10. Liquor industry (Brewery) :- Although, this has been very old industry in the country, the Marathas restricted brewing liquor to license holder only. Sarkar says this policy of the Peshwas was influenced by their religious tenets and no any other reason was responsible for the same. The Bhandaris and Kolis were the people permitted to distil liquor for their consumption as well as to the use of Christians, armed forces and European people. Sugar candy, mauva, coconut and palm trees were used as raw material for brewing liquor. Although, the Marathas taxed this industry as Re. one each coconut tree per annum , could not collect considerable taxes due to limited production and consumption of liquor. 11. Paper Industry :- This was one more industry functioning under the Marathas. Junnar and Daulatabad were the important centres of paper manufacturing industry in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But the Junnar paper factory was shifted to Poona for the convenience of transport and functioning of the factory. Even then the Maratha paper industry could not withstand the competition posed by the European paper industries.Thus, the Maratha period had these and many other handicrafts, cottage and small scale industries . Check your Progress : - 1. Enumerate the characteristics of industries under the Marathas. 2. Examine briefly the handicrafts and cottage industries prevailed during the period of Marathas. 3. Assess the cotton industry working under the Marathas . 4. Bring out the important centres of the silk and woollen industries during the period of Marathas. 5. Discuss briefly the iron industry and its importance under the Marathas . 6. What were the factors that led to develop the Brass, Copper, Silver and Gold industries under the Peshwa Government ? 7. Give a brief account of Ordnance factories of the Marathas . 8. Describe the shipbuilding industry during the period of Marathas. munotes.in
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227 9. Give an account of Leather, Jaggery, Oil mill and Fishing industries under the Marathas. 10. Analyse the contribution of salt industry, liquor industry and paper industries to the economic development of Marathas . 17.7. SUMMARY There were several features of industry under the Marathas as Maratha industries were handicraft and cottage industries , village was the unit of industrial organisation , it maintained the co-relation between caste and occupation , family was the training centre for those industries , balance between demand and supply was maintained , there was no fluctuation and change in the fashion and design of either cloth or jewellery, Migration of artisans took place, because there were no sufficient artisans available locally . Government paid compensation to merchants and traders for their losses sustained in fire or flood, Government kept control on several industries as diamond industry at Thasare , Bundelkhand and , Chanderi. It also had strict control on salt industry as well as to encourage the production of this industry, some concessions were sanctioned. They were as exemption to workers in house taxes, free passes to transport salt and granted salt manufactories to people like Sheik Daud, Sheik Hasan of Thane. The next industry under the strict superintendence of the Government was liquor industry, Tobacco industry, and the Mint. There were some major industries under the Marathas as Textile industry, Metal industry and Ship- building industry. For the convenience of study the textile industry was divided into cotton, silk, woolen and dyeing industries. Cotton industry was very popular in and around Solapur area because the raw material required for this industry was available there. Moreover, artisans were easily imported from the territory of Nizam. There were other centres of this industry as Nagpur, Paithan and Poona. The industry of silk was very popular at Chaul and Yeola in Nasik. Raghuji Naik encouraged the silk industry at Nasik, while Angre boosted the same industry at Chaul. The third unit of textile industry was woolen, which was very popular in today's western Maharashtra like Sangli, Satara, Shirval, Indapur and Junnar because the felt or fur or wool the raw material was available there in abundant quantity. The last unit was dyeing industry which developed in Poona only. Because raw material and sale of coloured cloths took place on large scale in Poona. The next major industry was the metal industry in which Iron, Copper & Brass, Silver and Gold and Ordnance factory were important units. Iron industry was the basic industry needed at each village, warfare and in agricultural process it was working as a cottage industry. Brass and copper industry also flourished because utensils and vessels of Brass were being used. Even copper was utilised in the manufacture of bombs and rockets to be used in warfare. Silver and Gold industry developed due to Peshwa only because the royal families, nobels, sardars and rich munotes.in
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228 people encouraged this industry. Various articles, show pieces, gods, goddess and jewellery were made of silver and gold. Artisans from various places were imported for this industry. Ordnance factories were very important because they manufactured arms and ammunition to be used in the war. The Marathas were to import arms and gun powder, cannon ball and shots from the European companies but these companies never used to send them on time to the Marathas. This led Bajirao I and Madhavrao I to establish ordnance factories at Poona, Ambegaon, Kalyan, Nagothana and Nasik, where rocket factory functioned round the clock and produced 270 rockets a month. The next and very important industry was ship-building which required teak wood. Kalyan, Bhiwandi, Shahapur area had thick jungle of the same wood. Therefore, the centres like Rajapur, Nagothane, Kalyan, Mumbai developed to a large extent and ships of world rank were built there. Apart from these industries, there were several other industries functioning under the Marathas as Wood work, Horn work, Ivory work, Leather industry, rope making industry, Jaggery making, Fishery, salt making, Liquor industry and paper industry. Thus, the Maratha period had these and other industries under them. 17. 8. QUESTIONS 1. Assess the general features and characteristics of industries under the Marathas. 2. Give an account of textile industry during the period of Marathas 3. What were the different metal industries existing during the period of Marathas? What role did the ordnance factories play in the warfare during the period of Marathas ? 4. Write a detailed note on the ship-building industry under the Marathas. 5. Analyse the role of handicrafts and cottage industries in the life under the Marathas. 17.9. ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Bhave , Peshwekalin Maharashtra. 2. Chafekar , Peshwaichya Sawalit 3. Agaskar, Early History of the Bombay Docks and Ship- building, Potdar commemoration volume . 4. Apte, History of Maratha Navy and Merchantship. munotes.in
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229 18 TRADE AND COMMERCE Unit Structure 18.0. Objectives. 18.1. Introduction. 18.2. Commodities of trade. 18.3. Markets. 18.4. Transport and communication . 18.5. Meany of transport and communication. 18.6. Security of trade and commerce. 18.7. Water route transport and communication. 18.8. Problems in trade and commerce. 18.9. Passport. 18.10. Ghatmarga transport and communication. 18.11 Summary. 18.12 Questions. 18.13 Additional Readings. 18.0. OBJECTIVES: After the completion of this unit the student will be able to 1. explain the commodities of trade and commerce during the period of Marathas. 2. understand markets, Sete- Mahajan and development of Markets under the Marathas. 3. Know the security measures of markets or Peths under the Marathas. 4. grasp the highways used for transport and communication under the Marathas. 5. comprehend the means and modes of transport and communication. 6. understand security measures of trade & commerce. munotes.in
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230 7. explain the water routes of trade and commerce. 8. know the problems in Trade and commerce under the Marathas. 9. grasp the idea of passport and license for transport and communication. 10. comprehend the Ghatmarg transport and communication. 18.1. INTRODUCTION Trade involves the sale, transfer and exchange of goods and services. It covers buying and selling activities of goods. Trade means the voluntary exchange of goods and services, the exchange may take place between two parties or it may happen among more than two parties During the Maratha period trade was simple, it was in the form of barter system i.e. exchange of goods for goods and services only. Naturally, trade during the Marathas was not so complicated as today. Trading activities have been carried out from the time immemorial for the satisfaction of human wants. These activities under the Marathas were not profit making activities, but considered as socio- economic activities, which helped the people to survive and substitute in a better way. The Marathas had the home trade, wholesale trade, retail trade, foreign trade, import trade, export trade, and aid-to-trade. Aid -to-trade means the auxiliary activities which made trade easy and possible without these activities national or international trade would have not been possible and could have been local trade only. Commerce during the period of Marathas dealt with distribution part of trade i.e. the movement of goods from the place of production to the place of consumption and removed all difficulties or hindrances in the movement of the goods. These hindrances were as the hindrance of person, means buyer , because the principle of demand and supply was balanced , the hindrance of finance was not in existence because either village community or Government financed it , the hindrance of place , time and risk also did not exist because protection was extended by the Government. Thus, the commerce under the Marathas as Evelyon Thomas says dealt with buying and selling of goods, the exchange of commodities and the distribution of finished products. The trade and commerce under the Marathas can be studied with the help of the following points . 18.2. COMMODITIES OF TRADE Although , there were several articles which were sold and purchased , some of the most important were as under :- 1. Foodgrains :- The foodgrains produced , sold and consumed were wheat, mung , peas , til , nachna ,maize , vama , paddy , gram, masur ,beans, arhar , pulses and rice of different varieties . Despite this the British, the Portuguese, the Dutch , the Muslims and the Persian merchants brought different kinds of foodgrains to various trading centres during this period , which were sold and purchased here. munotes.in
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231 2. Fruits and other Edibles:- Among the fruits consumed the most were watermelons, coconuts, jack- fruits, sugarcane, lemon, plantains, mangoes, almonds, vegetables, cashewnuts, betel-nuts, betel- leaves, milk, fish and butter. They were regularly brought to trading centres and sold there. 3. Spices:- In the spices nutmeg, asafetida, cloves, vermillion, gallnut, mace, red lead, garlic, onion, walnut, ambergis, pepper, saffron, camphor, cardamom, turmeric, mercury, jaggery, sugar- candy, molasses, ginger, red pepper, sandal, gopichandan, scented oils, honey, ghee and coconuts were there. They were brought to the centres for sale and purchase. 4. Clothes & cloth pieces:- The cloth pieces brought to markets were of cotton, silk and woolen. Among such pieces of them were shawls, chints, pasodi, blankets, godhadi, dhotis, sarees, tafta, chinatafta, sela, kocki, mahaban, mungipaten, musadar, patar, Mahamudi, muslin, kad, pitambar, sakhalad, coarse cloth, purtakali and ghati. The contemporary records show that the above cloth pieces were brought from Telangana, Malbar, Vidarbha, Gujarat, Bengal, Ayodhya and Mysore. 5. Animals:- with the above articles, there were some animals brought and sold in the market. They were horses, bullocks, buffaloes and sheep. 6. Miscellaneous Articles:- Among this category the commodities of trade were small boats, shoes, combs, winnowing fans, wooden boxes, jute, soaps, carts, cots, lanterns, plates, ropes, lead and copper. 7. Slaves:- During this period slaves as male and female were brought to various centres of trade and commerce. Despite, these commodities, there were several other articles in trade. 18.3. MARKETS There were markets in villages as well as in towns, commodities from within and outside were brought to such markets. The articles the East India Company brought to market were cloth rashes, broad-cloth, scarlet, seedlack, sticklack, quick-silver, tin , guns . gun powder, iron , lead, copper, course cloth. The Portuguese Company supplied fine cloth while the Dutch Company supplied copper, which was purified in Japan and shifted to India. Naturally, commodities brought from outside were other than foodgrain. The local and the neighbouring people brought their foodgrain to the market, exchanged them with the available and needed commodities. It is said that there used to be some permanent shops which used to deal with commodities from outside, whereas locals mostly brought their foodgrains in which items like butter, betelnuts and leaves, fruits, vegetables, coconuts , meat and several other commodities were there . The merchants from outside halted there for one night and moved to another place for the same purpose. This was known as the weekly market, which supplied the commodities needed in daily life. The Patil was to look after the village market. munotes.in
