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INDIAN AGRICULTURE
Unit Structure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Agriculture in India : An Introduction
1.2 Definition of Agriculture
1.3 Nature of Agriculture
1.4 Features of Agriculture
1.5 Exercise
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To understand the definition of agriculture.
2) To study nature of Indian agriculture .
3) To study the salient features of Indian agriculture.
1.1 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA: AN INTRODUCTION
At the time of Independence in 1947, Indian agriculture was traditional
and stagnant in every respect. It was characterized by feudal land
relations, primitive techn ology, and the resultant low productivity per
hectare. The first task of Indian Government in the immediate post -
Independence period was, therefore, to initiate growth process in
agriculture on modern lines. Modernization of agriculture was salient
require d both in terms of technological and institutional changes.
Abolition of intermediaries in agriculture, like zamindars and jagirdars,
was accomplished soon after Independence.
The largest portion of the natural resources of India consists of land and
by fa r the largest number of its inhabitants is engaged in agriculture.
Therefore, in any scheme of economic development of the country,
agriculture holds a position of basic importance. Although Indian
agriculture is way back compared to the levels in develope d countries,
some notable development have occurred over the years since
Independence in 1947. Large areas which suffered from repeated failures
of rainfall have received irrigation, new crops have come to occupy a
significant position in the country’s pro duction and trade, agricultural and
theindustrial economies in the country now exert a powerful influences on
one another, problems of rural indebtedness and the exploitative practices
of the village moneylender are much less, and finally there is alread y in
the countryside an awakening and a desire for raising standards ofliving. munotes.in
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Agriculture & its
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2 1.2 DEFINITION OFAGRICULTURE
The word agriculture comes from the Latin words ager, means the soil and
culture, meanscultivation.
“Agriculture can be defined as the cultivation and / or production of crop
plants or livestock products.”
Agriculture includes Crop Production, Animal Husbandry and Dairy
Science, Agriculture Chemistry and Soil Science, Horticulture,
Agriculture Economics, Agriculture Engineering, Botany, plant pathology,
Extension Education and Entomology, which develops its separate and
distinct branches of agriculture occupying now a days place in several
Agriculture llniver sites in the country.
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Conventional A griculture:
“Conventional Agriculture is the term for predominant farming practices
and systems of crop production adapted by farmer in a particularregion.”
Agriculture can be termed as a science, an art and business altogether.
Science: because it provid es new and improved strain of crop and animal
with the help of the knowledge of breeding and genetics, modern
technology of dairy science.
Art: because it is the management whether it is crop or animal husbandry.
Commerce (Business): Because the entire Agr iculture produce is linked
with marketing, which brings in the question of profit or loss.
1.3 NATURE OF INDIANAGRICULTURE
At the time of Independence, India’s agriculture was in a state of back
wardness. Productivity per hectare and per worker was extremely l ow. The
techniques employed were age -old and traditional; there were only 7
tractors per lakh hectares of gross cropped area in 1950 -51. The number of
oil engines and irrigation pump sets per lakh hectares was only 62 and 16
respectively in that year. The use of fertilizers was also neglible being
only 0.66 lakh tones in 1952 -53. Because of low productivity, agriculture
merely provided ‘subsistence’ to the farmers and had not become munotes.in
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India n Agriculture
3 ‘commercialized’. Approximately 45 per cent of the total consumption of
farme rs came from their own production in1951 -52. This highlights the
importance of money in the village economy. All the factors described
above when taken together describe the nature of India’s agriculture. They
reveal that Indian agriculture was back and qu alitatively traditional in
nature on the eve of the First Five YearPlan.
1) Feudal Relations of Production:
At the time of Independence, three types of land tenure system were
prevalent in the country - Zamindari, mahalwari and ryotwari.
Approximately 57 per cent area of the country was under the zamindari
system. In terms of coverage, ryotwari came second with 38 per cent area,
while mahalwari was restricted to only 5 per cent area. The zamindari
system was based on exploitation since zamindars pressurized pe asants in
a variety of ways with the objective of extracting as much rent from them
as possible. As we shall discuss in Chapter 16, the zamindari system was a
major hindrance to agricultural development. Ryots in the ryotwari system
also leased out their l and to tenants for cultivation as prevalent under the
zamindarisystem.
After Independence, the State governments enacted laws to abolish the
intermediaries. However, these wereentirely inadequate to have any
drastic impact on the agrarian structure. The z amindars only changed their
grab and became absentee landlords. These absentee landlords wield
considerable economic power derived from land -ownership: (a)
cultivation with the help of hired labourers; (b) leasing out of land to
tenants; (c) usury; and (d) trading in grains and other commodities. This is
the true ruling class in our country. As its predecessor, the zamindari class,
this new class of absentee big landlords is also based onexploitation.
Obviously, the classes that are exploited by these landl ords are the classes
of tenants and agricultural workers. Though no exact estimates on tenancy
are available, it has beenestimated that around 50 per cent of the cultivated
land is under written or oral tenancy. A large number of tenants come
under the cat egory of tenants -at-will and sub -tenants. These classes of
tenants possess no security of tenure and enjoy cultivation rights only so
long as the landlords allow them to do so. This exposes them to the
exploitative practices of the landlords since their ve ry existence hinges on
the pleasure of thelandlords.
The second exploited class is constituted of agricultural workers. This
class is at the lowest rung of social ladder in rural areas. It can be divided
into two categories - (i) attached labourers,and (ii ) casual labourers. The
former are attached to some cultivator household on the basis of a written
or oral contract. Normally they are not free to work at any other place. As
against this, casual labourers are free to work on the farm of any farmer. A
large number of tenants have also been evicted under the guise of personal
cultivation and have swelled the ranks of agricultural labourers. The
growing number of labourers indicates the process of ‘ immiserisation’ of
the ruralpoor. munotes.in
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Agriculture & its
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4 2) Usurious Capital and Rura l Indebtedness :
The control of usurious capital is very strong on the Indian agriculture and
indebtedness is a common legacy of poor framers. During the pre -
Independence period, moneylenders and mahajans ruled the roost as there
was no other credit agency worth the name. Taking advantage of their
position, these people exploited the farmers in a number of ways. After
Independence, the government has initiated a number of steps to curb their
activities - the most important policy measure being the developmen t of
co-operative credit institutions and the increasing participation of banks in
providing rural credit. However, because of a number factor, the small and
marginal farmers continue to depend on moneylenders for fulfilling their
credit requirements to a large extent and thus become victims of
exploitation by the latter. The phrase ‘once in debt, always in debt’
expresses the condition of these farmers graphically. The moneylenders
charge exorbitant rates of interest manipulate accounts to their advantage
and often seize the land of the small and marginal farmers on one pretext
or the other. This usurious capital and rural indebtedness in India is a
result of the social system or the relations of production prevailing in
agriculture, since long the Indian p easant has been living the life of a
bonded landslave. It is this wretched existence that is responsible for his
economic bankruptcy and consequently for his continued indebtedness.
3) Labour Market Dualism:
Because of the excessive pressure of population on land, wages in the
agricultural sector tend to be considerably lower as compared to the
modern (industrial) sector. This leads to a labour market dualism. This
dualism is explained by the fact that large number of workers remain
sticking to traditional agr iculture despite low wage due either to ignorance
of better opportunities outside agriculture or to their inability to obtain a
modern sector job despite wishing to do so or to the cost of moving being
unacceptably high (including the cost of giving up the relative security of
remaining at home) in relation to the expected wage premium. Low wages
in the agriculture sector lead to low per capita income and this, in turn,
results in low labour productivity.
The cheapness of labour in the traditional agricultu ral sector causes it to be
used extensively there. That is, extra labour is employed to perform tasks
which would be unprofitable at the modern wage rate. Moreover, cheap
labour leads to the adoption of labour - intensive methods of production
such as cult ivation by hand rather thanmechanically.
4) Outmoded Farming Techniques :
Most of the Indian farmers continue to use outmoded farming techniques. The
traditionalagriculture depends on the biological sources of energy (human
and animal labour), rains and dung ma nure. Returns to farmers under this
technique of production arevery meagre and the nature of farming is
appropriately described as 'subsistence farming'. However, with the advent of
the new agricultural strategy in 1966, modern techniques of production were
initiated in certain selected regions of the country like Punjab, Haryana and munotes.in
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India n Agriculture
5 Western Uttar Pradesh. As a consequence of the adoption of modern
techniques of production and new high yielding varieties of seeds,
agricultural productivity registered substan tial increases in these areas.
However, since large areas of the country continue to use outmoded
agricultural techniques, a sort of technological dualism has emerged in
thecountry.
5) Fluctuations and Instability in Crop Output :
The Indian agriculture has ri ghtly been called a 'gamble in monsoons.'
Gross cropped area in 1950 -51 was 131.9 million hectares whereas gross
irrigated area was only 22.6 million hectares. Thus, only 17 per cent of
gross cropped area had irrigation facilities. In 1993 -94, the gross cr opped
area was 186.4 million hectares of which 68 million hectares was irrigated.
Thus 36 per cent of gross cropped area had irrigation facilities in 1993 -94.
This shows that even now as much as 64 per cent of gross cropped area
continues to depend on rainfal l. This shows that nature continues to play a
major role in determining the level of agricultural production. If anything,
the use of bio -chemical technology in the post 1965 period (often known as
High Yielding Varieties Programme) has increased the sensi tivity of output
(except wheat) to variations in rainfall. The analysis carried out by C.H.
Hanumantha Rao, Susanta K. Ray and K. Subbarao forthe period 1959 to 1985
shows a steady upward trend in the sensitivity of total food grains output to
variations in rainfall.5Irregular or uncertain monsoon in some years leads to
large fluctuations and instability in agricultural production.
6) Diversities in the Agricultural Sector and the Problem of
Generalization :
India is a large country having substantial agricultural diversities. Different
regions exhibit entirely different characteristics so that no one Plan can be
conceived for all agricultural regionsofthe country. The nature of soil, the
magnitude of rainfall, availability ofwater, etc. differ considerably between
different regions. For instance, take the case of rainfall. While Western Raj as
thenand a part of the Thar Desert have a very uncertain rainfall of 4 to 5
inches in a year, Cherrapunji in Assam has an annual rainfall of more than 450
inches. While conside rable areas face drought conditions in a particular
year, some areas encounter the fury of floods. Some areas face the problems
of waterlogging and salinity. Practically the entire cultivated area of the
country suffers from deficiency of nitrogen. Element s of phosphates and
potash also differ significantly in different areas. It is not infrequent to find
plots of land of highly different productivity existing side by side in a
particular village. Not only this, relations of production are different in
different States; There are substantial regional inequalities also in regard to
sub- division and fragmentation ofholdings.
The presence of large diversities in the agricultural sector makes it
imperative to devise separate agricultural policies fordifferent regi ons. It is
not possible to generalize and formulate asingle agricultural policy for the
nation as a whole as such generalization is bound to gloss over inter -
regional differences and fail to deliver thegoods. munotes.in
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6 1.4 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE
Some of t he outstanding features of Indian agriculture are mentioned as
follows.
1) Subsistence agriculture:
Most parts of India have subsistence agriculture. The farmer owns a small
piece of land, grows crop with the help of his family and consumes almost
the entire farm, produce with little surplus to sell in the market.
This types of agriculture has been practiced in India for the last several of
hundred years & still prevails in the spite of the large scale changes in
agricultural practices after in dependence.
2) Pressu re of Population on Agriculture:
The Population in India is increasing at rapid pace and exerts heavy
pressure on agriculture. Agriculture has to provide employment to large
section of work force and has to feed the teeming millions. While looking
into the present need of food-grains we require an additional 12-15 million
hectares of land to cope with the increasing demand. Moreover there is
rising trend in urbanization. Over one -fourth of the Indian population lived
in urban areas in 2001. It is estimate tha t over one -third of the total
population of India would be living in urban areas by 2010. This requires
more land for urban settlements which will ultimately encroach upon
agricultural land.
3) Dependant upon Monsoon :
Indian agriculture is mainly dependent upon monsoon which is uncertain,
unreliable and irregular. In spite of the large scale expansion of irrigation
facilities since, independence, only one third of the cropped area is
provided by perennial irrigation and the remaining two-third of the cropped
area has to bear the brunt of the vagaries ofmonsoons.
4) Variety of Crops:
India is a vast country with varied types of relief, climate and soil
conditions. Therefore, there is a large variety of crops grown in India. Both
the tropical and temperate crops are su ccessfully grown in India. Very few
countries in the world have variety of crops comparable to that produced
inIndia’s.
5) Importance of Animals:
Animals’ force has always played a significant role in agricultural
operations. Such as ploughing, irrigation, thr eshing and transporting the
agricultural products. Complete mechanization of Indian agriculture is still
a distant goal and animals will continue to dominate the agricultural scene
in India for several years to come.
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India n Agriculture
7 6) Predominance of Food Crops:
Since Indian agriculture has to feed large population, production of food
crops is the first priority of the farmers almost everywhere in the country.
More than two -thirds of the total cropped area is devoted to the cultivation
of food crops. However, with the change in cropping pattern, the relative
shares of food crops came down from 76.7% in 1950 -51 to 58.8% in
2002 -03
7) Insignificant place to given fodder crops:
Although India has the largest population of livestock in the world, fodder
crops are given very insignific ant place in our cropping pattern. Only 4%
of the reporting area is devoted to the permanent pastures and other
grazing lands. This is due to pressing demand of land for food crops.
8) Seasonal patterns:
India has three major cropseasons.
i) Kharif season starts with the onset of monsoons & continues till the
beginning of winter. Major crops of this season are rice, maize, Jowar,
Bajara, Cotton, groundnut and pulses such as moong, Urad, etc.
ii) Rabi season starts at the beginning of the winter and continues till the
end of winter or beginning of summer. Major crops of this season are
Wheat, barley, jowar, gram & soil seed such as linseed, rape
&mustard.
iii) Zaid is summer cropping season in which crops like rice, maize,
groundnut, vegetables and fruits aregrown.
1.5 EXERCIS E
1) Explain the concept of agriculture and state nature of Indian
agriculture.
2) What is agriculture? Discuss the salient features of Indian
agriculture.
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SCOPE AND ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN
INDIAN ECONOMY
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Scope of IndianAgriculture
2.3 Role of agriculture in IndianEconomy
2.4 Necessity for the Development of Agriculturalsector
2.5 Exercise
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To study the scope of agri culture in IndianEconomy.
2) To understand the significance of agriculture in IndianEconomy.
3) To study the necessity for the development of agricultural sector.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian agriculture had reached the stage of development and maturity
much before the now advanced countries of the world embarked on the
path of progress. At that time, there was a proper balance between
agriculture and industry and both flourished hand in hand. This situation
continued till the middle of the eighteenth century. The inter ference from
the alien British government and its deliberate policy of throttling the
village handicrafts and cottage industries destroyed the fibre of balance
and the economy of the country was badly shattered. Britishers pursued a
typical colonial policy in India and did nothing to develop (or restore)
agriculture. Instead, they created a class of intermediaries known as
zamindars who sucked the very blood out of the rural poor. A substantial
part of the produce was taken away by this parasitic class the actual
cultivator was left only with subsistence income. The cultivators had
neither the resources nor the incentive to invest in agriculture. Therefore,
Indian agriculture in the pre -independence period can be correctly
described as a ‘subsistence’ occupa tion which yielded ‘too little to live on
and too much to die on’. The zamindars and money - landers usurped a
large part of land on the pretext of settlement for debts taken by cultivators
and anumber of cultivatorswerethus left land less. This gave birth to the
class of landless labourers or agricultural workers who worked on the land
of others for wages which were often too meagre to keep the body and
sow together. A majority of farmers were just able to eke out a level of munotes.in
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Scope and Role of Agriculture
in Indian Economy
9 subsistence from agricultural ac tivities.
2.2 SCOPE OF INDIANAGRICULTURE
Proverbially, India is known as “Land of Villages”.Near about 67% of
India’s population live in villages. The occupation of villagers is
agriculture. Agriculture is the dominant sector of our economy and
contribute in v arious ways such as:
1) National Economy:
In 1990 -91, agriculture contributed 31.6% of the National Income of
India, while manufacturing sector contributed 17.6%. It is substantial than
other countries. For example in 1982 it was 34.9% in India against 2% in
UK, 3% in USA, 4% in the Canada. It indicated that the more advanced
stage of development the smaller is the share of agriculture in
NationalIncome.
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2) Total Employment :
Around 65% population is working and depends on agricultur e and allied
activities. Nearly 70% of the rural population earns its livelihood from
agriculture and other occupation allied to agriculture. In cities also, a
considerable part of labor force is engaged in jobs depending on
processing and marketing of agr iculturalproducts.
3) Industrial Inputs :
Most of the industries depend on the raw material produced by agriculture.
So, agriculture is the principal source of raw material to the industries. The
industries like cotton textile, jute, paper, sugar depends total ly on
agriculture for the supply of raw material. The small scale and cottage
industries like handloom and power loom, ginning and pressing, oil
crushing, rice husking, sericulture fruit processing, etc. are also mainly
agro-basedindustries.
4) Food Supply :
During this year targeted food production was 198 million tons and which
is to be increased 225 million tons by the end of this century to feed the munotes.in
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Agriculture & its
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Development
10 growing population of India i.e. 35 croresin 1951 and 100 crores at the
end of this century. India, thus, i s able to meet almost all the need of its
population with regards to food by develop intensive program for
increasing foodproduction.
5) State Revenue :
The agriculture is contributing the revenue by agriculture taxation includes
direct tax and indirect tax. Direct tax includes landrevenue, cesses and
surcharge on land revenue, cesses on crops and agril income tax. Indirect
tax induces sales tax, custom duty and local octroi, etc. which former pay
on purchase of agriculture inputs.
6) Trade :
Agriculture plays an important role in foreign trade attracting valuable
foreign exchange, necessary for our economic development. The product
from agriculture -based industries such as jute, cloth, tinned food, etc.
contributed to 20% of our export. Around 50% of total exports are
contributed by agril sector. Indian agriculture plays an important role in
roads, rails and waterways outside the countries. Indian in roads, rails and
waterways used to transport considerable amount of agril produce and
agro-based industrial products . Agril products like tea, coffee, sugar, oil
seeds, tobacco, spices, etc. also constitute the main items of export from
India.
2.3 ROLE OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIAN ECONOMY
Agriculture is the main sector of Indian economy which is amply powered
by the following p oints:
1) Share in National Income:
The contribution from agriculture has been continuously falling from
55.1% in 1950 -51 to 37.6% in 1981 -82 & further to 18.5% in 2006 -07.
But agriculture still continues to be the main sector because it provides
livelihood t o a majority of thepeople.
2) Largest Employment providing sector:
In 1951, 69.5% of the working population was engaged in agriculture.
This percentage fell to 66.9% in 1991 & to 56.7% in 2001. However, with
rapid increase in population the absolute number of people engaged in
agriculture has become exceedingly large.
3) Provision of Food surplus to the Expanding population:
Because of the heavy pressure of population in labor -surplus economies
like India & its rapid increase the demand for food increase at a fas t rate.
Therefore, unless agriculture is able to continuously increase its surplus of
food-grains a crisis is likely to emerge. Experts foresee that by the end of
11th Five year plan (i.e. 2007 -2012) the demand for food grains is
expected to increase to280 .6 million tons. Meeting this demand would
require 2% growth per annum. munotes.in
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Scope and Role of Agriculture
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11 4) Contribution to capital formation:
There is a general agreement on the importance of capital formation in
economic development. Unless the rate of capital formation increases to a
sufficient high degree economic development cannot be achieved.
Agriculture can play a big role in pushing the capital formation in India.
Rural sector can transfer labor & capital to the industrial sector which can
be effectively used to increase the product ivity in the latter.
5) Providing Raw Material of industries:
Agriculture provides raw materials to various industries of national
importance. Sugar industry, jute industry, cotton textile industry, vanaspati
industry are examples of some such industries whic h depend on
agriculture for their development.
6) Market for industrial products:
Since more than two -thirds of the population of India lives in rural areas,
increased rural purchasing power is a valuable stimulus to industrial
development.
7) Importance in Inte rnational Trade:
Agriculture constitutes about 75% of the total exports of the country such
is the importance of agriculture as far as earnings of foreign exchange are
concerned.
8) Importance of agriculture products in the consumption basket:
The per capita income in India is very low. Consequently, a large part of
this income is spent on fulfilling the basic consumption requirements of
the people. It has been estimated that in India approximately 60% of
household consumption and 85% of household commodity co nsumption is
agriculturalproducts.
The above discussion brings out clearly the role and importance of
agriculture in the Indian economy. In fact, development of agriculture is a
virtual pre -condition of sectorial diversification and hence of development
itself. A growing surplus of agricultural produce is needed in the country
to- (i) increase supplies of a food and agricultural raw materials at non -
inflationary prices. (ii) Widen the domestic market for industrial good
through increased purchasing power wi thin the rural sector. (iii) Facilitate
inter-sectorial transfers of capital needed for industrial development
(including infrastructure) and (iv) increase foreign exchange earnings
through agriculturalexports.
2.4 NECESSITY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
AGRICULTU RALSECTOR
After analyzing the Role of agriculture in the economic development,
now, let us discuss the factors which determine the necessity for the munotes.in
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Agriculture & its
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12 further development of agriculture the brief analysis of the factor is as
stated below:
1) To Remove Poverty and Hunger:
Agriculture is considered to be the dominant sector in the economy of
India. Therefore, a strong foundation of agriculture is necessary condition
of sustained and rapid economic progress so far as the problem of poverty
and hunger is concerned . It is acute in those countries having more density
of population. It is further aggravated by the inequalities of income. These
features are also present in India economy which is termed as the obstacles
in the path of agriculture development. Therefore, under such
circumstances the development of agricultural sector is not possible so
long as poverty and hunger are notremoved.
2) Proper utilization of Resources :
Proper utilization of resources is indispensable to increase the level of
production. The increa se in production depends on the use of improved
farm technology. Moreover, irrigation facilities also go a long way to
enable the farmers to put more area under multiple crops. Therefore,
efforts should be made to get the maximum productivity from the area
were expensive infra - structures of irrigation have beencreated.
3) Increasing the Growth Rate:
The positive nature of the interdependence between agriculture and
industry facilitates to stimulate the further development of these two
sectors when agricultura l sector starts to development on modern scientific
lines, it will require more inputs than before. These inputs are supplied by
the industrial sector in this way the development of agricultural sector is
relied upon the development of industrial sector. C ontrary to this, when
agriculture sectors starts to produce more food grains and raw material for
industrial sector the expansion of industrial sector will in turn increase the
demand for agricultural products and thereby increase the employment
and income s of the agro -based population. The increase in the income
further creates the demand for consumption goods supplied by the
industrial sector and thus, stimulate the growth of industrialsector.
4) Creation of surplus of investment:
As it is known the moderniz ation of agriculture requires a huge amount of
capital for investment command area development programme initiated
for the development of agricultural sector also required capital for
investment. Moreover, processing, marketing and storage and all other
activities connected with agriculture need capital investment. In such
circumstances, surplusare required to increase savings and enable
investment. The creation of surplus is possible only through modernization
and technological improvement inagriculture.
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Scope and Role of Agriculture
in Indian Economy
13 5) Surplus for wage goods:
In future greater and planned efforts will have to be made to expand wage
employment through both industrial and urban job creation to provide
employment to the unemployed people. Besides, employment programme
in rural areas for bu ilding up infrastructure and off form facilities to
absorb the growing labour force would be undertaken. Thus, it will be
necessary to generate a large surplus of wage good for sustained supply to
the working population at reasonable and stable prices so t hat there is
sufficient economic stability for planneddevelopment.
6) Reduction in imports:
Import of food grains has become a peculiar feature of Indian economy.
Therefore, the country has to get rid of imports of food - grains. Self -
sufficiency in food grain s as well as in cash crops would help to elimate
the burden of Foreign exchange resources. Moreover, it would reduce the
uncertainties generally associated with the procurement of supplies from
international sources and their adverse impact on internal ava ilability,
prices and economy as awhole.
7) Diversification of employment opportunities :
The low level of rural incomes and the low standard of the rural
population are the results of serious under employment as well as open
unemployment in rural areas. Cro p production alone cannot give adequate
employment. Therefore, it pre -requisite to diversify rural employment
opportunities by developing suitable subsidiary occupations such as dairy,
rearing of poultryetc.
8) Provision of Food and Nutrition :
Agriculture sec tor has a great responsibility of providing food and
nutrition not only for rural population but also for urban population. Even
to maintain the present levels of intake food production has to be stepped
up significantly apart from adequate production of f ood grains as well as
supplementary protective foods are necessary for improving the
productivity of labour. The productivity of labour can only improve when
the human capital is endowed with health and vigour. Therefore, through
the adequacy of food the capacity to work and earn substantially be
increased which in turn increases production welfare happiness and thus
economic development of thecountry.
9) Provision of Raw material for industrial sector :
Agriculture sector has to meet the increasing demand of raw material
required by the industrial sector. The industries sector, the industries like
cotton and jute textiles, dairy products, vegetable, oils, tea, coffee, leather
and leather products all depend on the production performance of
agricultural sector. The expansion and utilization of the existing capacity
in these and other similar industries would depend on the internal
availability of raw materials. Therefore, internal production of the munotes.in
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Agriculture & its
Significance in Rural
Development
14 agricultural raw materials would augment the functioning of
theseindustries.
10) Useful for Allied sector :
Agricultural sector has to pay more attention on the development of allied
sector. As the improvement of nutrition is a basic aim of development thus
increased production in these fields assumes particular importance.
Besides the development of allied activities is in advantage of nation since
agro climate conditions in many areas do not make crop production
advantageous.
11) Contribution to Foreign exchange :
Agricultural sector can make a positive contribution to Foreign exchange
earnings by reducing the agricultural imports. Food alone constitutes a
large proportion of current agricultural imports. Therefore, self -sufficiency
in food, animal husbandry products and important raw materials will
substantially result in the s aving of foreign exchange. Therefore,
agricultural sector has to develop its self -sufficiency in food articles and
other agricultural products to avoid imports and thus to save the foreign
exchange earnings.
2.5 EXERCISE
1) Explain the scope of Indian agriculture in ruraldevelopment.
2) Discuss the role of Indian agriculture in Indianeconomy.
3) State the necessity for development of agricultural sector in India.
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15 3
PRODUCTIVITY OF INDIAN
AGRICULTURE
Unit Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concept of agricultural productivity
3.3 Causes of low agricultural productivity
3.4 Measures to increase agricultural productivity
3.5 Exercise
3.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To understand the concept of agric ultural productivity.
2) To study what are the various causes of low agricultural productivity
inIndia.
3) To suggest some remedial measures to increase agricultural
productivity and production.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
'Agricultural Productivity' has been defined by severa l scholars with
reference to their own views and disciplines. Agriculturalists, agronomists,
economists and geographers have interpreted it in different ways.
Agricultural productivity is defined in agricultural geography as well as in
economics as ‘output per unit of input’ or ‘output per unit of land area’,
and the improvement in agricultural productivity is generally considered
to be the results of a more efficient use of the factors of production, viz.
physical, socio -economic, institutional and techno logical.
Singh and Dhillion (2000) suggested that the ‘yield per unit’ should be
considered to indicate agricultural productivity. Many scholars have
criticized this suggestion pointing out that it considered only land as a factor
of production, with no other factors of production. Therefore, other scholars
have suggested that agricultural productivity should contain all the factors of
production such as labor, farming experiences, fertilizers, availability and
management of water and other biological factor s. As they widely accept
that the average return per unit does not represent the real picture, the use of
marginal return per agricultural unit was suggested.
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16 3.2 CONCEPT OF AGRICULTURALPRODUCTIVITY
Agricultural productivity may be defined as the "ratio of index of local
agricultural output to the index of total input used in farm
production ". It is, therefore, a measure of efficiency with which inputs are
utilized in production, if other things being equal. Agricultural
productivity here refers to the returns from arable land or cultivable land
unit. “Agricultural efficiency as productivity expressing the varying
relationship between agricultural produce and one of the major inputs, like
land, labor or capital, while other complementary factors remaining the
same". This expression reveals that the productivity is a physical component
rather than a broad concept. Saxon observed that productivity is a physical
relationship between output and the input which gives rise to that output.
Defination: “Agriculture pro ductivity is an Index of efficiency of
major production factores like Land Laour, Capital and
Organiser.”
