Paper-IV-16th-to-18th-Century-English-Literature-Paper-Code-97001-munotes

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ELIZABETHAN AGE: (1550 -1603)
Unit Structure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Rena issance
1.3 Humanism
1.4 Reformation
1.5 Elizabethan Poetry
1.6 Elizabethan Drama
1.7 University Wits
1.8 Conclusion
1.9 Suggested Questions
1.10 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES:
After going throughthis unit you wil l be able to :
1. Understand the features of Elizabethan age.
2. Describe the Shakespeare’s England.
3. Explain the history of Renaissance .
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
The Elizabethan age roughly started from 1558 and it was lasted until
1603. It was known as a golden era i n English literature. Elizabeth I
crowned the throne of England in 1508 and since her accession the age
was moving very rapidly . “The Elizabethan age is considered a part of the
general Renaissance –that is , the flowering of arts and literature –that
took place in Europe during the fourteenth through sixteenth
centuries. ”(Richardson 57) England emerged as leading naval and
commercial power of the western world.
The age produced great literary jewels like William Shakespeare, Francis
Bacon, Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser.In Elizabethan Age Drama and
Poetry had enjoyed its heyday. With the wake of Elizabethan age
Renaissance started in Europe.The Elizabethan Age is an age known for
new learning, of adventure, of unbounded enthusiasm springing from the
new la nds of fabulous riches revealed by English explorers. Elizabethan
age is dominated by nationalism, colonial expansion and commercial munotes.in

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2 growth as well as religious controversy. Bacon tells us that he has taken all
knowledge for his province while the Elizabet han explorers searched the
New World; her poets produced a great literary works that are young
forever. This age was a time of intellectual liberty, of growing intelligence
and comfort among all classes. Such an England could well be compared
to the Age of Pericles in Athens, or of Augustus in Rome. In the age of
Elizabeth literature the drama was clamored and reached its highest peak.
In the Age of Elizabeth all ambiguity seems to disappear from the surface
of English shore. With the accession of a popula r monarch Elizabeth Who
had educated and always concerned for her subjects and public life. It was
look like the sunrise after a long and dark night, and, in Milton’s words,
we suddenly see England, “a noble and puissant nation, rousing herself,
like a str ong man after sleep, an d shaking her invincible locks”.
In England under the administration of Queen Elizabeth I the English
national life made headway by enormous strides. The most characteristic
feature of the age was the comparative religious tolerance , which was due
largely to the queen’s influence. The defeat of the Spanish Armada
established the Reformation as a fact in England. It was an age of
comparative social contentment. Such an age, of thought, feeling, and
vigorous action finds its best expre ssion in the drama; and the wonderful
development of the drama, culminating in Shakespeare, is the most
significant characteristic of the Elizabethan period. The Elizabethan age is
majorly known for reformation, humanism and renaissance in history of
Engla nd.
1.2 RENAISSANCE:
In the long reign of Henry VIII the changes are less violent, but have more
purpose and significance. His age is marked by a steady increase in the
national power at home and abroad, by the entrance of the Reformation
“by a side door ” and by the final separation of England from the
ecclesiastical bondage in Parliament’s famous Act of Supremacy. It was
an age when the human spirit was reborn or awakened after the long
slumber of the Middle Ages By Renaissance or Revival of Learning we
refer to the gradual enlightenment of the human mind after the darkness of
the middle Ages. The names Renaissance and Humanism are often applied
to the same movement. It means the revival of art resulting from the
discovery and imitation of classic models i n the 14th and 15th centuries.
This rebirth or awakening was brought about by a revival of interest in the
culture and civilization of ancient Greece and Rome. As we have already
noted the study of classical Greek and Roman art and literature came to be
called Humanism and its devotees Humanists. Humanism means the
religion of humanity or devotion to human or secular interests as opposed
to divinity. Birch rightly says that, The term ‘Renaissance’ has been
applied in the 20th century to earlier periods whic h manifested a new
intense in and study of the classics, such as the 12th century and the age
Charlemagne. But the Italian Renaissance is still seen as a watershed in
the development of civilization, both because of its extent and because of
its emphasis o n the human. Whether independent of or in association with munotes.in

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3 the divine. The pioneering account is Jacob Burckhardt , The Civilization
of the Renaissance in Italy (184)
1.3 HUMANISM:
“It is a philosophy that places faith in the dignity of humankind and
refuses the medieval perception of the individual as a weal fallen
creature”.(Richardson, 84). The Humanism adheres to thought or action
devoted to human interests and human values rather than to the religious
ideals. Historically “the term ‘Humanism’ is used to designate rebirth of
literature and thoughts that began in Italy during the fourteenth century
and that lay at the heart of the Renaissance”.(Morner and Rausch 100)
Humanists believe in the perfectibilityof human nature and view reason
education as the means to that end. Humanists thought is reflected the
works of MarsiloFicino, LudovicoCastlevetro, Edmund Spenser, John
Milton, Dean John Colet, Erasmus, John Dryden, Alexander Pope,
Mathew Arnold and Irving Babbit.
1.4 REFORMATION:
“Referring primarily t o the religious history of Europe in the early 16th
centu ry, though it can include both John Wycliff and the 15th century “
Lollards” and the later period to 1700. In its primary sense, the initiating
event was challenge to the selling of indulgences issue d by Martin Luther
in 1557. This attack on corrupt practices quickly developed into a
repudiation of the primacy of the people and the ecclesiastical authority of
Rome, and led by jean Calvin in Geneva, Ulrich Zwingli (1484 -1581) in
Zurich, and John “Knox in Scotland to the development of a distinctively
Protestant conception of the Christian life , and the establishment of a
separate national ,regional and local congregational churches in northern
and Western Europe.”(Birch 832). In the reign of Henry VII I England
separated from Rome in the 1530s for political , rather than religious ,
reasons nevertheless ,through the liturgy of Thomas Cranner , the sermons
of Hugh Latimer and biblical translations of William Tyndale, the national
church of England became increasingly protestant ,adopting under
Elizabeth I a via media (middle way)between Rome and continental
Reformed churches.
1.5 ELIZABETHAN POETRY:
Elizabethan poetry was enjoyed its heyday like Elizabethan Drama in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Elizabe than poetry was immensely marked by
some great poets Philip Sidney , Edmund Spenser and William
Shakespeare. Elizabethan poets were influenced Greek poets. The
Elizabethan poetry was known Shakespeare’s sonnets, Edmund Spenser’s
Shepherd’s calendar .

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4 Sonn et:
It is a fixed form of lyric poetry that consists of fourteen lines, usually
written in iambic pentameter. There are two basic types of sonnets, the
Italian and the English. “The Italian sonnet is also known as the
Petrarchan sonnet, is divided into an octave which typically rhyme
abbaabba and a sestet, which may have varying rhyme schemes. Common
rhyme patterns in the sestet are cdecde, cdcdcd and cdccde Very often the
octave patterns a situation ,attitude , or problems that the sestet comments
upon or resolves as in John Keats’s On first Looking into Chapman’s
Homer’. The English sonnet also known as the Shakespearean sonnet is
organized into three quatrains and a couplet which typically rhyme
ababcdcdefefgg. This rhyme scheme is more suited to English poetry
because English has fewer rhyming words than Italian because of their
four –part organization .also have more flexibility with respect to where
thematic breaks can occur.”(Richardson 160) . Sonnet form flourished in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. There were some great English poets who
cultivated sonnet. William Shakespeare was known for his finest sonnets.
His contemporaries Edmund Spenser, Philip Sidney even nourished the
beauty of sonnet. William Shakespeare’s “Shall I compare thee to a
summer’s day?’’ is an epitome of English sonnet.
Epic:
It is originally a lengthy poem recounting in elevated style the exploits of
a legendary hero or heroes, especially in battles or voyages. This is also
known as heroic poem. Epic is generally divided into 12 books. In modern
times the term sometimes extended to certain prose works, especially to a
large scale historical novels. In the poetic sense, the major examples in
English are John Milton’s Paradise Lost , unusual in its biblical subject
and the old Engli sh Beowulf. Others include John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s
Progress , John Keats ‘Hyperion’ is an unfinished attempt at an epic poem.
English poets wrote great episodes of epic poems though classical epic
conventions were very richer. Homer and Virgil introduced e pic form to
the world. Elizabethan Poets like Edmund Spenser followed the style of
Homer and Virgil and made a classical epic ‘ Faerie Queen ’.
Pastoral:
A term derived from Latin word ‘pastor’ meaning shepherd. “A pastoral is
literary composition on a rural theme. The conventions of the pastoral were
originated by the third -century Greek poet Theocritus, who wrote about
the experiences, love affairs and pastimes of Sicilian shepherds. In a
pastoral, characters and language of a country nature are often placed in a
simple setting. The term pastoral is also used to classify dramas, elegies
and lyrics that exhibit the use of country settings and shepherd
characters.”(Richardson 126)The pastoral poetry was not merely
composed in the reign of Elizabeth I but Roman tic age was also dominated
by pastoral poetry. In the 16th and 17thcentury, Edmund Spenser wrote
Shepheardes Calendar (1579) a well - known pastoral poem. Spenser
laments over the death of his poet friend PhilipSidney and another great munotes.in

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5 poet of Elizabethan age was Philip Sidney whoseprose romance
interspersed with pastoral verses, the Arcadia published in 1590. There
were several Elizabethan poets composed pastoral poems, among them
Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Lodge and Michael, Drayton and some
attempted pr ose romances in this vein, notably Thomas Lodge’s Rosalyne
(1590). In drama, the most significant pastoral plays are Shakespeare’s As
You Like It and The Winter’s Tale along John Fletcher’s The Faithful
Shepherades . Romantic poetPercy B. Shelley’s ‘Adonais ’ is featuring
pastoral. John Milton’s ‘Lycidas’ is celebrated pastoral.( Birch 759)
1.6 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA:
The Elizabethan Drama was applauded and reached its highest peak in 16th
century. The Elizabethan Drama was swiftly moving not in the reign of
Elizabeth I but also pr ogressed in the Jacobean reign. English comedy and
tragedy produced during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and even in the
Jacobean age. Shakespeare is known as well acclaimed Elizabethan
dramatist although most of his plays were produced during the reign of
James I. Some great Elizabethan comedies include John Lyly’s The
Woman in the Moon ,Thomas Dekker’s The Roaring Girl and William
Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. Some great Elizabethan tragedies include
Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra , Th omas Kyd’s The Spanish
Tragedy and John Webster’s The Tragedy of the Duchess of Malfi .
Regular Drama the Miracle Plays ceased to be acted about 1600 but by
that time the Regular Drama was established. Moralities were acted in the
reign of Henry VI and like the Miracle plays; they continued to flourish
until the beginning of Elizabeth’s reign. The Moralities, like the Miracles
were adapted to the audience. Vice and Devil were serious and comic
characters respectively. The Interlude of the four P’s (1540), th at is, the
Palmer, the Pardoner, the Poticary and the Ped dlar is the best known of the
Interludes . Real Founders of Drama With the advent of the Renaissance
and the triumph of Protestantism the Miracles declined. The Moralities,
however, survived. Moraliti es became either secular or religious.
Skelton’s Magnificence (1516) was aimed at the extravagance of Henry
VIII. The Reformers used Morality to propagate their own views.
Lindsay’s Satire of The Three Estates satirizes the Clergy, the nobility and
the Cit izens. Towards the close of this transitional period appear a group
of highly gifted writers who raised and recognized drama as a form of art.
1.7 UNIVERSITY WITS:
The term ‘University Wits’ refers to group genius playwrights who were
graduated from Oxfor d University. The University Wits members are per -
Shakespearean dramatists. They were men of learning and made English
drama very promising. University Witsinclude play wrights like Thomas
Kyd;George Peele; John Lyly; Robert Greene; Thomas Nash; Thomas
Lodge and Christopher Marlowe. University Wits were paved the way for
Elizabethan dramatists and brought English drama to the point where
William Shakespeare began to exercise upon it. The Elizabethan was in
the hands of University Wits. They knew the stage and audience and in munotes.in

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6 their writing they remembered not only the actor’s part but the audiences’
love for stories and brave spectacles. Shakespearean and Jacobean
dramatists were influenced by the University Wits playwrights. University
Wits were romantic i n their attitude and represented the spring of
renaissance. Christopher Marlowe followed the spirit of renaissance while
John Webster followed with enthusiasm. Thomas Kyd revealed the
bloodshed in his famous ‘The Spanish Tragedy’.
1.8 CONCLUSION:
The Eli zabethan age witnessed the development of Renaissance,
humanism and reformation. The reign of Queen Elizabeth I was a
flowering period for English drama and poetry. Dramatists of the
Elizabethan age have tried to expose human errors and pettiness through
their plays. Marlowe ,Shakespeare truly depicted the spirit of renaissance.
1.9 SUGGESTED QUESTIONS:
1.What does the term Renaissance apply to?
2. What influenced Elizabethan theatre?
3. State an important facet of the Renaissance.
4. What is epic?
5. Des cribe Sonnet as important literary form?
6. Define University Wits?
1.10 REFERENCES:
 Birch, Dinah. The Oxford Companion To English Literature . Oxford
University press: New York, 2009.
 Kathleen Morner and Ralph Rausch.Viva’s Dictionary of Literary
Terms.Vi va Books Private Ltd.: India, 1998.
 Richardson, Jack. Illustrated Dictionary of Literature. Lotus Press:
New Delhi, 2014.
 William J. Long. English Literature: Its History and Its Significance
For the Life of the English . Maple press.

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THE JACOBEAN PERIOD PART I
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objective
2.1 Jacobean Age - Introduction
2.2 Literature of Jacobean Age
2.2.1 Prose writers
2.2.2 Poets
2.3 Metaphysical Poets
2.4 The poets post 1625
2.5 Conclusion
2.6 Questions
2.0 OBJECTIVE :
To give an o verall idea to the students regarding the Jacobean era and the
literature written during that period. The students are introduced to the
major characteristics of the age and also to the major writers of the time.
2.1 JACOBEAN AGE - INTRODUCTION:
The period of reign of James I (called ‘Jacobus’ in Latin) of England is
known as the Jacobean period which ranged from 1603 -1625. James VI of
Scotland, who was a distant relative of Queen Elizabeth, had succeeded
her after her death in 1603. After being crowned as t he King of England,
he started to be known as James I of England. The Jacobean age succeeds
the Elizabethan era.
Historically,Jacobean era is important as it caused the unification of
Scotland and England under a single ruler. The first British colonies in
North America were also established during the reign of King James.
Other important historical events of this age include the Gunpowder plot.
The religious reforms were still in progress in England when James I
became the king. On 5 November 1605 a group of Catholics attempted to
kill the king by blowing up the parliament. It was a failed attempt at the
lives of James I, his family and all Protestant aristocracy. The aim of the
conspirators was to reinstate a Catholic monarch but instead this plot led
to greater religious persecution of Catholics in England. The disastrous
thirty years war in which many countries of the continent were involved
also happened in this period. King James’ decision of refraining from the
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8 like many other countries who involved. This helped in maintaining peace
in England even when most parts of the continent were war torn. It was
also during this age that the tobacco industry emerged it started being
consumed in large amounts.
In the area of Science also England was flourishing. Major works in
navigation, surveying and cartography was being done. Tremendous
advancement of modern science occurred under the influence of Francis
Bacon. Francis Bacon’s scientific meth od of objective enquiry influenced
the later stages of scientific revolution. One of the major contributions of
King James in the field of religion and literature can be said to be the
translation of Bible that he had commissioned. In 1611, the King James
Bible/ the Authorized Versionwas published and it gave the common
people of England direct access to Bible. Till then Bible was available in
Latin and common man had to rely on the priests to have access to Bible.
The translation of Bible to English democr atised it.
2.2 LITERATURE OF JACOBEAN AGE :
Some of the greatest works of literature were produced during this age.
The period saw both comedies and tragedies being written equally. Most
famous tragedies of Shakespeare - Macbeth, King Lear and Othello - were
written during this period. Another famous dramatist who wrote tragedies
having a dark mood was John Webster. Thomas Middleton was credited
with writing both comedies and tragedies during this time which also
included masques. It can be said that tragedy and satire was at its peak
during Jacobean era. John Ford was a poet and dramatist of this age whose
plays mainly dealt with the conflict between passion and conscience. Ben
Jonson, Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher contributed to the comedies
of that era . Ben Johnson introduced a sub -genre of drama known as
masque. A new school of poets who emerged during this period were
Metaphysical poets. These poets were known for their ability to merge
intellect with emotion in their poems. They were famous for their use of
metaphysical conceits. John Donne, Andrew Marvell, Henry Vaughan,
John Cleveland and Abraham Cowley were some of the Metaphysical
poets. A new style was developed in the prose writings of Robert Burton
and Francis Bacon. George Chapman translated H omer’s Iliad and
Odyssey into English during this period . The period’s most important prose
achievement was still King James Version of the Bible in 1611. It had a
huge impact on the following generation.
2.2.1Prose writers - FrancisBacon was a British autho r, philosopher,
essayist, statesman and champion of modern science who filled in the
intellectual vacuum of the seventeenth century in England. Throughout his
life he revalued and restructured the traditional learning. He proposed a
system based on empiric al and inductive principles. Hehad dedicated his
life for intellectual reform. He also is popular for his essays. He is known
as the father of English Essays. His essays were characterised by being
short and concise. His style of writing was known as aphor istic. His essays
had clarity and rhythm and coherence. The themes of his essays were
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9 qualities. His narrative fiction New Atlantis shows the design of an
institution where interpretation o f nature is done. It describes Solomon’s
house where investigators collect data, conduct experiments and apply
knowledge to produce useful things for human beings. This work can be
said to be an inspiration for the founding of British Royal Society and
acted as a model for international scientific community. His philosophical
work The Advancement of Learning mentions about the intellectual
impasse of Europe and he advocates that the obstacles or diseases of
learning must be avoided for progress.
Another im portant work published during this age was The Anatomy of
Melancholy by Robert Burton. He was an English scholar, writer and
clergyman. Philosophaster was his first work which was written in Latin.
Later it was translated to English. He is best known for The Anatomy of
Melancholy which first appeared in 162. It was a huge success and had
five subsequent editions with Burton’s revisions. The work was greatly
admired by Samuel Johnson and Charles Lamb.Melancholy was a literary
and social fashion of the times and Robert Burton analysed it. He analysed
the causes and cure of melancholy. The book was divided into a number of
parts. The first part of the book describes melancholy, its causes and
symptoms. The second part deals with its cure. The initial sections o f third
part deals with love melancholy and the next sections contain world’s
greatest love stories and contain a modern approach to psychological
problems. The fourth part is about religious melancholy. Burton used to
write in long sentences and his style can be called colloquial. His work is
also full of classical allusions.
Although the reputation of Ben Jonson rests on him being a dramatist and
also a poet to some extent, he was also a critic who wrote “Discoveries”.
He wanted to raise the excellence of English to that of Greek and Latin.
He discusses the methods to do so and why English literature falls short.
He also discusses the qualifications and requirements needed to be a poet.
In his prose work he also elaborates on the requirements for good styl e in
writing.
2.2.2 Poets -Michael Drayton was a poet who wrote during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth and James I. He wrote “The Harmony of Church”,
“Shepherd’s Garland” and “Beta” during the Elizabethan age. He wrote a
panegyric of King I in 1603 and in 1604 he wrote “The Owle”.
In 1606 he published odes known as “The Virginian Voyage”. The first
thirteen books of his “Polyolbion” celebrating the rivers of England and
the great events in the valleys were published in 1612.
Giles Fletcher the Younger was a Ja cobean poet whose Christ’s Victorie,
and Triumph in Heaven, and Earth, over and after death (1610) was
considered as his masterpiece. The poem was written in eight lined stanzas
modelled after Edmund Spenser’s writing. The poem consists of four
cantos. Mil ton borrowed a lot from this work for his Paradise Regained .
Fletcher tells the story of the life of Christ through this poetic work of his.
He has made use of much imagery in this poem. He had also published a munotes.in