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232 1. Shete-Mahajan :- In addition to the weekly market in each village , there was a market at kasba which was bigger and used to be of many shops than the village market . Generally, at kasba , shops were of wine dealers , tailors , weavers , cloth merchants, cobblers or shoemakers, vegetable dealers and oil pressers . As Patil was responsible for weekly market Sete was responsible for the maintenance and development of the peth and kasba market. The State Government paid Shete for their responsibilities and services rendered towards the development of the market. Shete had to induce the dealers to develop the market . He was empowered to recover some nominal fees from the shopkeepers, exercised some powers of police and magistrate , attended the meetings of the village council and advise them in any matter concerning development of the village , kasba and peth . Shete was a mirasdar of the peth, He had house in the peth , managed the peth , kept uptodate record of the market and helped Ghatpandes in their work of collection of octroi. 2. Development of Market ;- under the Marathas the development and expansion of Peth or Market mostly depended on the Government . The Maratha rulers very carefully and considering all aspects developed new areas by establishing new peths or markets. For example, in 1657, Jijabai, the mother of Chhatrapati Shivaji issued a sanad to establish a peth in her name at Pasan. The officer, who received the sanad, was to enjoy all rights and powers of the market as Kotwalki, Pansarkhi, Bidwaipan, Mahajanpan and Shetepan, which were explained in detail in the Sanad. During the period of Marathas, Peth at Audh and powers enjoyed by the Sete over there treated as role model. The Government, therefore issued orders to the concerned officials to grant all perquisites to the Shetes of new Jijapur peth , Malkapur peth , Paraspura peth , and Vithapura peth which were enjoyed by the Sete of Audh and extend them all sort of cooperation and security as and when they sought. The net result of such order was that maximum traders and shop holders and artisans rushed to those peths and developed them within a short span of time . As a matter of fact, the Sete used to keep the record of the peth , in which the names and nature of the shops were recorded . New shops, merchants and artisans often increased the list of the market . But Sete made a distinction between new shops and old shops, mirashi shops and upari shops or the professionals and artisans . 3 . Security of Market or Peth :- The development and spread of market or peth depended upon the security of the area or the place where the market or peth was located. There occurred warfares frequently and no area was ultimately safe. This fact discouraged the shopholders and traders to develop a particular area the optimum because that attracted enemies and their attacks . Keeping this situation in mind, every official tried to reassure the traders and merchants for the safety of their shop, commodities and lives . In connection with kasba at Sirala, Chandrarao More of Jawali had announced that if any merchant or trader at Sirala lost even their piece of hemp , he would compensate them with a chain of munotes.in
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233 gold and silver -double in number. Ramchadrapant Amatya notes that Chhatrapati Shivaji was well aware about all odds . He was the king of vision, he wanted to develop markets in his dominion. In order to achieve those goals , he formed his commercial policy in such away that he granted concessions , exemptions to merchants, traders and artisans as well as maintained law and order in his kingdom. Naturally, markets were developed and prosperity reigned in his kingdom. Amatya further says that Chhatrapati Shivaji treated all merchants as the ornaments of his kingdom and the glory of the king . The goods and commodities which were not produced and available , they were brought from outside by merchants and the kingdom was enriched. The merchants and the traders used to help the king in the hours of difficulty, the capital was made available and calamities were averted many times. Shivaji, therefore, tried to motivate the merchants and artisans to settle down in his dominion. He never disregarded,disrespected and punished them severely but protected them for the benefit of development of market and prosperity of his kingdom . Chhatrapati Shivaji was well aware about the intention of all European Companies trading with his kingdom. In order to foil their objectives of territorial expansion and proselytization. Shivaji instructed his officials and the people that the contact of Europeans and the Arab merchants should be confined to trade and commerce only. They should neither be given any place in interior part to settle down, nor be allowed to sea forts and important well as secret places in the kingdom. If at all, it is necessary, the place for factory of Europeans can be given at low-lying area or it should be within the range and control from the neighboring town or locality to reach it in the time of eventuality to avoid any danger . Thus, the king had taken up such several precautions while developing trade and commerce under him. 18.4. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION It was carried out by several routes and means under the Marathas. There were major two routes as 1. Land route 2. water route. The Marathas connected Poona through several land routes for transport and communication. Among them some of the important land routes known as highways were used for long transport and communication. They were as under:- 1. Poona to Agra :- The first highway that was connected with several important centres as Aurangabad, Ajanta, Burhanpur Sironj, Narvar , Gwalior and Dabalpur . This route proved profitable in trade and commerce and prospered the Marathas kingdom. 2 Mumbai to Panvel :- The second highway came to prominence under the Marathas was Mumbai to Panvel . This road had important centres as Kalyan, Badlapur , Dahiwadi and Talegaon. This was the most secured and safe route for trade and commerce munotes.in
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234 3. Poona and Shrirangapattam:-The third highway between Poona and Shrirangapattam was the longest route under the Marathas. The important places for trade and commerce on this highway were Pandharpur,Vijapur Jat, Galgale, Bagalkot, Anaji, Harihar, Chitradurgashire and Nammangal. 4. Poona to Bhaganagar:- was the fourth highway, had other places of importance between Poona and Bhaganagar were Supe , Baramati , Tuljapur Udgir , Bhalki, Bidar and Golconda. 5. Poona to Konkan :- The fifth highway from Poona to Konkan was through several passes, because, Konkan area had many uphills and mountains, one of the important and difficult passes was the Borghat pass. Despite, these highways, there were some short routes used for internal transport and communication, they were as:- 6. Poona to Nasik:- This road connected to the important and popular places like Bhogpur Peth , Khed ,Chakan , Bosari , and Bramapuri , between Poona and Nasik . 7. Poona to Kolhapur:- Kolhapur had been a popular place for its market as well as a religious centre. Naturally , the route established linkage with Walwe , Pusevali and Nhavi and increased the affluency of the Marathas. 8. Poona to Pandharpur:- The important route brought in contact the trading centres like Mandve, Theur , Patas , Sangwi and Aklu j. 9. Poona to Satara:- This was the road brought in touch with Saswad, theplace where the Peshwas lived before they shifted to Shanivarwada ,Poona . The other places were Jejuri , Dahigao and Mahuti. 10. Poona to Aurangabad:- The places brought in net on this route were Koregaon, Ranjangaon, Ghodnadi, Jatagaon, Ahmednagar, and Kayegaontake. This route proved very useful for transporting foodgrains and other commodities of cash and commerce. 11. Poona to Nagpur :- route covered Aurangabad, Dahadi, Jafrabad, Balapur,and Alajpur. 12. Poona to Dharur:- This route lays through the centres like Theur, Walvi, Adalgaon, Bhosegaon, Singavi, Dhanora, Barsi, Pangaon, Pedgaon, Beed and Kage. This road connected major parts of today's Marathwada with the de facto capital city of the Marathas. 13. There were some other routes as Kalyan to Aurangabad, which connected Kalyan, Murbad, Umbarpada, Taloli pass, Malsaj, Pimpalgaon and Junner. The next was from Junnar to Ahmednagar 14 Poona was connected to Solapur also, where cotton weaving and spinning industry had flourished.Uralikanchan, Belsar, Jejuri, Pandharpur, Banhoolgaon and Singoli were other important places on this route. Poona was connected to Surat and Gujrat also. munotes.in
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235 Despite these highways and routes connecting Poona, Satara and Kolhapur there were some other passes which were used as roads for transport and communication. These passes were mostly in Konkan area of the kingdom. These passes were like Borghat pass , Kesari pass , Diva pass and Karjat pass. Moreover, the various campaigns of Peshwas formed new routes through different territories as Peshwas campaign to Mysore created a totally different route through Gadag, nagmangal and Krishna river. Bhave says that in 1735 , Radhabai went on pilgrimage of Mathura while Saraswatibai, the wife of Gopalrao Patwardhan went to Kashi from Miraj, had adopted different routes to Kashi. 18.5. MEANS OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION The period of Marathas was not so advanced as today in the vehicular transport. It had some basic traditional means of transport as 1. Bullocks 2. Buffaloes 3. Camels 4. Elephants 5. Palanquins and 6 Bullock carts . These animals were supplied by some professionals, who were Lamans , Banjaras, Naiks and Chavans. It is said that these communities used to maintain thousands of such animals. Pamaji Naik , Govind Naik and Bhuke brothers of Chavan community owned fifteen thousands of bullocks , which were used to transport goods and luggage from one place to another. Despite these animals, carts driven by them ,used to shift the goods from one place to various other places. Chafekar says that no carts were useful in some parts of the kingdom, because they were hilly areas and there were no good roads suitable to ply carts. Naturally, animals like bullocks , horses and buffaloes were used to transport goods and luggage. Bhave says that the Peshwas provided several carts to Govind Patwardhan to shift his household luggage from Miraj to Mangalvedhe. It means carts were the important means for transport while chariot was used to carry the noble people from place to place.In addition to these means palanquin and elephants were used by royal people for their own travel. Bhave further says that Peshwa Mahadevrao used to travel on elephant from Poona to Wai as and when it was required as well as he also went from Poona to Nasik on elephant to see his ailing mother over there . 18.6. SECURITY OF TRADE AND COMMERCE The Maratha Government had taken care of trade and commerce in transition. The Government paid attention towards repair of roads regularly. 1. S.N. Sen says that in 1783-84 the Maratha Government had ordered the Mamlatdar Shivner to repair the Shivner -Malsej road regularly. In the same way the zakat Kamvisdar of the same Pargana was informed to provide sufficient funds and keep close watch on the trade practices in Malsej pass. munotes.in
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236 2. Bhave says that in order to make trade safe and protected, the Peshwa Nanasaheb ordered to plant trees on both sides of highway. 3. The next facility which was created for security of trade and commerce was the construction of Dharamshalas for resting and halting at the difficult roads and the passes . There were several open wells constructed along the roads for the convenience of traders and merchants . 4. The Maratha Government also provided coolies with their carts to help traders on the road . Such coolies were paid two annas each and each bullock was paid four annas if it was used for trade and commerce. 5. Dr. Hove says that the Marathas opened chaukies on important highways and kept guards to protect traders from untoward incidents. It should not be construed that the trade on highways was unsafe. But as a precautionary measure the guards were posted there. 18.7. WATER ROUTE TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION During this period water routes proved very useful for transport and communication. Hove says that ferry boats were used for crossing big rivers in Konkan region because rivers like Nagothana , Pen , Bankot and Mahim were very big and there were no other means to cross them. These boats could carry around 100 to 123 people in one trip. The traders and merchants used river routes for internal trade and sea routes for external trade i.e. import and export of their goods. They had trade contacts with Persian ports like Bassara, Muscat and Ormuz ,all important trading centres of Europe, China, Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar, Coromandel isles Mozambique and ports on the Eastern Africa. The Marathas also usedtheir ports or centres like Surat Broach, Ahmood, Jambulsar, Belapur, Kalyan, Nagothana, Rajapur, Alibag, and Bassein for trade and commerce 18. 8. PROBLEMS IN TRADE AND COMMERCE The trade whether it was through land route or water route was not always safe. There were several factors which disrupted the trade and commerce and led to damage and loss to the traders irretrievably. Among such factors raids, wars, piracy and robbery were carried out by enemies. In 1763-64 Nizam had attacked Poona, looted Junnar , Ambalapur , and Hate and destructed the trade and commerce totally. In 1759-60, Kolis in and around Kalyan looted traders in that area. Although, the Government assured the traders about the safety and security but they traders could not recover the loss caused for many years. The next factor was a warfare. The Marathas had to fight with the British because of their imperialistic tendencies and causing losses to the trade of Marathas deliberately. These wars came to be known as the Anglo-Maratha wars which were fought in 1. 1774-75, 2. 1778-79, 3. 1780-81. The Marathas sustained much loss in their trade and commerce. Among the pirates Arabs and Portuguese were very dangerous and pirated the Maratha trade in the deep waters of the Arabian sea . Hamilton has given a munotes.in