Productivity of land is a very important factor of agriculture because it is
the most permanent and fixed factor among the three categories of inpu t-
land, labor and capital. Basically, land as a unit basis articulates yield of
crop in terms of output to provide the foodstuff for the nation and secure
employment opportunities for the rural community. Productivity of land
may be raised by applying inp ut packages consisting of improved seeds,
fertilizers, agro - chemicals and labour intensive methods.
Productivity of labour is important as a determinant of the income of the
population engaged in agriculture. In general, it may be expressed by
the man-hours or days of work needed to produce a unit of production.
Shafi has mentioned that the labour productivity is measured by the total
agricultural output per unit of labour. It relates to the single most
important factor of production, is intuitively appe aling and relatively
easy to measure. On the other hand, labour productivity is a key
determinant of living standards, measured as per capita income, and this
perspective is of significant policy relevance. However, it only partially
reflects the productivi ty of labour in terms of the personal capacities of
workers or the intensity of their efforts. In agricultural geography, the
labour productivity has two major important aspects. First, it
profoundly affects national prosperity and secondly :principally
determines the standard of living of the agricultural population.
Capital, in terms of purchase of land, development of land, reclamation
of land, drainage, irrigation purpose, livestock, feeds, seeds, agricultural
implements, and machineries, crop production chemicals is being given
priority as a factor for enhancing agricultural productivity.
3.3 CAUSES OF LOW AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTIVITY
Agricultural Productivity is still very low when compared with other
countries and vis-a-visthe potential productivity. In this t opic we propose to munotes.in
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17 discuss the institutional and technological factors thataccount for low
productivity inagriculture.
A) The Institutional Factors:
The most important institutional factors that have traditionally kept
agricultural production and productivity low in India are: (i) the exploitative
land tenure system, (ii) uneconomic size of holdings, (iii) underdevelopment
of credit institutions, and (iv) defects in marketing structure.
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1) The exploitation land tenure system :
Perhaps the most important reason for lowagricultural productivity in India has
been the zamindari system. Thissystem created a unique agrarian structure in the
countryside, which conferred the right of sharing the produce of land without
participating personally in the production process. The system itself was based
on exploitation as it conferred unlimited rights on the zamindars to extract as
much rent as they wished. According to Bhawani Sen,1 approximatel y 25 per
cent of the produce was taken away by the intermediaries in the form of
rent. This would mean that out of the income of Rs. 4,800 crore from
agriculture in 1949 -50, the share of intermediaries was as high as Rs.
1,200 crores. The grabbing of s uch a high proportion of income by a
parasitic class was not only socially unjust but also highly detrimental to
capital formation and economic development. The actual cultivator was
left with no surplus to invest in better implements, improved seeds or
fertilizers and neither was there any incentive for him to increase
agricultural production and productivity. Thus, according to Thorner, a
built -in 'depressor' continued to operate in the countryside characterized
by lowcapital intensity and antiquated methods. 2 The tillers showed no
interest in modernization of agriculture partly because they were deprived
of resources to invest in agriculture by the zamindars (who, in turn, used
the acquired wealth only on conspicuous consumption and on items to
sustain their profligate lifestyle) and partly because they knew that any
gains in agricultural production and productivity would be siphoned off by
the zamindars while they would continue to live in conditions of
abjectpoverty.
In large areas of the country , actual cultivation was done by tenants whose
tenancy, in most areas, was insecure and depended on the mercy of the
landlords. This made them prone to various exploitative practices adopted
by th e latter. They were forced to payexorbitantrates of interes t which munotes.in
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18 ranged from 34 to75 percentin different areas of the country.3Naturally
this left little for reinvest - meant on land. In fact, the toiling tenants could
hardly make both ends meet. Moreover, since their tenancy rights were
insecure, the tenants wer e not even interested in investment on land as
they could be evicted out by the landlords almost at will. Even where law
provided for security of tenure, tenants were not in a position to take
advantage of it because most of the leases are oral and informa l. It has
been estimated that about 82 per cent of tenancies in the country in 1961
wereinsecure.
Obviously, under such exploitative land tenure systems, agricultural
production and productivity was bound to be low. After Independence, the
State government s passed legislations to abolish zamindari and improve
the position of tenants. However, all critics agree that the above measures
have been unsuccessful in achieving their objectives. Zamindars continue
to exist in the garb of large landowners. They have a cquired large areas of
land for personal cultivation on which cultivation is done with the help of
hiredagricultural labour. In the States where a ceiling hasbeen fixed as to
the amount of land a former zamindar can hold, the ceiling has been kept
so high that very few zamindars have been affected. Flaws in the
legislations have also enabled them to transfer land to other members of
their families and thus escape the ceiling law. For example, Daniel
Thorner found that in post -reform Bihar, there existed est ates of 500, 700
or even 1000 acres and the older structure of landowner, raiyat, under -
raiyat, and bataidar (cropsharer) continued even after the so -called
zamindari abolition. Bihar remained a stronghold of large landholders and
hierarchical property rig hts, where "leasing, sub -leasing and evictions are
all common."5 As far as tenants are concerned, they have no strength to
match the force of landlords and often evict the land under the pressure of
the latter voluntarily. In any case, since most of the te nancies are insecure
and oral, the actual tenants are not in a position to obtain the protection
oflaw.
2) Uneconomic size of holdings :
The average size of holdings is very small in India. It was merely 1.57
hectares in 1990 -91. 59 per cent of the holdings were less than 1 hectare in
1990 -91 and can, consequently, be regarded as uneconomic. Not only this,
even these small holdings are scattered and fragmented into a number of
units. According to the 8th round of the National Sample Survey (conducted
in 1953 -54) an operational holding in India was divided into five units. It
was also found that with an increase in the size of holdings, the average
number of fragments alsoincreased.
Small and fragmented holdings impede agricultural progress and adversely
affect agricultural production and productivity. This is due to the
following reasons: (1) Because of sub-division and fragmentation of
holdings, the size of plots becomes so small that sometimes it is not
possible to cultivate on them. Substantial land is also wasted in drawing
boundaries and hedges between small, tiny plots. (2) Because of the small
size of farms, it is not possible to make use of new technological munotes.in
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19 innovations in the field of agriculture. The application of new methods of
production requires amp le doses of fertilizers, which in turn, require
sufficient irrigation facilities. However, because of fragmentation, it is
frequently not possible for the farmer to make proper arrangement of
irrigation in all plots belonging to him. As a consequence, adop tion of new
agricultural technology ishindered.
(3) In addition to the problems in adopting new agricultural technology,
sub-division and fragmentation of holdings makes it difficult for the
farmers to manage all their plots efficiently. Inefficient manage ment leads
to low agricultural productivity.
3) Under development of credit institutions :
In the pre-Independence period, the only source of credit worth the name
was the village moneylender. Even in 1951, non - institutional sources
(moneylenders, traders, land lords, relatives, friends etc. provided as much
as 93 per cent of rural credit while the institutional sources (government,
co-operative credit societies and commercial banks) provided only 7 per
cent of rural credit. In the category of non -institutiona l sources, the most
important were moneylenders who provided as much as 72 per cent of rural
credit in 1951. This heavy dependence of the farmers on the money
lenders enabled the latter to dictate terms and exploit the former in a
number of ways. For i nstance, moneylenders charged exorbitant rates of
interest ranging from 19 per cent to 50 per cent or even more. They often
manipulated accounts to their advantage by not entering the money
returned and interest paid into the account. They also forced t he farmers to
sell the agricultural produce to them at low prices. On account of all
these practices ofmoneylenders, the farmers were left with no resources
to invest in programmes to increase agricultural production and productivity.
Most of the farmers were under heavy burden of debt and all their lives they
could not get out of it. The position of the average farmer wasexpressed in
the following phrase graphically "the Indian farmer is burden of debt and all
their lives they could not get out of it. The position of the average farmer
was expressed in the following phrase graphically "the Indian farmer is born
in debt, lives in debt and dies in debt."Naturally the Indian agriculture was
only a subsistence agriculture in these conditions with very low level s of
production and productivity.
The most important move to free the agriculturists from the clutches of the
moneylenders in the post-Independence period was the expansion of
institutional credit to agriculture. For this purpose, the government has helped
the co-operatives in anumber of ways to expand their operations. In an
important move, 14 major commercial banks were nationalized in 1969 and
this was followed by the nationalization of6 more banks in1980. One of the
important objectives of this measure was the expansion of rural credit. In
1975, the government established an institution to meet specifically the
requirements of rural credit — Regional Rural Banks. This was followed by
the setting up of the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD) in 1982. On account of all these efforts undertaken by the
government, the institutional sources have increased their participation in munotes.in
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20 rural credit considerably. Millions of first generation depositors and
borrowers have been introduced to the bank ing system and they have
shifted their loyalties from the non -institutional moneylenders and
pawnbrokers to the banking institutions and co -operatives. However, this is
only one part of the story. As noted by the Agricultural Credit Review
Committee (1989), "the dual 'economy' has melted substantially, but
themoneylender has not gone away". Non-institutional sources of
agricultural credit still remain and they offer credit at high rates of interest
which are, however, lower than before. Despite the phenomenal growth in the
deposits and advances of institutional agencies, the latter have not made much
dent in the rural economy. Only about 30 per cent of the rural families have
demanded or have obtained access to the institutional credit system. Another
serious matter of concern is the fact that the small and marginal farmers - the
target group of the credit system - continue to be inadequately attended to. In
1951 -52, they depended mainly on non-institutional sources. But, even in
1988, households with an asset h olding of less than Rs. 10,000 depended on
non- institutional sources for 67 -90 per cent of their creditneeds.
4) Defects in marketing structure :
For a considerable period of time, the Indian agricultural marketing
structure has suffered from a number of defe cts. As a consequence, the
Indian farmer has been deprived of a fair price for his produce. A
considerable part of the total produce is sold by the farmers to the village
traders and moneylenders. Most of the farmers are under heavy burden of
debt and the moneylenders compel them to sell their produce to them (lien
moneylenders) often at prices considerably lower than the market prices.
The transportation facilities are not properly developed and many farmers
therefore sell the produce in the village marke t itself after harvesting. The
villages do not possess adequate warehousing facilities and substantial
quantities of the produce are unlo aded in the village markets immediately
after harvesting. Supply in the village markets increases substantially and
the farmers are notable to get a fair price for their produce. Farmers who
go to mandies to sell their produce face a chain of middlemen like
kutchaarhativas, puccaarhativas, brokers, wholesalers, retailers etc.
Thus, the farmers receive only a small part of the actual price of their
crop. Moreover, the farmers are required to pay anumber of charges
like arhat to the arhatiyas, tulai for weighing the produce, palledari to
unload the bullockarts and for doing other miscellaneous types of allied
works and garda for impurities in the produce. In addition, the farmers
are also required to pay a number of other undefined and unspecified
charges. In many mandies use of wrong weights and measures was
rampant till quite recently. Many mandies do not possess grading
facilities and the practice usually prevalent in these mandies in the one
known as Jara sales wherein heaps of all qualities of produce (good as
well as bad) are sold in one common lot. Thus, the farmer producing
better qualities is not assured of better prices. As a consequence, there
is no incentive to use better seeds and produce better varieties.
Naturally, under the marketing conditions described here, agricultural
production and productivity are bound to below. munotes.in
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21 B) The Technological Factors :
The most important techn ological factors resulting in low agricultural
produ ction and productivity are : (i) inadequate irrigation facilities, (ii) use
of outmoded techniques of production, (iii) l imited use of fertilizers,
(iv) inadequate plant protection measures, and (v) restric ted use of high
yielding varieties of seeds.
1. Inadequate irrigation facilities: Increase in agricultural production
and productivity depends, to a large extent, on the availability of water.
Hence, the importance of irrigation. However, the availability of rrigation
is highly inadequate in India. For example, gross irrigated area as
percentage of cropped area was only 18.3 per cent in 1960 -61. Despite
massive investments on expansion of irrigation facilities during the
lanning period, gross irrigated area as percentage of cropped area had risen
to only 36.0 per cent in 1993 -94. Thus, we can say that, almost 65 per cent
(i.e. a little less than two -thirds) of cropped area continues to depend upon
rainfall. Productivity on this land is considerably lower th an the
productivity on irrigated land. According to an estimate of the Planning
Commission, the productivity on un -irrigated land is just about one -half
the productivity on irrigated land.7 B. D. Dhawan has observed that land
productivity on irrigated land s averaged about 22 quintals per crop
hectare in 1983 -84 whereas it was less than 9 quintals per crop hectare on
un-irrigated lands.8 Since almost two thirds of agricultural land is un -
irrigated, this shows that the general level of agricultural produ ction and
productivity is very low in India. Another point worth mentioning in this
context is that multiple cropping is not possible on un -irrigated lands as 80
per cent of the annual rainfall in India is received in less than four months.
Provision of irrigation facilities over large areas can make possible the
growing of two or three crops in a year in these areas. This will
considerably enhance agricultural production andproductivity.
2. Use of outmoded techniques of production :
In India, traditional techniques of production continue to be adopted on a
large scale in agriculture. The farmers use primitive and simple
agricultural implements for carrying out farm operations and these
implements require biological sources of energy (viz., human labour and
animal labour) for their operation. As against this, advanced countries of
the West use mainly mechanical sources of energy (viz., tractors,
threshers, harvester combines, pump sets etc.) for carrying out agricultural
operation. The mechanical sources of e nergy increase the speed of
carrying out operations and also increase the efficiency of resource use.
Labour productivity increase as less labour is required than before to
produce the same level of output. It is often observed that under
traditional agric ulture based on wooden (or iron) ploughs, bullocks and
other primitive implements, agriculture is a mere subsistence occupation
(even though the farmers might sell a portion of their produce in the
markets). Introduction of tractors, harvesters, threshers, pump sets for
irrigation etc. changes the very nature of traditional agriculture and
transforms it into a commercial occupation. This leads to an increase in
the economic surplus (the difference between total production and munotes.in
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22 consumption of agricultural out put) and, consequently, the incomes of
farmers increase. This, in turn, enables the farmers to invest more in the
land and carry our permanent improvements on i t .The use of better seeds,
more fertilizers, pesticides etc. also increases and all these fa ctors lead to an
increase in agricultural production and productivity.
Limited use of fertilizers :
The consumption of fertilizers in India was a meager 66.000
tonnes in 1952 -53. This limited use of fertilizers kept the productivity of
land at very low levels. With the adoption of the New Agricultural
Strategy in 1966, the consumption of fertilizers increased by leaps and
bounds as this strategy depended on fertilizers considerably for its success.
As a consequence of this strategy, the consump tion of fertilizers rose
considerably touching the level of 22 lakh tonnes in 1970 -71, 55 lakh
tonnes in 1980 -81and 162 lakh tonnes in 1997 -98. However, even now
the perhectare use of fertilizers in India is considerably lower as
compared with many other countries. For example, amount of fertilizers
used per hectare was only 81.8 kgs in India against 370.7 kgs. in China,
135.4 kgs in Bangladesh and 345.5 kgs in Egypt in 1995 -96. What is
more, there are substantial inter -state disparities in per hectare fert ilizer
consumption which ranged from 9.5 kg in Assam to 174.7 kg in Punjab in
1994 -95 (average for the country being 75.7 kg in that year. In fact, the
five States of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu together account for more t han half of the total fertilizer
consumption in the country. Moreover, rain fed areas which constitute 65
per cent of the cultivated area account for only about 20 per cent of
the total fertilize; consumption. All this shows that large parts of t he
country have a very low level of consumption of fertilizers and this is one
of the main reasons for their low productivity. Many regions of the
country are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorous and potash and this
deficiency can be made good by an increase d use of fertilizers.
Inadequate plant protection measures:
It has been estimated that in India monetary loss in agriculture due to
weeds, diseases, insects, nematodes, storage pests, rodents and birds runs
into about Rs. 6,000 crores per annum.9 Most of t he farmers in the
countryside were unaware of the pesticides and insecticides to manage
this problem till quite recently. As a result, the consumption of pesticides
was very low. After the adoption of the New Agricultural Strategy in the
mid- sixties, the consumption of pesticides has increased at a fairly rapid
rate. In 1995 -96, the consumption of pesticides was 73,650 tonnes.
However, the use of pesticides brings with it anumber of problems. For
example, pesticides are by their very nature poisonous and can kill non -
target organisms (including man). Moreover, after the continued use of
some pesticides for some years, the pests and insects develop resistance to
them and this leads to the use of stronger and stronger pesticides over a period
of time. Third ly, use of fertilizers and pesticides brings about
physiological changes in plants leading to multiplication and proliferation
of pests. Lastly, pesticides application needs a scientific approach and munotes.in
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23 this approach is lacking in most: of our farmer. They are not aware of the
actual quantity of toxicant needed to destroy a pest and tend to use more
quantity than is necessary. The surplus used appears as a residue that may
persist and accumulate within theecoweb.
The above discussion shows that what is requ iredis not just pest
extermination but economical utilization of pesticidal chemicals with least
ecological damages. The thrust, accordingly, has not to be on increased
use of pesticides but on Integrated Pest Management (IPM). This approach
implies the ado ption of cultural mechanical, biological and chemical
methods of pest control. The government has been adopting this approach
over the past number of years. It is on account of IPM approach adopted
by the government that the consumption of pesticides has actually come
down from82,000tonnesin 1990 -91to73,650tonnesin1995 -96.
Restricted use of high yielding varieties of seeds :
Use of quality seeds is essential for achieving higher crop production. The
traditional seeds that have been used in this country from ti mes
immemorial have low productivity. During the period of mid -1960s, high
yielding varieties of seeds for wheat were imported by the government
from abroad and the use of these seeds pushed up the levels of
productivity of wheat to new heights in India. This was the starting point of
the New Agricultural Strategy which led to, what is now known as, Green
Revolution. The High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) was launched in
the country in the kharif season of 1966. Initially it was implemented in a
total area of 1.89 million hectares. Over the years, area under this programme
has been increased in phases and in 1997 -98, it covered 76 million hectares.
However, this is only about 40 per cent of the gross cropped area. Thus, almost
60 per cent gross cropped area continues to use traditional, low productivity,
seeds. In this context, it is also pertinent to point out that the benefits of HYVP
have, by and large, remained limited to wheat growing areas. The productivity of
rice has also somewhat risen in recent years. In the case of most of the other
cereals, pulses and other crops (excepting oilseeds), the productivity levels
continue to be very low. The Economic Survey has expressed its concern on
this issue in the following words, "The seed technology breakth rough that
ushered in the green revolution in the seventies and even eighties has
unfortunately lost its momentum in nineties. There has been no perceptible
progress in evolving new seed varieties in the recent years particularly in
respect of cereals and pulses, as also fruits and vegetables. Lack of any
significant breakthrough in seed technology is perhaps one of the main reasons
for slow growth in foodgrains output during thenineties.
3.4 MEASURES TO INCREASE AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTIVITY
The causes given abo ve also suggest the measures to increase productivity. As
would be clear, such measures would have to attack the problem from
technical, institutional, social and economic angles. In particular, attempts will
have to be made in the following directions. munotes.in
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24 1) Implementation of land reforms :
Though land reforms have been introduced in India in the post - Independence
period with a view to eliminating the intermediary interests inland (especially
zamindari), providing security of tenure and ownership rights to tenants and
reorganising agriculture through land ceiling legislation, co -operative movement
and consolidation of holdings, theprogress registered is too unsatisfactory.
Therefore, special attempts will have to be made by the State governments to
implement the land reforms legislation forcefully so that the slogan ‘land to the
tiller' is translated into practice. Unless this is done, the tiller will have no
incentive to invest in land and adopt new agricultural techniques. Therefore,
land reforms are the first a nd foremostnecessity.
2) Integrated management of land and water resources:
The total geographical area of the country for which information was
available in 1989 -90 was 304.9 million hectares of whichonly 264.0
million hectares possess potential for b iotic production, of this, 'wastelands'
account for 79.5 million hectares, leaving only 184.5 million hectares.
However, even this area cannot be regarded as being in good health.
According to the land use statistics, the total extent of lands that suffer from
degradation, to a greater or less degree, is 175 million hectares. Since this
figure obviously includes wastelands, it follows that the area of lands that
are still productive but are suffering from degradation is 95.5 million
hectares (175 million he ctares minus 79.5 million hectares). Since this
area of 95.5 million hectares must necessarily be a part of the 142.2
million hectares of land that is under agriculture, it means that nearly two -
thirds of our agricultural lands are sick to some extent or a nother. This is
quite alarming. In fact, as pointed out by B.B. Vohra, of the nearly two -
thirds of our total land resources suffering from degradation, about 50 per
cent have undergone such degradation that they have, for all purposes,
ceased to be product ive. This proves the urgency of an integrated
management of our land and water resources. It is particularly important to
control soil erosion which affects around 150 million hectares out of the
country's total land area of 304.9 million hectares as it constitutes the
biggest single threat to the sustainability of ouragriculture.11
3) Extension of new agricultural strategy :
Adoption and extension of HYVP to new areas and regions is essential to
enhance agricultural productivity. This requires - (i) more use of high-
yielding varieties of seeds, (ii) more availability of fertilizers and (ii i)
judicious use of pesticides and adoption of plant protection measures.
Improved seeds can play an important role in increasing productivity. This
has been amply proved by th e experience of many countries and by the
demonstration of high- yielding varieties of wheat in Punjab, Haryana
and Western Uttar Pradesh in our own country. Therefore, more and more
farmers in more and more areas should be encouraged to use improved
seeds . Improved varietie s of seeds require heavy doses of fertilizers. In
fact, the use of fertilizers in ample quantity (especially nitrogen,
phosphorous and potash) can push up the productivity manifold. The new munotes.in
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25 varieties of seeds are more prone to the attack s of pests and insects.
Therefore, use of pesticides in judicious amounts is essential. As noted
earlier, the focus should be on Integrated PestManagement.
4) Irrigation:
Use of improved seeds and fertilizers requires proper irrigation facilities.
Irrigation can also make multiple cropping possible in a number of areas
and hence enhance productivity. Attempts in this field will have to be
undertaken in the following direction -modernizing irrigation systems in a
phased manner, better operation of existing syste ms, efficient water
management, adequate maintenance of canals and distribution systems,
detailed surveys and investigation for preparation ofnew projects,
developing a National Grid System to ensure water supply from water
surplus areas to water deficit areasetc.
5) Farm mechanization :
It is generally believed that through farm mechanization agricultural
productivity can be increased. Supporters of mechanization argue that it
results in increase in productivity of land and labour, reduction of costs,
saving of time and increase in economic surplus. However, it should be
borne in mind that all estimates of productivity include t he contribution of
machines as well as other agricultural inputs like improved seeds,
fertilizers, etc. and it is not possible to say how much of increase in
productivity is due to mechanization alone. Nonetheless, it cannot be
denied that mechanization saves labour time, which can be utilized
elsewhere.
6) Provision of credit and marketingfacilities
Use of improved varieties of seeds, fert ilizers, pesticides, insecticides,
agricultural machinery and irrigation facilities all require substantial money
resources which small farmers do not usually possess. Therefore, it is
necessary to strengthen the credit cooperative sector and free it from t he
clinches of large landowners so that it can meet the credit requirements of
small farmers. The commercial banks should be encouraged to lend more
to small farmers. Regional rural banks can play a special role in this regard.
The marketing structure also needs a reorientation to serve the small and
marginal farmers in a better way. Co -operative marketing societies should
be promoted to ensure better prices to small farmers.
7) Incentives to the producer :
Incentives to the agriculturists can go a long way in encouraging them to
increase productivity. Incentives can be in the following forms: (a)
implementing land reforms rigorously and vigorously, (b) ensuring timely
availability of agricultural inputs, (c) guaranteeing remunerative prices of
produce to the fa rmer, (d) implementing crop -insurance scheme to cover
the risk of damage to crops and other risks in agriculture, and (e) social -
recognition and conferment of Awards, merit certificates,etc. munotes.in
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26 8) Better management :
Just as industry needs skilled management for Increased productivity,
agriculture also requires better management for raising the level of
productivity. For this purpose farmers have to be educated in more
efficient use of their resources particularly land, irrigation facilities and
agricultural implem ents. A related problem is the extension of science and
technology in agriculture. This can be accomplished only if there is a vast
network of managerial staff engaged in disseminating information about
new agricultural techniques and methods of production . Other tasks of this
extension staff could be to test die suitability of social and climatic
conditions for different crops and advising the farmers on day-to-day
problems confronted by them in carrying out agriculturalactivities.
9) Agricultural Research :
Agricultural research is presently being conducted by the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research, various Agricultural Universities and other
institutions for evolving high -yielding varieties of seeds for different c rops.
Considerable success has been achieved in the case of wheat. However,
intensive efforts are required for achieving similar success in other crops.
Research should also be conducted on a substantial scale at different
regional centers for testing the quality of soil, suggesting measur es for
soil conservation and reclamation, examining the diseases affecting
different crops, improving the quality of agricultural implements, avoiding
wastage in agriculture especially damage to cropsresulting from pests,
insects,rodents, etc.
10) Emphasis on dry-land farming needed:
In India approximately 65 per cent of the cropped area is rain fed. It
accounts for 44 per cent of the food and supports 40 per cent of India's
population. It contributes 91 per cent, of the coarse cereals, 90 per cent of the
pulse s, 81 per cent of the oilseeds and 55 per cent of rice production.
However, as we shall show in the Chapter on 'New Agricultural Strategy', the
benefits of growth during the last three decades have gone mostly to areas
having assured irrigation facilities (particularly Punjab, Haryana and Western
Uttar Pradesh). Consequently, the rainfed areas have lagged considerably
behind. Risks in such areas are high because rain is undependable. Soils are
also degraded in quality and deprived of fertility. Economically, dry-land
farmers are weak with low ability to withstand risk; their holdings are small and
marginal which are unconsolidated and scattered.12
Given the above conditions, specific attempts are required to pushup the
productivity levels in dry-land farming areas. This requires an 'integrated'
approach to avoid run off of the rainfall from the area of its incidence, prevention
of soil erosion, extensive research on rainwater management, minimizing
evaporation losses through greater rain water conservation, watershe d
management, integrated nutrient management etc. Effective and efficient dry -
land farming practices can push up the productivity of coarse cereals, pulses,
rice, cotton, oilseeds and many other crops. Not only will this help in pushing
up overall producti vity levels in Indian agriculture, it will also help in 'broad -munotes.in
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Productivity of In dian
Agriculture
27 basing' agricultural development and increasing the levels of income of small
and marginal farmers.
3.5 EXERCISE
1) Explain the concept of agricultural productivity and state the various
causes of low agricultural productivity inIndia.
2) What is agricultural productivity? Explain the measures to increase
agricultural productivity in India.
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28 4
LAND AND CONSTITUENTS OF LAND
Unit Structure:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Uses of Land
4.3 Characteristics of Land
4.4 Types of soils
4.5 Exercise
4.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To understand the various uses of land.
2) To understand the characteristics of land.
3) To study the various types of soi ls in India.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Man along with all the plants and animals has been living on the surface of
this earth for years together. He has been using the soil, water -bodies,
forest, grasslands, animals, minerals etc. all related with land in various
ways for his living.
Man gets the primary needs of living like food, clothing and shelter from
the land itself. All human settlements, roads, agriculture, grazing of
domestic animals, establishment of industries etc. are done on land. It is
our most important primary naturalwealth.
https://digitalsakshar.com
Land or the surface of the earth is not a like everywhere. Natural resources
are also not equally available everywhere on the land surface. Man, too, munotes.in
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Land and Constituents of Land
29 does not uti lize land equally at all times. Land has been being equally at
all times. Land has been being used differently at different times with the
growth of civilization. The primitive man when he was living in caves of
hills, did not know anything about agricult ure.
Almost the entire land surface was covered with forests. Man in those by
gone days, used to earn his living by collecting fruits and roots from the
forests and by hunting birdsand animals. Hebegan to live at one place
permanently when he gradually be came intelligent and knew agriculture
so, human settlements, roads and various institutions were set up.
Therefore, land was mainly used for forests, pastures, farming, human
settlements and such other useful purposes.
4.2 USES OFLANDS
India is one of the lar gest countries of the world. It ranks seventh in
respect of population. The total land area of India is 32 lakh 87 thousand
square kilometers. Three major types of lands are found in India in respect
of its relief, such as, mountains, plateaus and plains. About 29% of our
total land areas are mountains, 28% plateaus and 43% plains.
