Paper-9-Research-Methodology-and-Sources-of-History-English-Version-munotes

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HISTORY: MEANING, SCOPE AND
NATURE
Unit Structure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and Definitions of History
1.3 Scope of History
1.3.1 Features of the scope
1.3.2 Limitations of the scope
1.4 Nature of History
1.4.1 A study of the present in the light of the past
1.4.2 History is the study of man
1.4.3 History is concerned with man in time
1.4.4 History is concerned with man in space
1.4.5 History is a dialogue between the events of the past an d
progressively emerging future ends

1.4.6 Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of
history

1.4.7 Relevant
1.4.8 Comprehensiveness
1.4.9 Objective record of happenings
1.4.10 Multisided
1.4.11 Time and Placerelevance
1.4.12 Correlation among past, present andfuture
1.4.13 Scientific study ofpast
1.4.14 Study of human struggle, development and transformation of
human civilization
1.4.15 Not only narration but, analysis and synthesis aswell
1.4.16 Integration of science andliterature
1.5 Summary
1.6 Questions
1.7 Additional Readings munotes.in

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Research Methodology and
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2 1.0 OBJECTIVES :
After the completion of this unit, the student will be able to:
 Define and comprehend the meaning of History.
 Evaluate the scope of History.
 Asses the nature of History.
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
History is a dynamic and multifaceted subject. It is reckoned as the mother
of all subjects. History has its types according to place, time and subject.
Pre-historic, ancient, medieval and modern are the types of history on the
basis of ‘time’. Economic, military, social, cultural, political etc. are the
types of history according to ‘subject’. Local, regional, national and
international are the types of history on the basis of ‘place’. International
history emphases on the study of such events and happenings which made
their impact on the entire human commu nity worldwide e.g. French
revolution, world war I, world war II. Events and happenings which made
their impact on the subsequent countries are studied in national history.
E.g. in Indian context, national revolt of 1857, Non -cooperation
movement. Regional history focuses on the happenings and events
happening their impact limited up to a particular region or state e.g.
History of Marathas. Local history comprises of history which includes
significant happenings limited to local area and influencing local
community. In modern times, local history research is gaining special
emphasis. Reflections of dynamic social, political, economic
transformations are replicated in local history. History in conventional
terms is the recognition of past events and past li fe with its merits
anddemerits.
In this unit we will be dealing with meaning,scope andnature of history.
1.2 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF HISTORY:
History is the analysis and interpretation of the human past enabling us to
study continuity and changes that are taking place over time. It is an act of
both investigation and imagination that seeks to explain how people have
changed over time. Historians use all forms of evidence to examine,
interpret, revisit, and reinterpret the past. These include not just wr itten
documents, but also oral communication and objects such as buildings,
artifacts, photographs, and paintings. Historians are trained in the methods
of discovering and evaluating these sources and the challenging task of
making historical sense out of them. History is a means to understand the
past and present. The different interpretations of the past allow us to see
the present differently and therefore imagine -and work towards -different
futures. It is often said to be the ‘queen’ or ‘mother’ of the s ocial sciences.
It is the basis of all subjects of study which fall under the category of
Humanities and Social Sciences. It is also the basis of the study of munotes.in

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History: Meaning, Scope and Nature
3 philosophy, politics, economics and even art and religion. No wonder, it is
considered an indispe nsable subject in the complete education of man.
The first meaning of history is ‘tale, story,’ and the second meaning is ‘a
chronological record of significant past events.’ The opening of tales for
children -‘Once upon a time’ - captures both the story an d time nature of
history.... It happens that the word ‘history’ comes from the Greek ‘to
know.’
The origin of the word History is associated with the Greek word
‘Historia’ which means ‘information’ or ‘an enquiry designed to elicit
truth’. Man looked at th e wilderness of the past when he was brute and
savage, and even as he looked, he beheld a garden which could be created
out of a jungle. He has an eye not merely on the dizzy Heights of the past
but on the ditches and uneven surfaces as well, with the inte ntion of
building a glorious monument for the future. The nature history is too
complex and its scope too vast, touching almost every domain of human
activity. Let us start with a few definitions of history.
History has been defined differently by differe nt scholars. Following
definitions indicate the meaning of History.
Aristotle:“History contrasts research into the facts, with the logical
task of explanation.” The term ‘contrasts’ is very significant here, as it
suggests that things in history are relate d to one another in a systematic
and permanent manner, forming the entire story of man into one integrated
whole. Aristotle further suggests that history is an account of the
unchanging past the sense that human nature does not change, and that all
activit ies that originate with the same intentions and motives differ only in
the degree of details and not in their basic nature. Thus wars, conquests,
expansion and exploitation are a constant factor in history although every
age and every country had its own t echnique to achieve the objective.
Henry Johnson : “History, in its broadest sense, is everything that ever
happened."
Smith, V.S: “The value and interest of history depend largely on the
degree in which the present is illuminated by the past.”
Rapson: “His tory is a connected account of the course of events or
progress of ideas.”
NCERT: “History is the scientific study of past happenings in all their
aspects, in the life of a social group, in the light of present
happenings.” The scientific study is promote d through explaining the
meaning of history as study of human society in different times through all
the dimensions like political, social, economic, cultural, scientific etc.
Study of past happenings in the light of evidences as well as insistence for
unfolding of truth through causal relationship is of prime significance.
Shedding light upon truth with the help of sources is vital here along with
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Research Methodology and
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4 Jawaharlal Nehru: “History is the story of Man's struggle throug h
the ages against Nature and the elements; against wild beasts and the
jungle and some of his own kind who have tried to keep him down
and to exploit him for their own benefit.” Man has made the journey of
his progress from the primitive to the modern man of today. He had to
battle against the nature and its different elements for his existence and
progress during the course. The society had to struggle against specific
class in every age and every place to seek justice. This struggle still
persists even today. Pandit Nehru expects the account of this struggle
throughout ages. According to Pandit Nehru history means the saga of
human endeavour against thenature.
A novel interpretation of history is given by Carr E.H. He states :
“History is the continuous p rocess of interaction between the historian
and his facts, and an unending dialogue between the present and the
past.” Carr admires history to be a continuous process, that process is the
process of interaction between historian and facts. The validity of the
event gets decided through how the historian describes the event with the
help of obtained facts and what interpretation he draws out. The constant
correlation between occurred events and the present conditions has been
given importance in history. Tod ay’s situations and current happenings are
going to be the past tomorrow. Yesterday has its influence on today and
also today on tomorrow. There is some background to every happening
and its success or failure. It leads to certain impressions e.g. the enti re
world witnessed the undying evil -impacts of imperialism and nuclear
weapons during the World War II. But, even today the imperialism and
nuclear accomplishment still exists in the world. The roots of it can be
found out in the colonialism, imperialism a nd consequent World Wars.
The seeds of all -round accomplishments of today’s Japan are in the
lessons they took from the demolition in World War II. That is why
history is an unending dialogue between past and present. The past and
present are closely relat ed with each other. They have an eternal relation
between them. The ancestries of the present problems can be seen in the
past. Henceforth history is reckoned to be an unending dialogue between
the past and the present.The events from the past can be exper ienced in the
present in different form. Human behaviour lies at the roots of
theseevents.
Famous historian Burk Hardt has defined history as, “the record of
what age finds worthy of note in another.” The era of Indian freedom
movement has its unique signi ficance in Indian history. The present
generation receives guidance for active living through cruel policy of the
British, the fight of Indians and the freedom achievement. It can be
perceived that the injustice can also be eradicated by truth and non -
violence. The vitality of freedom, equity, fraternity and justice can be
grasped and the contemporary generation can get apt direction. That is
why here the history is referred as the record of the things of one age
worthy of note inanother.
According to Herod otus, “History means inquiry into the interesting
and memorable past events.” Here history is predestined to be munotes.in

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History: Meaning, Scope and Nature
5 ascertainment of interesting and distinct events occurred in the past. But,
meaning of history cannot be such insular. History is the subject wh ich
reviews all the dimensions the human life on the basis of past events.
Eminence of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj remains not in how many battles
he won or how much exploits he performed but remains in his
accomplishment in those times and what we shall t ake for ourlives.
“History is the lamp of experience.” Happold has given this a visionary
definition of history. Here really the penetrating meaning of history is
expressed. History guidesus throughout life just like the lamp in the
darkness. We can move towards appropriate direction by taking precept
from the past happenings and success along with failure of the ancestors.
We can be prosperous by avoiding the mistakes made by the ancestors and
by following constructive deeds. The deterioration of Maratha Empire can
be observed in the dearth of planning, materialistic stance and lack of
unity of Peshwas, hence appropriate planning is essential to be successful
in life. Its execution is also crucial. We can perceive that it is quite
necessary mutual regards and feeling of integrity to accomplish anytask.
While explaining the meaning of history, German thinker Herder says,
“History is the chain of events.” According to Herder no historical event
cannot be examined secluded; in fact, there is a chain of events behind
every event. For instance, Murder of Archduke Ferdinand was not the
mere reason behind the World War I, in fact it was one of the reasons.
World War II did not begin only due to Hitler’s attack on Poland; it was
just one of thereasons.
Numerous hist orians made attempts to apprehend the meaning of history
by detecting and interpreting countless events from the past. The
philosophy of history came into existence as per the establishment of
meaning of history through those efforts. Carl Marx, a German t hinker
discovered the meaning of history in such philosophical form. He saw
only class conflict in history. According to Carl Marx, “The human
history is nothing but class struggle.” He firmly believes that the nature
of class conflict changed as per the t ime but, the conflict still continues
and we study only this class conflict throughhistory.
“History as an entity gets generated through appropriate offspring of
various happenings.” This definition of history by V. K. Rajwade is in
quite broader sense. Hi story does not include only political events but, it is
the study of all the dimensions of human life. The happenings till
yesterday come under the orbit ofhistory.
Various definitions of history gradually developed through the attempts to
answer the quest ion of what is history. There seems to be a common
principle in all these definitions although they all seem to be different
from each other. The thread is past society. History means the study of the
past social components. The entire society is the ultim ate accomplishment
whether talking about the happenings in the society, rise or fall of the
civilizations, class conflicts among them, moral values among them or
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Research Methodology and
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6 A broader definition can be made, “history means the graph of various
aspects of human life and his development.” The graph comprises of
thought of every field of humanlife. It includes not only his political and
social life but also his values, ethics, art and literary expression. Overall,
the present arises by carrying influen ce of past happenings, thoughts and
elements. That’s why history is the graph of human advancement.
The above definitions explain History as a significant record of events of
the past, a meaningful story of mankind depicting the details of what
happened to man and why it happened. Mainly it deals with the human
world.
History is a growing discipline the serious study of which started in the
second half of the 18th century, so it is said that it is still in the developing
stage as a comprehensive subject. The History which is a record of unique
events in the life of mankind is the stir and vibration of life. It is not only
the conserving and understanding of what has happened, but also the
completion of what has been going on at present.
Check your progress :
Q. 1 Define History.
1.3 SCOPE OF HISTORY:
Scope means the breadth, comprehensiveness, diversity and extent of
learning experiences offered through the study of a specific subject. Man
can enhance his intellectual outlook and rationale through the study of
history. Prof. Collingwood in his book ‘Idea of History’ has explained the
scope of history. He said, “History has vital significance. Its lessons are
quite useful for human life as the tone between the current happenings and
their effects can change a s between past happenings and their effects.
Significant events if remembered can be useful in decision making in
future. These cannot be shown in visible form but, they can be directive
regarding what can happen and which treats can occur in current
chron ology.”
Profundity and inclusiveness of history can be seen through its
development as a faculty. Identities which were previously the ideals of a
particular society have become a part of global history while portraying
the picture of man’s success in ever y field. There were times when history
as reckoned as the collection of fables and narrations of gallantry which
was studied for some entertainment and value inculcation. Today there is
no facet of human action which does not come under the area of authori ty
of history. Scope of history can be perceived through the points mentioned
below;
History previously as a part of literature has now emerged as an
independent and complete discipline. We see different types of history
today such as ‛ history of arts’, munotes.in

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History: Meaning, Scope and Nature
7 ‛history of culture’, ‛history of religion’, ‛history of music’, ‛history of
literature’, ‛history of geography’, ‛history of education’, ‛history of
biology’, ‛history of atoms and molecules’,
‛history of mathematics’, etc. We can catch various types of hi story
including political, cultural, social, scientific, artistic, religious, economic,
legal, constitutional, military and ideological history.
Nowadays interdisciplinary approach is a salient feature of history. Other
disciplines and supportive sciences are frequently referred while writing
and studying history e.g. geography, economics, sociology, science,
numismatics, anthropology, geology, astronomy, archaeology, etc.
Focus is on time and place in the study of history. We can find different
types of hi story on the base of time as pre -historic, ancient, medieval and
modern. Types of history according to place are local history, regional
history, National history and world history. Today’s history is not
confined to Kings, worriers, religious preceptors, high- brows of the
society as it was previously. It instead studies different aspects of lives of
people from all strata of society. History is not the property of one
particular community. It involves every human group and its social,
economic, political, cultural, ideological evolution. History is not
circumscribed up to the narration of merely political and subjective events.
Instead it involves analysis of social, cultural, economic conditions.
The aim of history is to inculcate various values on human mind. History
is not mugging up the heroics of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Mahatma
Gandhi, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Nelson Mandela, etc. but, it is about
nurturing the values on the future generations these icons opted. History
aims to develop sublime out look by inculcating not the event but the core
of events, to stimulate not just patriotism but to enable the man to think as
a human species and to promote the feeling of internationalism, global
tolerance.
History is not merely reviewing past events. It h as about construing
meaning to past events and living in present, solving current problems and
developing a prosperous future. Now the scope of history has emerged in
explaining the motive behind the historical happenings through collecting
and interpretin g sources. According to Prof. Trivellion, “Scope of history
is touching three different aspects namely scientific, imaginative and
literature.” It means history is dealing with three fields of science,
imagination and literature. It has the power of unders tanding many
subjects. That is why scope of history is quite.
The question is always asked about whether history as a social science is a
science or an art. Then it becomes a prime duty of a historical researcher
to enquire about this question. Bury say s, “History is a science, no less no
more.” Lord Acton says, “The study of history is critical and objective. It
is a science.” History opt its own techniques for establishment of facts and
interpretation. History is a science in this perspective. History just like
physics, chemistry or other material science is an experience -based study
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8 categorization, formulating hypotheses and analysis of evidences before
explaining the facts. They are as follo ws;
There is collection of facts acquired from different sources.
Various methods of data collection are opted.
Collected data is carefully and systematically analysed and selected.
The entire world is the laboratory of history. Its various components are
acquired by different human communities.
Different principles and theories are established on the basis of
observation of events, analysis and comparative study. Hence, history is a
science.
But there are certain limitations while considering history as a science.
Facts in history are complex and their repetition occurs exceptionally.
Hence, it is not possible to unfold principles and generalised truth
through it.
Historical information is not collected through observation or
experimentation like other sciences.
Historical information is the output of human thoughts and acts which are
always changeable. Therefore, reliable information cannot be gained for
establishing generalised principles and theories.
Historian is never an eyewitness most o f the times. That’s why history is
written on the basis of available evidences.
Sometimes documents accepted as evidence can be bias of writer about
the related event.
Actual history cannot come into light due to collective/social bias.
There are also some distinct problems in writing of history. They are as
follows;
Prompt records about the past are not easily available.
Deficiency of original sources is a major problem in writing of history.
Ambiguity can be seen in available sources.
Bias is reflected wh ile recording the events.
Individual differences can easily see as per every historian regarding the
interpretation of event.
If narration of historical events is done in a scientific manner, it will seem
to be uninteresting. Artistic method of presenting the history attracts the
reader towards learning of history. It is said, “The dead presented in the
dead form has no appeal.” That’s why historian has the task of bringing munotes.in

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History: Meaning, Scope and Nature
9 dead past into a live form through his writing style. Historian has to
promote huma n emotions and motivations through powerful narration,
imagination and comprehension of human psychology on the basis of
norms of available evidences. Hence, historian has to possess the quality
of narrating life relevant, powerful and interesting story in attractive and
appealing style on the base of evidences. According to Toynbee, “Dull
history is false history.” It makes us clear that history is an art.
History is a social science. It does not possess precise and accurate
principles, facts, laws and the ories etc. Although it relates with human life,
various human deeds and his physical progress, causal relationship is
established on the basis of evidences. Prof. Travellion, “History is a
science, also it is an art.” It is assured that facts searched thro ugh history
are scientific and then it has to be presented in an artistic manner in front
of the reader. Therefore, history is a science in terms of and during the aim
of discovering the truth on the basis of evidences, recording of events,
unfolding throu gh sources and analysis (Organising in the form of past,
present and future, causes and effects through arranging the events).
History is also an art in terms of interpreting the events and presenting it in
front of the readers attractively in historian’s own style. Hence, history is a
science as well as an art.
With the passage of time the scope of history has been widened, and new
areas are included in it. History is gradually assuming all the three
dimensions viz.,
what happened
how it happened
to analyse why it happened.
Instead of the descriptive catalogue of political events relating to the rise
and fall of dynasties, kings, courts, wars and peace. Now it has a more
humanistic approach which takes into account all the multifarious
activities of m an, not excluding social functions such as games, manners,
customs and all the things which constitute the substance of the daily life
of the common man.
History is no longer a branch of literature or politics or philosophy or any
other discipline. It has an independent status of its own whose main
function is now to study society in its aspect of promoting a culture, which
constitutes knowledge, faith, belief, art, morals, customs and any other
capabilities or habits acquired by man as a member of society .
History has mainly two functions to perform. One is the collection of data
and the other is the interpretation of the data to explain the fundamental
forces of history. The first part has to be objective and therefore scientific.
The second part is subj ective and hence humanistic.
History excludes from its scope the study of nature and confines its
attention to the story of man's evolution from humble beginnings to munotes.in

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10 complex achievements. But nature also comes within the scope of history,
if it has anythi ng to do with man. The scope of history includes both man
and nature in so far as these two play a significant part in the life of
mankind.
The scope of history includes all activities of man. The historian must
look beyond government to people, beyond la ws to legends, beyond
religion to folklore and the arts, and he must study every phenomenon,
whether intellectual, political, social, philosophical, material, moral or
emotional relating to man in society.
History has to consider all human achievements in all their aspects such
as science, technology, discoveries, inventions and adventures. But
primarily the social life of man, his political achievements, his cultural
attainment, his constitutional management and his economic endeavours
form the main scope of history, as it is through the medium of state and
society that man finds his identity.
The study of economic and social change is also gaining greater
importance in history in modern period. In communist countries the entire
orientation is on Marxist -dialecticism. The labour movement, the class
struggle, inland and international trade, arts, crafts, industry, business,
commerce, agriculture, peasant movement and so on are receiving greater
attention. Likewise, social reforms, caste and class distincti ons, family
life, position of women, customs, manners, and way of life are exciting the
interest of the historians. The history of institutions and ideas too are
engaging the attention of the scholars.
Besides, we have universal history which takes into a ccount the
significant activities of entire mankind. The Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun
happens to be the father of universal history, and also of the science of
culture. The philosophy of history has made the subject of history very
profound, ever since the time of Voltaire who coined the phrase. Great
thinkers like Hegel, Marx, Comte, Spengler, Croce and Toynbee have
contributed much to the philosophy of history. This kind of history does
not treat isolated events or the role of individuals but takes into ac count
the progress and decline of societies with reference to all aspects of human
culture. To a social scientist, all history is social history, though other
historians may classify it as social history, political history, economic
history, religious hist ory, or history of some other kind.
Thus, the scope of history is ever expanding. Herodotus the father of
history was merely an excellent story -teller, but only thirteen years later,
his successor, Thucydides happened, to be almost a scientific historian.
Surprisingly enough, he appears to be so modern that one could mistake
him to be a historian of either the nineteenth or the twentieth century.
Nineteenth -century historians dealt largely with governments and great
men, with the development of national co nsciousness and the growth of
political liberalism. The twentieth century witnessed a change in emphasis
towards economic and social history, towards people and away from indi -
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History: Meaning, Scope and Nature
11 The history of other countries and regions including Africa, China, L atin
America, India and so on evoked as much interest in Europe as the history
of their own continent. The shape and content of history has also
undergone a change, depending upon the material available and the
method of treatment adopted. Anthropology has also excited the interest of
the historians and much useful work has been done in this field by
scholars who have traced historically the customs and manners of the
aborigines; social stratification of small communities who are a little
higher up than the aborigines has been greatly facilitated by the
availability of modern sophisticated techniques.
Further, the scope of history has been enlarged from objective empiricism
to historicism. Objec - tive empiricism means the establishment of facts as
they real ly were. It is something like presenting a photographic copy of
how things really existed in the past. Historicism means tracing the growth
and development of an event from its early stages. It is like a genetic
process which takes into account evolutionar y trends and how progress
has been made from age to age.
Apart from these two views history was dragged into the arena of the
'positivists' who believed that history was qualified on every score to have
a series of general laws. The scope of history was f urther widened when
attempts were made particularly in the USA to develop a new concept
called ‘historical relativism’. This concept was the by -product of the
closer study of Freud and Einstein whose principles were applied to
historical growth and develop ment. Thus, from the nineteenth century the
scope of history has been much widened. The nineteenth century which is
called 'the century of history has humanised history and made it a centre of
reality and of thought.
1.3.1 Features of the scope:
In order to facilitate understanding the scope of history, the following
features would be helpful :
(1) The scope of historical study depends upon the subject of inquiry of
the past events.
(2) The scope of history is determined by the activities, experiences an d
thoughts of men at different times in the past.
(3) The scope depends upon the nature of inquiry of the past such as
social, economic, political or other kind of inquiry. Thus, if we want to
know a single aspect of Quit India Movement of 1942 say econom ic
aspect, its scope is narrower than a general assessment of the
Movement from different angles.
(4) If we intend to study universal history of the progress of mankind it is
greater in extent than a local or a national history.
(5) Similarly, when we t hink about world history the time factor makes it
necessary to define what exactly we want to study. If we simply say munotes.in

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12 human activities it would mean a never -ending search as human
activities from the beginning to our days implies scope beyond our
human cap acities.
(6) Just as the present has innumerable matters for consideration, the past
which for some generations in the past was a living present and as
such they dealt with many known and unknown matters. The scope of
our studies in general matters would be both impossible and end in a
cloud. We have therefore to fix our attention on some points.
1.3.2 Limitations of the scope:
When we say history is a study of man's activities in time, the scope of our
inquiry is limited by the time factor, If we do not fix the time of what
happened in the past it would be a fantasy. The scope of history is limited
by our knowledge of chronological details. Man appeared on this planet
several million years ago but the recorded history of his activities cannot
be pushed ba ck beyond five thousand years. Those records do not give us
a clear idea of his activities in civilized societies.
History in the real sense of the term began when the Greek Statesman
Warrior Herodotus wrote about Greco -Persian War in the 5th century B.C.
This was the first history of its kind in the world and the beginning of
History is thus reckoned from that time. The scope of history of the world
is thus limited to the history of man’s social activities to a few thousand
years. The activities of men be fore the historical period, that is before 5th
century B.C. is enveloped in the mist of ignorance.
The second factor that limits the scope of history is the geographical
factor. When we talk about world history we actually refer to few places
on the earth . As everybody knows more than half the surface of the earth
is covered by water. Out of the remaining part a sizeable surface is
occupied by hills, mountains, deserts and rivers ice etc. Thus, the habitable
portion of the earth is limited. Further man gre w civilizations in a few
favourable lands. The scope of history is thus limited.
Thirdly the scope of history cannot be rigidly fixed at any time. Suppose
today we say history covers life of man and his activities in civilized
societies, a few years or cen turies after our time, historians Would say
history is concerned with activities and experiences of men and women
only in highly developed societies or they may say it is confined only to
the societies which are now developing.
Fourthly just as the scope of history is limited by time it is limited by the
prevailing conception of history at a given time. In communist countries
the conception of history is different from those of democratic countries or
countries under despotic rule. Thus, the scope of histo rical inquiry
responds to the necessity of knowing the truth about certain people at
certain time.
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History: Meaning, Scope and Nature
13 Check your progress:
Q.1. Explain the Scope of History.
1.4 NATURE OF HISTORY:
The nature of history is very complex. It lends itself to various
explanati ons. No one branch of history is more than a single glimpse of a
vast complex of phenomena. History repeats itself in one sense but does
not repeat itself also. History has contemporaneity and it is an unending
dialogue between the past and the present. Va lue-judgment is an aspect of
history which we cannot ignore. It is very often coloured by the current
ideas of a period or country. It is a prophecy in reverse, as it needs to some
extent in knowing what to expect in future. It is regarded as linear by som e
and cyclical by others. However, no one can dispute the dynamic nature of
history, which concerns itself with an ever -changing drama of life which
has a purpose and a meaning.
History is not a description of interesting stories but, it is a broad subjec t
which guides the life and aims for the better future. The nature of history
as a subject can be perceived through following points:
1.4.1 study of the present in Athe light of the past:
The present has evolved out of the past. Modern history enables u s to
understand how society has come to its present form so that one may
intelligently interpret the sequence of events. The causal relationships
between the selected happenings are unearthed that help in revealing the
nature of happenings and framing of g eneral laws.
1.4.2 History is the study of man:
History deals with man's struggle through the ages. History is not static.
By selecting ‘innumerable biographies’ and presenting their lives in the
appropriate social context and the ideas in the human c ontext, we
understand the sweep of events. It traces the fascinating story of how man
has developed through the ages, how man has studied to use and control
his environment and how the present institutions have grown out of the
past.
1.4.3 History is co ncerned with man in time:
It deals with a series of events and each event occurs at a given point in
time. Human history, in fact, is the process of human development in time.
It is time which affords a perspective to events and lends a charm that
brighte ns up the past.
1.4.4 History is concerned with man in space:
The interaction of man on environment and vice versa is a dynamic one.
History describes about nations and human activities in the context of their
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Research Methodology and
Sources of History
14 in the political, social, economic and cultural spheres of man's activities
and achievements.
1.4.5 History is a dialogue between the events of the past and
progressively emerging future ends:
The historian’s interpretation of the past, his selection of the significant
and the relevant events, evolves with the progressive emergence of new
goals. The general laws regulating historical happenings may not be
considered enough; attempts have to be made to predict future happening s
on the basis of the laws.
1.4.6 Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of history:
History carries the burden of human progress as it is passed down f rom
generation to generation, from society to society, justifying the essence of
continu ity. It becomes thus necessary for history to be rewritten from time
to time. The past events have got to be revalued in the light of fresh
developments and new ideas.
1.4.7 Relevant:
In the study of history only those events are included which are re levant
to the understanding of the present life. The affairs of men and nations are
constantly in motion. Consequently, there has been a radical change in
recent years as to the proper nature and scope of history. In the past it was
merely a catalogue of e vents serialised in a descriptive manner. We have
now to study history in a critical and scientific way, wherein the historian
thinks for himself instead of merely repeating the stories found in old
books. History becomes a study of reality in its aspect o f becoming.
1.4.8 Comprehensiveness:
According to modern concept, history is not confined to one period or
country or nation. It also deals with all aspects of human life -political,
social, economic, religious, literary, aesthetic and physical, giving a cl ear
sense of world unity and world citizenship. Historical activity involves
three different types of functions which should be performed
simultaneously. The first is to get at the truth, to know the entire -human
past as it actually happened, and to be sur e that solid facts are at hand. The
second job is to interpret the facts, to assess, to evaluate and to explain
their significance. The third task is to present the ideas in a clear and
attractive manner. These three functions make the historian a scientis t to
gather facts, a philosopher to interpret them and a litterateur to express
them.
1.4.9 Objective record of happenings:
Every precaution is taken to base the data on original sources and make
them free from subjective interpretation. It helps in clea r understanding of
the past and enables us to take well informed decisions. Objective record
of events is quite crucial in history. The sources and evidences preferred
by the historian are of prime importance while writing the history. It is munotes.in

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History: Meaning, Scope and Nature
15 also necessary to write history bias free and neutrally with the help of
evidences. Otherwise it may lead to false information, false interpretation
and false message to the learners. Hence, objective record is the basic
feature of study of history.
1.4.10 Multisided :
History is related with all the aspects of human life. As perceived earlier,
the nature of history is not only political but, history aims at all the
dimensions of human life. It doesnot throw light on only sole aspect of
past human life. Infact, histor y is multi faceted as being social, economic,
cultural, scientific, political, arts and literary, religious etc. Holistic view
of contemporary social systems, political scenario, economy, judiciary,
arts and literature, various inventions and developments in science and
technology can be seen while studying past happenings. However, it is not
confined to the study of Kings, Empires or elite social strata but, it
comprises of study of all the people from all the socio -economic -religious
strata. That is why the nature of history is diversified and eclectic.
1.4.11 Time and Placerelevance:
Thisis the main feature of history. History is time relevant and place
relevant. It means one has to understand the contemporary situation and
time while studying past hap penings. For example, while studying
thrashing of Afzal Khan by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, contemporary
situation (Pratapgarh, its geographical significance) needs to be
understood. One has to take into consideration the then socio -political
scenario in India and specifically in Maharashtra (time) and the
significance of geographical structure of Maharashtra in his success
(place). Otherwise it will lead to misperception about him. It is not
necessary that ideology, idols, values, principles of social li fe of a specific
time and place may not be applicable to other situations. Henceforth,
history is time relevant and place relevant.
1.4.12 Correlation among past, present andfuture:
History is an unending dialogue between the past and the present. The
roots of present situations viz. present ideologies, lifestyles, problems,
success and failures are in the history. The origins of present Indo -Pak
crisis can be observed in ‘divide and rule policy’ of British and partition of
Bengal. We will have a bright f uture only by perceiving and avoiding
mistakes of the past. Past legends, their thoughts and their acts are
influential to the generations even today. The present can work positively
by taking inspirations through them and it leads to the emergence of
legends of tomorrow. Wecannot see the present separate from the past.
Past is the background of the present. Prof. Lecky, “A study is the
understanding and estimating the present age for the betterment of
thefuture.”
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Research Methodology and
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16 1.4.13 Scientific study ofpast:
History c annot be decided through rumours but, it is written on the bases
of sources. No history is written just by probing. It is impossible to write
history without the help of sources. “No documents, no history,” is the
popular saying among historians and learne rs of history. Science believes
in evidences. Background and effects of any event (causal relationship) is
studied in history through the study of past events with the help of primary
or secondarysources.
1.4.14 Study of human struggle, development and tr ansformation of
human civilization:
Man has tobattle with surrounding circumstances throughout the ages. The
struggle for the human existence and development is still on. Also, a
particular social group has continued efforts to dominate on the others for
its greed in every generation. History comprises of the description of this
struggle of mankind against such social group in all times. Human
existence as community -society, various civilizations aroused and
developed through various times are the integral part of study of history.
Human life is studied through various civilizations and various dimensions
in history. Also, history comprises of portrayal of how human life
changed and how man gained progress. History can be termed as
reviewing humanprogress.
1.4.15 Not only narration but, analysis and synthesis aswell:
History does not only mean to be the report of occurred incidents. History
includes the diagnosis of events. The factors having impact on the event
are also studied. The contemporary circumst ances, roles of different
people in the event and the contemporary ideology are analyzed and the
complete portrayal of the event is expressed.That is why history is not
only description but analysis and synthes is as well.
E.g. while studying French revolu tion, history does not tell only how it
occurred but also, it analyses the social, political, economic and
ideological contexts as well. Also, history throws light on the values like
equity, freedom and egalitarianism which were the real output of this
revolution for the entirehumanity.
1.4.16 Integration of science andliterature:
History is a science as far as the study of events through causal
relationship with the help of available sources and evidences is concerned.
When one has to explain and interpre t the occurred event, naturally there
come the individual difference of writing style, language and flavour.
Everybody describes the event through his own outlook. Hence, history is
an art as well. That is why history is science at the beginning and it tur ns
into artafterwards.
Check your progress:
Q.1. Explain the Nature of History. munotes.in