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237 detailed description of piracy in the waters of Bassein, Warai, Shirgaon, Thane, Kolaba, Vijaydurg, Khanderi and Malvan. He further says that although, the Marathas stationed their navy in the waters, the Arabs and European pirates based at Malvan, maintained ships of one hundred fifty tons and carried out piracy without notice to Maratha navy at Malvan port. In the same way the robbers on the land routes used to rob traders and merchants. The trade robbery at Damrule, Burhanpur and Aurangabad were very dreaded and incurred much loss to the trade and commerce of the Marathas. Carre, a French traveller, who travelled India and came to Deccan between 1672 and 1674 says that journey either by sea route or land route had several dangers and difficulties. The sea journey had the constant fear of Malbar pirates while land route journey was haunted by raids of Siddi and other coastal princes. Tavernier another European traveler says that one who wanted to travel through the Konkan area should take along twenty to thirty armed men with bows and arrows who could pace with the carriers of his palanquin or cart or chariot. factory records say that the ways and passes unsafe and dangerous because the thieves and inland Rajas plundered the merchants and travellers. Thevenot, one more foreign traveller says that he always hired two peons while in travel, who were well equipped with swords, dagger, bow, musket and lance . Careri another traveller also opined that there was no safe travel in some parts of India. The East India Company officials used to hire some soldiers to protect their persons and property in the travel. 18.9. PASSPORT License, permit or passport had been a source of income during this period . Although , the idea of license brought to India by the Portuguese , it was used and practiced by almost all rulers during this period. License was purchased by travellers as a permission to enter the territories for various purposes and generally sought the warranty of his security. Abbe Carre mentions that when he travelled in Deccan and Konkan region, he had purchased such passport from the officials of the king at upper Cheul. He travelled throughout the kingdom of Chhatrapati Shivaji without any danger and apprehension. Abbe Carre travelled through almost all ports and forts, he remembers his contact with the Maratha officials at Cheul , Rajapur , Kalvan and Sangameshwar very well. 18.10. GHATMARGA TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION In addition to land route and sea route, Ghat route was used for transport and communication, The western part of the Maratha kingdom or Maharashtra occupied by the ranges of Sahyadri mountain came to be known as the western Ghats. These Sahyadri ranges formed the western border of the Deccan and are around one thousand miles in length. It also gave birth to several important passes. These passes came to be known as 1. Thal pass 2. Pimpri pass 3. Bhor or Khandala pass 4. Par munotes.in
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238 passs 5. Amba pass 6. Phonda pass 7. Amboli pass and 8. Nana pass. These passes made transport and communication easier between Junnar and Konkan , Mumbai and Poona, Ratnagiri and Kolhapur , and between Poona and Thana. Along with these passes, there were several pathways which had chaukis at each pathway and ghat. These chaukis were assigned the duties of supervision on the trade and commerce through the passes and collect cess or octroi from the traders. Ghatpande was the hereditary officer in charge appointed by the king at each ghat for maintenance and patrolling the trade and commerce through the ghat. The Ghatpande was assisted by his subordinate officers as Patki, Dangi, Pansare, Modvi and Metkari in various responsibilities at the chauki. Apart from these officials, there were several security guards, who were known as Gujaras. These guards escorted the traders and merchants from one ghat to another and they were allowed to charge some nominal fees from one to twelve rukas depending on the goods transported by the traders and merchants. These guards were to submit the account of the charges or fees they collected to ghatpande every month after deducting their scheduled charges for themselves. Otherwise, the Government issued the warning and punished them subsequently. Despite this arrangement at the ghat chauki , the king appointed a special officer to check whether the traders and merchants were treated properly by ghatpande or his officials and facilitate the smooth collection of tolls through the ghats and pathways. Chhatrapati Shivaji encouraged trade in his kingdom, he encouraged the trade of the East India Company as per his level best . However, Factory Records say that the traders in 1663-65 under the Marathas were in confused state of mind. This was due to the fact that Shivaji had challenged the Adilshahi and Mughal powers in the country. Shivaji's Afzal Khan episode not only gave a death blow to the Adilshahi power in the Deccan but also raised the prestige of Shivaji in the eyes of the traders and merchants. Shivaji in another incident had humbled Shahista Khan totally in 1663. Bernier, an European traveller says that these two incidents generated prestige of the Maratha ruler. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS :- 1. Describe the commodities in trade during the period of Marathas. 2. Explain the important markets under the Marathas. 3. What measures did the Marathas undertake for the safety and security of the Markets or Peths ? 4. Explain the major highways used to carry the trade and commerce under the Marathas. 5. What were the major means and modes of transport and communication ? munotes.in
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239 6. What were the measures the Marathas used for security of trade in transition? 7. Explain the problems in water route Transport and Communication. 8. Explain passport as a safety measure in the transport and communication. 9. Discuss the Ghatmarg transport and communication under the Marathas. 18. 11. SUMMARY Trade involves the sale, transfer and exchange of goods. It covers buying and selling activities of good. Trade means the voluntary exchange of goods and services. The exchange of goods may take place between two or more than two parties. Under the Marathas , the trade was very simple ,it was carried out in the form of barter system i. e. exchange of goods for goods only. They were not profit making but socio-economic activities , helped live in a better way . Under the Marathas trade of various types was carried out. Commerce during the period dealt with movement of goods from its place of production to the place of consumption, without any major risk. There were a number of articles traded or exchanged for articles only. They were food grains, fruits, edibles, spices, clothes and cloth pieces, animals, miscellaneous articles and slaves. These commodities were sold or purchased in the markets of Villages as well as towns. Every village had weekly market, in which not the above commodities from within the Kingdom but also foreign articles were brought and sold. Sete- Mahajan was the official appointed by the Government to look after the Law and order of the market or Peth. He in return was empowered to recover some sanctioned fees from the traders and merchants. He also collected octroi from the traders assembled there. There was the responsibility of the Government to develop one of the places as market or Peth. Shivaji had developed a market at Pasan in the name of his mother Jijabai It was seen that whether the place was secure or came in the range of attack of the enemy, i.e. the security of the place was given the first priority while developing the market. During this period, there were several highways for transport and communication. They were 1. Poona to Agra, 2. Panvel to Mumbai through Kalyan 3. Poona to Shrirangapattam 4. Poona to Baganagar 5. Poona to Konkan 6. Poona to Nasik 7. Poona to Kolhapur 8.Poona to Satara. 9. Poona to Aurangabad 10. Poona to Nagpur 11. Poona to Dharur 12. Kalyan to Aurangabad 13. Poona to Solapur. Along with these highways, there were some routes connected important towns for internal trade and commerce. It is said that Radhabai's pilgrimage to Mathura and Saraswatibai's pilgrimage to Kashi created munotes.in
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240 new routes for trade and commerce. During this period means of transportation were bullocks, buffaloes, camels, elephants, palanquins, bullock carts and Labourers. The Marathas had taken several precautions for safety and security of trade and commerce. As Land routes there were water-routes also. Almost all ports in Konkan had linked each other for the purpose of trade and commerce. They were Kalyan, Nagothana, Rajapur, Alibag and Bassein. The Marathas had considerable dangers in the trade of land routes as well as water routes, as attacks, robbery and piracy which occurred daily. In the same way wars like Ango- Maratha wars created several problems in the trade and commerce. Under the Marathas, idea of passport also was executed. The rulers sold passes or licenses to enter their territory either for trade or travel. Mostly, the foreign travellers of England, France, Dutch, Portugal used them extensively. There was a trade through Ghatmarg. Because Sahyadri ranges spread through the western part of the Maratha Kingdom, which a numerable passes connected Deccan and Konkan area. Ghatpandes were appointed by the Marathas to look after the chowkies established to supervise the trade through Ghatmarg. He was also authorised to recover some toll for protection and escorting the traders through the Ghats. Thus, the Marathas had trade and Commerce under them. 18.12. QUESTIONS 1. Examine the articles of trade and commerce during the period of Marathas. 2. Give an account of markets under the Marathas. 3. Assess the Transport and Communication system during the period of Marathas. 4. Discuss the water route transport and communication under the Marathas. 5. Explain the major problems in trade and commerce during the period of Marathas. 18.13. ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Dr. Hove, Tours for Scientific and Economic Research made in Kathewar, Gujarath and Koknan. 2. C.V. Aitchision, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads. 3. Alaskar S.V., Angrekalin Patravyavahar. 4. Springer’s History of the Marathas, translation by Prof. R.N. Chapekar. munotes.in
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244 19 CURRENCY AND BANKING Unit Structure 19.0. Objectives. 19.1. Introduction. 19.2. Mints under the Marathas. 19.3. Banking. 19.4. State Loan. 19.5. Varat. 19.6. Summary. 19.7. Unit End Questions. 19.8. Additional Readings. 19.0. OBJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to 1. Comprehend the various sources of currency and Banking under the Marathas. 2. Understand the classification of currency during the period of Marathas. 3. Grasp the various gold coins Gambar, mohor, hons and putlis prevailed during that period. 4. Know the various kinds of hons and pagodas minted at different places. 5. Explain the classification of silver coins Like Rupee, Lari and Taka. 6. Comprehend various rupees minted at various places. 7. Grasp the copper currency like Shivrai, Chhatrapati, paisa, Ruka, Tiruka, duval, byal and other coins. 8. Understand the banking system and the mechanism of issuing and accepting loan to the debtors. 9. Know something about the state loan under the Marathas. 10. Explain the idea and use of varat or Hundi during the period of Marathas. 11. Understand something about mints under the Marathas. 19.1. INTRODUCTION During the period of Marathas, the currency not only the Maratha rulers but also the other rulers as the Mughal, Bijapur, Golkonda, Portuguese, munotes.in