The mountains include the high Himalayan mountains in the north, the
Aravalli ranges and the western Ghats in the west, the vindhyas and the
satpura range at the centre, the East ern Ghats in the east, the Agro, Khaki
and Jacinta range in the north east. The plateaus include the Chhota
Nagpur plateau, the Amarkantaka, Malawi, Karnataka and the Deccan
plateaus. The plains include the Gangetic plains in the north, the
Brahmaputra vall ey, the east and the west coastal plains and the flood
plains of different river valleys ofIndia.
About 80% of the total land area of India is utilized by man. This land
utilization of man is influenced by the relief, climate, soil as well as
man’s social and economicconditions.
According to use, lands in India are utilized as forest lands, pasture and
grazing lands, agricultural or farm lands, settlement and other such
purpose.
1) FORESTLANDS:
India was covered with dense forests in primitive ages. More an d more
lands were needed for agriculture, settlement, industry, roads etc. with the
growth of population. So man utilized land by cutting down and cleaning
the forests in order to fulfill his growing needs. Now only about 22% of
the total land area of our country is covered with forests.
The National Forest policy formulated in the year 1952 proclaims that
about 33% of the country’s total land area should be covered with forests
in order to maintain ecological balance in our environment. It will control
the country’s climate and the country will be saved to a great extent from
the ravages of flood, drought and cyclones. Therefore, there should be munotes.in
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30 forests in about 60% of lands in hilly areas and 20% of lands in theplains.
According to law, these forests are of three categories. Such as, reserved
forest, protected forests and unclassified forest. Valuable forests are taken
as the reserved forests, for which about half of the total lands under forests
have been conserved. Man gets many useful forest products fr om the
forests.
Forests play vital role in checking soil erosion, controlling flood,
increasing the amount of rainfall and creating favourable conditions in the
local climate. That is why forests are on important natural wealth of the
country. Forests of I ndia are being destroyed owing to various natural as
well as man -made courses so the extent of forests is graduallydiminishing.
In some hilly areas of the country, the Advises adopt shifting cultivation
by clearing forests. Such type of farming is known as “pod on tail’
cultivation in Orissa. At some places forests are cut down to raise farm
lands, settlements, industries, roads etc. Cattle also treat forests as their
grazing ground, thereby the seedlings and finally the forests aredestroyed.
Only 2% of th e total forest land of the world is in India. But 15% of the
total world population and 13% of the total cattle population depend on
forests. It is known as biotic pressure. Such enormous pressure is and
important reason of deforestation. Besides, floods, cyclones and land
erosion etc. also diminish the forest areas of our country.
Various projects like afforestation, social forestry, farm forestry etc. are
being worked out in order to increase the fores t area and efforts are being
made to bring more land u nder forests. Artificial forests are being raised
on waste lands in village and town areas under the social forestryscheme.
Plantations are likewise in progress bunds and plots dividing boundaries
under the Farm Forest Scheme. By means of afforestation, th e destroyed
forests of hills, mountains and plateaus are being developed and thereby
the extent and density of forests are increasing.
2) PASTURES AND GRAZINGLANDS:
There are pastures and grazing lands of about 4% of the total land area of
India. These are m ainly seen in hilly areas. We don’t have any definite
grassland areas. So pastures are almost mingled with the forests of hilly
areas and dwindled forests of the foot -hills of the Himalayan Mountains,
the Eastern and the Western Ghats and the north -eastern mountain areas.
It has been very much necessary to grow more food by adopting farming
on more and more lands owing to the growth of population and for want of
rains for about eight months a year as a result of which it is not possible to
spare definite lan d areas for grazing purposes. Himachal Pradesh has the
maximum land under pastures and grazing lands in India.
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Land and Constituents of Land
31 3) LAND FOR AGRICULTURE OR FARMLANDS:
India is primarily an agricultural country. About 55% of the total land
areas are used for growing food crops , vegetables, cash crops and fruit
food crops are grown an about 45% of land out of the total 55% under
cultivation. Vegetables and fruit are grown on the rest of the lands and
some lands are left without any cultivation occasionally.
India has more form lands according to its land area as compared with the
other countries of the world, but it is strange that the agricultural products
are less. Plains, river - valleys, flood -plains and delta areas are mostly
used for agriculture. Very limited farming is done on the plateaus and
mountain - slopes. Shifting cultivation or pod cultivation is carried on by
clearing the forest areas.
Only paddy is cultivated on about three -fourths of the total land under
food crop cultivation, as rice is the staple food of th e people in most parts
of India. Wheat is grown on less amount of land than this the area of farm
lands is increasing year after year as more people depend on agriculture.
The area of land under food crop production in 1951 has by now increased
by one and a half times. But the per capita holding of arable land has
been decreasing gradually because of rapid growth ofpopulation.
4) LAND UNDER HUMAN SETTLEMENT ETC:
About 19% of the total lands in India are being used for settlement of
villages, towns, r oads and rail - roads, airports factories and for
educational, health and administrative organizations. As per 1981 census,
there were 3,949 towns’. 557,137 villages having human settlements and
48,087 villages having no humansettlement.
A major portion of lands i s also being used in construction of roads and
rail - roads for communication among those towns utilized for
establishing industrial organizations and setting up schools, colleges,
universities, dispensaries and variousoffices.
4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LAND
The term ‘land’ in economics is often used in a wider sense. It does not
mean only the surface of the soil, but it also includes all those natural
resources which are the free gifts ofnature.
It, therefore, means all the free gifts of natu re. These natural g ifts include :
i] Rivers, forests, mountains andoceans:
ii] Heat of sun, light, climate, weather, rainfall etc. which are above the
surface ofland:
iii] Minerals under the surface of the earth such as iron, coal, copper,
water etc. According to Marshall, “By land ismea nt....materials and
forces which nature gives freely for man’s aid in land, water, air, light
and heat, “Therefore, land is a stock of free gifts of nature. munotes.in
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32 Characterist ics of Land :
Land possesses the following characteristics:
1) Free Gift ofNature:
Man has to make efforts in order to acquire other factors of production.
But to acquire land no human efforts are needed. Land is not the outcome
of human labour. Rather, it existed even long before the evolution ofman.
2) FixedQuantity:
The total quantity of land d oes not undergo any change. It is limited and
cannot be increased or decreased with human efforts. No alternation can
be made in the surface area ofland.
3) Land ispermanent:
All man -made things are perishable and these may even go out of
existence. But land is indestructible. Thus, it cannot goout.
4) Land is a Primary Factor of Production:
In any kind of production process, we have to start with land. For
example, in industries it helps to provide raw materials and in agriculture,
crops are produced on land.
5) Land is a Passive factor of Production:
This is because it cannot produce anything by it self. For example wheat
cannot grow on a piece of land automatically. To grow wheat, man has to
cultivate lan d. Labour is an active factor, but land is a passive factor of
production.
6) Land isImmovable:
It cannot be transported from one place to another. For instance, no
portion of India’s surface can be transported to some other country.
7) Land has some original IndestructiblePowers:
There are some original and indestructible p ower of land, which a man
cannot destroy Its fertility may be varied, but it cannot be destroyed
completely.
8) Land Differs inFertility:
Fertility of land differs on different pieces of land. One piece of land may
produce more than theother.
9) Supply of land i s Inelastic:
The demand for a particular commodity makes way for the supply of that
commodity, but the supply of land cannot be increased or decreased
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Land and Constituents of Land
33
10) Land has ManyUses:
We can make use of land in many ways. On Land, cultivation c an be
done, factories can be set up, roads can be constructed, buildings can be
raised and shipping is possible in the sea /rivers.
4.4 TYPES OF SOILS IN INDIA
Soil is a valuable resource of India. Much of the Indian agriculture
depends upon the extent and qua lities of soil. Weathering prepares loose
materials on the surface of the Earth and mixed with decayed organic
matters it forms soil.
India is a large country and witness’s diverse range of climatic and other
natural conditions. The nature of soil in a plac e is largely influenced by
such factors as climate, natural vegetation and rocks.
The various types of soil found in India includealluvial soil, Laterite soil,
Red soil, Black soil, Desert soil and Mountain soil. They are each
discussed below.
Major types and characteristics of soils India:
Indian soils may be divided into six major types based on their character
and origin:
1) Alluvial soil: Materials deposited by rivers, winds, glaciers nd sea
waves are called alluvium and soils made up of alluvium are alluvial soils. In
India alluvial soils are mainly found on the Indo- Ganga Brahmaputra
Plains, Coastal Plains and the broad river valleys of South India. They are
also found along the river basins of some plateau and mountain regions.
In the Indo-Ganga plain two other types of alluvium are found. The old
alluviums are clayey and sticky, have a darker color, contain nodules of lime
concretions and are found to lie on slightly elevated lands. The new
alluviums are lighter in color and occur in the deltas and the flood plains.
In comparison to old alluvial soil, the new alluvial soils are very fertile. The
alluvial soil is regarded as the best soil of India for its high fertility and the
rich harvest, it gives rice, wheat, sugarcane, jute oil - seeds and pulses are
the main crops grown on this soil.
The alluvial soil is spread all over the plains of north India. They are also
found in the four delta regions of the south. Strips of alluvium occur along
rivers in the plateau as well as in the mountains.
Alluviums are mainly loams, i.e. mixtures of sand and clay. New alluvial
loams are very fertile. In the younger stage of the riverine plains, sandy soils
are more common. While in the beds of the rivers, it consists generally of
pure sands. These soils cannot retain water . 'Zaid' types of crops grow here,
such as watermelons. Near the river mouths, the soil is usually clay. It
retains water but does not allow rootgrowth. munotes.in
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34 2) Laterite and Lateritic soils: Laterite is a kind of clayey rock or soil
formed under high temperature and high rainfall. By further modification
laterite is converted into red colored lateritic soils charged with iron
nodules. Laterite and lateritic soils are found in South Maharashtra, the
Western Ghats in Kerala and Karnataka, at places on the Easter n Ghat, in
some parts of Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and in western West Bengal
(particularly in Birbhum district). These soils are generally infertile. Some
plants like tea, coffee, coconut, areca nut, etc. are grown in this soil.
Laterite soils in India are found in the Eastern Ghat of Orissa, the Southern
parts of Western Ghat, Malabar Coastal plains and Ratnagiri of
Maharashtra and some part of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Meghalaya, western part of West Bengal.
Laterite soils are said to farr aginous aluminous rock. They are formed by
decomposition; because of they are found in black soil regions having heavy
rainfall. The rocks are completely leached out having a high proportion of
iron and aluminium as residue. High temperature and heavy rainf all
transformed the black soil into laterite.
3) Red Soils: Red soils develop on granite and gneisses rocks under low
rainfall condition. The dissemination of red oxides of iron gives the
characteristic red color of the soil. These soils are friable and medium fertile
and found mainly in almost whole of Tamil Nadu, South -eastern Karnataka,
North -eastern and South -eastern Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, the major parts
of Orissa, and the Hills and Plateaus of North -east India. But these have
capacity to grow good crops after taking help of irrigation and fertilizers.
Wheat, rice, millets, gram, pulses, oil -seeds and cotton are cultivated here.
Red soils are formed by weathering of the ancient crystalline and
metamorphic rocks. Their color is red due to their very h igh iron content.
They are found in areas of low rainfall and is obviously less leached than
laterite soils. They are sandier and less clayey soils.
Red Soil in India are poor in phosphorus, nitrogen and lime contents. The
red soils covers a large portion of land in India. It is found in Indian States
such as Tamil Nadu, southern Karnataka, north -eastern Andhra Pradesh
and some parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
4) Black Soils or Regur soils: The Reguror black soils have developed
extensively up on the Lava Plateaus of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
mainly Malwa. Black soils have also developed on gneisses of north
Karnataka and north and west of Andhra Pradesh. The R eguris clayey,
becomes very sticky when wet.Its special merit lies in its water holding
capacity. These soils are very fertile and contain a high percentage of lime
and a moderate amount of potash. The type of soil is especially suited to the
cultivation of cotton and hence sometimes called 'black cotton soil'.
Sugarcane, wheat, and groundnut are also cultivated.
5) Desert soil: The soils ofRajasthan, Haryana and the South Punjab are
sandy. In the absence of sufficient wash by rain water soils have become
saline and rather unfit for cultivation. In spite of that cultivation can be munotes.in
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Land and Constituents of Land
35 carried on with the help of modern irrigation. Wheat, bajra, groundnut, etc.
can be grown in thissoil.
The Great Indian Desert (also Thar Desert, Rajasthan plains):
The extends through the Jaisalmer, Bikanir, Jodhpur, Barmer districts of
India and Khairpur, Bahawalpur districts of Pakistan. The area of the
Great Indian Desert is more than two lakh square kilometers.
Located to the south -west of north Indian plain and to the west of
Aravalli Mountain the region is also known as Rajasthan plain.
6) Mountain soil: Soils are varied in mountains. Alluvium is found at the
valley floor, brown soil, rich in organic ma tter, in an altitudinalzone lying
between about 700-1800 m. Further up podzol soils, grey in color and acidic
in reaction, are found associated with coniferou s vegetation. In the Alpine
forest belts the soils are thin and darker in color. This type of soil is suitable
for the cultivation of potatoes, fruits, tea, coffee and spices andwheat.
The mountain soils are mainly found in Jarnmu and Kashmir, U.P., West
Bengal, in the Himalayas submontane tracts. The Himalayas, the North -
eastern Hills, and other mountains and hills in India show a variety of soils.
In the drier areas of deciduous forest belt, brown soils are found. They are
rich in humus and deep. They are very good for orchard crops. In
coniferous forest belts in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, etc., brown forest soils called Podzol are found. These
soils grow maize,barley, wheat and fruits. In the Alpine Zone of the
Himalayas lie Alpine Meadow soils.
Good crops of paddy, wheat, soybean and even sugarcane are grown in
mountain soils.
4.5 EXERCISE
1) Explain the various uses ofland.
2) Discuss the characteristics ofland.
3) Describe the various types of soilIndia
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36 5
SOIL EROSION
Unit Structure:
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Physical Process
5.3 Factors affecting Soil Erosion
5.4 Human activities that increase Soil Erosion
5.5 Global Environmental Effects
5.6 Remedial on Soil Erosion
5.7 Exercise
5.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To study the concept of soil Erosion.
2) To understand the various factors affecting on soil Erosion.
3) To study the impact of soil erosion onEnvironment.
4) To underst and the various remedial measures on soilerosion.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation. Soil erosion is a naturally
occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are water and
wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year. Soil
erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed or it may
occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil
from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential,
lower surface water quality and damaged drainagenetworks.
While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10 -
40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive (or
accelerated) erosion causes both ‘on -site’ and ‘off - site’ problems. On -site
impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural
landscapes) ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient -rich
upper soil layers. In some cases, the eventual end result is desertification.
Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of
water bodies, as well as sediment -related damage to roads and houses.
Water and winderosion are the two primary causes of land degradation;
combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of
degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant munotes.in
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Soil Erosion
37 environmental problems world -wide. Intensive agriculture, d eforestation,
roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the
most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating
erosion.[3] However, there are many prevention and remediation practices
that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils.
5.2 PHYSICALPROCESSES
1) Rainfall and surface run-off:
Rainfall and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces
four main types of soil erosion: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion,
and gully erosion. Splash e rosion is generally seen as the first and least
severe stage in the soil erosion process, which is followed by sheet
erosion, then ri l l erosion and finally gully erosion.
In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in
the s oil, ejecting soil particles. The distance these soil particles travel can
be as much as 0.6 m (two feet) vertically and 1.5 in (five feet) horizontal
on levelaround.
https://www.usgs.gov
Soil and water being splashed by the impact of a single raindrop
If the soil is saturated or if the rainfall rate is greater than the rate at which
water can infiltrate into the soil, surface run -off occurs. If the run-off has
sufficient flow energy, it will transport loosened soil particles (sediment)
down the slope. Sheet erosion is the transport soil particles by
overland flow.
Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated
flow paths which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery
systems for erosion on hillslopes.
Generally, wh ere water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are
greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills arc typically of the order of a
few centimeters (about an inch) or less and along - channel slopes may be
quite steep. This means that rills exhibit hydra ulic physics very different
from water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and
rivers. munotes.in
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38
A spoil up covered in rills and gullies due to erosion processes caused
by rainfall :Rammu. Estonia
Gully erosion occurs when run -off water accumulat es and rapidly flows in
narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow,
removing soil to a considerable depth.
2) Rivers and streams:
Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear
feature. The erosion is bot h downward, deepening thevalley and headward,
extending the valley into the hillside, creating head cuts and steep banks. In
the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly
vertical, the valley have a typical V cross -section and th e stream gradient is
relatively steep. When some base level is reached, the erosive activity
switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and creates a
narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral
deposition of sed iments becomes important as the stream meanders across
the valley floor. In all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion
occurs during times of flood, when more and faster -moving water is available
to carry a larger sediment load. In such processe s.It is not the water alone that
erodes: suspended abrasive particles, pebbles and boulders can also act
erosively as they traverse a surface, in a process known astraction.
Bunk erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. This is
distin guished from changes on the bed of the watercourse, which is
referred to as scour. Erosion and changes in the form of river banks may be
measured by inserting metal rods into the bank and marking the position of
the bank surface along the rods at different times.
Thermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to
moving water. It can occur both along rivers and at the coast. Rapid river
channel migration observed in the Lena River of Siberia is due to thermal
erosion, as these portions of the banks are composed of permafrost -
cemented non -cohesive materials.[15] Much of this erosion occurs as the
weakened banks fail in large slumps. Thermal erosion also affects the
Arctic coast, where wave action and near -shore temperatures combine to
unde rcutpermafrost bluffs along the shoreline and cause them to fail.
Annual erosion rates along a 100 -kilometre (62 -mile) segment of the
Beaufort Sea shoreline averaged 5.6 meters (18 feet) per year from 1955
to 2002.
3) Floods:
At extremely high flows, kolks or vortices are formed by large volumes of
rapidly rushing water. Kolks cause extreme local erosion, plucking
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Soil Erosion
39 bedrock and creating pothole -type geographical features called Rock -cut
basins. Examples can be seen in the flood regions result from glacial Lake
Missoula, which created the channeledscablands inthe Columbia Basin
region of eastern Washington.
4) Wind erosion:
Wind erosion is a major geomorphological force, especially in arid and
semi -arid regions. It is also a major source of land degradation,
evapor ation, desertification, harmful airborne dust and crop damage
especially after being increased far above natural rates by human activities
such as deforestation, urbanization and agriculture.
www.omafra.gov.on.ca
Arbol de Piedra, a rock formation in the Altiplano. Bolivia sculpted
by wind erosion.
Wind erosion is of two primary varieties: deflation, where the wind picks
up and carries away loose particles; and abrasion, where surfaces are worn
down as they are struck by airborne particles carried by wind. Deflation is
divided into three categories: (1) surface creep, where larger, heavier
particles slide or roll along the ground; (2) saltation, where particles are
lifted a short height into the air, and bounce and salt ate across the surface
of the soil; and (3) suspension, where very small and light particles arc lifted
into the air by the wind and are often carried for longdistances.
Saltation is responsible for the majority (50 -70%) of wind erosion,
followed by suspension (30 -40%), and then surface cree p (5-25%).
Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of
drought. For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due
to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years
than in wetyears.
5.3 FACTORS AFFE CTING SOILEROSION
Climate:
The amount and intensity of precipitation is the main climatic factor
governing soil erosion by water. The relationship is particularly strong if
heavy rainfall occurs at times when, or in locations where, the soil's munotes.in
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40 surface is not well protected by vegetation. This might be during periods
when agricultural activities leave the soil bare, or in semi -arid regions
where vegetation is naturally sparse. Wind erosion requires strong
winds, particularly during times of drought when vegetation is sparse
and soil is dry (and so is more erodible). Other climatic factors such as
average temperature and temperature range may also affect erosion, via
their effects on vegetation and soil properties. In general, given similar
vegetation and ecosystems, areas more precipitation (especially high -
intensity rainfall), more wind, or morestorms are expected to have
moreerosion.
In some areas of the world (e.g. the mid-western USA), rainfall intensity
is the primary determinant of erosivity, with hi gher intensity rainfall
generally resulting in more soil erosion by water. The size and velocity of
rain drops is also an important factor. Larger and higher -velocity rain
drops have greater kinetic energy, and thus their impact will displace soil
particle s by larger distances than smaller, slower -movingraindrops.
In other regions of the world (e.g. Western Europe), run -off and erosion
result from relatively low intensities of strati form rainfall falling onto
previously saturated soil. In such situations, rainfall amount rather than
intensity is the main factor determining the severity of soil erosion
bywater.
2) Soil structure and composition
The composition, moisture and compaction of soil are a l l major factors in
determining the erosivity of rainfall. Sed iments containing more clay tend
to be more resistant to erosion than those with sand or silt, because the
clay helps bind soil particles together. Soil containing high levels of
organic materials are often more resistant to erosion, because the organic
materials coagulate soil colloids and create a stronger, more stable soil
structure. The amount of water present in the soil before the precipitation
also plays an important role, because it sets limits on the amount of water
that can be absorbed by the soil (and hence prevented from flowing on the
surface as erosive run -off). Wet, saturated soils will not be able to absorb
as much rainwater, leading to higher levels of surface run -off and thus
highererosivity for a given volume of rainfall. Soil compact ion also
affects the permeability of the soil to water, and hence the amount of
water that flows away as run-off. More compacted soil willhave
alarger amountof surfacerun -offthanlesscompacted soils.
3) Vegetativecover
Vegetation acts as an interface between the atmosphere and the soil. It
increases the permeability of the soil to rainwater, thus decreasing run -off.
It shelters the soil from winds, which results in decreased wind erosion, as
well as advantageous changes in microclimate. The roots of the plants
bind the soil together and interweave with other roots, forming a more
solid mass that is less susceptible to both water and wind erosion. The
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41 4) Topography
The topography of the land determines the ve locity at which surface run -
off will flow, which in turn determines the erosivity of the run -off. Longer,
steeper slopes (especially those without adequate vegetative cover) are
more susceptible to very high rates of erosion during heavy rains than
shorter, less steep slopes. Steeper terrain is also more prone to mudslides,
landslides and other forms of gravitational erosion processes.
5.4 HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT INCREASE SOIL
EROSION
1) Agricultural practices:
Unsustainable agricultural practices are the single grea test contributor to
the global increase in erosion rates. The tillage of agricultural lands, which
breaks up soil into finer particles, is one of the primary factors. The
problem has been exacerbated in modern times, due to mechanized
agricultural equipmen t that allows for deep plowing, which severely
increases the amount of soil that is available for transport by water
erosion. Others include mono - cropping, farming on steep slopes, pesticide
and chemical fertilizer usage (which kill organisms that bind soil together),
row-cropping and the use of surface irrigation. A complex overall situation
with respect to defining nutrient losses from soils, could arise as a result of
the size selective nature of soil erosion events. Loss of total phosphorus,
for instanc e, in the finer eroded fraction is greater relative to the whole
soil. Extrapolating this evidence to predict subsequent behaviour within
receiving aquatic systems, the reason is that this more easily transported
material may support a lower solution conce ntration compared to coarser
sized fractions.[39]Tillage also increases wind erosion rates, by dehydrating
the soil and breaking it up into smaller particles that can be picked up by
the wind. Exacerbating this is the fact that most of the trees are genera lly
removed from agricultural fields, allowing winds to have long, open runs
to travel over at higher speeds. Heavy grazing reduces vegetative cover
and causes severe soil compaction, both of which increase erosionrates.
2) Deforestation :
In an undisturbed fo rest, the mineral soil is protected by a layer of leaf
litter and humusthat cover the forest floor. These two layers form a
protective mat over the soil that absorbs the impact of rain drops. They are
porous and highly permeable to rainfall, and allow rain water to slow
percolate into the soil below, instead of (lowing over the surface as run -
off. The roots of the trees and plants hold together soil particles, preventing
them from being washed away. The vegetative cover acts to reduce the
velocity of the ra indrops that strike the foliage and stems before hitting the
ground, reducing their kinetic energy. However, it is the forest floor, more
than the canopy, that prevents surface erosion. The terminal velocity of rain
drops is reached in about 8 metres (26 f eet). Because forest canopies are
usually higher than this, rain drops can often regain terminal velocity even
after striking the canopy. However, the intact forest floor, with its layers munotes.in
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42 of leaf litter and organic matter, is still able to absorb the impac t of
therainfall.
Deforestation causes increased erosion rates due to exposure of mineral
soil by removing the humus and litter layers from the soil surface, removing
the vegetative cover that binds soil together and causing heavy soil
compaction from loggi ng equipment. Once trees have been removed by fire
or logging, infiltration rates become high and erosion low to the degree the
forest floor remains intact. Severe fires can lead to significant further
erosion if followed by heavyrainfall.
Globally one of the largest contributors to erosive soil loss in the year
2006 is the slash and burn treatment of tropical forests. In a number of
regions of the earth, entire sectors of a country have been rendered
unproductive. For example, on the Madagascar high centr al plateau,
comprising approximate ten percent of that country's land area, virtually
the entire landscape is sterile of vegetation, with gully erosive furrows
typically in excess of 50 metres (160 ft) deep and 1 kilometre (0.6 miles)
wide. Shifting culti vation is a farming system which sometimes
incorporates the slash and burn method in some regions of the world. This
degrades the soil and causes the soil to become less and lessfertile.
3) Roads and urbanization :
Urbanization has major effects on erosion pro cesses. First by denuding
the land of vegetative cover, altering drainage patterns, and compacting
the soil during construction; and next by covering the land in an
impermeable layer of asphalt or concrete that increases the amount of
surface run-off and increases surface wind speeds. Much of the sediment
carried in runoff from urban areas (especially roads) is highly
contaminated with fuel, oil and other chemicals. This increased run -off, in
addition to eroding and degrading the land that it flows over, also causes
major disruption to surrounding watersheds by altering the volume and
rate of water that flows through them and filling them with chemically
polluted sedimentation. The increased flow of water through local water
ways also causes a large incre ase in the rate of bank erosion.
4) Climate change :
The warmer atmospheric temperatures observed over the past decades arc
expected to lead to a more vigorous hydrological cycle, including more
extreme rainfall events. The rise in sea levels that has occurre d as a result
of climate change has also greatly increased coastal erosionrates.
Studies on soil erosion suggest that increased rainfall amounts and
intensities will lead to greater rates of soil erosion. Thus, if rainfall
amounts and intensities increase in many parts of the world as expected,
erosion will also increase, unless amelioration measures are taken. Soil
erosion rates are expected to change in response to changes in climate for a
variety of reasons. The most direct is the change in the erosive p ower of
rainfall. Other reasons include: a) changes in plant canopy caused by
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43 changes in litter cover on the ground caused by changes in both plant
residue decomposition rates driven by temperature and moisture
dependent soil microbial activity as well as plant biomass production
rates; c) changes in soil moisture due to shifting precipitation regimes
and evapo -transpiration rates, which changes infiltration and run-off
ratios; d) soil erodibility changes due to decrease in soil organic matter
concentrations in soils that lead to a soil structure that is more
susceptible to erosion and increased run -off due to increased soil surface
scaling and crusting: e) a shift of winter precipitation from non-erosive
snow to erosive rainfall due to increasing winter temperatures: f)
melting of permafrost, which induces an erodible soil state from a
previously non -erodible one; and g) shifts in land use made necessary to
accommodate new climatic regimes.
Studies by Pruski and Nearing indicated that, other factors such as land
use unconsidered, it is reasonable to expect approximately a 1.7% change
in soil erosion for each 1% change in total precipitation under
climate change.
5.5 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTALEF FECTS
Due to the severity of its ecological effects and the scale on which it is
occurrin g, erosion const itutes one of the most significant global
environmental problems we facetoday.
1) Land degradation :
Water and wind erosion are now the two primary cau ses of land
degradation; combined, they are responsible for 84% of degraded acreage.
Each year, about 75 billion tons of soil is eroded from the land -a rate that
is about 13 -40 times as fast as the natural rate of erosion. Approximately
40% of the world' s agricultural land is seriouslydegraded.
According to the United Nations, an area of fertile soil the size of
Ukraine is lost everyyear because of drought, depreciation and climate
change. In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue the
continent might be able to feed just 25% of i tspopulation by 2025,
according to UNU's Ghana -based Institute for Natural Resources inAfrica.