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History: Meaning, Scope and Nature
17 1.5 SUMMARY:
The meaning and definition of history is explained here. Views of various
western as well as Indian historians are expressed here while explaining
this concept. Nature and scope of history is also discussed here. Outlook
towards history has changed in modern times of today.
Importance of history in human life is undisputed is stated in the present
chapter.
While studying history it is necessary to understand prob lems of civilized
life or organized social life of man at different stages of his progress.
1.6 QUESTIONS:
1. Define History.
2. Explain the Scope of History.
3. Explain the Nature of History.
4. Examine the Importance of History.
1.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS:
1. Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan India
Limited, Madras, 1978.
2. Carr E. H., What is History, Penguin Books, London, 1961.
3. Collingwood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford
University Press, London, 1966.
4. Dilthey W . (ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
5. Elton G. R., Practice of History, London, 1975.
6. Finberg H.P.A. (Ed), Approaches to History, London, 1962.
7. Garranghan G.H., Guide to Historical Method, 1971.
8. Gottschalk Louis, Understan ding History, New York, 1956.
9. Renier G.J., History its purpose and Method, London, 1961.
10. Lal I., Research in History, Swastik Publishers & Distributors, Delhi,
2008.
11. Rajayyan K., History in Theory and Method, Madurai, 1976.
12. Webster John C.B., An Introduction to History. New Delhi, 1981.
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18 2
IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Importance of History
2.3 Summary
2.4 Questions
2.5 Additional Readings
2.0 OBJECTIVES :
After the completion of this unit, the student will be able to:
1. Know the importance of History.
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
History is not confined to the study of past but, it is related to the past,
present and future. Every happening has specific context and it leads to
specific effects. The present of today is going to be the past of tomorrow.
The origin of each contemporary problem lies in the past. The present
situation shapes up through the past and it also decides the future
direction. e.g. ‘reservation’ is one of the hot issues of today. It has its
grassroots in the ‘divide and rule’ policy o f the British rule.
2.2 IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
History escorts the decision making for the future. We can perceive the
decisions and their deeds of our ancestors, their influence from history.
We can create a bright future through understanding which thin gs to
follow and which blunders to avoid of ourforefathers.
“History is the record of the life of the societies of man, of the changes
which those societies have gone through, of the ideas which have
determined the action of those societies and the materia l conditions which
have helped or hindered their development.” Charles Vth expresses the
broader view of history. He agrees that history is the record but, he also
describes the details of therecords.
Importance is given to how human society developed, how different
cultures upspring (e.g. Harappa culture, Egyptian culture) in the flow of
time. Social system is reckoned to be the core in history in every period
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Importance of History
19 societies transformed, wh ich reforms occurred (for example; industrial
revolution, globalization etc.) Study of constructive as well as destructive
actions of mankind in different times and at various levels, their impacts
and the ideologies behind them are also involved in histor y.
i) Diverse Human society and social life in different times, at different
levels and in differentsituations.
ii) Revolutions and reforms in human society during the course oftime.
iii) Deeds by human society and thoughts and ideologies behindthem.
iv) Physical conditio ns favourable and unfavourable to human
development
It is necessary to study the historical events on the basis of evidences and
causal relationships. It promotes research attitude. Mental and ideological
competence is fostered. One has to think divergentl y and multidimensional
while reaching at conclusion about an event rather than just thinking
convergent. History is not just a subject of study or entertainment perhaps,
it is the lamp of experience. Cromwell says, “God manifests himself
through history.” It means history shows direction regarding deciding
about right -wrong, moral way.
Martin Luther says, “History is the mirror of looking at owns self.”
“Curiosity about the past events is the feature of human nature.” This
statement of McMurry reflects the natural tendency of mankind to know
about the history. We come to know about the braveries our ancestors had
done, the qualities upon which they gained success through studying
history of our ancestors. But we also understand their blunders, perceive
about their mistakes due to which their next generations had to suffer.
Subsequently we can try to avoid such blunders and mistakes.
Edmond Burk says, “History is the guide of foresight.” We need to have
knowledge about the past of our motherland while matur ing form a child
to be an adult. We can gain the awareness about the efforts and sacrifice
made by our ancestors in the freedom and security of our Nation, cultural
tradition of our Nation, contribution of our Nation to the entire human
species, legends bo rn in this soil, sustainable philosophy in our soil and
the sense of responsibility on our shoulders to preserve and nurture it as
we are the future citizen of this Nation. History in this perspective
engraves discretion, urge for truth, courage, non -violence, just, freedom
equality, patriotism, international understanding, persistence,
perseverance, self -esteem on the minds of people. It also throws light on
the evil customs, blind beliefs, traditions, social revolutions and works of
legends against them. History subsequently tries to promote idological
renaissance through it
Study of history helps in the development of memory, imagination and
thought process as a whole. When we study the past events and characters,
we tend to see ourselves in them. Our im agination and thought process
fosters through it. Truth narration is a great gift of history. We can munotes.in

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Research Methodology and
Sources of History
20 understand the truth about what had happened in the past. Our bias,
misperceptions or wrong egos get cleared. Reader is helped by history in
the study of o ther subjects.
Tarmious has aptly said, “History helps to bridge the usual gulf in
education between theory and practice.” History works in bringing
theories closer to the life and reality. An individual is able to see the
educational knowledge through li fe-oriented outlook due to history.
History is considered as mother of all subjects. Study of history is directly
or indirectly supplementary to the learning of other subjects. History can
become the medium of social unity while narrating our ancestors, ou r
Nation, our culture and our traditions. It can assist in nurturing National
integration by bringing people closer ideologically and emotionally. While
doing this, history also gives education of humanity and international
brotherhood. It shows us that we are all humans first; we do have same
needs and same feelings. We are all incomplete without each other.
Hence, history teaches us to look at each other with affection, love and
cooperation and not with enmity. It gives the lessons of humanity. History
strongly promotes internationalism through widening of human outlook.
Therefore, importance of history as the mother of all subjects, source of all
values, teacher of human mind and attitude and philosophy of living
successful life is incredible.
History is not merely the collection of events. In fact, it is the discovery of
events in detail. History means narrating about the past happenings as they
happened. It is necessary to search history to understand the present. If the
present is not perceived properl y, it will not be possible to foresight the
future. History enables the prompt perception of present on the basis of
which the future can be foresighted properly. Hence, the main job of his
torian is not just recording the events but,to evaluate them.
The importance of history has increased in modern times. Along with
telling the occurrences, nature of history is becoming widespread through
intellectual analysis of facts and to draw conclusions for the future on their
basis. Earlier history was confined to political dynasties and families of
Kings. It was related only with battles, victories, defeats and treaties. But,
this nature of history has become a history. All social aspects of common
man, customs, traditions, languages, ideas, thoughts and behaviours are
considered in history in modern times. In fact, the daily of man has now
become the part ofhistory.
Historiography has to be considered as equally responsible for the
transforming scope of history as learning of history was limited only up to
politica l events and incidents till 19th century. But today we deliberate
social, economic, political, moral, literature, religious, etc. aspects while
considering history as we think about human development in history.
Hence, we must have to consider these all as pects. Support of literature is
taken to make history subject brighter and more attractive rather than let it
remain dull -lifeless. Historiography has continued to collect sources with
the help of above -mentioned subjects and to give insight into the event s
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Importance of History
21 History is reckoned as a science since 20th century. Prof. Bury from
Cambridge University has firmly said, “History is a science, no more no
less.” It changed the direction of study of history. Dynamics of time and
history taken into account while understanding history. History is a
discipline. Many streams have emerged through the fine study of history.
More motion is occurring in the process of regional and local
historiography. National history shapes up through regional and local
history. Hence, world history and National history are called macro history
while regional history is called microhistory.
The study of history is like visiting strange far -off lands. Like travel, it
takes us out of the narrowness and commonplace events of everyday life.
It presents before us an exciting picture of the march of man across the
centuries, and the work of the multitudes of human beings trying to pass
on to us a better life than theirs. It is the story of the development of
human society, its a rts and letters, philosophy and religion, adventure and
administration, culture and way of life, and all other aspects relating to
man's significant activities. It is rightly said that history depicts “the
struggle of man to carry truth and justice into th e administration of human
society, in the rise and fall of the creeds, in the world of ideas and in the
character and deeds of the great actors in the drama of life, where good
and evil fight out their everlasting battle.”
History helps us to understand h ow the world developed into what it is. It
makes us know interesting men and women and promotes in us a
knowledge of human nature. It links the present with the past, and enables
us to see how man has discovered better ways of living and built up
orderly s ocieties which we call civilisation. The study of history is no
waste of time or luxury, but a pressing need. A nation that forgets history
will have no future. It is the epitome of human experience, and it makes
men wise by teaching them what is good so t hat it may be adopted, and
what is bad, so that it may be avoided.
History attempts to give us the meaning of life. Man starts to search for
the purpose of life. He puts such questions as why and how do I live?
Where have I come from? In this search for th e reality of the past, he
comes to know that he has built institutions; he has waged wars; he has
made treaties of peace; and he has invented thousands of things to make
life comfortable. In this sense history gives us an insight into man's life
and action . This knowledge is very helpful to him. It offers him a mental
discipline which helps him to meet new problems soberly and
intelligently, and not emotionally and superficially. Although man now
controls nature, and possesses enough knowledge about it, he cannot
control his own emotions and ambitions. He can send a rocket to the moon
but he has not yet eradicated hunger and poverty on this earth. A
knowledge of the past as to how man has suffered because of his mistakes
may help humanity to correct itself, and thus history may meet the
demands of pressing social needs.
History has the ability to improve the understanding of man. Man has left
behind the deeds of his day for the education and the enjoyment of munotes.in

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Research Methodology and
Sources of History
22 posterity. Such a study will not only furnish a men tal discipline but also
will enable one to know the past and interpret its significance. It will come
in time to meet our daily needs and will ultimately play an infinitely more
important role in an intellectual life. Any phenomenon or principle cannot
be understood philosophically or intelligently unless it is explained
historically. We cannot understand any issue properly unless its whole
background is furnished to us. A doctor would not be able to diagnose the
disease unless he is posted with the history of the case; and that is why the
word history appears in bold letters on top of the prescription chit.
By placing the facts of life before a person, history which is a study of
human nature enables him to live in a state of peace and understanding.
Histo ry in that case becomes a guide pointing in the direction of unity and
progress. As history is a voice ever sounding across the centuries about the
laws of right and wrong, it could become an instrument to promote human
understanding. Those sovereigns and statesmen who had a good
knowledge of history, like Frederick the Great, Napoleon, Churchill and
Nehru, have played a vital role in history. The true interpretation of history
is to view it as the record of social, moral and intellectual education of
man, which is so essential to dispel darkness. History not only tells us
about the right principles of life, but also warns us through concrete
examples about the inevitable destruction of society, if these principles
were to be neglected
The purpose of history has been to indicate what mistakes man has done in
the past, how he could avoid them in the future and how he could preserve
the four freedoms, namely the freedom from want, freedom from
oppression, freedom of religion and freedom of expression. The moral ists
required that man should put his conscience into harmony with true
historical development .
History not only educates a man, but also trains his mind. Before we begin
to understand or improve any system or idea the Best thing, we do is to
find out the history of that system or idea. A musician or a mathematician
or a philosopher could never understand or improve a new idea until he is
very clear of the antecedents of that idea. When Bertrand Russell was
asked about the need for history, he said, “I thi nk it is enormously
important, it gives stability and it gives depth to your thought and to your
feeling.” The present is the child of the past, and has grown out of the past.
Our present social, political and economic conditions are the result of
factors that preceded them. This chain of cause and effect goes back to the
dim past. We in the twentieth century are closely affected by what was
done by Ripon, Dalhousie, Shivaji, Akbar, Babar, Harsha, Samudragupta.
Asoka, Buddha, Vyasa and their predecessors go ing back to the cavemen
of the Stone Age.
We teach history to children because it helps them in gaining powers of
memory, imagination and reasoning. It has ethical values as history is
philosophy teaching by examples. It inculcates in young minds moral la ws
of right and wrong. It fosters patriotism in our youth, for they would feel a
sense of pride by the knowledge of our rich heritage and glory of the past, munotes.in

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Importance of History
23 which should instill these are secondary issues that come under the
importance of history.
The pri mary aim is to promote understanding of the present by a
knowledge of the past. To the question, “What is history for?"
Collingwood answered, “It is for human self -knowledge. Knowing
yourself means knowing what it is to be the kind of man you are; and
thirdly, what it is to be the man you are and nobody else is.”
Lord Acton explained the necessity for history thus,” If the past has been
an obstacle and a burden, knowledge of the past is the safest and the surest
emancipation.” An objective study of history would save humanity from
bigotry, bias and obsessions. Lecky observes, “He who has learned to
understand the true characters and them a sense of love for the
motherland. But tendency of many succeeding years is not likely to go
very far wrong in estimatin g his own.”
Thinkers have gone to the extent of saying that all our hopes of the future
depend on a sound knowledge of the past. In conclusion it must be said
that history has the capacity to inspire youth to higher pursuits of life, and
to stimulate the aged to endure the inevitable. History is a delight in itself.
It is an adventure in the field of reconstructing the hazy past. Trevelyan
said that “History's chief but not the only significance is poetic as a great
poem is an epic without beginning or end .” The importance of history may
not be so much scientific as educational, to broaden the vision, to enlarge
the understanding and to promote the pleasure of contemplation.
Check your progress:
Q.1. Examine the Importance of History.
2.3 SUMMARY:
Impor tance of history in human life is undisputed is also stated in the
presentchapter. While studying history it is necessary to understand
problems of civilized life or organized social life of man at different stages
of his progress.
2.4 QUESTIONS:
1. Exami ne the Importance of History.
2.5 ADDITIONAL READINGS:
1. Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan India
Limited, Madras, 1978.
2. Carr E. H., What is History, Penguin Books, London, 1961.
3. Collingwood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paperbacks, O xford
University Press, London, 1966.
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Research Methodology and
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24 4. Dilthey W. (ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
5. Elton G. R., Practice of History, London, 1975.
6. Finberg H.P.A. (Ed), Approaches to History, London, 1962.
7. Garranghan G.H., Guide to Historica l Method, 1971.
8. Gottschalk Louis, Understanding History, New York, 1956.
9. Renier G.J., History its purpose and Method, London, 1961.
10. Lal I., Research in History, Swastik Publishers & Distributors, Delhi,
2008.
11. Rajayyan K., History in Theo ry and Method, Madurai, 1976.
12. Webster John C.B., An Introduction to History. New Delhi, 1981.






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25 3
HISTORY AND AUXILIARY SCIENCES
a) SOCIAL SCIENCES
b) NATURAL SCIENCES
c) ANCILLIARY DISCIPLINES

Unit Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Auxiliary Sciences
3.2.1 History and Social Sciences
1. History and Political Sci ence
2. History and Sociology
3. History and Economics
4. History and Psychology
5 History and Geography
6. History and Anthropology
7. History and Art
8. History and Theology
9. History and Literature
3.2.2 Natural Sciences
1. Biology
2. Agro -Biology
3. Medical science
4. Alchemy - Chemistry
5. Advanced Technology
6. Ethnology
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Research Methodology and
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26 3.2.3 Ancillary Sciences
1. Chronology
2. G raphology
3. Philology
4. Diplomatic
5. Paleography
6. Sigillography
7. Numism
8. Archaeology and Epigraphy
3.3 Summary
3.4 Questions
3.5 Additional Readings
3.0 OBJECTIVES :
After the completion of this unit, the student will be able to:
1. Summarize the relationship between history and social sciences.
2. Perceive the relation between history and natural sciences.
3. Grasp the relation between history and ancillary disciplines.
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
The auxiliary sciences of History c an be easily divided as 1) Social
Sciences 2) Natural sciences and 3) Ancillary disciplines. We shall
consider the Auxiliary Sciences as detailed above in this unit.History is
related to several other disciplines, and needs their assistance, just as it is
helpful to a number of other disciplines. A historian must use the results
achieved by workers in other fields of human knowledge. They are called
ancillary disciplines such as philosophy, chronology, paleography,
graphology, sigillography, diplomatic, epi graphy, numismatics and
archaeology besides a number of social sciences which have already been
examined in the foregoing paragraphs.
3.2 AUXILIARY SCIENCES
3.2.1 History and Social Sciences:
Having discussed where history stands in its structure, eithe r in science or
in arts or in both, we shall proceed to examine two more basic problems of
historical theory, namely the kinds of history and its relation with other
social sciences, and also history and ancillary sciences. History being a munotes.in

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History and Auxiliary
Sciences
27 very comprehensi ve subject, has many aspects such as political,
constitutional, diplomatic, military, economic, social, intellectual, and so
on. These are not the only areas with which history is mostly concerned,
but are the major ones.
The social sciences are nothing b ut a short course of history, depicting
social, economic, industrial, scientific and cultural aspects of man's life. It
throws light on the inter - dependence of man and man, nation and nation
and country and country. Dr. Terevelyan says, “History is not a subject at
all but a house in which all subjects dwell.” In Ziller's opinion, “History is
the central subject round which all other subjects can revolve.”
Prof. Johnson opines, “History with or without the name, certainly has
been and is a background for other social sciences. History may indeed be
regarded as the only field in which all other social sciences meet.”
Expressing his views on this Koerner says, “Occupying as it does an
intermediate position between the humanities and social sciences and
emplo ying both the qualitative approach of the humanist and the
quantitative data of the behaviourist, it serves as a medium through which
student can learn something of literature and arts on the one hand, and
politics, economics and social behaviour on the ot her.”
1. History and Political Science:
Political history demands a great share in the workshop of history, as
politics is an important activity which brings about radical, speedy and far -
reaching changes. Politics is instrumental in shaping the constitu tional,
legal, diplomatic, military, economic and even social problems of a
country. Politics happened to be such a favourite branch of English
historians that they went to the extent of saying that all history is political
history, that history is the roo t and politics is the fruit, and that past
politics is present history. At every turn from the earliest times down to
the present period, it is the political activity either through monarchy or
oligarchy, or aristocracy or democracy or tyranny or dictators hip that has
dominated the life of mankind. At all times and in every country, either
only one or only a few have ruled the many. Even in democracy, once the
elections are over, power rests only in the hands of a few.
As history takes stock of unique even ts, it is the story of the shepherd that
attracts the attention rather than the flock of sheep, whose behaviour is
steady. The king has been called the shepherd of his people. The modern
Presidents, Prime Ministers, Parliaments, Senates and other political
agencies are so much in the news that polities happen to be the
mainstream of all history, and demands the lion's share of a historian's
attention.
Acton says that politics is like the grains of gold deposited by the stream
of history in the sands of tim e. Polybius says that the use of history lies in
learning the art of politics. Sir John Seeley says, “Politics are vulgar when
they are not liberalised by history, and history fades into mere literature
when it loses sight of its relation to practical poli tics.” munotes.in

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28 Related to politics is constitutional history which assists in the
understanding of the political trend in any period. The development of
political institutions, rules, regulations, rights and duties, law and mode of
justice, executive, legislative and administrative functions, economic and
finan - cial implications, nature of bureaucracy, fundamental principles of
State policy are all defined under constitutional history. Certain countries
have rigid and written constitutions whereas others have fle xible and
unwritten constitutions, such as in England. Constitutional history traces
the origin, development, nature and functions of political institutions. The
evolution of the principle of constitutionalism is impersonal and has a
relationship with the history of ideas.
Legal history is also assuming importance these days, particularly in
societies where the Rule of Law is the way of life. The laws of Manu, the
Code of Hamurabi, The Code of Justinian, the Code of Napoleon, The
Indian Penal Code of Macau lay, Holds - worth's History of English Law,
Blackstone's Commentaries of the Laws of England and PV Kane's
History of the Dharmasastras are all very important works on legal history.
Diplomatic history is a specialized branch of political history. It deals with
principles of international relations. Ambassadors are the links between
nations and they are the custodians and practitioners of diplomacy. Such
issues as balance of power, cold war, international peace, disarmament,
outlawry of war have assumed gre at importance in recent times. Again,
military history is an important chapter in political history, wherein wars,
battles, campaigns and conquests figure very prominently. It deals with the
causes of a war, strategy and tactics in the war, war weapons, mo de of
fighting and similar topics. The History of the Peloponnesian War by
Thucydides, The Great Rebellion by Clarendon, and several histories on
the American Civil War, the World Wars, and the Indian Mutiny have all
added to historical literature. Since w ars are psychological factors in the
life of man, and since no age and no country is free from warfare, military
history is as prominent in history as political history.
2. History and Sociology:
Sociology has a wide scope of study. It studies the develo pment of the
human society at large. Really speaking, the subject -matter of history,
geography, civics, political science etc., could very safely be included
within the broad scope of the study of sociology. In fact, sociology gives
us knowledge of the dev elopment of the society. It aims at developing
man into an ideal social being. History is very helpful in acquiring the
knowledge of the development of society under various periods and under
various conditions. The teaching of history should invariably be guided by
the knowledge of sociology. Similarly, study and teaching of sociology
can draw a lot from the knowledge of history.
Social history deals with institutions and problems dealing with man and
society, customs, manners, habits, food, dress, amusem ents, family life,
group life, folklore, festivals, ceremonies, and such other activities which
are an essential part of human life. munotes.in

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29 Sociology is the latest science with which history is now developing very
intimate relations. Sociology needs history as m uch as history needs
sociology in order to describe social behavioural patterns. Trevelyan's
Social History of England is extremely popular. It brings to our mind a
vivid picture of how society functioned in the past in its multifarious range
of social act ivities.
Toynbee has gone to the extent of saying that societies are the atoms of
which history is composed and it is not individuals or nations but societies
that form the components of histories. Social history concerns itself with
the tracing of the or igin and the development of institutions. It emphasises
the cultural aspects of the evolution of man from savagery to civilisation.
It is the daily life of the inhabitants of the past ages, the character of
family and household life, the conditions of labo ur and leisure, the attitude
of man towards his fellow beings and nature, the pattern of life as it arose
from his group living, and the changing forms in his life as a result of
religion, literature, music, philosophy, art, learning, thought or any other
intellectual activity.
In short sociology is helping history to study ‘social dynamics’ which is a
study not of society at rest but constantly in social change and
development. Social processes and social causation are giving a new
perspective to history enlarging our vision away from dynastic history. In
India too our historians are now giving increasing attention to social
history, which has already become popular in the West.
3. History and Economics:
Basically, Economics is the study of wealth. But thi s study is in relation to
man and his daily life activities. Thus, a correlation between history and
economics is quite natural. Economic conditions play a vital role in the
course of history. If a country could attain a height of civilisation in a
period, it must have been because of good economic conditions of a
country or various countries in various periods. To know the economic
conditions of India during reign of Akbar or Shahjahan we shall have to
go through the pages of history. In history we are als o told that certain
empires faced liquidation only because of economic reasons. In the same
vein, the course of economic events has been influenced by historical
circumstances, e.g. Mohd. Tughlak had certain plans, but the historical
conditions of his time did not favour them and so he could not succeed,
however, afterwards these plans were considered to be good and scientific.
Economic history became popular in the time of Condorcet, Comnte,
Buckle, Marx and Bury. There has been a new orientation in our h istorical
outlook from the days of the materialistic interpretation of history by
Marx, and as such, class struggle, man's skill in earning his daily bread,
means of transport and communication, consumption, distribution,
production, population growth, agr iculture, industry, arts and crafts, trade,
business and commerce, land revenue, taxes and a host of all other
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30 Since Darwin spoke of the struggle for existence and Marx explained it in
terms of economic determinism, economic history, particularly since the
Russian Revolution of 1917 has assumed such importance as to
overshadow all other branches of man's activity. Theories have been
advanced that the mainspring of all historical activities , whether war or
conquest, colonization or imperialism, originated because of economic
motives.
Indian historians such as Hiren Mukherjee, Palme Dutt, Kosambi,
Muhammad Habib and others were greatly impressed by Marxian thought
and have tried to present a n analysis from that particular standpoint. The
institutions of slavery, feudalism, imperialism, capitalism, socialism have
all been explained in terms of economic motives.
Modern economic theory depends largely on statistical data, and the
expression of economic laws have become mathematical in nature.
Historians have not remained free from the influence of statistics, and a
new branch called Cliometrics has come into vogue, according to which
the use of mathematics has come into greater play in the writi ng of history.
To avoid approximation, ambiguity and vagueness, historians are using
statistics to be precise in their data. But too much use of this science will
rob history of all its charm as a fascinating story of the past. It becomes
confusing and uni nteresting if an algebraical formula is used. For example
good historical writing is described as A= a+b. Here A stands for the net
result that flows from the historian's mind and pen, a is the data or the
sources he finds in the records, and b is the imag inative, interpretative and
explanatory skill of the historian which are so essential to make history
meaningful. In other words this formula tells us that history writing is not
merely using scissors and paste to cut some information from somewhere
and pu t that information elsewhere, but an arduous physical and mental
work in which a laborious search for material precedes an intelligible use
of data through reflective powers to make the information intelligible and
useful. The proper use of Cliometrics has resulted in what is called
Quantified History. But the very nature of historical evidence will resist
these scientific modes of expression, and history will essentially remain a
humanistic study.
4. History and Psychology:
Psychology is of great help to history in training a historian in the
detection of motives and intentions and in drawing inferences from strange
behaviour. Psychology is a science of the mind some identify it with the
social and others with the brain. Its main aim is to study inter ac tions
between living organism and environment. Thus, human behaviour is
studied with that idea in mind. These studies are useful for historical
research as activities, experiences and motives are the matters that are
closely studied by historians in unders tanding the meaning of the activities
of eminent men in history.
Aristotle the Greek philosopher of the 4th century B.C. wrote ‘De anima’
which is considered the first great psychological work. Modern munotes.in

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31 psychology grew from the work of Hobbes in the 17th ce ntury. In the 19th
century experimental psychology was developed Darvin's theory of
Evolution led to the dynamic psychology as of William Janies.
Historical studies were enriched by the work of Sigmund Freud (1856 -
1939) who laid down the basis of psycho -analysis and widened the scope
of psychology. Previously Plutarch's Lives 5th century A.D. had given the
details of the behaviour of the great leaders like Alexander the Great but
the technique of psycho -analysis of sigmund Freud gave an insight into
the b ehaviour of present day public leaders.
National and universal histories are dominated by ‘outsize’ men. The
eccentricities and mysterious behaviour of the public leaders which many
a time confounds all could be understood property if Freudian, psycho -
analysis is adopted. Adolf Hitters obsession with anti -Semitism appeared
strange in the beginning but the mania to persecute Jews had its origin in
his ancestors being of Jewish extraction. History is not much concerned
with the ‘unconscious’ mind and the in stincts like sex in the reconstruction
of the past but they provide useful explanation to the pattern of behaviour
of such leaders. The case history of such ‘patients’ shows us the policies
that they pursued in the proper perspective, Freudian psycho - analysis has
influenced modern thought and applied psychology is nowadays adopted
in industries and commerce also.
5. History and Geography:
History in intimately correlated to Geography. History studies people of
different times and geography deals with the p eople of different places. In
the words of Prof. Immanuel Kant. "Geography and history fill up the
entire circumference of our perceptions, geography, that of space and
history that of time." No history can be complete without some reference
to space. Simi larly, no geographical account can be intelligible without
reference to development in time. So, both history and geography are
concerned with the inter -play of human and physical factors.
Geography is the stage on which drama of history is enacted and it is the
geography which determines the historical events. Andean offer
explanation for historical actions of mankind. Similarly, historical facts
can serve as a good basis for arousing interest in geographical studies. In
explanation of historical fact geo graphical factors are taken into
consideration. Many factors taken into consideration are physical
conditions of the life of man, climate, means of communication etc. All
these factors determine the direction of human life and history increased
by human li fe and his activities. History of each and every country is
governed by their factors. Truly speaking historical studies desired of
geographical background would be inaccurate and unscientific. The story
of man's evolution since primitive stage, cannot be told without the varied
geographical settings of the world. Man's mode of living, dieting and
dressing etc., are all determined by his physical environment.
If the USA grew into a powerful nation and acquired a rich history, it was
very much due to its ge ographical conditions. Geographical factors were munotes.in

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32 the sole cause of the down fall of many empires. The growth of Beijing,
Lahore or Moscow can be better understood by considering various
geographical factors. The history of hostility between France and
Germ any can be explained on the basis of existence of river Rhine and
Lorrain coal -fields.
Geography and history bear a very close relationship to each other.
Geography is one of the eyes of the beautiful maiden, history, the other
eye being chronology. Geogr aphical factors are so important that an
American geographer, Ellsworth Huntington, insisted that no nation either
ancient or modern rose to the highest cultural status except under the
influence of climatic stimulus. Climate, moisture, humidity and weathe r
are all determining factors. Even Aristotle and Montesquieu have
emphasised the influence of climate on man. The earlier epochs of history
known as the ice or glacial age related to the advance of extreme cold
from the poles towards the equator. The very survival of man as a species
in the process of evolution was conditioned by these geological and
geographical factors.
The influence of geography on history is a subject with which every
treatise on history deals in its very first chapter. The physical f ormation of
a country, such as Britain, Japan and Greece with broken coastlines had a
very powerful impact on its history. This facilitated their naval strength
empire -building activities. The Himalayas and the jungles of Assam have
acted as barriers again st invasions from the north and east of India
respectively. The Himalayas and the Gobi and Mongolian deserts were
responsible for the isolation of China. The biting winter of Russia has
been the cause for the utter defeat of many an invader including Napol eon
and Hitler.
The geography of Egypt has preserved the remains of her ancient
civilisation. The Indus and the Ganges have played a vital role in the
history of India. The geographical discoveries of the fifteenth and the
Sixteenth centuries including th e discovery of America and a new route to
India determined the character of world history since the Renaissance.
Climatology has played a vital role in the formation of national character,
and influenced human endeavours and achievements, Floods, drought,
hurricanes, earthquakes, mineral deposits, fertility of the soil, rivers, lakes,
meadows, coastline and other factors are responsible for many historical
events, and hence a knowledge of geography is very essential for
historians.
6. History and Anthropol ogy:
Anthropology is a science that studies man and his works. It is concerned
with the origin, development and varieties of mankind that is the different
races of mankind. It has two branches 1) Physical Anthropology and 2)
Cultural Anthropology. The lat ter emphasis the data from non -literate
people. Thus, archaeology forms a part of Cultural Anthropology. Cultural
Anthropology is useful in the study of lost cultures. Cultural anthropology
studies human institutions especially in their early stages. It he lps the munotes.in