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245 English, the erstwhile Vijayanagar empire, and Persia was in circulation. Among such currency the important coins like Sivraihon, Fanam, Cakram, Padshahi-hon, Nishani hon, laris, Rupees, Asrafi, Takas, Chhatrapati or Sivrai, Sajgani, Tiruka, Ruka, Paisa, Dam, Adka, caval, Jital, Duval, Pal and Byal were used in transaction. Even cowries were also treated as currency for small dealings. Almost all these coins were not minted under the Marathas but they were in circulation. Minting coins was not the responsibility of the Government. It was the responsibility of individual, who had secured the license for minting them. Even the individual or the private person i.e. the license holder was responsible for the metallic content in the coin and its deformity or abrasion. The coins which were deformed or worn off were exchanged for new coins, The market value of the currency or coins depended on the metallic content of the coin. It is said that the old coin of the same weight and metallic content usually used to fetch lower value then the new coin. There were several factors responsible for variation as under:- 1. Tavernier in his travel account says that the difference in old and the new coins was not due to variation in weight, fineness or outer look of the coin but it was due to the ulterior intension of the banker, who usually paid a great sum to the king in order to oblige him. This sum, the banker recovered from the common people at the time of exchanging coins. Even Dr. Joshi confirms this fact in his book, the coins current in the kingdom of Golkonda. 2. There is a different justification in the fifth volume of the June, 1943's Journal of Numismatics Society of India that the bankers of that period were very superstitious. They thought that some misfortune would be fall if the old coins were melted regularly. They, therefore, kept this artificial difference in the value of the old and the coins which ranged from fourteen to seventy percent. 3. The third reason given was that, the Shroff and Potdar were responsible for this variation because they were examiners of coins appointed by the government. They only advised the bankers and merchants to receive currency from the people. The Shroffs and Potdars received fees for the same. Naturally, bankers kept variation in the value of old & new coins. 3. Classification of Currency:- Abbot states that during the Maratha period the principle of one mint one coin was not maintained. There were several mints, granted to the individuals on the basis of license and several other conditions. Naturally, there was no central mint to supervise the process of minting coins. Although, there was diversity in the number of coins but there was unity in the design of the coins. Hence, for the convenience of study, The currency of the Maratha period can be classified as under:- 1. Gold coins or currency 2. Silver coins or currency 3. Copper coins or currency. munotes.in
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246 1. Gold Coins or Currency:- The Factory Records, Travellers Accounts, Contemporary Records and Sabhasad Bakhar, give a variety of Gold currency or coins, which were in circulation during that period. On the basis of the above records, the gold coins can be divided into the following categories 1. Gambar 2. Mohor 3. Putli 4. Hons. They are delt in detail as under:- 1.1. Gambar:- Although, it was difficult to differentiate all the gold coins from one another. There was variation in their weight and metallic content as well as they were struck at various places by various private mints and there was no uniform rule to mint them. The private mint holders were sanctioned licenses on the condition that they should pay the state Government certain coins as negotiated in their license. Abbot says that license was granted to the private persons to mint coins according to the rules prescribed by the Government, even then variation occurred and the difficulty cropped up in the identification of coins. S. N. Sen says that Gambar was a gold coin bigger in size than all other gold coins. It was also called Gubbur and was worth to Rs. 3-12-6. Gambar was mostly enjoyed wide circulation in south India. Except this, there is no detail account available of Gambar currency. 1.2. Mohor:- This was another gold coin and a piece of bullion in circulation. In 1663, the value of this coin was around Rs.13. There not and Careri say that Mohor was a gold rupee and was not commonly used in trade and commerce because it was used mainly for making presents to the king and other honourable persons. Bhave says that there were saveran Mohors in circulation as Ahmedabadi, Puneri, Aurangabadi, Shetshahi, Talegavi, Burhanpuri, Ahmad Shahi, Surati, Banarsikura, Jyahanbadi, Machhli Bunder, Delhi, Patani and Lahori. Chapekar says that in addition to the above Mohors, there are Mohors mentioned in the records of Tulshibagwale, Khasgiwale, Chiplunkar and Vaidya as, Panchemje, Ganjikot, Vajrajogani, Laturi, Ajmeri and Darshani. Some of these mohors were named after the place where they were minted. Bhave further says that mohors differed in size and value from Rs Thirteen to fifteen. Generally, the standard mohor was one tola in weight whereas the mohor minted at Dharwar mint was of three fourth tola because the government desired so and wanted to amass gold for other coins. 1.3. Hon:- This was one more gold coin in the circulation. Hon is the corruption of Honnu, a Kannada word for temple. Sabhasad says that there were several hons during the period of Marathas as Sangari, Sivrai, Padsai, Devrai, Achyutrai, Ramchandrarai, Satlami, Ibrahimi, Nishani, Tipaki, Guti, Dharwari, Kaveripak, Candavari, Vingurali, Vellori, Advani, Devanhali, Venkatrai, Trisuli, Bildhari, Ulphakari, Jadmal, Tadpatri, Afraji, Bivaluri, Pavanaiki, Gold bars, Fanam and Cakram. Sivrai, Achutrai and Devrai, the Vijaynagar rulers, struck these hons in their names as per the prevailing customs of that period. Bhave says that hons like Kaveripak, Sangari, Guti, Dharwari, munotes.in
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247 Advani, Chanvari, Veluri, Ramnathpuri, Hydrabadi, Harpanhati, Vyankatapati, Durgi, Sawanpuri, Nagarpatani and Tadpatri were named after the town or place where they were minted. Bhave furthe says that most of the hons were minted in the Southern part of India and they were perhaps the coins of the Dravidian people. There were some other hons like Nishani hons which were neither named after the ruler nor after the place where they were minted. Manucci says that pagoda was a gold coin and was the European version of hon. It was equivalent to drachm Greek coin in weight and size. It was small, circular and stamped a deity on one side. Tavernier says that pagoda coin was a small thick piece of gold, the English and the Dutch struck it with the permission of the king. The Journal of Numismatics society says that pagoda coin was originally Hindu coin, which was called Varaha from the picture engraved on it. The Chalukyas and the Vijayanagar rulers struck the coin in the commemoration of ten incarnations of god Vishnu. It is said that some of the south Indian hons had the image of temple incised on them, which led the Europeans to call it pagoda. The value of these hons varied considerably between Rs. three and Rupees four. Sabhasad says that the gold coin Shivrai hon was associated with the name of Chhatrapati Shivaji, who had around four lakhs Shivrai hons in his exchequer or treasury. Dr. D. V. Kale, G.H. Khare and Chinchwad Monastery confirm that a gold coin bearing Shri Raja Siva on one side and Chhatrapati on the other side was in circulation of seventeenth century Maharashtra. Dr. Fryer says that gold coin like Sangri, Joulky, Asmeloh, Tipki and Ibrahimi were found in the coast at towns of West India and Persia. The Journal of Numismatics of India mentions that Padshahi and Muhammadshahi honswere struck by the Bijapur ruler Muhammadshah in his name and they were in transaction before the Deccan Campaign of Aurangzeb. G. H. Khare says that Padshahi and Muhmmadshahi hons were equal in weight as well as around equal to Alamgiri rupees four. G. H. Khare further refers to Nishani, Katerai and Hukeri hons. Nishani hon was minted at Vengurla mint, which was closed due to the campaign of Aurangzeb after the death of Chhatrapati Shivaji. But after sometime the Sardeshmukh extended protection to the licensee and the mint began to function as earlier. Katerai and Hukeri were minted in the Mysore state. Katerai had the figure of trident on it and therefore was called Trishul Hon-while Hukeri hon was minted at Hukeri a taluka of Belgam district, Mysore state. The exchange value of hons varied as its numbers and because of its intrinsic metallic content and its minting at various places. Manucci gives its exchange value to Rs. three caveri raised it to Rs. four, Guarda and Thevenot say that hon was equivalent to Rs. five whereas English factors converted the exchange value of Sangri and Tipki pagodas or hons into Shillings and pence. In short, the exchange value of hons differed between two and half rupees and three and three fourth rupees. munotes.in
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248 There were two more gold coins, which are referred in several records and historians are not unanimous on the exchange value of them. Such coins were Famam and Cakrams Abbe Carre valued fanom to three pence, whereas Dr. Fryer equated it to one and one fourth rupee. S. N. Joshi says that Fanam and Cakram were in circulation in 1695 while Rajyavyavaharakosh categorized it as a silver coin. The Journal of Numismatics of India says that, although the currency could bear the legend Chhatrapati in absence of any evidence it cannot be said that Chhatrapati Shivaji minted the Fanam and Cakrams. They could be minted either by Chhatrapati Sambhaji or Rajaram. Thus, these and many other gold coins were in force during the period of Marathas. 1.4. Putli Currency:- There was one more gold coin current under the Marathas, which came to be known as Putali. It was usually used as ornament by ladies in wealthy families and it valued around silver rupees four. The Journal of Numismatics Society of India says that Putali, a gold coin was in force in 1764-65, it valued only Rs Seventeen. But this currency did not remain in circulation for along time. G.H. Khare says that during the period of Peshwas, there was a gold coin incised Shri Ganpati on one side and Shri Pantpradhan on the other side and valued around thirty three grains. Thus, these currencies in gold used for transaction under the Marathas. 2. Silver Currency:- As gold currency, there was also a silver currency under the Marathas. Among them, Shahajahani, Alamgiri, Abbasi, Muhamudi and many other coins were in transaction. It is said that current coins came to be known as Calni whereas the old, debased and worn-out coins come to be know as Khazana. The Calni coins were rated more than the Khazana coins. Khazana means a treasure, old coins being worn out and reduced its metallic content in some proportion, therefore they were supposed to be taken out of circulation and deposited in the treasury. This fact led to these debased and old coins to be called Kazana. The transaction value or the exchange value between the Calni and Khazana was as one hundred Calnis were equal to one hundred Khazana, twelve takas and twenty five dams. Classification of Silver currency:- Although, there were several Silver coins, they can be categorized as follow for the convenience of the study:- 1. Rupees 2. Laris 3. Takas. 2.1. Rupees: - Generally, the Silver rupee was minted in the Northern part of India whereas the gold coin was struck in the southern part of the country. The rupee was a big and heavy coin, which weighed around one tola or one hundred eighty grains. The Muslim rulers used to strike this currency on the eve of each Hijra or Julus, the calendar years of those rulers. On each issue of the new rupee, it was rated one paisa more than the old rupee, this could be due to the constant use and abrasion of the old coin. Some of the rupees stricken by various rulers at various places on various occasions were as under:- munotes.in