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10 prose tract titled The Reward of the faithful l: the ground of our faith in
1623.
Sir John Davies was a poet who wrote during both Elizabethan and
Jacobean age. His early poems consisted of epigrams and were published
in many collections. In 1596 he wrote the poem “Orchestra” based on
cosmology. In 16 02 he contributed two dialogues to Poetical Rhapsody of
Francis Davison. A collected edition of his poems was published in 1622
by him. He was also a lawyer and in 1606 he was made the attorney
general for Ireland.
Samuel Daniel was a historian and a poet who wrote during late
Elizabethan and early Jacobean age. His works published during Jacobean
age were “Ulisses and the Syren”(1605) and A FunerallPoeme upon the
Earle of Devonshire (1606). In The Tragedie of Philotas (1605) he
defended himself against the charge of sympathizing with the Earl of
Essex. He had also written The Collection of the Historie of England
(1612 -18).
Ben Jonson was a multifaceted personality who was an essayist, poet and
dramatist. Although much of his popularity comes from the plays that he
had written, he was also a famous poet of his time. One of his most
famous poems is “Song to Celia” which begins with the lines “Drink to
me only with thine eyes”. Some other famous poems by him were
“Cynthia’s Revels: Queen and huntress, chaste a nd fair”, “Ode to
Himself”, “To Heaven”, “To John Donne”, and “To the Memory of my
beloved the Author, Mr. William Shakespeare”.
2.3 METAPHYSICAL POETS :
The term metaphysical for poetry was first used by Dr. Johnson. He had
borrowed the term from Dryden wh o in his Essay on Satire said about
Donne “He affects the metaphysics” in his love poems, perplexing “the
fair sex’ with “nice speculations of philosophy”. Originally this term was
used by Dr. Johnson as a way of condemning the poets who came under
this ca tegory. He goes on to say that the whole endeavour of these men of
learning was to display their learning and in doing so they neither imitated
anything, copied nature or life, neither painted the forms of matter, nor
represented the operations of intellec t. According to Johnson the most
heterogeneous ideas were yoked together by violence. He believed that
although their thoughts were new, they weren’t natural. Metaphysical style
of writing was founded by John Donne and formed as an example for a
number of poets to follow. The poets who come under this category are Sir
John Suckling, Richard Crashaw, John Cleveland, George Herbert, Henry
Vaughan, Abraham Cowley and Andrew Marvell. All poets under this
school had graduated from Oxford or Cambridge University and were men
of high intellect.
One of the characteristics of metaphysical poets was their use of conceits
(far-fetched comparison/ extended metaphor). Comparisons are made
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11 were used to display their wit. Comparisons are made from the field of
science, nature, law, medicine and religion. A metaphysical conceit joined
two different fields/worlds. Some examples of conceit would be Donne
comparing a flea to a temple and marriage bed in “The Flea” and two
lovers being compared to the legs of a compass in “A Valediction
Forbidding Mourning”. In the poem “The Mistress” by Abraham Cowley,
the speaker compares his love for ladies to his habit of travelling in
various countries of the world. Apart from metaphor, puns, paradox and
meter were also made use of.
Metaphysical poets often made use of hyperboles. In the poem “A
Valediction Forbidding Mourning”, the speaker asks his beloved to not
create a flood by her tears and not to create a tempest of sighs. In the poem
“To his Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell, the speaker tries to seduce the
lady by saying that if he had enough time, he would spend thousands of
years praising each part of her body. The speaker in the poem “A
Valediction:of Weeping” by J ohn Donne calls his beloved “more than
moon”. He makes this comparison to show that his beloved is fairer than
the moon.
Metaphysical poets sought delight in novel thoughts and expressions. Wit
was the salient feature of metaphysical poets. They expressed their
thoughts and ideas using apt words and figures of speech. John Donne was
called the “Monarch of wit”. An element of playfulness characterised by
the use of puns and conceits could be observed in some poems. The poets
tried to make a logical connectio n between the abstract and the concrete.
They tried to blend together intellect and emotion.
The term ‘metaphysical’ as first used by Dr. Johnson in the context sprang
from an unease, determined by ‘classical’ canons of taste, with the
supposed contortions of the style and imagery of Donne and Cowley. It
was T.S Eliot who found in the work of Donne a blend of emotional and
intellectual quality which he considered was an example and an inspiration
in the revivification of the poetic tradition.
The poems of D onne put the readers in contact with a sensitively feeling
heart, but with vigorously active mind. In some poems of Donne and most
other metaphysical poets, it can be seen that there is an argument and then
it moves in a logical manner. The tone of the arg ument clarifies and
intensifies the emotion. The finest works of Donne are his short poems.
Elegies is a series of poems which he has written on diverse aspects of
love. In the Holy Sonnets the lover can be seen having a dialogue with his
beloved and here th e beloved is God. He invites God to batter his heart,
break and burn him so the he can be free from the Devil:
Take me to you, imprison me, for I,
Except you enthral me, never shall be free,
Nor ever chaste, except you ravish me.
Donne has made reflective studies of human soul’s pilgrimage and destiny
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12 Abraham Cowley was a poet and essayist of the metaphysical and
neoclassical age. His Miscellanies and The Mistress reflected the theme
and motifs of metaphysical poets. He used grossly elabor ate, self -
consciously poetic language that decorated rather than expressed his
feelings. His works exaggerated Donne’s metaphysical wit. He applied wit
to matter andcombined philosophy with charity and religion.
George Herbert was a priest whose most famou s collection of religious
poems is known as The Temple . There is lot of technical variety in
rhythmic suppleness and in stanza form. A large number of his poems
expressed his spiritual experience and conflicts. He often indulges in
conversations/ controver sy with God in his poems. In his poem “Love” he
has a conversation with Love. Love in this poem represented God. He
feels unworthy of being Love’s guest but Love reminds him that he is his
creator therefore the speaker is welcome on the table and he must s it down
and eat:
‘You must sit down,’ says Love, ‘and taste My meat.’
So I did sit and eat.
The poems of Richard Crashaw were full of his rare imaginative
sensitivity. He had written a volume of poems titled Steps to the Temple .
His poems were quite eloqu ent. In the poem “The Weeper” by Crashaw he
makes use of hyperbole when he describes the eyes full of tears of the
woman following Christ as two faithful fountains and oceans:
Two walking baths; two weeping motions;
Portable & compendious oceans.
In the po ems of Henry Vaughan influence of George Herbert can be seen.
In his earlier works there was much spiritual criticism.In his poem “The
World”, the best lines represented a mystic’s glimpse of the divine joy to
oneself and life to the whole creation:
I saw Eternity the other night
Like a great Ring of pure and endless light
Poems of Andrew Marvell had an enigmatic quality. Marvell id placed
under the category of being a metaphysical poet due to his use of fanciful
conceits. In the poem “Upon Appleton House” , a parallel is drawn
between England and garden where the flowers are the soldiers firing
‘fragrant Volleys’
Well shot ye Firemen! Oh how sweet,
And round your equal Fires do meet;
Whose shrill report no ear can tell,
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13 In conclusion it can be said that the term ‘Metaphysical poets’ has been
attached to a loosely connected group of poets of seventeenth century
whose poems contained colloquial diction, philosophical exploration, use
of ingenious conceits, paradoxes, irony a nd metrically flexible lines. They
wrote on the themes of religion, morality and love/lust. All the poets were
intellectuals and they tried to depict it through their poems by representing
complex thoughts in their poem.
2.4 THE POETS POST 1625 :
The poets post 1625 were called Cavalier poets due to their loyalty
towards King Charles I. Richard Lovelace, Thomas Carew, Sir John
Suckling, Edmund Waller and Robert Herrick fall under this category.
Their poems were based on the themes of religion, beauty, love a nd war
and were lyrical in nature. This age saw decline of drama and rise of
Puritanism. The work of these poets displayed the life of upper class.
These poets were an admirer of Ben Johnson. Their writings were rich in
references to ancients and there was a combination of pleasure and virtue
in their writings. Their poems celebrated life including honour, beauty,
love and nature. They often made it a point to glorify the crown through
their writings. “Seize the day” was an oft repeated motif in their poem s.
Richard Lovelace was a Cavalier poet whose best known poems are “To
Lucasta, Going to the Warres” and “To Althea, from Prison”. The oft
quoted lines from “To Althea, from prison” are: “Stone walls do not a
prison make, Nor iron bars a cage, Minds innoce nt and quiet take That for
an hermitage.” While he was a student of Oxford, he had written around
two hundred poems and he fought on behalf of Charles I during the Civil
war.
“A Rapture” was a famous poem by Thomas Carew. He wrote short
poems which were ab out the themes of female beauty, love and sex. His
reputation had a steady decline during the seventeenth century and was not
adequately appreciated during that time. Later in the twentieth century, an
interest in his writings was revived.
Sir John Sucklin g was an English poet who was famous for his careless
gaiety and wit. His most famous poem is “Ballade upon a Wedding”. A
collection of his poems was published named FragmentaAurea . Aglaura is
a dramatic work written by him.
Hesperides was a collection of poems by Robert Herrick. Amongst the
2,500 poems that he had written, many appeared in this collection. His
earlier poems contained references to female body but his later poems
were of spiritual and philosophical in nature. He was a lyrical poet who
prese nted his thoughts in clear and simple manner. The “carpe diem”
theme can be seen in his poems “To Daffodils”, “To Blossoms”,
“Corinna’s Going AMaying” and “To the Virgins, to make much of
Time”. His poem “ To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time” opens with
the famous lines:
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14 Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,
Old Time is still a flying;
And this same flower that smiles today,
Tomorrow will be dying.
2.5 CONCLUSION:
Histori cally, Jacobean age was significant since it brought about the
unification of England and Scotland under a single ruler. The translation
of Bible into English can be said to be the most important contribution of
James I. Significant contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Ben
Jonson, Robert Burton, Drayton, Davies, Metaphysical poets and othe rs.
2.6 QUESTIONS:
1. What were the major historical changes during the Jacobean age?
2. Comment on the contribution of Francis Bacon during this age
3. Discuss the major poets of Jacobean age.
4. Who were the major Metaphysical poets and what were the
characteristics of their writing?

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15 3
JACOBEAN PERIOD PART II
Jacobean Drama
Unit Structure:
3.0 Objective
3.1 Jacobean Drama - Introduction
3.2 Revenge Tragedy
3.3 Tragedies of Jacobean Age
3.4 Tragicomedy
3.5 Jacobean Comedies
3.6 Conclusion
3.7 Questions
3.0 OBJECTIVE:
To give students a n overview of the plays written during Jacobean age
with special focus on Revenge Tragedies, City Comedies and
tragicomedy; and introduce them to major dramatists of the age.
3.1 JACOBEAN DRAMA - INTRODUCTION:
The age of drama was considered to be at its pe ak during the Elizabethan
era. There was a general change in the plays written during the Jacobean
age from that were being written during the Elizabethan age.
During the Jacobean period audience were interested in a more realistic
representation of societ y rather than imaginative stories. Therefore the
plays dealt with city life, politics, decadent spirit or corrupt society The
Jacobean drama saw a shift from the comic drama of the Elizabethan stage
to satire led by Ben Jonson. The language used was conver sational in tone.
The oft used themes were adultery, lust, death, corruption, sickness,
exploitation, cruelty, hypocrisy, eccentricities and family crisis. The
themes were in general dark and cynical compared to Elizabethan
romantic themes. There was frank nesswhile dealing with sexuality and
sexual relationships on stage. A fascination with the wicked and corrupt
could be seen. The plays were mostly melodramatic as sensationalism and
excessive emotional moments were in display. There were still some
dramati sts who had nostalgia for old world’s decencies and decorous
behaviour and an influence of Shakespeare and Marlowe could be seen in
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16 On stage we could see extreme violence and exaggerated human
situations. In King Lear , Lear’s daughter pluck s out Gloucester’s eyes and
says ‘Out, vile jelly’. Iago from Othello is considered to be one of the
most notorious villains. In the plays The White Devil and Duchess of
Malfi , highly intelligent characters commit crimes and violence in pursuit
of their am bition. In The Changeling a murderer can be seen cutting of
the finger of his victim because the ring that he wants does not come off.
The age saw an obsession with moral corruption and violent stories of
revenge. In general a cynical and pessimistic out look on life could be
seen. Another type of drama that dominated the age was masques.
The four major types of dramas that were presented on Jacobean stage
were Revenge Tragedy, City Comedy, Tragi -Comedies and Masques.
Revenge tragedies followed the Senecan tradition and it used to be bloody
and violent. It usually consisted of revenge plots. Tragedy is brought about
in the pursuit of revenge. This form was quite popular during Elizabethan
and Jacobean age. Revenge was considered as a sacred duty. Physical
horror was represented and at times even ghosts were represented. There
would be an abundance of violence and terror and in the end the stage
would be littered with dead bodies. Middleton’s The Revenger’s Tragedy ,
John Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi and The White Devil , John Ford’s
‘Tis Pity She’s a Whore , Middleton and Rowley’s The Changeling and
Shakespeare’s Hamlet fall under this category.
The city comedies dealt with the lives of lower class London life. The
themes of adultery, unhappy marriages, debt s and cuckoldry could be seen
in this type of comedy. Beaumont and Ben Johnson were two major
writers who dealt with city comedies. Beaumont’s The Night of the
Burning Pestle , Jonson’s Bartholomew Fair and Middleton’s A Chaste
Maid in Cheapside and A Mad World are some examples of city comedies.
Tragi -comedy combined the features of both tragedy and comedy. It is
complete tragedy upto a certain point and then it is complete comedy
thereafter. The rising action is usually a tragedy and the falling action is a
comedy. It was a contribution of Elizabethan romantic times. Most
romances of Shakespeare fall under this category. Shakespeare’s
Cymbeline, Winter’s Tale and Cymbeline are examples of his romances.
The characters in tragi -comedy undergo forced or natur al transformation.
The general atmosphere of such plays is fantasy and the elements of
pastoral and supernatural are added. This form rose under Italian and
Spanish influence in England during the reign of James I. It was the
dramatic counterpart of prose romance already popular in Europe at that
time. Beaumont and Fletcher’s A King and No King established this form
on English stage. Milton and Addison had strongly condemned this form
due to it not following the Unity of Action. This form declined after
1942.The Faithful Shepherdess by Fletcher , Phylaster and Love lies a
bleeding by Beaumont and Fletcher are some other examples of tragi -
comedy.
Masques attained high degree of perfection during the reign of James I.
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17 sixteenth century. It was a medley of music, elaborate scenic effects and
dancing, woven around a fairy tale, myth or allegory. Sainstbury defined a
Masque as “a dramatic entertainment in which plot, character and even to
great extent dialogue are subordinated on one hand to spectacular
illustration and on the other to musical accompaniment. The main features
of early Masque were masks, elaborate costumes and dancing. Later on
beautiful speeches and songs were also added to i t. It was favourite form
of Ben Johnson. The features of masques were as follows - characters were
deities of classical mythology, nymphs and personified abstractions like
Love, Delight and Harmony. The number of characters was restricted to
six. The scenes were laid in ideal places like Olympus, Arcadia etc.
Dances of various kinds were introduced at appropriate places. The
scenery and costumes were elaborate. It was only as long as a single act of
Shakespearian plays. Comic interludes were introduced and w ere known
as anti - masques. Masque was generally performed as a part of celebration
of wedding in a great family. It was a costly form of entertainment and fell
on lean times after the death of James I in 1625. Apart from Ben Jonson,
Beaumont, Fletcher, Da niel and Chapman had written masque. Post 1625,
one famous masque is Comus by Milton.
3.2 REVENGE TRAGEDY:
The origin of revenge tragedy can be traced back to Roman philosopher
Seneca. His plays contained elements of revenge via supernatural.
Influenced b y the Senecan tragedies of Roman times, revenge tragedies
became popular during Elizabethan and Jacobean period. Revenge tragedy
is also known as ‘tragedy of blood’. This term was coined by A.H.
Thorndike to represent certain plays produced during Elizabet han and
Jacobean era. The revenge tragedies differed from Senecan tragedies as in
Senecan tragedies the violent actions were usually reported by Chorus or a
messenger but in revenge tragedy; the violent actions and bloodshed take
place on stage. Gorboduc is considered to be the first revenge tragedy
modelled on Senecan tragedy.
The revenge tragedy consisted of one or more of the following
characteristics. There would be ghosts or supernatural elements. A murder
happens and a character seeks revenge against the wrongdoing
(real/imagined). A clear villain is always seen.There might be scenes of
insanity in stage. Violence is shown in a sensational way on stage. Some
revenge tragedies also included disguises. Conclusion of the plays is often
bloody and full of corpses. Jacobean revenge tragedies also contained lots
of soliloquies and asides. Play within a play was another aspect of
Jacobean revenge tragedy.
The most famous revenge tragedy of Shakespeare is Hamlet . It consists of
most features of revenge tragedy including ghost and a play within a play.
In the play, the ghost of Hamlet’s father asks Hamlet to revenge his death.
He tells Hamlet that he was murdered by Claudius (Hamlet’s uncle) who
has now become the King of Denmark after Hamlet’s father’s death an d
has married Hamlet’s mother (Gertrude). Prince Hamlet is devoted to the
purpose given by his father but he is deeply contemplative and thoughtful munotes.in

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18 by nature. He delays the revenge by entering deep melancholy and even
apparent madness. Hamlet makes a group of travelling performers enact
scenes having close resemblance to the murder of his father. Seeing the
performance Claudius leaves the room which confirms his guilt. Once
Hamlet goes to kill Claudius but does not do so since he feels that killing
him whil e he is praying would send him to heaven. Claudius also starts
having doubts on Hamlet and plans to send him to England. Hamlet goes
to confront his mother but sensing someone behind the tapestry, he kills
that person mistaking him to be Claudius. That per son turns out to be
Polonius with whose daughter (Ophelia) he was in love. Ophelia goes mad
and Hamlet is sent to England. Ophelia drowns and dies. Ophelia’s
brother, Laertes is misled by Claudius into believing that Hamlet was
responsible for both the dea ths. Hamlet returns as his ship to England was
attacked by pirates. An innocent duel between Laertes and Hamlet is
planned where the blade of Laertes’ sword is poisoned. Claudius also
keeps a goblet of poison ready to give to Hamlet in case he wins the due l.
In the end Laertes, Claudius and Hamlet die due to the poisoned sword
and Gertrude dies by drinking from the goblet. The stage is full of corpses
by the end of the play. Thus the play is full of bloodshed especially the
final act. The play also containe d certain famous soliloquies by Hamlet.
The Duchess of Malfi by John Webster is another famous revenge tragedy
of Jacobean era. Two brothers, Ferdinand and Cardinal, ask their widowed
sister, the Duchess to not remarry and they leave for Rome leaving Bosol a
to spy on her. She falls in love with her steward, Antonio and they get
married in secret. She gives birth to his child and Bosola starts having
suspicions. They have two more children and when Ferdinand returns
from Rome, he asks her to kill herself by giving her a dagger. She reveals
that she is married and Ferdinand leaves angrily that he would never see
her again. Bosola tricks the duchess into telling him who the father of
children is and takes the information to her brothers. Duchess asks
Antonio to flee with her elder son to Milan. Duchess and her younger
children are imprisoned and are later strangled. Ferdinand loses his mind
after this incident and joins the Cardinal. Bosola plans to kill the two
brothers but mistakenly kills Antonio. In the end Bosola, Ferdinand and
Cardinal are killed by each other. Almost seven characters are killed on
stage by the end of this play.
Thomas Middleton is a Jacobean playwright who has written both
comedies and tragedies. His famous revenge tragedy is The Revenger’ s
Tragedy . Vindici decides to avenge the murder of his beloved, Gloriana
who was murdered by the Duke as she refused to sleep with him. His
brother Hippolito counsels him against this. Vindici comes to know that
Duke’s son, Lussurioso is looking for a proc urer who can procure a
woman for him to satisfy his lust. Vindici decides to disguise as a
procurer. Vindici disguised as the procurer comes to know that the woman
Lussurioso is lusting after is his sister – Castiza. Now Vindici decides that
instead of kil ling the Duke, he would kill Lussurioso. The night
Lussurioso expects Castiza, Vindici and Hippolito tells him that Duchess
is sleeping with another man to create a diversion. Lussurioso rushes to
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19 the Duke. Duke assumes that Lussurioso had come there to murder him
and he is arrested for treason. Dukes younger son, Junior, had a trial going
on for raping a woman. That woman commits suicide and at a later point
of time due to confusion in prison, Junior is executed on sight. The Duke
asks for an effigy of Gloriana to the procurer. Vindici and Hippolito
poison the effigy and the Duke falls to his knees when he kisses it. Vindici
stabs him then.Lussurioso becomes the new Duke. Commotion takes place
as rest of the Duke’s family thinks that they have what it takes to be a
Duke and meanwhile Hippolito and Vindici kill Lussurioso. By the end of
the play, the Duke and his two sons are killed.
3.3 TRAGEDIES OF JACOBEAN AGE:
A Woman killed with Kindn ess is a tragedy which considered to be a
masterpiece of Thomas Heywood. The plot of the play has been borrowed
from an Italian novel by Illicini which was translated and reprinted in
William Painter’s The Palace of Pleasure . The play explores the social
norms of the time and relationship between men and women along with
female sexuality. The play is about a married couple Master John
Frankford and Anne. Wendoll, a houseguest tries to seduce Anne and
when her husband finds about this, he decides to ostracis e her. This
decision of his leads Anne to a self -destructive path of self -imposed
punishment. The play also depicts the subplot of Sir Charles Mountford
who tries to use the sexuality of his sister, Susan, to get him out of debt.
His sister keeps fighting the intention of her brother.
The Virgin Martyr is a tragedy written by Thomas Dekker and Philip
Massinger. The play centres around the martyrdom of St. Dorothea of
Caesarea. The play has been categorised as a saint’s play. The play has
been popularly cate gorised as a tragedy but it also has a spiritual element
to it. The play ends in the death of the protagonist. The theme of Christian
conversion is also represented in this play.
Two popular tragedies written by Ben Jonson were Sejanus His Fall and
Catilin e His Conspiracy . Both were Roman Tragedies written by him
which were a failure on stage.
3.4 TRAGICOMEDY OF JACOBEAN AGE:
Tragicomedy had the element of both tragedy and comedy combined in a
single play where the first of the play would be a tragedy and t he second
part a comedy since the play ended on a happy note.
One of the famous tragicomedies written by Thomas Dekker, William
Rowley and John Ford is The Witch of Edmonton. The play is a domestic
tragedy based on events that supposedly took place in the p arish of
Edmonton. The play was inspired by the life of Elizabeth Sawyer who was
executed for witchcraft. In the play, Elizabeth Sawyer is a poor, lonely
ostracised witch who turns to witchcraft and with the help of a talking
devil dog Tom she causes one o f her neighbours to go mad and kill
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20 him being married to Winnifride. Later at one point he stabs Susan in the
presence of the devil dog. The play on an optimistic note when both Fra nk
and Elizabeth are executed and Cuddy Banks emerges unaffected by his
encounters with the dog Tom due to his innocence.
A King and No King, Philaster and Love’s Pilgrimage are tragicomedies
written by Beaumont and Fletcher. The play consisted of extreme sexual
scenarios and provides implausible solutions to problems. Arbaces, the
King of Iberia has an inability to control his wild mood swings and he falls
in love with his sister, Panthea upon his return home. The play mainly
depicts his desperate struggl es against his passion for his sister. Later
however it is revealed that Arbaces was the son of Gobrius (the regent) as
a result of which he isn’t the brother of Panthea. In the end he marries
Panthea but steps down from being the king. The comic relief in the play
is provided by the Bessus.
In Philaster, the protagonist, who is the legitimate heir to the throne of
Italy falls in love with Arethusa, the daughter of the usurper. The plot of
the play involves the issues and confusions that both of them have to facebefore reconciling with each other. 3.5 JACOBEAN COMEDIES:
Comedies of the Jacobean age were famous by the name city comedies as
they portrayed the life in London. They were basically satires
commenting on the life in the busy city of London. Ben Jonson was a
famous Jacobean dramatist and poet who was famous for his comedies
than his tragedies. The comedies of the era were predominantly written by
Ben Jonsosn. During the Jacobean age he was considered at par with
Shakespeare or only second to Shakespeare in his writings. His first
success as a dramatist came with the play Every Man in His Humor which
was a huge success. It came under the category of being comedy of
humours. The play was based on four humours (blood, phlegm, choler and
melancholy) of the medieval physiology which were considered
responsible for personality or temperament. He makes u se of humours in
depicting the dominant peculiarity of his characters. Therefore he deals
with a type and not a personality. The success of Every man in his Humor
led Jonson to write Everyman out of his Humor which was a failure.
Some famous comedies of Be n Jonson include Volpone, The Silent
Women, The Alchemist and Bartholomew Fair . Volpone is a city comedy,
a merciless satire of greed and lust. It is considered to be one of the best
comedies of Jacobean era. The play is about Volpone who is a con artist
who has amassed wealth and is planning on his new con. The
consequences of this new con are the content of the play. Volpone
pretends to be very ill and attracts the interest of three legacy hunters
(Voltore, Corbaccio and Corvino) in him. They bring him g ifts with the
hope that he would write their name in his will as his heir. Corbaccio
declares to name Volpone his heir with the hope that Volpone would
return the favour. Volpone is supported by Mosca in this plan of his.
Mosca tells Volpone about the beau tiful wife of Corvino, Celia. Volpone munotes.in

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21 starts lusting for her and after a failed chance of meeting her directly.
Mosca promises to help him and tells Corvino that if he lets Celia sleep
with Volpone, then he will be chosen as his heir. Corvino consents to t his.
Bonario, Corbaccio’s son comes to Volpone’s house in order to catch his
father in the act of transfer of property. Celia is also brought to Volpone’s
house where he attempts to rape her but is saved by Bonario. Celia and
Bonario accuse Corvino, Corbac cio and Volpone of their respective
actions in court but instead they get falsely accused of an affair and
ordered to be arrested. Volpone decides to play a final prank by pretending
to be dead and Mosca being his heir. He disguises himself and ridicules
the three men. Voltore gets upset and goes to the Senate and declares
about the past actions of Volpone and other men. Mosca’s refusal to give
back Volpone’s property to him results in the truth of everyone coming
out in the open and in the end all culprits are punished accordingly. Ben
Jonson has tried to represent the harsh reality of the society through this
play. The theme of greed and lust are very openly discussed here. Jonson
tookinspiration from the classical works of Aristophanes in this play. The
animal imagery used in Volpone is that of sly fox, raven, vulture, crow,
parrot and peregrine falcon.
Epicene or The Silent Women is another comedy by Jonson. The play is
about Dauphine who creates a scheme to get his inheritance from his
uncle, Morose. Mor ose is a wealthy old man who hates noise and is
planning to disinherit his nephew, Dauphine. To counter this, Dauphine
comes up with a plan with Morose’s barber, Cutbread.Cutbread introduces
Morose to a supposedly silent woman. After confirming her to be a silent
woman, he marries her inspite of warnings from Truewit against the
marriage. After marriage Morose comes to know that his wife is loud.
Morose tries to divorce her but is unable to do so. Dauphine promises to
help Morose to divorce his wife if he a grees to give him his inheritance.
After the agreement is made, it is revealed by Dauphine that Morose’s
wife was in reality a boy and therefore their marriage cannot be upheld.
The Alchemist by Jonson satirises the follies, vanities and vices of
mankind. The play depicts what happens to people who take advantage of
each other. The play shows how the con artists Subtle, Face and Doll are
undone by the same human weakness that they try to exploit in their
victims. Face disguises himself as a sea captain, Sub tle disguises himself
as an alchemist and Doll as an aristocratic lady. During the course of the
play, envy and jealousy leads to their downfall. Bartholomew Fair is an
experimental comedy written by Jonson. He has tried to blend farce and
meta -commentary o n playwriting in this play. The whole story takes place
at Bartholomew Fair. It is considered to be one of the interesting comedies
written by Jonson.
3.6 CONCLUSION:
The Jacobean period produced a combination of both comedies and
tragedies. The area of co medies was dominated by Ben Jonson and
revenge tragedies were quite popular during this period. Some famous
writers of this age were Ben Jonson, Shakespeare, Thomas Middleton, munotes.in

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22 John Webster, Thomas Dekker and Beaumont and Fletcher. Apart from
tragedies and comedies, the period was also famous for tragicomedy and
elaborate plays known as masques. The Jacobean period in literature was
an extension of the Elizabethan period with certain changes in the themes
of the play and satires playing a major role in drama . Thus Jacobean
period had its own characteristics which differentiated it from the
Elizabethan age which was considered as the golden age of Drama.
3.7 QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the different genres of Drama with reference to Jacobean age.
2. Mention some character istics of Jacobean revenge drama with
reference to any play which comes under this category.
3. Explain the characteristics of masques.
4. What was the role of Ben Jonson during the Jacobean age?
5. What is a tragicomedy?