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33 historical study of several races of mankind. Also, the extinct cultures
could be known with the help of this science. The problems posed by
superior races, ruling races, and subordinate or passive races can be
tackled better with ‘a -scientific kno wledge’ of Anthropology.
It is worth noting that studies carried out under the leadership of Dr.
Suresh Singh of the Anthropological Survey of India from October 2,
1985 to October 1, 1990 have brought out useful information about the
composition of the I ndian Society today. The problems of caste -system in
the present context of socio -political hostility and the historical
background can be dispassionately and critically studied now with the data
than mere abstract theories. What is true about Indian Socie ty is also true
about other societies in the world.
7. History and Art:
Art activities are quite intimately related to history. Art is the practical
application of the scientific knowledge. This practical application can be
of two types: (a) Utilitarian , and (b) Fine. Whether the art is utilitarian or
fine, it presents a picture of the things. Various events of history are
presented before our eyes in the form of pieces of art. The paintings of
Ajanta and Ellora are presented through art. Taj Mahal repre sents the
whole reign of Shahjahan. It very clearly indicates the history of the
economic conditions of that period. Coins, arms and other pieces of art are
helpful in ascertaining the history of that period.
The history of development of art forms the su bject - matter of history.
What was the condition of the art during Gupta period or Buddha period
or Mughal period can be known to us only through history? Had there
been no history, we would not have learnt about the various styles of art.
In short, both t hese subjects are inter -linked.
8. History and Theology:
History and theology are intimately related. Religion has influenced the
course of history to a very great extent. In older times, it was the religion
that guided people to make conquests and fight certain battles that have
now become a part of the history. Many of the wars and political
upheavals were caused by religious feelings. Therefore, the knowledge of
theology is very helpful for a historian. Without the knowledge of
theology, it is difficul t to have a thorough knowledge of history.
Similarly, the knowledge of history is also helpful for the knowledge of
theology. The birth and growth or the establishment and foundation of
various religions and sects, are studied under history. The causes of failure
and success of various religions form the subject matter of history. It is the
history that gives us the knowledge about the spread and importance of
religion in a certain period or certain periods. In short, it may be said that
both the subjects are intimately related.
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34 History and literature are closely associated. For a long time, history was
considered a branch of literature, and it is only from the nineteenth century
that history came to be regarded as a science. Ho wever, if history is the
record of life, literature is the reflection of life -the substance and the
shadow always go together. Sometimes the shadow has amused man much
more than the substance, just as a painting or photograph of a person
appears to be more glamorous than the person himself.
The main theme of both history and literature is man in society. Whereas
history deals with the past, literature deals with the present and the future,
although biography, one of the branches of literature, deals with t he past
as well. Both these disciplines use imagination as their powerful weapon,
although its use is not so liberal in history.
In both, rhetoric plays an important part, so important that in the
Elizabethan era, historians use to copy the style of Itali an drama to
enhance the effect of history. The cult was magnificent art, but no history,
and hence from the nineteenth century, the use of picturesque details in the
narration of history has been tailed. Nevertheless, the artistic presentation
of the resul t of research highly desirable.
Bury himself speaks of sympathetic imagination and psychological
imagination regarding the interpretation of the past. There are many cases
in which the truth can only be ascertained by methods which are not
purely scientif ic. It is here that the imagination plays a vital part. “The
science of history deserves to be sprinkled with dutiful hands some grains
of incense on her altar.” History would retain its graces by remaining close
to literature.
Ranke asserted that history was not an edifying branch of literature, but in
the hands of Gibbon, history attained a literary garb unparalleled in later
literature. Herodotus and Thucydides, Livy and Tacitus, Macaulay and
Trevelyan have used a literary art which bas enhanced the bea uty of their
historical writing. The divorce of literature from history may almost
certainly do it some definite harm.
Historical novels such as Sir Walter Scott's have popularised history and
added a new dimension to historical understanding. Alexander D umas,
Victor Hugo and Tolstoy are eminent historical novelists. The Mysteries
of the Mughal Court on the pattern of Reynold's Mysteries of the Court of
London excited much interest in India and brought to light many inner
aspects of the life of Nur Jahan a nd Jahangir. They pertain to social history
and bring to us a vivid picture of the customs, manners, life and conditions
of the people, in a popular manner, although not within the rigid
framework of science. A successful historical novel can at best be to tal
fiction, but will have very useful grains of history. The recent historical
novel, The Sword of Tipu Sultan, by Bhagwan Gidwani, has been a very
successful attempt in this direction.
Anyway, the role of literature in history can never be denied. We ha ve to
remember that a history book must first be readable. By reducing the gap
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35 of history, and thereby increase the utility of history. It is necessary to
liberate history from dul lness, which is totally foreign to its nature, and
make it fascinating by the liberal addition of all literary artifices to
precious historical truths. Besides these points we should also be borne in
mind when discussing the aspect that history combines th e merits of
literature, and that it amuses our fancy.
Check your progress:
Q.1. Discuss the relations between history and social sciences.
3.2.2 NATURAL SCIENCES:
As the natural sciences began to develop new visions were opened up for
a science like his tory to make use of the new knowledge and improve the
work of reconstruction of the past. In the 17th and the 18th centuries
studies in different disciplines came under the overriding influence of
these sciences. The Scientific Method which used observatio n, experiment
and ascertainment of facts for formulating universal laws appeared to be
the only way to acquire knowledge.
In the nineteenth century the influence of Scientific Method was universal.
Historians wanted to present their narratives so as to fa ll in line with the
scientific approach to the past events. Two schools of thought in History
namely Empiricist and Positivist sciences but could not make much
progress in historical thinking. History deals with things that existed in the
past and which ha ve disappeared from the view. Natural Sciences demand
sensuous knowledge that is perception of the objects by sight, sound,
touch etc. Science can carry on experiments and repeat them anywhere
and at any time. Historians cannot revive the dead men nor can they
reproduce the battles, wars and revolutions of the past age. However
Natural Sciences can render great help in proving whether a solid object
which is relic of the past is a real one or a fake one. Natural Sciences can
throw much light on the physical conditions of the place of the event and
the changes in the course of time.
The influence of Natural Sciences stimulated research in historical
process. When the researchers found that the nature of historical events
was different from mere study of natu ral phenomenon, they began to
develop their own methods as they had to depend more on things which
disappeared now but existed once upon a time. Those things continued to
exist in the minds of men but the concrete forms perished now. Natural
sciences could hardly help historians to reconstruct the things that perished
long but once existed in their own way. For example, the Rig Vedic fire -
pit (Yajnga -Kunda) perished but its image persisted in the minds of men
who know the description in the Vedas. Such imag es and experiences
could be reconstructed with the help of Ancilliary Sciences. We shall see
how natural sciences strengthened the base of historical research
especially while dealing with him the remote past as well as the recent
past.
1. Biology munotes.in

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36 Among th e natural sciences Biology is intimately connected with human
life. Both the branches of this science, namely Botany and Zoology have
helped historians to understand the flora and fauna of a place about which
we choose to know as a determinate period. The vegetation, the animals
different living species including homo sapiens and the climate could be
known by the special techniques devised by biologists. In the 19th century
excavations revealed many unknown things. Biologists like Lamarck
could reconstruct the extinct animals from the remains of the then existing
animals. He boasted "give me a small bone of an animal or a bird and I
shall reconstruct them in their full original forms.” Similarly, botanists
could tell us many interesting things about the plan ts. In Rig Veda there is
a frequent reference to 'Soma Valli", the botanist could locate it in the
mountainous regions of the north.
A knowledge of biology will be very useful to history, because evolution
is the common principle of both, and because evolu tionary ideas have
been the result of the impact of history on science. Long before Darwin
enunciated the theory of evolution in ‘The Origin of Species’, historians
had traced it in the history of ideas and institutions. Evolution in science
was confirmed by the idea of progress in history. The historical or
comparative method known as Historicism has revolutionised not only the
sciences of law, mythology, language, sociology and anthropology, but
has forced its way even into the domain of philosophy and th e natural
scien - ces. Will Durant rightly says, "animals eat one another without
qualm, civilized men consume one another by due process of law.”
Biology tells us about the struggle of man in which the fittest survive.
There are hereditary inequalities whi ch are biological and these create and
sustain social inequalities. The Malthusian theory of biological
multiplication has a powerful impact on the life and conditions of man, if
our race is to survive. The warning refers to man's struggle against nature.
2. Agro -Biology :
This Science of plants, nutrition and soil has helped reconstruct the state
of agriculture in the periods under study. In this regard the grains found in
the Mehenjo -Daro and Harappa excavations are very interesting. The
relics at Mohenj o-Daro in Sindh also suggest thick forest in the region
now comparatively an arid land.
3. Medical science:
Medical science is helpful in determining the nature and possibl y the age
of skeletal remains. Medical Science has contributed significantly to
historical knowledge about kings and great men in the Medieval Age. The
most sensational revelation about Napoleon Bonapate's death of St.
Helena. The medical science found from Napoleon's hair retained the
effect of some poison administered by his British ca ptors. Medical Science
could also identify the diseases of Chhatrapati Shivaji and Peshva
Madhavrao - I from symptoms described in the documents. The Medical
Scientists can also identity the diseases and epidemics which had played munotes.in

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37 havoc with lives of people . The people who believed in superstition had
regarded them as scourge of God.
4. Alchemy - Chemistry:
The preservation of the Egyptian mummies aroused the interest of the
Chemical scientists. It was a wonder for common man and also historians
how the bod ies of the rulers of Ancient Egypt (pharohs) lasted in good
condition. Also, the mystery of the holy relics of St. Xavier’s gave the
scientist an opportunity to explain the treatment. This added to historical
knowledge. The Alchemy which was associated wit h black magic got
higher degree of success which turned the study into a respectable science
of Chemistry by European scientists. Wohler the German Scientist started
a new era in Organic Chemistry and Louis Pasteur the French Scientist
exploded the myth of spontaneous generation. His more famous and
commonly known work was on wine, vinegar and beer preservation which
led to the process known as 'Pasteurization'. The 20th Century Chemistry -
Scientist James Dewey Watson established that the structure and funct ion
of nucleic acid (DVD) is the key substance in the transmission of
hereditary characteristics. The study of man and his activities which is the
main object of study of history has a new means of understanding the
contemporary public leaders and their ge nealogy.
5. Advanced Technology:
The computation, storage and utilization of data can be efficiently
managed with the help of advanced technology of the present century. The
carbon -14 method has solved the greatest impediment of dating the
remains of the past age whether they are of human being, of animals or
any solid substance like nocks etc.
Similarly, satellite pictures of inaccessible territories, now invisible course
of rivers or changes in their courses as in the case of now invisible
"Saraswati' over in the Punjab -Rajasthan - Gujarat region provide better
understanding of the oral history. Computer, video -films and other devices
have revolutionized historical knowledge about the long past as well as the
present.
6. Ethnology:
History owes something to Ethnology which is the study of race and its
characteristics. Race is a biological reality, and in recent years the Nazi
party had made much of it by advocating that the Nordic race is the most
superior race and that it was destined to dominate the wor ld. This resulted
in historical events of a catastrophic nature. Gobineau was the philosopher
of Aryan racial superiority. The Varna system in India, apartheid in South
Africa, Nazi persecution of the Jews, colour distinctions in America are all
historical realities based on ethnic differences. The real issues cannot be
understood without a deep study of these fundamental issues of ethnology.
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38 The relation between creative ideas and their impact on society has
resulted in Intellectu al History which has become very popular in recent
years. Intellectual history is a field of great sophistication dealing with
fundamental ideas and ideology which ultimately shape human history. It
seeks to review the transformation of ideas, beliefs and opinions held by
intellectual classes from primitive times to our own. Dr. Johnson has said
that no part of history was as useful as this, which is related to the progress
of the human mind. The gradual improvement of reason, the successive
advances of sci ence, of arts, of philosophy and learning are all very
instructive and interesting.
E. H. Barnes has written An Intellectual and Cultural History of the
Western World, and it comes under the history of ideas. So also works on
history of political thought, history of economic thought, and history of
science come under this category. Schiller has said that 'the genuine
history of mankind is its history of ideas'. Colling Wood thinks that history
is the expression of human ideas. Intellectual history concerns itself with
the examination of what men say, what they think, and what goes on in
their mind. The intellectual historian attempts to judge the nature of the
effects of an idea or a cluster of ideas on human events. He is confronted
with the old problem of value -judgments, where he has to discern the
common and unique elements in ideas and attitudes.
Intellectual history is not merely a summary or synthesis of such material
as pertains to philosophy, literature, religion, science and arts, but it is ‘the
cartography of ideas' whereby an attempt is made to trace and understand
the impact of those ideas on a given society. At its narrowest intellectual
history tells us who produced what intellectual or cultural attainments,
where, when and how.
At its broade st it comes close to a compendium of man's knowledge about
culture. Intellectual history seeks to explain the relation among creative
ideas and the effect they bring to bear upon non -intellectual factors. The
intellectual historian is bound to be a thinker rather than a story -teller. In
the United States intellectual history has become very popular acting as a
bridge between the historian and the practitioner of social science. In
England, France and Germany which have produced Buckle, Toynbee,
Comte, Hegel , Marx and Spengler, intellectual history has attained a high
degree of proficiency, and these historians are called meta -historians.
Intellectual history requires philosophy, and it is very surprising that India,
the home of philosophy, has not yet produ ced a meta -historian. If history
is the cause of a nation's persistent identity, which links the past, the
present and the future in one integrated whole, it could do so only through
the chain of ideas, and hence one ought to pay more attention to them. It is
rightly said that through the proper study of intellectual history we can
join the wisdom of Solomon to the counsel of Socrates.
Historical studies in the direction of what Will Durant has done in ‘The
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39 in’ Outline of World History’ or the UNESCO in their survey of human
culture would surely take stock of intellectual history.
Check your progress:
Q.1. Asses the relations between history and natural sciences.
3.2.3 ANCILLARY DISCIPLINES:
History is related to several other disciplines, and needs their assistance,
just as it is helpful to a number of other disciplines. A historian must use
the results achieved by workers in other fields of human knowledge. They
are called anc illary disciplines such as philo sophy, chronology,
paleography, graphology, sigillography, diplomatic, epigraphy,
numismatics and archaeology besides a number of social sciences which
have already been examined in the foregoing paragraphs.
These sciences provide a historian with what is called 'methodical
repertories of facts'. They are primarily digests of practical experience.
The best way to become acquainted with them is to practise them.
Ancillary sciences are departments of knowledge in their own ri ght, and
history makes use of them, and hence they become allies of history.
The need for these disciplines has arisen because all intellectual
disciplines are interrelated. Even medicine requires history, because
without a proper background of the case, diagnosis is impossible. The
nature of historical facts is such that there are close connections between
one fact and the other, and each fact requires special attention to establish
its validity for which the assistance of the allied disciplines would be
extremely helpful. In other words, ancillary disciplines are the handmaids.
The important ancillary disciplines of history can be described as follow.
(1) Chronology:
Of these ancillary disciplines, chronology which helps us to fix the time,
determines th e very framework of the narrative. The time element is
central to the concept of history without which its real perspective would
be lost. What we appreciate in a child we do not in an adult. Space, time
and cause are fundamental to any phenomenon or exper ience, and these
three aspects are not things but modes of understanding and interpretation.
In history, chronology arranges the significant events which took place in
the past in their time order, and fixes the intervals that elapsed between
them. Chrono logy was probably invented in the early ages for two equally
utilitarian purposes, namely the fixation of dates for religious functions
and for knowing the dates for agricultural operations.
A sound knowledge of chronology has become indispensable for a s tudent
of Indian history, as the dates and eras are so confusing in the records that
fixation of correct chronology in respect to several dynasties of ancient
Indian history has by itself become great research. For example, the munotes.in

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40 chronology of the Ganga king s of Karnataka has created several
controversies, and literature has developed only on this topic.
2. Graphology:
Graphology is the science of estimating the character of a person by
studying his handwriting. Research has shown that an undoubted
connectio n exists between a person's character and his handwriting, which
betrays what sort of a person he is. Systematic study of this science helps a
historian to form an opinion about such a person.
However, before a graphologist forms a judgment about the char acter of a
person, he should keep an eye on a few factors such as the material used
for the writing, the place and the position of the person who wrote, the
mood or circumstances under which the writing was done, if the aim is to
know the correct character of that person. For example, a person travelling
in a moving train cannot write properly. Likewise, an agitated mood,
insufficient light, bad paper or pen, or ill health are bound to affect the
handwriting.
In America the widespread use of typewriters ha s reduced the opportunity
to cultivate good handwriting. Journalism, medical profession and the
nature of certain other jobs such as hard labour and mining would make
people careless about their handwriting but that does not mean that their
character has a nything to do with it.
The cause for bad handwriting may be excessive and speedy writing or no
practice at all in writing. Subject to these conditions’ graphology gives us
certain very useful hints about the psychology of a person, whether he is
hasty or steady or rash or artistic. It may even betray his age, sex or mood.
It may even speak about laziness, needless haste, carelessness, avarice, or
self-indulgence. A few students who are very frugal with their own paper
become very liberal in the examination hall where there is no limit to their
demand for paper.
3. Philology:
Philology or the study of languages both in their past and present
conditions has conferred on history a lot of advantages
A thorough knowledge of language is quite essential to have a thorough
knowledge of any subject. While teaching languages various stories are
taken out from different pages of history. Students are quite frequently
required to write essays on topics of historical importance. Oral and
written expression is also very essential. In teaching history, we provide
opportunities to the students for discussing, speaking, debating, paper
reading as also of narrating their experiences in black and white. Thus, we
find a lot of correlation existing between history and language.
It studies, the etymology or the origin of words, the proverbs and
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41 various terms and the most authentic texts especially concerning classical
literature.
History is indebted to this d iscipline for providing a sure clue to the past
experiences and activities of man. In fact, historical method grew out the
philological studies. G. B. Vico claimed that history as an autonomous
science mainly on the basis of Philology. The words used by th e author
and his style of narration fixes his identity in the reader's mind. Any
interpolation by another person to the narrative would be easily detected.
For example, Rig Veda has in all ten chapters but philologists tell us that
the first and the last a re later additions. Physical Sciences cannot tell us
about such interpolations and additions. Philology provided a sure
instrument to determine the internal proof of the contents of the narrative .
"The study of languages shows what kind of life a people w ere leading
while its language was coming into existence. Their stock of words shows
what their stock of ideas was before the new one came into existence.”
Vico had showed how new words used by later generations were
borrowed from agricultural vocabulary. He also showed how mythology
composed in the ancient languages reflected the domestic, political and
economic life of the people of ancient Greece and Rome. In India the
inscription of ancient and early Medieval Period provided much material
for philologic al studies.
4. Diplomatic:
Diplomatic is the systematic study of the form of the official pattern of
behaviour and writing. The word diploma which originally meant a piece
of writing folded double, came to be used in course of time for a passport
or lett er of recommendation given to persons travelling in pro - vinces.
It changed further in its meaning as it referred to any manuscript or
document of legal or historic or literary value, and finally to indicate any
kind of official writing. It has currently given rise to such terms as
diplomacy and diplomatic purely in the political sense. It was observed as
early as the seventeenth century that official bureaux such as the Papal
Chancery used in the composition of letters and documents issued by them
not onl y a rigid order of arrangement of the subject matter but also stereo -
typed formulae for every part of the document. Clearly, the clerks work -
ing in these offices possessed formularies to be copied on different
occasions. This is the procedure observed ev en today in the civil service.
If a document presents itself as originating from a certain office but does
not follow the style prevalent in that office at the date which it bears, it is
not genuine, and has to be criticised with the aid of every availabl e
ancillary science. On the other hand, our confidence in a document is
greatly increased if the findings of paleography and diplomatic coincide.
In other words, diplomatic is a very useful aid to history in trying to find
out the real meaning of a documen t.
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42 5. Paleography:
Paleography is the systematic study of old handwriting. The way in which
men shaped the letters of the alphabets has varied from period to period
and from region to region. Paleography describes the evolution of each
letter in time and in space.
A paleographer can not only read old manuscripts or inscriptions but also
date them, and he can tell us the history of these characters and how they
have changed over a period. In the past. as also today, education had the
effect of standardisi ng the shape of letters used in each centre of culture.
Even in the Roman letters used all over Europe there are variations. The
Belgians write a different handwriting from the Dutch, and the English
write differently from the Germans. In India the proble m is still more
complicated with scores of different languages and different scripts in use,
and with such continuity of its history.
Paleography also deals with the abbreviations used by the scribes Who
were more in demand before the invention of printin g. There are
dictionaries which list the abbreviations used in manuscripts. Paleography
demands concentrated attention to detail. It gives scope to mental
alertness, and to the development of empirical capacities. It develops the
ability to face difficulti es as they present themselves in solving puzzles
and problems which do not come under any general principles.
A man who has done a good job in paleography is less likely to be carried
away by superficial resemblances to take external appearances for grant ed.
Paleography sharpens critical faculties. It is a science which is very much
developed by modern technology. A team of scholars is attempting to
decipher the script of the Indus Valley civilisation through computer
science.
The rock edicts and rare man uscripts of the remote past are difficult to
decipher. Palaeographists use their skill to give the correct meaning of
such writings. As already pointed out above researchers have to alert in
ascertaining the exact words and their meaning in the documents b efore
them.
6. Sigillography:
Sigillography is from the word ‘sigil’ meaning a seal or signature.
Sigilliography is the science of the writings or inscriptions, on the seal.
The seals are of different kinds shape and material. Some have
impressions on clay , wax or bricks.
It also means a mark or sign supposed to exercise occult power. In history
it refers to the study of seals and can be looked upon as a department of
diplomatic. It is also called Sphragistic meaning the study of engraved
seals including t heir authenticity, age, history, content and so on.
It takes into account not only the form and aspect of the seal, but also of
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43 with which it is made. Wax was commonly used and in war m countries
like Italy lead was used. The seals of the Indus Valley civilisation have re -
mained undeciphered.
In Indian history, in particular during the Muslim rule, seals played a very
important role in the administration, without which no document was
valid. They help us a lot in giving us much in - formation about our
medieval Indian history on the name of the ruler, his title, the extent of his
kingdom, the date of the document, the religion or sect he belonged to, the
dynasty with which he was connec ted, as well as the date and era of the
issue. These seals indicate even the level of culture by the type of
calligraphy and the material used.
7. Numismatics:
Numismatics is the science of coins. Numismatics as a subsidiary of
Diplomatics. In the ancien t times some seals had their Significance as
symbols of spirits and Semi -Gods. In the middle Ages the talisman and the
rings with decorated stones suggested some cosmic power. Coins gave the
idea of economic condition of the people.
8. Archaeology and Epi graphy:
Besides these sciences, we have a number of other disciplines such as
archaeology, epigraphy, that help history. Archaeology, epigraphy and
numismatics are the hand -maids of history, and unlike the mother -
discipline, these daughter -disciplines are scientific in character and precise
in their methodology.
Ancient Indian history owes a good deal to these three branches for the
reconstruction of many of its chapters. We owe the entire discovery of the
Indus Valley culture to Sir John Marshall and his band of archaeologists.
The exploration of archaeological sites, the method of excavations, the
copying and reading of inscriptions, the study of coins, and determining
their grains have brought to light numerous chanpers in the history of the
world, almo st in every country and more so in India.
Physics is helpful in determining possible archaeological sites,
Engineering, chemistry and photography are summoned to the aid of the
archaeologist, whose business is to dig scientifically. Archaeology is
helpful in the study and preservation of ancient monuments. Epigraphy is
the paleography and diplomatic of inscriptions placed upon monuments or
given to individuals on copper plates as title deeds of land gifts.
The historian should have the ability to read the se records or get them
deciphered and translated for him by those who know the language. In
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka there are thousands of such inscriptions, and
the history of this region, particularly of the ancient and medieval period is
reconstructed with their help. They are a veritable mine of information on
politics, literature, warfare, religion, social, economic, and administrative
details, interstate relations, heroism of individuals and a host of other
topics. One single archaeologist, Lewis Ric e, collected as many as ten munotes.in

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44 thousand inscriptions in a part of Karnataka which was then known as
Mysore State. These inscriptions are found either on stone or on copper
plates. These are deciphered, translated, edited with copious notes, and
published in s everal volumes, such as Epigraphia Indica, Epigraphia
Karnataka, Epigraphia Indo -Moslemica, and so on.
Check your progress:
Q.1.What are the importance of Ancillary disciplines?
3.3 SUMMARY:
The social and other sciences which are an integral part of hi s intellectual
life provide substantial knowledge of the nature of the historical problems
before man. Just as the social sciences help the study of historical life of
man, history also helps them by providing them with facts of life in the
past. As the na tural sciences began to develop new visions were opened up
for a science like history to make use of the new knowledge and improve
the work of reconstruction of the past. Ancillary sciences are departments
of knowledge in their own right, and history makes use of them, and hence
they become allies of history.
The need for these disciplines has arisen because all intellectual
disciplines are interrelated. Even medicine requires history, because
without a proper background of the case, diagnosis is impossibl e. The
nature of historical facts is such that there are close connections between
one fact and the other, and each fact requires special attention to establish
its validity for which the assistance of the allied disciplines would be
extremely helpful. In other words, ancillary disciplines are the handmaids
of history.
3.4 QUESTIONS:
1. Review the relations of History with other Social Sciences.
2. Do you agree with the view that History is the past politics?
3. Elucidate in what way did Economics help H istory to study historical
problems?
4. Discuss the use of psychology in the interpretation of history.
5. Assess the influence of Natural Sciences in the work of reconstruction
of the past.
6. Discuss the contribution of Chemistry and Medical Science to historical
knowledge.
7. What are Ancillary disciplines?

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45 3.5 ADDITIONAL READINGS:
1. Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan India
Limited, Madras, 1978.
2. Carr E. H., What is History, Penguin Books, London, 1961.
3. Collingwood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford
University Press, London, 1966.
4. Dilthey W. (ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
5. Elton G. R., Practice of History, London, 1975.
6. Finberg H.P.A. (Ed), Approaches to History, London, 1962.
7. Gar ranghan G.H., Guide to Historical Method, 1971.
8. Gottschalk Louis, Understanding History, New York, 1956.
9. Renier G.J., History its purpose and Method, London, 1961.
10. Lal I., Research in History, Swastik Publishers & Distributors, Delhi,
2008.
11. Rajayyan K., History in Theory and Method, Madurai, 1976.
12. Webster John C.B., An Introduction to History. New Delhi, 1981.


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46 4
SOURCES: NATURE AND TYPES

Unit Structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nature of sources of History
4.3 Primary Literary sources
4.4 Primary Archaeological sources
4.5 Secondary Literary sources
4.5 Oral sources
4.6 Digital sources
4.7 Summar y
4.8 Questions
4.9 Additional Readings
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After the study of this unit, the students will be able to :
1) Understand the nature and types of the sources for Ancient,
medieval and modern History.
2) Know the primary and secondary sources of ancient Indian history.
3) Grasp the various types of the historical sources.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The source material is the essential part of history writing. There are
various types of the historical sources. They can be categorized according
to their nature. The sour ces play important role in the history writings.
Hence the historian carry search for it at different places like archives,
museums and institutions. A historian tries to construct a systematic
account of the past event with the help of historical sources. They can be
categorized into following ways in a broader form.

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47 1. Archaeological sources
2. Literary sources
3. Oral tradition
4. Digital sources
These sources can also be classified into two types -Primary Sources
Gottschalk defines a primary data source as “the testimony of any eye
writers by any other of the senses.” In other words primary sources are
tangible materials that provide a description of an historical event and
were produced shortly after the event happened. They have a direct
physical relationship t o the event being studied examples of primary
sources include new paper report, letters, public document, court
decisions, personal diaries, autobiographies, artifacts and eye witnesses’
verbal accounts. The primary sources of data can be divided into two
broad categories as follows:
1) The remains or relics of given historical period. These could include
photographs, corves skeletons, fossils tools, weapons, utensils furniture
and buildings. Though these were not originally meant for transmitting
information to future generations. They would prove very useful sources
in providing reliable and sound evidence about the past. These relics
provide non-verbal information.
2) Those objects that have a direct physical relationship with the events
being reconstructed. Th is includes documents such as laws, files, letters,
manuscripts, government resolutions, characters, memoranda, wills,
newspapers, magazines, journals, files, government or other official
publications, maps, charts, books, catalogues, research reports, rec ord of
minutes of meetings recording inscription, transcriptions and so on.
b) Secondary Sources: A secondary source is one in which the eyewitness
or the participant i.e. the person describing the event was not actually
present but who obtained the descri ptions or narrations from another
person or source. This another person may or may not be a primary
source. Secondary sources, thus, do not have a direct physical relationship
with the event being studies. They include data which are not original
example o f secondary sources include text books, biographies,
encyclopedias, reference books, replicas of out objects and paintings and
so on. It is possible that secondary sources contain errors due to passing of
information from one source to another. These error s could get multiplied
when the information passes through many sources there by resulting in an
error of great magnitude in the final data. Thus, wherever possible, the
researcher should try to use primary sources of data. However, that does
not reduce the value of secondary sources.
Primary sources can be divided into literary and archaeological sources.
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48 4.2 THE NATURE OF SOURCES OF HISTORY
The term sources in reference to history covers a body of materials vast in
range and diversified in character. Wri tten records, oral records, remains
of prehistoric villages, towns, ancient inscripations on the sides of rocks; in
short, any bit of testimony, any object that can throw light on the human
story. Finds place in the category “historical sources.” One may define the
term as “human remains and such products of man’s activity aseither
were meant by their authors to communicate knowledge of historical
facts, or by their nature are calculated to do so.” Let us take two examples
from Ancient Indian history to elu cidate the nature of historical sources. A
standard version of ‘Arthashastra’ of Kautilya and Buddhist Stapa at
Sanchi. Arthashastra helps us to recreate an image of mauryan empire, the
organization of Government, the economy and social and cultural
inform ation. The Sanchi great stupa presents a different aspects of
historical facts.
A suggestive way to look at historical sources is to regard them as “traces”
left behind by past events. The events of history are no longer realities,
though they once were. All that survives of them is the impression they
made on observes, which impression the observes themselves, or other
persons, relying directly or indirectly on the reports of observes, fixed in
writing or in the some other medium or record. The recorded im pressions
are therefore, the only traces which past events have left in their wake.
The historian must work recorded impressions and through them on the
events. Heuristics is therefore in the nature or mining process, having for
its object to bring the raw material of history to light. From this point view
Niebuhr was led to describe it as a “working under - ground”.
Nature of historical sources in relation to their utility in the construction of
the past as it was. In this respect we have to consider the time scheme.
Such as ancient, medieval and modern resources.
Historical knowledge is an indirect knowledge. It is derived by inference
from the facts as revealed through the records of the past ages. These
records are in different forms such as documents and artifacts.
Check your Progress :
1) Describe the nature of sources of History.
4.3 PRIMARY LITERARY SOURCES
Primary sources are the pieces of evidence that historians use to learn
about people, events, and everyday life in the past. Just like detectives,
historians look at clues, through evidence, and reach conclusions. Diaries,
letters, certificates of birth, death, or marriage, deeds, contracts,
constitutions, laws, court records, tax records, census records, wills,
inventories, treaties, report cards, m edical records, passenger lists,
passports, visas, naturalization papers, and military enlistment or
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49  Letters :
A form of correspondence between people with a first-hand account of
events, feelings, or stories. Letters are often personal in nature, but they
can also be more formal. The officials and unofficial letters are important
sources to get knowledge of contemporary events.
 Memoirs :
Baburnama is the name given to the memoirs of Babar, founder of the
Mughal Empire. It reflect the nature and personality of Babaur. Tuzuk - e-
Jahangiri or Tuzuk -i-Jahangiri is the autobiography of Mughal
EmperorJahangir (1569 -1627). Also referred to as Jahangirnama, Tuzk - e-
Jahangiri is written in Persian, and follows th e tradition of his great -
grandfather. Mahatma Gandhi’s ‘My Experiments with truth’ reveals the
important events in his life and the formation of Gandhi’s character from
childhood.
 Court Writings :
The Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazal contains regulations in all departments on
all subjects and include besides some extraneous matter. It is a valuable
and minute statistical account of his empire with historical and other
notes. It gives details of Mughal administration and state policies. It
covers every aspect of the history of the time. The third volume tells us
about the ancestry and the biography of Abul Fazal.
Abbaas Khan Sarwani wrote 'Tarikh -i-Sher-Shahi. He was related to Sher
Shah and worked as a mansabdar of 500 under Akbar. It is more in the
nature of an autobiography. Known for his literary taste, he gives a picture
of Indo-Muslim society of the early Mughal period. Ahmad Yadgar was
the author of Tarikh -i-Shahi or Tarikh -i-Salatin -i-Afghina. It was Daud
Shah, the last prince of the Afghan race in India.
 Private Records :
Private Archives Section has in its custody a rich collection of private
papers of eminent persons who have contributed immensely in various
fields of public life in India. These papers have been acquired mainly
through donations and gifts from individuals and institutions across the
world. They are an important source to supplement the information
contained amongst the public records. Some of the most important private
papers in archives are those of Mahatma Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad,
Dadabh ai Naoroji, P.D. Tandon, Maulana Azad, Minoo Masani, Sardar
Patel, K.D.Malaviya, etc. All these private papers are accessible as per
provisions contained in the Public Records Rules, 1997 or conditions as
laid down by the donor at the time of their donatio n to the National
Archives of India.