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249 2.1.a. Asrafi Rupee:- Sabhasad says that Asrafi or Asarfadi was originally a gold coin, but the Portuguese adopted it and converted it into silver coin as well as began to mint it at Goa. Naturally, the Marathas began to strike it in silver. Its exchange value was as one Asarfadi was equivalent to 1.4 xerafins, the Portuguese coins minted at Goa. 2.1.b. Abasi Rupee:- This was a Persian coin, it was striker by the Persian king, Shah Abbas II and used in trade and commerce. It was found in abundant quantity in trading centers of Western India like Surat, Mumbai and Konkan area. Dr. Fryer and other foreign travellers confirmed its existence in circulation as well as they valued this rupee between sixteen and eighteen pence! 2.1.c.Mahmudi Rupee:- This was one more silver coin, which was struck by Mahamud Shah, the sultan of Gujrat. Dr. Fryer says that a coin called Mahmudi was also current in Persia. The English factory records of 1659 say that the exchange value of one thousand sangri pagodas was equivalent to seven thousand eight hundred twenty five Mahmudi rupees. It is said that the English factors converted the pagodas first into rupee at the rate of three and half rupees per pagoda and then they calculated in rupees at the rate of two and one fourth Mahmudi per rupee. Thus, this rupee was inexistence in Persia and Gujrat at the same time. In addition to these Chapekar has given a long list of silver coins as Rahimatpuri, Malkapuri, Chandwadi, Mirji, Arkat, Chinchwadi, Hukeri, Bagalkot, Gajapuri, Talegawi, Surati, Bharochi, Panhali, Chatarsingi, Nilkanthi, Saroli, Bahuti, Arkot, Gunjikot, Daulatabadi, Belapuri, Barodi, Bhatwadi, Itawa, Bawadi, Panoli, Ankushi, Ekbanduki, Trishuli, Farashi, Nagtura, Panchmel, Mite, Potechal, Basseinchal, Kalyanchal, Wasikka, Ballisikka, Kashisika, Srisikka, Shahusikka, Delhisikka, Atiche, Bhunde, Alamgiri, Malharshali, Pethechalani, Bajarchalani, Kokanchalani, Sarkarchalini, Danechalini, punechalini and Hapischalini. Out of these coins Rahimatpuri, Malkapuri, Belapuri, Daulatabadi, Chandanwadi, Bagatkoti and Surati were named after the places where they were minted whereas Farshi, Tura and Trishuli were named after the pictures engraved on them. Although, there was variation in weight, type, style and purity of the metallic content in coins, the government tried to adjust and compensate at the time of exchange of coins, The Peshwas' had issued instruction in this regard for the benefit of people. 2.2. Lari currency: - This was another silver currency made of silver wire, like a hairpin of ladies. It was made of a thick silver wire and its length was upto three inches, it was double in the middle and flattened to be stamped on it. Its weight was around seventy two grains but the size and length differed from lari to lari. Originally, this was a Persian coin was named after the province Lar, which located at the head of the Persian Gulf and was a very popular trading centre for centuries together. Naturally, the Persian merchants and traders brought it to India. Due to its viability, the Indian people approved and accepted it, hence, the rulers of Bijapur began to mint it and consequently, Lari came into transaction in the Kokan area. Mandelson says that the munotes.in
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250 great demand of Lari in the Konkan region led the Bijapur Sultan to mint it at various places; Mandelson further says that the exchange value of lari with pagoda was as one pagoda was equivalent to Ten Dabhol laris. Dr. Fryer gave the exchange value of the same lari at Rajapur of one pagoda to around ten and half laris after the gap of thirty five years. Different kinds of laris:- Sabhasad, factory records, contemporary documents, the Portuguese and the Mughal documents confirm that Lari was in circulation under the Marathas. Hence, there were many kinds of laris, which can be categorised as under:- 1. Basra lari 2. Dabholi Lari 3. Cauli Lari 4. Hurmuzi Lari. These names of the laris suggest that they were named after the places or towns where they were minted. Dr.Balkrishna says that Chhatrapati Shivaji minted the Caul and Dabholi Laris when he conquered Dabhol in 1661 and Caul in 1670. Dr. Balkrishna further says that there was one more lari came to be known as Sirni Lari. But it seems that Sirni was a certain Fee, that was paid by a person willingly to the government, when he won his case in the long standing dispute. 2.3. Taka currency:- One more silver coin known as taka was in circulation under the Marathas. There were some confusions about this coin as one school of thought says that Taka was merely a money of account whereas the second school of thought says that it was a copper coin; even the Rajyavyavahara Kosh called Taka as Khurda mean a copper coin. But the available evidences says that Taka was a silver coin because its exchange value proved it as one gold hon was equivalent to twelve Takas where as one Taka was equivalent to forty-eight rukas, the smallest copper coins. The third evidence says that the exchange value of Taka varied in relation to one hon from ten and half to thirteen Takas. Naturally, Taka was a silver coin current under the Marathas. Moreover, all coins of the Mughals and the European companies were in circulation during this period. 3.3. Copper currency:- During the period of Marathas copper coins also were in circulation. Among them the coins like Shivrai or Chhatrapati, Sajgani, Tiruka, Paisa, Ruka, Dam, Adka, Jital, Budgrooks and cowris were more familiar to the people. Abbot says that all copper coins were of certain denominations. The metal required for striking these coins was supplied by the East India Company, and he himself assessed such twenty five thousand copper coins and found them minted as per the prescribed norms of the government. Different kinds of copper currency:- These coins were numerous, they differed from each other in size and weight slightly, due to their minting at various places by various rulers. Even then for the convenience of study, the copper coins can be categorised as 1. Paisa. 2. Shivrai or Chhatrapati 3. Ruka. 3.3.1. Paisa:- The copper coin paisa minted under Chhatrapati Shivaji bore the legend Sri Raja Siva on one side and Chhatrapati on other side. Abbot says that these copper coins had some pictures munotes.in
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251 incised on them as Sun, arrow, flower, sword, Moon, leaves of Bel tree, planets and the signs of Zodiac. These coins varied in weight as one fourth tola, three fourth tola and the other one tola of copper. Generally, paisa weighed one tola of copper, even this was minted by Muslim and the Mughal rulers. Dr. Fryer says paisa was a copper coin, was in circulation among the poor people and the exchange value in relation to Mahmudi a silver rupee varied from twelve to twenty-four paisa. Thevenot observed the exchange value as one rupee equated to fifty five paisa, Tavernier says it was forty six to fifty six paisa to a rupee, whereas Carre says one rupee was equivalent to fifty four paisa. 3.3.2. Sivrai or Chhatrapati:- The title of the coin suggests that this coin was minted during the period of Chhatrapati Shivaji and was circulated in the kingdom. The weight of this copper coin was around three fourth tola. But Ranade says that there was no coin minted below Sivrai of ten masas under the Marathas. They used cowries for smaller transactions. As a matter of fact, there are several evidences that they prove that there were many smaller coins like ruka, adka, Duval, caval and bugrook in the circulation under the Marathas. Some other evidences show that the exchange value of one Shivrai was to six rukas. 3.3.3. Ruka:-This was one more copper coin current under the Marathas. Ruka weighed around one fourth tola. The exchange value of Ruka with Taka, a silver coin was around forty-eight rukas. It is said that under the Marathas land was expressed in Takas and Rukas as three Ruka camber land, six ruka Sindia's land and three ruka cashew nut garden. In short, Ruka was a coin generally used in the transaction of Marathas. Thus, these and many other even smaller copper coins and cowries also were current during the period of Marathas. 19.2 MINTS UNDER THE MARATHAS The Marathas had issued license to private person or individuals to mint currency as per the directions, norms and conditions of the government. The norms were as to maintain the purity of the metallic content, pay certain amount to the government and not to mint the coins which were not allowed to mint or contracted to somebody else. Bhave says that the mints licensed and working during the period of Marathas were at 1. Poona, 2. Chinchwad 3. Talegaon 4. Bassein 5. Nagothana 6. Chandwad 7. Nasik 8. Daulatabad 9. Rahimatpur 10. Dharwad 11. Satara and 12. Panhala. A document of 1766 says Pandurang Murar, a goldsmith was granted a license to mint coins on the condition on that he should pay the government six coins per thousand coins and one mohor per thousand mohors minted. The Journal of Numismatic of India says that the fees of six coins was raised to seven later, the seventh coin was to be paid to the manager, who was looking after the functioning of the mint. A document of 1748-49 refers to the license granted to Prahlad Shet Kasar of fort Mahuli to mint Shivrai coin of ten masas each. In the same way, Balaji Bapuji of Kasba Nagothana was granted license to mint a coin of ten masas each and he was warned munotes.in
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252 that he would be punished in case he failed to observe the norms fixed by the government. It is said that king Shahu had ordered to open mints at Satara and Panhala. the Peshwa Bajirao granted permission to Savarkars to open a mint at Bassein in 1739. A document of 1790 says that the government ordered to Dulabhai Govindji Sheth, the owner of one of the mints to convert the mohor into the hons of Ekeri sikka. The mohor was received to the Peshwa from Tipu Sultan and it was damaged in some proportion. In the same way the Peshwa had ordered to close down the mints at Dharwar and Chandwad because those mints had issued the counterfeit coins. Thus, the mints under the Marathas began to function as per the norms fixed by the government. 19.3. BANKING The main functions of the bank today have been 1. Accepting deposits and 2. Advancing loan to customer in a systematic way. But such banks were not there. The work, of todays bank is, was done by some indigenous bankers, or sahukars who came to be known as Sete Mahajan, Deskulkarni, Deshpande and Deshmukh. The bank mechanism, which is working today, that, was not so. But the work of bank was carried on with the same rules and regulations of medieval age. 1. Loan Agreement:- The agreement for loan accepted by the parties was called variously as karjarokha, karja Khatba, Kharjakhat and Karjapatra. In this document, the following details used to be entered:- 1.1. The name of the creditor i.e. Dhanko. 1.2. The name of the debtor i.e. Rinko 1.3. Principal or the Loan amount. 1.4. The rate of interest agreed. It was fixed for the month if the loan was secured against some pledge the rate was fifteen percent and sixty percent if it was unsecured loan. The rate of interest was less to the Brahmin than the other category people. The interest was charged in rupees if the loan was in rupees, it was in kind if the loan was in kind and the interest was in hon if loan was in hons. It is said that the position of debtor, whether he was solvent was assessed. While charging the interest, the nature of loan was also considered. The longer the period, the higher the rate of interest as a Deshmukh took a loan at four percent to fight for his Patilki watan, while another Deshmukh borrowed sixteen hundred rupees at five percent per month for five years. In some cases Mirasi rights were given in lieu of interest on the loan the person had borrowed, this is the case of a Kulkarni, who had borrowed one hundred fifty hons for the period of six years on the condition of paying twenty five hons every year and he assigned his half Kulkarni watan to the creditor. Thus, the rate of interest depended on many factors and varied case to case. munotes.in
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253 1.5. The purpose of loan. The loan was taken to serve many purposes as 1. Meeting the expenses of litigations of watan, 2. Maintenance during the period of distress, famine, droughts and other calamities 3. To pay ransom to the attacker as Siddi Khan or any invader. It is said that, there is no reference regarding the commercial loan. 1.6. The period for which the loan was taken, i.e. duration or the period of loan depended on the nature of loan. The minimum period was at least a month and maximum up to ten years or more than that. If the loan was taken for agricultural purpose the debtor was to repay it with the interest on the new year day and when the loan was taken for litigation, the period was any number of years agreed by both the parties. 1.7. Penalties, If the loan amount was not returned within the stipulated time. There were a number of penalties, which were very severe as 1. The debtor was forced to pay the double amount of his loan 2. The payment of loan was considered as a moral responsibility of the debtor otherwise believed that it incurred sin in the future of the debtor. 3. The failure of repayment of loan was equated to hienous sins like killing a cow, murdering a Brahmin from Varanasi and having illicit relations with his own mother. 1.8. Sureties:-Many a times the loan was given not to the debtor directly but through the surety. In such cases the names of sureties should be entered in to the agreement of loan, which depended loan to loan. 1.9. Signatures of witnesses:-It is said that there was no Karjapatra or loan agreement was complete unless it had autographs of witnesses. The number of witnesses depended on the nature of loan agreement and the property involved in the loan agreement. Generally, witnesses from two to nine were needed, for ordinary loan agreement like Patil, Pande or Kulkarni or any persons from the village acted as witnesses. If watan or Miras was involved in the loan agreement then the concern persons like Deshmukh, Desh kulkarni, Sete, Mahajan and several others were needed to be witnesses for the deed. 1.10. The last entry in the Karjapatra was that the debtor was to specify whether he has taken the loan on his own for his work and not under duress or force of somebody. Thus, the loan agreement was complete and had legal standing to such agreement in the court. 19.4 STATE LOAN There is no evidence except one as well as sufficient information that the government advanced any loan to the people for promoting agriculture or helping artisans and professionals in the kingdom. The only evidence regarding the loan to farmers is that a circular, which Chhatrapati Shivaji had issued in the name of Prabhavati Subhedar in the Konkan region that, the king had plans to advance loans to the farmers without charging any interest. The loan came to be known as taqai loan and was to be used for purchasing equipment and maintenance during the period of distress. It is said that the king had ordered the officers not to munotes.in