The loss of soil fertility due to erosion is further problematic because the
response is often to apply chemical ferti lizers, which lead to further water
and soil pollution, rather than to allow the land to regenerate.
2) Sedimentation of aquatic ecosystems:
Soil erosion (especially from agricultural activity) is considered to be the
leading global cause ofdiffuse water poll ution, the excess sediments
flowing into the world's waterways. The sediments themselves act as
pollutants, as well as being carriers for other pollutants, such as attached
pesticide molecules or heavymetals.
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44 The effect of increased sediments loads on a quatic ecosystems canshe
catastrophic. Silt can smother the spawning beds of fish, by filling in the
space between gravel on the stream bed. It also reduces their food supply
and causes major respiratory issues for them as sediment enters their gills.
The biodiversity of aquatic plant and algal life is reduced and invertebrates
arc also unable to survive and reproduce. While the sedimentation event
itself might be relatively short -lived, the ecological disruption caused by
the mass die off often persists lo ng into thefuture.
One of the most serious and long -running water erosion problems
worldwide is in the People’s Republic of China, on the middle reaches of
the Yellow River and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, from the
Yellow River, over 1.6 billion tons of sediment flows into the ocean each
year. The sediment originates primarily from water erosion in the Loess
Plateau region of the northwest.
3) Airborne dust pollution:
Soil particles picked up during wind erosion of soil are a major source of
air pol lution, in the form of airborne participates - ‘dust’. These airborne
soil particles are often contaminated with toxic chemical such as pesticides
or petroleum fuels, posing ecological and public health hazards when they
later land or are inhaled /ingested.
Dust from erosion acts to suppress rainfall and changes the sky color from
blue to white. Which leads to an increase in red sunsets? Dust events have
been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean
and Florida, primarily since t he 1970s.[67] Similar dust plumes originate in
the Gobi desert, which combined with pollutants, spread large distances
downwind or eastward, i nto North America.
5.6 REMEDIAL ON SOIL EROSION
Surface cover is a major factor to control erosion because it reduces the
impact of raindrops falling on bare soils and wind removing soil particles. It
also reduces the speed of water flowing over the land. Erosion risk is
significantly reduced when there is more than 30% soil cover. Total cover is
achievable for many grazi ng and cropping systems. Run-off concentrates as it
flows downslope. By the time rivers draining large catchments reach the
coast, they are usually just a few hundred meters wide. Even though surface
cover encourages run -off to spread, run-off concentration is inevitable. Co -
ordination across the catchment is important when implementing run -off
control measures. Run -off may pass through several properties and cross
several roads (sometimes railway lines) as it passes fromthe most remote part
of a catchment t o a major drainage line or creek.
1. Keep soil covered year -round: Bare soil is far more vulnerable to
erosion than soil with ground cover. Aim for atleast30% ground cover
on all grazing land, ideally 40% or more.[8] After harvesting crops,
leave the residue on the soil as a mulch or plant hardy winter crops.
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45 2. Plant trees to prevent landslides: Tree roots are powerful tools when
soil is too eroded or steep to plant. Plant native trees on steep slopes
and riverbanks to reduce soil loss. Bare ground around the t ress still
needs to be covered in mulch or grass for bestresults.
3. Reduce tillage : Deep, frequent tillage creates a layer of compact soil
vulnerable to water erosion, topped by loose soil easily removed by
wind.[10][11]Consider a zero -tillage approach usi ng a coulter or other
deep planting device.[12]If this is not feasible, trya
4. ridge -till or mulch -till system that leaves the lower soil levels
untouched. These conservation tillage techniques also reduce the
amount of vehicle traffic and therefore soil co mpaction.
5. Protect weak crops with strip cropping: Crops with weak roots or
that need to be sparsely planted are more vulnerable to erosion. Plant
these in strips, alternating with strips of an erosion - resistant crop such
as dense grass or legumes. Plant the crops so they contour the slope.
Plant these crops perpendicular to the prevailing wind if possible.
6. Practice wet season spelling: Grazing land cannot remain healthy and
erosion -resistant if cattle are allowed to graze year - round. For best
results, c lose off a paddock for the entire wet season to allow grasses
to reestablish themselves. This may not be effective if the other
paddocks cannot support the spelled cattle. If possible, keep cattle
away from riverbanks and heavily eroded soil at alltimes.
7. Control downhill run -off with flume : Run-off concentrated into a
narrower area as it travels across lands. The points where the
concentrated run -off reaches a slope are particularly vulnerable to
erosion. Build a paved flume or lined channel, to lead the water to a
safe drainage system. Build these at gully heads aswell.
8. Plant grass and shrubs : Plant roots hold the soil together, while their
leaves lessen damage caused by rain. Turf, ornamental grass, and low,
spreading shrubs work best, since they leave no areas of bare soil.
These have a good chance of controlling erosion by themselves, as
long as the ground grade is less than 3:1 (3 units horizontal for each 1
unit rise). For steeper slopes, see below for additional work.
9. Add mulch or rocks : Use these to cover any remaining patches of
bare soil. Plant -matter mulch such as grass clippings or bark chips are
especially effective.[3]These will also protect grass seeds and young
plants from animals and water run -off, giving them time to grow.
Mulch deterior ates over time, but ideally the soil should no longer
need protection by the time it does. You may want to reapply mulch
anyway, if your plant varieties and climate requireit.
10. Use mulch matting to hold vegetation on slopes: Fiber mulch mats
or erosion con trol mats are a layer of mulch held together in a fiber munotes.in
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46 mesh. This structure holds them together in areas where normal mulch
would be washed or blown away. After planting vegetation, lay these
over sloped ground, with a grade between 3:1 and 2:1. In areas with
heavy wind or water, use liquid mulch binder to keep the mulch on
theground.
11. Build retaining walls or terraces for steep slopes: Eroding slopes
with a 2:1 grade or steeper rarely support vegetation. Build a retaining
wall to slow erosion while the ve getation takes hold. Give the wall a
roughly 2% slope direct water flow. Tall hills can be transformed into
terraces with several walls and soil grading. You may build the wall
from concrete blocks, rock or wood. Only use wood treated with a
preservative to prevent rot. Use retaining walls around flowerbeds and
other raised soil areas as well. You may need local government
approval to build these structures.
12. Improve drainage: All buildings should have gutters or pipes that can
drain water effectively out of your garden and into water collection
systems. Without adequate drainage, heavy rain could potentially wash
away a whole layer of topsoil. Areas with heavy water run -off may
require installing an underground perforated drainage pipe.
13. Reduce watering i f possible: Over -watering your garden can speed
up erosion. Consider a less frequent watering schedule or install a drip
irrigation system to reduce the amount of waterrunoff.
14. Avoid soil compaction: Foot and vehicle traffic compresses soil,
making it less porous and more vulnerable to water run -off. Take steps
to minimize this effect. Establish permanent walkways with paving
stones, stepping stones, or clearedpaths.
Water erosion and surface water run-off are problematic. One of the main
causes of soil erosion is water erosion, which is the loss of topsoil due to water.
Removal of vegetation is another cause or soil erosion and so is the removal of
keystone species such as elephants from an area, when they are unable to fulfill
their niche in the local ecology.
5.7 EXERCISE
1) Explain the concept of soil erosion and state the various factors
affecting on soilerosion.
2) State the various causes and consequences of soilerosion.
3) Suggest some remedial measures an soil erosion in ruralarea.
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47 6
ACQUISITION OF LAND
Unit Structure:
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Purpose of landacquisition
6.3 Issues of landacquisition
6.4 Consequences of landacquisition
6.5 Proposed amendments
6.6 Alternatives for landacquisition
6.7 Exercise
6.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To understand the concept and purpose of Landacquisition.
2) To study the variousissues and consequence s of landacquisition.
3) To understand proposed amendments and alternative for land acquisition.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Land acquisition in India refers to the process by which the Union or a
State Government in India acquires private land for the purpose of
industrialization, development of infrastructural facilities or urbanization of
the private land and provides compensation to the affected land owners and
their rehabilitation and resettlement.
Land acquisition in India is governed by the Right to Fair Compensation and
Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013
(LARR) and which came into force from 1 January 2014. Till 2013, land
acquisition in India was governed by Land Acquisition Act of 1894. On 31
December 2014, the President of India promulgated an ordinance with an
official mandate to "meet the twin objectives of farmer welfare; along with
expeditiously meeting the strategic and developmental needs of the country".
Anamendment bill was then introduced in Parliament to endorse the
Ordinance. LokSabha passed the bill but the same is still lying for passage
by the Rajya Sabha. On 30 May 2015. President of India promulgated the
amendment ordinance for third time. Union Government of India has also
made and notified the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in
Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Rules, 2014 under the Act to
regulate the procedure. The land acquisition in Jammu and Kashmir is
governed by the Jammu and Kas hmir Land Acquisition Act,1934.
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48 6.2 PURPOSE OF LANDACQUISITION
As per the Act, the Union or State Governments can acquire lands for its
own use, hold and control including for public sector undertakings and for
‘public purpose’, and shall include the follow ing purposes :
1. For strategic purposes relating to naval, military, air force and armed
forces of the Union, including central paramilitary forces or any work
vital to national security or defense of India or State police, safety of
thepeople;
2. For infra structure projects as defined under theAct;
3. Project for project affectedfamilies;
4. Project for housing for such income groups, as may be specified from
time to time by the appropriateGovernment;
5. Project for planned development or the improvement of village sites or
any site in the urban areas or provision of land for residential purposes
for the weaker sections in rural and urban areas;
6. Project for residential purposes to the poor or landless or to persons
residing in areas affected by natural calamities or to persons displaced
or affected by reason of the implementation of any scheme undertaken
by the Government, any local authority or a corporation owned or
controlled by the State. The land can be acquired for private bodies for
certainpurposes:
https:// theleaflet.in
7. For public private partnership projects, where the ownership of the
land continues to vest with the Government, for public purpose as
defined in theAct;
8. For private companies for publicpurpose.
6.3 ISSUES OF LAND ACQUISITION
Some of the importan t issues surrounding the Land Acquisition are
discussed below. The major land acquisition and conflicts happen in the
densely populated areasof the countryside.
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49 6.3.1 Eminent Domain:
The power to take property from the individual is rooted inthe idea of
eminen t domain. The doctrine of eminent domain states, the sovereign can
do anything, if the act of sovereign involves public interest. The doctrine
empowers the sovereigntoacquire private land for a public use, provided
the public nature of the usage can be dem onstrated beyond doubt. The
doctrine is based on the following two Latin maxims - 1)
Saluspopuli supremalex (Welfare of the People Is the Paramount Law) and
2) Neces sitaspublica major est quam (Public Necessity Is Greater Than
Private Necessity). In the hist ory of modern India, this doctrine was
challenged twice once when land reform was initiated and another time
when Banks were nationalized.
The Constitution of India originally provided the right to property (which
includes land) under Articles 19 and 31. Ar ticle 19 guaranteed that all
citizens have the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property. Article 31
stated that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority
of law." It also indicated that compensation would be paid to a person
whos e property has been taken for public purposes.
In India, with this introduction of 'social' elements to the property rights, a
new phase had begun. K. K. Mathew, justice of Kesavananda Bharativs
State of Kerala stated this precisely: "Property in consumable goods or
means of production worked by their owners were justified as necessary
condition of a free and purposeful life; but when property gave power not
only over things but through things over persons also, it was not justified as it
was an instrument of servitude rather thanfreedom."
6.3.2 Legislative changes :
The 2013 Act focuses on providing not only compensation to the land
owners, but also extend rehabilitation and resettlement benefits to
livelihood looser from the land, which shall be in addition to the minimum
compensation. The minimum compensation tobe paid to the land owners is
based on a multiple of market value and other factors laid down in the Act.
The Act forbids or regulates land acquisition when such acquisition would
include multi -crop irrigat ed area. The Act changed the norms for
acquisition of land for use by private companies or in case of public -private
partnerships, including compulsory approval of 80% of the landowners. The
Act also introduced changes in the land acquisition process, incl uding a
compulsory social -impact study, which needs to be conducted before an
acquisition ismade.
The new law also has some serious shortcomings as regards its provisions
for socio -economic impact assessment and it has also bypassed the
constitutional local self-governments by not recognizing them as ‘appropriate
governments’ in matters of land acquisition.
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50 6.3.3 Monetary compensation:
Major Indian infrastructure projects such as the Yamuna Expressway have
paid about INR 2800 crores (US$500 million) forland or ov er US$25,000
per acre between 2007 and 2009. For context purposes, this may be
compared with land prices elsewhere in the world:
According to The Financial Times, in 2008, the farmland prices in
France were Euro 6,000 per hectare ($2,430 per acre; IN Rs. 1,09,350 per
acre).
According to the United States Department of Agriculture, as of
January 2010, the average farmland value in the United States was
$2140 peracre (INRs. 96,300 peracre). The farm land prices in the
United States varied between different parts of the country, ranging
between $480 per acre to $4,690 per acre.
A 2010 report by the Government of India, on labor whose livelihood
depends on agricultural land, claims that, per 2009 data collected across all
States in India, the all-India annual average daily wage rates in agricultural
occupations ranged between IN Rs. 53 to 117 per day for men working in
farms US$354 to 780 per year), and between IN Rs. 41 to 72 per day for
women working in farms (US$274 to 480 per year). This wage rate in rural
India study included the following agricultural operations common in India:
ploughing, sowing, weeding, transplanting, harvesting, winnowing,
threshing, picking, herdsmen, tractor driver, unskilled help, masonry, etc.
The compensation for the acquired land is based on the value of the
agricultural land; however price increases have been ignored. The land value
would increase many times, which the current buyer would not benefit from.
Secondly, if the prices are left for the market to determine, the small
peasants could ne ver influence the big corporate tycoons. Also it is mostly
judiciary who has awarded higher compensation thenbureaucracy.
6.3.4 Delayedprojects
Delayed projects due to mass unrest have caused a damaging effect to the
growth and development of companies and the economy as a whole. Earlier
States like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh had
been an attractive place for investors, but the present day revolts have shown
that land acquisition in some States poseproblems.
6.4 CONSEQUENCES OF LANDACQUISIT ION
The consequences of land acquisition in India are manifold. The empirical
and theoretical studies on displacement through the acquisition of land by
the government for development projects have so far focused on the direct
and immediate adverse conseque ncesof land acquisition. Most of the
analytical as well as the descriptive accounts of the immediate
consequences of landacquisition for development projects draws heavily
from Michael Cernea's ' impoverishment risk model’, which broadly
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51 displacement. These eight risks are VERY much direct and basic in
nature which are- i) landlessness, ii) Joblessness. iii) marginalization iv) loss
of access to common property resources, v) increased morbidity and
mortality, vi) food insecurity, vii) homelessness and viii) social
disarticulation . Recently L.K. Mahapatra has added 'loss of education’ as
another impoverishment risk in situations of displacement.
But apart from these direct and immediate effects of land acquisition there
are more subtle and indirect effects of this coercive and centralized legal
procedure, which have a bearing on various decentralized and participatory
democratic processes and institutions of the State power. Land reforms and
the Panchay atiraj institutions are the two most important areas, which are
being vitiated by land acquisition. Of all the States of India, the
consequences and controversies around land acquisition in West Bengal has
recently gained a lot of national and internatio nal attention. The peasant
resistances against governmental land expropriation in Singur (a place in
the Hoogly district) and Nandigram (a place in the East Medinipur district)
has finally led to the fall of the Communist Party (Marxist) led
government in Wes t Bengal, which ruled theState through democratic
election for 34 years. The Communist led left front government of West
Bengal under the economic liberalization policy adopted by the Central
Union government of the country shifted from its pro -farmer policy and
took to the capitalist path of industrial development, which at the micro -
levels endangered the food security of the small and marginal farmers as
well as sharecroppers who formed the vote bank of the Left Front
Government of West Bengal. The new anti-Communist Trinamul Congress
led government of West Bengal which came to power in the State in 2011
through a massive electoral victory is yet to develop any comprehensive
resettlement and rehabilitation policy for the thousands of families affected
by various development projects. The new government has enacted a law on
14 June 2011, in the West Bengal Assembly named 'Singur Land
Rehabilitation and Development Act, 2011 '. With this law, the West Bengal
government has reacquired Narmada was planned on acquired land, though
the project was later cancellled by the World Bank.
The Land Acquisition Act of 1894 allowed the government to acquire
private lands. It is the only legislation pertaining to land acquisition which,
though amended several times, has failed to serve its purpose. Under the
1894 Act, displaced people were only liable for monetary compensation
linked with market value of the land in question, which was still quite
minimal considering circle rates are often misleading.
6.5 PROPOSED AMENDMENTS
The current Narendra Modi lead National Democratic Alliance (India)
government driven Land Acquisition Amendment Bill in the Lok Sabha on
10 March 2015 has seen a tough resistance from key position parties in India
who have called the proposed amendments “anti -farmer’ and ‘anti-poor’. The
proposed amendments remove requirements for approval from farmers to
proceed with land about 1000 acres of farmland from the Tatas which was
given to the company for building a small -car manufacturing factory in munotes.in
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52 2006 by the the n Left Front government. The Trinamul government’s
intention was to return 400 acres of farmland to the 'unwilling' farmers
around whom the agitation against the Left Front government was
organised by the Trinamul Congress Party. However, now the whole iss ue
seems to have fallen into a long legal battle between the present State
government and the Tatas, as the latter has challenged the 'Singur Land
Rehabilitation and Development Act' in the court. As a result, the
Trinamul government has not yet been ab le to return the land to those
'unwilling farmers' nor have they received any compensation (The
Statesman, 12 January 2012). In another caseof governmental land
acquisition for housing at North 24 Parganas district of West Bengal, the
farmers began to cult ivate their farmland which were acquired but
remained unutilised. According to media report these farmers were
assured by the Trinamul Congress party leaders before the election that
their land, which is about 1687acres would be returned to them if the
party could come to power. However, now these farmers are turning their
backs to the Trinamul Congress, since the party has not kept its pre-
election promise (The Statesman, 11 February 2012). Under the above
disturbing episodes, it may be worthwhile to narr ate the glaring incident of
the opposition levelledby Mamata Banerjee, the present Chief Minister
of West Bengal to the draft Land Acquisition (Amendment) Bill 2007
in the LokSabha. At that time Miss Mamata Banerjee was the Railway
Minister of the C entral Government. She opposed to a clause of the
billwhich empowered private companies to acquire up to 70 per cent land
directly from farmers and landowners. The remaining 30 per cent could be
acquired by the State government. Miss Banerjee wanted priva te
companies to buy 100 per cent of the land, according to a report (The
Statesman, 26 July 2009). It seemed that Miss Banerjee would have
allowed the amended Bill to be passed if the; LokSabha agreed to modify
the 70/30 proportion to 100 per cent purchase by the companies under the
principle of willing -buyer - willing -seller.
The process of land acquisition in India has proven unpopular with the
citizenry. The amount reimbursed isfairly low with regard to the current
index of prices prevailing in theecono my. Furthermore, due to the low
level of human capital of the displaced people, they often fail to find
adequateemployment.
The draft of the government's National Policy for Rehabilitation states
that a figure around 75% of the displaced people since 1951 arc still
awaiting rehabilitation. However, it should be noted that displacement is
only being considered with regard to ‘Direct Displacement’. These
rehabilitation policies do not cover fishermen, landless laborers and
artisans. Roughly, one in ten India n tribals is a displaced person. Dam
projects have displaced close to a million Adivasis, with similar woe for
displaced Dalits. Some estimate suggests 40 percent of displaced people
are of tribalorigins.
There have been a rising number of political and s ocial protests against the
acquisition of land by various industrialists. They have ranged from
Bengal, Karnataka, and Uttar Pradesh in the recent past. The acquisition of munotes.in
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Acquisition of Land
53 997 acres of land byTata Motors in Bengal in order to set up a factory for
the chea pest car in India was protested (Singur Tata Nano controversy). At
least a decade before the Singur episode similar events occurred in West
Bengal, although the opposition parties and other civil society
organizations remained silent at that time. Similarly , the SardarSarovar
Dam project on the river acquisition under five broad categories of
projects. While the bill was passed in LokSaibha, it still needs approval from
the Rajya Sabha, where the current government does not have a majority, for
the proposed ame ndments to become effective.
The following are the main disputation point -
The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013defines 'consent' clause as
"land can only be acquired with approval o f the 70% of the land
owners for PPP projects and 80% for the private entities. But the
proposed amendments by the Narendra Modi government does away
with consent clause for Industrial corridors, Public Private Partnership
projects, Rural Infrastructure, Affordable housing and defenseprojects.
The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 says the land unutilized for 5
years should be returned to the owner, but the amendment proposed by
NDA g overnment intends to change to 5 years or any period specified
at the time of setting up the project.
While the The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land
Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act,2013 allows private
companies to acqui re land, but the proposed amendment allows any
private entity to acquire land.
According to the new amendment, if any government official
conducts any wrong doing, he or she cannot be prosecuted without prior
sanction from the government.
The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition,
Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 mandated the social
assessment before land acquisition, but the NDA government's
proposed bill does away with this requirement.
6.6 ALTERNATIVES FOR LANDACQUISITION
One of the alternative proposals to land acquisition is leasing the land from
landowners for a certain lease period. Proponents cite how land acquisition
policies by Governments unwittingly encourage rampant land speculation
making the projects expensive since huge portion of investment would be
need to be allocated for land acquisition costs. According to them, policies
of land acquisition gaveway to political cronyism where land is acquired
cheaply by securing favors from local governments and sold to industr ies at
steep markup prices. Leasing land, may also support sustainable project
development since the lands need to be returned to the landowners at the
end of the lease period in a condition similar to its original form without munotes.in
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54 considerable environmental de gradation. When the land is leased then
anybody who has to otherwise give up land or livelihood will be
compensated for its growing valuation over time. In this model, the
landowner lends her land to the government for a steadily increasing rent or
through a n annuity -based system as currently practiced in Haryana and
UttarPradesh.
Some industries already follow the model of leasing lands instead of
acquiring it. Energy development projects such asoil &gas extraction usually
lease lands. Renewable energy projec ts such as Wind Power farms projects
often lease the land fro landowners instead of trying to acquire the land
which could make the projects prohibitively expensive.
6.7 EXERCISE
1) Explain the concept of Land acquisition and describe the various
purposes of lan dacquisition.
2) Describe the various consequences of land acquisition in rural area.
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55 7
ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL INPUTS -
SEEDS, FERTILIZERS AND PESTICIDES
Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 High Yielding Varieties ofSeeds
7.3 Fertilizers
7.4 Pesticides
7.5 Exercise
7.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To study the importance and characteristics of High Yielding Variety
(HYV)s eeds.
2) To understand various types of fertilizers andpesticides.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
India has succeeded in raising farm production in some of the major and
high value crops, there are still a number of crops where production and
hence, return to farm household is very low. There can, therefore, be no
complacency in organizing adequate input supports to the farming sector.
Emphasis would have to continue on a package of especially for small and
marginal farmers. The basic inputs which contributed for the developmen t
of agricultural sector mentioned as:
1) High yielding varieties ofseeds.
2) Fertilizers
3) Pesticides.
7.2 SEEDS
7.2.1 High Yielding Varieties ofseeds:
One of the basic pre -requisite of technical changes is the High Yielding
Varieties of seeds (HYV). With this programme it becomes possible to
lead intensive agriculture, yet the real impetus to these efforts was given
by theadoptiono f new agricultural
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56 strategy in 1966 -67. It was, thus, during mid -sixties that the high yielding
variety of wheat were evolved since then a num ber of HYV seeds of
wheat, paddy, maize and bajara have been developed and widely
distributed in the country. In 1966 -67, only 1.89 million hectares of land
had been brought under HYV seeds whichrose to 56.18 million hectares in
1980 -87. During 1991 -92, the area under high yielding verities of seeds
from 1966 -67 to 1993 -94.
Area under HYV (million Hectares)
Crop 1970 -71 1980 -81 1990 -91 1991 -92 1993 -94
Paddy 5.6 18.2 28.1 28.0 28.9
Wheat 6.5 16.1 20.4 20.5 22.0
Jowar 0.8 3.5 6.7 5.6 6.8
Bajara 2.0 3.7 5.1 6.8 5.1
Maize 0.8 1.6 2.6 3.8 3.9
Total 15.4 43.1 62.9 64.7 66.6
The HYVP has been taken up for five crops. Among these the most
striking success has been achieved in wheat. The average yield of wheat
has been 634 kgs. per hectare. With high yie lding strains (kalyansona,
sonalika, safedlerwa) the yield have been high in Punjab, Haryana,
Western U.P plains and Northern parts of Gujarat. Elsewhere the yields
have been low. The major factor which triggered the wheat revolution in
Sutlaj -Yamuna plain s was the introduction of high yielding, nitrogen
responsive dwarf - strains of wheat fromMexico.
https://www.tar unbharat.net
As regards the other crop production, yields have been rather low. As
against the ave rage yield of 1150 kgs of paddy per hectare, it increased to
1651 - 2050 kgs and 1251 - 1650 kgs. Per hectare in the core vice region.
The yield increase due to the increasing area under improved strains i.e., munotes.in
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Role of Agricultural Inputs -
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57 Taiching Natiri -1, Taiching 65, Taiaon -3, ADT -28, IR -8, Padma Jaya,
Hansa, Pankay, Jagannath, Sabaramati, Jamuna, IR -28 and Kaveri -7 etc.
The productivity of Jowar did not show any appreciable increase. The
national average was 685 kgs per hectare; it increased to as high as 1000
kgs. in Punjab, H aryana, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh to over
2000 kgs. on sandy soils of Marusthali. It has over 23000 kgs per hectare
in Ferozpur districts ofPunjab.
Average maize productivity has been 1467 kgs. Per hectare. It increased to
over 1150 kgs. Per hectare due to increased use of improved seeds viz.
Ganga 101, Ganga sated, Ganga - 3,etc.
7.2.2 Characteristics ofHYV:
1) The fields, in which HYV seeds are to be sown, should have proper
drainage facilities.
2) All varieties are short duration ranging from 100 -140 d ays in different
parts of thecountry.
3) Under better irrigated conditions the HYV seeds are highly
responsible.
4) These are coarse and therefore the market price is invariably lower
than the other medium and finevarities.
5) These are all dwarf varieties and they are responsive to higher does of
fertilizerapplication.
7.3 FERTILIZERS
The use of fertilizers is indispensable for accelerating the growth of
agricultural output in the short period. The classical researches of
CalonelMacarrison and B.V. Nath in India and Ma ckeridge and Bottomely
proved that crops raised with organic manure are superior in their nutritive
value then those with artifical manure. According to an estimate, the use
of one tonne of plant nutrients would be equivalent to adding about 4
hectares cro p land in terms of additional production. Thus, it is one of the
profitable mean of land use and sustained agricultural production. In this
regard National Commission on Agriculture has rightly said, “It has been
the experience throughout the world that in creased agricultural production
is related to the increased consumption of fertilizers.”
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58
https://marathi.krishijagran.com
7.3.1 Types of ChemicalFertilizers:
Chemical Fertilizers are of three types as:
1) Nitrogenou sFertilizer.
2) PhosphaticFertilizer.
3) PottasicFertilizers.
1) Nitrogenous Fertilizers: It comprises salt petre, mitre, ammonium
sulphate, sodium nitrate and area, etc. It impart a green colour to leaves
and encourages the development of foliage. As regards cerea ls, it tends to
produce succulence or tenderness in theplant.
2) Phosphatic Fertilizers: It comprises of bones and rock phosphates.
When powdered rock phosphate is applied to the soil, phosphoric acid
becomes readily available. It helps in the root developmen t of crops,
hastens maturity of crops. In case of cereals, it increases resistence to
disease and in proves the quality ofcrops.
3) PottasicFertilizers : These comprises of potassium chloride and
potassium sulphate. It helps the transference of food materials from one
part of the plant to another. It also provides green colour to the leaves and
tend to increase plumpness in grains.
7.3.2 Time of Application of Fertilizers:
The time of application of fertilizer often makes a considerable difference
in its utilization b y the crop. Plants absorb a large quantity of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash during the early stage of growth. Therefore,
fertilizers should be applied to the most of crops at before or the sowing
times. These need not to be applied to annual crops i n their latter stage of
growth. A late application of nitrogen to a crop increases the nitrogen
content. But crops of long duration require its application twice or thrice at
suitable intervals. As regards the phosphoric fertilizer, it should be applied
before or at the time of planting the crop. Potash is applied at the time of
planting and to a limitedextend.