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23 4
CRITICAL STUDY OF WILLIAM
SHAKESPEARE’S THE TRAGEDY OF
HAMLET, PRINCE OF DENMARK PART I
Unit Structure:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 William Shakespeare
4.2 About the play, The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
4.3 Plot
4.4 Characters
4.0 OBJECTIVES:
This unit discusses William Shakespeare’s play, The Tragedy of Hamlet,
Prince of Denmark . It deals with a short introduction of William
Shakespeare, characteristics of Shakespearean tragedies. It explicates
briefly the play —its background, content, Character s, themes, symbols
and language.
4.1WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE:
William Shakespeare was one of the the most influential writers in English
literature. He was born in 1564 in Stratford -upon -Avon, England. Around
1590 he left his family behind and traveled to Lond on to work as an actor
and playwright and soon became successful playwright in England and
part-owner of the Globe Theater. His career witnesses the reigns of
Elizabeth I (ruled 1558 –1603) and James I (ruled 1603 –1625). James
considered his company as King ’s Men. In 1616 at the age of fifty -twohe
died in Stratford. At the time of Shakespeare’s death, Ben Jonson
established his writings as timeless. Shakespeare’s works got published
and he got popularity as poet but there was not much biographical
informat ion available about him. Therefore, his life was confined with
lots of ambiguity. It is considered he penned down thirty -seven plays and
154 sonnets. He portrayed the Western society and culture of his time
especially, the first part of the seventeenth ce ntury (probably in 1600 or
1601).
4.2 ABOUT THE PLAY, THE TRAGEDY OF HAMLET,
PRINCE OF DENMARK
The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, often shortened to Hamlet. It
was probably first performed in 1602 and was appeared in an enlarged munotes.in

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24 edition in 1604. Sha kespeare borrowed ideas and stories from earlier
literary works. He could have taken the story of Hamlet from several
possible sources, including a twelfth -century Latin history of Denmark
compiled by Saxo Grammaticus and a prose work by the French writer,
François de Belleforest, entitled HistoiresTragiques . It is also claimed that
Shakespeare borrowed Hamlet's story from a Danish prince whose uncle
murders the prince’s father, marries his mother, and claims the throne and
then the prince pretends to be fe eble-minded and manages to kill his uncle
in revenge. Shakespeare presents Hamlet as a philosophical genius with
remarkable revenge story. Shakespeare in Hamlet points out renaissance
humanism as he pinpoints new interest in human experience and an
optimi sm about the potential scope of human understanding through
Hamlet’s famous speech in Act II,
What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason, how infinite in
faculty, in form and moving how express and admirable, in action how
like an angel, in ap prehension how like a god —the beauty of the world,
the paragon of animals! (II.ii.293 –297)
The speech focuses on better understanding of human behaviour and
society. Shakespeare borrowed it from Italian humanists, Pico
dellaMirandola’s Oration on the Dign ity of Man. Hamlet , the play
underlines the complexities of human relations and behaviour.
William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet approximately between 1599 and
1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play set in Denmark.Shakespeare depicts
Prince Hamlet and his reve nge against his uncle, Claudius, who has
murdered Hamlet's father, seized his throne and married Hamlet's mother,
Gertrude. He structures the play and characterization with depth. Hence,
many people got inspired with it and lots of work and research has be en
done by the scholars on play. Today also it is topic of debate whether
Hamlet's hesitation to kill his uncle is merely a plot device to prolong the
action or it is a dramatisation of the complex philosophical and ethical
issues intertwined with cold -blooded murder, calculated revenge, and
dissatisfied desire. Psychoanalytic critics underline Hamlet's unconscious
desires whereas feminist critics evaluate characters of Ophelia and
Gertrude from feminist and gender perspective.
4.3 PLOT SUMMARY:
Hamlet is a protagonist of Shakespeare’sone of the best tragedies, The
Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark . He is Prince of Denmark, son of
the recently deceased King Hamlet, and nephew of King Claudius, his
father's brother and successor. After King Hamlet’s death, Claudius, King
Hamlet’s brother and Prince Hamlet’s unclehurriedly marries King
Hamlet's widow, Gertrude, Hamlet's mother, and takes the throne for
himself. Denmark has disputes with neighboring country, Norway. King
Hamlet killed King Fortinbras of Norwa y in a battle few years ago.
Although Denmark defeated Norway, Denmark fears about an invasion
led by the dead Norwegian king's son, Prince Fortinbras. munotes.in

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Critical Study of William
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Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
Part I
25 On a cold night, the Danish royal castle sentries —Bernardoand Marcellus
discuss a ghost resembling to th e late King Hamlet. They bring Prince
Hamlet's friend, Horatio as a witness. Three of them see the ghost and they
vow to inform Prince Hamlet about what they have witnessed.
Next day in the court, King Claudius and Queen Gertrude discuss affairs
of state w ith their elderly adviser, Polonius. Hamlet is also present in the
court with sad mood. Claudius grants permission for Polonius's son,
Laertes to return to school in France and sends envoys to inform the King
of Norway about Fortinbras. Claudius expresses his concerns about
Hamlet’s grievance over his father and forbids him to return to his
schooling in Wittenberg. After the court exits, Hamlet despairs of his
father's death and his mother's hasty remarriage. Meanwhile Horatio tells
him about what he witnes sed. After Learning of the ghost, Hamlet
resolves to see it himself.
Laertes prepares to depart for a visit to France. Polonius's daughter,
Ophelia, admits her love for Hamlet but Laertes warns her against seeking
the prince's attention. Polonius orders he r to reject Hamlet. On the same
night, the ghost appears to Hamlet and tells him that he is murdered by
Claudius and demands Hamlet avenge him. Hamlet agrees.Though Hamlet
remains uncertain of the ghost's reliability, he oaths the revenge and
accordingly h e behaveserratically.
Further, Opheliainforms Polonius about Hamlet’s arrival at her door half -
undressed.Polonius considers love as a reason behind Hamlet’s madness
and informs the same to Claudius and Gertrude who invites Rosencrantz
and Guildenstern to i nvestigate the reason behind Hamlet’s madness.
Meanwhile, messengers from Norway inform Claudius about Prince
Fortinbras’ attempt to re -fight with Denmark. Polonius discusses his
theory with Claudius and Gertrude regarding Hamlet's behavior. He tries
to ge t more information from Hamlet. Hamlet insults Polonius.Hamlet’s
friends turned -spies, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern meet Hamlet. Hamlet
admits his disappointment but refuses to tell the real reason. Meanwhile,
Hamlet welcomes the drama group and asks them to deliver a soliloquy
about the death of King Priam and Queen Hecuba at the climax of the
Trojan War. He plots to stage The Murder of Gonzago, a play in which he
recreates King Hamlet’smurder to study Claudius's reaction in order to
determine the truth of the ghost's story, as well as Claudius's guilt or
innocence.
Ophelia returns Hamlet's love letters and gifts. Polonius and Claudius
observe Hamlet’s reaction secretly by standing at Ophelia’s entrance.
Hamlet manages the situation by calling Ophelia immod est which
confuses everyone whether its due to madness or genuine distress, he
blames her. Claudius gets the idea that Hamlet is not mad for love.
Thereafter, the court gathers to watch the play Hamlet has commissioned.
After seeing the Player King murdere d by his rival pouring poison in his
ear, Claudius abruptly runs from the room. Hamlet gets the proof of his
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26 Gertrude summons Hamlet to her chamber to demand an explanation as
Claudius repents badly for murdering his brother and usurping his crown
and wife too by sinking to his knees. Hamlet feels to kill him at that
moment but he does not as killing Claudius while he is praying will send
him to heaven. Hamlet and Gertrude fight bitterly. Polonius, spies on the
conversation from behind a tape stry. Gertrude believes Hamlet wants to
kill her. Hence, Poloniushides there to help her.Hamlet misunderstands
Polonius as Claudius and stabs him. Hamlet blames Gertrude for her
ignorance of Claudius vicious nature. The ghost enters and scolds Hamlet
for h is inaction and harsh words. Gertrude considers Hamlet's
conversation with it as further evidence of madness. After begging the
queen to stop sleeping with Claudius, Hamlet leaves, dragging Polonius's
corpse away.Hamlet jokes with Claudius about where he h as hidden
Polonius's body. Claudius senses the danger for his life from Hamlet. So,
he sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to accompany Hamlet to England
with a sealed letter in which he requests to the English king to execute
Hamlet.
Polonius's death ment ally disturbs Ophelia. Laertes returns from France,
enraged by his father's death and his sister's madness. Claudius convinces
Laertes that Hamlet is solely responsible for all his lose. Similarly, Hamlet
spoils Claudius's plan and returns to Denmark. He p roposes a fencing
match between Laertes and Hamlet to settle their differences. He conspires
to give Laertes a poison -tipped foil, and, if that fails, he will offer Hamlet
poisoned wine as a congratulation. Gertrude gets the news of Ophelia’s
death. It rem ains unclear whether it was suicide or an accident caused by
her madness.
Horatio receives a letter from Hamlet, explaining that the prince escaped
by negotiating with pirates who attempted to attack his England -bound
ship, and the friends reunite offstage . While digging Ophelia's
gravediggers discuss her suicide. Hamlet and Horatio and banters with one
of the gravediggers, who unearths the skull of a jester from Hamlet's
childhood, Yorick. Ophelia's funeral starts by Laertes. Hamlet and Horatio
hide but wh en Hamlet realizes that its Ophelia’s funeral comes out from
his hiding place and declares his love for her. Laertes and Hamlet fight but
the brawl is broken up.
Hamlet explains to Horatio how he discovers Claudius's letter with
Rosencrantz and Guildenster n which he replaces with a forged copy
indicating that his former friends should be killed instead. Osricdelivers
the news about fencing challenge to Hamlet. Hamlet accepts it. Hamlet
does well at first. Gertrude raises a toast to him using the poisoned gl ass of
wine Claudius sets aside for Hamlet. Claudius tries to stop her but she
drinks. Laertes realizes the plot will be revealed so hurriedly he wounds
Hamlet with his poisoned blade. During the scuffle they switch weapons
and Hamlet wounds Laertes with p oisoned sword. Gertrude collapses dies.
Laertes before dying reveals Claudius's plan to Hamlet. Hamlet kills
Claudius. He feels unconscious due to poison but he manages to hear that
Fortinbras is marching through the area, names the Norwegian prince as
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Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
Part I
27 drinking the dregs of Gertrude's poisoned wine as he does not wish to
remain as a last survivor. Hamlet begs him to live on and tell his story.
Hamlet dies in Horatio's arms, proclaiming "the r est is
silence".Fortinbrasarrives at the palace, along with an English ambassador
bringing news of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern's deaths. Horatio promises
to tellthe full story of what happened. Fortinbras after knowing how the
entire Danish royal family d ead, takes the crown for himself and orders a
military funeral to honour Hamlet.
4.4 CHARACTERIZATION:
Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
Hamlet, the protagonist of the play who is cannot decide the proper course
to avenge his father’s death. He fails to choose bet ween fate and free will.
When he comes to know about his father, King Hamlet’s murder by his
uncle, Claudius, he takes the responsibility to avenge. Meanwhile, he
doubts about his situation and own feelings that he delays his revenge. His
internal struggle can be easily witnessed in throughout the play. Hamlet
attempts to confirm the information given by the ghost regarding
Claudius’s guilt. His frustration to take proper action provokes him to
murder Polonius by mistake. This lack of resolution makes the e nding of
Hamlet especially horrifying as all the characters are dead, but nothing has
been solved.
Hamlet is mysterious character. Shakespeare sketches him so differently
that the audience/readers always find more to him than the other
characters in the pl ay. Even the most careful and clever readers come
away with the sense that they don’t know everything there is to know
about this character. Hamlet makes the other characters to feel that there is
more to him than meets the eye. Shakespeare pens down the s oliloquies
and dialogues in such a way that When he speaks, he sounds as if there’s
something important he’s not saying, maybe something even he is not
aware of.
Hamlet is very discontented with the state of affairs in Denmark and in his
own family especi ally, his mother, Gertrude’s quick marriage with his
uncle, Claudius disappoints him. He feels betrayed by all females. Hence,
he rejects Ophelia whom he loves. He distrusts all women in general.
Though he belongs to the royal family, he does not care abou t his country.
On the contrary, he traps himself in his own internal and familial conflict .
Claudius
Claudius, the antagonist in the play, Hamlet is a shrewd, lustful,
conspiratorial king who kills own brother, King Hamlet and marries his
wife, Gertrude a nd crowns himself as King of Denmark. He is morally
corrupt and lusts for power. He is a corrupt politician who manipulates
others through his language. Claudius’s speech is compared to poison
being poured in the ear —the method he used to murder Hamlet’s f ather.
Claudius loves Gertrude but to marry her and get the throne is his real
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28 fails he involves Laertes in killing Hamlet for his own benefit. He advises
Laertes to poison the bla de, and he poisons goblet. Gertrude unknowingly
drinks the poison and dies Hamlet kills Claudius and dies.
Gertrude
Gertrude, the Queen of Denmark and mother of Hamlet. Shakespeare’s
play, Hamlet does not answer the questions about Gertrude regarding her
loyalty and love towards King Hamlet and Prince Hamlet, her
involvement in King Hamlet’s and Prince Hamlet’s murder. Her character
remains equally mysterious as Hamlet’s character.
Shakespeare does not portray Gertrude clearly in Hamlet. He does not talk
about her desire for station and affection. Hamlet’s most famous comment
about Gertrude is his furious condemnation of women in general: “Frailty,
thy name is woman!” Shakespeare through this dialogue defines Hamlet’s
agonized state of mind Gertrude’s mor al weak. Gertrude does not
critically analyze the situation. She always grabs safe choices and support
whenever she is in trouble.
Polonius
Polonius is a royal courtier and concerned father. He sends his son,
Laertes to France with heavy heart at the same time, advises his daughter,
Ophelia to stay away from Hamlet. The secure and happy family unit of
Polonius’ family which includes Laertes and Ophelia is complete contrast
with the dysfunctional royal family —Claudius, Gertrude, and Hamlet.
Polonius plays a perfect father who keeps eye on Laertes by appointing
spy, Reynaldo. He is very loyal and courageous who ready to put his life
in danger for royal family. Hamlet kills him by mistakenly assuming him
as Claudius. Sometimes, he provides comic relief.
Ophe lia
Ophelia case whose character is always under the influence of the three
powerful male characters —her father, Polonius, her brother, Laertes and
Hamlet who loves her. And suddenly three of them disappear which
pushes her towards madness and takes her to wards death.
These male characters especially her father and brother decide dos and
don’t for her. They both tell her to stay away from Hamlet. They do not
allow her to take her own decisions. Due to her Hamlet’s cruelty and her
father’s death sends Ophel ia into a fit of grief. In the end, she dies under
ambiguous circumstances. Ophelia suffers without her fault which makes
her tragic character.
Laertes
Laertes, Polonius’ loving son and Ophelia’s caring brother spends much of
his time in France. He is ver y passionate and quick to action opposite to
Hamlet, Laertes oaths to take revenge of his father’s murder so he
challenges Hamlet for fight nut at the same time, helps Claudius in his
plan to poisoning Hamlet. He dies at Hamlet’s hands with poisonous munotes.in

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Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
Part I
29 weapo n. Before dying understands the real game of Claudius and reveals it
to Hamlet who he too wounds with poisonous sword.
Fortinbras
The young Prince of Norway, whose father, King Fortinbras was killed by
Hamlet’s father, King Hamlet. Now Fortinbras wishes t o attack Denmark
to avenge his father’s honor.
The Ghost
The ghost claims himself as Old Hamlet’s spirit who has been murdered
by Claudius. He tells Hamlet to avenge him. However, ghost’s presence is
questionable because it is not entirely certain whether the ghost is what it
appears to be, or whether it is something else. Hamlet thinks the ghost can
be a devil sent to deceive him and tempt him into murder. This can be
considered one of the reasons behind his inaction and delayed revenge.
The question of g host’s real existence and motives are not clear
throughout the play.
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
Two are former friends of Hamlet from Wittenberg, who spy upon Hamlet
by Claudius and Gertrude to discover the cause of Hamlet’s strange
behavior.
Osric
The foolish courtier who summons Hamlet to his duel with Laertes.
Voltimand and Cornelius
Courtiers whom Claudius sends to Norway to persuade the king to prevent
Fortinbras from attacking.
Marcellus and Bernardo
The officers who first see the ghost and summon Horatio to witness it.
Marcellus is present when Hamlet first encounters the ghost.
Reynaldo
Polonius’s spy on Laertes in France.
4.5 QUESTIONS:
1 Hamlet as a tragedy.
2. Discuss the theme of uncertainty and the complexity of action woven
by Shakespeare in his play, Hamlet .
3 How does Shakespeare present the idea of madness in Hamlet ?
4 comment on the function and nature of Hamlet’s soliloquies.
5 critically analyze the thematic set up/characterization in Hamlet . munotes.in

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4.6 REFERENCES:
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.chegg.com
 https://www.coursehero.com
 www.bing.com
 https://alchetron.com
 https://www.cram.com/essay/shakespeares -impact -on-the-story -of-
Hamlet
 www.albert.io/blog/hamlet -and-the-16th -and-17th -centuries
 https://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/hamlet/context
 Brooks, Jean. (1986). Dramatic form: Hamlet as a Tragedy. In: Hamlet
by William Shakespeare. Macmillan Master Guides. Palgrave,
London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 -1349 -07484 -6_5


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31 5
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE’S THE
TRAGEDY OF HAMLET, PRINCE OF
DENMARK PART - II
Unit Structure:
5.0Objectives
5.1 Themes
5.2 Criticism
5.3 Hamlet as a tragedy or a problem play
5.4 Conclusion
5.5 Questions
5.6 Reference for further study
5.0 OBJECTIVES:
This u nit discusses William Shakespeare’s play, The Tragedy of Hamlet,
Prince of Denmark . It deals with a short introduction of William
Shakespeare, characteristics of Shakespearean tragedies. It explicates
briefly the play —its background, content, Characters, themes, symbols
and language.
5.1 THEMES
Uncertainty
Shakespeare presents Hamlet different than just a revenge plays. He
narrates the story of Hamlet who continually postpones his revenge and
tries to find out the authenticity of the information provided b y the ghost
about King Hamlet’s murder by Claudius. This play poses many questions
regarding the certain knowledge about ghost and its motives and reality of
the information provided by it, about King Hamlet’s death, Queen
Gertrude’s loyalty and love, her involvement in Claudius’ conspiracy
against royal family, Claudius’ knowledge about Hamlet and his revenge
for Old Hamlet’s murder. The play also poses questions about the life after
the death. These uncertainties disable Hamlet to take his revenge and
doubt about himself.
The Complexity of Action
The complexity of action is related to the theme of uncertainty.
Throughout the play, the protagonist remains in dilemma and uncertainty
which causes why the action is delayed. In Hamlet , Shakespeare highlights munotes.in