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50  Dairies :
A diary would be considered a primary source. As a historian the use of
primary sources is essential to building an argument that can cite these
primary sources as direct examples that can support or refute athesis.
The diaries of the British officers compiled in ‘India during the raj:
eyewitness accounts Diaries and Related Records’ held at the British
Library, London, covered good evidence on contemporary issues. They
reveal the extent to which the Mutiny shook British power in India,
particularly in the north and the centre. Providing insights into the ways in
which Britain contributed a more complex conservative system of
government with a Civil Service, Viceroy and Governors, aiming to be
fair and efficie nt, these source materials allow scholars to study how this
process was received and how successfully it was implemented.
 Government documents :
Official records have been found relating to the history of the Turko -
Afghan and the Mughal rule in the India. These are obviously the most
valuable and reliable source materials for the said period. But due to lack
of proper upkeep and several other reasons much of them did not reach us.
The Factory Records, as the name indicates, are records of the commercial
establishments of the East India Company in Western India from Sind in
the North to Tellicherry on the Malabar Coast. Factory also included
Commercial Residency, Mahi Commercial Residency, etc. Factory and
Residency Records mainly register the business transa ctions of the
Company, but incidentally refer to Political events in the country. A
document officially written by the government, like treaties and executive
orders, usually spelling out rules and laws. The constitution of India is one
example of a govern ment document.
 Newspaper Article :
A journalist’s written account of an event. Newspapers or magazines can
be local, regional, or national in circulation, so it’s important to keep in
mind how many readers a newspaper article may actually have reached,
and who the intended audience was for the information given in the article
 Records of the Historical Families and Private Papers :
The State of Maharashtra is rich in archival material. Many historical
families have in their possession voluminous record depic ting the velour
of their ancestors. Family legends imperial and royal deeds, public and
private correspondence, and state papers in possession of the descendants
of men once high in authority, law suits and law decisions, account papers
and manuscripts of every description in Persian and Modi bring to light
unknown events in the history of a country. These records are preserved
for posterity. They are indexed or catalogued and made available for
research to scholars and students.
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51  Interview :
Interview cond ucted with a person to find out more information about an
event or that person’s life and decisions. Interviews can be conducted one
on one, or they can be done in a press conference format. An interview can
be recorded and then transcribed to create a wri tten record of the audio.
 Questionnaire :
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions
for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Within social
science research and practice, questionnaires are most frequentl y used to
collect quantitative data using many scales. Questionnaire is a set of
questions. Generally, it is mailed to the respondents of collecting data. It is
employed when the area of study is wide and the subjects are widely
dispersed. In this method t he researcher does not collect the data by
himself.
 Maps and Photo Copies :
There are about 20,000 old maps relating to Bombay Presidency and other
provinces. Survey operations started vigorously in this Province from
1820. Copies of the maps prepared from that period to date of the districts
of Bombay Presidency, surrounding areas and of the Mumbai Island are
found in this collection. Majority of the maps have been prepared by the
Survey of India. Plans of Indian Railway Lines since the inception of
Railwa ys in India have been added to this collection.
Check your Progress :
1) Explain the primary literary sources.
4.4 PRIMARY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
 Monuments :
The monuments include temples, stupas, monasteries (viharas), palaces,
forts etc. In addition to i ndividual monuments, there are vast remains of
ancient cities. Mohenjodaro and Harappa cities produce this type of
sources. In absence of literary records, the monuments play vital role in
history writings. The information about ancient dynasties like Kush anas
and western satrapas can be gathered by excavation of the sites and
studying the monuments found in excavated historical sites.
Besides the monuments and their remains, sculptures, paintings, pottery
and other artefacts help us in reconstructing the h istory and culture of
ancient India. The cave paintings of Ajanta, the animal sculptures at the
Buddhist stupas at Sanchi, Bharut etc. show scenes from the life of the
Buddha and represent the Jataka stories. The South Indian temples of the
Pallavs, Chol a, Chalukya and Pandya period are full of sculptures that
help us in understanding the artistic achievements of the ancient Indian
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52 reconstructing the history and culture of ancient, mediev al and modern
India.
 Paintings :
The sultanate period, except in some regions like Gujarat and Malwa, did
not have many illustrated manuscripts. The Persian practice of miniature
painting was also first introduced by these regional rulers. It was during
Akbar’s reign that painting was organized by an imperial estab - lishment
which brought together Hindu and Muslim painters and artisans from
different parts of India, especially, from regions like Gujarat and Malwa
where this tradition of manuscripts and mini ature paintings had
developed.Despite the objection of orthodox religious leaders, who
regarded painting as un -Islamic, the Mughal emperors patronized this art.
The painters, besides depicting usual scenes like war, hunting, and other
public activities, al so started specializing in portrait paintings. A similar
style of painting developed in Rajasthan using Hindu mythological
themes.
 Coins :
The legends and effigies on the coins help the historian to reconstruct the
religious history of the period. The gr adual Indianization of the foreign
invaders such as the Sakas, Pahlavas and Kushanas can be understood
from their coins. These foreign invaders embraced Indian religions, either
Hinduism or Buddhism and also adopted Indian names. The coins provide
us lot o f information about republican and monarchical government in
ancient India. Most of the ancient states had issued coins. The coins had
legend engraved on it. The legend on coins helps historian to reconstruct
the religious history of the period.
 Inscriptio ns :
The archaeological sources played an important role in constructing or
reconstructing the history of a region. The archaeological source improved
our awareness about our past and also provided important materials,
which we could not have been obtained otherwise. Epigraphy and
Numismatics are the important branches of the study of history, which has
greatly enhanced the understanding of India's past. For the reconstruction
of the political history of ancient India inscriptions are of great value.
These inscriptions being engraved on stones or metals are authentic as
they are free from tampering. The inscriptions contain various subjects.
They include religious matters, decrees of rulers, records of conquests,
sale or gift of land by various rulers to ind ividuals or religious institutions,
description of achievements etc.
 Archival records :
Mumbai Archives has a collection of good number of printed records in
the form of volumes and books. The old publications consist of Printed
Abstracts of Proceedings, Government Gazettes, Reports of various
Department, Offices, Commissions and Committees, Acts, Rules and munotes.in

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53 Orders issued by the Government, Civil Lists and numerous Government
Publications published from time to time. Three copies of each State
Government publication are sent to Mumbai Archives for preservation.
Apart from the vast bulk of Public Records and PrivatePapers, the
National Archives has a rich and ever -growing collection of Library. This
has some of the oldest and rare publications on a variety of subjects,
besides contemporary published material.
Check your Progress :
1) Discuss on primary archaeological sources.
4.5 SECONDARY LITERARY SOURCES
The literary sources for the study of ancient Indian history and culture may
be divided into two major categories. The literary sources to reconstruct
Ancient Indian history can be classified between two broad categories 1)
The Religious literature and 2) Secular Literature.
 Genealogical tree :
In the medieval period, there was a tradition of preparing a
genealogical tree of the families of eminent persons. Such genealogical
trees refer to the acts of bravery, military expeditions or other
achievements of the different members of the family. Such information is
generally based on official records and hence is useful as sources of
history.
 Powade and poem :
The powadas are a kind of ballad written in an exciting style and narrate
historical events in an inspiring manner. The composers and singers of the
powadas are known as Shahirs. The early powadas are mostl y composed
by the eyewitnesses of the great events celebrated in these ballads. The
earliest notable powada was the Afzal Khanacha Vadh (The Killing of
Afzal Khan) (1659) by Agnidas, which recorded Shivaji's encounter with
Afzal Khan. The next notable powa da was the Tanaji Malusare by
Tulsidas, which gave an account of the capture of Sinhagad fort by Tanaji.
 Biography :
Certain writers in ancient Indian adopted the lives of their royal patrons as
the theme of their literary works. This category of secular literature
include Buddhacharita written by Asvaghosa, which gives an account of
the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha. Banabhatta, the great master
of the Sanskrit prose wrote the Harshacharita. In the Sultanate period Firoz
Shah Tughluq wrote his biogr aphies called Fatuhat -i-Firoz Sahi. Sultan
Mahmud and Timur had their own biographies. And Chand Bardoi
became famous for his lyrical balard called ‘Prithviraj Raso’. Themost
important memories and biographies of the Mughal India are the memoirs
of Babar a nd Jahangir and biographical sketch of Humayun by Gulbadan
Begum.
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54  Descriptive Writings :
Tarikh -i-Hind by Al-Beruni
Al-Beruni, came to India and took up service under Mahmud of Ghazni.
He was well acquainted in Arabic, Persian and had a great intellectual in
Medicine, Logic, Mathematics, Philosophy, Theology and Religion.
During his stay in India he learnt Sanskrit and studied Hindu religion and
philosophy. He even translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic. His most
important literary work being Tarikh -ul-Hind written in masterly Arabic
with great accuracy and scholarly presentation, gives us an account of the
literature, science and religion of the Hindus of the 11th century. The book
gives us an account of India at the time of Mahmud of Gazni’s invasion of
India.
Other Writings
There are lot of writings about the Sultanate and Mughal period. "Tabaqat -
i-Nasiri" of Minhaj -us-Siraj is an important contemporary source giving
first hand account of the conquests of Muhammad Ghori and the history
of the Turkish ki ngdom in India upto 1260 Minjah -us-Siraj was the chief
qazi at Delhi under Sultan Nasir -ud-din Mahmud. "Tarikh -i- Alai or
Khazain -ul-Futuh" by Amir Khusrav written in Persian. He enjoyed the
patronage of several Sultans of Delhi such as Kaiqubad, Jalal - ud-din
Khilji. Ala -ud-din Khilji. Qutub -ud-din Mubarak Shah Khilji and Ghiyas -
ud-din Tughlaq. Amir Khusrav was a prolific writer of prose and poetry.
He was the poet laureate in 1290 The Khazain -ul-Futuh also known as the
Tarikh -i-Alai is a court history of the first sixteen years of the reign of
Ala-ud-din Khilji. It gives details of the Deccan campaigns of Malik Kafur
hut does not mention the murder of Jalal -ud-din or the defeats of the Sultan
by the Mongols. Amir Khusrav has several other works to his credit. This
include the "Miftah -ul-Futuh" written in 1291 describes the military
campaigns of Jalal-ud-din Khilji, the Tughlaqnama traces the course of
events leading to the accession of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Tarikh -i-Firozshahi was written by Ziauuddin Barani . The Tarikh - i-
Firozshahi was written about 1358. It gives us information about the
Sultans of Delhi from Balban to Muhammad -bin Tughlaq and the first six
years of the reign of Firoz Shah. He was not very accurate about dates. He
has also not described th e events in their chronological order. Fatawah -i-
Jahandari by Zia -ud-din Barani was composed in the early 14th century.
Barani wrote his views on government policies and the ideal code of
conduct which a Muslim king should follow.
Tarikh -i-Firoz Shahi by Shams -i-Siraj Afif was probably composed in the
first decade of the fifteenth century. The author was a favourite of Sultan
Firozshah. He has described the history of the long reign of the Sultan.
He has also written about the culture of this period.His account is of
great significance for the history of Sultan Firoz Tughlaq.
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55 The Muntakhab -ut-Tawarikh or Tarikh -i-Badauni was written by Abdul
Qadir Badauni. The first volume is about the rule of Babur and Humayun.
Muntakhab -ul-Lubab was written by Muhammad H ashim alias Khafi
Khan. As there was a ban on the writing of history Khafi Khan wrote it
secretly. It is a complete history of the Mughals beginning with the reign
of Babur upto 1733. He has dealt with all aspects of Aurangzeb's reign,
including the afterm ath of his illiberal policies.
 Periodicals and newspapers
The contemporary periodicals and newspapers give us various kinds of
information about socio political condition. Bombay Chronicle (1825 to
1959), Bombay Courier (1797 to 1846), Bombay Telegraph and Courier
(1847 to 1861), Bombay Times (1838 to 1859), Bombay Gazette (1809
to 1914), Bombay Darpan (Marathi) (1832 and 1834), Marattha (1913
to 1925), Poona Observer (1852 -53, 1861 -62, 1876 -1915), Kesari
(Marathi) (1900 to 1931, 1962 to 1973), Navjivan (1919 to 1932), Young
India (1915 to 1932), Indian Express (1955 to Dec. 2008), Blitz (1957 to
1964), Financial Express (1961 to 1964), London times, Times of India
(1861 up-to-date), Maharashtra Times (Marathi) (1962 up-to-date),
Loksatta (Marathi) (1960 to Dec. 2008), Sakal (Marathi) (1965 to 1968)
and many others contemporary periodicals like Asiatic Journal Asiatic
Journal New Series, Bengal Obituary (Calcutta, 1848) A compilation of
tablets and monumental inscriptions from various parts of the Bengal and
Agra Presidencies. Also includes biographical sketches and memoirs of
eminent persons in British India from the early 18th century to 1848.
 Census Report :
The Census Reports (1871 onwards) are a valuable and basic source on
demographic studies and contain data about the population, castes, tribes,
occupation etc for the use of scholars and other users.
4.6 ORAL SOURCES
Oral histories are the collections of accounts, and interpretations of the past
in their own words. They are a record of an individual’s di rect feelings and
opinions about the events in which he or she was involved. The oral
histories provide information about significant events that may otherwise
lack documentation in written or archival records. Oral histories are
obtained through interview s and are preserved on audio and video
recordings, in films, and in written transcripts. Study oral histories as
primary sources and recognize the advantages they have as source
materials. Many times, oral histories record the experiences of individuals
who were not able, or who lacked the time, to leave written accounts. The
interviewer’s questions often create spontaneity and candor that might not
be present in a personally written account. Moreover, in a recorded
interview, the informant’s voice may reveal unique speech
characteristicsand tone that could not be captured in other sources. Oral
history presents challenges in its analysis. Memory is fallible. The
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56 informants may be reluctant to discuss certain topics, resulting in an
inaccurate or an incomplete record. As with all sources, oral histories must
be evaluated along with other documentation to determine whether they
present information that is exceptional or conforms to previously
established.
Check your Progress :
1) Give an account of oral sources of History.
4.7 DIGITAL SOURCES
Digitization has made it possible for libraries, archives, historical
societies, museums and individuals to easily share their collections with
the world. Researchers today have unprecedented access to images of
primary source materials with descriptive metadata that, in the pre -digital
age, were available only to those who could visit a collection in person.
1) Internet archives
Web archiving provides socia l scientists and digital humanities
researchers with a data source that enables the study of a wealth of
historical phenomena. One of the most notable efforts to record the history
of the World Wide Web is the Internet Archive (IA) project, which
maintains the largest repository of archived data in the world.
Understanding the quality of archived data and the completeness of each
record of a single website is a central issue for scholarly research, and yet
there is no standard record of the provenance of di gital archives. Indeed,
although present day records tend to be quite accurate, archived Web
content deteriorates as one moves back in time. The Web Archives for
Historical Research (WAHR) group has the goal of linking history and big
data to give historia ns the tools required to find and interpret digital
sources from web archives. Our research focuses on both web histories -
writing about the recent past as reflected in web archives - as well as
methodological approaches to understanding these repositorie s.
2) Word Cat
Find items from 10,000 libraries worldwide, with books, DVDs, CDs, and
articles up for grabs. You can even find your closest library with World
Cat’s tools.
3) Google Books
Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search and Google
Print and by its codename Project Ocean is a service from GoogleInc. that
searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned,
converted to text using optical character recognition (OCR), and stored in
its digital database. Books are provided either by publishers and authors,
through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Google's li - brary
partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has part - nered
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57 4) Ancient India – The British Museum
The British Museum’s online offerings are impressive. The An - cient
Civilizations websites highlights achievements of some remarkable world
civilizations and explores cross -cultural themes of human develop - ment.
Explore the people , culture, beliefs, and history of ancient India us - ing
animations, 3D models and objects from The British Museum’s collec -
tions.
5) Exploring Ancient World Cultures: India
Another fine introduction to Ancient India, though some links are broken.
The mos t interesting features are an article entitled “The Histori - cal
Context of The Bhagavad Gita and Its Relation to Indian Religious
Doctrines, and an online translation of The Bhagavad Gita. You can also
find a whole slew of images of Harrarpa.
6) Daily Life in Ancient India
The numerous lesson plans and resources available at this popular site
have been developed by Mr. Donn and other contributors. Lessons cover:
The Mysterious Indus Civilization 3000 -1500 BCE, Aryan Civili - zation
Daily Life 1500 -500 BCE, Vedic Period 1500 -1000 BCE, Epics Period
1000 – 500 BCE, and Age of Empires Daily Life 500 BCE -700 CE.
Audio visual sources
Audio record includes the speeches of great personalities photographs,
film, video, paintings, drawings, cartoons, prints, designs, and three -
dimensional art such as sculpture and architecture and can be categorized
as fine art or documentary record. Some visual resources are one-of-a-
kind, while others are reproduced (like prints or illustrations in books and
magazines).
Films
Towards the experimental film, which portrays social reality in a departure
from narrative history, we can easily adopt a favourable attitude. For
instance, films highlighting systemic exploitation, the underworld, wage
slavery, the emotional trauma of women or p roblems of migrant workers
and the unemployed need not fictionalize history - that is the stuff history
is made of in any case. They are necessary to draw our attention to many
emotions which written history either ignores or cannot express. A film
like Sh yam Benegal's 'Ankur', for example, is at once historical in its focus
on rural feudalism in a region of south India and socio -cultural in its
presentation. The same is true of Govind Nihalani's 'Aakrosh' which
underscores the exploitation of tribal by India's ruling elite and their
agents.
Check your Progress :
1) Describe the digital sources. munotes.in

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58 4.8 SUMMARY
All the material directly reflecting the historical process and providing an
opportunity for studying the past of human society is known as source of
history. Historicals ources thus comprise everything created at an earlier
date by human society and available to us in the form of objects of
material culture or written documents that permit evaluation of the
manners, customs, and language of peoples. Writ ten historical sources,
including hand written documents (on rock, birch bark, parchment, paper)
and the printed documents of more recent periods, constitute the largest
group. These written sources differ in origin (archives of the state,
patrimonial esta tes, factories, institutions, and families), in content, and in
purpose (for example, statistical economic materials, juridical documents,
administrative records, legislation, diplomatic and military papers,
documents from court inquests, and periodical sa nd news papers.
4.9 QUESTIONS
1) Describe the natures and types of the historical sources
2) What are the types of the historical sources? Explain its nature.
3) Discuss the importance of Secondary Literary sources
4) Explain the primary sources for the historical research.
4.10 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan India
Limited, Madras, 1978.
2. Carr E. H., What is History, Penguin Books, London, 1961.
3. Collingwood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford
University Press, London, 1966.
4. Dilthey W. (ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
5. Elton G. R., Practice of History, London, 1975.
6. Finberg H.P.A. (Ed), Approaches to History, London, 1962.
7. Garranghan G.H., Guide to Historical Method, 1971.
8. Gottschalk Louis, Understanding History, New York, 1956.
9. Renier G.J., History its purpose and Method, London, 1961.
10. Lal I., Research in History, Swastik Publishers & Distributors,
Delhi, 2008.
11. Rajayyan K., History in Theory and Method, Madurai, 1976.
12. Webster John C.B., An Int roduction to History. New Delhi, 1981. munotes.in

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59 13. Anirudh Deshpande, Films as Historical Sources or Alternative
History, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 39, No. 40 (Oct. 2 -8,
2004), Published by: Economic and Political Weekly.
14. Garraghan G. S., A Guide to Historic al Method, New York,
Fordham University Press 1996. 2) Gottstack, L., Understanding
History, New York, Alfred A. Knof 1951.
15. McMillan J. H. and Schumander S. Research in Education : A
Conceptual Introduction Boston MA : Little Brown and Company
1984.
16. Shafe r R. J., A Guide to Historical Method, Illions : the Dorsey
Press, 1974.















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60 5
AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY OF
SOURCES
Unit structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Puzzles of Past
5.3 Socio -political & religious influences on history writing
5.4 Sources of History
5.5 Authenticity of Sources
5.6 Authenticity & Credibility of Sources
5.7 Summary
5.8 Questions
5.9 Additional Readings
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After the study in the unit the students will be able to :
1) Comprehend the meaning and features of authenticity.
2) Explain the authenticity and credibility of sources.
3) Understand both authenticity and credibility in the Historical research.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Although the collection and classification of sources is very difficult task.
The collected data must be reliable. It heads a cautions and special
approach to source material. History needs is facts in their pure and
unblemished forms and consistency in narrative.
History deals with events in the past. It is, therefore the duty of the
researcher to show the events in their original forms. In this unit we will
study the ‘Authenticity’ o f sources and examine the fallacies, malpractice
and falsification of documents. We will also examine few remedial
measures in order to establish authenticity of sources.

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61 5.2 PUZZLES OF PAST
To write history a leap of imagination is required. To write h istory a
degree of creativity, critical power of selection & analysis are essential
aspects of a historian. Since the past is not in front of us therefore,
afertile imagination reasoning & analysis are the keys which will
unlock the past cramped material. The historians from coherent shapes,
present in an interesting ways to the readers. History writing is sharply
different from fiction, as it is not only imagination, it is a hard effort of a
history writer to present the past in a perfect manner therefore his
word depends upon the various available sources from which he develops
his hypothesis then the tedious work of data collection which to be
arranged for some logical conclusions. A historian has to follow certain
methodological frame work, within given parameters, historical
explanations & interpretations written in a narrative form.
5.3 SOCIO -POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES
ON HISTORY WRITING
History writing is a complex phenomena, it surely many a times comes
under the socio political & religious inf luence. Early history was the part
of Theology. The great historian Herodotos restricted his writings of
history with the chronological order of ruling dynasties, battles and wars
victories and defeats. with the passage of time many changes came in
the history writing process. With the 18th century enlightenment
recognizably ‘modern, scientific’ versions of recounting the past began
to appear, as in Montesquieu’s “Spirit of Laws” which sought to
identify & explain in secular terms regularities & variations in types of
government. In the writings of a great German philosopher Hegel,
fundamentally religious frame work was present, the heritage of Judeo -
Christian tradition, with its notion of the original fall & progressive
struggle towards redemption in the “Final Day of Judgement” can be
clearly discerned in Hegal’s key notion of historical stages in terms of
world sprit realizing itself. Many of the great historical works of the latter
18th & 19th centuries continued to be marked by combination of moral
engagement and literary endeavor, many historical analyses were also
prompted by serious political engagement with the key issue of their time
i.e American War of Independence and the French Revolution
(Tocqueville, Bruke).
Changes in History Writing :
With th e new faith in positivist conceptions of science history was
established as a University subject, worthy of study in its own right
alongside with other subjects. History has often been defined “work of
judging the past” in order to teach the present world for the use of its
knowledge in future. Leopold Ranke promoting a notion of
“investigating the past as it actually was”. Karl Marx more radical
began as he saw it - to unlock Bourgeois notion of history Marx tried to
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62 spirit realizing itself but rather a collective struggle of real people,
thusMarx simply turned from metaphysics to class struggle. This Marxist
approach of history where economic exploitation, class struggle problems
of labourers was the prime focus of the historians. In the form of Marxism -
Leninism, Marx’s approach was institutionalized in the historical
academies of 20th century communist states This neo -Marxism although
with dramatic variations and much internal faction alism.
Max Weber came out with methodologically self-aware approach to
problems of world history. He sought to combine the systematic pursuit of
valid historical generalizations with an emphasis on the need for an
interpretive understanding of the internal meaning of human behavior,
both in the sense of individual motives for action and in the wider sense
of collective belief system which could not be reduced as in Marx’s work
in the corse of 20th century, nationally defined history was viewed in the
new wa ys by those coming from post colonial perspectives. differences
over subject area were cross -cut by theoretical and methodological debates.
History written with prejudice was challenged and also traditional
historical narratives written with motives, actio ns contingencies,
combination of circumstances were challenged by those who wanted more
analytical approach to history. The systematic hypothesis, rational
generalization and logical conclusions. Thus over course of past two
centuries, a wide diversity of approaches to history have been developed
Differences in historical approach have also been linked to socio - political
environment, narratives of high politics have often been linked to
conservatism. Social history for instance, labour history, feminist h istory
have been associated with self styled left wing or radical historians.
Marxist historiographical approaches (communist regimes) sustained
but the changes occurred after the cold war 1989 - 90 the collapse of
communist regimes of Eastern Europe rejec ted the Marxist approach, the
ideas of dictatorship have also been discredited. The changes of restructuring
of research in historiography began.
Despite of major differences among both post modernist historical
narrative should be transparent through whic h one can glimpse at least
some elements of the real past. Historians now a days think that history
should be
A science of answering of quarries
Concerned with human beings and their actions
Interpretation of evidence.
But tis is not the way in which alway s thought of history says a historian
R. G. Collingwood. History written quite often difficult due to lack of any
past record, for instance the ancient Sumerians left nothing behind them
which is to be labelled as history, like wise many civilizations have been
raised or disappeared without leaving any concrete things but even if some
concrete event / evidence left over is difficult to analyze for example the
American War of Independence of 1775 have 13 different schools of munotes.in

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63 thought. Similarly, the French Revolution of 1789, have beenwritten
from various angles for some it was rotten administration of France which
brought the Revolution where as some think that it was due to socio -
economic conditions there was outbreak of the revolution. Thus, it is a
difficult task for a historian to write -off the past. A researcher for his
narratives seeks help from various accounts what it is called as sources in
history
Check your Progress :
1) Assess the socio -political and religious influence on history writing.
5.4 SOURCES OF HISTORY
There are various sources of history from which a researcher developes
his narratives but broadly speaking sources are divided into two categories
viz., primary & secondary sources. Primary sources may include diaries,
letters, interviews , oral history, news paper articles government document,
Folk literature, songs etc. The collection and analysis of primary sources is
central to historic research
Secondary sources are books, published articles, magazines, journals,
bibliographies for the further research or articulations
Historical traces are all around us, we inhabit a world full of signs of the past
survivals. We have been born into world which previously we lived in. we
grow up with degrees of awareness of different aspects of the past . Every
human society inhabits landscapes of memory for example a person born
and brought up in the city like Mumbai will always come across the gothic
structures like Victoria Terminus (C.S.T) Railway station, Fort area
Buildings which simply indicate the colonial rule. Similarly medieval
architecture in Delhi like Ref=d Fort etc. gives idea of Mogul rule
therefore, the physical representation of the past activities are surrounded
how ever , jumbled and lacking in organisation.
The primary sources in histo ry are many a times eye witness account
created by a participant an event in history. Letters, diaries, speeches,
publications, some important newspaper (supporting the research work)
therefore, it is a task of a researcher to pick up the important element which
supports his preposition how much the source material is valuable to him
and how it will be utilized must be clear to a researcher.
For centuries a primary purpose of public historic reconstruction has been
emotive, to elicit a sense of sympathy wit h high ideals, former heros,
glorious past a common set of goals for the writers. Creation of
variousstories, statues of heros and cultural icons paintings of great battles,
war memorials showing the past in a particular way. Practically in many
countries of the world war memorials, squares, town halls dedicated to
soldiers have been created. Many a times historical representation
designed almost entirely for the purpose of exhibition and entertainment
like quasi historical films Benhur, Ten Commandments, Gandhi & films on
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64 having extraordinary capacity to evoke the past there are many different
national and sub - structural modes of representing selected aspect of the
past, which are consta ntly contesting and changing.
While having a glance of museums, buildings memorials, forts etc. we
can draw some inferences of the past but to understand in a better way
minute details are to be added in order to make the history in proper
context. the academic historians think hard about the ways in which
they present their work as they do the research evaluation of the
evidence, the relationship of their findings and relevant literature.
The history writers who go through the process of authentic and rational
writings uses the sources extensively to prove their research work a
valuable one. Let us take a simple fact as historian often deals with it in
the year 49 BC Julius Ceaser crossed the Rubicon river near southern gaul
(near modern city of Italy) a familiar fact known to all obviously of
some importance. But is this fact a simple as it sounds? When we say Julius
Ceaser crossed the river we do not mean that he crossed it alone, but with
his army, which involved many acts, thoughts and actions, that is t o say a
thousand lesser facts went to make up the one simple fact that Ceaser
crossed the Rubicon river . If a history writer gathers all the facts to this
small event a book of 500 pages will come to shape. Therefore minute
observations of any event in history gives outstanding results.
Check your Progress :
1) Explain the sources of History.
5.5 AUTHENTICITY OF SOURCES
Historical sources covers many things subject to authentication there are
many documents artifacts archaeological sites oral transmissions stone
inscriptions, paintings, photographs, folk songs, stories and so on. The
authentic sources at their most basic level supports the history writing the
historical sites like Mohan Jo Daro, Ajanta Caves which surely gives the idea
of past. Historians with their abilities with reasoning and analysis arrives on
certain conclusions. The secondary sources are also to be authenticated for
some important research work for example coins of Indus
ValleyCivilization or of Mauryan age is no doubt a primary source but the
drawings done on it during 1960 - 70 would be a secondary surce.
Similarly the visit of Fahean or Huntsang during the ancient times may
be a primary source but when their travelogue published some where in
19th century will be a secondary source for a research scholar
similarly Babur Namah written during the medieval age is a primary
source but the commentaries and the books written by the scholars
is sure a secondary source Sometimes a small source with authentic
knowledge gives huge information. if we look at the temples of ancient
India specialy in the southern part of the country which speaks volumes
i.e. the advanced geometrical knowledge, measurements, beautiful art
and architecture simply gives the idea about the superb knowledge of
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65 knowledge of the ruling elite of the time and their patronage for art and
architecture. The book writen during ancient times viz. Arthashastra by
Chanakya gives socio economic life of the peop le during the Mauryan
period.