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59 7.3.3 Methods to ApplyFertilizers:
The following methods are generally used to apply fertilizers.
i) Broadcasting during the preparation of thesoil;
ii) Placin g in rows either before or at the time ofplanting;
iii) Side dressing the crop during growingseason.
iv) Applying LiquidFertilizers.
7.3.4 Production of Chemical Fertilizers:
Since 1950 -51 Indian Fertilizer industry has continuously expanded. The
total production capacit y which was 0.31 million tonnes in 1950 -51 has
reached to 9.04 million tonnes in 1994 -95. and further 10.1 million tonnes
in 1994 -95. In the production of Nitrogenous Fertilizer India ranks fourth
largest producer in the world. In recent years. India’s fer tilizer scenario
has undergone a dramatic change. Since domestic production could not
suffice to meet the entire demand, a substantially large part of domestic
consumption till now was being meeting byimports.
7.3.5 Consumption of ChemicalFertilizer:
Proper use of fertilizer alone can enhance the productivity of soil. But
Indian soil is deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus and this deficiency can
be removed by using more fertilizers. Thus, increased consumption of
fertilizers is an important element of new strat egy. However, the
consumption of fertilizers has increased steadily. At the beginning of first
plantheconsumption was only 0.13 milliontonnes as shown in table.
Consumption of Chemical Fertilizer
Year Quantity (million tonnes)
1950 -51 0.13
1960 -61 0.29
1966 -67 1.10
1970 -71 1.18
1980 -81 5.52
1984 -85 8.21
1986 -87 8.74
1987 -88 8.79
1988 -89 11.04
1990 -91 12.54
1991 -92 12.73
1992 -93 12.15
1993 -94 12.83 munotes.in
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60 The consumption of fertilizer during the first three years of seventh plan
fell short of targete d level due to unfavourable weather and
unprecedented drought in 1987 -88. The fourth and fifth years of the plan
have been very good years for development of crops as encouraged by
the onset of good monsoon in time and farely even distribution of rai nfall
in the country. As a result, consumption of fertilizers increased both in
sharif and rabi seasons to 12.43 million tonnes during 1980 -81 and to
12.73 million tonnes in 1991 -92 and further to 13.85 million tonnes in
1993 -94.
Despite the massive incre ase in fertilizer consumption the fact remains
that fertilizer use per hectare of land is still much less in India as
compared to many other countries of the world, on an average, India
consumed 39.4 kg. of fertilizer per hectare of land during 1986 -87,
corresponding figure was 436 kg. in Japan, 508 kg. in Belgium, 1.144 kg.
in NewZealand.
7.3.6 Constrains or Problems:
The major constrains of fertilizer use can be identified as below:
1) Return Non -Remunerative - The use of fertilizers is considered
non-remunerativ e in the case of interiorcereals.
2) Non-Availability of Fertilizers - A significant proportion of farmers
have denied the use of fertilizers because of their non - availability.
3) High Prices of Fertilizers - The small and medium farmers do not
use fertilizers due to its high prices. The cultivators lack sufficient capital
to make this type of investment in fertilizeruse.
4) Risk Element - Risk element implies the fear of heavy lossesin case
of failure of rains. This sort of fear is also experienced by bigfarmers .
7.3.7 Suggestions to increase consumption offertilizer:
Some significant measures to increase the consumption of fertilizer are:
i) Fixation and operation of support price and procurement price of food
grains.
ii) Regulation of fertilizer application by testingsoils.
iii) Irrigation facilities should be created.
iv) Soil and moisture conservationtechniques.
v) Minimization of damage by disease, insects, rodents, etc. in the field
ofstorage.
7.4 PESTICIDES
It is beyond any shadow of doubt that new seeds have increased the per
hectare yield of various crops. Biologically, the crops sown through use of munotes.in
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Role of Agricultural Inputs -
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61 new seeds are more prone to disease. The use of fertilizers for their
production also increases the susceptibility of these crops to diseases.
It is estimated that every year nearly 10 per cent crops are damaged due to
in sufficient plant protection measures. The adoption of HYV of seeds has
further increased the importance of such measures. For instance, during
1976 -77, about 20 per cent of the cropped area suffered from pests and
diseases while area treated with pesticides was only 7.2 per cent. The
crops that suffered most were groundnut 47%, cotton 28%, paddy 24%
and sugarcane 25%.
Consumption of pesticides was almost negligible in the early fifties. At the
beginning of first five year p lan, consumption of pesticides in the country
was only 100 tonnes. At per cent about 33,000 tonnes of pesticides per
annum are consumed by the country. However, there are great inter -state
differences in the level consumption.
In Tamilnadu more than 1.8 kg of formulated pesticides on each hectare of
cropped area is consumed. While Madhya Pradesh consumes 1/10th of 9
kg of formulated pesticides on one hectare of cropped area.
Effective adoption of plant protection measure in the country suffered
from tow han dicap viz. lack technical skills in the use of pesticides, in
effectiveness of individual operation. In a view to tackle the problem it
has been envisaged that during 1993 -94 5,000 extension functionaries and
3,000 farmers have been planned to be trained in IPM for rice andcotton.
A National Conference on IPM was held in March 1994 to finalize the
IPM training / demo programmers with State authorities. Similarly, use of
bio-pesticides is now being actively studied. Technical and Financial
support of intern ational agencies like FAO, UNDP and ADB - CABI is
being sought to promote IPM inIndia.
7.5 EXERCISE
1) Explain the importance of agriculturalinputs.
2) Discuss the importance of High Yielding varieties (HYV) seeds &
fertilizers.
3) State the various problems of uses o f fertilizers andpesticides.
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62 8
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS
Unit Structure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Traditional Tools and Equipments
8.3 Modern Tools Equipments
8.4 Exercise
8.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To study the traditional tools and equipments ofagriculture.
2) To study the modern tools and equipment and their importa nce in
agriculture.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering, technology and the
biological and physical sciences. Irrigation, drainage, conservation and
channeling are all important fields to guarantee success in agriculture and
require the expertise of agricultural engineers. Agricultural chemistry
deals with other issues vital to agriculture, such as the use of fertilizers,
insecticides and fungicides, soil structure, analysis of agricultural products
and the nutritional needs of farm animals. Plant breeding and genetics
represents and invaluable contribution to agricultural productivity.
Genetics has also introduced a scientific basis in animal husbandry.
Hydroponics, a method in which plants thrive without soil by chemical
nutrie nt solutions can solve other additional agricultural problems.
The packaging, processing and marketing are closely related activities also
influenced by the development of science. The methods of rapid freezing
and dehydration have increased the markets fo r agricultural products.
Mechanization, the outstanding feature of agriculture in the late nineteenth
and twentieth century has relieved much the work of the farmer. Even
more significantly. Mechanization has increased efficiency and
productivity of farms. Planes and helicopters are used for agriculture
purposes, such as planting transportation of perishable goods and fighting
forest fires and crop fumigant to control insect pests and diseases. The
radio and television transmit vital weather data and other i nformation of
interest to farmers.
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Tools a nd Equipments
63 8.2 TRADITIONAL TOOLS &EQUIPMENTS
A) Tool for ploughing:
Country plough : Tillage is the basic operation in farming. It is done to
create favorable conditions for seed placement and plant growth. This is
done mainly with a bullo ck drawn plough made of Acacia wood. Usually,
small farmers and farm owners of scattered lands are unable to use tractors
and in that case country ploughs are highly preferred. The basic
components of the plough are a shoe. a share, a body, a handle and a
beam. The handle is 0.6 -1 m long, 5 -7.5 cm thick and 7.5 -12.5 cm wide
and is fitted to the body of the plough. The shoe, used in the plough, can
be of different shapes and sizes.The share is prepared from amild steel
bar.0.6 -7.5 m in length and 1.5 -2.5 cm in width. The share is fixed to the
shoe or body by means of a U -clamp or ring shaped clamp. The share
point projects beyond the shoe by 5 -7.5 cm Beams generally vary in
length from 2.4 -3 m. It needs some skill in driving bullocks, hence
operated only by male labou rers. Average life of the implement is 1 yr and
costs Rs. 1000/unit. As country plough is a bullock drawn implement
drudgery will be a burden on theanimals.
B) Tools for intercultural operation :
1) Weeder : The tools is used for removing deep -rooted weeds along
with their rhizome weeds like Agruampul (Hariyali grass) and other
grasses were easily removed with the help of this weeder and mammutty.
The tool made up of iron has a handle (length 50 cm and 8 cm diameter)
and working area i.e. comb like structure has a length of 25 cm and 30 cm
diameter). The farm labourers first pierced the soil with the help of this
weeder and lift the soil upwards. Another attendant should remove the
uprooted weeds from the soil using other farm implements called
mammutty (spade). About 2 acre/day could be covered by the tool. Other
advantages like loosening of the soil, earthing up are achieved during
weeding operation. Male labourers mostly operate it. Average life is 10
yrs and costs Rs.120/unit.
2) Dry land weeder : It is innovati vely constructed with a front cycle
wheel attached with gorruweeder blade at the back. With the help of hand
bar farmer’s drive the weeder from the back and one attendant pull the
hand bar joined with a thread from the front. It is used for removing
weeds . The weeder blade has a length of 30 cm and width of 3 cm. It is
operated by two men labours. Average life is 5 -6 yrs and costs Rs.
400/unit.
3) Spade: It is used for formation of bunds, ridges and furrows and
irrigation channels. Handle is made up of Acac ia sp wood and the working
area is made up of iron. Handle is of 65 cm length and working area has a
length of 22 cm and breadth of 18 cm. mostly operated by male labourers.
Its average life is 5 yrs and costs Rs. 150/unit.
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64 C) Harvestingtools
1) Sickle: Used in harvesting most of the crops like cereals, pulses and
millets, pulses and millets. Sickle was designed ‘C’ shaped/ curved with
the view to ease the harvesting operation. Hence, it is preferred more than
other tools and implements. With the help of sickle the ear heads, branches
or even whole plant could be harvested. Working area is made up of iron
and handle is made up of wood of Acacia sp. Working area has 20 cm
height and 3 cm width. Handle is of 15 cm height and 5 cm width.
Operated by both male and female worker. Its average life is 5 yrs and
costs Rs. 25/unit.
2) Knife: It is very small and handy. Made up of iron was used in
harvesting the pulses crop like black gram (Vignamungo) , green gram
(Vigna radiate), horse gram (Macrotylomauniflorum), Bengal gr am
(Cicerarietinum) and ear heads of millets like sorghum (Sorghum bicolor),
cumbu (Pennisetumglacum), ragi (Eleusinecoracana), etc. Working area
has a curved surface of 8 cm and handle has a length of 5 cm. Operated
both by male and female labourers. Its average life is 5 yrs and costs Rs.
10/unit.
3) Tamarind Harvester: It is used in harvesting fruits like tamarind
(Tamarindusindica), lemon (Citrus sp). amla (Phyllanthusemblica), etc. It
consists of a wooden handle made of bamboo and a hook curved made of
iron. Using this harvester, farmer can avoid climbing tree to harvest fruits.
With the long wooden handle, without any drudgery, farmers can harvest
the fruits easily. Length of bamboo stick is 200 cm and the working area is
an iron knife having a curved surface of 10 cm. Mostly it is operated by
both male and female labourers. Average life is 8 yrs and costs Rs. 30 /
unit.
4) Lemon harvesting tool: Used for harvesting lemon (citrus sp) fruits
and to collect the fallen fruits under the tree without thorn in jury. The toll
is made up of iron rod. Lemon harvesting tools consists of 3 parts is top
one is hook, middle handle and lower cup like structure. Handle is a long
iron rod of 10 cm to which hook and cup like structure are attached at the
top and bottom end , respectively. Hook is a curved ‘C’ shaped structure of
10 cm attached to the hand at top most end facilitates harvesting of lemons
from the trees. Cup like structure is of round in shapeand has a diameter of
10 cm attached to the handle of the bottom end . Using hook harvesting of
fruits at greater height in the trees could be possible and cup like structure
help in collecting fallen lemon fruit underneath the trees safe without any
thorn injuries. Both men and women operate it; its average life is 10 y rs
and costs Rs. 125 / unit.
D) Post-Harvesttools:
1) Grain separator: The tolls is used before winnowing horse gram
(Macrotylomauniflorum). After drying the plants are threshed with the
help of tractors. After threshing, farmers with the help of kodunkol shake
the plant materials forcibly so that the threshed materials and the grains
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Tools a nd Equipments
65 manually. The toll consists of long handle made up of wood attached
with a single or double iron rod. Ha ndle has a length of 200 cm and iron
rod of length 10 cm. It helps in separating the threshed materials and
grains making the winnowing operation easier. Also, farmers can handle
this tool by standing straight without bending. Thus reduces drudgery. It is
operated by both male and female labourers. Its average life is 20 yrs and
costs Rs. 30 /units.
2) Wooden thresher: It is used for threshing operation in crops like
black gram (Vignamungo), green gram (Vigna radiate). horse gram
(Macrotylomauniflorum), etc. The tool, made up of wood has a handle of
length 20 cm and flat rectangular working board of 20 cm length and 12
cm breadth. Wooden thresher cases the manual threshing operation. Both
male and female labourers operate it. Average life is one yr and costs Rs.
15/unit.
3) Stone roller: Stone roller is used in threshing of pulse crops like
green gram (Vigna radiate), horse gram (Macrotylomauniglorum) and
black gram (Vignamungo) and cereals and millets etc. It is a circular roller
of length 95 cm and diameter o f 30 cm. Threshing with stone roller is
quicker and effective compared to manual threshing. Usually operated by
male labour the average life is 20 yrsand costs Rs.100/unit.
4) Bamboo winnower: It is used in cleaning and winnowing pulse
grains. Highly preferred for its shape and varied utilities in crops such as
pulses, cereals, millets and oilseeds. It is made up of bamboo stick is
coated with cowdung paste to fill up the holes/gaps. It is ‘U’ shaped and
has a length, breadth and depth 35 cm 25 cm 3 cm. Operated generally by
household women. Its average life is 2 yrs and costs Rs. 20 /unit.
5) Pulse siever : The tool is used for separating the unstilted full grains
from the splitted pulse grains. Also removes stones and other wastes. It is
made of iron. Working base area has 40 cm diameter and height 8 cm. The
base has numerous rectangular grids of 0.3 mm diameter. Usually
household women operate the tool leisurely. Its avera ge life period is 10
yrs and costs about Rs 50/ -unit.
6) Stone grinder: The tool being both cheaper and effective in grinding
makes it preferable in rural areas. It is used for milling all kinds of cereals.
Also used in crushing leaves during the preparation of leaf formulations
and grinding rice (Oryza sativa), cotton seeds (Gossypiumsp), etc. is made
up of stone. It has a height of 140 cm and the diameter of working area is
15 cm. Usually operated by household women its average life is 10 years
and costs R s.100/unit. munotes.in
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66
7) Milling tool: It is used for the process of milling, leaf extract
preparation etc. Handle is made up of wood and working area is made up
of iron. It has a length of 150 cm and diameter of 15 cm. Mostly women
labourers operates it; its averag e life is 10 yrs and costs Rs. 200/unit.
E) Measuringtools:
1) Pukka: It is made up of iron and used for measuring the grains of
cereals, pulses and oilseed. It can measure a weight up to 11/2kg. It has
a length of 18 cm and diameter of 16 cm. Both men and women operateit.
2) Marakaal : It is made up of iron used for measuring the grains of
cereals, pulses and oilseeds. It can measure a weight of 4 kg. It has a
length of 30 cm and diameter of 28 cm. Both male and women operate it.
Average life is 20 yrs and c osts Rs.100/unit.
3) Naali : It is made up of iron and used for measuring the grains of
cereals, pulses and oilseed. It can measure a weight of 1 kg. It has a length
of 15 cm and diameter of 10 cm. Both male and women operate it.
Average life is 20 yrs and c osts Rs. 35/unit. Easy to measure grains
without taking the help of weightunits and can be handled easily.
F) OtherTools:
1) Floor cleaner : Easy in the separation of grains from plant materials
and cleaning works in threshing floor. The tool is made up and u sed for
cleaning the threshing floor. After the threshing operation in crops like
horse gram, the plant parts are removed with the help of the floor cleaner
leaving the grains alone in the floor. This tool has a long handle and comb
like base to ease the s eparation of plant materials after threshing. Length
of handle is 200 cm and the base comb like structure has 30 cm height
and 20 cm width. Operated mostly by male labourers, its average life is 10
yrs and costs Rs.140/unit.
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67 2) Bamboo Pan: It is made up of bamboo stick and used for the
collection of plant products and broadcasting of seeds. It has a depth of 12
cm and diameter of 25 cm. Both men and women operate it. Handling and
transportation of FYM and grains are made easier and quicker with help of
the tool. Average life is 1 -2 yrs and costs Rs. 25/Unit
Summary:
Indigenous tools and implements are considered successful because these
are economical, feasible and sustainable. It can spread quickly and easily
from one region to another. Even these tools ar e common in use generally
un-preferred since they lower the efficiency and increase tiredness of the
operator. By using the modern wisdom, these traditional implements
needed to be standardized keeping in mind the economy of rural poor.
Proper designing i n accordance with the farmers requirements surely
popularize these tool and implements in nearfuture.
8.3 MODERN TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS
The machines are elements that are used to direct the action of forces
based energy work, for his part in the agricultura l, motor mechanisms used
in this work lighten the production and improve farming techniques.
Among the most widely used agricultural machines working in the fields
mentioned :
1) Tractor: is a very useful agricultural machine with wheels or
designed to move e asily on the ground and pulling power enabling
successful agricultural work, even in flooded fields. It has two brake
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68 pedals and is preparing to pull sledges. There are two types of tractors: the
track of stability and strength, and wheels, able to trave l to by road, has a
higher speed than thetrack.
2) Walking Tractor: agricultural machine is a single axle and is
operated by handles, have median motor power and strength led to
horticultural and ornamental work, can work in strong fields, but is
preferably used in construction ofgardens.
3) Combine: or mower is a powerful engine agricultural machine,
comb cutter to cut plants mature grain and a long rake that goes before the
machine and rotates about a horizontalaxis.
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69
AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT
Farm equipmen t is a group of devices designed to open furrows in the
ground, shredding, spraying and fertilizing the soil.
4) Plough: agricultural equipment is designed to open furrows in the
earth consists of a blade, fence, plough, bead, bed, wheel and handlebar,
which serve to cut and level the land, hold parts of the plough, set shot and
to serve as handle. There are various types of ploughs but the best
knownare:
Mouldboard plough, formed by the grating blade and mouldboard disc
plough, disc concave formed by deep gro oves to open shallow ploughing
to remove the topsoil. Subsoil plough to remove the soil depth.
5) Drag: Agricultural equipment is designed to break up the parts and
parcels of land that have been removed by the plough, are composed of a
frame, which can be made of wood and metal teeth and the latch that
attaches totractor.
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70
6) Sprayer: It is farm equipment designed to spray, is composed of a
liquid tank pressure pump. Cap, mouth, tank and pressure valve, belts,
hose faucet and nozzle where the liquid to spray out, is insecticide,
fungicide or herbicide. The hand sprayer is placed in the back of the
sprayer and this has placed in the mouth and nose a special mask to
prevent strong odours dismissed by the substance that expels the sprayer
willharm.
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71 7) Tillage Planter: is a machine to place the seeds on the seedbed
without priortillage.
8) Fertilizer: agricultural equipment is designed to distribute fertilizer
is composed of three main parts: the hopper of storage of fertilizer, the
drop tube of fertilizer and fertilizerdistributor.
9) Packing: agricultural equipment is designed for packing cereal straw
or other baled forage grasses (also called bales oralpacas).
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72 METHODOLOGY:
The methodology used will be active, participatory, with the use of
simulations and c ase studies to facilitate the subsequent transfer of
learning. The method used is inductive, based on knowledge and
experience of the attendees. At the same time use focusgroups.
8.4 EXERCISE
1) Explain the various traditional tools &equipments used for
agricultu re.
2) Describe the various modern tools &equipments and states its uses.
3) Explain the importance of agricultural tools and equipments for
agriculture.
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73 9
IRRIGATION
Unit Structure:
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Source of irrigation
9.3 Importance of irrigation
9.4 Types of irrigation methods
9.5 Exercise
9.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To study the various sources of irrigation.
2) To understand the importance of irrigation for agriculture.
3) To study t he various methods of Iirrigation.
4) To study the advantages and disadvantages of drip and sprinkle
irrigation.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
A hundred and fifty years ago, about 1850, two or three million acres of
land were irrigated by large numbers of indigenous irrigatio n works.
These works were in the nature of small tanks in southern India,
inundation canals in northern India and reconditioned canals like the
Cauvery delta system in Madras and the Yamuna canals. About five
million acres were under well irrigation at tha t time mostly in northern
India. The first major irrigation work constructed in India was The Ganga
Canal in Uttar Pradesh, opened for irrigation in 1854. This was followed
by the Upper Bari Doab canal in the Punjab and the Godavari delta
system and the Krishna delta system in Madras. Then came the Sirhind
canal in the Punjab, the Lower Ganga and the Agra canals in Uttar
Pradesh and the mutha canals in Bombay, the last named being from a
storage reservoir. A number of other large irrigation works were
constructed towards the end of the last and beginning of the present
century and again after the end of the First World War.
Subsoil waters have been used in India for irrigation from time
immemorial by means of ordinary percolation wells. During recent ye ars,
electrically driven tube wells have opened up a new method of utilizing
ground -waters on an extensive scale. Tube well irrigation is generally
more costly than irrigation by gravity canals from diversion projects. But
for areas not otherwise commanded it is a useful means of irrigation in
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74 9.2 SOURCES OF IRRIGATION
9.2.1 Canals:
Although canal irrigation was introduced on a large scale only during the
last century, it has already become the principal source of irrigation in the
country because of its cheapness and the ease and certainly with which
water is supplied. The irrigation canals of northern India rank amongst the
greatest and most beneficent triumphs of modern engineering in the whole
world. The canals in India ar e of two types, viz.
1. Inundation Canals, which are drawn directly from the rivers without
making any kind of barrage or dam at theirhead to regulate the flow
of the river and the canal. Such canals are intended to use the excess
water of rivers at the time of floods. When the flood subside, the level
of the rivers falls below the level of the canal heads and therefore, the
canals dry up. The water supply of such canals is uncertain. They
have, therefore, been converted into perennialcanals.
2. Perennial Canal s are those which are constructed by putting some form
of barrage across the river which flows throughout the year and
diverting its water by means of a canal to the agricultural fields, both
far and near. Most of the canals in India areof this type.
About half of India's net canal irrigated area lies in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana and Andhra Pradesh, Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam, Maharashtra, Orissa, Jammu and
Kashmir and Gujarat. In that order of importance account formost of the
remainingabouthalf.
9.2.2 Wells:
Wells provide the most widely distributed source of irrigation in India. A well
is a device by means of which water is obtained from the subsoil. Well
irrigation is of importance in: (i) that part of the Ganga valley which is in
close proximity to the north -east and eastern extension of the Deccan, such as,
the eastern districts of U.P. particularly Gonda, Basti, Bahraich, Faizabad,
etc. (ii) In Bihar well irrigation is in vogue in Shahabad, Gaya, Patna, Saran
etc. districts, as these areas lie beyond the command of canals, (iii)
Submontane regions on the eastern and southern sides of the Western Ghats,
particularly in Kolhapur, Solapur, Ahmednagar and Poona districts in
Maharashtra, and in eastern part of NilgiriandCardamom hills, especially in
Ramanathapuram, Madurai, Coimbatore and areas between Tiruchirapalli and
Guntur. (iv) Region of black cotton soil especially where it is deep as in the
Malwa tract of M.P. (v) Inthe valleys of Narmada and Tapti rivers. In other
words, this method of irrigation is mostly used in the alluvial plains where
soft nature of thesoil helps in easy digging of wells. Some or the other type of
lift is always required for using the well - water for irrigation whereas old
methods like mot and rehtare still practised widely in many areas, power
driven pumps have become exceedingly popular in most parts.
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75 9.2.3 Tube Wells:
Tube wells are common in areas where the water table israther deep, say,
over 15 metres. The sub-soil water is exploited through deep well pumping.
Indo-Gangetic valley and in certain coastal deltaic areas tube well iscommon.
1. The flow of water in the subsoil is adequate to meet the surface
demand, thus ensuring a stable water table. (2) The depth ofthe water
table below the gr ound does not ordinarily exceed 50 ft. (3) For lifting the
water cheap power/ electricity is available over the tract which
economisesand populariseslifting operations. (4) The area should be in
alluvial formations where water -bearing strata are found at v arious depths.
(5) The soil should be of good quality so that high costs involved in the
operation of tube well arecompensated.
Area of Tube Well Irrigation:
Tube wells are usually been constructed in the Ganges plain, where a large
basin with sufficient underground water supply with facilities of
replenishment due to heavy rainfall in the Terai, exist. The water in this basin
occurs as a continuous reservoir which is connected with the strata below the
Terai.
Here tube wells have been developed both on the north having the depth of
90 to 150 metres and south of Ghagra. The States like Punjab, Haryana, Bihar
and Gujarat have number of tube wells in different location.
These are also very popular source of irrigation in the alluvial plains of north
India whe re groundwater is plentiful and construction of wells and tube wells
easy. These sources predominate in Gujarat (78.4 per cent of net irrigated
area), Uttar Pradesh (70.5 per cent), Goa (69.6 per cent), Rajasthan (67.9 per
cent), Punjab (61.3 per cent) and Maharashtra (61.2 per cent). In Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Tamil Nadu and Orissa, wells and tube wells
provides water to 40 to 55 per cent of net irrigatedarea.
9.2.4 Tank Irrigation:
Tank irrigation is the most feasible and widely practised method of
irrigation all over the Peninsula, where most of the tanks are small in size and
built by individuals or groups of farmers by raising bunds across
seasonalstreams.
In West Bengal, Orissa and Bihar tanks are mostly of excavated type and
used also for raisin g fish besides irrigation. The drawbacks include high rate
of evaporation and occupation of fertile land particularly as the depth of most
of the tanks is shallow and the water spreads over a large area. Most of the
tanks are non-perennial and supply water only for one crop in theyear.
Areas of Irrigation:
Tanks irrigation is mostly practiced in peninsular India including run on
Maharashtra and Gujarat. Tanks are a special feature ofthe Deccan
because: (i) The rivers of the Deccan are not snow -fed and they a re not
solely dependent upon the rain waters, (ii) There are many streams which munotes.in
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76 become torrential during the rainy season but dry up in the season when
the rain ceases, (iii) The undulating character of the region together with a
rocky bed makes the constr uction prohibitive, (iv) Moreover, as the hard
rock do not suck up water, we cannot dug wells. But the tanks can be
easily made by means of making dams in hollow spaces in which rain -
water is stored in large quantities for distribution in dry season, (v) Lastly,
the scattered population of the tract also favours the system of tank
irrigation to save rain -water which could have ultimately flowed
toocean.
Tank irrigation has reached its highest perfection in south, especially in
Andhra Pradesh and Ta mil Nadu. State of West Bengal and Rajasthan too
have some irrigation tanks, particularly in their southern and south -eastern
regions respectively. Punjab, UP, Bihar have also sometanks.
Significance of tanks as source of irrigation has declined and now o nly 6.1
per cent of net irrigated crops get water from tanks. It is easier to
construct tanks in the undulating peninsular India. Tank irrigation is,
therefore, confined to the southern States. Largest net irrigated area by
tanks is 503 thousand hectares in Tamil Nadu according to 2009 -10 data.
Tank irrigation is also important in Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Kerala and WestBengal.
9.3 IMPORTANCE OFIRRIGATION
Irrigation:
Water along with HYV seeds and fertilizer forms a significant input to
raise agricultur al production. Thus availability of water is possible either
from rain of surface flow or below ground. In India, availability of
irrigation is highly scanty and more than 70 per cent of agriculture is
depend on rainfall is confined to very fewmonths
i.e. June to September. Moreover, rainfall in most parts of country is very
low. Where, it is high, the available soil moisture is not adequate to
support multiple cropping. Hence, there is an urgent need for providing
assured supplies ofirrigation.