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32 how certain action is involved with certainty, emotional, ethical, and
psychological factors. Hamlet does not believe about the purposeful
execution of the act. Hence, he acts blindly, recklessly, and violently. The
other characters act according to their g ut feelings. The best example of it
is Claudius who gets queen and crown through bold action of murdering
his brother, but his karma torture him. Laertes resolves that nothing will
distract him from acting out his revenge, but manipulative Claudius
without Laertes’ knowledge makes him part of his plan of poisoning
Hamlet during the fight. All the characters’ action is difficult to
understand because they think something but the outcome of their action is
not what they desired.
Death
Shakespeare plots the th eme of death very dexterously in the play. The
play begins with the death of King Hamlet and ends with the death of all
the important characters —Laertes, Gertrude, Claudius and Hamlet. The
death of King Hamlet creates the distrustful environment in Denmark .
Hamlet tries to find out the truth behind his father’s death. He spends
much time in evaluating the information provided by the ghost about King
Hamlet’s murder. He thinks about the spiritual aftermath of death, ghost,
and the physical remainders of the dead, such as by Yorick’s skull and the
decaying corpses in the cemetery. Polonius’ murder states the depression
and the mental status of Hamlet whereas Ophelia’s death emphasizes the
emptiness and sorrow she goes through after disappearance of three men
from her life. Shakespeare portrays death as the cause and the
consequence of revenge and justice too as Claudius’s murder of King
Hamlet initiates Hamlet’s quest for revenge, and Claudius’s death is the
end of that quest. The play is actually a circle of d eath, it starts from it and
end at death. Shakespeare connects death with religion, morality and
mystery. Hamlet philosophically concludes that no one would choose to
endure the pain of life if he or she were not afraid of what will come after
death, and t hat it is this fear which causes complex moral considerations to
interfere with the capacity for action.
The Nation As A Diseased Body
Shakespeare in Hamlet connects the welfare of the royal family and the
health of the state. He narrates transformation of power from Old Hamlet
to Claudius. He talks about the morally sound ruler, his rule and nation.
Denmark is frequently described as a physical body made ill by the moral
corruption of Claudius and Gertrude. He states the condition of the nation
and royal f amily trough just one sentence, “something is rotten in the state
of Denmark”. He projects the healthy condition of Denmark under King
Hamlet’s rule whereas Claudius, a wicked politician turns Denmark as
corrupted country. At the end of the play, he sugges ts hope of Denmark’s
rise.
Performance
Hamlet decides to play insane in order to find out the reality of the
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Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
Part I I
33 However, it becomes very difficult to understand what he is really feeling
and what he is performing. He plans to pretend as mad. Ophelia finds his
behavior as comic performance. Hamlet says his friends, Rosencrantz and
Guildenstern that he is depressed. Shakespeare develops Hamlet’s
character in such a way that it becomes diffic ult to know whether Hamlet
is really mad or just performing madness. In the end of play, even Hamlet
himself doesn’t seem to know the difference between performance and
reality. Shakespeare makes his audience constantly aware about the
theatrical performan ces. Hence, Polonius informs how he plays the role of
Julius Caesar. He adds the device of the play within the play which gives
Hamlet further opportunities to comment on the nature of theater. He
makes realize that something fake can feel real, and vice v ersa.
Madness
Shakespeare weaves Hamlet’s character so dexterously that the whole
story and all the characters move around to find out the reality about
Hamlet’s mental state. After encounter with the ghost, Hamlet decides to
pretend to be mad. Initially, he himself seems to believe he’s sane and
switch on and off his madness time to time as he tells it to Rosencrantz
and Guildenstern. But as plot develops, he doubts his own sanity. He
blames his madness behind the killing of Polonius and Laertes which can
also be considered functioning of a sane and cunning mind.
Doubt
In Hamlet , the main character, Hamlet doubts about everything. He does
not believe the ghost who claims as spirit of King Hamlet and informs
about his murder by Claudius. Hamlet decides to t ake revenge by killing
Claudius but he doubts about the authenticity of the information provided
by the ghost. Hence, he attempts to find out whether Claudius id guilty or
innocent. He also doubts about his mother, Gertrude’s love and loyalty
towards Old H amlet. He stops trusting all the women in general, hence, he
rejects Ophelia. Not only this even, at the end of the play, he starts
doubting about his own feelings and desires regarding Gertrude. He also
doubts about his own sanity. He leaves audience with many doubts
regarding Gertrude’s affair with Claudius before he killed Hamlet’s father;
Hamlet’s sanity and his feelings for Ophelia.
Christianity
Shakespeare introduces multiple religious ideas and beliefs in the play,
Hamlet . He talks about the idea of life after the death. The ghost
represents this idea. It also informs Hamlet about his murder by Claudius
and his purgatory and how can get relief from it only by revenge. Hamlet
also gets confused due to the idea of Christianity where devil takes form
of any one and provokes to be sinner. Hence, Hamlet doubts about the
ghost’s identity as his father, King Hamlet. God punishes the sinner and
the ideas related to fate confuse him more. Due to which he prolongs his
revenge. Hamlet does not kill Claudius at th e time when he kneels down
and prays because it is Christian belief that if a person dies while he is
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34 after killing his father. Shakespeare also puts light upon the death and the
last ritual mentioned in the Christianity. In short, the play has a very
strong religious foundation which helps to develop the plot and characters.
5.2 CRITICISM:
Shakespeare’s The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark is popular
among the masses from the early 17th century. The supernatural elements
like ghost and vivid dramatisation of melancholy and insanity made the
drama extremely popular in Jacobean and Caroline drama. Restoration
critics of late seventeenth century found Hamlet lack of unity and decorum
in the play. In 18th century this view altered when critics regarded Hamlet
as a hero —a pure, brilliant young man caught into unfortunate
circumstances. However, the advancement of Gothic literature brought
psychological and mystical readings, to the light in the mid18th century.
As a result, in late 18th century Hamlet is considered as a confused
character earlier which was either mad and not as hero. These
developments represented a fundamental change in literary criticism,
which focus more on character th an plot. By the 19th century, Romantic
critics evaluate Hamlet for inner conflict, internal struggles and inner
character in general. Critics focus on Hamlet's delay as a character trait,
rather than a plot device. In 20th century also the focus on charact er and
internal struggle continued.
Dramatic structure
The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark is different in many ways than
the traditional play structure given by Aristotle in his Poetics . According
to Aristotle action is more important than the chara cter. In Hamlet ,
Shakespeare reverses it by giving more importance to character than
action. He reveals the motives and thoughts of the character through the
soliloquies and not through the action. He structures the plot with multiple
discontinuities and i rregularities of action.He depicts the character and the
action with such a uncertainty through which he manages to surprise the
audience. for example, in the Gravedigger scene, Hamlet seems to resolve
to kill Claudius but in the next scenewhen Claudius ap pears, he suddenly
changes his mind. These twists till today make scholars to evaluate
whether they are mistakes or intentional additions to add to the play's
themes of confusion and duality. Shakespeare introduces his literary
device of a play within a pl ay in which one story is told during the action
of another story. By using this literary device, he manages to make his
tragedy, The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark timeless.
Language
Shakespeare uses a language smartly in The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prin ce of
Denmark . Every character’s words provide information about its social,
financial, emotional and psychological statutes. In the play, he uses
courtly language which is elaborate and witty as recommended by
Baldassare Castiglione's 1528 etiquette guide , The Courtier . Osric and
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Part I I
35 too is rich with rhetorical figures. Ophelia, Horatio, the guards, and the
gravediggers use a simple language. Shakespeare underlines theroyal and
high statu s of Claudius, the king with the use of first person plural like we
and us.
Pauline Kiernan argues that Shakespeare changed English drama forever
in Hamlet because he "showed how a character's language can often be
saying several things at once, and contr adictory meanings at that, to reflect
fragmented thoughts and disturbed feelings". She gives the example of
Hamlet's advice to Ophelia, "get thee to a nunnery", which is
simultaneously a reference to a place of chastity and a slang term for a
brothel, refl ecting Hamlet's confused feelings about female sexuality.
Shakespeare gives the greatest rhetorical skill to Hamlet than any other
character. He uses highly developed metaphors, stichomythia for example,
in the closet scene in Hamlet , Gertrude says Hamlet, “Come, come, you
answer with an idle tongue” to which Hamlet replies “Go, go, you
question with a wicked tongue.” Hamlet relies heavily on puns to express
his true thoughts while simultaneously concealing them. For instance, his
"nunnery" remarks to Ophel ia are an example of a cruel double meaning
as nunnery was Elizabethan slang for brothel. He uses pun even from
beginning of the play when Claudius addresses him as "my cousin Hamlet,
and my son", Hamlet says as an aside: "A little more than kin, and less
than kind."
An unusual rhetorical device, hendiadys, a typical expression of an idea by
two nouns connected by ‘and’ appears in several places in the play.
Examples are found in Ophelia's speech at the end of the nunnery scene:
"Th'expectancy and rose of t he fair state" and "And I, of ladies most deject
and wretched". Many scholars claim that Hamlet was written later in
Shakespeare's life, when he was adept at matching rhetorical devices to
characters and the plot. Linguist George T. Wright suggests that he ndiadys
had been used deliberately to heighten the play's sense of duality and
dislocation.
Hamlet's soliloquies have also captured the attention of scholars. Hamlet
interrupts himself, vocalising either disgust or agreement with himself and
embellishing h is own words. He has difficulty expressing himself directly
and instead blunts the thrust of his thought with wordplay. It is not until
late in the play, after his experience with the pirates, that Hamlet is able to
articulate his feelings freely.[95]
Cont exts
Religious
The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark depicts religious upheaval and
English Reformation, The ghost introduces himself as someone in
purgatory and as he dies without last rites. This and Ophelia's burial
ceremony shows the play's Catholic connections. According to Catholic
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36 gets confused whether to avenge his father and kill Claudius or to leave
the vengeance to God, as his religion belief teaches.
Philosophical
Shake speare and the French writer, Michel de Montaigne were the
contemporary who shared the same Philosophical ideas. Shakespeare has
emphasized the same philosophical base in Hamlet .Hamlet is often
considered as a philosophical character who can be studied as a relativist,
existentialist, and sceptical. For instance, he is a subjectivistwhen he says
to Rosencrantz: "there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it
so". He promotes Greek Sophists who believe that nothing is real except in
the mind of t he individual and argue that since nothing can be perceived
except through the senses —and since all individuals sense, and therefore
perceive things differently —there is no absolute truth, but rather only
relative truth. Shakespeare gives the best example of existentialism
through his soliloquy, "to be, or not to be" where Hamlet is thought by
some to use "being" to allude to life and action, and "not being" to death
and inaction.
Hamlet highlightsscepticism promoted by the French Renaissance
humanist, Miche l de Montaigne.In the beginning, Pico dellaMirandola
argued that man was God's greatest creation, made in God's image and
able to choose his own nature. Montaigne challenged this view in 1580.
Hamlet's "What a piece of work is a man" makes the scholars to discuss
how Montaigneand Hamlet both simply reacting similarly to the spirit of
the times.
Psychoanalytic
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalytical theory published his
thoughts about Hamlet in his book, The Interpretation of Dreams (1899 ).
He mentions the play as a footnote to a discussion of Sophocles’ tragedy,
Oedipus Rex , all of which is part of his consideration of the causes of
neurosis. Freud uses the two tragedies to illustrate and corroborate his
psychological theories. In The Int erpretation of Dreams , Freud says that
according to his experience parents play importantparts in the
psychological development of everyone who subsequently become
psychoneurotics, a kind of mental disorder. He also states that "falling in
love with one pa rent and hating the other" is a common impulse in early
childhood, and it causes "subsequent neurosis". Freud considered that
Sophocles’ tragedy, Oedipus Rex involves crimes of parricide and
incest.He states that as the legend puts forth these theories of "infantile
psychology" with universal acceptance. He named these ideas of Freud's
psychological theories, as the "Oedipus Complex", once,he considered
calling it the "Hamlet Complex". Freud considered that Hamlet "is rooted
in the same soil as Oedipus Rex. " He explains that the only difference
between the two plays is that in Oedipus Rex such sexual desires and
murder are shown on the stage whereas in Hamlet it remained repressed.
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Part I I
37
Hamlet’s inaction of ta king revenge Claudius who murders his father and
takes his father's place with his mother makes him to realize the repressed
desires of his own childhood. Hence, Hamlet thinks, "he himself is no
better than the murderer whom he is required to punish".
Freud suggests that the character Hamlet goes through an experience that
has three characteristics, which he numbered: 1) "the hero is not
psychopathic, but becomes so" during the course of the play. 2) "the
repressed desire is one of those that are similarly repressed in all of us." It
is a repression that "belongs to an early stage of our individual
development". The audience identifies with the character of Hamlet,
because "we are victims of the same conflict." 3) It is the nature of theatre
that "the strug gle of the repressed impulse to become conscious" occurs in
both the hero onstage and the spectator, when they are in the grip of their
emotions, "in the manner seen in psychoanalytic treatment".
Freud points out that Hamlet is a psychopathic character who m audience
can understand if they have experience such emotions. Freud says, "It is
thus the task of the dramatist to transport us (audience) into the same
illness."
Ernest Jones, a psychoanalyst and Freud’s biographer developed Freud’s
psychoanalytical id eas related with Hamlet and Oedipus Rex in "The
Œdipus -Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet's Mystery: A Study in
Motive" his book, Hamlet and Oedipus (1949).
After Jones's psychoanalytic approach, Hamlet portrayed the "closet
scene", where Hamlet confesses .hissexual desires towards his mother,
Gertrude. Reading Hamlet through psychoanalytical theory clarifies cause
of Hamlet’s inaction as his mother's "incestuous" relationship with
Claudius disappoints him and he fears to killCaludius which would clear
Hamle t's path to his mother's bed. Ophelia's madness after her father,
Polonius's death can be explained the Freudian lens.
Joshua Rothman has written in The New Yorker that "we tell the story
wrong when we say that Freud used the idea of the Oedipus complex t o
understand Hamlet". Rothman suggests that "it was the other way around:
Hamlet helped Freud understand, and perhaps even invent,
psychoanalysis". He concludes, "The Oedipus complex is a misnomer. It
should be called the 'Hamlet complex'."
Feminism
Shakes peare portrays two important female characters in the play,
Hamlet —Gertrude and Ophelia. Shakespeare presents how the females
were expected to fulfill their social and cultural responsibilities imposed
on them in the parochial society. He showcases the wom an’s suffering if
they failed to live or behave according to the set norms of male -dominated
society. He recreates the gender system of early modern England, pointing
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38 stereotype. In Hamlet ,Hamlet considers his mother, the queen Gertrude as
a whore because of she fails to remain faithful to Old Hamlet. As a result,
Hamlet loses his faith in all women and starts treating Ophelia as if she too
is a whore and dishonest with him.
Carolyn Heilbrun'sessay, "The Character of Hamlet's Mother" (1957 )
defends Gertrude. He argues that the text never hints that Gertrude knew
of Claudius poisons King Hamlet as she does not any idea that the same
plan Claudius conspires for Prince Hamlet. Due to G ertrude’s ignorance
about Claudius’ vicious ambitions, she drinks the poinson which
Calaudius keeps aside for Price Hamlet. He also states that Gertrude's
worst crime is of pragmatically marrying her brother -in-law in order to
avoid a power vacuum. Hence, King Hamlet's ghost tells Hamlet to leave
Gertrude out of revenge.
Elaine Showalter provides the evidences in Ophelia case whose character
is always under the influence of the three powerful male characters —
Polonius, Laertes and Hamlet. And suddenly three of them disappear
which pushes her towards madness.
5.3 HAMLET AS A TRAGEDY OR PROBLEM PLAY:
The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark is one of the most popular
tragedies by William Shakespeare. It has multiple features of tragedy
mentioned by Aristotle i n his Poetics. It has a tragic hero of high rank,
Prince Hamlet whose action decides the fate of entire kingdom, Denmark
and who traps in a situation where it is difficult for him to cope with.
Hamlet possess many qualities like he is very intelligent, reli gious,
believes in justice, a good son, good actor, he has tremendous presence of
mind to escape and spoil Claudius plan to kill him, a good fighter who
wins the fight with Laertes, perfectly analyze the human psychology. But
despite all these qualities, h e dies at the end because he doubts about
everything even he doubts about his own sanity. His struggle to decide or
choose the correct pushes him in catastrophic situations where at the end
he dies and we sympathize with hm. There are other innocent charac ters
like Ophelia, Polonius, Laertes, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern’s death
makes the play more tragic asinnocents suffer without their faults and
meet the tragicend. Hamlet is a tragedy because the want of poetic justice,
for these characters and for hero makes it a painful mystery which results
in a chain of death.
Hamlet is a revenge tragedy but the hero’s desire and interest to know the
truth is stronger than his desire to revenge. He many times postpones his
revenge to kill Claudius because of his d oubt about the information related
with his father’s death and his own religious beliefs. His inaction cause
more harm than his action. He gets confused and poses a reason behind the
death of many innocent characters. Indecisiveness is a tragic flaw in
Ham let. Hamlet does not explain why he kills Polonius, rejects Ophelia
though he loves her, why he psychologically manipulates Gertrude and
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Part I I
39 Hamlet has several tragic elements like death but still it is more r elated
with a problem play as it deals with the madness. It is different than 19th
century problem play. It is called as Shakespearean problem play. It has
complex and unique features. Shakespearean problem play is not purely
tragic or comic. It is a combi nation of both. Hence, it seems realistic. In
Hamlet also the comic elements are introduced by Shakespeare. But the
play does not have happy ending. The protagonist, Hamlet is not tragic but
falls in darkness. He pretends to be mad but gradually loses his sanity. He
goes through the spiritual, emotional, moral and psychological struggles.
He is uncertain throughout the play. Hamlet’s struggle and his confusion
makes this play problem play.
5.4 CONCLUSION:
Shakespeare’s play, The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince o f Denmark is a
timeless literature. Shakespeare intertwines the plot, characters, action and
the dialogue with the philosophical, psychological, cultural and religious
threads. He portrays the real dilemma of human beings and the intricate
functioning of h uman mind. The more time we spend with Hamlet, it blurs
the lines between the real and fake. Shakespeare leaves the audience with
several doubts. He does not give the readymade information or opinions
about any character or action rather he leaves the audi ence to decide
everything by their own. Hence, everyone interprets the play differently as
per his understanding and today also there are multiple issues on which the
scholars debate like the sanity of Hamlet, the ghost’s real identity, King
Hamlet’s murde r, Gertrude’s loyalty and Hamlet’s love for Ophelia.
Shakespeare has successfully bound the audience’s curiosity with his play,
Hamlet by leaving them with these doubts.
5.5 QUESTIONS:
1 Hamlet as a tragedy.
2. Discuss the theme of uncertainty and the com plexity of action woven
by Shakespeare in his play, Hamlet .
3 How does Shakespeare present the idea of madness in Hamlet ?
4 comment on the function and nature of Hamlet’s soliloquies.
5 critically analyze the thematic set up/characterization in Hamlet .
5.6 REFERENCES:
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.chegg.com
 https://www.coursehero.com
 www.bing.com munotes.in

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40  https://alchetron.com
 https://www.cram.com/essay/shakespeares -impact -on-the-story -
of-Hamlet
 www.albert.io/blog/hamlet -and-the-16th -and-17th -centuries
 https://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/hamlet/context
 Brooks, Jean. (1986). Dramatic form: Hamlet as a Tragedy. In:
Hamlet by William Shakespeare. Macmillan Master Guides.
Palgrave, Lo ndon. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 -1349 -07484 -6_5


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41 6
CRITICAL STUDY OF WILLIAM
SHAKESPEARE’S THE COMEDY OF
ERRORS PART I
Unit Structure:
6.0 Objectives
6.1 A brief biography of William Shakespeare
6.4 Historical context of the play
6.5 Summary of the play
6.6 Characters
6.7 Questions
6.8 References
6.0 OB JECTIVES:
1. To introduce students to William Shakespeare and his play The Comedy
of Errors .
2. To examine the elements of comedy and humour in the play.
3. To study the characters and their presentation in the play.
6.1 A BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF WILLIAM
SHAK ESPEARE:
William Shakespeare was born on 26 April 1564 at Stratford -upon -Avon,
Warwickshire, England. He was an English playwright, poet and actor. He
is regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world’s
greatest dramatist. He is cons idered as England’s national poet and the
"Bard of Avon" or simply "the Bard". He has written 39 plays , 154
sonnets , three long narrative poems , and a few other verses. His plays
have been translated into every m ajor language and are performed more
often than any other playwright. His works continue to be studied and
reinterpreted all around the world.
Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford -upon -Avon , Warwickshire .
He married Anne Hathaway at the age of 18. He had three
children: Susanna and twins Hamlet and Judith with Anne . Between 1585
and 1592, he began to emerge as a successful actor, writer, and part -owner
of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain’s Men , which was later
known as th e King's Men . At the age of 49 he had retired to Stratford,
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42 Shakespeare created most of his works between 1589 an d 1613. His early
plays chiefly were comedies and histories . These plays are regarded as
some of the best works produced in those genres. Thereafter till 1608 he
wrote mostly tragedies , among them Hamlet , Romeo and Juliet , Othello ,
King Lear , and Macbeth , are considered to be among the finest works in
the English language. In the last phase of his life, he wrote tragicomedies ,
which are also known as romances , and collaborated with other
playwrights too. Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616, Stratford -upon -
Avon.
6.4 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE PLAY:
The Comedy of E rrors is set in an unspecified time in ancient Greece and
the Mediterranean. This historical setting offers the backdrop for the
merchant and trading lifestyle dominant in the play, as well as the dispute
between local regions and cities, such as between Sy racuse and Ephesus.
However, the play is by no means intended to be a faithful reconstruction
of any ancient time period. Rather, a vague ancient Greek setting provides
the jumping -off point for Shakespeare’s comedy.
Shakespeare was heavily influenced by t he comedies of the ancient
Roman playwright Plautus, especially his play Menaechmi , about twins
separated while young. The Comedy of Errors has been influential among
later literature, as well, as a prime example of the genre for which it is
named, a kind of light comedy often featuring mistaken identities.
6.5 SUMMARY OF THE PLAY:
Aegeon is a merchant from Syracuse. He has traveled to the city of
Ephesus. The two cities are in a dispute, and the Duke of
Ephesus, Solinus , has made anannouncement that anyone from Syracuse
found in Ephesus will have to pay a fine of 1000 mark or be executed.
Aegeon doe s not have enough money to pay the fine, so Solinus prepares
to execute him. Before executing him, the Duke wants to hear what has
brought Aegeon to Ephesus. Aegeon explains that he and his wife had
twin sons, and had another pair of twins as servants for their sons. They
were all on a ship during a big storm, and suffered a shipwreck. Aegeon
took one son and one servant, and tied himself to a mast for safety. His
wife did the same. The ship broke into two, and Aegeon and his wife were
rescued by two separa te groups of sailors who went off in two different
directions. Years later, Aegeon’s son left Syracuse to find his long -lost
twin brother and mother, and Aegeondid the same, eventually came to
Ephesus in his search to find his wife and sons. Solinusfeels p ity on
Aegeon and says that he will give him 24 hours to find someone to pay his
fine. Otherwise, Aegeon will be executed.
Elsewhere in Ephesus, Aegeon’s son Antipholus of Syracuse has recently
arrived with his servant Dromio . He sends Dromio to the inn where they
are staying with his money and promises to meet him after doing business
with some merchants. Dromio leaves, and then the servant of Antipholus’
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43 and tells Antipholus (whom he mistakes for his twin, Antipholus of
Ephesus ) to come home for dinner. Antipholus is confused and asks about
his money. Dromio says he doesn’t know what Antipholus is talking
about, and Antipholus beats him. He say s that he has heard of sorcerers
and witches inhabiting Ephesus and concludes that some magician is
controlling Dromio, making him act strangely.
At the house of Antipholus of Ephesus (the lost twin of Antipholus of
Syracuse), his wife Adriana talks with her sister Luciana , upset that
neither her husband nor her servant Dromio have returned. Luciana tells
her to wait patiently for her husband, and advises her to cede to her
husband’s authority and will. Dromio of Ephesus enters and tells Adriana
that Antipholus would not come home, claimed not to know her, and
talked only about money. Adriana thinks t hat her husband is having an
affair, and this is why he won’t come home for dinner.
Antipholus of Syracuse runs into Dromio of Syracuse in the street and
asks what he was talking about earlier (confusing him with Dromio of
Ephesus). Dromio is confused and says he hasn’t seen his master since he
was sent to the inn. Antipholus beats Dromio in frustration. Luciana and
Adriana enter, and Luciana scolds Antipholus for treating his wife poorly.
Antipholus says he doesn’t know who either of these women is. Dromio
guesses that they are “goblins, owls, and sprites.” Antipholus decides to
play along with Adriana and go back to her home for dinner. They all go
inside Adriana’s house, leaving Dromio to watch the door and not let
anyone in to disturb the meal.
Nearby th is house, Antipholus of Ephesus is talking with his servant,
Dromio of Ephesus, a goldsmith named Angelo , and a merchant
named Balthazar . He tells Angelo that he must go to dinner with his wife
and tells him to bring a gold necklace he has ordered to his house later.
Dromio insists that Antipholus previously denied the existence of his wife,
beat him, and asked him about money, but Antipholus denies that he did
any of it. He invites Balthazar to dinner, and they go to the door of his
house. When he knocks, though, Dromio of Syracuse refuses to let them
enter. He says his name is Dromio, and Dromio of Ephesus thinks that
someone has tried to steal his identity. Antipholus of Ephesus threatens to
break down the door, but Balthazar caution s him against this, saying it
might spread gossip about the state of his marriage. Antipholus agrees and
suggests they go to have dinner with a courtesan he knows instead.
Later, L uciana reprimandsAntipholus of Syracuse for how he is treating
Adriana. Antipholus insists that he is not married to Adriana and professes
his love for Luciana, much to her distress. She leaves, and a distressed
Dromio of Syracuse enters. He says that an u gly, fat kitchen -maid in the
house named Nell knew him by name and claimed that he was her fiancé.
Antipholus again concludes that Ephesus is full of dangerous witches. He
tells Dromio to see if there are any ships leaving soon, so that they can get
out of Ephesus. Dromio leaves and Angelo enters. Angelo gives
Antipholus of Syracuse the gold chain that was intended for Antipholus of
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44 Later in the day, a merchant confronts Angelo about money that he owes
him. Angelo says that he is expecting payment for a necklace from
Antipholus, and will use this money to pay the merchant back. Antipholus
of Ephesus then enters with Dromio of Ephesus. He tells Dromio to go
buy a rope, which he will give to his wife. Ange lo asks for his payment,
but Antipholusinsists that he has not yet received the chain . Angelo and
the merchant have an officer arrest Antipholus. Dromio of Syracuse then
enters and tells Antipholus that there is a ship leaving Ephesus soon.
Antipholus is c onfused and tells Dromio to go get money from Adriana for
his bail.
Back at Antipholus’ house, Adriana is discussing about her husband with
Luciana, who tells her about how Antipholus denied his marriage and tried
to woo Luciana. Dromio of Syracuse enters and says that Antipholus has
been arrested. Adriana gives him money for Antipholus’ bail. Dromio
goes to find Antipholus, and runs into Antipholus of Syracuse in the street.
He gives him the gold, much to Antipholus’ confusion. He asks how
Antipholus got o ut of prison, and Antipholus tells him to stop fooling
around. He says that all of this confusion must be the result of sorcerers in
Ephesus. A courtesan enters and asks Antipholus if he has the
gold chain he has promised her in return for her diamond ring . Antipholus
and Dromio think she is a witch, call her “Mistress Satan,” and tell her to
leave. The courtesan says that she has heard Antipholus has gone mad, and
now knows it to be true. She plans to go to Adriana.
Meanwhile, Antipholus of Ephesus is stil l under arrest. Dromio of
Ephesus finds him, and he asks if Dromio has the bail money . Dromio is
confused, and says he has the rope he was sent for. Antipholus is furious
and beats Dromio. Adriana, Luciana, the courtesan enter with a “conjurer”
named Pinch . Adriana thinks that Antipholus and Dromio are mad and
possessed, and asks Pinch to try to perform an exorcism on them.
Antipholus threatens to tear out Adriana’s eyes, and Pinch ties Dromio and
him up, planning to lock them in a dark room until they come to their
senses. He takes them away. The courtesan says that Antipholus took
a diamond ring from her and promised her a gold chain , but has not given
it to her. Just then, Antipholus of Syracuse and Dromio of Syracuse enter,
with their swords drawn. They chase all the women away, thinking they
are witches. Antipholus wants to leave Ephesus immediately.
Angelo apologizes to the merchant for making him wait for the money he
is owed. Just then, Antipholus of Syracuse and Dromio of Syracuse enters.
Antipholus is wearing the gold chain , and Angelo asks how he could deny
that he received the necklace . Antipholus says he never denied it. The
merchant swears that Antipholus did deny this, and the two prepare to
duel. Just then, Adriana enters with Luciana and the c ourtesan. Adriana
says that Antipholus is mad and asks for help in tying up Antipholus and
Dromio. The two men flee to a nearby abbey, and the abbess comes out to
see what is going on. Adriana explains that her husband is mad, but the
abbess refuses to let anyone into the abbey. She asks what has befallen
Antipholus to make him mad, and Adriana says it might be that he has
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45 scolding her husband, then for scolding him too much about possibl e
infidelity. The Duke enters with Aegeon, preparing to execute him, and
Adriana asks the Duke also for justice against the abbess. She explains
what has happened with her husband, and the Duke sends for the abbess.
A servant comes from Adriana’s house and tells her that Antipholus and
Dromio have escaped and attacked Pinch. Adriana says this cannot be
true, as Antipholus and Dromio are in the abbey. Antipholus and Dromio
of Ephesus arrive, and Antipholus asks the Duke for justice. Aegeon says
he recognizes Antipholus as his son, but no one pays attention to him as
Antipholus tells the Duke what has happened to him earlier in the day: he
was locked out of his own house, then Angelo failed to deliver the
gold necklace he promised him, then he was falsely arre sted, then Dromio
failed to bring him the bail money , and then he was tied up and thrown in
a dark room by Pinch. He and Dromio had to gnaw the ropes that tied
them up in order to escape. Adriana and Luciana deny locking Antipholus
out of the house, though Angelo says he witnessed this. He says he did
give Antipholus the gold chain , and the merchant agrees. Aegeon
interrupts to say that Antipholus is his son, but Antipholus says he doesn’t
know who Aegeon is.
Finally, the abbess enters with Antipholus and D romio of Syracuse, who
recognize Aegeon. The abbess also recognizes Aegeon, and identifies
herself as Aemilia , his long -lost wife. She explains that she was separated
from Antipholus and Dromio of Ephesus after the shipwreck and became
an abbess. Everyone clarifies just what has happened during the day with
the two Antipholuses and two Dromios. Antipholus of Ephesus offers to
use his bail money to pay Aegeon’s fine, but Du ke Solinus decides to
pardon Aegeon for free. Aemilia suggests everyone come to the abbey to
“hear at large discoursed all our fortunes.” Everyone but the two Dromios
leaves, and then both Dromios follow them walking side -by-side and hand
in hand as brothe rs.
6.6 CHARACTERS:
Aegeon:
A merchant from Syracuse, who was separated from one of his twin sons,
one of his twin servants, and his wife in a shipwreck. He has come to
Ephesus searching for them, in violation of a law forbidding any
Syracusans from being in the town. He is due to be executed for this, but
is pardoned at the last minute at the conclusion of the play.
Antipholus of Ephesus:
One of Aegeon’s twin sons, separat ed from him when just a baby. He has
become a wealthy merchant in Ephesus, with a wife named Adriana
(whom he may be cheating on). He is constantly confused with his twin
through out the play, arrested for (apparently to him) no reason, and tied up
and thrown in a dark room by Pinch. In his frustration, he beats his
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46 play, he prioritizes family above money, off ering to pay Aegeon’s fine in
order to save his life.
Antipholus of Syracuse:
The other one of Aegeon’s twins. He comes to Ephesus with his
servant Dromio of Syracuse , in search of his long -lost mother and
brother. He is greatly concerned with his money, but also with his
family —he has traveled all over the Mediterranean in sear ch of his
missing relatives. He is continually confused for his twin, and resorts to
the supernatural (especially witches) to explain the strange behavior of
everyone in Ephesus. He is easily frustrated with Dromio, whom he beats
in his frustration.
Dromio of Ephesus:
One of the twin servants of Aegeon’s family, who ends up in Ephesus with
Antipholus of Ephesus after the shipwreck. He is obedient but, due to all
the confused identities during the play, is often made the scapegoat of
various mix -ups and suff ers beatings as a punishment. Like his twin, he is
clever with words, puns, and riddles.
Dromio of Syracuse:
The other twin servant, who accompanies Antipholus of Syracuse to
Ephesus. Like his twin, Dromio does his best to obey his master, but ends
up gett ing beaten and scolded as a result of the mistaken identities that
drive all the errors of the play. He is equally as clever and quick with
words as his twin.
Angelo:
A goldsmith who makes a gold necklace for Antipholus of Ephesus . He
mistakenly gives the necklace to Antipholus of Syracuse and then asks
for payment from Antipho lus of Ephesus. When this Antipholus denies
having received the necklace , Angelo and the merchant (to whom
Angelo owes money) have Antipholus of Ephesus arrested.
Luciana:
Adriana’s sister, who advises her to remain subservient to her husban d.
She scolds Antipholus of Syracuse (thinking him to be Antipholus of
Ephesus) for denying being married to Adriana and tells him to at least try
to cover up his infidelity. Antipholus of Syracuse, however, professes his
love for Luciana.
6.7 QUESTIONS:
1. Compare and contrast the characters of the Antipholus brothers.
2. Analyze how the threat of tragedy --Egeon's execution --impacts the
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47 3. Compare the way the different women are portrayed in the play.
4. Discuss the role of the Dromios and their relationships to their masters.
6.8 REFERENCES:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willi am_Shakespeare
https://www.litcharts.com/lit/the -comedy -of-errors/
https://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/errors/ess ay-topics/