Ancient sources - The relics, scriptures, carvings, pottery, coins, temples,
artifacts, weapons, autobiographies, travelogue etc. (material source) are
considered reliable form of evidence. but if we go a step further during
the Rig Vedic age the vedic text or hymns were preserved by reciting it
from generation to generation. this is surely an oral source of history.
Similarly Powadas legendary stories, poems are examples of oral source
of history which is to be accounted far. The another source to be
considered as authentic is inscriptions which provide valuable historical
facts. the study of inscription is called epigraphy. the study of the writings
on ancient inscriptions is called palaeography. Some inscriptions convey
monarchical orders regarding administrative, religious and major decisions
which are called royal proclamations and commandments. Others are the
records of the followers of major religion these followers convey their
devotion on te mple walls, pillars, stupas & monasteries, but these are
written by court poets (only praised the kings) however these rocks pillars
inscriptions contain most valuable historical data. Political and religious
matters are also gathered from such sources. For a study of Indus Valley
Civilization or Harappan culture, archaeology is regarded as chief
authentic source of information.
MEDIEVAL SOURCES
The medieval sources are archaeological remains , buildings, forts, caves,
temples etc. which are in good conditi on and important source of medieval
history, these remains provide lot of help to a researcher for eg. the fort at
Daulatabad by Yadavas rulers of Deovgiri the fort remained
unconquered because of its design, the line of defense and the military
might of th e kings the fort was built by king Bhillam, the fort made his
name immortal in history. Apart from forts buildings etc. lots of writen
doccuments, correspondence, official records (preserved in state archives
and libraries) which surely proved to be helpfu l to a researcher working
on medieval history.
MODERN SOURCES
Modern sources in history are ample viz. written document, films,
doccumentries, photographs, speeches war films etc. these contemporary
records mostly authenticated and preserved.
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66 5.6 AUTHENTI CITY & CREDIBILITY OF SOURCES
Authentic source is a term used to refer “ to a set of data held by a body
that has been appointed by a legal act to manage these data which are
unauthoritative in a particular are of competence, the data must concern
natural person or legal entities or legal facts”. The adjective authentic
describes something that is real or genuine and not counterfeit. In
addition to describing something real and reliable based on fact. Some
sources may be considered more reliable than others but many a times
source is biased in some way or other because of this, historians read
skeptically and cross -check the sources against other evidence. a
researcher tries to seek someone with first hand knowledge of an event
and naturally want to corrobor ate the contents of the document, working
with the information from other sources that have been proven legitimate.
some time non - textual source like photograph information of group of
people provides more information that traditional archival cannot but that
does not mean that textual source is less important, because for number of
informations or events of the world we rely on encyclopedias.
Government papers, diaries are often considered the most reliable
documents the main value of these sources is th at people producing them
know that they can say or write what they like honestly without concern for
the view of others. How authentication of source is checked :
5.6.1 What type of source is this ?
5.6.2 Incase of official report the writing seal etc. is to be checked
5.6.3 Historical account and other supporting facts to be checked
5.6.4 A fictional reconstruction or analysis of news paper reports
We must also ask number of significant questions
a) Who produced it?
b) Where were they?
c) In what condi tion?
d) Why did they produce this text or object & for what reason.
There is criteria for determining wether the source is reliable or not
1) Accuracy : the information gathered by a researcher against the
information found in the source, looks also for disclaimers as to
accuracyof the content. One can also double check the information a
source that a researcher already know its trust worthy.
2) Authority : one must make sure that the source is written by a reliable
author and / or institution if one is using a web page, than can usually
identify the owner / publisher by url link or check for copy right
statement. make sure the author has proper credentials on the subject
matter.
3) Coverage : A researcher will also want to examine of the content of
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67 identifying that it is relevant for the topic and valuable in subject
matter, one must also make sure that It provides enough information.
Historians work is based on an authentic sources rather than imagi nary
fiction. for example Platonic Love may be a good metaphor for a poet and
a novelist but not for the historian. historian must also reject the
perceptions prevailed for example short men are cunning, people with cat
like eyes are shrewd these statement s seem to be good in novels but not in
historical documents. Credibility or trust worthiness is surety that the
presented thing or a document is true and real. Therefore it is said the
records preserved in archives, libraries churches may not be true unles s
those are verified by a historian or a researcher.
Therefore, to say what is credible in fiction may not be credible in historic
writings. Credibility of sources comes out with the content of evidence in
written form or relics of the past. the documents of the past are surely
subject to verification checks and counter checks supported by reasoning.
the researcher has to abandon unwanted part of lengthy documents or
official records and takes out the related information for his / her research.
The document s / records quite often torn smudged , eligible specially
manuscripts like Government orders, deeds, sanads, correspondence hence
a researcher should take at most care to handel these documents.
According to Vico generally there are five errors (to be avoided) in history
writing :
1) Prejudice & Exaggeration .
2) Nation’s Complex presenting the past in glorious manner
3) Prefixing concept of past
4) Boasting
5) Difficulties in analyzing old documents.
Check your Progress :
1) Analyse the importance of authenticity and credibility in historical
research.
5.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed about methods of history writing and also
explained the authenticity of sources for historical research. Authenticity
and credibility of sources comes out with the content of evidence in
written form or relics or the past. The researcher has to abandon unwanted
part of lengthy documents or proxy documents with checking their
authenticity and credibility. Authenticity and credibility has played very
crucial role for historical res earch. Due to this history writing and
collection of authetic document will be meaningful and useful.
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68 5.8 QUESTIONS
1) Examine the authenticity of historical sources.
2) Write a detailed note on the credibility of historical sources.
5.9 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan India
Limited, Madras, 1978.
2. Carr E. H., What is History, Penguin Books, London, 1961.
3. Collingwood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paperbac ks, Oxford
University Press, London, 1966.
4. Dilthey W. (ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
5. Elton G. R., Practice of History, London, 1975.
6. Finberg H.P.A. (Ed), Approaches to History, London, 1962.
7. Garranghan G.H., Guide to Historical Method, 1971.
8. Gottschalk Louis, Understanding History, New York, 1956.
9. Renier G.J., History its purpose and Method, London, 1961.
10. Lal I., Research in History, Swastik Publishers & Distributors, Delhi,
2008.
11. Rajayyan K., History in Theory and Method, Madurai, 1976.
12. Webster John C.B., An Introduction to History. New Delhi, 1981.
13. G. J. Garraghan, A guide to Historical Research, Fordhan University
Press, New York, 1946.
14. K.N. Chitnis, Research Methodology in History, Atlantic Publishers,
New Delhi, 2006.
15. Sreedharan E, A manual of Historical Research Methodology, centre
for South Indian Studies, Kerala, 2007.
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69 6
IMPORTANCE OF ARCHIVAL
SOURCES
Unit structure :
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Archival research
6.3 Types of Archives
6.4 Importance of Archival Sources
6.4.1 Importance of Archival sources from Administrative Point of
View
6.4.2 Importance of Archival sources from Cultural Point of View
6.4.3 Importance of Archival sources from Personal Point of View
6.4.4 Importance of Archival sources from Research Point of View
6.5 Summary
6.6 Questions
6.7 Additional Readings
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After the study in the unit the students will be able to :
1. Comprehend the meaning of Archives.
2. Explain the reasons to contact a repository's archivist before planning
a visit.
3. Understand the archival research.
4. Know the types of Archives.
5. Grasp the importance of Arch ival sources from Administrative Point
of View.
6. Comprehend the importance of Archival sources from cultural Point
of View.
7. Review the importance of Archival sources from Personal Point of
View.
8. Understand the importance of Archival sources from Research Point
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70 6.1 INTRODUCTION
An archive is an accumulation of historical records or the physical place
they are located. Archives contain primary source documents that have
accumulated over the course of an individual or organization’s lifetime
and are kept to show the function of that person or organization.
Professional archivists and historians generally understand archives to be
records that have been naturally and necessarily generated as a product of
regular legal, commercial, administrative, or s ocial activities. They have
been metaphorically defined as “the secretions of an organism” and are
distinguished from documents that have been consciously written or
created to communicate a particular message to posterity.
They serve first of all as the n ation’s memory and enable a society to plan
intelligently for the future based on an awareness of past experience.
Archives preserve a record of the obligations and commitments of the
government and evidence of the rights and entitlements of the citizens.
Collectively, the archives contain a vast amount of information about
people, organizations, social and economic development, natural
phenomena, and events invaluable primary source material for writing
about all facets of the nation’s history. As a source of national history, the
archives can become a powerful influence in fostering a people’s
understanding of it and in creating a sense of national identity.
6.2 ARCHIVAL RESEARCH
a) What is Archival research:
Archival research is research involving primary sources held in an
archives, a Special Collections library, or other repository. Archival
sources can be manuscripts, documents, records (including electronic
records), objects, sound and audio -visual materials, or other materials.
b) What is an archives?
An archives is "an organization that collects the records of individuals,
families, or other organizations."
c) What is a repository?
A repository is "a place where things can be stored and maintained,
[including] any type of organization that holds docum ents, including
business, institutional, and government archives, manuscript collections,
libraries, museums, and historical societies, and in any form, including
manuscripts, photographs, moving image and sound materials, and their
electronic equivalents. " Archival research can be challenging, but it can
also be tremendously rewarding (and even fun) You may not find exactly
what you were looking for, but you may also find much more than you
expected.
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71 d) Special collections/archives collections.
Many prima ry sources that are available online are archival or Special
Collections sources which have been digitized and made available by
those institutions. But not every source is available online. Most Special
Collections/archival libraries are not able to digit ize all of their sources
(collections) or make them publicly available. Not every individual item
is listed in a collection's finding aid. Many SpecialCollections/archival
libraries do not catalog their collections by individual item. Instead, they
provide descriptions to the box or folder level. Not every collection
will have an online finding aid. While most institutions are working to
get finding aids online, this is an ongoing process for many organizations.
You may need to contact an arch ivist to learn more about which finding
aids are available online, and which are not. Some archives will create
catalog records for unprocessed collections to signal their existence.
Further, research/subject guides may also list unprocessed collections.
Not every library (including archives and Special Collections libraries) is
registered with World Cat. World Cat and Archive Grid (which draws on
World Cat) include information from many, many libraries, but do not
include materials from every library/repository. Not every repository uses
standardized descriptive methods. While most archives adhere to
professional descriptive standards, some do not. This can make it more
difficult to find materials using World Cat or other similar
databases/cata logs.
Most archival/Special Collections libraries will not lend their materials.
Due to rareness, fragility, or other restrictions, most items in these kinds of
libraries are not available for Interlibrary Loan. Researchers may be able
to request that cop ies of relevant records be made available through
Interlibrary Loan, however there may be a charge. If the repository can
offer you reproductions (photocopies, PDFs, or audiovisual materials) of
the materials you want to look at, expect to pay a fee. Typically, there will
be a charge for ordering reproductions, often including charging by the
page.
Most archival sources are in their original language. Archives and Special
Collections libraries do not typically offer translations of their materials.
Other scholars or editors may have published or otherwise made available
translations of materials. Your local repositories may not have the
archival resources you need. Archives and Special Collections libraries
tend to collect deeply in specific areas, rather than widely in many areas.
Smaller repositories may also focus on collecting materials relevant to
their local community.
Check your Progress :
1) What is the meaning of Archives?

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72 6.3 TYPES OF ARCHIVES:
College and university archiv es are archives that preserve materials
relating to a specific academic institution. Such archives may also contain
a "special collections" division. College and university archives exist first
to serve their parent institutions and alumni, and then to ser ve the public.
Examples : Stanford University Archives, Mount Holyoke College
Archives.
Corporate archives are archival departments within a company or
corporation that manage and preserve the records of that business. These
repositories exist to serve the needs of company staff members and to
advance business goals. Corporate archives allow varying degrees of
public access to their materials depending on the company's policies and
archival staff availability.
Government archives are repositories that colle ct materials relating to
local, state, or national government entities.
Examples: The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA),
the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, the New
York State Archives, City of Boston Archives.
Historical societies are organizations that seek to preserve and promote
interest in the history of a region, a historical period, non- government
organizations, or a subject. The collections of historical societies typically
focus on a state or a community an d may be in charge of maintaining
some governmental records as well.
Examples : The Wisconsin Historical Society, the National Railway
Historical Society, the San Fernando Valley Historical Society.
Museums and archives share the goal of preserving items o f historical
significance, but museums tend to have a greater emphasis on exhibiting
those items and maintaining diverse collections of artifacts or artwork
rather than books and papers. Any of the types of repositories mentioned
in this list may incorporate a museum, or museums may be stand -alone
institutions. Likewise, stand -alone museums may contain libraries and/or
archives.
Examples : The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Smithsonian National Air
and Space Museum.
Religious archives are archives relating to the traditions or institutions of
a major faith, denominations within a faith, or individual places of
worship. The materials stored in these repositories may be available to the
public or may exist solely to serve members of the faith or the institution
by which they were created.
Examples : United Methodist Church Archives, American Jewish
Archives.Special collections are institutions containing materials from
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73 historical valu e. Topics collected in special collections vary widely, and
include medicine, law, literature, fine art, and technology. Often a special
collections repository will be a department within a library, holding the
library's rarest or most valuable original ma nuscripts, books, and/or
collections of local history for neighboring communities.
Examples : Special Collections Research Center at the University of
Chicago, American Philosophical Society Library.
Check your Progress :
1) Explain the types of Archives.
6.4 IMPORTANCE OF ARCHIVAL SOURCES
Archives or archival institutions play a vital role as custodians of records
of the past. They are vital imparters of knowledge. Their primary role is to
make records accessible to posterity. Records are necessary exten sions of
human reminiscence that can be used to help bind society together.
Records also serve as tools of social justice and reconciliation. It would
not be an exaggeration to say that they are the nation builders.
The archival institutions select, preser ve, and make their records
accessible for a number of reasons, like legal, financial, and administrative
purposes. Government archives that administer public records, for
example, maintain records as evidence of the government's policies and
operations. Th e public archives make sure that the government is held
answerable to the public by preserving records that facilitate citizens to
keep a check on the working of government agencies and public servants.
Besides this, the records kept in public archives doc ument the rights of
citizens, such as benefits or possession of property. Private organizations,
such as businesses, churches, universities, and museums also set up
institutional archives to care for their records. The archival sources that are
maintained by these repositories record the origin, structures, policies,
programs, functions and vital information of the organization over a
period of time.
In addition to the legal, fiscal, and administrative purposes for which
archival sources are originally cre ated and used, archival sources are
useful for historical or research purposes. Archival sources provide a key
to examine past and present actions. In addition to the administrative users
of archives, a variety of researchers make use of archival sources. These
researchers are scholars, genealogists, students at all levels, local
historians, biographers, independent writers, and documentary filmmakers
etc. Since archival sources can preserved for many reasons by diverse
audiences, the records of organizatio ns that do not have their own
institutional archives are often actively hunted by archival institutions
such as collecting repositories. These institutions, rather than documenting
the activities of a parent organization, focus on collecting records that
document a particular topic like a person, subject or a geographical area.
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74 The value of archives and archival institutions can be broadly discussed as
follows:
(a) Valuable for administrative, legal issues of the government
(b) Valuable for protection of legal, civil, property and other rights of the
citizens.
(c) Valuable for functional documentation purposes
(d) Valuable for the purpose of research.
Records whether they are public records or private records have a great
value. They make an important sour ce from official, cultural and personal
point of view. They are the products of transactions in the past. They are
the only thoughts and activities of the human beings and institutions of the
bygone days. They provide guidelines to the coming generations.
Therefore, the value of archival sources can be assessed in the terms of
future use, some benefits to be derived at a future date.
6.4.1 Importance of Archival sources from Administrative Point of
View:
The government always plays an important part in the life of the
community at large. The development of any country economic, social and
intellectual to a great extent depends upon administrative effectiveness.
Efficient record keeping is a must for administrative effectiveness.
Archival sources constitute a memory for the government. The earlier
archival sources reflect the activities of the organization. They throw light
on every aspect of government activities. They are principal tools by
means of which the government plans are accomplished. Archival sour ces
give information on all legal and financial working and policies. By
consulting them the authorities can improve on the existing systems.
Sir Henry Jenkinson when held the esteemed post as a deputy keeper in
the British Public Record Office said that " when archives cease to be in
current use, their proper conservation should still be regarded as an
essential object of national concern, because they and they only, can give
us that impeachable guidance for the conduct in the present. The
preservation of h istorical evidence should thus be viewed not as a luxury,
nor as something merely academically desirable, but as a national
necessity."
The archival sources are also the sources though which it can be judged
whether the policies laid down are being execute d in the desired way or
not.


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75 The use of records in the administrative field we can give the following
points:
 Records save time and energy of the agency
 They help in the administrators to discharge their duties
 They help in the standardization of vario us administrative procedures
 They judge whether a policy laid down is executed as planned
 They help in coordinating the activities of persons or groups of
persons
 They help to handle legal, civil procedures
 They are useful for other public officials who wi sh to profit by the
already recorded experiences of the past.
Thus, records are valuable in the sense that they should be preserved for
the accounting of the work of all public officials. They are useful to public
officials who wish to profit by the alread y recorded experiences of the
past. So, in order to coordinate the energies of all agencies and
organizations towards a common goal, to check the progress, to execute a
plan, to avoid duplication of work, to plan efficiently, to standardise
various adminis trative procedures etc, the government records possess a
primary value.
Check your Progress :
1) Analyse the importance of Archival Sources from Administrative point
of view.
6.4.2 Importance of Archival sources from Cultural Point of View:
A nation's reco rds are highly significant for its cultural development They
act as mediators in the transmission of cultural heritages from the past to
the present. They contain all the records of man's intricate problems which
can be understood by the present generation . They are on par with other
important sources like museum possessions, monuments, parks or
buildings. In fact, the other resources may be administered by private
agencies as well, but the archival sources are the exclusive property of the
government only. Naturally it becomes obligatory on the party of the
government to value such Archival sources and preserve them.
To enhance the effectiveness of economic and social development,
programmes which are so vital in the progressive growth of countries,
good of ficial record keeping is absolutely essential. These records alone
enable the government authorities to take further suitable steps to attain
maximum utilisation of previous experiences. They help them to
accomplish their plans. They also provide retrospec tive data which in turn
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76 CM Andrews in a discussion on archives in the American Historical
Association, Annual Report Volume II in 1913, pointed out that. "The care
which a nat ion devotes to the preservation of monuments of its past may
serve as a true measure of the degree of civilization to which it has
attained. Among such monuments, documentary material both private and
public holds the first place in value and importance."
6.4.3 Importance of Archival sources from the Personal Point of
View:
The importance of archival sources from the personal point of view cannot
be underestimated. A close relationship exists between the government
and the governed. The records of earlier days give information of the
rights of the citizens be they civil, legal or financial. Based on these
records, the government can decide their policies. During the French
Revolution, for instance, the archives of Nationales of Paris was
established to hou se all the records of the revolution. These archival
sources mainly dealt with personal property rights and such related
privileges. They were useful later on to guide the government to protect
such rights and privileges of the citizens.
6.4.4 Importance o f Archival sources from Research Point of View:
Archival sources when cease to be in use, acquire value as research
material to a scholar. They form an important source material for the
genealogist or a biographer or a historian for their reference work.
Ernest Posne righly says, "The keeping of archival sources constitutes a
significant aspect of mankind's experience in organized living without
these archives, in fact, the story of our past could not be told. In the
absence of archival sources, it could ha ve been impossible to create any
literature be it historical or biographical based on any authentic sources,"
The records are valuable storehouses of wisdom and are ready to give us
advice as and when required. They make us aware of how much our
historians are struggling to construct our past history and how much easier
the work would be if enough volumes of archival materials were available
to us. This makes us understand the role of archives as a raw material for
research.
In fact, the archival intuitions are in a strong position of supporting a
broad spectrum of research first by the government itself and by the
academic community in almost all branches of learning. It must be agreed
that intellectual development in developing world depends in many fields
upon an intensive explosion of documentation normally preserved in
archival institutions, materials which unfortunately either lie scattered or
destroyed.
Check your Progress :
1) Analyse the importance of Archival Sources from Cultural, Personal
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77 6.5 SUMMARY
Memory, like history, is rooted in archival Sources. Without archival
Sources, memory falters, knowledge of accomplishments fades, pride in a
shared past dissipates. Archival Sources counter these losses. Archival
Sources c ontain the evidence of what went before. This is particularly
germane in the modern world. With the disappearance of traditional
village life and the extended family, memory based on personal, shared
story -telling is no longer possible; the archival Source s remains as one
foundation of historical understanding. Archival Sources validate our
experiences, our perceptions, our narratives, our stories. Archival Sources
are our memories.
Yet what goes on in the archives remains remarkably unknown. Users of
archival Sources (historians and others) and shapers of archives (records
creators, records managers, and archivists) add layers of meaning, layers
which become naturalized, internalized, and unquestioned. This lack of
questioning is dangerous because it impli citly supports the archival myth
of neutrality and objectivity, and thus sanctions the already strong
predilection of archives and archivists to archival Sources primarily
mainstream culture and powerful records creators. It further privileges the
official narratives of the state over the private stories of individuals. Its
rules of evidence and authenticity favour textual archival Sources, from
which such rules were derived, at the expense of other ways of
experiencing the present, and thus of viewing the past. Its strong whiffs of
positivist and “scien tific” values inhibit archival Sources adopting multiple
and ambient ways of seeing and knowing. An original order is thus sought
or imposed, rather than allowing for several orders or even disorders to
flourish among archival Sources in archives. And it hob bles archivists
trying to cope with electronic archival Sources, where active intervention
by archivists in the creation process of archival Sources, rather than
passive receipt of archival Sources created long before and later discarded,
is the only hope that today’s history will be able to be written tomorrow.
Archival Sources do on a philosophical or theoretical level, the power they
wield, the impact they have. It is a foray into that exciting intellectual
territory where positivist principles meet post modern theories, where
archival Sources “truths” indeed have historical consequences. It explores
the “interfaces,” in Margaret Hedstrom’s suggestive metaphor, between
archives, archival Sources, and power, and the surrounding social and
cultural and techn ological contexts in which they exist. To choose not to
engage in these debates is, in fact, a strong choice in favour of the status
quo, with all its implications for buttressing mainstream power. In
generating discussion and reaction, we hope to force ke epers as well as
users of archival Sources to confront, head -on, current intellectual
concerns about intentionality, instrumentality, representation, and power.


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78 6.6 QUESTIONS
1) What is the meaning of Archives?
2) Explain the types of Archives.
3) Analyse the im portance of Archival Sources from Administrative point
of view.
4) Analyse the importance of Archival Sources from Cultural, Personal
and Research points of view .
6.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1. Basu, Purnendu, Archives and Records: What are they? The National
Archi ves of India, New Delhi, 1969.
2. Cox, R., Closing an Era: Historical Perspectives on Modern Archives
and Records Management, Greenwood Publishing, London, 2000.
3. Freeman Elsie, "In the Eye of the Beholder Archives Administration
from the User's Point of View. " American Archivist, 1984.
4. Ghose, Sailendra, Archives of India, History and Assets, Firma K. L.
Mukhopadhyaya 1963.
5. Hari Narayan N., The Science of Archives keeping, The State
Archives, Hyderabad
6. Jenkinson, Hilary, A Manual of Archive Administration, oxf ord, at the
Clarendon Press, 1922.
7. Johnson, Charles, The Care of Documents and Management of
Archives, Society for promoting Christian knowledge, London, 1919.
8. Millar. L. A., Archives: Principles and Practices, Facet Publishing,
London. 2010.
9. Steedman Car olyn, Dust: The Archive and Cultural History, New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2001.
10. Dr. M. Sundararaj , Manual of Archival Systems and The World of
Archives, Chennai, Siva Publications.

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79 7

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Method of Data collection: Qualitative and Quantitative Approach
7.4 Methods of Data collection in Quantitative Research
7.5 Summary
7.6 Questions
7.7 Additional Readings
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this unit, the student will be able to:
1) Grasp the different methods used by researchers for collection of data
2) Know about the Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches in data
collection
3) 3 Focused Group, Content Analys is method
4) Acquaint with the Questionnaire, Interview Schedule and Survey
methods of data collection
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Research is a highly focused activity that requires collecting information
and processing he data. It involves the collection of informati on in a
targeted fashion, which is further explored thoroughly to lead to answers
to research questions and evaluate results. The collection of data is the
heart of any research design, irrespective of the field of study. Any
research begins with certain q uestions, which need to be answered. Data
collection is the process of gathering the raw information carefully with
scientific attitude with neutrality.

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80 7.2 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION: QUALITATIVE
AND QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity and is
usually applied to subjects like export, import, population, consumption
and so forth, which can be calculated in terms of quantity. In social
sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical
investi gation of social phenomena with the support of numerical,
scientific, or computational methods. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and or
hypothesis about particular phenomena. The process of quant ityor
measure is central to quantitative research because it provides the
fundamental connection between empirical observation and the
mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.
The qualitative research aims to gather an in depth understanding of
human behaviour and reason that govern such behaviour. In qualitative
researches the following methods are used to gather information such as
participant observation, structured interview, unstructured interview, field
notes and analysis of documents a nd materials. The most frequently used
qualitative research approaches include the following:
7.3 Methods of Data collection inQualitative research
a) Participant Observation (Ethnography) b) Case Study c) Focused Group
d) Content Analysis e) interview o pen ended
7.3.1 Participant Observation (Ethnography)
In this method, the observer himself participates in the activities of the
group in which he is studying. Because of the participation of the
observer, this is known as participant observation. The obse rver doesn't
need to identify himself with the group or actively take part in all the acts.
But he has to be physically present while the members of the group
perform their activities. Generally, participant observation is kind of
uncontrolled observation, in which the researcher may or may not reveal
his identity. This method allows observation of the individual’s behavior
in the most natural condition secondly, the researcher has access to a body
of information that would not have been easily obtained by an observer as
an outsider.
A researcher has the privilege of being part of the group. He gets to share
the feelings, emotions and behavior of the group. He gets to share the
feelings, emotions and behavior of the group members (subjects) and thus
record s it more accurately. He is able to see not only the actions or
behavior of the people but is also able to know why and under what
situation subjects act or behave in a given manner. Participant observation
also allows the researcher to check the truth of statements made by the
members of the group. Participant observation though is an effective
method of data collection, it has its limitations with a greater degree of
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81 with other memb ers of the group. This can kill investigator’s ability in the
group to the extent that he may forget to observe certain relevant aspects
of human behavior. Affiliation with the group can also make the
researcher biased or partial towards a particular subgr oup, therefore,
hammering scientific accuracy. In participant observation, researcher is
forced to occupy a particular position. This limits the scope of the
observer to study the phenomenon fully moreover, if the researcher comes
to occupy and strategic p osition in a group, he generally ends up bringing
about changes in group dynamics, therefore hounding the purpose of data
collection.
7.3.2 Case Study method
P. V. Young defines a case study as a comprehensive study of a social
unit, be it a person, a gro up of people, an institution, or community is
called a case study, According to Goode and Hatt, it is an approach that
views any social unit as a whole. It is a way of organizing social data so as
to preserve the unitary character of the social object bein g studied.” the
case study method is qualitative, inclusive, intensive, insight stimulating
and comprehensive approach. The field study is comparatively limited but
has more depth in it. It aims at studying everything rather than something
about everything as in case of statistical method. In other words, it is study
of Micro problem at macro level. The approach to a case study research
may not be based on hypothecs or on any well -established conclusions but
the study itself may help in formulating a well -founded hypothesis for
further investigation. This researchapproach is therefore, an open and
objective investigation of a particular unit to develop a hypothesis in
character so the researcher has complete freedom in selecting a problem
that is considered as described and fruit bearing.
Stages in Case Study
The case study is often termed as method, sometimes as technique and at
others an approach to social reality. It is in fact, a technique that considers
all potential aspects of the situation and intens ively investigating it. The
technique of gathering and processing data are related to three phases, viz
1) Choice of case 2) Recording of data 3) Data interpretation
The choice of case consists of two elements, first selection of
representative unit. Repre sentativeness of the case is important with a
view to studying as a specimen in a culture rather than as a definite entity,
for eg - the factors which are influencing the successful functioning of the
co-operative bank, it is needless to say that a represen tative group of the
sample - Second, identifying the situation thought case unit has an outlook,
the problem must be selected carefully and well defined the situation of
the case unit being studied. Organizing the social data in such a way to
preserve the u nitary character of the social aim that is an essential feature
in the recording of data. In a practical sense, the wholeness of case can be
preserved as Goode and Hatt started, for headings namely, 1)Breadth of
data, 2)Level of data, 3)formation of indice s, 4)Interaction in a time
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82 selection of the case and gathering information about the case. The
researcher must closely guard against the subjective interpretation of the
facts of a case be ing studied.
Significance of case study
A thorough study and careful analysis can derive various generalizations
which may be developed into hypothesis. A study of relevant literature
and case study are the two potent sources of hypothesis. It helps in
framing questionnaire or schedules. It aids in sampling, by studying the
individual units thoroughly. It locates deviant cases. The deviant case is
those units that behave against the proposed hypothesis .The tendency is to
ignore them but for scientific ana lysis they are important. Case study
method enlarges the range of personal experience of the researcher In
statistical method, generally a narrow range of topic is selected and the
researcher’s knowledge is limited to the particular aspect only. In case of
case study, the whole of range of subjective life is studied and the range of
knowledge is naturally enlarged.
7.3.3 Content analysis
This approach uses published works as its data and subject them to careful
analysis that usually includes both quantitat ive and qualitative aspect
content analysis has been particularly useful in investigating construct
such as race caste etc.Content analysis is a research technique for making
inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified
characteristic of content of document this a method of collection and
analysis this used to gathering data from archival records document,
newspapers diaries, letters minute of meeting and they like the content of
the written material serves as a basis of inference the analysis is made
objectively and systematically. Objectivity refers to making analysis on
the basis of explicit roles which enable different researcher to obtain the
same result from the same documents systematic analysis refer to making
inclusion or exclu sion of content according to consistently applied criteria
of selection. Only materials relevant to research hypothesis are examined.
7.4 Methods of Data collection in Quantitative Research
a) Questionnaire b) Interview Schedule c) Scaling Techniques -Social
Distance, Sociometry, Survey
7.4.1 Questionnaire
Questionnaire is one of the important tools of data collection. It secures
standardized result that can be tabulated and tested statistically.
Questionnaire is a set of questions. Generally, it is mailed to the
respondents of collecting data. It is employed when the area of study is
wide and the subjects are widely dispersed. In this method the researcher
does not collect the data by himself. He relies on the information provided
by the respondents.
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83 Types of Questionnaire
1) Structured Questionnaire - This questionnaire is named before the study
is started and it is not possible to change it offer beginning the study.
2) Non-Structured Questionnaire - This kind of Questionnaire is used
more like a guide. I t consists of definite subject matter areas, the coverage
of which is required during the process of data collection. It is generally
used in the technique of interview in which case it is called an interview
schedule.
Questionnaire can also classify on t he basis of nature of the questions that
it contains. They are closed, open, pictorial and mixed. Closed
questionnaire usually contains itemized answers to the questions being
asked various alternatives to the real answer are also given. The
respondent is only to select the answer and put it down. Open
Questionnaire is just the reverse of the closed questionnaire. It is used in
the cases where new facts are to be found out. The respondent is given the
liberty to express his views freely. Pictorial questionn aire is similar to
closed types of questionnaire. Mixed questionnaire is neither completely
closed non open. It consists of both the type of questions. Since it is
combination of the types of the questions it is popular in social
research.The successful ar e of questionnaire depends on devoting the right
balance of efforts to the planning stage, rather than rushing too early
administering the questionnaire. Therefore the researcher should have a
clear plan of action in mind and costs, production, organizatio n, time limit
and permission should be taken care in the beginning when designing of
questionnaire
7.4.2 Interview Schedule
Interview consists of dialogue on verbal responses between two persons
on between several persons. Interview is a technique of field work which
is used to watch the behaviour of individuals to second statements, to
observe the concrete results of social on group interaction. According to
Pauline Young, interview may be regarded as a systematic method by
which a person enters more or le ss imaginatively into the life of a
comparative stronger. It is move like a tape recorder in which past
incidences, feelings and reactions of the subjects and played back to the
living present to be listened to by the interview with a scientific approach.
The purpose of this technique of data collection is twofold a) To secure
certain information from the subject, which is known only to himself and
cannot be gathered from any other source. b) To study scientifically the
verbal behavior of the subject under given circumstances.Whatever the
typology broadly speaking there are five types of interviews as given by
Pauline Young.
1) Structured interviews - These are also called controlled guided of
direct interviews. These interties involve a set of predetermine d question
format which is strictly followed. Structural interviews mostly involve the
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84 is also not charged by the interviewer. The interviewer only has the liberty
to further explain the question or repeat the question if the subject has not
understood it.
2) Un structured interviews - These are also called uncontrolled,
unguided or non -direct interviews. There is not predetermined question
format in this type of interview. The resea rcher is given certain broad
topics upon which the information is to be collected it is held in the form
of free discussions. This kind of interview is characterized by a far too
greater flexibility of approach to questioning the respondents.
Respondents a re encouraged to relate freely their experiences. Such
interviews permit a free -flowing account of the personal and social
contexts of beliefs and feelings. The interviewer involved is allowed much
greater freedom to ask supplementary questions to change t he sequence of
questions or even offer explanations and classifications.
3) Focused interview - These interviews are of semi standardized type
Main purpose is to focus attention of the given experience of the
respondent and its effect. The interviewer kno ws in advance the relevant
aspects of the issue he has to cover. The focused interviews have been
used effectively in the development of hypothesis. The researcher tries to
focus respondent’s attention the particular aspects of the problems and
tries to kn ow his experiences, attitudes, emotion and responses regarding
the concrete under study.
4) Depth interviews - Dept. interviews has a purpose of going deep into a
person life to find out his motives, ideas opinion and attitudes for this type
of interview the researcher has to be skilled and trained. He enjoys the
freedom of altering the question and further explaining them or changing
the order of it. This type of interview is often used in studying psychiatric
problems.
7.4.3 Scaling Techniques - Sociomet ry
The concept of measurement refers to the process of describing abstract
concepts in terms of specific indicators by assigning numbers to these
indicators in accordance with rules. In social research measurement of
social phenomena has become an essenti al prerequisite because of a
number of reasons. One of the important reasons for measuring social
phenomena is to allow the researcher the opportunity of using those
phenomena is hypothesis to determine the effects of a set of variables to
others. A social phenomenon can be measured in various way, such as
asking questions or through noting behavior.
Technique in Sociometry
Sociometry is concerned with charting out the attractions and repulsion
among the members of a group among groups (miniature social sy stem) or
sub-groups or between the sub groups and individuals. Sociometry
involves a set of aoperations that depart fundamentally from the method
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85 Generally, sociometric studies employ obser vations questionnaires and
interview schedules. Sometimes examination of records may also be
employed to secure the relevant information. But sociometry should more
properly be considered a method of focusing on a particular type of
subject matter and a re lated method of analysis rather than simply a
method of data collection. The researcher needs to conduct observation of
the behaviour of members if he wants to know the actual happenings in
the group. During such as observation, the researcher concentrates on how
the members he has how they interact with another what the nature of the
relationship is who initiates interaction (Orientation role) and who plays
the object role etc.
The sociometric questionnaire and interviews are employed in securing
informati on from each person about the other members of the group with
whom they would like to or would not like to engage in a particular type
of interaction are also, their thoughts about this interactions question
included in the sociometric questionnaire or sch edule are directed toward
seeking information from each person in one group. Measurement refers
to the relationship among the values that are assigned to the attributes for a
variable. It is important to understand the level of measurement as it helps
to decide how to interpret the data from the variable concerned.
7.4.4 Survey
The Survey is defined as fact finding study dealing chiefly with working
class poverty and this the nature in the problem of community.Heriman N
Morse defines it as ‘a method of anal ysis in Scientific and orderly form for
defined purpose of a given social situation activities.’ According to Mark
Abrams,a social survey is a process by which quantitative facts are
collected about the social aspect of community composition and activities
from the above definition.
Survey describe the phenomena to a social scientist a survey may have
descriptive as a way of studying social condition, relationship and
behaviour for example survey communities. Socio economic survey
describes the living condi tion of people of a geographical area. Social
survey has intensive usage and is widely used in a number of disciplines.
In social sciences it can be used for variety of purpose availability of
nature of the source of information is the main and source of u ndertaking a
survey. Broadly the subject matter of social surveys is divided into 1)
Demographic Features 2) Social conditions 3) Opinion and attitudes.
Social activities such as expenditure pattern, radio listening newspaper
reading social mobility inform ation for example to know the expenditure
putter of a group of family house. It requires to the survey or following
knowledge on expenditure habit say, expenditure towards family, clothing,
education, cigarettes, cinema and other. Opinion attitude service, includes
information regarding opinion and attitudes of the people toward various
factor and the motives and the expenditure of them this information may
be necessary as the basis of nature of question that may safety be asked for
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86 7.5 SUMMARY
To do social work research, it is necessary to find the truth. If we do not
know the truth about the problem concerned, we cannot do social research
effectively . The choice of any social problem can be chosen by the
researcher as the subject o f research. But not all social problems are the
subject of this research. There are many methods of data collection.This is
a scientific process. Because the information collected is awkward and
scattered. Therefore, it is important to classify data aquire d through
various methods. The information is presented in a systematic form which
means that it is easier to read the information.
7.6 QUESTIONS
1) What are the qualitative methods of data collection?
2) What are the quantitative methods of data collect ion?
3) Elaborate case study as the method of data collection.
4) Explain the survey method.
7.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1) Pavline V. Young: Scientific Social Surveys and Research, Prentice,
Hall of India Private Ltd., 1984.
2) Alan Bryman, Quantity and Quality i n Social Research, London;
Unwin Hymna, 1988
3) Goode and Hatt, Methods in Social Research, McGraw Hill Book
Company, 1981.
4) William Outhwaite, Stephen Turner, The SAGE Handbook of Social
Science Methodology, 2007
5) B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Method s, Macmillan pub. Delhi,
1978.