Importan ce of Irrigation:
The role of irrigation can be assessed from the followingpoints.
1) To Reduce the Dependence onRainfall:
As it is known that Indian Agriculture is the gamble of monsoon and more
than 70% of the cropped area depends on rainfall. Moreover, i.e . June to
September while the other months remain dry, sometimes rainfall is
delayed and sometimes it is prematured. In 60th cases, it is harmful.
Therefore, proper irrigation facilities can help in solving the problem
created by insufficient, uncertain an d irregular rains.
2. To Raise Land Productivity: Assured water supply to land through
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77 method has a special significance as Indian modes of production are
primitive and outdated with l ow yield per hectare. Sufficient water supply
enable the application of other modern inputs like chemical fertilizer, high
yielding varieties of seeds,etc.
3. To help correcting imbalance: The rainfall in our country is not
properly organised resulting une ven distribution at different places. In
fact, Indias climate geography is governed by its location in the tropical
and subtropical zones while others are dry areas. These disparities can
only be narrowed down by artificial means of irrigation.
4. Moderniz ation of Agriculture: A traditional agriculture of India with
assured water supply can go a long way to practice intensive agriculture.
Such a change in farming techniques will help to impart stability to their
work. As a result, outlook of the farmer will change and agriculture will
be no longer being a gamble ofrains.
5. Multiple Cropping Possible: Assured irrigation facilities makes
possible to grow more than one crop in year in most parts of the country.
Since India has a tropical and sub -tropical clima te, it possesses more
potentialities to grow more crops but due to irregular and uncertain
condition of rainfall, it is not possible. Thus, irrigation ensures multiple
cropping and further increasing at agriculturalproduction.
6. Help to small Farmers: In our country, small and marginal farmers
constitute big majority. They are dependent on agriculture sector for their
livelihood. They can be helped if they are provided adequate assured water
supply. They will raise their farmincome.
7. To Release Land for Non-Crop use: Assured supply of irrigation
would rise the production which in turn, imply lesser use of land. This
would make available more land than present for such purpose like animal
husbandry, forestry andhorticulture.
8. To Avoid Imports of Food stu ffs: In India, growing population
demand food stuff for its consumption. In the absence of food grains,
imports are to be made. That means, import of foodgrains makes the
balance of payment unfavorable. To curb imports self - sufficiency in food
stuff is hi ghly needed. This can be achieved by raising agricultural
production through increasing irrigationfacilities.
9. To get Better Fruits of New Agricultural strategy:
The successful implementation of HYV programmes largely depends on
timely availability of water supply. Besides, crops like rice, sugarcane and
jute, etc. require regular and sufficient water supply.
Accordingly, irrigation is an important factor responsible for increase in
rural employment also. This further adds to the importance of irritation as
an agricultural inputs.
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78 In overall economic development the agricultural sector will continue to
play a vital role, since the sector still accounts for about 30 per cent of the
GDP and almost two -thirds of the population still depends on this sector
for li velihood. To accelerate GDP growth rate, a long term trend growth
rate 3% in Indian agriculture should be desirable goal. To achieve it, a
number of key problems in the agricultural sector will need to beresolved.
The declining trend in the rate of invest ment in agriculture in the recent
years needs to be reserved. Specific provisions are required for operations
and maintenance of public capital assets. Public investment in irrigation,
rural communication and schemes for prevention and control of land and
water degradation will need to be increased. The resources for this purpose
can be augmented only by scaling down the massive subsidies provided
for water, electricity and fertilizer. To encourage, private investment in
agriculture, thrust of reform polici es should continue to improve relative
incentives in favour ofagriculture.
For raising rainfed / dry land crop yields more emphasis is required for the
use of location specific varieties suited to such agro -climatic conditions.
Progress of integrated water shed process development projects for
promotion of water conservation and diversified production system need
to be closely monitored. Arable land is shrinking due to continuous soil
erosion. Land water conservation technologies need to be vigorously
pursue d to raise productivity in marginal land rented land holdings.
The seed revolution, which appears to have tapered off after encompassing
only the cereal segment, has pulses, oil seeds, vegetables and fruits. This is
especially important in the view of the rise in average income levels
having pushed up demands for non - cereal food items. The marked
seasonality in these commodities (fruits, vegetables, oils) needs to be
moderated to ensure pressures. A pre -requisite for successful development
of this sector i s provision of adequate and more modern storage and
warehousing facilities. Furthermore, investment and induction of new
technology in the agro processing section requires to be accelerated.
The present system of agricultural credits needs to be substantia lly
improved. To ensure adequate availability of funds of small and poor
farmers, the high cost of intermediation will need to be moderated.
Emerging new post -harvest technologies for agricultural products will
require and improve data base for important t ree crops, especially in view
of their enhanced export potential. While tariff, trade and exchange rate
reforms have strengthened incentives for agricultural exports. There are
still many regulations in habiting exports of agricultural products, which
need to be phased out. Appropriate policy for investment in technological
up gradation for food processing merits a highpriority.
9.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF IRRIGATION METHODS
Agriculture is the nerve of any country as it is needed for survival of
living beings. For growing crops, irrigation is major process. Irrigation is
described as the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is the munotes.in
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79 substitute or supplement of rainwater with another source of water. It is
used in dry areas and during periods of insufficient rainfall. It is
considered as basic infrastructure and vital input required for agricultural
production. Major aim of irrigation systems is to help out in the growing
of agricultural crops and vegetation by maintaining with the minimum
amount of water required
9.4.1 Type of Irrigation Technique in India:
In India, the irrigated area consists of about 36 per cent of the net sown
area. There are various techniques of irrigation practices in different parts
of India. These methods of irrigation differ in how the water obtained
from the source is distributed within the field. In general, the goal of
irrigation is to supply the entire field homogeneously with water, so that
each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too
little. Irri gation in India is done through wells, tanks, canals, perennial
canal and multipurpose river valleyprojects.
1) Surface Irrigation:
In this technique water flows and spreads over the surface of the land.
Varied quantities of water are allowed on the fields at different times.
Therefore, flow of water under surface irrigation comes under wobbly
flow. Consequently, it is very difficult to understand the hydraulics of
surface irrigation. However, suitable and efficient surface irrigation
system can be espous ed after taking into consideration different factors
which are involved in the hydraulics of surfaceirrigation.
1. Surface slope of the field
2. Roughness of the field surface
3. Depth of water to beapplied
4. Length of run and time required
5. Size and shape of water -course
6. Discharge of the water -course
7. Field resistance toerosion
If the surface irrigation method is perfectly selected, it fulfills following
requirements:
1. It assists in storing required amount of water in the root-zone - depth.
2. It reduces the wastage of irri gation water from the field in the form of
run-offwater.
3. It reduces the soil erosion tominimum.
4. It helps applying uniform application of water tothe fields.
5. Amount of manual labour required isless. munotes.in
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80 6. It is suitable to the size of the field and at the same ti me it uses
minimum land for making ditches, furrows, strips,etc.
7. It does not avert use of machinery for land preparation,
cultivation,harvesting.
Surface irrigation technique is broadly classified as basin irrigation, border
irrigation, furrow irrigation a nd uncontrolled flooding.
Phases of surface irrigation:
This divided into the four componentsystems: (1) water supply,
(1) water conveyance or delivery, (3) water useand (4) drainage.
2) Basin irrigation: Basin irrigation is common practice of surface
irrigati on. This method is employed for watering orchards (Basak, 1999).
It is useful especially in regions with layouts of small fields (Shah et al.
2002). If a field is level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to
prevent runoff, and provides an undire cted flow of water onto the field, it
is herein called a basin. A basin is typically square in shape but exists in
all sorts of irregular and rectangular configurations. It may be furrowed or
ridged, have raised beds for the benefit of certain crops, but a s long as
the inflow is undirected and uncontrolled into these field modifications it
remains abasin.
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81 Basin Method (Source: Basak, 1999)
3) Furrow Irrigation: In furrow irrigation technique, trenches or
‘furrows’ are dug between crop rows in a field. Farmers flow water down
the furrows (often using only gravity) and it seeps vertically
andhorizontally to refill the soil reservoir. Flow to each furrow is
individually controlled. Furrow irrigation is suitable for row crops, tree
crops and, because water d oes not directly contact the plants, crops that
would be damaged by direct inundation by water such as tomatoes,
vegetables, potatoes and beans. It is one of the oldest system of irrigation.
It is economical and low -tech making it particularly attracti ve in the
developing world or places where mechanized spray irrigation is
unavailable orimpractical.
Furrow technique :
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82 In different situations, different furrow methods are used. They are mainly
of fivetypes:
1. SloppyFurrow
2. LevelledFurrow
3. ContourFurrow
4. SerialFurrow
5. CorrugatedFurrow
There are numerous advantages of furrow technique of irrigation.
1. Large area scan beirrigatedatatime.
2. It saves labour since once the furrow is filled, it is not necessary to
give water a secondtime.
3. It is a reasonably cheapermet hod.
4. Plants get proper quantity of water by thissystem.
Furrow irrigation is also beneficial for growing of tree crops. In the early
stages of tree planting, one furrow alongside thetree rowmay be
sufficient, but as the trees develop then two or more furro ws can be
constructed to provide sufficient water. Sometimes aspecialzig -zag
system isused to improve the spread of water.
Major drawback of furrow system of irrigation is ensuring uniform
dispersal of water over a given field. To tackle this problem, some
farmers engage in field levelling to remove any small hills that would
have been bypassed by the gravity flow of the water. Other problem
with furrow irrigation is the increased potential for water loss due to run -
off. Building retention ponds a long the edges of fields can help capture
this run-off, allowing it to be pumped back to the upslope side of the
field for use in further irrigation cycles.
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83 4) Uncontrolled flooding: There are many cases where croplands are
irrigated without regard to efficiency or consistency. These are usually
situations where the value of the crop is very small or the field is used for
grazing or recreation purposes. Small land holdings are generally not
subject to the range of surface irrigation practices of the la rge industrial
farming systems. The assessment methods can be applied if desired, but
the design techniques are not generally applicable nor need theybe since
the irrigation practices tend to be minimallymanaged.
5) Free Flooding: This flooding system of ir rigation is used from
ancient times. Flooding method consists in applying the water by flooding
the land of rather smooth and flat topography. In current irrigation
practice, several flooding methods have been developed. In free
flooding method, water is applied to the land from field ditches without
any check or guidance to the flow. The land is divided into plots of
suitable size depending on porosity of soil. Water is spread over the field
from watercourse. The irrigation operation begins at the h igher area
andproceeds towards the lower levels. The flow is stopped when the lower
end of the field has received the desired depth of water. The field
watercourse is properly spaced, the spacing depends on the
topography,oiltexture,depthofsoilandsizeofs tream.
Free Flooding for erodible soil:
This technique is beneficial for newly established farms where making
furrows is very expensive. This method is economical and can be
effectively used where water supply is in plenty. This method is suita ble
for the fields with irregular surface in which other techniques are
difficult to apply. Major drawback of this method is that there is no perfect
control over the flow of water to attain high efficiency. Sometimes the
flow of water over the soil i s too rapid to fulfil soil moisture deficiency.
On the other hand, sometimes water is retained on the field for a very
long time and consequentlythe waterislost ininfiltrationordeeppercolation.
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84 6) Border Strip Method:
In this technique of irrigation, a field is divided into number of strips. The
width of strip varies from 10 to 15 metres and length varies from 90 m to
400 m. Strips are separated by low embankments or levees. The water is
diverted from the field channel into the strips. The water flows gradually
towards lower end, wetting the soil as it advances. The surface between
two embankments should essentially be level. It assists in covering the
entire width of the strip. There is a general surface slope from opening to
the lower end. The surface slop e from 2 to 4 m/1000 m is best suited.
When the slope is steeper, special arrangement is made to prevent erosion
ofsoil.
7) Drip irrigation:
In the area of irrigation process, drip irrigation is modern technique. It is
also called trickle irrigation, which was originally developed in Israel in
the early 1960s and became popular in areas of water scarcity. The drip
irrigation is the most competent and it can be practised in array of crops,
especially in vegetables, orchard crops, flowers and plantation crops
(Mamata Swain, 1999),
Drip irrigation was used to the ancient custom in certain parts of India of
irrigating a tulsi plant kept in the courtyard. During the summer months,
the plant was irrigated by a hanging pitcher containing water and a minute
hole at its bottom to allow the trickling of water on to the plant. The tribal
farmers of Arunachal Pradesh practised a primitive form of drip irrigation
system using a slender bamboo as the conduit for water flow. The use of
drippers in sub-surface irrigatio n network was first experimented in
Germany in 1869. The noticeable growth of the petrochemical industry
during and after the 1950s aided manufacturing of plastic pipes at a cost
much cheaper than the cost of metallic or cement concrete pipes. Plastic
pipes are convenient for water conveyance under pressure and the plastic
material are easily formed into the desired configuration. These features
of plastic made the field -scale use of drip irrigation practicable. The drip
system was developed for field crops in Israel in the early 1960s and in
Australia and North America in the late 1960s. The area under drip
irrigation system in the USA is about 1 M ha, followed by India, Spain
and Israel. In India, there has been a tremendous growth in the area under
drip irrigation during the last 15 years. At present, around 3.5 Lakh ha
area is under drip irrigation with the efforts of the Government of India,
while it was only40 ha in 1960. Maharashtra (94,000 ha), Karnataka
(66,000 ha) and Tamil Nadu (55,000 ha) a re some of the States where
large areas have been brought under drip irrigation. Many crops are
irrigated by the drip method in India with the tree crops occupying the
maximum percentage of the total area under drip irrigation, followed by
vine crops, vege tables, field crops, flowers and othercrops.
In drip irrigation, water is applied near the plant root through emitters or
drippers, on or below the soil surface. The soil moisture is kept at an
optimum level with frequent irrigations. In this method irriga tion water is munotes.in
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85 conveyed on the surface in 12 to 16 mm diameter tubing's fed from large
feeder pipes. The water is allowed to drip or trickle slowly through the
nozzle or orifices at practically zero pressure. In this way the soil in the
root-zone of crops is constantly kept wet. Drip irrigation results in a very
high water application efficiency of about 90 -95 percent.
7.1 Major component of dripirrigation:
1. Pumpstation
2. By passassembly
3. Controlvalves
4. Filtration system
5. Fertilizertank/venturi
6. Pressuregauge
7. Mains/Sub mains
8. Laterals
9. Emittingdevices
10. Microtubes.
https://shetisamr uddhi.com
Pump station takes water from the source and provides the right pressure
for delivery into the pipe system.
Control valves control the discha rge and pressure in the entire system.
Filtration system cleans the water. Common types of filter include screen
filters and graded sand filters which remove fine material suspended in
thewater.
Fertilizer tank / venturi slowly add a measured dose of ferti lizer into the
water during irrigation. This is one of the major advantages of drip
irrigation over othermethods.
Mainlines, sub mains and laterals supply water from the control head into
the fields. They are usually made from PVC or polyethylene hose and munotes.in
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86 should be buried below ground because they easily degrade when
exposed to direct solar radiation. Lateral pipes are usually 13 -32
mmdiameter.
Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water
from the lateral to the plants. They are t ypically spaced more than 1 meter
apart with one or more emitters used fora single plant such as a tree. For
row crops more closely spaced emitters may be used to wet a strip of soil.
Many different emitter designs have been produced in recent years. The
basis of design is to produce an emitter which will provide a specified
constant discharge which does not vary much with pressure changes and
does not blockeasily.
In India, there has been a fabulous growth in the area under drip
irrigation during the last many years. At present, major area is under drip
irrigation with the help of the Government of India. Reports indicated that
Maharashtra (94,000 ha), Karnataka (66,000 ha) and Tamil Nadu (55,000
ha) are some of the States where large are as have been brought under
dripirrigation. Manycrops are irrigated by the drip method in India with
the tree crops occupying the maximum percentage of the total area under
drip irrigation, followed by vine crops, vegetables, field crops, flowers and
othercrops.
7.2 The advantages of drip irrigation areunder:
1. Possibility of using soluble fertilizers andchemicals.
2. Fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimized due to localized application
and reducedleaching.
3. Water application efficiency ishigh.
4. Field leveling is not necessary. Fields with irr egular shapes are
easilyaccommodated.
5. Recycled non -potable water can be safely used.
6. Role in frequency ofirrigation.
7. Soil erosion islessened.
8. Weed growth is lessened.
9. Water distribution is highly uniform, controlled by output of
eachnozzle.
10. Labour cost is le ss than other irrigationmethods.
11. Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves
anddrippers.
12. Plants remain dry, reducing the risk ofdisease.
13. Usually operated at lower pressure than other types of pressurized
irrigation, reducing energy costs.
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87 7.3 The shortcomings of drip irrigationare:
1. Initial cost can be more in thistechnique.
2. The sunrays can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening
their usablelife.
3. If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not suitably
maintained, it can result in blockage.
4. For subsurface drip the irrigator cannot see the water that is applied.
This may lead to the farmer either applying too much water (low
efficiency) or an insufficient amount of water; this is particularly
common for those with less e xperience with drip irrigation.
5. Drip irrigation might be inadequate if herbicides or top dressed
fertilizers need sprinkler irrigation foractivation.
6. Drip tape causes extra clean -up costs after harvest. Users need to plan
for drip tape winding, disposal, recycling orreuse.
7. Waste of water, time and harvest, if not installed proper ly. These
systems require careful study of all the relevant factors like land
topography, soil, water, crop and agro -climatic conditions and
suitability of drip irrigation system and itscomponents.
8. In lighter soils subsurface, drip may be unable to wet the soil surface
for germination. Requires careful consideration of the installation
depth.
One of the main purposes of drip irrigation is to decrease the water
consumption by reducing the leaching factor. However, when the
available water is of high salinity or alkalinity, the field soil becomes
gradually unsuitable for cultivation due to high salinity or poor infiltration
of the soil. Consequently, drip ir rigation converts fields into fallow lands
when natural leaching by rain water is not adequate in semi -arid and
aridregions.
Most drip systems are designed for high efficiency and have little or no
leakage. Without sufficient leaching, salts applied with t he irrigation
water may build up in the root zone. On the other hand, drip irrigation
avoids the high capillary potential of traditional surface -applied irrigation,
which can draw salt deposits up from deposits below. Drip irrigation
systems cannot be used for damage control by nightfrosts.
8) SprinklerIrrigation:
In the sprinkler technique of irrigation, water is sprinkled into the air and
allowed to fall on the ground surface just like rainfall. The spray is done
by the flow of water under pressure throug h small orifices or nozzles. The
pressure is generally obtained by pumping. Through proper selection of
nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of
irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied almost
unifor m at the rate to suit the infiltration rate of soil. munotes.in
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88
http://nileshwalun107j.blogspot.com
In agriculture, almost all crops are suitable for sprinkler irrigation system
except crops such as paddy and jute. The dry crops, vegetables,
flowering crops, orchar ds, plantation crops like tea, coffee are all suitable
and can be irrigated through sprinklers techniques of irrigation.
The sprinkler irrigation is categorized according to the functions which are
mentioned as under:
1. The main irrigationsystem
2. The suppleme ntary irrigationsystem
3. The protective irrigationsystem.
The sprinkler irrigation system is effective for irrigation on uneven lands
and on shallow soils. It is also suitable to coarse sandy terrain where the
percolation loss is more and where as a consequ ence, the frequency of
irrigation required is more. The sprinkler irrigation system is appropriate
in rising and falling land where land shaping is expensive or technically
not practicable. The elimination of fertile soil cover by land shaping is not
advis able. Sprinkler irrigation system can also be espoused in hilly regions
where plantation crops aregrown.
Historical facts signified that though sprinkler irrigation system is known
since 1946, yet the farmers started adopting it in huge scale only since
1980s. It began in the hilly areas of Western Ghats in States of Kerala,
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89 Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and in the North eastern States mainly for
plantation crops like coffee, tea, cardamom, rubber. Gradually it spreads
to the water scarcity and light soil Stat es of Rajasthan and Haryana in
addition to the black soil area of MadhyaPradesh.
8.1 Advantages of Sprinkler irrigation
1) Elimination of the channels for conveyance, therefore no
conveyanceloss.
2) It is suitable to all types of soil apart from heavyclay.
3) It is appropriate technique for irrigating crops where the plant
population per unit area is very high. It is most suitable for oil seeds
and other cereal and vegetablecrops.
4) It saveswater.
5) With this technique of irrigation, there is control of water application
convenient for giving light and frequent irrigation and higher water
applicationefficiency.
6) Sprinkle irrigation increases in yield.
7) There is a mobility ofsystem.
8) It may also be used for undulatingarea.
9) It saves land as no bunds arerequired.
10) This technique inf luences greater conducive micro -climate.
11) Areas located at a higher elevation than the source can be irrigated.
12) In this technique there is a possibility of using soluble fertilizers
andchemicals.
13) In this method of irrigation there is less problem of clogging of
sprinkler nozzles due to sediment ladenwater.
14) The overall cost oflabour is generally reduced in this method
ofirrigation.
15) Erosion of soil cover which is common in surface irrigation can
bereduced.
8.2 Disadvantages of Sprinklersystem:
1. In this technique, ini tial cost of implementation is high.
2. High and constant energy requirement foroperation.
3. Under high wind condition and high temperature distribution and
application efficiency is poor.
4. Highly saline water causes leaf burning when temperature is higher
than 95F.
5. When lands have been already leveled and developed for surface or
other irrigation methods sprinkler irrigation is not so economical.
6. There is loss of water due to evaporation from the area during
irrigation. munotes.in
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90 9.5 EXERCISE
1) Explain the importance of irr igation in agriculturaldevelopment.
2) Explain the various sources of irrigation and discuss various types
ofirrigation.
3) Explain briefly about methods of irrigation and state its advantages
and disadvantages.
4) Explain the traditional methods ofirrigation.
5) Write short note on -
1) Disadvantages of sprinklerirrigation.
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91 10
FARM BUSINESS MANAGEMENT -I
Unit Structure:
10.1. Objectives
10.2. Farm business management: An Introduction
10.3. Meaning, offarm business management
10.4. Objectives offarm business management
10.5. Nature of farm business management
10.6. Summary
10.7. Exercise
10.8. Reference list
10.1. OBJECTIVES:
1. Introducing the subject of agribusiness management.
2. Understanding the meaning of agribusiness management.
3. To study the objectives of agribusiness management.
4. Understanding the nature of agribusiness management.
10.2. FARM BUSINESS MANAGEMENT: AN
INTR ODUCTION
Agriculture has been a business since ancient times. But its form is being
used primarily as a means of subsistence or a way of life. In backward
economies and to some extent developing economies, agriculture is still
looked at in the same light. Developed countries, however, see agriculture
as a mere occupation. When it comes to farming, traders seem to be
thinking more and more profit keeping in mind the point of view. In recent
times, even in developing countries, attitudes towards agriculture are
changing. This change has made it necessary to manage agriculture in a
scientific manner as a business. From this came the concept of farm
management.
Technological improvements in agriculture have greatly increased the
importance of farm management. T he use of hybrid seeds, irrigation
facilities, improved implements, various fertilizers, chemicals, etc., has led
to radical changes in the nature of agricultural production. Raising your
family is not the only limitation. The farmer wants to meet his basi c needs
as well as produce for the market. Its aim is to sell agricultural munotes.in
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92 commodities in the market and buy other commodities and to raise the
standard of living not only at the level of subsistence but also at the level
of subsistence. Due to this change in the attitude of farmers, agricultural
production is now becoming commercial. In commercial agriculture, the
importance of farm business management has increased in the sense that
science helps in achieving the objectives of the farmer. In recent times not
only subsistence farming but also competitive environment, various
problems in agribusiness, features of Indian farm business etc. have been
taken into consideration by the farmers. Will. By studying farm business
management and using its principles, t he farmer will be able to make the
right decision in agribusiness. In the same vein, farm business
management science has gained importance in agribusiness.
10.3 MEANING AND CONCEPT OF FARM BUSINESS
MANAGEMENT:
Agriculture is a business that has been goin g on for years. Agriculture is
an important and revolutionary stage in human evolution. Agriculture has
been seen as a means of subsistence for thousands of years. Despite this,
agricultural systems have evolved in recent times. Due to this, its function,
scope and importance have not been fully recognized. Different people
have thought of this scripture from different points of view, interpreted it.
According to some, farm management is no different from the art of
cultivating land. Some scientists are of the opinion that agricultural
economics is no different than production economics. According to some,
agricultural economics and law were one and the same. The common man
thinks that agricultural management is to supervise the farm labor or to
carry out th e work as per the order of the employer if he is a salaried
manager. There is another point to note regarding the term 'agricultural
system'. Farm business management science involves both organization
and management of agriculture. But we say 'agricultura l management
science' for convenience. Combination is the act of making a plan.
'Arrangement' means to carry out this plan, to carry out as planned. The
farm manager has to do both.
Definition of Farm Business Management:
Since agronomy is a new science, it is difficult to define it in its entirety.
Many agricultural management scientists have interpreted this science
from their own point of view. Not all of that is perfect. But many of these
interpretations will give you an idea of what kind of scripture this is.
1) According to Adams, Farm Management - The subject is the
presentation of business and scientific findings in their application to
farming for the purpose of indicating the way to the greatest continuous
profit. Farm Man agement The method is the utilization of sound principles
in the selection, organization and conduct of an individual farm business
for the purpose of obtaining the greatest possible profit". munotes.in
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93 2) According to Warren, "The Science of organization and the
management of the farm enterprise for the purpose of securing the greatest
continuous profit."
3) According to Efferson, "The Science which considers the organization
and operation of the farm from the point of view of efficiency and
continuous profit."
4) Ac cording to Forster, Farm Management Inlaybe defined as a study of
the ways and means of organizing land, labor and capital and the
application of technical knowledge and skill in order that the farm may be
made to yield the maximum net returns".
5) Accordi ng to Yang, Farm Management is a science which deals with
the proper combination and operation of production factors including land,
labor and capital and the choice of crop and livestock enterprises to bring
about a maximum and continuous return to the mo st elementary operation
units. of farming.
6) According to Mr. Gray, "the art of successfully managing agriculture is
farm business management, and this success is measured by the
profitability test."
7) Prof. According to Efferson, "farm business manageme nt is the science
that guides us to achieve commercial goals in agriculture.
According to another interpretation given by the same author, "farm
business management is the science that studies the organization and
operation of agriculture in terms of effic iency and sustainable profit."
Leaving aside the variety of interpretations, the following can be said
about agricultural management.
1. Farm business management seems to consider the organization and
management of agriculture.
2. More and more profit i.e. commercial approach seems to be kept in
mind while farming.
3. Agricultural production capacity seems to be given more priority.
4. The ideal distribution of the resources required for farming is also taken
into consideration. The ideal distribution of re sources and its efficient
and efficient utilization is always seen as leading to profit or moving
towards profit.
10.4. OBJECTIVES OF AGRIBUSINESS MANAGEMENT
1) To increase production -
Farm business is still largely subsistence farming. Therefore, the yield is
very small. Of course, not all needs can be met. It is important to increase
production to get maximum profit. munotes.in
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94 2) Planning for profitable / commercial farming -
Planning is essential if you want to do any profitable business. The same
principle appli es to agribusiness. The maximum profit is achieved through
proper planning.
3) Management of inputs -
Fertilizers, seeds, pesticides, water supply tools and implements are used
in agribusiness. Applying the right amount of fertilizer, systematic
spraying of pesticides, selection of suitable seeds, avoidance of excess
water, use of necessary implements are all considered in farm business
management to make agribusiness profitable.
4) Make full use of the tool -
In any business, land, labor, capital and co mbination are the factors that
play an important role. Only a proper combination of these four
components can produce a good product. Therefore, adequate and efficient
use of these tools is essential.
5) Development of allied agriculture activities -
The development of other occupations along with agriculture is important
in farm business management. In this farm business management it is
always beneficial to start animal husbandry, dairy development, poultry,
fisheries, floriculture, processing industries . Considering India's natural
condition and maximum profit, it is appropriate to consider allied
agriculture activities along with agriculture. Because these businesses are
interdependent. This adds to the total income.
6) Adoption of new devices and tec hniques -
Agriculture development requires reforms in agriculture. Technological
improvements have increased agricultural productivity in many parts of
the world. Work that is not done with the help of manpower or creates
problems is done quickly with the help of machinery. Also, if you do not
get the support of nature, you will have to bear huge losses.