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48 7
CRITICAL STUDY OF WILLIAM
SHAKESPEARE’S THE COMEDY OF
ERRORS PART II
Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Major Themes in the Play
7.2 Major Symbols in the Play
7.3 Questions
7.4 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES:
1. To study important themes and other literary e lements in the play.
2. To examine the elements of comedy and humour in the play.
7.1 MAJOR THEMES IN THE PLAY:
Commerce and Exchange:
Many of the characters in the play are merchants or traders, and issues of
money are important from the start of the pl ay: Aegeon’s life depends on
whether or not he will be able to come up with 1000 marks in order to pay
the fine for being a Syracusan in Ephesus. And one of the first conc erns
of Antipholus of Syracuse when he arrives in Ephesus is for the safety of
his money. All of this emphasis on economic issues points to the general
importance of exchanges in the play. It is the exchange of several key
objects – the gold chain made by Angelo , the courtesan’s ring,
Antipholus of Ephesus’ bail money – that moves the plot along and
creates problems for characters. Then, it is with the return of these items to
their rightful owners that the play comes to a resolution in the final scene.
But it is not just objects that are exchanged in the comedy. The play’s
most important “exchange” is that of the identities of each Antipholus and
Dromio. One could say that, for part of the play, Adriana exchanges
husbands. As this suggests, the whole world of the play can be seen
through a kind of economic logic of exchange, value, and profit: is it more
profitable for Antipholus of Syracuse to play along with the person
Adriana th inks him to be? How much money is a life (e.g. Aegeon’s)
worth? Characters in the play often seem more concerned with profit and
money than with other matters. However, the play is also filled with
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49 Antipholus of Syracuse and Aegeon are willing to travel faraway and risk
their lives in order to find the missing members of their families. And
Antipholus of Ephesus gladly offers to pay his father’s expensive fine to
save his life (though the Duke Solinus ends up pardoning him). Thus,
while the exchange of valuable objects is central to the plot of the play,
Shakespeare reveals that the center of his characters’ lives is n ot
necessarily things, but rather people, specifically family.
Marriage and Family:
The Comedy of Errors is essentially a play about a family that is split apart
and then reunited at last. The family unit and the bonds of familial
relationships are crucial to the play. Antipholus of Syracuse travels all
around the Mediterranean in search of his lost brother and mother,
and Aegeon puts his life in jeopardy by searching for his family in
Ephesus. At the end of the play, Aegeon’s entire family is overjoyed to
meet their long -lost relatives, and the comedy concludes with Dromio of
Ephesus and Dromio of Syracuse walking hand in hand, showing the
importance of their brotherly bond.
Given the importance of family in the play, it is no surprise that marriage
also plays a significant role. Marriage is what solidifies new family bonds
and brings families together. Along with the reunions of brother s and
children in the final scene, Aegeon and Aemilia are also importantly
reunited as loving husband and wife. The play also shows, however, less
than ideal examples of marriage. For most of the play, Adriana suspects
that her husband is cheating on her, and, as she tells Aemilia, she spends
most of her time chastising Antipholus of Ephesus for this suspected
infidelity. (It is never absolutely clear whether Antipholus cheats on
Adriana, but he does admit to spending a lot of time with the courtesan .)
Additionally, this marital relationship forces Adriana into a subservient
role. Luciana advise s her to cede to her husband’s will, because “a man is
master of his liberty.” Adriana is even blamed by Aemilia for her
husband’s infidelity. Antipholus occupies a more powerful position than
his wife in their marriage, and frequently threatens physical v iolence
against her. In addition to this marriage, Nell’s desire for Dromio of
Syracuse offers a low, comedic counterpoint to the more ideal marriage of
Aemilia and Aegeon. As these two relationships show, marriage may be
crucial in forming the family rela tionships so highly valued in the play,
but in one’s day -to-day life it can also be full of arguing, suspicion,
fighting, and strategic maneuvering. These examples do not negate the
ideal of marriage as an institution that brings families together in lovin g
bonds, but, in comedic fashion, they do bring these high aspirations down
to earth a bit.
Appearances and Identity:
Practically all of the high -jinx and mistakes that drive the comedy and plot
of The Comedy of Errors result from the confusion of the iden tities
of Antipholus and Dromio of Ephesus , and Antipholus and Dromio of
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50 physical appearance, even though they act differently and insist on who
they really are. The play thus shows the folly of making assumptions
based on someone’s appearance. In the end, everyone’s true identity is
revealed. This resolution, though, does not put an end to the play’s deeper
questioning of identity. In particular, Shakespeare’s comedy prompts one
to ask: where does identity come from? Is it something innate that we are
born with and that is then recognized by other people? Or does the
recognition of others actually help create our identity?
Each Antipholus and Dromio has a “true” identity with which they are
born that determines their life to some degree. However, ch aracters’
identities are also partially formed by how other people treat them.
Antipholus of Syracuse in some sense becomes Antipholus of Ephesus for
a small period of time, because he is treated as such. Moreover, it is only
when characters’ true identiti es are recognized by others that they truly
become themselves. Aemilia declares herself to be Aegeon’s wife, and
Aegeon declares Antipholus of Ephesus to be his son, but it is only when
Aegeon recognizes Aemilia and Antipholusrecognizes his father that these
identities are completely fulfilled. Moreover, what people do can also help
define who they are. The merchant and courtesan remain unnamed in the
play, known only by their occupations. S imilarly, Aemilia is only known
as the abbess for much of her time on stage. Thus, identity in the play is a
curious and complicated mix of innate qualities, where one is from (the
two pairs of twins are only distinguished by their cities of origin), what
one does, and how one is seen by other people.
Mistakes and Coincidences:
Shakespeare’s play is called The Comedy of Errors for a reason: the play
is filled to the brim with humorous mistakes and errors, from mistaken
identities to mixed -up objects to misi nterpreted puns. Characters
continually make mistakes and grow more and more confused as the play
progresses. While such mistakes can be seen as negative things in the lives
of the play’s characters, they are also in some sense beneficial to the play.
It is precisely error that allows for the comedy and plot of the play, which
can be seen as a continually escalating series of errors followed by one
final scene of revelation and resolution. This happy ending is the defining
feature of comedy as a genre. But the play can’t jump directly to this
resolution. It must take a wandering path from beginning to happy
conclusion (in Latin, error literally means “a wandering”). There have to
be obstacles for the characters, a plot that meanders as characters go off -
course and make mistakes. These mistakes make the comedy interesting
and amusing, and create the very problems that the ending can then solve.
In addition to characters’ mistakes, simple coincidences are also a
significant force in the plot. The play relies on the (almost implausible)
coincidences of Aemilia having become an abbess in the city where her
lost son settles, and of all the characters finding themselves in Ephesus on
the same day and running into each other at just the right time to
save Aegeon’s life. All these coincidences continually baffle the
characters of the play, who can fin d no adequate explanation for what they munotes.in

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51 see as strange, inexplicable events and behavior. So, they often turn to the
supernatural. Antipholus and Dromio of Syra cuse think that Ephesus is
inhabited by witches and sorcerers in order to explain how everyone
seems to know them. Adriana thinks that her husband is possessed, and
gets Pinch to try to perform an exorcism on him. And the Duke , when he
sees both pairs of twins, thinks that one pair are spirit versions of the real
Antipholus and Dromio. All this talk of the supernatural, though, ends up
being just one more error. The play reveals that we often use the
supernatural as a catch -all explanation for what we don’t understand, even
though su ch things are more often just the result of bizarre coincidences
and simple human error.
Scapegoats and Social Hierarchy:
Resorting to supernatural explanations is one way the play’s characters
make sense of the strange things they experience during the pl ay. Another
way is through using scapegoats. With no easy explanation, characters
become frustrated and take this anger out on other people whom they
irrationally blame for their troubles. In particular, Antipholus of
Ephesus and Antipholus of Syracuse place blame on their respective
servants and Adriana . In the world of the play, wo men and servants
occupy lower, less privileged roles in society. Thus, Adriana and the two
Dromios are prime targets for scapegoating. Both Antipholus of Ephesus
and Antipholus of Syracuse beat and abuse their Dromios, and Antipholus
of Ephesus threatens p hysical violence against Adriana multiple times.
These instances reveal the strict, oppressive social and gender hierarchies
in the world of the play, as both women and servants are subject to the
whims of their husbands or masters. Shakespeare, however, m ostly puts
this kind of scapegoating on stage simply for laughs and slapstick humor.
Nevertheless, the play also delights in moments when these scapegoat
figures can get a slight bit of revenge on their social superiors. Adriana is
able to lock her husband out of their home, and has him tied and bound
by Pinch . And both Dromio of Ephesus and Dromio of Syracuse are
witty and quick with words, often talking back to their masters with clever
riddles and jokes. While the play is a rather light come dy and is mostly
interested in the comic potential of scapegoats, it can also be seen as
critiquing the practice, since all of the scapegoats of the play are really not
to blame, and it is ultimately foolish and mistaken for each Antipholus to
take out his anger on his unfortunate social inferiors.
7.2 MAJOR SYMBOLS IN THE PLAY:
The Gold Necklace, Bail Money, and Diamond Ring:
While there are not really any symbols in the play (insofar as objects that
stand in for something other than what they really are), there are several
highly important objects that function as links between characters, plot
points, and significant themes. The gold necklace made by Angelo ,
the courtesan’s diamond ring, and the bail money intended
for Antipholus of Ephesus are all exchanged and end up in the wrong munotes.in

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52 hands. They drive the plot of the comedy, resulting in the arrest of
Antipholus of Ephesus, Antipholus’ beating Dromio (for not bringing the
bail money), and the courtesan’s getting involved in things. As these
things pass from character to character, they highlight the importance of
the idea of exchange in the play (of mon ey, objects, and also of identities),
and also serve as indicators of all the mix -ups of the play: neither the
necklace nor the bail money go to the right character, and the diamond
ring is not returned to the courtesan as promised. The very idea of bail
(giving money in return for someone’s release from jail) suggests the
extent to which the world of the play is governed by economics, as money
can be exchanged effectively for a human being (a point driven home
by Aegeon’s needing 1000 marks to save his life). The return of all these
objects to their rightful owners at the end of the play signifies at last the
resolution of all the play’s various errors.
7.3 QUESTIONS:
1. Di scuss the perspectives on marriage offered in The Comedy of Errors.
2. Discuss the role of magic in the play.
3. Discuss the role of setting in the play.
4. Discuss the part played by material things --money, jewelry --in the
action.
5. Analyze the portrayal of authority in the master -slave relationship and
in the character of the Duke of Ephesus.
6. Discuss the ending and the resolution of the various "problems" that
face the characters.
7.4 REFERENCES:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare
https://www.litcharts.com/lit/the -comedy -of-errors/
https ://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/errors/essay -topics/

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53 8
SELECTED VERSE FROM THE
ELIZABETHAN PERIOD: PART I
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Elizabethan period
8.2 What is a sonnet?
8.2.1 Key Features of Sonnet
8.2.2 Origin and Development of Sonnet
8.3 Sir Phillip Sidney
8.4 Astrophel and Stella
8.5 Sonn et 37 "My mouth doth water and my breast doth swell".
8.6 Sonnet 39 "Come Sleep! O Sleep, the certain knot of peace"
8.7 Quick Review of Astrophel and Stella Sonnets
8.8 Summing up
8.9 Suggested Reading
8.10 Self -check exercises
8.0 OBJECTIVES
In this chapter, the learner is provided with a brief overview of the
Elizabethan period and its significance in Literature. The learner will be
introduced concisely to the poetic form - sonnet, its origin, development,
characteristics and its types. After the brie f outline of the significant
information related to the poetic form and age in which it was written, the
learner will be advanced to understand the famous sonneteer and their
famous sonnets in this unit. Thereafter, all the learnings will be summed
up in s hort for the learner, followed by a self -check exercise.
8.1 ELIZABETHAN PERIOD
Many historians consider the Elizabethan age to be the greatest age of
English history, lasting from 1558 until 1603 and a golden period in
literature. During this time as the arts flourished England experienced
stability and harmony. The era is known after Queen Elizabeth -I, who
reigned over England at the time and supported good literature. It was the
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54 at peak with the revival of classical literature. Playwrights and poets were
inspired from Italian forms and genres for instance love sonnets, pastoral
poems and allegorical poems. Few examples of these forms are found in
Edmund Spenser’s The ShephearedsCa lander and The Faerie Queene, Sir
Philip Sydney’s sonnets, Sir Walter Raleigh’s lyrics. In fact,
Shakespeare’s innovation with the songs in his plays started a new trend in
literature.
The Elizabethan period is known for its theatre and William Shakespeare
is a colossal figure who has written universal themes and characters. His
history plays, tragedies, comedies and sonnects are widely read and
popular even in twenty first century. Few other dramatists of this age are
Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Kyd, Thoma s Dekker, John Fletcher and
Francis Beaumont in earlier part of this age with whom drama flourished
and Ben Johnson in the later part and after him drama started declining.
Other arts such as music and painting were popular at the time, and most
notably, poetry blossomed, with new forms including the sonnet, the
Spenserian stanza, and dramatic blank verse, as well as prose, which
included historical chronicles and pamphlets. This age is also regarded as
the first romantic age as the literature of this a ge is full of spirit of
independence and creativity.
8.2 WHAT IS SONNET?
In this section, let's discuss the origin and development of the sonnet and
some of the basic features of sonnets. A sonnet is a fourteen line poem
with one stanza written in iambic pentameter. The sonnet is a prominent
classical form that has compelled authors for ages. It is originated from the
Italian term sonetto, which means "a tiny sound or melody." The English
or Shakespearean sonnet is the most popular and finest type of sonne t, but
there are several other variants in literature.
The sonnet became a fixed literary form in Renaissance Italy and
Elizabethan England. The poetic form consists of fourteen lines, usually in
iambic pentameter in English. In several countries of the au thors who
wrote them, distinct forms of sonnets arose, with differences in rhyme
scheme and metrical rhythm. Within their fourteen lines, all sonnets
comprise a two -part framework, with a problem and solution, question and
answer, or statement and interpre tation, and a volta or turn, between the
two sections.
Origin and Development of the Sonnets:
A sonnet is a form of poetry that was originally founded in Italian poetry,
produced at the Court of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in
Palermo, Sicily in the sixteenth century. Giacomo da Lentini, a thirteenth
century poet and notary, is a man who invented the sonnet to express
courtly love.
The Italian or Petrarchan sonnet, in which fourteen lines are structured in
an octet (eight lines) with rhyming scheme A BBA ABBA and a sestet (six munotes.in

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55 lines) rhyming either CDECDE or CDCDCD, was the original form of the
sonnet. In the early sixteenth century, Sir Thomas Wyatt brought the
Petrarchan sonnet to England.
The English or Shakespearean sonnet was produced later which comprises
three quatrains that rhyme ABAB CDCD EFEF and a heroic couplet that
rhymes GG.
Edmund Spenser created a sonnet variant in which the quatrains are linked
by their rhyme scheme: ABAB BCBC CDCD EE.
Later, the Shakespearean sonnet was adapted by Mi lton and was named
after him as Miltonic sonnets. They frequently focused on internal
struggles or conflicts rather than external issues, and they occasionally
went beyond typical rhyme and length constraints.
Following that is Terza Rima's sonnet. The ter zarima sonnet is named
after the terzarima poetic form, which is a three -line stanza with a chain
rhyme that is the carrying over of the rhyme used in a previous stanza. The
terzarima sonnet's rhyme pattern is ABA BCB CDC DED, followed by a
rhyming couplet that usually replicates the poem's first rhyme: AA.
The Curtal sonnet appears thereafter. The curtal sonnet is a compressed
variant of the sonnet created by English poet Gerard Manley Hopkins in
the nineteenth century. The curtal sonnet, unlike the majori ty of sonnets,
does not precisely stick to the 14 -line norm; instead, it preserves the
general proportions of the Petrarchan sonnet by compressing two quatrains
in the octet into two tercets (three -line stanzas) and the concluding sestet
into a quintet (fi ve-line stanza). The closing line of the quintet (and the
sonnet as a whole) is called a "tail" or "half -line" because it is substantially
shorter than the preceding lines. Therefore, the curtal sonnet can be
classified as 10.5 or 11 lines long. The ABC AB C rhyme scheme is
continued by DBCDC or DCBDC in the curtal sonnet. Furthermore, this
sonnet form employs sprung rhythm, a sort of metre that differs from
iambic pentameter in which each line begins with a stressed sound rather
than an unstressed sound and often has four stressed syllables. Hopkins'
"Pied Beauty" is a well -known curtal sonnet. The rhyme scheme of this
sonnet is ABC ABC DBCDC.
Key features of the Sonnet:
1. All sonnets have fourteen lines, which can be divided into four
portions called quatrain s.
2. A rigorous rhyming scheme is required. Sonnets are composed in
iambic pentameter, a poetry metre made up of alternate unstressed and
stressed syllables with each line consisting of 10 beats.
3. Quatrains are the four segments that make up a sonnet. The fi rst three
quatrains each include four lines and rhyme in an alternate pattern. The
concluding quatrain has only two lines, both of which rhyme.
4. Each quatrain advances the sonnet in the following way: munotes.in

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56 a. The first quatrain should introduce the sonnet's subject and ABAB is
the rhyme scheme
b. The second quatrain should continue with the sonnet's theme with the
four lines using a CDCD rhyme scheme.
c. The third quatrain should draw the sonnet's theme to a close with
EFEF rhyme scheme.
d. The fourth is a couplet with rhymi ng scheme GG which gives an end
and is the sonnet's conclusion.
8.3 SIR PHILIP SIDNEY
Sir Philip Sidney was an Elizabethan period poet, nobleman, scholar, and
military servant who is regarded as one of the most influential people of
the period. He was born in Kent, England, on November 30, 1554. Sidney
studied at Oxford University's Christ Church College from 1568 to 1571,
but before finishing his studies he left to explore Europe.
In 1575, Sidney returned to England and was appointed as Queen
Elizabeth's a dviser, a prominent position. He was transferred to Germany
as a minister in 1577, and upon his return to England, he became a patron
of the arts. He supported poet Edmund Spenser in particular. In the early
1580s, he remained active in politics, opposing the queen's planned
marriage to the French heir and served as a Member of Parliament.
Sidney wrote several important works in the Elizabethan era, including the
first Elizabethan sonnet cycle, Astrophel and Stella, and Arcadia, an epic
prose romance. He is credited to popularize the sonnet form and English
love poetry. His literary criticism, known as The Defense of Poesy, was
equally well -known. He did not permit his work to be published during his
lifetime, despite sharing it with close friends.
Sidney wa s selected as governor of the Dutch town of Flushing in 1585. In
1586, he fought against the Spanish at Zutphen and died from his wounds
a few days later. On February 16, 1587, he was buried at St. Paul's
Cathedral in London.
Self-Check Exercise 1
1. Surf the web and read more about the works written by Sir Philip
Sidney.
8.4 ASTROPHEL AND STELLA
In this section, we will look at about Astrophel and Stella and it’s
summary and analysis.
Astrophel and Stella by Philip Sidney is an English sonnet sequence
includi ng 108 sonnets and 11 songs, probably written in the 1580s. Most
of the sonnets have volta or turn towards the end and is defined as a point munotes.in