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87 8
INTERPRETATION AND
GENERALIZATION OF SOURCES
Unit Structure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Rational of the Generalization
8.3 Importance of Historiographical attitudes influencing the
Generalization
8.4 Importance of Generalization
8.5 Problems wit h the generalization
8.6 Interpretation of the historical events
8.7 Summary
8.8 Questions
8.9 Additional Readings
8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter the students will be able to
 Understand generalization and its various aspects
 Explain its inevita bility and objections.
 Discuss the role and sources Generalizations.
 Grasp the factors responsible for interpretations in history
8.1 INTRODUCTION
A generalization is a connection or relationship between facts.It is anatural
process of simplification. The researcherencompasses the common
characteristics to all the objects which resembles each other.
Generalizations rests on a vague idea that all facts which resemble each
other are similar in all respects.It the means through which historians
understand the ir materials and try to provide their understanding of facts
to others. Analysis and interpretation of events, etc., is invariably done
through generalizations.

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88 8.2 RATIONAL OF THE GENERALIZATION
The main job of framing formula or generalization is to p ress all the
details of the narratives to yield a very significant results. It sum up the
entire research within a few cogent, and well thought out passages. It is
the epilogue, the gist, the final assessment or estimate of the whole work.
Naturally it bec omes the very essence of whole research. It has the same
force in history as general formulas or laws have in science.
Framing a formula is very complicated process, which involves a very
clear understanding of all the important places in history writing.
Historical data that had been so carefully collected, examined and
scrutinized, grouped and arranged are now subject to a different type of
operation. It require a different skill, where a lot of observation would be
necessary to furnish historical synthes is. This operation tells us what kind
of relationship exists among the numerous facts and that have been
detailed earlier of narrative. It is the higher form of analysis which
employs general terms, deals with broad principles and relates to value
judgment . Its main task is the search for the binding connections among
the facts which form the ultimate conclusion of every science.
The formula that is framed should confirm to certain accepted standard.
Historical facts differs in precision, yet they have to d eal with situation
through intensive search for fresh records whereby we will be able to
remove to the deficiency in the information. Formulas framed by reducing
a number of facts to a few generalizations and obtaining uniformities for
the whole period exc ept for the names and dates. The language used in
formula must be simple, precise and unambiguous using only descriptive
terms. To frame a formula as generalization we should know beforehand
what element ought to enter into it. The distinction must be made between
general facts and unique facts. General facts are those events which are
often repeated and are common to a number of men. We have to determine
the character, extent and duration. We unite under the same formula all the
individual cases which grea tly resembles each other by neglecting the
individual difference. In order to fix the precise extent of a habit we have
to know the region where it is most common. The formula must also
indicated the duration of the habit. We must look for the doctrine, us age,
institutions and the group.
If we are going to frame a formula as to how a particular custom or habit
has been evolved, we have to take into account the various it has passed
through. By comparing all the variations in the habits, it will be possible to
determine the general course of the evolution. All conclusions confirm to a
set pattern and common features indication the stages. Every habit begins
by being the spontaneous acts of several individuals. According to B.
Shaikh Ali, when others imitate them it becomes the usage. This is the
first stage. Individual initiative is followed by general imitation and
recognition. The usage becomes tradition and is transformed into
obligatory custom or rule. This is the state of tradition and authority.
Finally in certain societies, the rule is criticized and rational change is
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89 able to discern the stages, find out nature and describe it in suitable terms.
This refers to the general facts w hich exists in time and spaces. What
exactly is done here is to carefully observe the pattern of change in habit at
every stage, and check that with reference to habit in other areas and find
the similarities exist in the pattern. If the answer is affirma tive then we
can conclude that the behaviroual pattern in almost every case is the same.
If we want to know the factors responsible for war, we need to try to probe
deep human motives, intensions, ambitions, greed.
If we need a formula to describe a charac ter, there are two natural
temptations that we must take care of. One is danger of constructing a
formula out of person’s assertion in regard to himself. When a person
indulges in self -praise we ought to be careful before we believe in all his
claims. The other is risk of using imaginary characters.
8.3 IMPORTANCE OF HISTORIOGRAPHICAL
ATTITUDES INFLUENCING THE
GENERALIZATION
Some of the historians and sociologists who have undertaken such wide
generalizations are -Karl Marx, Max Weber, Marc Bloch, Fernand Br audel,
Eric Hobsbawm, Immanuel Wallerstein, According to Comte, there was a
successive progression of all conceptions and knowledge through three
stages. These stages are in chronological sequence: the Theological or
fictitious; the Metaphysical or abstrac t; and the scientific or Positive. Of
these three stages the first one is the primary stage through which the
human mind necessity necessarily passes. The second stage is middle, and
the third stage is the final and the fixed and definite state of human
understanding. According to him, the first two stages were now past while
the third stage, that is, the Positive stage, was emergent. Comte measured
that the Positive stage was dominated by science and industry. Hence the
medieval times concept of God dwells into history or religious impact on
history writing was repudiated by him. The inductive way, which Comte
whispered was applicable in sciences, consisting of observation of facts,
experimentation and then formulation of common laws, should be applied
in the writing of history as well.
According to the Empiricists, the knowledge acquired through tradition,
speculation, theoretical reasoning, or imagination is not the proper form of
knowledge. So, the bodies of knowledge derived from religious systems,
metap hysical speculations, moral preaching and literature are not
verifiable and so not reliable. The Empiricists consider that the only
legitimate form of knowledge is that whose truth can be verified. Both
positivists and empiricists reject the metaphysical, unobservable, and
unverifiable manners of knowledge. John Locke, George Berkeley, David
Hume, and John Stuart Mill were the significant empiricist historians. The
point in their philosophy is that all knowledge consists of facts derived
through experiences and experiences alone. So, any claimed knowledge of
the transcendental world or any metaphysical speculations have no
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90 repose their trust in the evidences in relation to the past t hat are presented
for us by the contemporaries through their sense impressions and if
historians seem at these sources closely, they can present a true picture of
the past.
Ranke whispered that the past should be understood in its own conditions
and not th ose of the present. The attitudes and behavior of the people of
the past ages should be discerned by the incisive revise of that scrupulous
era and should not be viewed by the parameters of the historian‘s own age.
Ranke was an Empiricist who whispered tha t the knowledge is derived
only through the sense experience yet Ranke was also critical towards the
sources and did not have blind faith in them.
Marx’s immediate concern was to interpret the contradiction of the
capitalist social formation The economic i nterpretation of the capitalist
mode of manufacture is the subject matter of Marx‘s Capital, which Marx
measured to be his lifework. The value of a commodity is determined by
the socially necessary labour time necessary to produce it. Labour power
is a com modity as well as exchanged for wages. The value of labour
power is equal to the value of what is needed for the survival and
maintenance of a worker and his family. The peculiarity of labour power
as a commodity is that it can make more value than what is paid in wages
as its value.
The subaltern historical school is a recent development in historical
writings. Subaltern studies bring to light the lower section of the society
hitherto unknown or neglected by elite historiography. The term subaltern
describ es the lower classes and the social groups who are at the margins of
society - a subaltern is a person rendered without agency due to his or her
social status . Gayatri Spivak in her work “ Can the Subaltern Speak?” goes
on toelaborate the problems of the category of the subaltern by looking at
the situation of gendered subjects and of Indian women in particular, for
‘both as an object of colonialist historiography and as a subject of
insurgency, the ideological construction of gender keeps the male
dominant’. As the subaltern has no history and cannot speak, the subaltern
as female cannot have true representation in historical accounts. David
Arnold has made a choice of hitherto neglected subjects like tribal
rebellions among the tribal belt and the Madras famine (1876 -78). He also
writes on peasants’ consciousness and actions in contemporary socio -
political circu mstances. Gyan Pnadey gives an account of peasants' revolt
of Awadh during 1919 -1922 and its impact on Indian nationalism. Stephen
Hemmingham shown the duel nature of revolt in the quit Indian
movement of 1942.
Postmodernism professes skeptical understandi ngs of culture, literature,
art, philosophy, history, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary
criticism. Michel Foucault (1926 —1984) gives us a great perspective of
Postmodern history. He introduced concepts such as 'discursive regime',
'episteme' a nd 'genealogy, in order to explain the relationship among
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91 like The Order of Things, The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and
Punish and The History of Sexuality.
8.4 IMPORTANCE OF GENERALIZATION
Generalizations are inherent in the very arrangement of presenting
historical facts. The historian collects the data of the past and arrange it in
chronological sequence. Whereupon its meaning would emerge or reveal
itself. In other languag es, the historian‘s task is only to test the validity of
data or to certify their authenticity, and not to interpret it, i.e., generalize in
relation to it.
The selection of a particular topic or emphasize on a particular topic is
followed automatically o r purposely according to the historical nature of
the research. Therefore, every historian selects the material need to be
highlighted. Furthermore, it is not even a question of selection of facts, for
even that assumes that facts are lying before the hist orian, in a plate as it
were. In reality, the historian has to search for them, and that assumes
some principle of selection.
Second, gathered facts have to be arranged and grouped. Both involve
explanation and causation, motivation and impact. In other l anguages,
analysis is vital to history as a discipline. In reality, except in a very
limited sense, information becomes information only as a result of a
generalization. For instance, a zamindar, or a peasant, or a slave, or a
capitalist looks like an info rmation, but is the result of a generalization.
The British referred to the medieval era as an era of Muslim rule, ancient
India as Hindu rule implying the generalization that the religion of the
ruler decides the nature of the rule. But they did not desc ribe their own
rule as Christian rule because this message directly gets spread with the
inherent generalization made by them with the division of the history on
the basis of religion. The emphasis in history on parliamentary speeches
would imply that thes e were the chief determinants of politics and
government policies. Recorded facts are, in any case, already the products
of the generalization in the minds of persons who recorded them. This is
also true of what and why sure statistics were gathered. Even today, the
facts accounted by newspapers are the result of the generalizing minds of
the reporters, editors, and owners of newspapers.
1) They enable the historian to draw inferences and set up chains of
causation and consequence or effect. In other langua ges, they enable him
to analyze, interpret, and explain his date.
2) The generalizations lead the historian to see for new facts and sources.
Quite often new sources can be properly grasped only through new
generalizations.
3) Generalizations help a studen t of history whether in the case of an
essay, a tutorial, a research paper or a book. Generalizations also enable
him to discover out which of his notes are important and relevant to the
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92 4) Generalizations lead his torians to highlight issues for discussion and
debate and to start procedures of fruitful discussion in the middle of them.
Some would agree with the generalizations presented in another
historian‘s work and discover new guides for research and thinking in
them.
8.5 PROBLEMS WITH THE GENERALIZATION
1) In history, every event is unique its own way. But, the information is
that even uniqueness demands comparison. We cannot grasp the unique
unless it is compared with something we know. Otherwise the unique is
unknowable, even unthinkable. In any case, a historian is concerned with
the relation fringed by the unique and the common. For instance, the
Indian national revolution is unique but its uniqueness can be grasped only
by comparing it with other recognized revolutions.
2) Many thinkers are of opinion that generalization as an assertion.
Likewise, several generalizations are inadequately tested. Several are
based on an oversimplification of data and relationships and causation.
Since other nationalist revolu tions took to violence, so the Indian national
revolution also had to be violent. Since globalization led to
underdevelopment in some countries, it necessarilylead to the similar in all
countries.
3) Measurements is a perfectly scientific procedure. But it can be applied
only with concrete things. The abstract things or ideas cannot be measured
in any parameter. It also not helpful in the case of facts of psychological
nature
8.6 INTERPRETATION OF THE HISTORICAL EVENTS
The historian has to interpret the his torical materials in order to construct
the moving pattern of images in which the form of the historical process is
to be mirrored. And this because the historical record is both too full and
too sparse. On the one hand, there are always more facts in the record than
the historian can possibly include in his narrative representation of a given
segment of the historical process.
8.6.1 Imperialist school’s interpretation of India :
The imperial attack on Indian culture and civilization is clearly seen in the
books of James Mill. He in his history and the account of Hindu
civilization wrote that Indians are rude and excelled in the qualities of
slaves. In the same way, another British historian Vicent Smith in his
account of Alexander’s invasion on India tried to prove that Europeans
were superior in warfare than Indians. He further says that the perpetual
political chaos in India, their inability to unite and rule themselves
properly made the British rule absolutely permanent in India.
MountstuarstElphinstance mentions that the Indian foreign trade was
conducted by Greeks and the Arabs and the Arabs easily overrun India as
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93 British historians often tried to underestimate the Indian culture. Even they
hinted that the Indians might have borrowed their cul ture from the Greeks
but they did not give any evidence to prove it. The Christian missionaries
highlighted deliberately the religious superstition, social abuses and the
practice of Sati in Indian society whereas they systematically ignored the
burning of heretics, practice of slavery, and serfdom in the European
societies. This led the Indian historians and philosophers to prepare
themselves to defend the imperial attack on their culture and civilization
which generated historical writings, came to be kno wn as the nationalist
school of Indian historiography.There are differences in the nature, quality
and quantity of historical literature in different ages and different people.
8.6.2 Reinterpretation by Indian nationalist historians :
The Indian nationali st school of historiography came into existence in the
reaction of the prejudices of the British imperialist historiography against
India. The Indian nationalist historiography aimed the most to search out
the national identity in its quest and prove India the most nationalist state.
The rising generation of Indian nationalist historians infested with the
legitimate national pride, tried to vindicate their national culture against
the unfounded changes of Europeans especially the British historians
against Indian nation and nationalism.R.C.Majumdar says that the
European historians misunderstood the several points of Indian national
interest and misrepresented them everywhere in their writings. The Indian
historians who so ever corrected them without conflic ting with the
scientific approach came to be known as the Indian nationalist historians.
The Indian nationalist School and its historians like Rajnarain, Bankim
Chandra Chatterjee and SasadharTarkachudasmani defended the Indian
religion and society in the ir writings. The archaeological researches
carried out by Indians as well as European research scholars dispelled the
inferiority of Indian culture and proved that it was far ahead than the
European culture. The British historians tried to underestimate t he
political and administrative system in India at each and every step. They
said that India had several sects and creeds. Therefore, it could not qualify
to be a nation. But historian R.K.Mukharjee in his scholarly thesis, the
‘Fundamental Unity of India’ mentions that religious unity, spiritual
fellowship among the Hindus and their ideal of an all India empire formed
the basis for Indian nationalism in the past.
8.6.3 Revolt of 1857 :
There are divergent views and opinion promoted by historian about the
Revolt of 1857. Whether it was premeditated and a result of organized
planning, or it was a spontaneous rising of the sepoys enraged by the issue
of contaminated cartridges. Many writers on this event have also divergent
and contradictoryviews regarding its nature. The argument is centre
around the questions - whether it was a mutiny or a national war of
independence. A few writers, such as S.B. Chaudhari consider the Revolt
of 1857 as ‘the first combined attempt of many classes of people to
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94 they call it a civil rebellion. Scholars such as R.C. Majumdar have
expressed the view that the revolt was largely the work of the sepoys,
though the general masses also played part in it. A further opinion had
been that the revolt was a national war of independence to drive the
foreign rulers out of the country and to make it completely independent.
To counter the attack of British on India, the Indian historians began to
reinterpret their history a nd infuse nationalism through out the country.
V.D.Savarkar reinterpreted the history of the uprising of 1857 and called it
the first war of Indian independence. S.B.Choudhary’s ‘Civil Rebellion in
the Indian Military 1857 -1859 ’, characterized the uprisin g of 1857 as the
national war of independence. In order to counter the British propaganda,
the Hindu -Muslim differences was a major hurdle. The process of
reinterpretation of Indian history was continued further by Tarachand, who
in his book, ‘Influence of Islam on Indian culture’, professed that the
conglomeration of Hindu -Muslim culture cemented them into Indian
nation. Thus, the reinterpretation of Indian history became a major theme
of nationalist school of Indian Historiography.
8.6.4 Marxist interpret ation :
The Marxist school of Indian historiography made conscious efforts to
bring about change in history writing from narrative and descriptive to
explanatory and interpretative. In this process of change these historians
emphasized more on large moveme nts and not on events to prove that
interpretation of fact is history and not the mere description of events.
The interpretation of those historians is derived from the historical
philosophy of karl Marx, i.e. dialectical materialism. The essence of this
new approach is in the study of the relationship between the social and
economic organization and its effect on historical events. This new trend
did not insist and emphasis on new evidence for example, re -reading of
sources with different sets of question s in Mind. D.D.kosambi adopted a
comparative method and interdisciplinary techniques of investigation to
study the dead past. He tried to reconstruct the past with the help of
archaeological sources as well as he used his knowledge of Sanskrit and
etymolog ical analysis to study the Aryan and non -Aryan elements. There
are geographical, topographical and geomorphological pointers, which
guided him to indicate some of the urban sites.
Bipan Chandra in his ‘India’s Struggle for Independence’ differed from
the i mperialist approach of the Cambridge school and the Indian
nationalist school and argued that the Indian national movement was not a
people is movement but a product of the need of the time and interest of
the educated class. He further mentions that Marxi st historians call the
Indian national movement as a structured bourgeois movement. In his
‘communalism in modern India’, Bipan Chandra denied that
communalism was a mere historical accident or product of dialectical
conspiracy and says that it was one of the by -products of colonialism.
Communalism is often distorted and misrepresented as social tension and
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95 fronts. While analyzing communalism, he says that it remained liberal
from 1857 - 1937, it became fascist after 1937 based on the politics of
hatred, fear psychosis and irrationality after the world war II, the British
played the communal card and recognized the Muslim League as the sole
advocate of the Muslim cause.
8.6.5 Economic In terpretation of the Principle of Ahimsa :
The historians of the Marxist school of Indian historiography upheld the
principle of ahimsa enjoined by Buddhism and Jainism the two popular
religions originated in the sixth century B.C. and interpreted that ther e was
one of the economic reasons behind this principle. D.D.Kosambi on the
evidence of Pali stories of royal fire sacrifices says that as the Vedic
rituals prescription large scale cattle were slaughtered, which resulted in
an incredible scarcity of cattl e on the new iron -plough agriculture in the
Ganga basin. As a matter of fact this iron -plough agriculture needed
preservation of and augmentation of cattle wealth to produce agricultural
surpluses to feed the urban population. Kosambi further says that in order
to avoid the strain on regular agriculture created by requisition of
increasing number of animals free of cost for Yadnya, Jainism and
Buddhism out fashioned the practice of animal sacrifice , cattle killing and
beef- eating by tabooing it in the six th century B.C.
8.6.6. Interpretation of caste :
Irfan Habib in his Interpreting Indian History emphasized on the
interpretation and not a narration of history. He says that interpretation of
the past is necessary because the facts on which historians trea t the
evidence of the past cannot recreate and verify those events. The evidence
for the past is little and keeps wide blanks. These blanks could be filled up
by understanding how societies operate and what people are motivated by
and capable of doing vari ous things in various situations. Thus the
interpretation with the help of personal judgment and erudition of the
historian helps to understand history in a better way. In the same work, he
says that the medieval Indian economy was a separate social format ion
different from the feudal economy on the basis of labor process, extraction
of surplus value and the distribution of surplus production. Irfan Habib in
another work ‘Caste and Money in Indian History’ says that caste was the
most rigid form its divisio n of labor, formed the part and the relations with
production. The chief beneficiaries of this rigorous form of class
exploitation were the ruling classes of the nobility and zamindars in the
medical Indian society.
8.6.7 Interpretation of Akbar’s policies :
In 1589 -1590, Akbar ordered Abul Fazal to compile the history of his
reign, beginning with an explanation of Babur and Humayun. A bureau
was recognized in which competent people were employed to assist Abul
Fazal. The whole archival material was placed at the compiler’s disposal.
The whole archival material was placed at the compiler‘s disposal. He
presents Akbar as cosmic man, entrusted by God with sway in excess of
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96 said to libera te people from orthodoxy, lead them to the truth, and make an
atmosphere of concord so that people following dissimilar sects could live
in peace and harmony. He was shown as a light emanating from God.
Akbar employed Badauni to translate Mahabharat from S anskrit into
Persian. Badauni was also a keen student of history and literature. It is
Badauni‘s second volume that needs to be studied beside with Abul
Fazl‘sAkbarnama to have a proper understanding of Akbar’s reign.
Badauni does not gloss in excess of an y uncomfortable question on
Akbar‘s skill as an administrator. For instance, Badauni records the failure
of the karori experience and the disaster it caused. Abul fazal is generous
in praisingAkbar whereas Badauni is highly critical of Akbar’s religious
policy.
8.6.8 Interpretation of the HindviSwarajya of Chhatrapati Shivaji
Maharaj :
There are various cultural interpretations about the HindviSwarajya
founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.Hindvi Swaraj is a term for socio -
political movements seeking to r emove foreign military and political
influences from India. The political activeness of Maharashtra from the
seventeenth century, the ideal of king Shivaji, and the impact of modern
education among the leaders were favourable for the emergence of a
distinc tive nationalistic feeling in Maharashtra. Jotirao Phule, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, V. D. Savarkar, V. K. Rajwade and many other thinkers
and historians have presented their interpretations regarding the Swarajya
founded by King Shivaji. Jotirao Phule described king Shivaji as
kulwadibhushan which literary means the king who worked for cultivators
and common people. Jotirao published his Ballad on Shivaji in June 1869.
The title of the ballad was Life of Shivaji in poetical metre . Jotirao rejected
the existing i mage of Shivaji as the protector of cows and Brahmins. He
was the king of masses. According to Phule, Shivaji was the Bahujan king
working for the benefit of entire subjects.
Noted historian Jadunath Sarkar notes in his Shivaji and His Times - King
Shivaji’ s religious policy was very liberal. NarharKurundkar has put
forwards an analysis of Chhatrapati Shivaji as the Preface toShrimaan
Yogi-Shivaji was religious; but he was not a fanatic. V. D. Savarkar was
amongst the very first ones who projected Shivaji as a national hero of
Hindus. This was in line with his philosophy of Hindutva. With his
writings and his oratory, He created a predominantly Hindu image of
Shivaji for the polarization of Hindus to support his ideology.
8.7 SUMMARY
Generalization and int erpretation of the historical sources are the key
components of the historical writings. Generalizations promote a search
for fresh supporting or countervailing evidence regarding them.
Participants can at the most refute or add to the facts presented in t he
paper. Interpretation of the past in the words of a historian. It is a scholarly
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97 subjective. The main job of a historian is to record the information and
facts based upon narratives of the p ast and recollect the entire sequence of
events without getting biased.
8.8 QUESTIONS
1) Explain the importance of generalization in history writing.
2) Enumerate the role of interpretation and generalization in history.
3) Give a brief account of facto rs responsible for interpretation of the
history sources.
8.9 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1) B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Methods , Macmillan pub. Delhi,
1978.
2) R. G. Collingwood, the Principles of History and Other Writings in
Philosophy of History (ed. Willi am H. Dray and W. J. van der
Dussen), 2001.
3) R. Kulkarni, Maharashtra in the age of Shivaji, Diamond publication.
4) J. N. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times.
5) Alan Bryman, Quantity and Quality in Social Research, London;
Unwin Hymna, 1988.


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98 9
FOOTNOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Unit Structure :
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Importance of Citation and Referencing
9.3 Citation Methods
9.4 Bibliography
9.5 Care to be taken while giving a bibliography
9.6 Summary
9.7 Questions
9.8 Additional Re adings
9.0 OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this unit the student will be able to
 Understand the rational and various methods of citations
 Explain the importance of referencing and various types of it
 Gasp the importance and care to be taken in bibliogr aphy
 Understand the contribution of technical aids in history
9.1 INTRODUCTION
A citation is a way of giving credit to individuals for their creative and
intellectual works that you utilized to support your research. It can also be
used to locate particula r sources and combat plagiarism. Footnotes appear
at the bottom of the page and endnotes come at the end of the document. A
number or symbol matches on the footnote or endnote with a reference
mark in the document. Click the location where you want to go i n the
context of the footnote or endnote.At the end of the research project, a list
of all the books useful in the research is given. It's called bibliography.
9.2 IMPORTANCE OF CITATION AND REFERENCING
IN FOOTNOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
The followings are va lid reasons why a student or researcher must
refer to, quote and cite sources in his or her research writing:
1) It is anevidence that research is based on facts. Citations to sources help
readers expand their knowledge on a topic. One of the m ost effective munotes.in