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254 recover and additional amount in the form of interest but only the principal amount and that also with easy installments. There are several stray references regarding the state loan to the people on low rate of interest and some time without interest it was advanced. It is said that there is no sufficient evidence regarding the security provided by the government to the creditor or Dhanko and debtor or Runko in the procedural matters. 19.5. VARAT This was one of the functions of bank under the Marathas. Varat was an order issued by the king to various treasuries for payment. Sabhasad Bakhar says that Chhatrapati Shivaji used to pay his officials like Sarnobats, Majumdars, Karkuns and other employees at various places by way of varat, which was ordered to the local treasuries. Sabhasad further says that Chhatrapati Shivaji had purchased some goods from Samuel Austin, a British factor and paid him through varat. Shivaji granted him a varat on the treasuries in Kalyan and Bhiwandi for his payment. It is also observed that the money or payment received through the varat was always delayed by one or two years. The person or party accepting the varat was fully aware about the modality of this payment. Even he used to charge for this procedural matters. Whenever the Marathas issued varats on the English factors were often paid through the silver currency. which the people or the officials treated as uncertain money. Even then the idea of varat or hundi proved useful and began to be used increasingly, which brought up a new class, came to be known as brokers. This class encouraged the business of varat or hundies , which they used differently as Joghundi , Lahanehundi , Dhanijoghundi and Shahjoghundi . Chapekar says that these hundies were used by rich people and the sardars or nobles. Bhave says that hundies or varat was paid to the person as per his convenience. The bankers or the treasuries who honoured and paid the amount to the varat or hundi holder charged interest ranging from two to five percent. Some of the varats were not charged any interest due to the consideration of the position of the person holding it. Prof. Chapekar says that the varat or hundi business flourished considerably during the period of Peshwas , had the rule of Peshwas lasted little longer, the city of Poona would have been popular more than London for the business of varat or hundi. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:- 1. What are the various sources of information currency and Banking of Marathas? 2. Explain in brief the classification of currency under the Marathas. 3. What were the different gold coins prevalent during the period of Marathas? munotes.in
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255 4. Assess the various kinds of hons and pagodas circulated as currency under the Marathas. 5. Analyse the classifications of silver currency during the period of Marathas. 6. Bring out different rupees minted at various places under the Marathas. 7. What were the different copper coins under the Marathas? 8. Explain the working of mints during this period. 9. How was the banking system during this period? what work did the bankers undertake? 10. Give an account of state loans advanced during this period. 11. Explain the functionality of varat or Hundi under the Marathas. 19.6. SUMMARY During the Maratha rule , along with the Maratha currency , the currency of all other rulers like the Mughals , Bijapur , Golkonda , Portuguese , English , Persian & the Vijayanagar was in circulation . Among the currency, the coins like Shivrai , Fanam , Cakram, Padshahi , Nishani , Hons , Rupees , Laris , Ruka , Tiruka and even Kowris were noteworthy . Almost all these coins were not minted under the Marathas. They were minted at various places and centres , therefore some of them could bear the names of places where they were minted. Some of them were minted in the name of rulers and some could bear the name of the picture incised on them. It is said that when the worn out coin was replaced by a new coin, then the old had lesser value than the new coin . Some foreigner attached some blind faith or superstition that some misfortune would fall if the old coins melted into new. But the reality was that the exchangers like Shroff and Potdars were to pay some substantial amount to the king annually. The same was recovered from the people by keeping little difference in the old and the new coins of same denomination and same weight. The currency of that period was classified into Gold , Silver and Copper coins .The Gold coins were again divided as Gambar, Mohor, Hon and Putli. S.N. Sen says that Gambar was a gold coin called Gubur. Mohor was widely accepted and used to be presented to the men of honour as gift. Among the mohors, Ahmedabadi, Puneri, Aurangabadi, Talegavi, Burhanpuri, Ahmadshahi and Surati were very popular. The Vaidya records, Tulshibagwale and Khasgivale have long lists of mohor current under the Marathas. Hon was a gold coin, it was a corruption of the Kanada word honu means temple. Sabhasad also has a long list of hons in circulation under the Marathas. Putli was one more gold coin, which was generally used as ornament by ladies in villages and towns a like. munotes.in
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256 Among the silver coins, Rupee, Lari and Taka were widely circulated and transacted by the people under the Marathas. Sabhasad mentions Asrafi, Abbasi and Mahmudi rupees also were in circulation. The next silver coin was lari, named after the Lar province of Persia. Naturally, this coin was basically from Persia and it was brought to India by traders and merchants, When it was accepted by Indians, the ruler of Bijapur began to mint it. Taka was also a silver coin, some people confused it with a copper coin Khurda. But it was a silver coin and minted at various places. Along with the gold and silver coins , there were a number of copper coins in the circulation . Among them paisa, sivrai , Chhatrapati , ruka , tiruka , duvai ,bayal and caval were in the transaction during this period. This was the currency of common people , because the gold and silver was beyond their capacity and most of them had even not seen those coins. The mints minting those coins were located at Poona , Chinchwad, Chandwad , Talegaon , Bassein , Nagothana , Dharwar ,Satara , Nasik , Daulatabad and Panhala. Banks under the Marathas were not there in modern sense, there were only sahukar or money lenders who were known as bankers, the main and major work, they performed was accepting deposits and advancing loans on the agreement, which was called as karjapatra or loon agreement. The loan was accepted and granted to any individual on certain conditions, which were noted down in the loan agreement. There is no evidence of commercial loan except few incidents. The Government granted loan to cultivators for agricultural development. The bankers had practiced the varat or hundi system, with order of the king on treasury for payment of his employees and high ranking officials. 19.7. QUESTIONS 1. Give an account of currency prevalent under the Marathas. 2. Assess the gold currency in circulation during the period of the Marathas . 3. Explain the silver and copper coins minted during the period of Marathas. 4. Examine the banking system working under the Marathas.How far was the varat system useful for the payments of officials ? 19.8. ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Hodiwala, Historical studies in Mughal Numismatics. 2. Maity S.K. , The Economic life of Northern India . 3. Dewell K.K. and Varma , Introductory Economics and Elementary Theories. 4. Kulkarni G.T. , Banking in the Eighteenth Century. munotes.in
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254 20 ART AND ARCHITECTURE Unit Structure 20.0 Objectives 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Maratha Art 20.3 Maratha Sculpture 20.4 Maratha Architecture 20.5 Summary 20.6 Questions 20. Additional Readings 20.0 OBJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will able to 1. Perceive the factors that made the Maratha art and Architecture regional or provincial only. 2. Comprehend the idea of Maratha art. 3. Understand the Maratha frescoes. 4. Explain the various roll paintings and patrika. 5. Know the Maratha Sculpture 6. Grasp the wood carvings existing during the period of Marathas. 20.1. INTRODUCTION In Hinduism idol or effigy worship has been an integral part of religion. There are a number of beautiful temples and idols spread over the country. These temples have exquisite sculptures carved on their spires and have extremely nice and colourful wall paintings. Among such paintings, the artisan of Shaiva, Vaishnava, Jain and Buddhists have shown specific skill and characteristics in their rendition of art and architecture. The temples at Rameshwar, Kumbhakonam, Tanjore and Madurai are the imposing and awe-inspiring art of Dravidian people. But such exquisite pieces of art are not seen in Maharashtra. Although, Maharashtra had come under the rule of popular dynasties in art and architecture like Chalukyas and the Rastrakutas but their capital cities munotes.in
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255 were outside of Maharashtra, they ruled Maharashtra from Badami and Kalyani respectively which belonged to Karnataka. There were the dynasties which were from this land and ruled Maharashtra were Shilaharas and the Yadavas. The Shilaharas constructed several temples but very few are intact now whereas the Yadvas of Deogiri could not rule Maharashtra for a long time. The land of Maharashtra is known for its Sahyadri ranges and the beautiful caves carved in various parts of that mountain. The caves at Karley, Bhajye, Kanheri, Ajanta, Verul and Nasik are very popular and world renowned sculptures. Although, the Marathas had their distinctive style of painting and construction of beautiful mansions which cannot be compared with the Mughals in the north. Their temples, forts and mansion became and remained regional and provincial in scope and style for which several factors were responsible as under: - The Royal period was the formative period of the Maratha rule. It was not possible to expect much more in the field of art and architecture from them. Even then the significant contribution was made in the construction of forts of military architecture. However, the untimely death of Chhatrapati Shivaji, the founder of Maratha Raj, followed the series of wars with the Mughals came to be known as the Maratha war of independence in which the very existence of Maratha kingdom came into danger. Naturally, there was no much time for any art and architecture. The Peshwas followed the policy of expansion, which lasted for forty years from 1720 to 1761. The setbacks like the third battle of Panipat led the Marathas towards its downward slide, which gave the Marathas no time for exquisite art and architecture. The economic position of the Marathas was not as strong as the Mughals in the north. The land in Maharashtra is not as fertile as the Gangetic basin. Naturally, it did not allow them to spend much more on art and architecture. During the period of Peshwas the incessant wars for territorial expansion negated the economic gains accrued from the annexation. The economic grains from the territories other than Maharashtra were uncertain, that led Peshwas to borrow large amounts from bankers to pay regular administrative expenses and to finance various wars. Although, there was some collection from the conquered rulers but it was very marginal, that was absorbed by major feudatory agents and did not reach to the Government. On the other hand, Maharashtra never used to produce a large surplus as was done by the Vijayanagar or the Mughal Empire. Naturally, the Marathas could not spend much amount on the art and architecture. 20.2 MARATHA ART During the period of Marathas, a distinct style of painting as an art was developed. There were several painters, who excelled in various aspects of that painting. There were rich people as Sardars and officials of munotes.in