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57 from where argument shifts, generally this occurred in Italian sonnets in
the beginning of sestet or closing of octave. The sonnets here portray the
growth and fall of a love connection. Astrophel is derived from the Greek
words 'aster' and 'phil,' as well as the Latin word 'Stella,' which means star.
Astrophel is the lover of the stars, and Stella is his star.
Although the poems were shared in manuscript form, it was not until
1591, five years after Sidney's death, that an official version was printed.
However, this text was regarded as unreliable, and the most reliable
version came from a 1598 folio of Sidney's Arc adia, which included an
edition of Astrophel and Stella. The folio in charge was Sidney's sister.
Astrophel and Stella depict Astrophel's unrequited love for Stella. The
sequence is assumed to be autobiographical and inspired by his
relationship with Penel ope Devereux, who is represented as Stella in the
sequence. Sidney's sonnets are reflective and contemplative in nature as
compared to what was said about him and how he claimed to value his
privacy throughout his life.
Astrophel and Stella, Philip Sidney' s sonnet series, follows a loose
storyline filled with the intimate drama between Astrophel, the majority of
the sonnets' speaker, and Stella, his unrequited beloved. Major themes that
Sydney displays is various emotional connections, which is hope and
despair,resentment and fondness, bodily cravings and spiritual longing.
Love versus desire runs through various sonncts where Astrophil’s
unreciprocated love with Stella turns him to be a person whose desire is
not in his control eventually breaks his platoni c relationship chain.
Another major theme is the difference between light and dark, which
revolves around the metaphor star -lover and star.
The sequence's initial sonnets express Astrophel's concern about taking on
a poetic endeavor that many have already achieved, yet he still goes on to
describe the history of the first time he met Stella, what she seemed like,
and how he was deeply in love with her.
Astrophel and Stella trace the growth of a romantic relationship. The
protagonist and narrator Astrophel f alls in love with the lovely Stella, a
lady who is noble, intelligent, and his desired life partner, during the
duration of the sequence of sonnets. Astrophel is the speaker in the
majority of the sonnets, and Stella is the listener of his utterances.
We c an understand Astrophel's inner thoughts and emotions because he is
the "writer" of the sonnet sequence, but not much of Stella's. Only Stella's
acts and infrequent remarks to Astrophel expose her thoughts and
characteristics to us. Therefore, we are able to comprehend only one side
of the romance.
Despite the fact that she does not reciprocate his affection, Stella never
openly rejects him, although she does not show him any love in the first
thirty or so sonnets. In the middle of the sonnet sequence Astr ophel finds
out that Stella marries another man but Astrophel is captivated to see her
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58 Stella eventually begins to reciprocate Astrophel's love, but she is never
overpowered by her love for him, w hich Astrophel is unable to prevent.
Despite her marriage vows, Astrophel tries to persuade her into making
love to him near the end of the sonnet sequence. So when she is sleeping,
he stole a kiss from her. Although Stella adores Astrophel, but she
recogn izes that the relationship cannot continue if Astrophel requires his
passion to be fulfilled. Therefore, Stella ends the relationship. With the
exception of Sonnet 24, it is assumed that the first thirty sonnets of the
sequence were composed when "Stella" was still the unmarried Penelope
Devereux. Sidney never received an overt love response from her, but she
also did not express any disapproval of his love advances.
Later between the thirty -first and thirty -third sonnets, Sidney learns of
Penelope's marr iage to Lord Rich. With its pained "I might," the thirty -
third sonnet vividly depicts Sidney's first encounter with Penelope as the
now-married Lady Rich. Even though Stella is married, Astrophel is
determined to continue his love for her. Even though sh e is unhappy in
her marriage, Astrophel is envious of knowing the fact that Lord Rich has
unrestricted access to Stella.
Around the sixtieth sonnet, Stella begins to reveal her feelings for Sidney.
It is at this point in the story that their love affair be gins to take off.
Astrophel no longer just portrays Stella's beauty and his addiction to
passion; he also details their actual interactions. The affair gets even more
complicated once Stella declares her love for Astrophel. Astrophel's
excessive passion an d desire for Stella is the first major cause of tension in
their relationship. Stella refuses to have a physical connection with
Astrophel because she is already married. She expresses her love for him
on the condition that their connection stays platonic. For a few sonnets,
Astrophel is satisfied with this compromise, but his physical longing for
Stella begins to overpower him. Several sonnets are devoted to this
conflict: Astrophel's reasoning mind realizes that the only way to delight
Stella and prolong the affair is to deny his physical desire for her, but his
desire overcomes all of his rationality. As a result, he can't help but desire
to be physically there with her. Astrophel kisses Stella while she sleeps in
Song 2. The Song's language tells that t he kiss is portrayed as a form of
rape. Stella is furious at Astrophel for breaking her trust, but Astrophel is
unable to satisfy his desire. Stella rejects Astrophel for the first time after
the stolen kiss. She admits to loving him but says they can't be together
anymore. Her absence distresses Astrophel, yet he is reassured by the
thought that she still loves him. As the narrative progresses, the
relationship gets more emotional and intense. Even though they are
separated, they continue to love each othe r. Astrophel, in particular, adores
her more than ever before. He confesses to harming Stella in a certain
manner in Sonnet 93, and he is consumed by remorse and sadness for the
next few sonnets. His conduct and emotions make it absolutely clear that
the relationship is now destined to end permanently.
In Sonnet 101, Stella gets severely ill, leading Astrophel to express his
love for her once more. In Song 11, he starts singing under her window in
the hopes that she will reconsider her decision and live wi th him. Stella munotes.in

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59 refuses to leave her marriage and her reputation despite his urgings. We
see her true rage and contempt for Astrophel for the first time in the
sequence. so, without Stella's company, Astrophel closes the sonnet alone
and lonely. Despite the sorrow of the ending, Astrophel finds some joy in
knowing that he loved Stella and that she once loved him back.
The sequence's main theme is the impossibility of the two having a
successful relationship. The title of the composition also expresses the
split between the two. To continue, the title consists of one Greek name
and one Latin name, creating an obvious disconnection. The use of the
grammatical conjunction "and" implies that the two are a couple. Also, the
names which mean "star -lover" and "star, " suggest a split between the
two: the stars and those who love them will always be separated.
Sidney revolutionized the art of poetry with his writings Astrophel and
Stella, which featured profoundly passionate and intimate sonnets. Sidney
appears to bre ak from his supposedly private character in this work,
allowing his learners access to his most private emotions and thoughts.
8.5 SONNET 37 "MY MOUTH DOTH WATER AND MY
BREAST DOTH SWELL"
Text:
My mouth doth water, and my breast doth swell,
My tongue doth itch, my thoughts in labor be:
Listen then, lordings, with good ear to me,
For of my life I must a riddle tell.

Toward Aurora's court a nymph doth dwell,
Rich in all beauties which man's eye can see:
Beauties so far from reach of words, that we
Abase her praise, saying she doth excel:

Rich in the treasure of deserv'd renown,
Rich in the riches of a royal heart,
Rich in those gifts which give th'eternal crown;
Who though most rich in these and every part,
Which make the patents of true worldly bliss,
Hath no misfortune, but that Rich she is. munotes.in

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60 Critical Analysis of the sonnet 37:
Astrophel gives the learners a puzzle where it is revealed that Stella is
Penelope Devereux. S she is gifted with all virtues. She possesses great
beauty, fame, heart, and, most impor tantly, virtue. Even though she is
wealthy in every way, Astrophel's greatest sorrow is that she is a “Rich”.
Here, in this sonnet, Lord Rich, Stella's or Penelope's husband, is the
subject of the puns on the word "rich." The estate of the Rich family,
which was located in Essex's eastern county, may be referred to as
"Aurora's court."
FACT: This sonnet was excluded of the first printed edition of the sonnet
sequence, maybe because it was too explicit, but it was included in the
official folio edition.
8.6 SONNET 39 "COME SLEEP! O SLEEP, THE
CERTAIN KNOT OF PEACE"
Text:
Come Sleep! O Sleep, the certain knot of peace,
The baiting -place of wit, the balm of woe,
The poor man's wealth, the prisoner's release,
Th' indifferent judge between the high and low.
With shield of proof shield me from out the prease
Of those fierce darts despair at me doth throw:
O make in me those civil wars to cease;
I will good tribute pay, if thou do so.
Take thou of me smooth pillows, sweetest bed,
A chamber deaf to noise and blind to light,
A rosy garland and a weary head:
And if these things, as being thine by right,
Move not thy heavy grace, thou shalt in me,
Livelier than elsewhere, Stella's image see.
Critical Analysis of the sonnet 39:
In this sonnet, Sidney personifies sleep. H e communicates with it, he also
pleads “Sleep” to come and take him away from his current state of agony.
He thinks only while sleeping he can relieve his agony and stop the civil
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61 his reason. He wonders how much it will take him to get the god of Sleep
to visit him, and he offers a "good tribute."
All he wants are comfortable cushions and a bed, and a dark silent room, if
only he can compel Sleep to come. Sidney finally devises a pla n to
persuade Sleep to see him by claiming that when he will sleep, the image
of Stella will appear in his dreams, and Sleep will be able to see it. This is
the greatest honor he can bestow.
This is a sonnet in which Sidney's character converses with someo ne other
than Stella. This sonnet's irony is quite fascinating. Sidney urges Sleep to
come and save him from the misery of his love for Stella. At the same
time, when he is sleeping, a picture of Stella will appear in his mind. Stella
is always on his mind , whether he is sleeping or not. He prefers Stella in
his fantasies since he doesn't have to deal with the fact that she isn't his.
Self-Check Exercise 2
1. Discuss the themes highlighted in the sonnets of Astrophel and Stella.
2. Surf the web and know more abou t the other sonnets of Astrophel and
Stella.
8.7 QUICK REVIEW OF THE ASTROPHEL AND
STELLA SONNETS
Astrophel is portrayed as being madly in love with Stella throughout the
sequence. However, this love soon transforms into a passion he can't
control, result ing in the end of their platonic relationship. One of the major
themes that we observe is love versus desire. The difference between light
and day as the difference between Stella being with Astrophel and not
being with him, respectively, is another theme.
The poems in Astrophel and Stella can generally be classified as English
sonnets. However, it's worth noting that its form changes frequently
throughout the sequence of Astrophel and Stella. For example, in sonnet
37, the rhyme pattern is ABBA ABBA CDCD EE, while in sonnet 39, it is
ABABABAB CDCD EE. Changing the rhyme pattern could be a
technique for intensifying or advancing the plot to the story's conclusion.
8.8 SUMMING UP
Dear learner, let us sum up what we have learned in this chapter. In brief,
we touched upon the Elizabethan Age and its importance. The Elizabethan
Age is called as Golden Age as we see a huge literary development with
the rise of genres and forms. We got introduced to a poetic form - sonnet
and its development throughout the age. T he chapter also discussed one of
the famous sonneteers Sir Philip Sidney and analyzed his famous work
Astrophel and Stella and analyzed in detail his two of well -known sonnets
namely sonnet 37 "My mouth doth water and my breast doth swell" and
sonnet 39 "C ome Sleep! O Sleep, the certain knot of peace". munotes.in

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62 Some questions in the self -check exercise are provided further for the
learners to ponder on the subject.
8.9 SUGGESTED READING
Albert, Edward, and James Alfred Stone.A history of English
literature.Harrap, 1 979.
Cooper, Sherod M. "The sonnets of Astrophel and Stella." The sonnets of
Astrophel and Stella.De Gruyter Mouton, 2015.
Daiches, David. Critical History of English Literature.Vol. 1.Allied
Publishers, 1969.
Greenblatt, Stephen, and Carol T. Christ, eds. The Norton anthology of
English literature.Vol. 1. WW Norton & Company, 2012.
Kinsman, Robert S. "56.Sidney’s Astrophel and Stella, Sonnet XII, 1 -2."
The Explicator 8.8 (1950): 113 -115.
Neely, Carol Thomas."The Structure of English Renaissance Sonnet
Sequ ences." ELH 45.3 (1978): 359 -389.
Lee, Sidney, ed. Elizabethan sonnets. Vol. 2. A. Constable and Company,
Limited, 1904.
Prasad, Brijadish. A Background to the Study of English Literature .Laxmi
Publications.
Sanders, Andrew. The short Oxford history of Eng lish literature.Published
in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York, 1994.
Spiller, Michael RG. The development of the sonnet: An introduction.
Routledge, 2003.
8.10 SELF -CHECK EXERCISES
● Self-Check Exercise 1 Refer to the end of Secti on 9.3.
● Self-Check Exercise 2 Refer to the end of Section 9.6.

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Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Spenserian Sonnet
9.2 Edmund Spenser
9.3 The Shepheardes Calender
9.4 April Eclogue
9.5 November Eclogue
9.6 Summing Up
9.7 Suggested Reading
9.8 Self -check exercise s
9.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is first to introduce the learners to a type of the
sonnet i.e. Spenserian sonnet and its characteristics. Then the student will
be introduced to the originator of the Spenserian sonnet and a famous
writer of th e Elizabethan period - Edmund Spenser. As the unit progresses,
the student will be acquainted with one of Spenser's first major poetic
works - The Shepheardes Calender in detail and a brief note on the two
eclogues prescribed in the syllabus from the same.
After completing this unit, the student will be able to recognize and
differentiate the different types of sonnets. This unit gives instances from
Edmund Spenser's The Shepheardes Calender.
9.1 SPENSERIAN SONNET
The Spenserian sonnet was invented by Edmund Spenser, a well -known
sixteenth -century poet, and is so named the same. Spenser is well known
for The Faerie Queene, but he also wrote and produced a number of
sonnets. Like other great sonnets, the Spenserian sonnets incorporate
features from various son net forms. This sonnet, like the Petrarchan
sonnet, uses just five rhymes, but has a structure closer to the munotes.in

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64 Shakespearean sonnet, with three quatrains and a couplet. They are
composed in iambic pentameter and rhyme with ABAB BCBC CDCD EE.
Spenser dismisse s the problem/solution and question/argument structure
of the sonnet, instead, he created each quatrain producing a metaphor,
conflict, notion, or issue, and the last declamatory couplet offers the
resolve. The "turn" in a Petrarchan sonnet occurs around t he ninth line, but
the realization in a Spenserian sonnet occurs in the last couplet. To make a
false turn, Spenser usually utilized terms like "yet" or "but" around the
ninth line, but the true resolution or revelation arrives in the final two
lines.
The basic three aspects of all sonnets are that they are all fourteen lines
long, written in iambic pentameter, and have a tight rhyme scheme;
however, there are variations in how the sonnet can be presented.
9.2 EDMUND SPENSER
Edmund Spenser was born in Londo n, England, in either 1552 or 1553.
For his exceptionally high -quality poetry, English essayist Charles Lamb
regarded Edmund Spenser as a "Poet's Poet." Now we'll discover why he
was known as Poet's Poet and how extensive his labour was. He is best
known t oday for The Faerie Queene, an epic allegorical poem written in
1590. This complicated, interesting, and occasionally strange poem honors
the Tudor Dynasty in general and Elizabeth I in particular. Spenser is
regarded as one of the greatest poets of all ti me, and this poem is regarded
as one of the finest work in the English language. Spenser worked on The
Faerie Queene for several years, and by 1589, three books had been
completed. When Sir Walter Raleigh visited Spenser, he was deeply
impacted by his work that brought him back to England. They landed in
London in November 1589, and the first three books of Spenser's most
renowned work were published early the following year, with an extensive
homage to Queen Elizabeth I. Spenser aspired of writing the grea t epic. He
intended to write 12 books, each on one of Aristotle's moral virtues. A
knight was supposed to embody each of these virtues. As a result, the
poem would incorporate aspects of chivalric romance, a manual of
manners and morals, and a national epi c. Although, Edward Spenser had
only six books published during his lifetime.
For his largest contribution to the invention of the Spenserian stanza and
his wide vocabulary, Spenser is considered as one of the most important
poets in the English language. His courtship with Elizabeth Boyle resulted
in the Amoretti sonnets, which he presented as an epithalamium to their
marriage. In 1579, he dedicated his first volume of poetry - The
Shepheardes Calender, to the poet Sir Philip Sidney.
Spenser worked for the Bishop of Rochester as a secretary and then the
Earl of Leicester, who introduced him to other poets and artists at Queen
Elizabeth's court, in addition to his literary works and then in 1580, he was
appointed as a secretary to the Lord Deputy of Ireland. He authored A
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65 Thereafter, in 1598, during the Nine Years' War Spenser was exiled from
Ireland. In London in 1599, he died and was buried in the Poets' Corner of
Westminster Abbey.
In the following section, we'll go through the Shepheardes Calendar in
detail.
9.3 THE SHEPHEARDES CALENDER
The title The Shepheardes Calender is written in purposefully antiquated
spellings to indicate an association to ancient literature. The Shepherd's
Calend ar (1579) was Spenser's first significant work. The collection
consists of twelve eclogues, one for each month of the year, written in
various styles and meters.
Before analyzing Spenser's The Shepherd's Calendar, let us first learn
what eclogues are and w hat they mean.
Eclogue (Ægloga), is a brief pastoral dialogue poem, generally in
dialogue, about rural life and shepheard community, portraying rural life
as freed of the complexity and corruption of more modern society. The
eclogue originally appeared in Theocritus' Idylls (c. 310 –250 BC), who is
often regarded as the founder of pastoral poetry. Virgil (70 –19 BC), a
great Roman poet, used the form in his ten Eclogues, or Bucolics. Early
modern lyric poets were drawn to the pastoral genre, which originated
with Greek and Latin poets. We can also see how Edmund Spenser's The
Shepheardes Calender (1579), a collection of 12 eclogues, is based on
Theocritus, Virgil, and more modern writers. The Shepheardes Calender
by Spenser is often regarded as the first remar kable pastoral poem in
English. Spenser's eclogues are rhetorically sophisticated, with a
particularly archaic language and a difficult rhyme pattern.
Four of the twelve eclogues in the Shepheardes Calender deal with love,
with Spenser narrating his own ho peless passion for Rosalind, one is a
tribute to Elysa (Elizabeth), one a lament for a maiden of great blond, four
refer to conduct or religion, one describes a singing contest, and one
lament the contempt with which poetry is treated. Colin Clout, a folk
character created by John Skelton, is introduced in the poem, which
depicts his existence as a shepherd throughout the year. Each eclogue was
written for a specific month of the year, and the collection was called a
"calender". Each eclogue easily stands a lone as a portion individually.
We also often see, "E. K." - the identity of the omnipresent - as a prolix
commentator is one of the poem's many mysteries. The introductory
epistle by E. K., as well as the headnote "arguments" (summaries) and
"glosses" (co mmentary) on each eclogue, add additional depth to a book.
The multiplicity of the voices in the Shepheardes Calender is indicative of
Elizabethan literature. Each eclogue's first line expresses qualities of the
month, and the poem as a whole has compone nts and arguments that are
repeated. Each month, Spenser produces rhyme in a new way. munotes.in

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66 The shepheard and his flocks metaphor leads to another important aspect
of the text. The poem can be read as both a Christ -centered declaration of
devotion and a critiqu e of the politics of Spenser's day. For instance, in the
July eclogue, Algrind teaches and acts modesty, sacrifice, and selflessness
can be evaluated as an imitation of Jesus which are to be considered image
of the Good Shepheard. As a result, if Spenser i s a political reformer
through his poetry, he also voices to what he sees as God's self -revelation
in Christ.
Following we see a brief analysis of all the twelve eclogues of the
calender.
In the January eclogue, Colin, heartbroken and declined by his bel oved
Rosalind, compares his mood to the wintry atmosphere. February eclogue
talks about Cuddie, an impudent young shepherd, complains to the elderly
Thenot about the winter winds. Thenot, narrates a philosophical story to
Cuddie about an old oak and a prou d briar bush. Cuddie is unmoved by
this tale of youth and age and ends it abruptly. In the March eclogue, two
young shepheards celebrate spring as a time for love. They tell the story of
Thomalin's meeting with Cupid. In April eclogue, Thenot finds Hobbino l
grieving over the sorrows of his friend Colin Clout and asks Hobbinol to
recite one of Colin’s verses. Piers and Palinode discuss the immorality of
shepherds who ignore their flocks for personal gain in the eclogue for the
month of May. Palinode later la ments about not having the same rights as
others to enjoy the pleasures of life at the cost of being a good shepheard,
to which Piers responds by telling Palinode a fable about an innocent child
and a smooth -talking fox. Colin returns to see Hobbinol's cal m existence
in the fields in the June eclogue, where Hobbinol praises Colin's verses but
denies possessing any special powers.
In July eclogue, Thomalin compares the simplicity and ingenuousness of
the first shepherd, Christ, with the extravagant living o f the purple -clad
priests of his day. As per the August eclogue, Willy and Perigot recite
alternate lines to a lively love poetry intended to lift Perigot's spirits after a
failed love affair. Cuddie, their judge, then reads Willy and Perigot, one of
Colin 's impassioned laments to Rosalind. Diggon Davie returns to the
country in September eclogue with news of the horrors he encountered on
his travels to the cities, where he discovered everything to be filled with
corruption and greed. His tone is aggressive , and his mindset is dismal.
Cuddie questioned the value of writing in October dialogue. He appears to
be undervalued even when his performance is great. Piers, his elder, wiser
friend, urges Cuddie, "The praise is better than the price." Piers also
mentio ns Virgil, the Roman poet, while lamenting how Colin alone may
soar to the heavens in his poem, but he is a victim of love. Colin offers a
lament for Dido, a beautiful lady who died young, in the November
eclogue. He talks out of despair at first, pleas th e muses and all of nature
to weep with him. Then his mood improves, and he is delighted to learn
that the lady "is now placed in heaven's height," where she "lives in bliss
with the good gods." In the December eclogue, Colin vividly recalls his
youthful da ys, the spring of his youth, when he climbed trees in hunt of
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67 art of song from the good, old shepherd Wrenock. His poetic talents were
withered by the heartbreaking steam of love thro ughout his summer years.
Colin sees himself aged now and is ready to depart from this world, and so
he bids farewell to his art, flocks, and friends.
The following are the characters (Shepheards) in the Shepheardes
Calendar:
Colin , The Clout, is a shephea rd who has feelings for Rosalinde but does
not get returned. Therefore, Colin destroys his pipe, which he had hoped
to use to play love tunes that would win Rosalinde's love.
Rosalinde , a rustic girl, adored by Colin. Colin becomes dejected and
melanchol ic as a result of Rosalinde's inhumane treatment of his emotions.
She is the subject of his poetry, yet he eventually dismisses her.
Thenot , a wiser and older shepheard who has no longer any interest in
worldly pleasures and looks unattractive.
Cuddie , a young shepherd, is admired as a poet, but he recognises that he
lacks Colin's talent. He teases Thenot about his growing age.
Hobbinoll , is a shepherd and Colin's friend who tries to encourage and
acknowledge Colin's poetic abilities. Hobbinoll embodies t he ideas of
rural serenity, peace, and reflection.
Piers , a shepherd who reprsents Protestantism.
Palinode , a shepherd who represents Catholicism.Both
Both Piers and Palinode get into a debate.
Diggon Davie , a shepherd who is well -traveled.
Morell , a shep herd-clergyman who is extremely proud of himself.
Thomalin , a shepherd who accuses Morell of arrogance and tries to prove
his point in a debate.
The Shepheardes Calender although was the debut work but it astonishes
readers with its political and personal vigor and vision. Spenser became a
recognized national poet almost immediately after its publication.
So that was a deep study and a quick note on the work's characters. Let us
now look at the two eclogues given in the syllubus, April and November.
9.4 APR IL ECLOGUE
The April eclogue primarily focuses on the poet's position in the state.
This eclogue depicts the poet's professional and political courting of
Queen Elysa, as described in the Argument, and is composed in homage
and appreciation of Queen Elizab eth, the most gracious sovereign.
Hobbinoll and Thenott, two shepheardes, are just the speakers in the
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68 that his companion has abandoned his art and turned away from him to
Rosalind. Thenot consoles him by proposing an idea that he sing a Colin's
song. Hobbinol agrees and recites a paean to Elysa, the Shepherd Queen.
Elysa is a heavenly goddess. Colin's song of Elysa, which Colin produced
sometime in honour of her Majesty, whom he abru ptly names Elysa, is
clearly the highlight of the eclogue. Perhaps it's a stretch to say that such
allegorical fables were part of a long -running, hidden opposition to
Elizabeth's growing hold on public discourse as her reign proceeded, but
they are, in so me respects, a response to censorship. The reciting of the
verse affirms to poet's superior poetic mastery and talent. This
performance convinces Thenot of Colin's ability, and Thenot and
Hobbinol both feel that Colin made a mistake by sacrificing his tale nt to
forbidden love.
The eclogue's dual structure of discourse and song, however, indicates a
composite concept of the poet and the sovereign. On the one hand, April
presents a triumphant story about Colin's use of art to glorify his
sovereign, portraying an idealistic poet -monarch relationship that probably
helps Spenser advertise his address to the queen and highlights the role of
poets can play. On the other hand, April also presents a tragic story about
the poet's unrequited love for Rosalind limiting this image, moderating the
ideal image via lamenting. In the middle of this extravagant flattery, he
highlights Queen's virginity and her marriage to England —an implicit
dismissal of marriage to a foreign government.
The April eclogue draws attention as a pivotal starting work of The
Shepheardes Calender and of English poetry because of its intricate artistic
design, its divided presentation at the core of sixteenth -century literature,
and its significance within a long transmission in history.
9.5 NOVEMBER ECLOGUE
In the Argument, E.K. is the one to give November special status. This
eclogue is described as "the finest poetry in the sequence" because it deals
with the "divine mystery of death and rebirth." November, in particular,
demonstrates Spenser's abi lity to write in the pastoral style of funeral
elegy. Theocritus' Idylls, an elegy for the dead shepherd Daphnis, initiates
this tradition. But this eclogue is strikingly similar to Marot's elegy
mourning the death of Queen Louise of France. These elegies, as a
practice, follow a similar two -part structure: first sadness over the loss of a
beloved person, followed by solace via the person as a climax.
In the eclogue, the shepherd Thenot urges Colin Clout to sing one of his
renowned songs, but Colin denies i t. Thenot then demands a song
commemorating the recent death of Queen Dido, which Colin obliges.
Colin laments the tragic death of Dido, a charming young woman, in this
eclogue. Colin performs a fifteen -stanza death elegy in which he mourns
first and then invites the muses and all of nature to mourn with him.
Later, while nearing the death elegy we see a sudden shift in his tone
where he witnesses her journey into the afterlife in the lines - 'I see thee
blessed soule, I see, / Walke in the Elisian fielde s so free,'(178 -9). He munotes.in