7) Generating Employment -
In agriculture in a modern way with a business approach requires both
skilled and unskilled workers. Both skilled and unski lled workers can be
engaged in farm business and allied agriculture activities. This creates a
lot of employment opportunities at the village level.
8) Measures on Rural Unemployment -
Along with laborers, literate and illiterate men and women as well as
needy people of all ages get employment from agribusiness. Farm
business management provides employment opportunities to people in
rural areas. Therefore, the objective of controlling poverty and
unemployment automatically succeeds. munotes.in
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95 9) Migration control -
Migration in the city is largely controlled due to employment generation at
the village level. Farm business management provides employment to the
rural people throughout the year. So there are limits on migration. It helps
to reduce many of the problem s that arise in the city. Disintegration of
villages is not only an economic problem but also a threat to rural life.
11) Maximum use of land -
Land is an important component of agricultural production. Production
cannot take place without the cooperatio n of the land. Land is a natural
and free gift. Land supply is almost inflexible. Land grading is not the
same. Therefore, it is important to make full and efficient use of available
land. This important objective is achieved through farm business
manageme nt.
12) Need of Time -
The percentage of urban population is increasing day by day. Farming in
the city is partly difficult. It is imperative to bring maximum land in rural
areas under commercial cultivation.
13) Support for Economic Equality -
Econom ic inequality in rural areas is due to unequal distribution of land.
Large landholders more benefits than small landholders. Adopting
agribusiness will benefit small landholders and reduce economic
inequality. The power to contribute to economic equality l ies in farm
business management.
14) Avoiding demand -supply discrepancies -
There is a big difference between other sectors of the economy and
agriculture. Control of goods produced in other areas can be controlled.
But in the case of agriculture, it is difficult. When the crop is plentiful and
the nature of the commodity is perishable, the prices of commodities go
down. And when prices are high it is exactly opposite. This creates a
discrepancy between supply and demand. This discrepancy will be easily
avoided if a business approach is developed in agriculture.
15) Relation between price and cost -
One of the characteristics found in agricultural production is the infinite
correlation between commodity prices and costs. This disparity in price
and cos t leads to inequality in income. In the case of perishable goods,
price has little to do with cost. The goods appear to have been sold at a
lower price within the spoilage. Efforts are made in farm management to
prevent this.
16) Relation between Expendi ture and Income -
The decision of a farmer to cultivate a field is based on the estimated yield
of that crop. The rate at which commodity prices fluctuate does not munotes.in
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96 increase or decrease the cost. Changes in the cost of farming occur early.
Therefore, how to increase the income according to the demand -supply is
considered in farm business management.
17) To motivate the product -
Growth cannot be accelerated without increasing agricultural production
during economic growth. Farm business management will be important for
sustainable production considering the adversities in the agricultural
business.
18) For grain storage transaction requirement -
In an agrarian economy, commodity prices have an impact on other
factors. In such economy, stabilization of com modity prices is essential for
general price stabilization. Grain storage transactions can be mentioned as
the most useful tool to achieve this. This requires maximum productivity.
Maximum production is possible through farm business management.
19) Curb hoarding -
In case of maximum production, the government has accepted the
responsibility of buying and selling grain storage transactions, thus
limiting such transactions as stockbrokers. This helps in creating artificial
scarcity as well as getting lower rates to the producers.
20) To increase sales and sales -
Maximum agricultural production leads to increase in sales. As a result,
sales increase. It seems to have an effect on the overall economy. It seems
to have helped in the export of agricultural co mmodities.
21) Cereal Self -sufficiency -
Achieving maximum productivity from farm business can help the country
become self -sufficient in food grains. As a result, it may help to get rid of
the oppressive conditions of the country from which the food is to be
imported.
22) Increase in Gross Income in Agriculture -
The adoption of management in farm business helps in creating
consistency of production in agricultural commodities by producing the
right quantity of goods and selling the goods at the right pr ice. The
country is moving towards self -sufficiency in food grains and can benefit
the people in many ways. As a result, farm business will be seen as a
prestigious business for the farmers by raising its status.
10.5. NATURE OF FARM BUSINESS MANAGEMENT -
The p rinciple of maximizing profits in agriculture is called farm business
management. In this agricultural economics is studied. The cost per
hectare and per quintal is calculated from the profit earned on how much munotes.in
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97 is spent. It deals with agricultural related occupations. It is managed with
land, labor, cropping pattern and investment in mind. Farm business
management is a science that differs from others in its nature.
1) Micro Approach -
Although agriculture is one and the same business, due to the availab le
resources, capacity, natural conditions, each farm is different and unique.
The science works to study the field at a partial level considering the fact
that the problems may be different. The approach of this science is partial,
given the fact that dif ferent fields are less likely to be the same in terms of
agricultural fertility, availability of resources as well as farmer efficiency,
etc. Of course, the science provides a detailed guide on the organization of
tools, their distribution, and ultimately how to maximize production in a
field that produces within the limits of specific conditions.
2) Consider the field as a whole -
The field is studied as a major component without studying agriculture in
general or in a broader context. Since the ultimat e goal is to get the
maximum output from the entire field, decisions are made on this subject
with the field as a unit. Activities like food grain production, horticulture,
animal husbandry, dairying etc. can be undertaken in the field. From all
these acti vities, all aspects of the field to get maximum production and
income, for this, proper combination of various tools are considered by
this branch. It also provides guidance on how to best integrate this
business into the various confines of the field.
3) Wide area -
The diameter of agricultural management is very large. Because it covers
many subjects from natural sciences to social sciences. Therefore, an
expert in this subject needs to know the principles of his own science,
besides knowledge of many other subjects related to agricultural
production. Naturally, the scope of this science has become wider.
4) Applied Sciences -
The practical side of farm business management is very important. The
task of this science is to examine the practicality o f the research and
conclusions drawn by many other branches and then to provide
information on how they can be applied in specific situations.
5) Consideration of benefits -
Other sciences related to agriculture study the facts. But it does not
consider whether or not a particular process can be profitable. The
emphasis of farm business management is on economic efficiency i.e.
maximizing profits in the field. For example, agricultural engineering will
do the job of explaining the comparative quality of machinery used in
agriculture. But in a particular agricultural situation, the combination of
which of the following machines would be beneficial is considered in farm
business management. munotes.in
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98 Farm business management as a whole is an attempt to apply commerci al
principles in the work of agriculture from a farmer's point of view.
Management resources in farm business -
There are various things involved in starting agriculture as a business. The
management of farm basically depends on how we are utilizing the
resources like Land, Water, Labour, and Capital.
https://www.google.com
1. Equipment Evaluation -
A) Land : -
First of all, to inspect all the land on the farm, you have to look closely at
the number of plots in the field. Its information should be w ritten in
tabular form. It includes the type of soil in each plot, soil type, soil
holding, irrigation facilities, drainage system, soil chemical analysis etc.
The information should be extracted in the form of a table.
B) Water and drainage system: -
Where did you give water to each plot, what did you give, how much did
you give, when did you give it? It should be seen whether it is given on
time or not, from a management point of view, one should try to reduce
the cost by saving water.
C) Labor : -
How many seasonal approvals are available when the farmer / manager is
considering labor? What are the qualities? This should be taken into
consideration. How much human hair is available each month? It needs to
be planned. Consider how many houses and wa ges are available and how
much wages have to be paid. This will estimate the amount of cash
required.
D) Capital : -
This component includes farms, buildings, animals, machinery, tools,
water tools. What is the area under agriculture? How much garden area?
At this level, it is necessary to consider how much area will be under
which crop, how many permanent items will be required accordingly, how munotes.in
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99 much capital investment will be required in it, and how much current
capital will be required.
E) Chemical fertilizers : -
Plan the amount of fertilizer to be applied to each crop according to the
area. Fertilizer quantity should be given to the crop by allocating capital
for this purpose. Scientific compost should be made from animal dung,
cow dung, wastage s in agriculture, etc. also crops like dicotyledonous
crops should be taken to meet the need for fertilizer. If there is an
arrangement to live on the farm, then by installing a biogas farmer can get
triple benefit of (1) power generation (2) fertilizer (3 ) gas for cooking
2. Identification of alternative product : -
It is important to know the technology based on off -farm tools. Traditional
farming business continues in India. The earlier idea of farming for
subsistence has been replaced by the ide a of doing business as an industry.
It requires the adoption of management science. An important step in this
is to make the manager / farmer aware of new ventures, new technologies.
Only then will he be able to extract low cost produce from his farm and
make maximum profit. E.g.
1) Cash crops should be taken in more areas instead of food crops. Eg
sunflower, soybean, tur, pomegranate, dried fruit trees etc.
2) Use more productive or hybrid seeds than using local varieties of the
crop.
3) Rent a tractor i nstead of cultivating with oxen.
4) Planning of disease / pest control measures on the crop or spraying of
pesticides / insecticides as recommended in case of disease / pest
infestation.
5) Scientific composting of farm excrement using dung, animal manure. If
there is a system of living on the farm then by installing a biogas
machine and using the dung to get the triple benefit of (1) power
generation (2) fertilizer (3) gas for cooking.
6) Irrigation of crops by drip irrigation system with a view to economi cal
use of agricultural water; This saves water, if the cost of watering is
saved then the area under water can be increased.
7) Increase the income by raising some crossbred cows for milk
production business with a view to utilizing the by -products of
agriculture along with crop production and utilizing the available time
of the family member. If a business like crossbred cows is difficult in
terms of capital investment, then goat rearing, raising chickens, small
business like silk production. Thus gaining knowledge of various
activities (production of different crops) and use of improved
techniques on agriculture. From that, the farmer should choose the
technology that suits his farming business. munotes.in
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100 3. Specifying the objectives of agribusiness : -
The m ain objectives of agribusiness management have already been
stated. Apart from that it has some objectives.
A) Increase production by making maximum use of available resources.
B) Adopting new techniques in agriculture and incorporating those
activities wh ich are profitable into the activities for the progress of farm
business.
C) When selecting any venture, the selection should be confirmed by
comparing it with other ventures. Choosing the most economically viable
venture is more likely to increase profits .
Even if the farmer decides to grow any crop in a joint venture and decides
to make maximum profit, are the required resources available? If not, can
they be obtained? Can alternative arrangements be made if not available?
If there are any difficulties in marketing the goods after production, what
should be done about it? Also, what are the possible risks in producing
agricultural products? How intense is it? The farm manager or the farmer
must know all this.
4. Difficulties in getting the tools required in farm business -
First of all, the important material in the instrumentation is the capital
goods. Any farmer has to have some basic things to do in order to
cultivate. E.g. Plows, plows, plows, bullocks, bullock carts, minor
implements and materials bu t if the area of agriculture is maximum then
there is a tendency to buy more tools and implements. Many studies have
shown that as a farmer's land holding area increases, so does his capital
investment. In particular, as the horticulture sector grows, so does the
amount of capital investment. Even if this is true, was this capital
investment appropriate after deducting the cost of crop production or milk
production? You have to make sure. E.g. suppose a farmer has 10 acres of
land. Should he keep the bullock cart? And how much does it cost? Is
there such a large amount of cash? If not, will I get the loan amount?
These questions are facing the farmers. If a pair of oxen can be used for
100 to 120 days of cultivation on 10 acres of land, then should the oxen be
left empty f or the remaining days? If it is left empty then the cost of
feeding the bull will have to be borne. If a pair of oxen does not have farm
work on that day, then it is possible to hire or transport goods on another's
farm on that day, then the farmer can aff ord to keep an ox pair. Otherwise
he should not keep oxen on the farm. There are many such things to
consider. There are some difficulties in getting agricultural capital used.
E.g.
1) If he decides to use his own capital goods, then he should buy only
those things which are necessary for the farm and which will be used
for most of the year.
2) Do you have the seeds of the crops that you have decided to grow on
the farm? If not, make sure it is available in the market. There are also
constraints in getting seeds in the market. e.g. munotes.in
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101 Seed : -
A) Not getting on time
B) Belongs to an unaffordable brother.
C) Not getting the caste you want.
D) Not available before sowing season
E) If expensive seeds are taken and no rain falls during the sowing season,
sowing doe s not take place.
And since most of the crop varieties are hybrids, if they are not sown in
the current year, the germination capacity of the seeds in the next year will
not be as good.
This delays crop planning. Therefore, it is not possible for a farmer to
decide which crop to keep under which area.
Fertilizers: -
In order to maintain the soil credit, farmers use organic manure through
compost. If you want to apply cow dung to all the crops, you don't have to
buy that much on your own farm. Estimate the t otal need for manure. The
same can be said for composting. The account will be planned as per the
recommendation but if it is not available or available in small quantities, it
will not give the expected income. The following are the problems with
chemical fertilizers.
A) There are no goods in the market at the time of purchase.
B) Not getting the company and the type of fertilizer you want.
C) Fertilizer prices being unaffordable.
D) Fertilizer availability should be in the place of a large co -operative
society, in the place of a sugar factory in the taluka, but when there is
insufficient stock during the critical period, fertilizer is not available as
per demand and a lot of help is required.
F) There is no safe house or place on the farm for storing manur e.
If he decides to take the crop as per the plan, he will have to make
arrangements for several days before sowing the required amount of
fertilizer.
Water: -
Water is an important factor in crop production. Crops have to be planned
according to the avail ability of water. Since water supply is dependent on
nature, perennial, semi -perennial seasonal water can be used to estimate
the area to be used and decide which crop to take and how much to take.
As the overall availability of the tool (numerically and q uantitatively), it munotes.in
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102 should be taken on as much area as it is feasible to take the crop.
Otherwise the farmer has to face huge financial loss.
Labor for crop production or animal care: -
Information on how much labor will be required each month for crop
production and animal husbandry on the farm, how much will be available
for the house and how much will be required for rent, should be prepared
on the crop initiative for a month. Once the crops are sown or the animals
are taken care of, the farmer will have to settle for a lower yield of the
crop and livestock.
The above discussion leads to the conclusion that whether the farmer has
the means to purchase the equipment, resources or resources required for
each crop or undertaking, for which he wants to take or plan for the crop,
undertaking or not? Is it convenient to take? Whether there is any
provision for payment of rent, all these things should be put in writing on
paper so that the farmer does not suffer any loss or damage.
5. Consideration of the proble m in the market system of agricultural
commodities : -
Planning on agriculture is mainly related to the market system.
Commercial crops like cereals, crops, sugarcane, cotton, vegetables, fruits,
eggs, milk etc. Agricultural commodities are manufactured. H ow much
area to invest for these different crops or undertakings depends on factors
such as land, capital, labor, etc., as well as the market system. Which
commodity has a market price? What goods are in demand? Which goods
are exported? Accordingly, the p rogram of agricultural income should be
decided.
In case of non -food grains, the problem of the farmer is the difficulty of
storage of the produce once it is ready. If there is no good storage system,
the goods have to be sold immediately. If the goods are taken for sale in
the market, the price obtained by deducting transport, excise, commission
and other expenses is getting higher, then the farmers should reduce the
production cost of each unit. Only then can the crop be profitable by
selling such goods.
However, in the case of vegetables and fruits, the market price fluctuates a
lot. Prices go up and down on the principles of supply and demand. These
goods have to be sold as they are perishable. The share in the consumer's
rupee is almost half of the pric e received by the farmer. For this the farmer
should take the following care in the production of goods while planning
such crops.
1) Good quality goods should be prepared.
2) Seedlings of the same variety should be used for the same variety.
3) Classify t he goods.
4) Packing and transportation should be done so that the goods do not get
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103 5) Goods which are not consumed or prices fall sharply should be used as
an alternative to the Processing Products industry.
6) Go ods should be sent to two markets instead of one.
7) If you do not have a vehicle for transporting goods, you can purchase
your own vehicle or use it in general. Or through a co -operative society
or if transport is done.
8) Try to send good quality goods b y visiting the marketing firm which is
exporting foreign goods or the co -operative society which is doing such
work.
9) After studying the market prices of big markets like Mumbai,
Ahmedabad, Delhi, Hyderabad, and Bangalore for the last 3/4 years, in
which week and on which festival the goods market is better. By
studying this, the planning of sowing, planting, harvesting and
harvesting of the crop should be done by making a plan that the goods
can be sent at the same time.
Also, while harvesting the goods, the daily market price, the inflow and
outflow of the goods, this information should be collected through radio,
newspaper, phone, merchant friend and its notes should be kept and
accordingly the program of transporting the goods for sale should be
planne d.
Overall, the farmer / manager when it comes to planning the production of
goods. At the same time planning the sale of goods will make the market
easier.
6. To know the dangers and severity of dangers in farm business : -
There may be risks in agric ultural production, in the use of tools, in the
sale of goods; these risks can be estimated on the basis of statistics, the
extent or risk. But there may be some small errors in this estimate. Also in
some farm business some matters are considered to be of uncertainty. The
insurance company pays compensation as per the rules if the insurance is
taken out at the risk of such things. If farmers take seasonal crops like
sugarcane, tobacco, potato or fruits like pomegranate, grape, and guava
from year to year, the variation can be deduced by statistical analysis of 15
to 20 year old acreage depending on the weather. And the danger can be
predicted.
Drought is prevalent in Maharashtra, especially in Central Maharashtra.
Studying the rainfall over the last 100 yea rs (total rainfall figures), it is
possible to estimate the number of years of severe drought and the number
of years during which drought conditions occur. The year of drought can
be predicted so that the risk of drought can be predicted by making major
changes in crop planning to avoid financial losses. However, in recent
times crop insurance schemes have been introduced for some crops.
Animals are also insured.
Locust infestation, storms and fruit trees are not considered as a threat. So
it is considered a natural disaster -uncertain. Agriculture, building fires, munotes.in
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104 motorcycle, jeep accidents, major breakdowns. This, however, is now
considered a threat. As the incidence of such incidents is increasing, there
is a provision to insure such matters through the G eneral Insurance
Corporation. The peasantry uses the same sense of danger and uncertainty.
Then the fluctuations in the prices of agricultural commodities, the
fluctuations in the acreage of agricultural commodities, the seasonal
fluctuations in the rates of wages, etc., can be measured as to how
dangerous / uncertain the phenomena are in the primary form. Statisticians
like Mean, Mean Deviation, Standard Deviation, and Coefficient of
Variation.
10.6. SUMMARY:
Agricultural production depends not only on nature b ut also on the method
adopted by the farmer. In natural matters the farmer cannot control the
soil, rainfall, regular rainfall, temperature, humidity, thunder, wind, excess
rainfall, drought, ground water level. Sometimes nature is helpful and
sometimes it is not. So there is product uncertainty. But the farmer can
control how much, how and when to use unnatural or man -made tools.
These tools include seeds, manure, chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
pesticides, farm implements, machinery, oil engines, electr ic motors and
many more. Over the last two -three decades, due to advances in
agricultural technology, farmers have started adopting new techniques
efficiently, planning, when and how to use them, implementing them and
evaluating them in a gross way. Raising your family is not the only
limitation. The farmer wants to meet his basic needs as well as produce for
the market. Its aim is to sell agricultural commodities in the market and
buy other commodities and to raise the standard of living not only at the
level of subsistence but also at the level of subsistence. Due to this change
in the attitude of farmers, agricultural production is now becoming
commercial. In this commercial agriculture, the importance of
agribusiness management has increased in the sense that science helps in
achievi ng the objectives of the farmer.
10.7. EXERCISE:
1. Explain the concept of farm business management with various
definitions.
2. Elaborate the nature of farm business management.
3. What are the objectives of farm business management?
10.8. REFERENCE LIST :
1) Agribusiness Management - Pvt. Dr. Waghmare a nd. A. , Pvt. Dr. In
Dhondge.W. , PrachiPrakashan, Mumbai - 92.
2) Agricultural Economics - Dr. Kavimandan Vijay, Sri Mangesh
Prakashan, Nagpur - 440010.
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105 11
FARM BUSINESS MANAGEMENT -II
Unit Structure:
11.1 Objectives.
11.2 AnIntroduction.
11.3 Principles of farm business management.
11.4 Factors of agricultural production.
11.5 Importance of farm business management.
11.6 Exercise.
11.1. OBJECTIVES:
1) To know the principles of agribusine ss management.
2) To study the components of agricultural production.
3) To know the importance of agribusiness management.
11.2. INTRODUCTION:
Agriculture is a business that has been going on for years. Agriculture is
an important and revolutionary stage in human evolution. Agriculture has
been seen as a means of subsistence for thousands of years. Despite this,
agricultural systems have evolved in recent times. Due to this, its function,
scope and importance have not been fully recognized. Different people
have thought of this scripture from different points of view, interpreted it.
According to some, agricultural management is no different from the art of
cultivating land. Some scientists are of the opinion that agricultural
economics is no different than pr oduction economics. According to some,
agricultural economics and law were one and the same. The common man
thinks that agricultural management is to supervise the labor on the farm
or, if he is a salaried manager, to carry out the work as per the orders o f
the employer. There is another point to note regarding the term
'agricultural system'. Agribusiness management science involves both
organization and management of agriculture. But we say 'agricultural
management science' for convenience. Combination is the act of making a
plan. 'Arrangement' means to carry out this plan, to carry out as planned.
The farm manager has to do both.
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106 11.3. PRINCIPLES OF FARM BUSINESS
MANAGEMENT
The principles of farm business management can be explained as follows.
1) Pr incipal of changing quantity (Law of Variable Proportion) -
In the study of farm business management, we can see the three stages in
production. The first stage is of increasing returns, second stage is of
stable returns and third stage is of diminishing returns.
A) Stage of Increasing Returns -
As the amount of resource utilization increases, the total production as
well as marginal production also increases which tends to increase
returns? This tendency is seen for a short term period. From the po int of
view of production strategy, production can be kept increasing as long as
the increasing returns of equipment adds to the production.
B) Stage of Stable Returns -
In this stage the amount of resource utilization increases, so total
production also increases but marginal production does not increase, it
remains stable. If the product is found to be beneficial there is no problem
in producing as long as there is a stable returns.. Of course, some of the
tools used (e.g. management) become stagna nt over a period of time
without changing. The productivity of a device depends on the other
device used with it. Therefore, due to the different availability of land,
capital and labor in each field, the decisions of each are different. In short,
consider ing the available tools, one should try to think of them as a
suitable combination.
C) Stage of Diminishing Returns -
This is an enduring trend in agriculture. In this stage the amount of
resource utilization increases, but total production does not in creases as in
earlier stage also marginal production starts decreasing. An experience
shows that It is not always possible to increase productivity by increasing
the volume of the tool. This means that there is a time when the cost of
quantity does not inc rease enough to cover it. It is advantageous to
increase the quantity of equipment as long as the cost of the quantity
produced from the increased production is covered. After these limits,
however, marginal production is less than marginal expenditure.. H ere, it
is necessary to stop the process of increasing the volume before the final
limit is reached. This tendency can also lead to an idea of how much to
use, such as fertilizer, labor, or machinery.
2) Principle of Expenditure -
Expenditure is a crucial factor in any business. The agriculture business is
no exception. Subtracting the total expenses from the total income gives
the net income. One way to increase income is to keep spending to a munotes.in
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107 minimum. Expenditure on certain components in agriculture, like other
occupations, is constant. This means that there is no significant difference
in the cost of production, no matter how much or how litt le. E.g. Insurance
premium. Expenditure on electricity, taxes, etc. While fixed costs are short
term, long term costs are variable. The changing cost varies according to
the level of production. Expenditure on fertilizers, seeds, water supply,
labor, etc. will be higher only when the level of production is high. In the
short run, of course, these costs have to be taken into consideration when
deciding on a product. The variable cost and fixed cost in the product is
fixed. The farmer has to think in terms of different times while doing
profitable farming.
The following principles can generally be stated in this regard.
A) Short term -
In the short term profit or income is same during this period. But the effort
of the farmer should be such that out of th e total income received, the cost
will be covered even if the diagnosis is changed. If the cost of marginal
quantity is equal to the revenue from marginal quantity, then the net
income will be more. If the total income is less than the total cost, there i s
no problem in continuing production. Production can be increased as long
as the revenue at the border is more than the cost at the border. Even if
short term losses occur, efforts should be made to keep losses to a
minimum without stopping production. Th is is often the case in
agriculture. When the marginal receipt is less than the average total
expenditure. The reason for this is that even if the gain is small, it covers
the cost of changing the average, so the loss is minimal. ( In commercial
farming th is is fine but in Indian conditions many farmers have to cultivate
with nilaja, then there is profit or loss, because there is no other option but
to cultivate. Also hope to make up the shortfall next season. It is natural to
be confused.)
B) Long term -
It is not advisable to make continuous losses during this period as it is very
long. In this case, it would be better not to produce. The gross income
during this period should be profitable ie fixed and adjustable to cover the
variable expenses . Not o nly that, maximizing profits should be the main
objective during this period and production decisions should be made
accordingly. It works even if the cost is not covered in a short period of
time. Because changing the diagnosis costs money. But in the lon g run, it
is necessary to cover both these costs and make a profit.
3) Principle of component replacement -
Farmers use various equipments while farming. Before getting production
or income farmer has to pay for these equipments then he gets income.
Some of these tools can be replaced up to a limit. This means that one
component can be reduced and another component can be used. But doing
so should not reduce production or, in other words, replacement should
either increase the cost or decrease the cos t. It results in decrease or munotes.in
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108 increase in production. E.g. Using a tractor instead of oxen for plowing the
land, harvesting with the help of machine instead of laboring, milking with
machine instead of milking by hand etc. Thus, when using different
compone nts for production, the farmer has to choose from the various
options that are available to him, considering which option is the least cost
combination. This requires a comparative study of marginal replacement
rates (i.e., the number of substituted compon ents divided by the number of
multiplied components). This is where the replacement rate and cost i.e.
the process of replacing the components is most beneficial.
4) Alternative / Opportunity Cost Principle -
Land, capital and labor are the main mean s of production. If these factors
are easily available to farmer, then there is no question of choosing
activity of agriculture like crop production, poultry etc. Farmer can easily
engage in any agriculture activity. But in reality the availability of fact ors
or equipments are limited. Although the land is large, the labor force is
limited. Or sometimes both land and capital are scarce. Therefore, the
question arises as to which agriculture activity will bring more profit. In
that sense, the principle of al ternative spending is a guide. In a situation
where the amount of labor, land and capital adds to the product, the profit
will be highest, and it will be appropriate to choose the same business.
One should choose the activity which gives the maximum margin al gain
without considering the maximum average gain due to the factor..Suppose,
if it is possible to do three occupations namely Crop production, Dairy and
Poultry and for this farmer has a capital of Rs.5000 for this. A net profit of
Rs.1,100 is spent on the production of five quantities of capital in the same
amount of Rs.100. Assuming that, in such a scenario, since the highest net
profit and average return from crop production, it seems obvious that it
should be chosen. However, considering the extent to which each amount
of capital (Rs. 100) contributes to the three businesses, the net profit
increases. This means that if all the five quantities are spent on three
different businesses for marginal gain without spending on a single crop
production, the net profit will increase. Therefore, when choosing a
business, one should consider the attainment of boundaries. The tools that
the farmer has can be used as an alternative. That tool should be used
considering which business might be the best. Of course w hen we decide
to use it for a business we cancel out its other uses. The idea of alternative
spending is helpful when making this decision. If the tool was used for
further alternative use instead of specific use, the benefit would be called
alternative expenditure. It should be used in the business where the tool is
giving the highest net profit.
5) The principle of business alignment -
A variety of occupations can be done in agriculture. The farmer has to
make a selection considering the cost invo lved, the price of the product
and the relationship between the businesses. The interrelationships of
business are different. Some businesses are independent. That is, they do
not affect each other much. A farmer with limited resources will not
choose such business. Because it is a natural expectation that one business munotes.in
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109 should help another. The reason for adding dairy business to agriculture is
that fodder is available to cattle. So cow dung can be used as manure. We
call such businesses ancillary businesses . It is worthwhile to choose a
business that is more complementary. Uncertainty and risk are high in
agricultural production. Changes in natural elements are a source of
uncertainty. In addition, changes in the price of inputs required for a
particular bus iness, changes in the price of manufactured goods also add to
the uncertainty. Therefore, these aspects need to be considered while
determining the business fit when deciding the method of crop production.