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256 Peshwas, who became patrons of such paintings and painters in the eighteenth-century Poona. This was the direct consequence of the expansion of Maratha territories in the country. During this period, a number of frescos and mural painting appeared on the wall of mansions and wadas of rich people in Poona and Satara. It became a matter of status to have painted walls of their buildings with various episodes of Puranic and epic ages. The Peshwas had employed popular painters Like Ragho, Tanaji and Anuprao for mural painting on the wall of Shanvar wada, which was constructed by Bajirao I. Mahadevrao I completed the remaining construction of the Wada and employed Mankoji and Shivram popular painters of the period on Rs thirty for one and half month to paint variously the Shamvarwada. In 1765, Peshwa Raghunathrao had constructed a wada at Anandwalli and instructed Nana Fadnis to Send Mankoji for decoration of his wada. Apart from the actual painting administrated by the various painters, the Peshwas also acquired several master pieces of paintings from different parts of India. Among them the thirty-six Ragmalas, which were brought by Mahadevrao I in 1764, a copy of an illustrated Bhagwat brought by Nana Phadnis from Jaipur and the gift pieces given by the English were exquisite pieces of art forms. When Charles Malet was the English resident at the Court of Poona, he employed James Wells and Daniel the popular English artists to do some outstanding painting on the wall of Shanvarwada. They also trained some local painters in the painting of nature in various moods and majesty. Among Local painters who were trained were Gangaram Tambat, Dhanaji and Bapu Chitary. They became excellent artists of the Peshwa period. The Sardars Like Khasgiwale, Raste, Tulgibagwale and Vaidya used their services to do various paintings on walls of their wadas. The paintings which James Wells had done in Poona were outstanding. In one of the paintings Nana Fadnis, Mahadji Shinde and Mahadevrao II were sitting together. In the second painting Mahadevrao II and Nana Fadnis were shown as discussing important matters of the government of Marathas. 1. Maratha Frescoes: - This type of painting was done on the walls and inner part of the roof of the building. The frescoes and wall painting being very popular, were done on the religious occasions like Dasara, Diwali, Upanayana or marriage ceremony by the expert and renowned painters or artists. Generally, the subjects or events depicted in these wall paintings were religious and taken from mythological literature like, 1. Dashavatara i.e. the ten incarnations of lord Vishnu, was the most popular during this period. Chhatrapati Shahu's palace at Satara and Raste's wada at Wai were painted with this painting beautifully and became the attraction of all the people in the kingdom. 2. Ganpati was also a favourite object of paintings on the walls of main halls and drawing rooms of each building in Poona. 3. Rampanchayat, among the paintings of gods and goddess, Rampanchayat was painted with much priority. In this painting Rama, Sita, Laxman, hanuman, Shankar, Parvati, Lord Vishnu and Laxmi were shown sitting in the panchayat. 4. The Jain temple at Jamod; had a painting depicting the whole life of Mahavira. In the same was the temple at Bijargaon had some another painting but was not so popular as Jamod munotes.in
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257 temple. 5. There were several wall paintings based on the events of epics like Draupadi Swayamvara, Sita Swayamvara. 6. The wadas at Wai, Nipani, Chandwad, Talegao and Dabhade had wall paintings of all events based on various puranas. 7. It is said that in several wall painting the subject handled in Ajanta and Ellora cave paintings have also been kept in mind and efforts were made to establish the linkage with that tradition. 8. The wall paintings or Maratha frescoes were done in white, red, Green and Blue colours with suitable combinations suiting to the buildings or wadas as well as with the objects. It appears that while painting various subjects the care was taken about the attire of male and female which was shown typically Maratha in style, as nine-yard-long sarees, dhotis and turbans. The physical features of the objects depicted resembled with that of the statures of Marathas. Thus, the wall paintings or frescoes developed during this period was practiced in various parts of the kingdom. 2. Roll Paintings and Patrika: - This painting was done on paper roll which was about ten to twelve feet long. Generally, it was the horoscope along with the Zodiacal signs and other objects of religious importance. The roll painting of Peshwa Balaji Bajirao is available today with the Bharat Itihas Sanshodhan Mandal, Poona. The Patrica painting one more popular form can be discussed as under:- 3. Sankrant pat Patrika: - This painting was done on a two square feet size paper. In the upper part of the paper the picture of Ganpati was painted along the pictures of goddess Sankranti and her favourate Vehicle. The Lower part of the paper was used for figures of other gods and goddesses, which were painted in red, high blue and yellow colours. This painting was very popular during the period of Marathas. The Bharat Itihas Sanshodhar Mandal, Poona has several Sankranti pat patrika paintings. Pithoripat Painting:- It was used for performing puja. This painting is named after the ritual, pithori, which was performed on the new Moon Day of the month of Shravan. There is a mystical story in the ritual performed on the day. It is based on the story of Vasudev and Dewaki, in which Sixty-four yoginis were worshiped by married women. As per the story it is said that a woman lost her seven children soon after their birth of each of them and secured them back after performing the puja of sixty-four yoginis. The ritual symbolizes yoginis as protectors of young children from their untimely death. The artist related this story with the death of seven children of Vasudev and Dewaki of the popular epic Mahabharata. The artist also went on painting other events in the life of Lord Krishna. Although, the story used was from Mahabharata, the colours and attires painted in the Pithori painting were suited to the Maratha culture and tradition. 4. Illustrated Manuscripts: - During this period, the printing press was not used to create Literature. The Literature available was hand written, which was preserved in various Mathas, Monasteries of the Ramdasi, Mahanubhavi and Nath Sects. Under the Peshwas, the rich munotes.in
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258 Sadars began to enrich their private collections with hand- written books, which were illustrated by beautiful pictures of personalities from puranas and mythologies. Among such illustrated hand written books Pundalik and Vitttal Mahatmes, Shivlilamrit, Dyaneshwari and Sankranti were very popular. These illustrated manuscripts being related to religion became a popular form of the Maratha art and displayed the Maratha culture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 5. Miniature Paintings: -As illustrated manuscripts developed as a form of painting, the another form of painting came up in this period was miniature painting. In this painting, the different themes like Ragmala based on ragas of Hindustani classical music. This painting was done on a rectangular paper, on the top of the paper the name of the raga was written and the below of the name every facet of the raga was illustrated very beautifully with figures of God and goddesses. The next theme of the miniature painting was the Talmala, which was depicted as ragamala painting. It is said that a Dutch painter painted miniature paintings on Shivaji as well as Bajirao I, depicting them riding horses and leading their campaigns. Although, with decline of the Marathas, the miniature paintings were disappeared, some of the important pieces are still in the custody of the Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal, Poona. 20.3 . MARATHA SCULPTURE The land of Maharashtra has the oldest sculptures like Karley and Bhajye caves which belonged to the second century B.C. and bore the influence of Shalivan and Buddhist sculptures. The cave sculptures carved at Ajanta belonged to the fifth century B. C. where as king Krishna II of Rastrakuta dynasty got carved the cave sculptures at Ellora. These sculptures are considered the finest specimen of sculptures in the country. Although no cave sculptures were carved during the reigns of the Shilahara and yadava kings, they got constructed a number of Hemadpanti style temples throughout their kingdoms. The Muslims, who ruled India later were iconoclasts and did not spare any such temples in the state, which led to discontinue the tradition of constructing the Hemadpanti temples. The sculpture as an art developed in the state particularly with the development of temples in which idols of different gods were installed. The free-standing sculptures are seen rarely in the country except the pillar capitals of Ashoka and the Yaksha Yakshini of the Shunga period. Maharashtra also followed the same type of free-standing sculptures under the period of Marathas. It was sculptured under Shivaji Yadwada, near Dhawad, Karnataka. It was carved in a big rock of 3x2-1/2 feet depicting Shivaji as negotiating with Malamma, the queen of Belavadi and the widow of Ishwar Prabhu. This sculpture is divided into two parts, in the upperpart Shivaji is shown riding horse while in the lower part depicted Shivaji and Malamma's meeting with Shivaji's foot soldiers as well as his favourite dog. In 1677-78, when Shivaji was on his Karnataka expedition, he visited Belavadi, which was thirty miles away from Belgaum. Belavadi then was under Ishwar Prabhu, who was no more, his widow Malamma clashed with Shivaji's foot soldiers and munotes.in
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259 impressed him with her bravery. Naturally, this sculpture commemorated meeting of Chhatrapati Shivaji with Malamma. Dr. Mate says that almost all Hemadpati temples of Yadavas were renovated under the period of Shivaji in order to bring out a new sculpture of Maratha style. One of such renovated temples under Shivaji was at Shingnapur which came to be known as Shambhu Mahadev temple. Dr. Mate further says that although it was renovated under Shivaji, its top was built in Peshwa period. The Maratha sculpture can be divided into three periods as 1. 1650 to 1720 the period from Shivaji to Balaji Vishwanath in which the Maratha sculpture got no encouragement. 2. 1720 to 1740 the period of Bajirao I. 3. 1740 to 1761 the period of Nana Saheb. During the periods of Bajirao and Nana Saheb, the rapid expansion of Maratha power took place which brought them into close contacts with various parts and various temples that encouraged them to construct various temples. Thus, the Marathas developed their own sculpture during this period that can be studied as under: - Bhuleshwar temple at Yavat:- Brahmendra Swami the spiritual guru of Bajirao I renovated this temple in Poona district and created a distinct Maratha sculpture in the field of ornaments, dress, decorations and the design of the spire of the temple. Vateshwar temple of Saswad:- This temple was built during the period of Peshwa, bore several battle scenes of the period. Although, the stones sculpted are worn out, they give certain ideas of the Maratha sculpture. Temples constructed by Ahilyabai Holkar have developed the Maratha sculpture. The entrances of those temples are sculptured with the figures of Maratha soldiers and Sardars. Along with this figure of elephants, monkies, peacocks and floral as well as geometrical designs also are carved prominently. Siddheshwar temple at Toke: -This temple in Ahmednagar district has a sculpture of two elephants fighting with each other. In the other scene, Peshwa Madhavrao I is shown sitting in his court or Darbar and consulting with his advisory. In the third scene on the outer wall the Draupadi swayamvar is sculpted with much skill and dexterity. Naturally, it is an important example of Maratha sculpture. Rock Memorials: This is one more important form of the Maratha sculpture, came to be known as ‘virgala’. It was constructed in the memory of brave soldiers, who laid their lives in various battle fields. It was carved on a rock of 3x4 feet at the village of the respective soldier. This rock memorial is divided into three parts as 1. the Lower part depicted the fallen hero in action. 2. The middle part depicted his journey to heaven and 3. The third scene depicted the fallen hero worshiping gods in the heaven. Thus, These scenes predominantly depicted in the Maratha style and Maratha sculpture. Wood Carvings: - This is one more important form of Maratha art and architecture found developed during the period of expansion of the munotes.in
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260 Maratha rule. Such art develops when peace and prosperity reigns the regime, but the Marathas never had such peaceful regime except few years. Although, this wood carving developed under the Marathas and were scenes on the walls of different mansions and temples but those scenes could not stand the onslaughts of enemies, fire and nature. There are some constructions which display such exquisite wood carving art but they are in dilapidated status or in total crumbling position. Thus, the Maratha Sculpture developed in various parts of the Kingdom. 20.4 MARATHA ARCHITECTURE There are several kinds of architectural traditions in Maharashtra. The first architectural tradition started by the Buddhist in second century B.C. at Karley and Bhaje caves near Poona. The second tradition in architecture of Maharashtra started by Rashtrakutas at Ajanta and Ellora caves in the fifth century B.C. The Chalukyas, the Shilaharas and Yadavas added much more to the existing architectural tradition by adopting Nagar or Bhumji type of architecture. This blended with the local conditions of Maharashtra and developed it into the popular Hemadpanthi style of architecture which came to be known as the Maratha architecture. It can be studied with reference to 1. Forts 2. Wadas 3. Gadhis and 4. Temples. These architectural monuments of Marathas are either destroyed by fire or the ravages of time. The palaces Like Ajinkya Tara at Satara and Shaniwarwada at Poona are the most prominent but they are in dilapidated conditions. Although, they are in the most neglected status, certainly give some idea of their style, design and the manner of their construction. During the period of Shivaji, several new forts were constructed as well as old forts were repaired while under the Peshwa’s new wadas and mansions were built and the towns like Toke were established. The Maratha architecture can be studied with the help of following points: - 1. Maratha Forts:- Chhatrapati Shivaji's name has been associated with almost all forts of Maharashtra. He gained them by various ways and measures as some by deliberate bribes whereas others by well-planned attacks. He constructed several forts on various and important hills strategically. Naturally, all these forts became the best examples of military architecture of Marathas. These forts proved the best means of protecting the Maratha Kingdom as said by Ramchandra Pant Amatya in his Adnyapatra. He further says that a kingdom without forts is like a person without soul. The forts constitute the strength of army and the wealth of the Kingdom. Without forts, the people in the Kingdom are left at the mercy of the invader. Fort is the place where the king can enjoy a sound sleep; hence, the king should undertake construction as well as repair of forts by himself. The fort should have a strong stone wall, which is known as rampart. Inside the wall there should be a trench or moat with full water to interrupt the entry of enemy and there should only on suspension bridge for the entry of selected people. Even there were other several methods to restrict the entry in the fort as very narrow and difficult steps, underground staircases, tunnels and trap doors. These munotes.in