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99 strategies for locating authoritative, relevant sources about a topic is to
review footnotes or references from known sources.
2) It shows the theoretical foundation of the research and, therefore, you
are reporting your research from an info rmed and critically engaged
perspective. The list of sources used increases your credibility as the
author of the work. If you disagree with a researcher's ideas or you
believe there is a gap in understanding the research problem, your
citations can serve as sources from which to argue an alternative
viewpoint or the need to pursue a different course of action.
3) It justifies the reliability of the research findings and conclusion .
Properly citing sources prevents your reputation from being tarnished
if the facts or ideas of those cited are proven to be inaccurate or off -
base. It prevents readers from concluding that you ignored or
dismissed the findings of others, even if they are disputed.
4) It allows interested readers to track and follow the cited work s for the
continuance of knowledge. In academic and the professional world, failure
to cite other people's intellectual property ruins careers and reputations
and can result in legal action. Citing sources as a student in college will
help you get in the h abit of acknowledging and properly citing the work
of others.
9.3 CITATION METHODS
Academic faculties require different referencing method. This is also the
case with scientific Journals and other professional publications. The
student or researcher should first determine the requirement of his or her
department, faculty or professional body.Ostentatiously, and in the ambit
of this chapter, some of the academic departments or disciplines and the
referencing method they usually subscribe to are presented in the table
below
Sr. Methods Disciplines
1 Harvard Method All Language Studies, History,
Arts, and Literary studies,
Theology, Sociology,
Criminology, etc.
2 APA Method Social and behavioral sciences
such as Education L ibrary and
Information Science,
management Sciences, Nursing,
other behavioural and Social
Science disciplines.
3 MLA Method Linguistics and Literary
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100 APA (American Psychological Association) method examples :
Following are the examples of some references in the form of footno te or
endnote.
An article in a print journal -Ernest Renan (1994), ‘Qu’est -cequ’une
nation?’ from Oxford Readers Nationalism , edited by John Hutchinson
and Anthony D. Smith, Oxford University Press, New York,
A book -Gail Omvedt (1976), Cultural Revolt In C olonial Society: The
Non Brahmin Movement In Western India 1873 to 1930 , scientific
Socialist Education Trust, Bombay.
MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the Humanities
Book in print -Omvedt, Gail. Cultural Revolt In Colonial Society: The No n
Brahmin Movement In Western India 1873 to 1930 , scientific Socialist
Education Trust, Bombay, 1976.
An article in a print journal -Renan , Ernest . ‘Qu’est -cequ’une nation?’
from Oxford Readers Nationalism, edited by John Hutchinson and
Anthony D. Smith, Ox ford University Press, New York, 1994.
9.3.1 Citation Methods in the written Text :
There are four means according to which a student or research er can cite a
source or reference during scientific writing.
1) Referencing to the Sources: This is done by pl acing the citation in
brackets in the text at the precise place where the eventoccurs.
2) Content Referencing: Content referencing is used within the text to
provide additional explanation or discussion. The content referencing
is used to
I. Acquaint the re ader to other sources that can offer more information
on a specific topic
II. Elucidate information in the text, for example by providing more
information on people or places, explain foreign words, etc.
III. Make available extra information that, although impor tant, cannot be
included in the text without disrupting its flow
IV. Expand on a standpoint
9.3.2 Methods of notes :
Endnotes and footnotes
Endnotes appear on a separate page at the end of the research
project. They are indicated in the text by means of superscript
(raised Arabic numerals). Endnotes are more cumber some than footnotes
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101 Advantages of Using Endnotes
1) Endnotes are less distracting to the read er and allow the narrative to
flow better.
2) Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
3) As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to
read and contemplate all the notes at once.
Footnotes appear at the bottom of a page and are sepa rated from the last
line of text by additional space or a line,or a smaller font. They are also
indicated in the text through superscript, which are preferably placed at the
end of the sentence and usually after the punctuate Essential Components
of Every Reference Generally, references to all kinds of information
sources have to contain some essential components (bibliographic
records). The essence is to give all the information as completely as
possible to allow the reader to trace the correct sources.
9.3.3 Advantages of Using Footnotes :
1) Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance
down the page to find what they are looking for.
2) It allows the reader to immediately link the footnote to the subject of
the tex t without having to take the time to find the note at the back of
the paper.
3) Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.
Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or
footnotes in your research paper:
1) Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper,
except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables,
charts, etc.) Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not
include periods, parentheses, or slashe s. They can follow all punctuation
marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the
text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or
phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material.
2) Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take
the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent
non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a
separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged
alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to
use endnotes, consult with your professor.
3) In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now
considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnot es, which are
much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word
processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history,
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102 which form to use and always re member that, whichever style of citation
you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.
9.3.4 Abbrevi ation in footnote and endnotes :
There are two main types of information sources: print and non -print
sources. The first time any book or article is mentioned in a footnote, all
the information requested above must be provided. After that, however,
there are shortcuts that should be used.
If there several quotations in sequence from the same book, the
abbreviation to be used is Ibid. a Latin word meaning "in the same place."
(Notice that Ibid. is not underlined). Ibid. can be used by itself, if you are
referring to the same page as the previous footnote does, or it can be
combined with a page number or numbers.
Print Sources
The components tha t constitute each reference entry for print sources
include
1) Author or Authors
2) The date of publication
3) Title of the book
4) Edition
5) Place of publication
6) Publisher
7) Volume, number and/or page numbers
Non-print Sources (electronic materi als)
To accurately cite and reference electronic sources of information,
the following basic information (which must appear in every likely
credible electronic material) must be clearly visible where available
1) Name of the Author or Editor (If provided in source)
2) Title of the page or article
3) Title of the web page.
4) Type of medium (for example electronic journal, online)
5) Date on which the website was updated or the copyright date
6) full internet address
7) Date on whi ch the website was accessed
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103 9.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY
A bibliography is a listing of all the sources used when researching a
paper. Generally speaking, a bibliography is a list of books on a particular
topic or subject prepared for the reference of a particular li brary user. You
may include texts that you have not referred to directly in your work, but
which have had an influence on your ideas. If you find you have a lot of
works that are not referred to directly though, you may wish to look back
over your work and check that all of the ideas are fully referenced.In most
cases, a bibliography is a single alphabetically -ordered list of all the
sources used, regardless of format. So books, journal articles and websites
would all be listed together. This list appears in a separate section at the
end of the paper and includes such information as the author(s), title,
editor, and date of publication.
9.4.1 Rational of Bibliographies :
The need of bibliography is to organize information about materials on a
given subject s o that students of the subject may have access to it. A
descriptive bibliography may take the form of information about a
particular author's works or about works on a given subject or on a
particular nation or period. Critical bibliography, which emerged in the
early 20th century, involves meticulous descriptions of the physical
features of books, including the paper, binding, printing, typography, and
production processes used, to help establish such facts as printing dates
and authenticity. Thus a biblio graphy is a list of books or articles related
by way of authorship or subject, and sometimes annotated. Large
bibliographies may be published as books in their own right. One of the
purposes of a bibliographic entry is to give credit to other authors whose
work one has consulted in research. Another objective of a bibliography is
to make it easy for a reader to find the source which has been used.
Bibliography is an important source of information for a research scholar.
It serves as a ready reference and d irects him or her towards the right kind
of material which helps in research and studies. Bibliography helps in
organizing research material properly and saves the time of user.
Preparing a bibliography is a specialized job and requires some knowledge
and understanding of the subject.
9.5 CARE TO BE TAKEN WHILE GIVING A
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) Primary and secondary sources should be listed in separate sections.
Each section should be labelled "Primary Sources" or "Secondary
Sources." Journal articles and encyclopa edia articles should be listed
with secondary sources.
2) Entries are placed in alphabetical order under each author’s last name.
Because ancient and medieval authors usually do not have a last name,
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104 3) Each entry should be single -spaced within the entry. It should be
separated from the next entry by a blank line. Information within in
each citation is separated by periods.
4) The first line of each entry should begin at the left margin. Each
subsequ ent line should be indented spaces from the left margin.
5) When listing more than one item by the same author, it is not necessary
to write the author’s name twice so long as the author’s name has been
printed in exactly the same way for each work (which is not always the
case). For each subsequent reference in the bibliography, type five
dashes and a period to begin the entry. Some of the examples of
bibliography mentioned below.
9.5.1 Primary sources :
Primary sources are the pieces of evidence that his torians use to learn
about people, events, and everyday life in the past. Just like detectives,
historians look at clues, through evidence, and reach conclusions. Diaries,
letters, certificates of birth, death, or marriage, deeds, contracts,
constitutions, laws, court records, tax records, census records, wills,
inventories, treaties, report cards, medical records, passenger lists,
passports, visas, naturalization papers, and military enlistment or
discharge papers can be considered as primary sources.
 Letters
 Memoirs
 Court Writings
 Private Records
 Government documents
 Newspaper Article
 Records of the Historical Families and Private Papers
 Interview
 Questionnaire
 Maps and Photo Copies
I. Files from Maharashtra State Archives, Mumbai
Educational Department Files of Government of Bombay.
E. D. Vol. No. 1, Compilation - 35, 1825.
E. D. Vol. No. 2, 1826.
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105 Home Department Files of Government of Bombay.
H. D. (Spl.) File No 575, 1922.
H. D. (Spl.) File No 363 (5), 1928.
General Department F iles of Government of Bombay.
G. D. Vol. No. 3/809, 1844.
G. D. Vol. No. 4/810, 1844.
II. Official Publications
Report of The Director Public Instruction, 1857 -1858, Bombay, Published
in 1859.
Selections from the records of The Bombay Government No. CXXXII ,
New Series, Poona, 1873.
III. Newspapers And Periodicals
Nibandhmala (Marathi) (1974 to 1978)
Deenbandhu (Marathi) (1877 to 1879)
Dinmitra (Marathi) ( 1888)
Subodh Patrika (Marathi) (1867 to 1868)
9.5.2 Secondary Sources
I. Books
Agarkar Gopal Ganesh, NivdakLekhvaDongaritilTurungatil Amache 101
Divas (in Marathi), SamanvayPrakashan, Kolhapur, 2012.
Dr. Ambedkar B. R., TheBudha and His Dhamma , Oxford University
Press,
Ayer A. J., Voltaire , Faber and Faber, London 1988.
Bagade Umesh, MaharashtratilPrabodhan a ni Vargjatiprabhutv (in
Marathi) , SugavaPrakashan, Pune, 2006.
Bagade Umesh, Maharashtra CharitraGranthmalaSanch - Mahatma
Jotirao Phule (in Marathi), Shri GandharvaVedPrakashan, Pune, 2010.
Bayly Susan, The New Cambridge History of India: Caste, Society and
Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age ,
Cambridge University Press, 1999, (Indian edition 2000).
II. Journals and Periodicals
Critical Enquiry
Economic and Political Weekly
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Research Methodology and
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106 The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 8, 17 and 25 , (Micropedia), 15th
edition, London, 1974.
IV. Articles
1) Bagade Umesh, ‘ Mahatma JotiraoPhulyancheDharamchintan’(in
Marathi), Sanshodhan Mandal , Fourth Issue, October -December 1993,
Dhule.
2) Bhagwat Vidyut, ‘A Review of the Women’s Movement in
Maharashtra’, Paramarsh , May 1989.
9.5.3 Internet Sources
1) Steven Kreis, The History Guide: Lectures on Ancient and Medieval
European I, www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture8b.html/ Date -
9/09/2013, 09.30 am.
2) Dr. C. George Boeree, The Ancient Greeks, part one: The Pre -
Socratics , webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/greeks.html, date -
13/09/2013,02.02pm.
3)http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/library_and_i
nformation_science/social_science_information_systems/09.referen ce_sou
rces____bibliographies,_indexes_and__abstracts/et/2158_et_m9.pd f
9.5.4 Other component of Bibliography
Abbreviations
An abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short) is a shortened form of
a word or phrase. It consists of a group of letters taken from the word or
phrase. For example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by
the abbreviation.
Some examples of abbreviations
art. - article
cat. - catalogue
cf. - compare
ed. - edited by, editor
edn - edition
e.g. - for example
etc. - and so forth, and so on
ibid. - in the same place
i.e. - that is
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107 n.d - no date of publication
n.p - no place of publication
op.cit -in the work cited, such as a publication referred to earlier, but not
in the immediately preceding footnote.
p. - page
pp - pages
trans - translated by, translator
viz - that is to say, namely
vol - volume
9.5.5 Appendices
An appendix or appendices (more than one item) is information that is not
essential to be mentioned find ings in the essay or report that you have
written. Appendices are used when the incorporation of material in the
body of the work would make it poorly structured or too long and detailed.
Along with above mentioned component there are many other things
related with research that can be a part of Bibliography such as charts,
tables, maps, glossary, photos etc. used widely for teaching learners of all
ages. For adult learning focused on employability and experiential
learning programs, technical aids are esse ntial.
9.6 SUMMARY
Academic institutions and scientific publications demand references for all
sources used in the course of writing. Bibliographies can organize
citations in a helpful manner and make it possible to find relevant
information quickly. The b est bibliographies provide subject grouping to
give some indication of the schema of the discipline with a keyword index
for quick access. The need of bibliography is to organize information
about materials on a given subject so that students of the subjec t may have
access to it.
9.7 QUESTIONS
1) Explain the importance of citation with its various methods.
2) Describe the referencing methods and care to be taken while
referencing the source.
3) What are the components of bibliography?


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108 9.8ADDITIONAL READINGS
1) Wilkinson and Bhandenkar : Methodology and Techniques of Social
Research, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai 1977.
2) Kumar Ranjit, Research Methodology Ed.2, Pearson Education, 2006.
3) B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Methods , Macmillan pub. Delhi,
1978.
4) Goode and Hatt, Methods in Social Research, Mc Graw Hill Book
Company, 1981
5) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292869655_BIBLIOGRAP H
IC_CITATION_AND_REFERENCING_METHOD


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109
10
SOURCES FOR ANCIENT INDIAN
HISTORY
Unit Structure :
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Archaeological sources

10.3 Literary sources

10.4 Miscellaneous Literature

10.5 Accounts of foreign travelers

10.6 Summary

10.7 Questions

10.8 Additional Readings
10.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, the student wilt be able to
1) Understand the nature and types of the sources for Ancient History
2) Explain the archaeological and literary sources of ancient Indian history
3) Explain the nature of the sources for ancient Indian history
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The historical writings need resources for the reconstruction of the past.
The presence of historical evidences make history different than
literature. The various cultures and civilization left archeological and
literary sources with the passage of time. The source material is the
essential part of history writing. The ancient history sources can be
categorized into archaeological and literary sources. Archaeological
sources can be classified in to inscriptions, coins and monuments.



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110 10.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

The archaeological sources played an important role in constructing the
history of a region. The archaeological source improved our awareness
about past and also provided important mat erials, which we could not have
been obtained in literary source. Epigraphy and Numismatics are the
important branches of the study of history which has greatly enhanced the
understanding of India's past.

Inscriptions

Inscriptions are of great value for the reconstruction of the ancient Indian
political history. These inscriptions being engraved on stones or metals
are authentic as they are free from tampering. The inscriptions contain
various subjects. They include religious matters, decrees of rulers , records
of conquests, sale or gift of land by various rulers to individuals or
religious institutions, description of achievements etc.

Importance of the inscriptions

The inscriptions containing the edicts of the Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka,
engraved on r ocks and pillars had been discovered from beyond the Indus
in the west to the Mysore plateau in the south. The discovery of these
inscriptions indicates the geographical extent of the Mauryan Empire
during Ashoka. They contribute largely to our knowledge of the history of
that period. The inscriptions of the post -Ashokan period may be broadly
divided into two categories -official and private. The official records, in
most cases are prashastis (eulogies) which were intended to praise the
personal qualities and military achievements of the rulers. The inscription
has been one of the chief sources for the study of political history of
ancient India.

The most important of the eulogy inscriptions are the Allahabad Pillar
Inscription of Samudragupta. Other Imp ortant prashasti inscriptions
include, the Hatigumpha Inscription of King Kharavela of Kalinga. The
Gwalior Prashasti of the great Pratihara ruler, Bhoja, the GirnarInscription
of the great Satrap Rudradaman, the Meharauli Inscription of King
Chandra, the Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II. Inscriptions also help in
understanding on various aspects of administration that prevailed in
ancient times.

These inscriptions include order issued by rulers’ feudatory chieftains,
provincial governors, or any hig h officials granting state lands or
assigning a part of the state revenue to religious men or institutions. They
are mostly engraved in temples or images of stone or metals. They cover
a wide range of subjects. They provide us information regarding dates of
construction of temples, the development of architecture and sculpture and
also the growth of regional languages. These inscriptions also help us in
understanding different aspect of the society. Some of them throw light
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111 has been based mostly on their inscriptions. Similarly, the inscriptions
found in the Deccan and South India have helped in the reconstruction of
the political history of the Pallavas, the Cholas, the Rashtrak utas and the
Pandyas.

Coins (Numismatics)
Coins are the valuable source for the historical research. They can help
historian in fixing chronology and influence of the particular regime. The
earliest coins so far discovered are of silver and copper. Mau ryan era
witnessed the minting of number of coins. They are called punch -marked
and cast coins because of the techniques used in making them. The cast
coins were usually of copper and they were made from moulds. Post -
Mauryan coins are of two types. Those issued by the Indo -Greeks and
their successors of foreign -origin who followed the Mauryas in the north -
western part of their empire, and those copper coins issued by local
monarchical and non -monarchical states. It was only after the Greek
invasion that we come across coins with the names of the kings clearly
engraved on them. Thus, for the reconstructions of history of some early
foreign dynasties such as the Indo -Bactrians, the Western Satraps, and the
Kushanas, the Chief source is the evidence derived from the coins.

The example of the Greek coinage was followed by the Scythian (Sakas)
and Parthian (Pahlavas) invaders. The coins have enabled the scholars in
reconstructing an outline of their history and identify the names of quite a
large number of their rulers. For the information of a number of
indigenous states, both monarchical and republican which came into
existence after the downfall of the Mauryan Empire, coins are the chief
source.

The legends and effigies on the coins help the historian t o reconstruct the
religious history of the period. The gradual Indianization of the foreign
invaders such as the Sakas, Pahlavas and Kushanas can be understood
from their coins. These foreign invaders embraced Indian religions, either
Hinduism or Buddhis m and also adopted Indian names. On the reverse
side of one of the coins issues by the founder of the Indo -Parthian dynasty,
Gondophernes, there is a representation of Siva holding a trident. This
indicates that he embraced Sivism.The coins also help the historians to
understand the historical geography of the period. The locations of the
republics and dynastic kingdoms could be found on the basis of the
discovery of the coins. The dates recorded on the coins provide valuable
information for fixing the chronology.

Monuments:
The monuments include temples, stupas, monasteries (viharas), palaces,
forts etc. In addition to individual monuments, there are vast remains of
ancient cities. Mohenjodaro and Harappa cities produce this type of
sources. In abse nce of literary records, the monuments play vital role in
history writings. They are more authentic as there are less chances of
manipulation in it. The Buddhist stupas, temples and other religious
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112 economic life of ancient peoples. The information about ancient
coinsdynasties like Kushanas and western satrapas can be gathered by
excavation of the sites and studying the monuments found in excavated
historical sites.

Besides the monuments and their remains, sculptures, paintings, pottery
and other artefacts help us in reconstructing the history and culture of
ancient India. The temples, stupas and other buildings contain sculptures
and relief works as well as paintings which convey a numb er of things.
The cave paintings of Ajanta, the animal sculptures at the Buddhist stupas
at Sanchi, Bharut etc. show scense from the life of the Buddha and
represent the Jataka stories. The Buddha images sculptured by the
Mathura school of art as well as the Gandhara School of art help us in
distinguishing their style. The Greek influence can be found in the
Gandhara School of art. The South Indian temples of the Pallavs, Chola,
Chalukya and Pandya period are full of sculptures that help us in
understan ding the artistic achievements of the ancient Indian sculptors and
artists.

Artefacts of different kinds also help us in reconstructing the history and
culture of ancient India. The artefacts include ornaments, beads, terracotta
figurines, toys tools, we apons, relic caskets, vessels, ivory work etc.
These artefacts while manifesting the artistic skills of the ancient people
also help in having an insight to their social, economic, political and
religious life. The large variety of historical treatises an d a number of
other facts testify to the historical sense among the ancient Indians.

10.3 LITERARY SOURCES

The literary sources to reconstruct Ancient Indian history can be classified
between two broad categories 1) The Religious literature and 2) Secu lar
Literature. These categories can be divided further into number of heads
given below.

10.3.1 Religious Literature - Hindu Religious Texts

Vedas

The Hindu texts are found in the Sanskrit language. The Vedas occupy
the prime placeamong the Sanskrit s ources of ancient Indian history. The
Vedas are also known as Samhitas. The Rig Veda helps us in
understanding the social, economic, religious, philosophical,
administrative and literary history of the Aryans.

Vedanga
There are six vedangas - Shiksha: how to pronounce the Vedic prayers in
proper manner. Kalpa: rules to perform sacrifice in a proper manner.
Vyakaran: to know the proper grammar of Sanskrit language. Nirukta:
Etymology of words, mentioned in the Vedas. Chanda: various meters in
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113 (chanda), Anushtubha meter (chanda) etc. Jyotish : It deals with proper
time (Shakun) on which sacrifices should be performed. It also discusses
the subjects of astronomy like Sun, Moon.

Upan ishads
These were created to teach the learning of Vedic spiritualism, comprising
the subject like, knowledge of one's self, knowledge of God, relations
between self and God, creation of Universe, our place in such a vast
Universe, etc.

The Smritis
The Smritis, like Sutra, are the books of norms, codes, rules, regulations to
consolidate and reconstruct Vedic religion. These were written by various
writers, like, Manu, Narad, Parashar, Yadnyavalka etc. Hence, we find
many smrities on their name, e.g. M anu-smriti, Narad -smriti etc.

Puranas
The traditions preserved in ancient Indian literature notably the Puranas
form the main source of information for the history of the earliest
period.The Puranas also contain chapters on philosophy, music, painting,
architecture and fine arts, literature, social history, and politics.The
Puranas help us in rebuilding the history of -ancient Indian geography in
which we come across the names of a number of cities which existed in
their times.

Epics
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata with multiple episodes help us in
understanding different aspects of life during that period. It also signifies
the Aryan expansion towards the south. The Mahabharata is probably the
longest single poem in the world's literature. The epics th row light on the
political and social conditions of the people during the period of their
composition.

The Sangam literature
The Sangam literature gives us information regarding early history of
south India. The Sangam means an assembly. The body of Sang am
literature comprised of the poems, presented in three assemblies, by Tamil
poets. These poems were actually collected by the poets, from various
eco-regions in southern India. Thus, these are basically folk -lore, compiled
by urban poets. The important w orks are Shilappadikaram, Manimekhalai,
Pattupattu etc.

Buddhist Religious Texts
The Pitakas comprised of three compilations, viz. Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta
Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka and together they are known as 'Tri -Pitakas.
The Vinay - Pitaka was compiled by Upali and comprised of five books.
These were basically created to provide codes of conducts for
Monasteries, Bhikus, Bhikkunis, their daily routine, ethics etc. It has parts
like Sutta -vibhanga (origin of codes regarding Bhikkus), Khandaka (rules
regarding entry into monastery and admissions etc) and Parivar. The munotes.in

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Research Methodology and
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114 Sutta -pitaka compiled by Ananda. The Sutta Pitaka is a collection of the
religious discourses of the Buddha; the Abhidamma Pitaka is an
exposition of the philosophical principles on which the Buddhism is built
up.

Jatakas Tales
The Jatakas are the compilation of the stories regarding previous births of
Buddha. To solve the problems of his followers, Buddha devised a
beautiful method to tell the stories from his own -experiences that of his
previous births, and, the skeptic or problem follower drew answers from
these stories. These were the Jatakaas who throw light on India during 6th
c. BC.

Dipvamsha and Mahavamsha
These Buddhist works are of Shri Lankan origin. They inform us about
Ashokathe Mauryan Emperor and various Buddhist scholars.

Divyavadan
This Buddhist work is of Nepali origin. It tells Buddhist stories and
throws light on northern dynasties, from Mauryan kings to Shunga period.
The Buddhist literature also comprised of other imp ortant works, like,
Ashvaghosha's Buddha -Charit (biography of Buddha); Mahavastu,
Lalitvistar, etc.

Milind Panha (discussion between BhikkuNagsen with king Milind
(Menander)

Milinda Panha (Questions of King Milinda) contains the conversation
between the Indo-Greek King, Menander (Buddhist turned Greek king )
with the Buddhist teacher, Nagasena. This work discusses a number of
problems and disputed issues of Buddhism.

Bhadrabhahu Charita :The Bhadrabhahu Charita makes a reference to a
number of events in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.

10.3.2 Secular Literature

In a broader sense the secular literature can be classified as (a)
Biographies (b) Dramas (c) Local Chronicles and (d) Miscellaneous
Liternature.

Biographies: Certain writers in ancient Ind ian adopted the lives of their
royal patrons as the theme of their literary works. This category of secular
literature includeBuddhacharita written by Asvaghosa, which gives an
account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha. Banabhatta, the
great ma ster of the Sanskrit prose wrote the Harshacharita, the biography
of king Harshvardhan.

Local Chronicles:
Rajatarangini (The River of Kings) of Kalhana, written in 1149 -50 A.D. is
the most famous among the local chronicles. Kalhana collected the
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Footnotes And Bibliography
115 importance. Kalhana's example was followed by other writers of Kashmir
who continued his chronicle. Kalhan was an unbiased historian who, for
writing history, utilized large body and varie ty of sources. He undertook
field-work and traveled through Kashmir. During his travel, he collected
oral traditions and interviewed local people.Thus, based on literary
sources and oral tradition and through extensive field -work, he wrote
'Rajatrangani'. His work shows his love of Kashmir and respect of his
patron king.

10.4 MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE

The Most important among them is Kautilya'sArthashastra. It is an
invaluable source for the understanding of Mauryan political economy and
administration. It gives a vivid account of the composition and function of
the council of ministeres, duties of other government officials, public
finance, municipal government of towns and cities, taxation, law,
punishments, army, slavery, women's right to property, div orce, gambling,
alcoholic drinks, spies etc. Panini's great grammar titled Ashtadhyayi
(Eight Chapter), composed towards the end of the 4th century BC.)

Drama
The famous drams of Kalidasa, especially Shankuntla gives useful
information about the social life of the people in ancient times. Mudra -
rakshas iswritten by Vishakhadatta. The drama deals with one incident
concerned with Chanakya (the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya)
and Rakshasa (Amatya of Dhanananda). The play gives inform ation on
Chankyas politics, espionage and the foundation of Mauryan
Empire.Mrichcha -katika is written by Raja Shudrak which sheds light on
economical affluence of ancient India, the prostitutes and respect to them
in society, the social structure etc. This drama revolves around the love
between one poor Charudatta and beautiful Ganika (prostitute)
Vasantasena. It also gives passing reference on people's revolt against
unjust king. Malvika -agnimitraplay was written by Kalidasa, great poet
and dramatist durin g Gupta period. The subject of the drama is the love
between one Malvika and Agnimitra, brave king of Shunga dynasty. The
dramas,Nanganada, Ratnavali, Priyadarshikawere written by king
Harshavardhana. These reflect upon socio -economic condition and
religio us outlook during his reign.

Ashtadhyayi and Mahabhashya
Ashtadhyayi deals with Grammar, written by Panini. It throws light on
socialchurning of 6th century BC. Similar work is Mahabhashya, written
by Patanjali, informs us about social condition during Ea rly Historic
period.

Charak -samhita and Sushrut -samhita
These works inform us about medical sciences during Ancient India and
considered as the basis of Ayurveda -branch of medicines.
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116 10.5 ACCOUNTS OF FOREIGN TRAVELERS

Accounts left by the foreign trav elers form an important source of ancient
Indian history. They supplement Indian sources. Some of these are of
great importance and valuable.The foreign travelers writing is very
important as they had not to write please anyone.

The Greeks Travelers

Megasthenes
He was the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, posted in the court of
Chandrgupt Maurya. In his work, 'Indica', he gives description of the
layout of Pataliputra, like, a big city fortified with bastions andgateways
with one huge royal palace. He a lso touches upon social structure, caste -
system, caste -relations etc. It should be noted that the original Indica is
lost. However, the travelers, who came into India after Megasthenes, have
referred Indica and quoted it.

Peryplus of the Erythraean Sea
This travelogue is an anonymous work, presumed to be written by one
fisherman on Egypt coast. The work gives us impartial and objective
information on the Indo -Roman trade during Early Historic period. It
informs us about the ports on India's coast -line, tr ade-centers in India, the
trade -routes -connecting trade centers and ports, distance between centers,
the list of items -of-trade, the annual volume of trade, the rates, types of
ships etc.

Chinese travelers

Fa-Hien (337 -422 AD):
This Chinese traveler visited India during Gupta period. He was a
Buddhist monk, visited India to seek knowledge from Dev -bhumi (i.e.
India) and visit Buddhist pilgrimage centres. On the basis of his three
years of travel, he has written, in his chronicle 'Records of Buddhisti c
Kingdoms', on society and culture of North India, besides, various factors
in Gupta administration.

Hiuen -Tsiang (YuwanSwang) (602 -664 AD)
This Chinese Buddhist monk, against all odds, visited India during
Harshavardhana's reign. He visited Buddhist pilgrimage centers, stayed at
Nalanda University and studied Buddhism, gone through original
Buddhist works, collected original manuscripts and mementos, made
copies, attended Harsha's assembly and after 15 years of travel throughout
India, returned to Ch ina in 645 AD. In China he wrote his account as 'Si -
Yu-Ki' (Great Tang Records on the Western Regions). This chronicle
gives vivid description of what he had witnessed in India. He gives
information of kings especially Harsha and his generosity, people and
customs of various regions in India, life -ways etc. He has thrown light on
the habits and nature of Maharashtrian people in his writings.

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117 Arab Accounts
The great Arab travelers, geographers and historians came to India from
the 8th Century ad onwards. The most famous of the early Muslim writers
was Al -Beruni, a man of versatile intellect and scholar of Sanskrit and a
contemporary of Sultan Mahmud Ghazni. He followed Mahmud's
invasions, and wrote the Tarikh -i-Hind in 1030 A.D., which is a mine of
inform ation regarding India and her people. In many respects Tarikh -i-
Hind is considered as the most rational and comprehensive account of
India ever written by a foreigner until modern times.

10.6 SUMMARY

The presence of historical evidences make history different from
literature.The ancient history sources can be categorized into
archaeological and literary sources. Archaeological sources can be
classified into inscriptions, coins and monuments. The literary sources for
the study of ancient Indian histor y and culture may be divided into two
major categories. The literary sources to reconstruct Ancient Indian
history can be classified between two broad categories -the Religious
literature and secular Literature. The foreign accounts are also one of the
reliable sources to understand the ancient Indian history.

10.7 QUESTIONS

1. Describe the various archeological sources for the study of ancient
Indian history.

2. Examine the importance of numismatics and inscription for the study of
ancient Indian history .

3. Briefly examine importance of literary sources in the study of ancient
India.

4. What is the importance of religious and secular literature in the
reconstruction of the ancient Indian history.

10.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1) A L Basham, The Wonder Th at Was India: A Survey of the History and
Culture of the Indian Sub -Continent before the coming of the Muslims,
Paperback, third revised edition, Published December 15th 2004 by
Ingram (first published 1954)
2) D.N. Jha , Ancient India: in Historical Outline, ublished January 1st
2008 by Manohar Publishers (first published April 1st 1998)
3) Dr. Eugene D’Souza, Ancient India, Manan prakashan, Mumbai
4) B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and M ethods , Macmillan pub. Delhi,
1978.
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118 11
SOURCES FOR MEDIEVAL INDIAN
HISTORY
Unit Structure :
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Literary sources for the Delhi sultanate (1206 -1526)
11.3 Literary Sources for the Mughal Period (1526 -1707)
11.4 Foreign Accounts
11.5 Archaeological source s
11.6 Summary
11.7 Questions
11.8 Additional Readings
11.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit the student wilt be able to
1) Understand the nature and types of the sources for Medieval History
2) Explain the archaeological and literary sources of India n Medieval
history
3) Explain the nature of the sources for Indian Medieval history
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The Muslim Turks who conquered India, brought with them the art of
writing history and have left a large number of chronicles. This enabled us
to trace the hi story of India from the beginning of the Muslim conquest to
the end of Muslim rule. As the chroniclers were Turks or Afghans they
wrote more about the kings and court life. They wrote accounts about the
monarchs who patronized them. Information available f rom the various
literary sources is supplemented by archaeological evidences.
11.2 LITERARY SOURCES FOR THE DELHI
SULTANATE (1206 -1526)
Chach Nama is the earliest historical account of Arab conquest of Sindh.
Originally it was written in Arabic and subse quently translated into
Persian by Muhammad Ali bin Abu Bakr Kufi who dedicated it to munotes.in

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119 Nasiruddin Qubachach. "Tarikh -i-Sindh" is based on the Chach -Nama. It
was written by Mir Muhammad Masum of Bhakkra about 1600'. It gives
a detailed account of Sindh from the time of its invasion by Muhammad
bin Qasim to the reign of Akbar.
"Tabaqat -i-Nasiri" of Minhaj -us-Siraj is an important contemporary
source giving firsthand account of the conquests of Muhammad Ghori and
the history of the Turkish kingdom in India up to 1260 Minjah -us-Siraj was
the chief qazi at Delhi under Sultan Nasir -ud-din Mahmud. "Tarikh -i-Alai
or Khazain -ul-Futuh" by Amir Khusrav written in Persian. He enjoyed the
patronage of several Sultans of Delhi such as Kaiqubad, Jalal -ud-din
Khilji. Ala -ud-din Khilji. Qutub -ud-din Mubarak Shah Khilji and Ghiyas -
ud-din Tughlaq. Amir Khusrav was a prolific writer of prose and poetry.
He was the poet laureate in 1290 The Khazain -ul-Futuh also known as the
Tarikh -i-Alai is a court history of the first sixteen y ears of the reign of
Ala-ud-din Khilji. It gives details of the Deccan campaigns of Malik Kafur
hut does not mention the murder of Jalal -ud-din or the defeats of the
Sultan by the Mongols. Amir Khusrav has several other works to his
credit. This include th e "Miftah -ul-Futuh" written in 1291 describes the
military campaigns of Jalal -ud-din Khilji, the Tughlaqnama traces the
course of events leading to the accession of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Tarikh -i-Firozshahi was written by ZiauuddinBarani. The Tarikh -i-
Firozshahi was written about 1358. It gives us information about the
Sultans of Delhi from Balban to Muhammad -bin Tughlaq and the first six
years of the reign of Firoz Shah. He was not very accurate about dates. He
has also not described the events in their ch ronological order. Fatawah -i-
Jahandari by Zia -ud-din Barani was composed in the early 14th century.
Barani wrote his views on government policies and the ideal code of
conduct which a Muslim king should follow.
Tarikh -i-Firoz Shahi by Shams -i-Siraj Afif w as probably composed in the
first decade of the fifteenth century. The author was a favourite of Sultan
Firozshah. He has described the history of the long reign of the Sultan. He
has also written about the culture of this period. His account is of great
significance for the history of Sultan Firoz Tughlaq.
Fatuhat -i-Firoz Shahi was written by Sultan Firoz Shah. The meaning of
the title is, "victories of Firoz Shah." It is a small book of thirty two pages
from which we come to know about the Sultan's views on religion. Zafar -
nama of Sharaf -ud-din Ali Yazdi also tells about the exploits of Timur.
Tarikh -i-Mubarak Shahi of the Yahaya bin Ahmad of Sirhindi is a
contemporary and authentic chronicle of the Sayyid period. It gives
accurate information about dates and events. Tarikh -i-Shershahi or the
Tuhfa -i-Akbarshahi of Sarwani was written during the reign of the Mughal
Emperor, Akbar. Though not a contemporary account it is important for
the history of the Lodi period. Makhzan -i-Afghan by Namatullah gives an
account of the different Afghan tribes. It was written during the reign of
Jehangir. Tarikh -i-Daudi by Abdullah is an important account for the
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120 Sources of Provincial History
Tarikh -i-Sindh of Mir Muhammad Masum written in 1600, Tar ikh-i-
Tahiri of Mir Tahir Muhammad are histories of Sindh. Tarikh -i-Rashidi by
Mirza Haider Dughalat is a history of Kashmir. The Tarikh -i-Kashmir of
Haider Malik gives history of Kashmir from the earliest times. For the
history of Vijaynagar Empire there are voluminous accounts. The
Madhuravijayam written by Gangadevi, wife of Kumara Kampan, son of
Vijaynagar King Bukka I, tells about his campaigns against the Muslim
Sultan of Madura. The Achutrayabhyudaya of Rajanathan describe, the
happenings in the reig n of Achutraya, successor of the great king
Krishnadevaraya. Amuktamalyada of Krishnadevaraya is an important
source for the study of policy and administration of the Vijayanagar
empire.
11.3 LITERARY SOURCES FOR THE MUGHAL
PERIOD (1526 -1707)
There is a vast collection of rich and varied literary sources available for
the study of the history of Mughal period, There are contemporary works,
in Persian covering the reign of Mughal rulers from Babur to Aurangzeb.
Apart from the biographies, autobiographies a nd chronicles there are other
types of literary sources.
Baburnama or Tuzuk -i-Baburi or Waqiat -i-Babur is the autobiography of
Babur the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.It reads like a novel. The
style is simple and lucid. Babur was a man of literar y tastes. His
observations are critical. Babur has given a vivid description of India, its
places, flora, fauna, climate, produce and the geographical boundaries of
the country. Babur has also recorded the prevailing caste system and the
other social featu res of the Indian society.
Gulbadan Begum wrote Humayunama, the biography of Humayun. She
was babur's daughter and Humayun's half sister. Her writings give us
glimpse of court life, culture and etiquette. She has not given much
attention to the details of events of Humayun's life. She has not mentioned
the Battles of Chausa and Kanauj. Gulbadan Begum was held in high
esteem in the court.
Tazkirat -i-Tahmasp of Shah Tahmasp was written in 1572. It is the history
of Humayun's period of exile in Persia. Tarikh -i-Humayun was written by
Bayazid. He was a servant of Humayun. It is important as an
contemporary account. It is source of information for Akbar's reign as
well.
Abbaas Khan Sarwani wrote 'Tarikh -i-Sher-Shahi. He was related to Sher
Shah and worked as a mansabdar under Akbar. He gives a picture of Indo -
Muslim society of the early Mughal period. Ahmad Yadgar was the author
of Tarikh -i-Shahi or Tarikh -i-Salatin -i-Afghina. Tarikh -i-Akbar was
written between 1578 and 1580 by Hafi Mohammed ArifQandhari, the
officer in Akbar's revenue department. It is significant as it is the earliest munotes.in