E.g. It is true that the use of hybrid seeds gives higher yields. But these
crops are prone to diseases and pests. This also has to be considered. A
farmer who places more importance on safety will reduce improvements
that are more risky. When choosing a business or crop type, the effect of
time between t he costs involved and the costs involved cannot be
underestimated. E.g. Limited land can be used regularly for crop
production. Or if you plant an orchard, you can get it only after investing
money for a few years. Today, the decision to pay a higher price for a
dairy cow or to spend some time rearing a calf for less money is a similar
one. In this context, one has to consider the present value of future
acquisitions.
6) Principles of Agricultural Decision Process -
The farm is considered as the unit i n the farm management process. The
principle of maximum profit is the main reason behind all these decision
making processes. In this context, it is decided how to organize the
resources in agriculture and how to conduct various activities in
agricultural cultivation. Basically, the work of this science is to apply the
principles of economics and agricultural science to the organization and
activities in the field of agriculture. Crop production, animal husbandry,
mechanization, labor planning are all part of agriculture allied activity.
And in it, financial principles are the guide in making the right decision.
This means that there is no separate principle for each of these parts, but
each element applies to all parts. And all the principles apply to each part.
(There is no separate principle or rule for each part of the business; each
principle applies to all parts of farming and all principles apply to each
part of farming.)
7) Principles of Important Decision Making -
Given the nature of modern far ming, farmers need to make timely
decisions. These decisions relate to the allocation of available resources,
efficient use and ultimately maximization of revenue. The certainty that
exists in other professions makes the decision making process very
regula r. But due to the dependence on nature, there is uncertainty in
agricultural production and hence the accuracy of the decision is
important. What to Produce, How to Produce, How much to produce are
the three important decisions.
The following are some of the things that farmers have to decide under
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110 a) Cropping Pattern -
The farmer has to decide which crops to grow in a particular season. This
decision can be taken only after considering the quality of the land, natural
conditions, market conditions, price trend of agricultural commodities etc.
b) Animal Breeding -
Whether the business is main or complementary, the farmer has to decide
how it will look like. The most suitable type is selected from various
occupations like animal husbandry and dairy business, poultry farming.
https://mieshetkari.com
c) Product level -
After deciding which product to take, it is important to decide the level of
production of that crop. Of course, the nature of the demand for a
commodity, its price, durability, etc. influence this decision.
d) Method of cultivation -
One has to decide which method of cultivation to adopt to produce the
specified variety. Much will depend on the availability of resources, the
knowledge of the f armer, the approach, the norms of the region.
e) Area under crop -
It is important for the farmer to decide how much area of land to cultivate
after deciding on the type of crop and other matters. Against the backdrop
of natural uncertainty and market volatility, it may be inappropriate to
place more area under any one crop. The decision will also depend on the
size of the holding area. In a country like India where there are small
holding areas of affordable size, this decision has a lot of limitations .
f) Tool / Equipment / Factor ratio -
Land, capital and labor are important tools in agricultural production. Of
these, the supply of land is limited. The combination of such a tool has to
decide the amount of labor and capital, which will reduce the co st and
increase the income.
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111 g) Tool / Equipment / Factor matching and replacement -
Integration of means requires replacement of labor and capital. The main
purpose behind tool replacement is to strike a balance between natural
means of production and m anmade tools. When replacing labor and
capital, one has to consider the availability of labor. Excessive
replacement of labor is not appropriate where the use of capital can make
the labor force useless. But the fact that the device increases efficiency
cannot be ignored. Therefore, the decision to combine these two tools
properly is very important.
h) Thoughts of Reforms -
Agricultural production is determined not only by the means of cultivation
but also by various reforms. In case of soil erosion, the farmer has to make
a decision keeping in view the far reaching consequences of land
conservation measures, digging and constructing wells, fencing the farm,
and taking measures to maintain fertility.
11.3.1. Activities in Farm business Management -
One of the major components of farm business management is field
management. Field management means trying to achieve the objective of
agricultural production by making maximum use of limited resources like
land, human labor, capital.farm business management i s a practical
process. It is not a single action, it is very complex and fast. It is important
to set goals for the proper use of the tools available in farm business
management. And it is important to complete it on time. At present, the
purpose of farmin g for Indian farmers is not only subsistence farming, but
in recent times, their tendency has shifted towards capital formation.
In order to be successful in farm business, Farm business management
process has to be carried out. This process involves the f ollowing actions.
1) Inspection -
Full inspection of all agricultural land and equipment. Draw a map if
possible. It is important to list all the devices, check the status or copy of
each device and record it.
2) Planning -
Initially crop produc tion plan should be prepared. Estimate the area, crop
variety, fertilizer, medicines, water, labor, mantra hours. No matter how
much it costs, the rhythm should be such that the work day of the people
who use the money properly should be appropriate. Plann ing should be a
way to reduce costs and maximize profits.
3) Evaluate -
After planning, what is the cost per hectare of each undertaking, how
much income can be earned, how many working days will the householder
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112 be used? How much does it cost? Decisions can be made according to the
feasibility of each venture and the profitability.
4) Implementation -
Once the decision has been taken as to which activities should be carried
out as per the plan, it should be implemented as strictly as possible.
Equipment supply, capital adequacy, market etc. Things have to go as
planned. Natural disasters are not an option.
5) Control -
Control is required to achieve the objectives of var ious initiatives as
planned. Management and control are required for timely and expected
profit while various activities are being carried out on the farm.
6) Accepting responsibility for decision making and implementation
By the end of the year, the m anagement understands what the outcome is.
Analyze the farm business economically and find out how much the
various components have received. From that, the test of management can
be seen. All these responsibilities depend on the decision taken by the
farm er / manager and the manner in which the decision is implemented.
She has to accept them.
11.4. FACTORS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION : -
Goods or services have to be produced to meet the needs of the consumer.
The process of adding value to an existing produ ct or service is called
production. The components involved in the production process that
requires certain product components to be added to the utility of the
product or service are called inputs or product components. Product
component is a financial te rm that describes the inputs used in the
production of goods or services for financial gain. The equipment required
for the production of a good or service is called the input or product
component. This includes any resources needed to create a good or
service. For example, farmers use soil, tractors, water, etc. to produce
paddy. These various inputs are classified into four components of
production namely land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship. We can
discuss these factors as follows:
1) LAND: -
The t erm ‘land’ generally refers to the surface of the earth. But in
economics, it includes all that, which is available free of cost from ‘nature’
as a gift to human beings. Land stands for all nature, living and non living
which are used by man in production. Even though land is passive factor
and it does not possess any ability to produce on its own, it is an important
agent of production. Modern economists consider land as a specific factor
of production, which can be put, not only to a specific purpose but to
several other uses.
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113 Definition of Land : -
1) According to Prof. Marshall “By land is meant not merely land in the
strict sense of the word, but the whole of the materials and forces which
nature gives freely for man’s aid in land, water, in air and l ight and heat.”
2) According to Prof. K. Mehta “Land is a specific factor or that it is the
specific element in a factor or again that it is the specific aspect of a
thing.”
Land includes: -
i) Surface of the earth like plains , plateaus, mountains, etc.
ii) Sea, rivers, ponds, etc.
iii) Air, light, etc.
iv) Oil, coal, natural gas, etc.
v) Silver, gold and other metals and minerals.
Characteristics of Land: -
1. Free Gift of Nature : -
Basically, land is available free of cost from the nature. In the initial
stages, man paid no price for the land acquired by him. However, to
improve the usefulness or fertility of land or to make some improvements
over land, some expenditure is to be incurred, but as such, it is available at
no cost from nature. Man has to make efforts in order to acquire other
factors of production. But to acquire land no human efforts are needed.
Land is not the outcome of human labor. Rather, it existed even long
before the evolution of man.
2. Supply of Land is Fixed : -
Supply of l and is fixed in quantity. It means supply of land cannot be
increased or decreased like other factors of production. Although for an
individual, supply of land may be flexible, but at macro level, the overall
supply of land is fixed. However, only effectiv e supply of land can be
increased by making an intensive use of land.
3) Difference in Fertility : -
All lands are not equally fertile. Different patches of land have different
degrees of fertility. Some locations are very fertile and have very good
agricultural productivity, whereas some patches are totally barren and
nothing can be grown there. Similarly, the degree of richness of mineral
wealth varies from place to place, making the land more useful or less
useful from economic point of view.
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114 4) Indestructibility of Land : -
Land is an indestructible factor of production. Man can change only the
shape of a particular location and composition of its elements, but as such
land cannot be destroyed. It can either be converted into a garden or to a
forest or to an artificial lake. However, some parts of land get eroded due
to natural factors, but that is immaterial because overall availability of
land does not change.
5) Immobility : -
Unlike other factors, land is not physically mobile. It is an immobile factor
of production, as it cannot be shifted from one place to another. It lacks
geographical mobility. Some economists, however, describe land as a
mobile factor on the argument that it can be put to several uses.
6) Land is a Primary Factor o f Production : -
In any kind of production process, we have to start with land. For
example, in industries it helps to provide raw materials, and in agriculture,
crops are produced on land.
7) Passive Factor of Production : -
Land is a passive factor o f production, because it cannot produce anything
on its own. Human element and capital inputs are required to be combined
in an appropriate manner with land in order to obtain yields from it.
8) Effect of Laws of Returns : -
Since land is a fixed facto r of production, the laws of returns are more
effectively applicable on it. Increased use of capital and labor on a
particular plot of land leads to an increase in crop production at a
diminishing rate.
9) Alternative Uses of Land : -
Land is used for a lternative purposes like cultivation, dairy or poultry
farms, sheep rearing, building, etc. The use of land for any particular
purpose depends not only on the return from that particular use, but also
the returns from alternative uses.
10) Land is Hete rogeneous : -
Land like other factors of production differs from another in respect of
location, fertility, nature and productivity. Two pieces of land are not
exactly the same.
Importance of Land : -
Land is considered the primary factor of production . Land is rich in coal,
water and petroleum, which are used for generating power. Land is
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115 process. Land is of great importance to mankind. A nation’s economic
wealth is directly rel ated to the richness of its natural resources.
1) Creati on of living creatures
2) Generating Employment
3) Devel opment of Infrastructure
4) Land determines agricultural production.
5) The industrial progress and prosperity of the country depends on the
availability of mineral resources, i.e. land.
6) Land determines th e gross domestic product.
7) Land affects the economic d evelopment of the country.
8) Land main tains ecological balance.
9) Land directly or indirec tly meets the basic needs of the people.
10) Land affects trade.
2) Labour: -
Labour includes both physical and mental work undertaken for some
monetary reward. In this way, workers working in factories, services of
doctors, advocates, ministers, officers and teachers are all included in
labour.
Any physical or mental work which is not undertaken for getting income,
but simply to attain pleasure or happiness, is not labour.
For example, the work of a gardener in the garden is called labour,
because he gets income for it. But if the same work is done by him in his
home garden, it will not be called labour, as he is not paid for that work.
So, if a mother brings up her children, a teacher teaches his son and a
doctor treats his wife, these activities are not considered ‘labour’ in
economics. It is so because these are not done to earn income.
Definition of Labour : -
1) According to S.E. Thomas, “Labour connotes all human efforts of
body or mind which are undertaken in the expectation of reward.”
2) Labor is t he amount of physical, mental, and social effort used to
produce goods and services in an economy.
Characteristics of Labour:
1) Labour is Perishable: -
Labour is more perishable than other factors of production. It means
labour cannot be stored. The labour of an unemployed worker is lost
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116 postponed nor accumulated for the next day. It will perish. Once time is
lost, it is lost forever.
2) Labour cannot be separated from the Labourer : -
Land an d capital can be separated from their owner, but labour cannot he
separated from a labourer. Labour and labourer are indispensable for each
other. For example, it is not possible to bring the ability of a teacher to
teach in the school, leaving the teacher at home. The labour of a teacher
can work only if he himself is present in the class. Therefore, labour and
labourer cannot be separated from each other.
3) Less Mobility of Labour: -
As compared to capital and other goods, labour is less mobile. Capital c an
be easily transported from one place to another, but labour cannot be
transported easily from its present place to other places. A labourer is not
ready to go too far off places leaving his native place. Therefore, labour
has less mobility.
4) Weak Bar gaining Power of Labour: -
The ability of the buyer to purchase goods at the lowest price and the
ability of the seller to sell his goods at the highest possible price is called
the bargaining power. A labourer sells his labour for wages and an
employer pur chases labour by paying wages. Labourers have a very weak
bargaining power, because their labour cannot be stored and they are poor,
ignorant and less organized. Moreover, labour as a class does not have
reserves to fall back upon when either there is no w ork or the wage rate is
so low that it is not worth working. Poor labourers have to work for their
subsistence. Therefore, the labourers have a weak bargaining power as
compared to the employers.
5) Inelastic Supply of labour: -
The supply of labour is inel astic in a country at a particular time. It means
their supply can neither be increased nor decreased if the need demands
so. For example, if a country has a scarcity of a particular type of workers,
their supply cannot be increased within a day, month or year. Labourers
cannot be ‘made to order’ like other goods. The supply of labour can be
increased to a limited extent by importing labour from other countries in
the short period. The supply of labour depends upon the size of the
population. Population can not be increased or decreased quickly.
Therefore, the supply of labour is inelastic to a great extent. It cannot be
increased or decreased immediately.
6) Labourer is a Human being and not a Machine: -
Every labourer has his own tastes, habits and feelings . Therefore,
labourers cannot be made to work like machines. Labourers cannot work
round the clock like machines. After continuous work for a few hours,
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117 7) A Labourer sells his Labour and not Himself :
A labourer sells his l abour for wages and not himself. ‘The worker sells
work but he himself remains his own property’. For example, when we
purchase an animal, we become owners of the services as well as the body
of that animal. But we cannot become the owner of a labourer in this
sense.
8) Increase in Wages may reduce the Supply of Labour: -
The supply of goods increases, when their prices increase, but the supply
of labourers decreases, when their wages are increased. For example,
when wages are low, all men, women and childre n in a labourer’s family
have to work to earn their livelihood. But when wage rates are increased,
the labourer may work alone and his wife and children may stop working.
In this way, the increase in wage rates decreases the supply of labourers.
Labourers also work for less hours when they are paid more and hence
again their supply decreases.
9) Labour is both the Beginning and the End of Production: -
The presence of land and capital alone cannot make production.
Production can be started only with the help of labour. It means labour is
the beginning of production. Goods are produced to satisfy human wants.
When we consume them, production comes to an end. Therefore, labour is
both the beginning and the end of production.
10) Differences in the Efficiency of Labour : -
Labourer differs in efficiency. Some labourers are more efficient due to
their ability, training and skill, whereas others are less efficient on account
of their illiteracy, ignorance, etc.
11) Indirect Demand for Labour: -
The consumer goods li ke bread, vegetables, fruit, milk, etc. have direct
demand as they satisfy our wants directly. But the demand for labourers is
not direct, it is indirect. They are demanded so as to produce other goods,
which satisfy our wants. So the demand for labourers depends upon the
demand for goods which they help to produce. Therefore, the demand for
labourers arises because of their productive capacity to produce other
goods.
12) Difficult to find out the Cost of Production of Labour: -
We can easily calculate the cost of production of a machine. But it is not
easy to calculate the cost of production of a labourer i.e., of an advocate,
teacher, doctor, etc. If a person becomes an engineer at the age of twenty,
it is difficult to find out the total cost on his educat ion, food, clothes, etc.
Therefore, it is difficult to calculate the cost of production of a labourer.
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118 13) Labour creates Capital : -
Capital, which is considered as a separate factor of production is, in fact,
the result of the reward for labour. Labo ur earns wealth by way of
production. We know that capital is that portion of wealth which is used to
earn income. Therefore, capital is formulated and accumulated by labour.
It is evident that labour is more important in the process of production
than cap ital because capital is the result of the working of labour.
14) Labour is an Active Factor of Production : -
Land and capital are considered as the passive factors of production,
because they alone cannot start the production process. Production from
land and capital starts only when a man makes efforts. Production begins
with the active participation of man. Therefore, labour is an active factor
of production.
Importance of Labour: -
1) Economic growth
2) Labour productivity affects everyone.
3) Increased productivity brings higher profit and opportunity for more
investment.
4) Skilled and unskilled employment generation
5) Increasing production
6) Self development
7) Industrial development
8) Agricultural development
9) Infrastruct ural development
10) Development of the country
3) Capital: -
Capital is defined as “All those man made goods which are used in further
production of wealth.” Thus, capital is a man made resource of
production. Machinery, tools and equipment of all k inds, buildings,
railways and all means of transport and communication, raw materials,
etc., are included in capital.
Capital has a number of related meanings in economics, finance and
accounting. In finance and accounting capital generally refers to finan cial
wealth especially that used to start a business.
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119 Definitions of Capital: -
1) According to J. R. Hicks, “Capital consists of all those goods, existing
at present time which can be used in anyway, so as to satisfy wants during
the subsequent years”.
According to this definition, all those things which satisfy human wants
are capital goods. It means that both, consumer goods as well as producer
goods should be included in ‘capital’, as both satisfy human wants in one
way or the other. But as a matter of fact, the consumer goods are not
included in ‘capital’ because the consumer goods will be consumed in a
single use only and will not be utilized for further production of wealth.
2) According to BohmBawerk, “Capital is the produced means of
production”
According to this definition, only those goods are included in capital,
which have been produced by human efforts.
3) According to Von Sickle and Roger, “Capital goods are the products
(tools) of the past labour (efforts) used for further production.”
Thus, capital is productive in the sense that it enables a worker to produce
more goods or services, during the physical life of the product.
4) According to Prof. Samulson, “Capital goods are produced goods that
can be used as factor input for further prod uction.”
Thus, several economists have defined ‘capital’ differently.
From the above definitions, following facts about ‘capital’ can be
concluded :
1) ‘Capital’ includes all those goods (items or commodities) which are
used for further production of m ore goods, e.g., machines, tools, factory
buildings, transport equipment, etc.
2) ‘Capital’ is the result of human efforts made, on natural resources, in
the past. As suggested by CAIRNCROSS, stocks, shares, government
bonds, securities, etc., are also in cluded in ‘capital’ because all these yield
income to the investors.
3) Capital has been classified in different ways depending upon its use (or
purpose) and its actual physical status (nature).
Characteristics of Capital: -
1) Capital is a Pa ssive Factor : -
It is a passive factor of production. This is so because it becomes
ineffective without cooperation of labour.
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120 2) Capital is Man Made: -
It is created by man. Its supply is increased or diminished by the efforts of
man. According to Jo hn Stuart Mill, capital is the “accumulated product of
past labour destined for the production of future wealth”, i.e., when human
labour is applied to natural resources, then capital items are generated.
3) Capital is not an Indispensable Factor of Pro duction: -
Production can be possible even without capital, whereas land and labour
are the original and indispensable factors of production.
4) Capital has High Mobility: -
Amongst all the factors of production, capital has the highest mobility.
The land i s immobile,labour has low mobility, whereas ‘capital’ has both
‘place mobility’ and ‘occupational mobility’.
5) Capital is Elastic: -
Supply of capital is elastic and can be adjusted easily and quickly
according to demand. On the other hand, the supply o f land is fixed and
the supply of labour can neither be increased nor decreased quickly.
6) Capital Depreciates: -
If capital is used again and again it depreciates. For example, if any
machine is used for a considerable period, then it may not be suitabl e for
further use due to depreciation.
7) Capital is Productive: -
Production can be increased to a large extent if workers work with
adequate capital.
8) Capital is not a Gift of Nature : -
Production of capital involves some cost as it is not a nat ural gift, and is
not freely available. It is earned with hard labour and sacrifice.
9) Capital is Prospective: -
Capital is considered much prospective, as the accumulation of capital
yields an income.
10) Capital is the Result of Past Savings : -
In some cases when the consumption of capital good is not simultaneous
with the production, it becomes a saving, e.g., when a farmer does not
consume or sell a part of his crop production, it can be used as seeds in the
future.
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121 Importance of Capital: -
1) Essential for increasing production
2) Increases Productivity
3) Importance in Economic Development
4) Creating Employment Opportunities
5) Skilled and unskilled employment generation
6) For developing Service sector
7) Industrial developm ent
8) Agricultural development
9) Infrastructural development
10) Development of the country
4) Entrepreneurship : -
The word "entrepreneur is derived from the French verb "entreprendre",
which means 'to undertake. This refers to those who "under take" the risk
of new enterprises. An enterprise is created by an entrepreneur. The
process of creation is called "entrepreneurship".
Meaning : -
Entrepreneurship is a process of actions of an entrepreneur who is a person
always in search of something new a nd exploits such ideas into gainful
opportunities by accepting the risk and uncertainty with the enterprise. It is
the process of starting a business, a startup company or other organization.
The entrepreneur develops a business plan, acquires the human an d other
required resources, and is fully responsible for its success or failure
Entrepreneurship operates within an entrepreneurship ecosystem.
Definitions : -
1) According to A.H.Cole, Entrepreneurship is the purposeful activity of
an individual or a gro up of associated individual, undertaken to
initiate, maintain or aggrandize profit by production or distribution of
economic goods and services.
2) According to J.A. Timmons, Entrepreneurship is the ability to create
and build something from practically nothing.
3) According to Musselman and Jackson, "Entrepreneurship is the
investing and risking of time, money and effort to start a business and
make it successful.
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122 Characteristics of Entrepreneurship:
1) Economic and dynamic activity
Entrepreneur ship is an economic activity because it involves the creation
and operation of an enterprise with a view to creating value or wealth by
ensuring optimum utilization of scarce resources. Since this value creation
activity is performed continuously in the mi dst of uncertain business
environment, therefore, entrepreneurship is regarded as a dynamic force.
2) Related to innovation
Entrepreneurship involves a continuous search for new ideas.
Entrepreneurship compels an individual to continuously evaluate the
existing modes of business operations so that more efficient and effective
systems can be evolved and adopted. In other words, entrepreneurship is a
continuous effort for synergy (optimization of performance) in
organizations.
3) Profit potential
"Profi t potential is the likely level of return or compensation to the
entrepreneur for taking on the risk of developing an idea into an actual
business venture Without profit potential. the efforts of entrepreneurs
would remain only an abstract and a theoretica l leisure activity.
4) Risk bearing
The essence of entrepreneurship is the willingness to assume risk arising
out of the creation and implementation of new ideas. New ideas are
always tentative and their results may not be instantaneous and positive.
An entrepreneur has to have patience to see his efforts bear fruit. In the
intervening period (time gap between the conception and implementation
of an idea and its results), an entrepreneur has to assume risk. If an
entrepreneur does not have the willingne ss to assume risk,
entrepreneurship would never succeed.
5) Skillful management
Entrepreneurship involves skillful management. The basic managerial skill
is the most important characteristic feature of entrepreneurship. For
Effective management of an en terprise, the role of an entrepreneur is to
initiate and supervise design of organization improvement projects in
relation to upcoming opportunities is very much important.
6) Accepting challenges
Entrepreneurship means accepting challenges amidst risk and uncertainty.
While accepting entrepreneurship as a career the entrepreneur accepts the
challenges of all odds and puts his efforts to convert the odds into viable
business opportunities by pooling together the resources of building and
running the ent erprise.
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123 7) Goal -oriented Activity
The entrepreneur who creates and operates enterprises seeks to earn profits
through satisfaction of needs of consumers; hence, entrepreneurship is a
goal oriented activity. Entrepreneurship emphasizes results, achieve ments
and targets achieved. It is work done not imaginary plans or paper
decisions. Hence entrepreneurship is a goal oriented activity.
8) Value Creation
Next, we find that the process of creating value is a characteristic in
describing entrepreneurship . Through entrepreneurship, new products,
services, transactions, approaches, resources, technologies, and markets
are created that contribute some value to a community or marketplace. We
can also see value created when, through entrepreneurship; resources are
transformed into outputs such as products or services during this
transformation process, value is created because the entrepreneur is
fashioning something worthwhile and useful. Drucker says, "Until
entrepreneurial act, every plant is a seed and ever y mineral is just another
rock.
9) Dynamic Process
Entrepreneurship is a dynamic function. Entrepreneurs thrive on changes
in the environment, which bring useful opportunities for business. An
entrepreneur deals proactively with changing markets and env ironment.
He looks at the changes as the source of market advantages, not as a
problem. Uncertainties are market opportunities for him. He capitalizes on
fleeting market anomalies
10) Uniqueness
Another characteristic found in entrepreneurship is that of uniqueness.
Entrepreneurship involves new combinations and new approaches with
which entrepreneurs are willing to experiment. Through Entrepreneurship
unique products are created and unique approaches are tried.
Entrepreneurship isn't merely imitating what others have done. It's doing
something new, something untested and untried something unique.
11) Interest and Vision
The first factor for entrepreneurial success is interest. Since
entrepreneurship pays off according to performance rather than tim e spent
on a particular effort, an entrepreneur must work in an area that interests
her. Otherwise, she will not be able to maintain a high level of work ethic,
and she will most likely fail. This interest must also translate into a vision
for the company' s growth. Even if the day to day activities of a business
are interesting to an entrepreneur, this is not enough for success unless she
can turn this interest into a vision of growth and expansion. This vision
must be strong enough that she can communicate it to investors and
employees.
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124 12) Risk and Rewards
Entrepreneurship requires risk. The measurement of this risk equates to
the amount of time and money you invest into your business. However,
this risk also tends to relate directly to the rewards invo lved. An
entrepreneur who invests in a franchise pays for someone else's business
plan and receives a respectable income, while an entrepreneur who
undertakes groundbreaking innovations risks everything on an assumption
that something revolutionary will wo rk in the market. If such a
revolutionary is wrong, she can lose everything. However, if she is right,
she can suddenly become extremely wealthy.
11.5. IMPORTANCE OF FARM BUSINESS
MANAGEMENT:
Agricultural production depends not only on nature but also on t he method
adopted by the farmer. In natural matters the farmer cannot control the
soil, rainfall, regular rainfall, temperature, humidity, thunder, wind, excess
rainfall, drought, ground water level. Sometimes nature is helpful and
sometimes it is not. So there is product uncertainty. But the farmer can
control how much, how and when to use unnatural or man made tools.
These tools include seeds, manure, chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
pesticides, farm implements, machinery, oil engines, electric motors an d
many more. Due to advances in agricultural technology over the last two
three decades, farmers have started adopting new techniques efficiently,
planning and implementation of when and how, its implementation, its
evaluation in a gross way. High yielding crop varieties are being
developed in India by various research institutes, especially through
agricultural universities. Chemical fertilizer, water use and pest control
techniques are becoming available. The use of machinery instead of old
agricultural i mplements is on the rise. Efforts are being made by the
government to get fair prices for agricultural commodities. Also, facilities
for capital supply for agriculture have been created from co operative
societies and banks. In such a new environment, the farmer needs to plan
to get maximum yield from his farm. In recent times, not only subsistence
farming, but also a competitive environment, not only planned and useful
for the farmer to deal with various problems in agribusiness, but also
organization skil l and management skill should be maximized. Only then
will he be able to do farming successfully. The study of farm business
management science and its principles will enable the farmer to make the
right decisions in farm business. The importance of farm b usiness
management can be summarized on the basis of the following points.
1. Use of technology in agriculture
2. Increase in commercial crop
3. Benefit of farm business
4. Change in attitude towards agriculture
5. Increase in farmer's income
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125 7. Irrigation facilities / water supply
8. Changes in the source of credit
9. Increase in agricultural exports
10. Increase in food grain production
11. Qualitative and quantitative increase in agricultural production
12. Change s in farming methods
13. Changes in cropping pattern
14. It is possible to take advantage of agri tourism business
15. Reduction in farmer's expenses
16. Tendency to produce throughout the year
17. Promoting agri tourism
18. Increase in education and train ing of farmers
19. Development of horticulture and horticulture techniques
20. Growth in the processing industry
21. Increase in rural employment
22. Increase in farmer's decision making ability
23. Efficient use of production components
24. Losses due to hazards and uncertainties are minimal
25. Increase in agricultural production due to commercial farming
11.6. EXERCISES:
1) Explain the principles of agribusiness management.
2) Explain the various components of agricultural production in detail.
3) Explain the importance of agribusiness management.
11.7. REFERENCE LIST:
1) Agribusiness Management Pvt. Dr. Waghmare and. A. , Pvt. Dr. In
Dhondge.W., PrachiPrakashan, Mumbai 92.
2) Agricultural Economics Dr. Kavimandan Vijay, Sri Mangesh
Prakashan, Nagpur 440010.
3) www.investopedia.com
4) Factors of production wikipedia
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