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69 appears pleased when he learns that Dido has been elevated to the heights
of heaven, where she enjoys the company of the heavenly gods. Finally, in
the final stanza, Thenot praises Colin's song.
Colin's elegy on Dido, written in Nove mber eclogue, "stand[s] out as
securing an English identity in European Renaissance poetry."
9.6 SUMMING UP
Let's sum up what we studied in this chapter: we learnt about one of the
most important varieties of sonnets - the Spenserian sonnet. Apart from
that, we studied the poet's life and works. We also studied and discussed
his debut work, the Shepheardes Calender, in depth, as well as two
eclogues that were specified in the syllabus. Finally, a Self -check exercise
is offered for self -examination of the un it's content.
9.7 REFERENCES
Spenser, Edmund. The Shepherds' Calendar. Vol. 117. Cassell &
Company, 1894.
https://poetscollective.org/everysonnet/spenserian -sonnet/
https://www.coursehero.com/file/103999223/Edmund -Spenserdocx/
https://englishhistory.net/poets/edmund -spenser/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shepheardes_Calender
https://www.britannica.com/topic/The -Shepheardes -Calender
https://talus.artsci.wustl.edu/SpenserNEH2015/SC_headnotes.pdf
9.8 SELF -CHECK
1. Surf the web and know more about the eclogues by Virgil and
Theocritus
2. Explore Spenser’s sonnet sequence Amo retti and understand how the
Spenserian stanzas are different from other types of sonnets.
3. Discuss the significance of Colin, the main shepherd throughout the
Shepheardes Calender.
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Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 What is Shakespearean Sonnet?
10.2 William Shakespeare
10.3 Sonnet 116 "Let me not to the marriage of true minds"
10.4 Sonnet 138 "When my love swears that she i s made of truth"
10.5 Summing up
10.6 Suggested Reading
10.7 Self -check exercises
10.0 OBJECTIVES
In continuation to the previous units, we now see the most significant type
of the sonnet i.e. the English or ShakespeareanSonnet. The learners will
have some insight into the writer William Shakespeare and his works.
Afterward, selected sonnets by Shakespeare are read and analyzed. By the
end of this unit, the reader will be acquainted with Shakespearean type and
its difference from the original form and S hakespeare's life and sonnets.
10.1 SHAKESPEAREAN SONNET
Sonnets originated from the Italian Renaissance, nearly three centuries
before Shakespeare began writing them in England. Shakespeare is
considered one of the most well -known sonneteers and poets in the
English language. Now let us understand the origin of the Shakespearean
Sonnet and know how it is different from other types of sonnets which we
studied in the previous units.
Shakespearean Sonnet is a variation of the sonnet form. This form was
deve loped in England during the Elizabethan period hence, it is sometimes
referred to as Elizabethan sonnets or English Sonnets. This form is
different and famous for its uniqueness. The form comprises three
quatrains and a couplet — three quatrains illustrate the subject or a
problem and a rhyming couplet concludes or provides a solution to the
subject of a sonnet. The rhyme scheme that the English or Shakespearean
Sonnet follows is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.
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71 The characteristics of Shakespearean Sonnets:
● It contain s fourteen lines
● Fourteen lines are divided into four subgroups which contain three
quatrains and a couplet
● The second and fourth lines of each quatrain and both the lines of a
couplet rhyme
● Each of the fourteen lines is written in iambic pentameter and th ere are
ten syllables per line.
His expertise in the form made the literary historians title the subgenre
after him.
Although Shakespeare’s works are most famous and considered to be
classics, there were many other prominent poets and writers of the day li ke
John Milton and John Donne who too wrote sonnets. Now, next, we will
see the difference in structure and focus between the Shakespearean
sonnets and other types of sonnets.
Difference between a Shakespearean sonnet and Petrarchan
sonnet
Here, we will observe both 16th Century England popular forms -
Petrarchan and Shakespearean sonnets which have been adopted by
English writers over the ages. While both types of sonnets include 14 lines
and are written in iambic pentameter, their structure and focus dif fer
significantly.
The structure is the most noticeable difference for a learner. So, let's have
a look at that.
Francesco Petrarch, a 14th -century Italian poet, is known for inventing the
Petrarchan sonnet. Its 14 lines are divided into two sections: an " octave"
of eight lines and a "sestet" of six lines. The octave has only two rhymes,
with an ABBA ABBA pattern. The rhyme system of the sestet varies,
although it usually comprises two or three rhymes in patterns like
CDECDE and CDCCDC. Whereas, the Shakesp earean sonnet, also known
as the English sonnet, was developed by the Earl of Surrey, Henry
Howard, and his contemporaries, but later readers called it after
Shakespeare because he wrote extensively and well in the form. So, in this
type, there are three q uatrains (four -line groups) and one couplet (a pair of
lines) among the 14 lines. The concluding couplet rhymes GG, and the
three quatrains rhyme ABAB CDCD EFEF.
Now that we've identified the differences in structure, let's look at the
differences in the f ocus these sonnets put on. Petrarchan sonnets are
generally written as love sonnets which are from the perspective of a man
desiring a woman who will reciprocate his feelings. The octave of the
sonnet sets up a situation/problem or narrates an incident, wh ich the sestet
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72 shift between the octave and sestet. Shakespearean sonnets, on the other
hand, frequently use three quatrains to reflect on a given scenario in
different ways, while the y occasionally use the Petrarchan octave -sestet
division of content instead. The concluding couplet frequently includes a
turn or volta with a shift in viewpoint or makes a humorous response
about the preceding content.
Difference between a Shakespearean sonnet and Spenserian
sonnet
Let us see how the Spenserian sonnet is unlike the Shakespearean sonnet.
The Spenserian sonnet is a sonnet structure named after Edmund Spenser,
a 16th -century English poet who first used it in his 1595 collection
Amoretti. The Shakespearean sonnet and the Spenserian sonnet are very
similar. The fundamental distinction is the rhyme scheme: although the
Shakespearean rhyme scheme provides a new rhyme in each quatrain, the
Spenserian sonnet uses a chain rhyme: ABAB BCBC CDCD EE.
Spenserian sonnets are typically written in iambic pentameter, just like
Petrarchan and Shakespearean sonnets.
10.2 WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
William Shakespeare was an English playwright widely regarded as one of
the foremost English -language authors of all tim e and has contributions in
sonnets too. His plays have been performed all over the world for
audiences of all ages and is regarded as the most well -known playwright
in the world. William Shakespeare has been called as "The Bard of Avon"
as he is widely acc laimed writer in the world. Shakespeare was both a
performer and the founder of the Globe Theatre, which was built in
London by Shakespeare's playing company in 1599. Despite the fact that
he is the world's finest writer, nothing much is known about his li fe.
However, we do know that he wrote tragedies, comedies, and historical
works, sonnets and poems.
`The Lord Chamberlain's Men, a company owned by a group of players
who became London's main company after producing Shakespeare’s play
in 1594 and most of h is plays were performed on this stage in London. In
the same year 1594, the first recorded quartos of Shakespeare's plays were
published. Researchers know at least 37 plays were written by William
Shakespeare, the many of which are identified as comedies, histories, or
tragedies. The history trilogy "King Henry VI" is the earliest play
produced around 1589 and 1591. The last play, "The Two Noble
Kinsmen," was written in collaboration, presumably with John Fletcher.
Shakespeare then went on to comedies, whi ch were known for their comic
moments and stories that linked with one another. A Midsummer Night's
Dream, Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing, As You Like It,
and Twelfth Night are the most renowned. Two tragedies, Romeo and
Juliet and Julius Caesa r, complement Shakespeare's comedy era. Romeo
and Juliet was published in 1597, while Julius Caesar was published in
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73 Shakespeare engaged the latter part of his writing career to tragedies and
"problem" plays. He composed works such as Hamlet, Othello , King Lear,
Coriolanus, and Macbeth during this period, which is widely regarded as
the playwright's best. These are the works that are currently being
produced on stage and in film. During Shakespeare's lifetime, just a few of
his plays were published in quarto versions. However, his whole collection
of works was published as the First Folio in 1623, several years after his
death.
Shakespeare is credited with two volumes of poetry and more than 150
sonnets. Although Shakespeare was a poet throughout his l ife, it is
believed that he shifted to poetry in particular during the plague years of
1593 and 1594, when London's theatres were forced to close. During those
years, Shakespeare published two volumes of narrative poems, Venus and
Adonis and The Rape of Lu crece. Both volumes dealt with the issues of
overwhelming lust and the guilt that comes with it. Shakespeare's sonnets
were a collection of more than 150 compositions published with no
evidence of when each work was written. The sonnets are usually assumed
to be part of his personal diary that was never intended to be read publicly
but was however published.
Shakespeare's sonnets were composed between 1593 and 1601, though
"The Sonnets of Shakespeare", the edition was published in 1609. The
collection conta ins 154 sonnets, all of which are written in the form of
three quatrains and a Shakespearean couplet. Shakespeare's sonnets were
primarily dedicated to the "Fair Youth" – or "Young Man" – and the
"Dark Lady". The "Young Man" is addressed in the first secti on of
Shakespeare's sonnet series (sonnets 1 –126), whereas the "Dark Lady" is
addressed in sonnets 127 –154. Almost all of Shakespeare's sonnets deal
with the complexities of life and romanticize beauty and love with the use
of poetry.
Shakespeare's sonnets effectively represent the poet's emotions, provoking
community conjecture about his views on religion, love, marriage, and
life.
Now, in the next section let us have a look at the sonnets that are part of
the syllabus.
10.3 Sonnet 116 "Let me not to the marriage of true
minds"
TEXT:
Let me not to the marriage of true minds
Admit impediments. Love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove:
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74 That looks on tempests and is never shak en;
It is the star to every wandering bark,
Whose worth’s unknown, although his height be taken.
Love’s not Time’s fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
Within his bending sickle’s compass come;
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
If this be error and upon me proved,
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.
Critical Analysis of the sonnet 116:
Shakespeare's sonnet 116 is often regarded as the ultimate idea, of "What
is love?" The sonnet language is deep and mea ningful yet descriptive in
language. And, like with all of Shakespeare's sonnets, he manages to
condense all of these thoughts and ideas into only fourteen lines in sonnet
116. Love is given the identity of an everlasting power that is unaffected
by aging , death, or even the cycle of life. Love does not deteriorate, unlike
physical beings.
Love is not love if it changes with new situations or if it breaks when
someone attempts to demolish it. It's infinitely unchanging and observes
storms but is never aff ected by them. It is a guiding star when one lost can
be found. Love does not fade away with the passing of the days and
weeks, and does not even end with their deaths, but rather continues until
the world dies. Shakespeare uses a wide range of literary de vices
throughout the sonnet to portray the timeless essence of love, and he
concludes by putting everything on his insights, claiming that if he is
incorrect, no one has ever written anything, and no one has ever loved.
Time, love, and the quality of relat ionships are all themes that
Shakespeare explores. He delves into the meaning of true love. He
compares love to a star that is always present and never fades, using a
metaphor. Time is also incorporated into Shakespeare's sonnet. He
emphasizes that time ha s no boundaries and that even if the people in a
relationship change, the love remains constant. The rhyme scheme of this
sonnet is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG and is written in iambic pentameter.
10.4 SONNET 138 "WHEN MY LOVE SWEARS THAT
SHE IS MADE OF TRUTH"
Text:
When my love swears that she is made of truth
I do believe her, though I know she lies,
That she might think me some untutor’d youth,
Unlearned in the world’s false subtleties. munotes.in

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75 Thus vainly thinking that she thinks me young,
Although she knows my days are past the best,
Simply I credit her false speaking tongue:
On both sides thus is simple truth suppress’d.
But wherefore says she not she is unjust?
And wherefore say not I that I am old?
O, love’s best habit is in seeming trust,
And age in love loves not to have years told:
Therefore I lie with her and she with me,
And in our faults by lies we flatter’d be.
Critical Analysis of the Sonnet 138:
‘Sonnet 138 ′ is one of the sonnets from William Shakespeare’s collection
of 154 sonnets. In 1599, it was issued in The Passionate Pilgrim, along
with a few other sonnets. This sonnet is a part of the Dark Lady sonnet
sequence. They are about the speaker w ho is assumed to be William
Shakespeare himself and his connection with his mistress the Dark Lady.
The complicated relationship between the two has been further analyzed in
this poem. Rather than the affection they should share, they seek solace in
one an other's lies.
Sonnet 138' is a sonnet by William Shakespeare describing the speaker's
false relationship with the Dark Lady. The speaker opens 'Sonnet 138' by
expressing that he believes the Dark Lady when she tells him that she is
honest. Despite this, he is aware that she is lying on a profound level. This
portrays him as a gullible man, which he believes is advantageous to him.
When he's not, she'll assume he's inexperienced and young. He is, in fact,
aging, as she is well aware.
The speaker goes on to a sk why the two can't admit that they're lying to
each other. It appears to be an important aspect of their bond. He decides
that the best course of action is to pretend to trust one another while
continuing to lie. Regardless of how odd and complex things are, the two
find solace in one other's deception. The author explores issues of
truth/lies and relationships throughout this poem. Their relationship is
based on deception but, oddly, they're both aware of the lies. Mutual lying
appears to be the factor t hat holds them together. He is well aware that the
Dark Lady has been disloyal to him, just as she is well aware that he is
elderly and growing old. According to the speaker, their relationship
would fall apart if they didn't lie.
Sonnet 138 is a typical S hakespearean sonnet by William Shakespeare that
suggests there are fourteen lines in total, divided into two quatrains (four -
line sets) and one sestet (six -line sets). A large number of Shakespeare's
sonnets rhyme with ABABCDCDEFEFGG and iambic pentameter is used
throughout the poem. Overall, Shakespeare's Sonnets are dramatic, at
times unsettling, and at times perplexing in their meanings. Their primary munotes.in

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76 focus, as sonnets, is 'love,' but they also address time, change, age, lust,
absence, betrayal, and the difficult gap between ideal and reality when it
comes to the person you love.
William Shakespeare left an everlasting effect on the world. Shakespeare's
works continue to impact people, both young and old, even today. Over
the course of his 28 -year career, he wrote 37 plays, 154 sonnets, two big
epic poems, and several other verses.
10.5 SUMMING UP
Let us summarize everything we learned in this chapter - we got introduced
to one of the most significant types of sonnet - the Shakespearean sonnet
and we looked at its features. Besides that, the differences between the
Petrarchan sonnet, Spenserian sonnet, and Shakespearean sonnet were
highlighted. Then we looked at the classic writer of the times, the Bard of
Avon, William Shakespeare, and his works. Further, w e studied and
analyzed two of his sonnets prescribed in the syllabus. In the end, a Self -
check exercise is provided to self -examine the subject of this unit.
10.6 REFERENCES
Bevington.The Complete Works of Shakespeare. New York: Longman,
1997. Print.
https://www.masterclass.com/articles/poetry -101-what -is-a-
shakespearean -sonnet -learn -about -shakespearean -sonnets -with-examples
https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what -are-the-different -types -of-
sonnets -4-main -types -of-sonnets -with-examples#shakespearean -sonnets -
vs-spenserian -sonnets
https://nosweatshakespeare.com/sonnets/
10.7 SELF -CHECK EXERCISE
1. Discuss the differences between all the three types of sonnets -
Petrarchan sonnet, Spenserian sonnet, and Shakespearean sonnet.
2. Surf and read more about both the volumes of Shakespeare’s
Sonnets.

❖❖❖❖

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77 11
SELECTED VERSE FROM THE
JACOBEAN PERIOD PART I
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 The Metaphysical Poetry
11.1.2 Introduction to the Poet John Donne
11.2 Poem - “A Valediction Forbidding Mourning” (Text)
11.2.1 Summary
11.2.2 Critic al Analysis
11.3 Poem - “Death, Be Not Proud”
11.3.1 Summary
11.3.2 Critical Analysis
11.4 Conclusion
11.5 Important questions.
11.0 OBJECTIVE :
The primary objective of this unit is to introduce the students to the
metaphysical poetry and metaphysical poet s especially John Donne. The
unit also introduces students to two poems by John Donne - “A Vale diction
Forbidding Mourning ” and Holy Sonnet 10 - “Death , be not Proud” .
11.1 INTRODUCTION:
11.1.1 The Metaphysical Poetry
The term “Metaphysical” was borrowed fro m Dryden’s phrase about
Donne in Essay in Satire where he said that “He affects the metaphysics”.
Later on it was first applied to poetry by byDr. Johnson. Initially, this term
was used to convey contempt as it signified the habitual deviation from
natural ness of thought and style to novelty and quaintness. As per Dr.
Johnson, Metaphysical poets were men of learning who tried to show their
learning. He believed that although their thoughts were new, they weren’t
natural. In their poetry, “heterogeneous idea s are yoked by violence
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78 Metaphysical style was established in the seventeenth century by John
Donne. He soon found a lot of followers of this style. They were John
Cleveland, Sir John Suckling, Richard Crashaw, Henry Vaughan, George
Herbert, Abr aham Cowley and Andrew Marwell.
Some of the characteristics of Metaphysical poems were the use of far -
fetched images, use of novel thought and expressions, affectation and
hyperbole, and dramatic realism. Metaphysical poets were known for their
usage of an extended metaphor known as conceit. A conceit is a highly
elaborate or extended metaphor in which an unlikely, far -fetched or
strained comparison is made between two dissimilar things . While making
use of metaphysical conceits, they linked two disparate ar eas of
experience. Therefore, a metaphysical conceit joined the parts of a
fractured world rather than just yoking together contradictory things or
invoking strangeness. One example of this use of far -fetched image can be
seen in “A Valediction Forbidding Mourning” where John Donne
compares lovers to two legs of a compass. Here, Donne makes comparison
of a romantic image using a mathematical instrument. This kind of
comparison was something which was not thought of till that time.
Use of novel thought and e xpression was another characteristic of
Metaphysical poems. Wit was the salient feature of metaphysical poetry.
The metaphysical poets tried to explore the logical connection between
abstract and concrete, the remote and the near in rendering their
experie nce of emotional reality. Metaphysical poems were not a sole
display of emotion but a combination of emotion and intellect. It was a
combination of sense perception and reflection at the same time. They
substituted subtlety of thought for splendour of soun d and imagery.
Use of affectation and hyperbole can also be seen in metaphysical poems.
The use of hyperbole is not a forced one. It adds to the beauty of the poem.
One instance of use of hyperbole can be seen in Andrew Marwell’s “To
His Coy Mistress” wher e the speaker says that he can spend a hundred
years praising his lover’s eyes, two hundred for each breast, thirty
thousand to the rest and an age for every part of hers.
Dramatic realism is an important feature of Metaphysical poems. There is
a clarity w hich can often be found in these poems. In Donne’s poem often
use of direct speech, colloquial vigour and general air of dramatic realism
can be found. The metaphysical poets often depicted scenes of everyday
life.
11.1.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE POET - JOHN DON NE
John Donne was a seventeenth century poet, who is popular for being
considered the founder of the Metaphysical Poetry. Poets like Richard
Crashaw, Andrew Marve ll, George Herbert and John Cle veland also
belonged to the group known as Metaphysical poets.
John Donne was born in London, England in the year 1572. He was born
into a Roman Catholic family but throughout his life, his relationship with
religion has been quite tumultuous. But often, religion can be seen as one munotes.in

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79 of the centres of much of his poetry .Donne had studied in the prestigious
institutions like Oxford and Cambridge butdid not take any degree. Later,
he studied law at Lincoln Inn and participated in its literary culture there.
In 1598 Donne was appointed private secretary to Sir Thomas Egerto n. In
1601, Donne secretly married Anne More, the sixteen -year-old niece of
Lady Egerton.As a result of this, Donne was also briefly imprisoned.For
many years, the couple had to rely on friends and family members for
financial support.Donne spent the next 14 years unsuccessfully seeking
public office, and writing poetry as well as polemical prose tracts and
paradoxes such as Pseudo -Martyr , and Biathanatos. In Pseudo -Martyr ,
published in 1610, Donne argued that Roman Catholics could support
James I without co mpromising their faith. In 1615 he became the royal
chaplain to James. His wife died in 1617 and he became the dean of St.
Paul’s cathedral in 1621. He became famous as an eloquent preacher and
spent the next decade preaching and writing. He died in 1631.
Donne had no interest in making his poems generally available and
considered publishing them beneath his dignity as a gentleman. Therefore
most of his works were circulated as manuscripts among his friends and
patrons. This also makes it difficult to date his works. From the end of 17th
century, his poems did not enjoy a wide audience. The revival of his
works can be attributed to T.S. Eliot who celebrated him as a proto
modernist. His works include love poems, religious poems, sonnets, Latin
translations, satires, elegies and epigrams. His works are characterised by
paradoxes, ironies, dislocations and abrupt openings. Some of the famous
poems by him are‘The Canonization’, ‘ A Valediction forbidding
Mourning’, ’The Sun Rising’, ‘Batter my Heart,threeperson’ d God’,’ The
Ecstasy’.
Donne can be said to be a person of deep contradictions. As a man of
church spirituality can be found throughout his poems but at the same time
he possessed a carnal lust for life, sensation and experience. Thus, he can
be called bo th a religious poet and an erotic poet. In his poems Donne can
be seen mixing both physical and spiritual. His writings are replete with
symbols. One example of this is the legs of compass symbolising two
lovers in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning”.
11.2 POEM
A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning
As virtuous men pass mildly away,
And whisper to their souls to go,
Whilst some of their sad friends do say,
"The breath goes now," and some say, "No,"
So let us melt, and make no noise,
No tear -floods, no r sigh -tempests move;
'Twere profanation of our joys
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80 Moving of the earth brings harms and fears,
Men reckon what it did and meant;
But trepidation of the spheres,
Though greater far, is innocent.
Dull sublunary lovers' love
(Whose soul is sense) cannot admit
Absence, because it doth remove
Those things which elemented it.
But we, by a love so much refined
That our selves know not what it is,
Inter -assured of the mind,
Care less, eyes, lips, and hands to miss.
Our two souls therefore, which are one,
Though I must go, endure not yet
A breach, but an expansion.
Like gold to airy thinness beat.
If they be two, they are two so
As stiff twin compasses are two:
Thy soul, the fixed foot, makes no show
To m ove, but doth, if the other do;
And though it in the center sit,
Yet when the other far doth roam,
It leans, and hearkens after it,
And grows erect, as that comes home.
Such wilt thou be to me, who must,
Like the other foot, obliquely run;
Thy fir mness makes my circle just,
And makes me end where I begun.
11.2.1 SUMMARY
The following lines are spoken by the speaker when he is forced to spend
some time apart from his lover.The speaker begins the first stanza of the
poem with an image of death. He mentions that death comes peacefully to
virtuous men due to their good nature. Their souls leave body with such a
mild whisper that even the friends sitting near them would not be able to
recognise if they have died or not.
Similarly, the speaker asks his lover to part with him without making
much noise or display of emotions like creating floods of tears or tempests
out of sighs. He believes that such display of emotion would be like
treating his love in a profane manner as the common people would come
to know of it.
Movement of Earth causes fears as men keep thinking what it meant or
did, but the movement of heavenly bodies do not cause any damage.
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81 Only dull ordinary/ earthly lovers cannot ac cept separation as it removes
their object of interest which in the first place caused the love. Ordinary
lovers crave for the physical presence of each other, but their love is
beyond such feelings.
Their love is so refined that they themselves do not kno w what that
is.Their love is so inter assured of mind that they need not worry about
missing physical features like eyes, lips or hands.
He continues to say that their souls are not two but one and although he
must part with his lover, this separation is n ot going to bring about a rift in
their relationship as their love is expandable the way gold can be expanded
by beating it to thinness.
If it all they have to be seen as two different entities, he believes that they
can be considered as two legs of a comp ass where his lover is the fixed
foot and appears that it is not moving although it rotates when the other
foot moves.
The fixed foot sits at the centre and lets the other leg to roam around in
order to make a perfect circle. It leans and supports the othe r leg in every
way possible. It leans whenthe circle is being made and becomes straight
when the other foot comes home after making the circle.
It is the firmness of this foot which makes the circle perfect and makes the
other foot/ speaker end from where it began.
11.2.2 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
“A Valediction:Forbidding Mourning ” is a metaphysical poem written by
John Donne. It is believed that he wrote this poem in 1611 or 1612 when
he had to part with his wife Anne for a trip to Continental Europe. This
poem w as first published in 1633 collection Songs and Sonnets .
The central theme of the poem is spiritual love. In this poem it can be seen
that the speaker explaining to his beloved how their love can withstand the
temporary separation as their love is not mate rial in nature unlike the love
of common people.The speaker convinces his beloved to not do a display
of their emotions when they would be separated as such a spectacle would
be equivalent to demeaning their love in front of ordinary people. The poet
is trying to make a comparison between physical love and spiritual love.
Other minor themes represented in this poem are of love, separation and
acceptance.
Certain comparisons are made by the speaker in this poem. He believes
that their separation should be as calm and quiet as the death of virtuous
men. He also compares his love to the movement of heavenly bodies and
also to the metal gold which expands when beaten to thinness. An
example of metaphysical conceit (far -fetched comparison between two
completely d issimilar objects) can be seen when he compares himself and
his beloved as the two legs of a compass. The beloved is considered to be
the fixed foot which constantly supports him when he travels. The use of munotes.in