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121 chronicle in Akbar's reign. It is a valuable account of the reign, life and
personality of Akbar. It is a reliable source as its chronology is accurate.
Nazamuddin Ahmad wrote th e Tabaqat -i-Akbari. It is a general history of
the Muslim rule from its beginning till the 39th year of Akbar's reign.
Abul Fazal wrote (1) Akbarnama in 3 volumes (2) Ain -i-Akbar (3) Rugat -
i-Abu-l-Fazal (4) Insha -i-Abu-l-Fazal. Akbarnama is the main sourc e of
information for Akbar's reign. Abul Fazal met officials, state servants and
family members and collected old records for information. The first
volume gives the history of Akbar's ancestors from Timur to Babur and
Humayun. The second and the third vol umes give yearly account of
Akbar's reign upto 1602. These two volumes cover every aspect of
Akbar's court. The third volume of Akbarnama has a sub -title the Ain -i-
Akbari. It was prepared along with the first two volumes, though it is a
complete and separa te work.
The Ain -i-Akbari contains regulations in all departments on all subjects
and include besides some extraneous matter. It is a valuable and minute
statistical account of his empire with historical and other notes. It gives
details of Mughal adminis tration and state policies. It covers every aspect
of the history of the time. The third volume tells us about the ancestry and
the biography of Abul Fazal.
The Muntakhab -ut-Tawarikh or Tarikh -i-Badauni was written by Abdul
Qadir Badauni. The first volum e is about the rule of Babur and Humayun.
The second volume gives details of Akbar's rule upto 1594. The third
volume is devoted to the saints and scholars who were patronised by
Akbar. Badauni was a staunch Muslim and very critical of Akbars liberal
religious views. White Abul Fazal regarded Akbar as a "paragon of
greatness." Badauni considered him to be a 'renegade.' surrounded by
sycophants. Muntakhab -ut-Twarikh by Yahiya bin Abdul Latif is valuable
account of the social conditions and material prosperit y of the Moghul
Age. It gives account of the discussions held in the IbadatKhana at Sikri. It
also explains the fundamentals of the Din -i-llahi.
Tuzuk -i-Jahangiri was an authoritative memoir of the reign of Jahangir. It
is a comprehensive account of the Emperor's first eighteen years of rule.
Jahangir's autobiography is useful in information about his personality,
character and events of his reign. Imperial firmans, order and regulations
issued from time to time, court life, relationship between the Emper or and
his nobles, material prosperity of the Empire, famines and epidemics are
also discussed in the memoirs. Jahangir has not referred to some major
events like his revolt against Akbar and his marriage to Nur Jahan.
Padshah -nama of Muhammad Amin Qazvin i was written at the
instructions of Emperor Shah Jahan. It gives information of the first ten
years of Shah Jahan's reign. Shahjahan -nama of Inayat Khan gives an
account of the war of succession and Aurangzeb's's accession to the
throne.
Muntakhab -ul-Lubab was written by Muhammad Hashim alias Khafi
Khan. As there was a ban on the writing of history Khafi Khan wrote it munotes.in

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122 secretly. It is a complete history of the Mughals beginning with the reign
of Babur upto 1733. He has dealt with all aspects of Aurangzeb's reign,
including the aftermath of his illiberal policies. The account is particularly
informative about Deccan affairs. Khafi Khan was an eye -witness of the
events of Aurangzeb's reign. The importance of this source is also that it
was a non -official, non -commissioned contemporary account covering
more than a century. Khafi Khan did not have to please any master and
therefore undertook this stupendous task. He was a petty revenue officer
and has written about the agrarian crises that had set in and the dec line of
the mansabdari and Jagirdari systems.
Apart from these biographies, official histories and chronicles there is a
plethora of information available about Mughal rule from Provincial
histories, diaries, royal firmans, official records, letters and o ther writings
of the period which give valuable insight into the events of the Mughal
period and help in writing the history of the era. A class of Persian
literature entitled Malfuza deal with the lives and teachings of Muslim
Saints and Sufis.
Padma Sun der wrote Akbar Shahi Sringar Darpan. The Kriparas Kos of
Santi Chand informs us about Akbar's liberal religions views. Amar Kavya
Vansavali of Ranchhod Bhatt tells the history of the Ranas of Mewar and
their relations with Akbar.
11.4 FOREIGN ACCOUNTS
Accounts of foreign travellers, merchants and traders who visited India
during this period also form valuable sources of information for the study
of the Sultanate era. Al -Beruni came to India during one of the invasions
of Mahmud of Ghazni. He came from Kh warizm and stayed in India for
some time. He was a great scholar Arabic and Persian. Al -Beruni was very
learned, he took keen interest in varied subjects like medicine, logic,
philosophy, mathematics and theology. He learnt Sanskrit. His account
Tarikh -i-Hind in Arabic is a scholarly work on literature, science and
religion of the Hindus. He has also described conditions in India at the
time of Mahmud of Ghaznis invasions. Tarikh -i-Hind has been translated
into Persian and English.
Ibn-Battuta's Kitab -i-Rehla is an important work. Ibn Battuta was born in
Tangier in 1304 and died at Fez at the age of 74 years. He lived in the
court of Sultan Muhammad -bin-Tughlaq. He was appointed Qazi of Delhi
by the Sultan. His Rehla (Travels) throw light on the political, military,
judicial and social institutions of the period. Accounts of Abdur Razzaq,
the Persian ambassador to the court of Zamorin of Calicut are valuable
source of information. He visited the prosperous kingdom of Vijaynagara
in 1442. Nicolo Conti was an Italian traveler who came to Vijaynagar
Empirein 1420. He has left a detailed account of Vijaynagar.
The Franciscan friar John of Monte Corvino and Marco Polo visited India.
Marco Polo has described the flourishing maritime trade on the Indian
coast. He h as also written about the dress, food habits and customs of the munotes.in

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123 people. Domingo Paes was a Portuguese traveller who has left a detailed
description of the Vijaynagar Empire. The Commentaries of the Great
Alfonso D'Albuquerque throw light on the relations b etween the
Portuguese and the Sultan of Gujarat. Nikitin, a Russian trader, visited the
Bahamani kingdom in 1470. Edoardo Barbosa, was a Portuguese who
visited Vijaynagar and has written about South India.
Travelers, merchants, adventurers and missionaries who came to India in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries enjoyed 'Mughul hospitality'. They
have written accounts of their visits. Their records are of significance as
one gets glimpse of contemporary India through foreign eyes. They did
not have to please any master so they wrote what they saw. However their
lack of knowledge of local languages and customs would have affected
their perception of events and people. Their accounts are in the form of
diaries, travelogues, letters to friends, official re cords, reports of missions
etc. These records could be based on bazaar gossip also. The historian has
to study their writings with great care to establish their authenticity.
The foreign accounts of the Mughal period can be divided into three
different ca tegories -(1) the European factories (2) travelogues of
merchants, adventurers (3) accounts of the Christian missionaries. The
various accounts of foreigners have been published by the Hakluyt Society
of Great Britian. An English traveller Richard Hakluyt (1526 -1616) was
responsible for publishing foreign accounts of Mughal period which are of
tremendous importance for historical research. The accounts of Richard
Hakluyt , Sir Thomas Roe, Sir James Lancaster, Peter Mundy and many
more have been published by the Society.
In the reign of Akbar, Ralph Fitch, an Englishman travelled to different
parts of the country. He was in India from 1583 -91. He was the first
English merchant to visit Fatehpur Sikri and Agra. He has mentioned
different foodgrains, cotton, c loth and other necessities easily available in
different parts of the country.
Jahangir's rule witnessed the arrival of more foreigners. In 1608 William
Hawking came to Agra as the representative of King James I of England.
He delivered a letter to the Mu ghal Emperor from King James I. He was
well received in the court. In 1615 another representative from the court of
King James I visited Agra. The most famous mission was of Sir Thomas
Roe in 1616. He stayed in India for three years and accompanied Jahang ir
to Mandu and Ahmadabad. His records are useful for writing socio -
cultural history of Jahangir's era. However the journal of his chaplain
Terry, gives more details. In 1623, the Italian traveller, Pietrio delta Valle
came to Surat. He has recorded observ ations that there was decline in the
practice of Sati. A Dutch traveller Francis Palsaert visited India and has
left behind valuable account.
During the reign of Shah Jahan several foreigners visited India. In 1632
Burton and Cartwright visited Bengal and Orissa. Peter Mundy wrote
about his travels from 1630 to 1634, Sebastian Manrique wrote about his
stay from 1629 -43. The French traveller, who came to India between the munotes.in

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124 period 1640 -47 was Tavernier. Another well known Frenchmen who came
to India was the p hysician Bernier. They have written detailed and
valuable accounts of their visits.
For Aurangbeb's apart from the accounts of Tavernier and Bernier, there
are other valuable foreign accounts. The Italian NicoloManucci wrote his
famous work Staria da Mogo r. He was in India for a considerable length
of time, from 1658 to 1708. In 1666, a Frenchmen Jean de Thevenot,
visited Surat. He stayed in India till 1684. He wrote not only about the
people but also about the flora and fauna. In 1695 an Italian GamelliCa reri
attended the court of Aurangzeb in the Deccan. From a study of these
literary sources, both indigenous and foreign, it is possible to write the
history of Medieval India. Archaeological sources like coins, monuments
and ruins supplement the informatio n available from literary sources.
11.5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
The Medieval rulers paid great attention to the art of sculpture. The salient
features of Sultanate and Mughal were massive and extensive buildings,
domes, tall minars etc. The Vijaynagar and other Hindu buildings was
characterized by vastness, majesty and sublimity. Both the architectural
style influence each other.
The Monuments: The monuments of Medieval India are indispensable aid
to the proper understanding of the artistic, cultural and e ven economic
history. Sultan Qutubud -din-Aibak constructed the famous Quwat -ul-Islam
mosque at Delhi, the Dhai -Din ka Jhoupra at Ajmer and the Qutub Minar
at Delhi. Balban built the Red Palace. Alauddin -Khalji built the Jamait
Khan Masjid at the shrine of N izam -ud-din-Auliya and the famous Ali
Darwaja at the Qutub Minar. The Tughluq’s erected the tomb of Tughluq
Shah, the city of Tughluqabad and Kuffa Firoz Shah. Sikandar Lodi also
built Moth Ki Masjid. There are several other like architectures scattered
in many provinces like Multan, Bengal, Gujrat, Malwa, Jaunpur, Kashmir
and Dakhin also helped us to form a comprehensive idea about the history
of the Sultanate period of India.
Coins
The coins and monuments are important sources for the construction of
the history medieval period of India. The Sultans were great lovers of
architecture. The architecture which the Turkish conquerors of India
brought in this land in the last decade of the twelfth century was not
exclusively Muslim or even Arabian. Rather their buildings had the
influence of indigenous art traditions.
Medieval India Coinage saw a phase of experimentation under the regime
of Muhammad Bin coins in abundance. These coins were characterized by
fine calligraphy and a number of fractional denomination s. Another
remarkable mention in the history of Medieval coins of India is during the
rule of Sultan of Malwas . A fascinating note about the Malwa coinage is
that they carry many different mintmarks. munotes.in

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125 Coinage under Emperor Sher Shah Suri saw a refreshing transformation.
He minted and issued a huge number of new silver coins which was later
known as dam. He fixed a rate for the copper and silver coi ns and
abolished all old and mixed metal currency coins. All his exemplary and
innovative ideas improved convenience in trading considerably. It was
when Akbar came to power under the Mughal administration that Rupee
came into existence, making it the prim ary highlight of Medieval coins in
India. KhwajaAbdus Samad Shirazi was appointed as the head of the
imperial mint at Delhi In 1577 as the emperor made strategies to reform of
the coins and currency of his times. All the coins of various metals like
Rupee (silver), Jalali (square shaped silver), Jital (copper), Ilahi (gold)
Shahanshah (large gold) were known for its ‘purity of metal, fullness of
weight and artistic execution’. Akbar laid strong scientific foundation for
coinage, and his work has been highly regarded by modern numismatists.
This rupee minus its inscription was even retained by the English East
India Company up to 1835. The coins of Vijayanagar Empire were
extremely popular and even set a prototype of generations of coinage. The
general patte rn of the coin had the Ruler’s picture on one side and his
name on another. The script used by these coins was mainly
Devanagiri. The Shahrukhi standard was adopted by both Humayun and
Akbar (in his initial years). The Shahrukhis are thin broad pieces of si lver
with Kalima and the names of the first four caliphs on obverse and the
king’s regnal titles with date and mint place on the reverse. The mint
names on the reverse help indicate the extent of each emperor’s actual
domains.
11.6 SUMMARY
The historical s ources of medieval India can be categorized into literary
and archeological sources. They provide a good deal of insight and
knowledge about the conditions of those times -art and architecture, history
and literature, agriculture and industry, commerce and trade, culture and
civilization, philosophy and religion etc. In fact available sources cover
almost all areas of socio -economic life. The literary works of Persian and
Arab people are the most important sources of history of the medieval
period including Sultanate and Mughal period.
11.7 QUESTIONS
1) Explain the nature of the sources for Medieval Indian History.
2) Examine the literary and archaeological sources of the medieval
history of India.



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126 11.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1) Raychaudhari T. and Irfan Habib, (e d), The Cambridge Economic
History of India, London, 1982.
2) Dr. Eugene D’Souza, Medieval India, Manan Prakashan, Mumbai,
2004
3) The New Cambridge History of India: The Marathas 1600 -1818,
Stewart Gordon, Oxford University press, 1998.
4) Ishwari Prasad, History of Mediaeval India, the Indian press
(publications) Allahabad
5) Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, Delhi,
1999.

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127 12
SOURCES FOR MODERN AND
CONTEMPORARY INDIAN HISTORY
Unit Structure:
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Mumbai Archives Records
12.3 Records at National Archives of India, New Delhi:
12.4 Contemporary Historical writings
12.5 Summary
12.6 Questions
12.7 Additional Readings
12.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, the student wilt be able to
1) Understand the nature and types of the sources for Modern Indian
History
2) Explain the nature and types of the sources for Contemporary Indian
history
3) Explain the nature of the Archives Records in archives
12.1 INTRODUCTION
There is various kind of source material for constructing the history of
modem and contemporary history of India. There is plenty of information
available on the political, socio -economic and cultural developments in the
country. The records of the East India Company give a detailed account of
trading conditions during this period. The official records cover all levels
of administration, from the district to the supreme government , apart from
those relating to the Court of Directors and the Board of Control. The
British Crown, when it took over the reins of administration, also kept a
large variety and volume of official records. The records of the
Portuguese, Dutch and French comp anies are useful for constructing the
history of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The primary sources
can be classified into the following categories: Contemporary Records,
Confidential Reports, Public Reports and Government Documents. These
kinds of records can be found in archives whereas the historical account munotes.in

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128 written by historians with the help of primary records can be considered as
secondary records.
12.2 MUMBAI ARCHIVES RECORDS
The Records are divided into following Section
Records of fa ctories and residencies
The Factory Records, as the name indicates, are records of the commercial
establishments of the East India Company in Western India from Sind in
the North to Tellicherry on the Malabar Coast. When the East India
Company started thei r business in the East, their places of business were
known as ‘Factories’. Surat was their Headquarter or Chief Factory in the
Western India. Factory also included Commercial Residency. Residency
Records mainly register the business transactions of the Co mpany, but
incidentally refer to Political events in the country.
Public (general) department
1) Public Department
The Department dealt with subjects of public interest – construction of
roads, public buildings, medicine, weights and measures, etc. Milita ry
and Commercial Departments formed part of this Department before they
were separated in 1805. It also dealt with ecclesiastical matters till the
Ecclesiastical Department was placed under Secretary, Military
Department in September 1860.
2) General Depa rtment
In 1821, the Public Department having been shown of many important
functions, its name was changed to “General Department” and the
Department dealt with subjects like Local Self -Government, scientific,
medical and sanitary matters, conduct of public servants, etc. “Public
Works” remained part of the General Department till its separation in
1860. Railway scheme was considered in this Department between 1844
and 1848. Proceedings relating to plague after 1910, formed part of the
proceedings of the Gen eral Department Records of this Department relate
to progress reports and mortality returns of bubonic plague, medical
inspection of persons coming into Mumbai by sea, rail or road, medical
inspection at railway stations for bubonic plague, suggestions, re ports
from the plague commissioners, question whether vaccination confers
immunity against plague and other germ diseases, rules governing
inspection of persons arriving by sea at Ports other than Mumbai,
measures for preventing introduction of plague into coast ports by native
craft, orders issued by the District Magistrates.
Secret and political department
Secret and Political Department ( Now known as General Administration
Department ) formed under the orders of the Court of Directors contained
in their letter of 5th April 1754. Proceedings of this department munotes.in

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129 commenced from 10th March 1755. The subjects dealt with by this
Department were mostly of political nature, viz. correspondence with
Residents at Foreign Courts, transactions with Foreign Nations an d
country powers, military affairs, etc. The Descriptive Catalogue of the
Secret and Political Department Series (1755 to 1820) has been published
in 1954, and the same is useful for Research Scholars desirous of doing
research in these records.
Revenue d epartment
This Department mainly dealt with matters of survey settlements, land
alienations, khoti and khoti villages, boundary disputes, forests, etc. The
observations cover the entire ground of revenue administration, the
different tenures obtaining in the country, the rights of Government over
the produce of the land, ancient village officers and their relation with the
people, survey and assessment and general village economy. They form a
valuable commentary on the revenue administration of the Preside ncy.
Judicial Department
Matters pertaining to Law and Regulations were to the dealt with in this
Department. Some of its subjects formed part of the Political and
Legislative Departments till 1920, though in 1907 the Legislative
Department was separated from the Political Department. The Home
Department now deals with police civil and criminal justice, maintenance
of peace and order, jails, etc. besides dealing with matters relating to
Political Activities, Public Security, Communal Organizations, Obscen e
Literature, Military and Political intelligence.
Financial department
This Department (Now known as Finance Department) dealt with matters
of financial interest such as trade, commerce, banking, mint, public
receipts and expenditure, etc. Matters connec ted with the Mumbai Mint
formed part of the Financial Department; from 1830 the proceedings
relating to Mint were separately maintained till they were incorporated
again in its parent Department in 1837. Between 1849 and 1860
“Railway” formed part of the D epartment till it was transferred to Public
Works Department in 1860.
Marine and forest department
In consequence of the great increase of business of a miscellaneous nature
in the Public Department, the Government of Mumbai separated the
correspondence re lating to the Marine and control of Forests into a distinct
Department. The Proceedings commenced from 2nd January 1818.
Mint department
The matters connected with the Mumbai Mint formed one of the subjects
of the ‘Financial Department’. In 1830 it was co nsidered advisable to
record the proceedings separately, for the convenience of reporting to the
Court of Directors the progress of the New Mumbai Mint which was then munotes.in

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130 under construction. But later at the suggestion of the Secretary, Finance
Department the proceedings were commenced to be incorporated in the
proceedings of the Finance Department from 1st January 1837. In 1876
the Government of India assumed charge of the Bombay Mint.
Public works department
Up to 1855, the proceedings connected with public works formed part of
the proceeding of the General Department. In 1860 the Public Works
Department became a separate Department with the Chief Engineer as its
Secretary. This Department was concerned with matters of construction of
roads and bridges, maint enance of Government buildings, hospitals
schools, irrigation, etc.
Irrigation and power department
As a Secretariat Department, the Irrigation and Power Department is
concerned mainly with matters relating to : (a) irrigation and canals
drainage and emba nkments, water storage and water power and tube wells
for irrigation purposes, (b) investigation, preparation and execution of
irrigation, hydro -electric and multipurpose projects, (c)preparation,
execution and operation of projects for water supply and dr ainage when
required to be done by Government agency, (d) management of completed
irrigation projects, (e) administration of Irrigation Acts and betterment
levies and the levy of irrigation Acts on areas commanded by projects, (f)
flood control works, (g) schemes for improvement of water -logged area,
(h)research in engineering, and (i) inter -State river water disputes. At
present the Department is known as ‘Irrigation Department’ only.
Educational department
The Educational Department was created in 1860 a nd formed part of the
old General. Educational and Marine Department It dealt with primary
education and secondary and collegiate education. As the work of the
Department increased the General & Educational Department was
bifurcated into Education and Indu stries Department and Health and Local
Self Government Department in 1947. The Education Department began
to deal with matters relating to education, museums, research institutes,
libraries, universities, ancient monuments, manuscripts, etc.
Law (and forei gn) department
These records are filed under the heading of “Law Department” only. The
correspondence contained in the Records deals with establishment, staff
salaries and Rules and Regulations for the Recorder’s Court in Mumbai
Presidency. It is also seen from the letter, dated 7th January 1824 from the
Court of Directors that the Supreme Court of Judicature with Civil and
Criminal jurisdiction was established at Mumbai abolishing thereby
Recorder’s Court. The Supreme Court was to consist of Chief justice who
was to take rank after the Governor and two other judges who were to take
rank after the members of the Governor’s Council. Sir Edward West was
appointed as Chief Justice on an yearly salary of Rs.52,200 and Messers. munotes.in

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131 Miscellaneous
The Records which a re not covered under Factory and Residency Records,
and Secretariat (Departmental) Records can be considered as
‘Miscellaneous Records’. These records consist of the proceedings of
many interesting old bodies and institutions, Political Missions,
Committee s appointed for administrative matters, records of subordinate
officers and a few miscellaneous registers and returns. These records are
as follows:
Records of the Historical Families and Private Papers
The State of Maharashtra is rich in archival material . The ancestors of a
number of old families in Maharashtra played an important role in the
history of Maharashtra. Many historical families have in their possession
voluminous record depicting the velour of their ancestors. Family legends
imperial and roya l deeds, public and private correspondence, and state
papers in possession of the descendants of men once high in authority, law
suits and law decisions, account papers and manuscripts of every
description in Persian and Modi bring to light unknown events in the
history of a country. During last forty years, efforts have been made by the
Directorate of Achieves to search and collect such private records in
possession of old families. These records are preserved for posterity. They
are indexed or catalogued and made available for research to scholars and
students.
Printed Records, Maps and Photo Copies
Mumbai Archives has a collection of good number of printed records in
the form of volumes and books. The old publications consist of Printed
Abstracts of Proce edings, Government Gazettes, Reports of various
Department, Offices, Commissions and Committees, Acts, Rules and
Orders issued by the Government, Civil Lists and numerous Government
Publications published from time to time. Three copies of each State
Gover nment publication are sent to Mumbai Archives for preservation.
Government Gazettes
Bombay Government Gazettes – (1831 to 1960), Maharashtra
Government Gazette – (1960 to up -to-date), Government of India Gazette
– (1864 to up -to-date), Calcutta Gazettes ( 1793 to 1874), Central
Provinces Gazettes – (1867 to 1873), Delhi Gazettes – (1846 to 1856),
Punjab Government Gazettes – (1863 to 1873), Sind Official Gazettes –
(1869 to 1874).
Printed Abstracts of Proceedings:
1. Revenue Department (1861 to 1931) – 62 volu mes.
2. Ecclesiastical Department (1864 to 1936) – 73 volumes.
3. Educational Department (1863 to 1931) – 108 volumes. munotes.in

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132 4. Financial Department (1861 to 1931) – 81 volumes.
5. General Department (1861 to 1932) – 74 volumes.
6. Judicial Department (1861 to 1920) – 192 volu mes.
Newspapers and Periodicals :
Bombay Chronicle (1825 to 1959), Bombay Courier (1797 to 1846),
Bombay Telegraph and Courier (1847 to 1861), Bombay Times (1838 to
1859), Bombay Gazette (1809 to 1914), Bombay Darpan (Marathi) (1832
and 1834), Marattha (19 13 to 1925), Poona Observer (1852 -53, 1861 -62,
1876 -1915), Kesari (Marathi) (1900 to 1931, 1962 to 1973), Navjivan
(1919 to 1932), Young India (1915 to 1932), Indian Express (1955 to Dec.
2008), Blitz (1957 to 1964), Financial Express (1961 to 1964), Londo n
times, Times of India (1861 up -to-date), Maharashtra Times (Marathi)
(1962 up -to-date), Loksatta (Marathi) (1960 to Dec. 2008), Sakal
(Marathi) (1965 to 1968) and many others contemporary newspapers and
periodicals.
Maps and plan
There are about 20,000 o ld maps relating to Bombay Presidency and other
provinces. Survey operations started vigorously in this Province from
1820. Copies of the maps prepared from that period to date of the districts
of Bombay Presidency, surrounding areas and of the Mumbai Isla nd are
found in this collection. Majority of the maps have been prepared by the
Survey of India. Plans of Indian Railway Lines since the inception of
Railways in India have been added to this collection.
Manuscript records
The early manuscript records depo sited in the Mumbai Records consist of
 Factory and Residency Records,
 Mumbai Presidency Records
 Records of Missions, Committees, etc.,
 Dispatches from and the Court of Directors,
 Miscellaneous records, such as Selections, Selected Compilations,
12.3 RECORDS AT NATION AL ARCHIVES OF INDIA,
NEW DELHI
National Archives of India is the custodian of a huge collection of public
records acquired from various records creating agencies covered under
the Public Records Act, 1993. These Record holdings shed light on the
rule of the later Mughals, growth of the East India Company in India,
colonial rule in India, Indian freedom struggle and growth and
developments in post Independent India. Apart from the political and
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Sources for Modern and
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133 History and the scientific & technological progress of our country over the
years. All these public records are accessible as per provisions contained
in the Public Records Rules, 1997.
Cartographic Records
National Archives of Indi a has in its custody substantial number of
cartographic records acquired from Survey of India. They are categorized
as Historical Maps, Forest Maps, Revenue Maps and Printed and
Published maps All these cartographic records are accessible as per
provisions contained in the Public Records Rules, 1997.
Apart from the vast bulk of Public Records and Private Papers, the
National Archives has a rich and ever growing collection of Library. This
has some of the oldest and rare publications on a variety of subjects ,
besides contemporary published material. The holdings of the Library
consist of the material mentioned below :
Books & Reports, Proscribed Publications, Selections from Vernacular
Native News papers, Selections from Government of India/State
Government R eco, Volumes of Indian Parliamentary Papers, Volumes of
Fort William College Collection, Journals & Periodicals, Gazettes,
Publications in Foreign Languages.
Private Records
Private Archives Section has in its custody a rich collection of private
papers of eminent persons who have contributed immensely in various
fields of public life in India. These papers have been acquired mainly
through donations and gifts from individuals and institutions across the
world. They are an important source to supplement th e information
contained amongst the public records. Some of the most important private
papers in our custody are those of Mahatma Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad,
DadabhaiNaoroji, P.D. Tandon, Maulana Azad, Minoo Masani, Sardar
Patel, K.D.Malaviya, etc. All these private papers are accessible as per
provisions contained in the Public Records Rules, 1997 or conditions as
laid down by the donor at the time of their donation to the National
Archives of India.
Microfilm Rolls
The National Archives Of India, Janpath, N ew Delhi has a microfilm
repository enriched with a vast collection of microfilm rolls acquired from
abroad and microfilms prepared in -house as a back up under “Disaster
Management”. Under this "Disaster Management” programme, one set of
information is kep t away from the main storage area to ensure availability
in case of loss of information due to natural calamities like fire, flood
etc.or man -made sabotage, riots and unrest. This trusted medium
(Microfilms) safeguards the information available on it for p osterity and
the life expectancy is about 500 years. The scholars consult these
microfilms for their research purpose and avail of reprographic services. munotes.in

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134 This method of analog is gradually losing its significance due to swiftly
emerging technology.
Census of India reports
The Census Reports (1871 onwards ) are a valuable and basic source on
demographic studies and contain data about the population, castes, tribes,
occupation etc for the use of scholars and other users.
Parliamentary debates
This Collection consists of recorded proceedings of the British Parliament,
which includes Questions, Proceedings relating to India as well as White
Papers, Reports of Parliamentary Committees, Reports of Commissioners,
Trade and Tariff relating to India etc. Some of the important Volumes in
the Collection are:
12.4 CONTEMPORARY HISTORICAL WRITINGS
Ramachandra Guha is one of India’s leading historians currently. The
book ‘India after Gandhi -the history of the world’s largest democracy’ by
Ramachandra Guha talks about India ’s history after it gained
independence from the British. This is the perfect book for you to
understand the evolution of Modern India. Guha, a former professor and
now historian, does an awe -inspiring job of making sense of India’s
chaotic and eventful hi story since independence – the partition, Nehru’s
socialist policies, Rajiv Gandhi’s brief but impactful career, the rise of
religion and caste -based politics in this book.
‘The Argumentative Indian’ by Amartya Sen is the collection of essays on
Indian history. It is an essential read for anyone seeking to understand the
foundations of Indian polity. Focusing on the traditions of public debate or
argumentation and intellectual div ersity in Indian civilizations of the past,
Sen puts forth his views on what will determine the success of democracy
in India.
12.5 SUMMARY
There is no shortage of source material for constructing the history of
modem India. There is plenty of information available on the political,
socio -economic and cultural developments in the country. The sources of
modern history of India were the literary sources like manuscripts,
scrolls,books, important documents etc. The second would be
archaeological sources and monuments and the third would be other
sources like printing machine,photographs,reports,radio broadcasts etc.
The sources of modern and contemporary history also include the
contemporary historical writings by professional historians.

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135 12.6 QUESTIONS
1) Describe the importance of archival sources in the history of modern
and Contemporary India.
2) Examine the role of the government records in understanding the
modern Indian History.
12.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1) B. Shaikh Ali, History and its Methods, Macmill an pub., 1998.
2) Grover B. L and Grover S., A New Look at Modern Indian History, S.
Chand, 2001
3) McMillan J. H. and Schumander S. Research in Education : A
Conceptual Introduction Boston MA : Little Brown and Company
1984.
4) Shafer R. J., A Guide to Historical Method, Illions : the Dorsey Press,
1974.
5) http://maharashtraarchives.org
6) hhtp//nationalarchives.nic.in

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