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261 methods were used to make the entry totally inaccessible and keep all provisions, people, military and the king safety and secure. Although, almost all the forts of Marathas are in a dilapidated condition, their architectural remains show that the engineers who constructed them were well aware of the principles of military engineering. Thus, the Maratha architecture is very exhibited by the forts of Chhatrapati Shivaji. 2. Gadhis:-These were the structures constructed for residential purposes with the provision of defensive outworks. These structures were constructed on the upland in order to live with all civil amenities without any external interruptions. Such constructions were mainly undertaken during the medieval period, when there was no political stability in the country. Gadhis were compared with the manorial houses of the medieval English people. Although, Gadhis were like forts but they were very smaller and weaker than the forts. During the period of Marathas Gadhis became the places of various intrigues, romance and mysterious glamour. There were a number of Gadhis constructed during the latter half of the eighteenth century, which were generally square or rectangular in size. As a matter of fact, all gadhis depended in size and shape on the wealth, importance of the person constructing and occupying them. These gadhis were provided by a rampart of stone wall, which was generally five to seven feet wide. The rampart was provided with parapets which served as watch towers. There used to be several quarters for servants from within the rampart. It is said that the care was taken to store adequate arms, ammunition provisions and water to be used in any emergency or expected to stand a siege for some time. Thus, the gadhis formed a part of Maratha architecture. 3. Wadas:-Among the buildings, the Peshwas built during their rule, the residential mansions were the most popular structures, which came to be known as wadas. Their own residential building was popularly called as Shanvarwada, which was the most impressive structure in Poona. Bajirao, I constructed this wada in 1730 and was occupied formally in 1731. Since then, it became the center of politics and culture of the Maratha empire till its last in 1818. Shanvarwada was initially two storied constructions but it was raised to seven stories in the reigns of latter Peshwas. It was the only tallest building from the top of its people use to see the spire of the distant Alandi temple. This wada had five main gates as 1. Ganesh gate 2. Delhi gate 3. Mastani gate 4. Khadki gate and 5. Jambul gate. It had four fortified walls, out of them two were two hundred yards long, twenty feet high and the others were one hundred fifty yards long and twenty feet high. There were twenty bastions of stone and bricks, four at each corner and five in the center of the rampart. These bastions were manned with two hundred seventy-five armed guards. There were several Diwankhanas or big halls such as 1. Ganpati hall 2. Dance hall 3. Ivory hall 4. Hall of mirror 5. Hall of Bjirao 6. hall of Naranrao. In addition to these halls, there were several small rooms around which were assigned to each member of the ruling family. There were some other rooms assigned and occupied by various departments like 1. Treasury. 2. Pantry. 3. records. 4. munotes.in
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262 Library. 5. Armoury and 6. Medicine. The several gardens beautified it whereas numerous fountains made it the most elegant. It is said that in 1755, Nanasaheb constructed the Darbar hall on the eve of Ganpati celebration, hence it was called Ganpati hall. Due to the establishment of marble idol of Ganpati at a corner, it became a place of many state gathering as well as meeting place with dignitaries from foreign countries. This was the hall which had seen several days of ups and down and several diplomacies materializing. Unfortunately, this wada could not last long because it gutted into fire in February, 1827. In addition to Shanvarwada, there were several other wadas constructed during this period. In 1803 Bajirao II constructed a two story wada at Vishrambag. He also constructed two more buildings as one was a five story building in Shukrawar Peth whereas another structure was at Hirabag where Bajirao used to entertain his English guest. Despite, these structures the wadas of Raste, Haripant Phadke, Nana Phadnis, Naik-Joshi, Mehendale, Tulsibagwale, Biniwale, Gaikwad, Shinde and Holkar were very rich and impressive mansions of Poona and had added to the glory of the Maratha architecture. 4. Temples:- This was one more form of architecture developed during the period of Marathas. Among the temples constructed in and around Poona, the outstanding temples were only four. as 1. Parvati temple. 2. Tulsibag temple. 3. Belbag temple and 4. Omkareshwar temple. These temples were constructed as per the principles of Maratha architecture, which was the blending of Yadava and Nagar style of architecture. The Maratha style of temple architecture was a very simple plan of constructing a structure in which a square sanctum was linked by a rectangular portico. The facade of the portico had couple of pillars with beautiful arches. There was a big assembly hall, open on all sides. The temple structure had a beautiful pattern ceiling, hung multi coloured glass chandeliers with candle holders which gave the impression that the whole structure is made of glasses. The spire of the temple also was an important feature of the Maratha architecture, which was again blended with the south Indian models. There was a dipa-malas, a tapering pillar constructed with several suitable brackets which were used to climb the pillar to light the lamp put on the top of the same pillar. This was constructed in order to light the whole area of the temple. Generally, the temple was decorated with various stories of Puranas, epics and the battles fought by the Marathas. The pillars, walls and spire had sculptured images goods and goddesses, saints, soldiers and were painted brightly in suitable colours like red, green and yellow. Temples usually had a wall around it, to be secure enough to pilgrims visiting them. There used to be garden within the outside wall of every temple, which usually added to the beauty of the temple. Thus, this architectural form also developed during the period of Marathas. munotes.in
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263 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:- 1. Account for the Maratha art and architecture to be called the provincial art and architecture. 20.5 SUMMARY In Hinduism, idol worship has been an integral part of religion. There are several beautiful temples with large idols installed in spread throughout the country. The artisans of Shaiva, Vishnu, Buddhists and Jain ideology have shown specific skill and characteristics in their rendition of art and architecture. The temples at Rameshwar, Madurai, Tanjore and Kumbhakonam are the imposing and inspiring art and architecture of Dravidian people. But such exquisite pieces of art and architecture are not seen in Maharashtra. Although, Maharashtra had come under the rule of popular dynasties like the Chalukyas and Rastrakutas but their capital cities were outside of Maharashtra. These dynasties ruled Maharashtra from Badami and Kalyani respectively. There were the dynasties ruled Maharashtra were from Maharashtra only, who developed the art and architecture of constructing temples, which popularly came to be known as Hemadpanthi temples. Maharashtra is known for Sahyadri ranges and the beautiful caves carved in those ranges. Although, the Marathas have their distinctive style of art and architecture, that cannot be compared with the Mughals. Their temples, forts, mansions and other structures remained regional in scope and style for which several factors were responsible as:- The Marathas had no surplus production, they had no fertile land, they were forced to fight with formidable enemies often and other several reasons were there. It does not mean that they did not develop their art and architecture, Among the art they had wall paintings in which several painters like Gangaram Tambat, Dhanaji and Bapu Chitari were very popular. Not this much the Maratha sardars like Raste, Tulshibagwale, Vaidya and Khasgiwale used the services of James wells and Daniel the popular English painters. The Marathas were specialized in frescoes, in which various themes from Indian mythology like Dashavatara of Vishnu were painted on the walls on the eve of festivals like Deewali, Dassera or marriage. Along this the subjects like Ganpati, Rampanchayat, and other gods and goddesses were painted. The Maratha frescoes were seen on the walls of Jamod temple and wadas at various places, paintings in Ajanta and Ellora caves, which were done in red, blue and yellow colours. The Marathas also were very popular in patrika or roll paintings. Among them the Sankrantipat painting, the pithoripat painting, illustrated manuscripts, and miniature paintings were very popular. In Sankrantipat patrika the pictures of Ganesha, goddess Sankranti with other gods and goddesses were painted. In pithoripat, a story resembling to the death of seven children one after another of Vasudev and Dewaki was painted whereas in illustrated manuscripts hand written books like Shivlilamrit, Dnyaneshwari, Pundlik and Vittal Mahatmya were decorated and painted beautifully. In the miniature painting Ragamala and Talamala of various stages were painted on walls of wadas, palaces and temples: In munotes.in
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History of Maratha
264 the same way, the Maratha sculpture was also popularly shown on the walls of temples. The most popular was the sculpture at Yadwada near Dharwad, Karnataka, in which the pictures of Shivaji, Queen Malamma of Belavadi and soldiers of Chhatrapati Shivaji were sculpted very beautifully. In addition to this sculptures on the temples of Bhuleshwar at Yavat, Vateshwar temple at Saswad, temples constructed by Ahilyabai Holkar, Shidheshwar temple at Toke are known as the master pieces in the sculptures. Rock memorials and wood carvings also were under taken under the Marathas. In the field of architecture, the Marathas had their own architecture developed in the form of forts, gadhis, wadas and temples. Ramchandrapant Amatya stressed on the importance of fort as soul of the Kingdom. Shivaji constructed as well as repaired several forts and developed a new and distinct Maratha architecture. Under the Peshwas, gadhis, wadas and temples were constructed at several places. Among them Shanwarwada was the exquisite piece of the Maratha architecture. In addition to this wada, Vishrambag wada, wada at Hirabag, Raste, Haripant Phadke, Nana Phadnis, Naik-Joshi, Mehendale, Biniwale, Gaikwad, Shinde and Holkar had their own wadas with peculiar features of the Maratha architecture. In the same way, temples were constructed as per the Maratha style of architecture. Among such temples, the Parvati temple, Tulsibag temple, Belbag temple and the Omkareshwar temple were the master pieces of the Maratha architecture. 20.6. QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the Maratha art , wall paintings , frescoes and various roll paintings. Why was the Maratha art remained regional in scope and style ? 2. Give a brief account of the Maratha sculpture. 3. Examine the Maratha architecture with the help of forts constructed by Chhatrapati Shivaji. 4. Write a detailed note on the Maratha forts, wadas , gadhis and temple architecture 20.7. ADDITIONAL READINGS 1. Mate M. S. , Maratha Architecture 2. Gokhale B.G. , Poona in the Eighteenth Century 3. Kulkarni A. R. and Khare G.H. ,(ed) Marathyancha Itihas , vol .II (Marathi) 4. Bhave V. K. , Peshwekalin Maharastra (Marathi) munotes.in