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82 alliteration can be seen in the line “ Thy soul, t he fixed foot, makes no
show” where the consonant sound /f/ is repeated and /m/ sound is repeated
in “And makes me end where I begun”. The speaker also makes use of
hyperbole when he talks of tear floods and sigh tempests. The poem
contains nine stanzas wi th the rhyme scheme abab.
11.3 POEM
Holy Sonnets: Death, be not proud
Death, be not proud, though some have called thee
Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so;
For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow
Die not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me.
From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be,
Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow,
And soonest our best men with thee do go,
Rest of their bones, and soul's delivery.
Thou art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men,
And dost wi th poison, war, and sickness dwell,
And poppy or charms can make us sleep as well
And better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then?
One short sleep past, we wake eternally
And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die.
11.3.1 SUMMARY
In this poem the speaker has personified Death and he addresses death
throughout the poem. The speaker asks Death to not be proud. Although
many people had called Death mighty and powerful, the speaker does not
believe that. Thus, the speaker believes that Death does not have any
reason to be proud and arrogant. The speaker further continues to say that
Death believes that it has the power to kill people whereas in reality it
does not have that. He mocks Death by addressing him as ‘poor Death’
and mentions that Death can n ever kill him (reference to the Christian
belief that even if the physical body dies, his spirit would not die).Here,
the speaker makes a personal attack on Death by saying that it cannot kill
him. By saying so, the speaker is trying to break the illusion that Death has
regarding his power over the life of living beings.
The speaker compares rest and sleep as a glimpse of Death and deems
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83 Death would also be pleasurable due to the si milarity between them.
Hence he believes that death should not be feared and it would be more
pleasurable as it might give us a prolonged sleep. The speaker presents
Death as a welcome visitor when he says that best men are taken away by
Death at a younger age so that they would not have to suffer for long on
this Earth and their bones can rest and their souls would receive
deliverance.
Next, the speaker takes a jibe at Death by saying that it is not as mighty as
it thinks itself to be as it is a slave to f ate, chance, kings and desperate
men. Death is driven by fate and chance. It also keeps company with
lowly companions like poison, war and sickness. Death is said to be in
company of poison, war and sickness as it is through poison, war or
sickness that pe ople die/ confront Death. Death needs their help to have
his power over living beings. He further asks Death what is he so proud of
when all he does is make men sleep. As per the speaker, poppy or .charms
can actually make us sleep better than Death itself so Death need not gloat
about its power.
The speaker delivers his final blow on Death by saying that death is like a
short sleep and past that sleep we shall wake up eternally. Thus Death
would not exist anymore and it shall die.
11.3.2 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
“Holy Sonnet 10 ” also known as “Death, be not Proud” and was published
in 1633 in Donne’s Holy Sonnets . Usually, death is represented in a
position of power in literature but in this poem, the speaker represents
Death as powerless due to his religious beli ef of afterlife. In this poem,
death is not the end of life but rather the beginning of a new life in
eternity. In the sonnet it can be seen that the speaker mocks Death and
says that it’s not as powerful as it thinks it to be. The speaker defends his
argument using many justifications. The poem argues against the fear of
Death. Unlike something to be feared, Death is represented here as a
welcome guest as it would lead to eternal awakening. This idea clearly
shows the Christian belief of life after death. Since the confidence of the
speaker while mocking Death relies heavily on the fact that there is an
afterlife where Death would not have any power, this poem can also be
considered as a poem about faith/belief.
In this poem the poet can be seen making use of the literary device
apostrophe(a speaker directly addressing someone who is not present or
cannot respond in reality) when it addresses Death.The use of alliteration
can be seen in the line “ And better than thy stroke; why
swell’st thou then” . The last line of the poem can be seen as an instance of
irony when the speaker says that “Death thou shalt die”. Throughout the
poem, Death has been personified and addressed directly. The poem has
been written in iambic pentameter. The poem has borrowed features o f
both Petrarchan and Shakespearian sonnet (a sonnet is a fourteen -line
poem written in iambic pentameter ) and it has the rhyme scheme
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84 11.4 CONCLUSION
John Donne is regarded as the leading Metaphysical poet of English
Literature. Originalit y was one of the most important features of his
poetry. His originality was not limited to his thoughts and ideas but
extended to his usage of diction. We find unification of sensibility in the
writings of Donne as we see a fusion of thoughts and feelings. A
combination of passion and thoughts can be seen in his poems. “A
Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” is an example of that. Use of conceit
is another element seen in Donne’s writing where two completely
dissimilar things are compared. Brevity and wit are also found in the
poems of Donne.
In the poem “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” , the speaker asks his
beloved to not mourn their separation as their love is of spiritual in nature
and physical separation is not going to affect it. He makes use of many
conceits to prove this point. In the poem “Death, be not Proud”, the
speaker mocks Death. Usually Death is feared by everyone. But in this
poem, the speaker mocks Death and proves his philosophy regarding why
he believes that death is not so powerful.
11.5 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. In the initial lines of the poem “A Valediction Forbidding Mourning”
how does the speaker say that their separation should be?
2. Explain the central message of the poem “A Valediction Forbidding
Mourning”?
3. How does the poet make use of t he compass metaphor in the poem “A
Valediction Forbidding Mourning”?
4. Why does the poet feel that death is proud and arrogant in the poem
“Death, be not Proud” ?
5. How does the poet portray Death?
6. Why does the poet feel that Death is a welcome guest?
7. What does the poet mean by “Death, thou shalt die”? Explain.

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85 12
SELECTED VERSE FROM THE
JACOBEAN PERIOD PART I I
Unit Structure
12.0 Objective
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1introduction to the Poet -George Herbert
12.2 Poem - “Pulley”
12.2.1 Summary
12.2.2 Critical Analysis
12.3 Poem -“Love”
12.3.1 Summary
12.3.2 Critical An alysis
12.6. Conclusion
12.7. Important Questions
12.0 OBJECTIVE
The primary objective of this unit is to introduce the students to
metaphys ical poets especially George Herbert and Andrew Marvell . The
unit also introduces students to the poems of George He rbert - “The
Pulley”, “Love” - and Andrew Marvell’s “The Coronet”, “On a Dew
Drop”.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE POET -GEORGE HERBERT
George Herbert was an English religious poet, orator and priest of Church
of England. He was one amongst the Metaphysical poets. He was born on
3rd April 1593 at Montgomery Castle to a wealthy Welsh family. At a
young a ge itself he believed that the best theme for poems would be his
love for God. This theme can be seen constantly being repeated in his
future writ ings. He was educated at Westminster School and at Trinity
College, Cambridge. In 1620, he was elected as orator of the University.
He seved in the Parliament of England in 1624 and for a brief period in
1925He rarely published his works during his academi c career. He
resigned as an orator in 1627 and become rector at Bemerton in 1630. At
this time, he became friend with Nicholas Ferrar who had founded a munotes.in

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86 religious community at nearby Gidding. Before his death, he gave his
works to Ferrar and asking him to p ublish or destroy it as per his
discretion. The works were published with the title The Temple: Sacred
and Private Ejaculations in 1633. He died due to consumption in 1633.
The Temple is considered as his major work and it consists of over one
hundred and fifty poems revolving around Church and religious themes.
Some of the famous poems of his collection are “The Church Porch”,
“The Pulley”, ”Easter Wings” and “The Altar”
12.2 POEM
The Pulley
When God at first made man,
Having a glass of blessings standing by,
“Let us,” said he, “pour on him all we can.
Let the world’s riches, which dispersèd lie,
Contract into a span.”
So strength first made a way;
Then beauty flowed, then wisdom, honour, pleasure.
When almost all was out, God made a stay,
Perceiving that, alone of all his treasure,
Rest in the bottom lay.

“For if I should,” said he,
“Bestow this jewel also on my creature,
He would adore my gifts instead of me,
And rest in Nature, not the God of Nature;
So both should losers be.

“Yet let him keep the rest,
But keep them with repining restlessness;
Let him be rich and weary, that at least,
If goodness lead him not, yet weariness
May toss him to my breast.”
12.2.2 SUMMARY
When God was creating man, he had a glass filled with blessing. He
thought that he would pour in all his blessings on human beings and let all
world riches be bestowed upon him. munotes.in

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87 Amongst all his blessings, strength was the first blessing given by God. It
was followed by beauty, wisdom, honour and pleasure. When he had
poured out almost all the blessings, he stopped and saw that only “rest”
was left at the bottom of the glass.
Then he said that if he gives even the gift of “rest” to mankind, they would
adore only the gifts given to them and not God. This would result in
mankind losing touch with their creator. They would start adoring Nature
and not the God of Nature (Creator). As a result, both humans and God
become losers as the purpose of creation then remains unfulfilled.
Ultimately, God decides that let humans have all other gifts with them but
feel discontent and restless. He wants them to be rich and weary so that if
not God’s goodness, at least this weariness would bring humans closer to
God.
12.2.3 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
“The Pulley” was a poem first published by George Herbert in his
collecti on known as The Temple .The poem “The Pulley” also often
appears under the name “Rest” or “The Gifts of God”. This poem is a
metaphysical religious poem . The metaphysical conceit used in this poem
is a mechanical device - the pulley. Like the pulley creates f orce and
leverage, the lack of rest in human beings acts as leverage for pulling
human beings towards God. The speaker here can be seen justifying the
action of God of not giving the gift of rest to human beings as he believes
that if human beings were end owed with all the gifts, they would forget
their creator. So the decision of God to not give away the gift of rest to
human beings is justified as it brings human beings closer to God.
An omniscient speaker describes the whole poem. Although the speaker i s
unidentified, it can be assumed that it is the struggles of George Herbert
with faith and his own understanding of God which has been reflected in
the poem. The poem adopts a three part syllogistic approach where the
first part raises an issue, second pa rt works on it and the third part gives a
solution to it. The literary devices like alliteration, metaphor and imagery
are used in this poem. Pun is used in the line “ Rest in the bottom lay ”
where the word rest could mean rest of the gifts or the gift of r est.
Alliteration is used in the poem in the following lines “ When God at first
made man ” (repetition of /m/ sound),” But keep them with repining
restlessness ” (repetition of /r/ sound). The use of metaphor is done when
the quality of rest is compared to a jewel. The figure of speech inversion
has been used in “ So both should losers be” where the sentence “so both
should be losers” is inverted for poetic effect. The poem consists of four
stanzas with the rhyme scheme ababa.


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88 12.3 POEM
Love
LOVE bade me welcome; yet my soul drew back,
Guilty of dust and sin.
But quick -eyed Love, observing me grow slack
From my first entrance in,
Drew nearer to me, sweetly questioning
If I lack’d anything.
‘A guest,’ I answer’d, ‘worthy to be he re:’
Love said, ‘You shall be he.’
‘I, the unkind, ungrateful? Ah, my dear,
I cannot look on Thee.’
Love took my hand and smiling did reply,
‘Who made the eyes but I?’
‘Truth, Lord; but I have marr’d them: let my shame
Go where it doth deserve.’
‘And know you not,’ says Love, ‘Who bore the blame?’
‘My dear, then I will serve.’
‘You must sit down,’ says Love, ‘and taste my meat.’
So I did sit and eat.
12.3.1 SUMMARY
In this poem Love is personified as God. The speaker/the guest says that
God welcomed him to the feast but still his soul drew back because he was
conscious of his unworthiness (guilty of his dust and original sin). God
saw the speaker’s hesitance and asked him sweetly if he needed anything.
The speaker answers by saying that he feels unworthy to be a guest there
in the presence of God since he has been unkind and ungrateful. He even
feels that he cannot even look at God as he is ashamed of his actions. God
tries to reassure t he speaker by taking his hand and telling him that it is
God himself who has made his eyes. So he need not worry regarding being
unworthy.
The speaker agrees with God and says that he has defiled his eyes and due
to that shame, he deserves to go to hell. G od then reminds him that it is for
the sins of mankind that God had died on cross and expiated for them.
This means that God has suffered for the sins of mankind as he loves
them. He then asks the guest to sit and eat his meat (relish the dishes being
served in the feast). In the end, the speaker does as told.
12.3.2 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
The poem “Love” was published in George Herbert’s collection The
Temple in 1633. This poem can be considered as one of his spiritual
autobiographies. The poem can be read at t wo levels - A dialogue between
a guest and a host or in the form of a dialogue between the speaker and munotes.in

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89 God. The feast to which the speaker/ his soul is invited is the one which
God would hold in Heaven and he himself would serve the guests. In this
poem, Go d is represented as Love and the speaker tries to show that God
is an immense source of Love and he always has love for human beings
although they have committed many sins. We can see that the speaker
feels unworthy to sit at the table of God or even look at his face due to his
sins. But God reassures him that since he has repented for his sins, he sure
has a place at God’s table and he equally has the right to enjoy the feast at
the table. The poem clearly shows God’s capacity for forgiveness.
The poem con sists of four stanzas and is written in iambic pentameter. It
has the rhyme scheme ababcc with a religious tone.
12.6 CONCLUSION
George Herbert in his poem “The Pulley” speaks about what God did in
order to bring mankind closer to God. God withholds the gi ft of rest so
that human beings would remember God throughout their period of
restlessness and thus bringing them closer to God. The poet tries to justify
this action of God. The poem “Love” is a testimony to the love that God
has towards mankind. The savi our suffered for the sins of all human
beings. If human beings repented for the sins they had committed, they
would always find a place for them in God’s feast. The magnanimity of
God is represented in this poem. Both the poems are religious in nature.
12.7 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Justify the title of the poem “The Pulley”.
2. Why doesn’t God give men the gift of rest?
3. Why does the speaker feel unworthy to be invited to the feast in the
poem “Love”?
4. How does God reassure the speaker of his worthiness?
5. What is the central theme of the poem “Love”?
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90 13
SELECTED VERSE FROM THE
JACOBEAN PERIOD PART I II
Unit Structure
13.0 Objective
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Introduction to the poet - Andrew Marvell
13.1.2. Poem -“The Coronet”
13.1.3 Summary
13.1.4 Critical analysis
13.2.1 Poem - “On a Drop of Dew”
13.2.2 Su mmary
13.2.3 Critical Analysis
13.3. Conclusion
13.4. Important Questions
13.0 OBJECTIVE
The primary objective of this unit is to introduce the students to
metaphys ical poets especially Andrew Marvell . The unit will introduce
students to the poems of Andrew Marvell, “The Coronet” and “On a Dew
Drop”.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.1.1 Introduction to the Poet -Andrew Marvell
Andrew Marvell is known as one of the best Metaphysical poets whose
political reputation had overshadowed his poetry till twentieth century. He
was born on 31st March 1621 at Winestead, Yorkshire, England. He
studied at Hull grammar school and at Trinity College, Cambridge later.
Later, he went abroad and worked as a tutor. He wrote the works” The
Garden” and “Upon Appleton House” while he was wor king as a tutor to
Mary, daughter of Lord Fairfax, the Parliamentary General, Yorkshire. He
became assistant to Jon Milton as Latin secretary in foreign office in 1657.
He was elected Member of Parliament for Hull in 1659 and continued in
office until his death. He has written some political verse satires namely
The Last Instructions to a Painter and The Rehearsal Transpros’d . One of munotes.in

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91 the most poems by Andrew Marwell is To His Coy Mistress . His poems in
general at times resemble those of Cavalier poets and a t times those of
Puritan Platonist. It was only in the twentieth century that he came to be
considered as one of the notable poets of his century. He died in 1678.
13.1.2 POEM
The Coronet
When for the thorns with which I long, too long,
With many a piercin g wound,
My Saviour’s head have crowned,
I seek with garlands to redress that wrong:
Through every garden, every mead,
I gather flowers (my fruits are only flowers),
Dismantling all the fragrant towers
That once adorned my shepherdess’s head.
And now when I have summed up all my store,
Thinking (so I myself deceive)
So rich a chaplet thence to weave
As never yet the King of Glory wore:
Alas, I find the serpent old
That, twining in his speckled breast,
About the flowers disguised does fold,
With wreaths of f ame and interest.
Ah, foolish man, that wouldst debase with them,
And mortal glory, Heaven’s diadem!
But Thou who only couldst the serpent tame,
Either his slippery knots at once untie;
And disentangle all his winding snare;
Or shatter too with him my curi ous frame,
And let these wither, so that he may die,
Though set with skill and chosen out with care:
That they, while Thou on both their spoils dost tread,
May crown thy feet, that could not crown thy head.
13.1.3 SUMMARY
The poem begins by the speaker say ing that it has been a long time since
his saviour has been wearing the crown of thorns (a reference to Christ)
and he seeks to redress that wrong with garlands (poetry). For redressing, munotes.in

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Literature
92 he goes through every garden and mead to find the best flowers (words ).
He also dismantles the best fragrant flowers which had once adored his
shepherdesses head.
And once the best flowers have been collected, the speaker decides to
make a chaplet like none other. But at that moment, he finds the serpent
(temptation) hidden in between the flowers and realizes how foolish it had
been of him to think like that as it would be like debasing Heaven’s
diadem using mortal glory. The speaker understands that writing poetry
for crowning Christ would be like falling prey to temptatio ns of fame and
interest.
The poet believes that only his saviour/Christ can tame the serpent, untie
his slippery knots, disentangle winding snare and shatter along with him
the speaker’s curious frame. Although the flowers were chosen with much
skill and c are, the speaker feels that it is only appropriate to let them
whither as along with that the serpent would also die. Hence, he asks the
saviour to tread on both of them so that ultimately the flowers which could
not adore his head would be able to adore h is feet.
13.1.4 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
“The Coronet” is a religious poem. The poem uses the metaphor of
making a garland to represent the writing of poem for God. The poem uses
references to crucifixion of Christ. The poem depicts the guilt of the
speaker since the saviour/ Christ had to suffer due to the sins of mankind,
including that of the speaker. So he decides to create a crown of flowers
(poetry) for Christ. It is this guilt which leads him to write this poem in
order to crown Christ. Later he realizes th at his attempt to crown Christ is
maligned by his temptation to become famous and asks Christ to crush
that temptation of his.
The poet makes use of metaphor when he compares his poetry with the
coronet. Instances of symbolism can be seen as “the serpent” is the symbol
of temptation of fame. “My saviour” is a reference to Christ. The use of
imagery can also be seen when “an old serpent entangled between
flowers” is mentioned.
13.2.1 POEM
On a Drop of Dew
See how the orient dew,
Shed from the bosom of the mo rn
Into the blowing roses,
Yet careless of its mansion new,
For the clear region where ’twas born
Round in itself incloses:
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93 Frames as it can its native element.
How it the purple flow’r does slight,
Scarce touching where it lies,
But gazing back upon the skies,
Shines with a mournful light,
Like its own tear,
Because so long divided from the sphere.
Restless it rolls and unsecure,
Trembling lest it grow impure,
Till the warm sun pity its pain,
And to the skies exhale it back again.
So the soul, that drop, that ray
Of the clear fountain of eternal day,
Could it within the human flow’r be seen,
Remembering still its former height,
Shuns the sweet leaves and blossoms green,
And recollecting its own light,
Does, in its pure and circling thoughts, express
The greater heaven in an heaven less.
In how coy a figure wound,
Every way it turns away:
So the world exclud ing round,
Yet receiving in the day,
Dark beneath, but bright above,
Here disdaining, there in love.
How loose and easy hence to go,
How girt and ready to ascend,
Moving but on a point below,
It all about does upwards bend.
Such did th e manna’s sacred dew distill,
White and entire, though congealed and chill,
Congealed on earth : but does, dissolving, run
Into the glories of th’ almighty sun.

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94 13.2.2 SUMMARY
Throughout this poem, dew drop is being compared to soul o f human
beings. The dew has been shed from the bosom of the morning into the
blowing roses but it is not interested in its new abode. The round shape of
the dew drop represents its perfection and completeness since it has
originated from the heaven above.
Since it has come from heaven, it remains here as a tear drop shining in
mournful light. It constantly looks at heaven in the hope of getting back
there and also fears that it might become impure by being here. At last the
sun takes pity on it and it goes back to heaven by shunning sweet leaves
and blossoms green through the process of evaporation.
It leaves behind this world and moves towards the world above. It
excludes the world and allows the heavenly light to fall upon itself. It
looks like its dark be low and bright above. It disdains the present world
and is ready to move upwards with love and grit. Like the Manna, the
heavenly food from heaven, which appeared on Earth and as soon as the
Israelite had consumed as much as needed it went back to heaven, the dew
drop would also go to heaven.
13.2.3 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
“On a drop of dew” is a poem about the journey of a dew drop after
descending from sky and its wait to go back. The speaker compares the
dew drop to the soul of human beings. Throughout the poe m we can see
the dew drop being indifferent to its surroundings and waiting to ascend
upwards. Similarly, human soul which lives on Earth continuously yearns
to go back to heaven (its place of origin). The ascending of dew drop to
the world above through e vaporation can be compared to the soul going
back to its origin. In the last stanza, dew drop is compared to Manna
which after fulfilling its purpose returns to heaven. In the same way, the
human soul also returns to heaven after fulfilling its purpose in this world.
The whole poem is based on the philosophical idea that human soul comes
to this world from heaven and that it continuously yearns to go to heaven
to reunite with its Creator.
The use of alliteration can be seen in the lines “restless it rolls” , “pity its
pain” , “shuns the sweet leaves”, “greater heaven than heaven less” , “dark
beneath, but bright above” , “scared dew distil” , “concealed and chill” ,
“does, dissolving, run” . In the line “like its own tear” simile is used when
the poet is comparing the dew drop to the tear of the soul. In the initial
lines, morning is personified when it is said that the dew drop sheds from
the bosom of the morn. The whole poem is full of symbolism where the
dew drop symbolises man’s soul, skies above symbolise the h eaven and
the rose petals symbolise the worldly pleasures.
13.3 CONCLUSION
George Herbert in his poem “The Pulley” speaks about what God did in
order to bring mankind closer to God. God withholds the gift of rest so munotes.in

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95 that human beings would remember God thr oughout their period of
restlessness and thus bringing them closer to God. The poet tries to justify
this action of God. The poem “Love” is a testimony to the love that God
has towards mankind. The saviour suffered for the sins of all human
beings. If huma n beings repented for the sins they had committed, they
would always find a place for them in God’s feast. The magnanimity of
God is represented in this poem. Both the poems are religious in nature.
In the poem “Coronet” by Andrew Marvell, the speaker trie s to right the
wrongs done by mankind by making a coronet for Christ but later realizes
that this action of his is motivated by temptation for fame and as a result
of that, he asks God to crush his temptation. In the poem “On a drop of
dew”, the poet talks about the souls longing to go back to its original place
of abode.
13.4 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What does the metaphor of Coronet stand for?
2. How does the speaker plan to redress the wrong done to his saviour?
3. Why does the speaker want Christ to tread on the f lowers chosen by
him?
4. Describe some of the symbolism used in this poem
5. What is the d ew drop compared to in the poem “On a Drop of Dew” ?
6. Why is the dew drop indifferent to the present world and what is it
waiting for?
7. What is the main theme of t he poem “On a Drop of Dew”?
8. What would happen to the dew drop in the end?

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