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INTRODUCTION, METHODS AND
HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHAELO GY

Unit Structure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Int roduction
1.2 D efinition, Aims and Methods of Archaeology
1.3 Foundation of Indian Archaeology
1.4 History of Indian Archaeology
1.5 Archaeology: its relations with other Sciences
1.6 Conclusion
1.7 Questions
1.8 Additional Reading

1.0 OBJECTIVES:
After going through this unit the students will be understand to:
1. Understand the meaning of Archaeology.
2. Understand the history of Indian Archaeology.
3. Know the various methods of Archaeology
4. Evaluate the relations of Archaeology with other Social Sciences.
1.1 INTR ODUCT ION
History is a record of the achievements of man. For the reconstruction of
past of any country or peop le, we have to depends on events of past.
Such events are called as the ‘historical facts’. We can study only abou t
those people, whose existence is known to us from some records that they
have left behind. These records are known as the ‘historical sources’.
The historical sources are classified into two main broad categories.
They are Archaeological and literary. They archaeological sources include
in it the inscriptions engraved on the stones or the metal plates or on some
other object, coins and the structural remains, pottery, tools and
Weapons, sc ulptures, paintings and various types of other antiquities
found in the excavation. Archaeo logical sources provide the information munotes.in

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Introduction to Archaeology

2 regarding contemporary, political, social, economic, religious and cultural
conditions. These sources are treated as more authentic because of their
contemporirity for reconstructing the history of any particular country or
community.
1.2 DEFINITION, AIMS AND SCOPE OF
ARCHAEOLOGY

The term ‘archaeology’ comes from the Greek word Archaios means
Arche or ancient or the beginning. Logos means theory or sci ence. A
simple definition of archaeology is “Archaeo logy is essentially a method
of reconstructing the past from the surviving traces of former societies.”
Archaeology is mainly concerned with the material vestiges of man,
which means everything made by human beings from simple tools to the
machines and from simple houses to splendid palaces. All these material
remains are studied under the archaeological study.
Some of the definitions of the term archaeology are as follows:
a) “Archaeo logy is a technique by which facts are obtained for the
construction of history and pre-history, is humanity a way of looking
at man and his work.”
b) “The archaeological excavator is not digging up things, he is
digging of people” – Sir Mortimer Wheeler.
c) “Archaeo logists are students of material evidence surviving from past
of tangible and visible products, and achievements of the extinct
communities” – Stuort Piggot.
d) “Archaeo logy is that branch of science which is concerned with
according to O.G.S. Crowford past phases of human culture” – O.G.
Crowford.
e) “Archaeology deals with everything from eoliths to time capsule and
covers such an enormous field much of it dealt with in specialist
studies such as history of art or architecture” – Glyn Danial.
The main aim of an archaeo logist is to study past. He focuses his
attention on the material aspects of culture. These material objects are
tangible and visible, which provide us valuable information about the
socio-economic and cultural life of the past people. It serves as the
prime source of knowledge for the long saga of man in the pre-historic
times.
Archaeology provides us with a systematic framework of cultural and
chronological sequence besides the technological advancement from time
to time. With the study of other fields such as geo-chronology,
stratigraphy, carbon dating system and thermoluminscence techniques,
we can study the environment of the Stone Age man and his responses to
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Aim’s and Methods of
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3 Archaeologists employ many ways to reconstruct the stages in the tool
making techniques of the stone age. Archaeo logy is the only source of
history for unde rstanding the cultures of “Proto historic period”. The
discovery of the great Indus Valley Civilization was the result of the
excavations of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The discovery of these two
cities buried thousands of years ago is an outstanding contribution of
archaeology to the history of Indian Civil ization.
Archaeology has an important role to play in understanding the people
and their culture in the “historic Period” too.
The discovery of Buddhist sculptures in the Greek styles in the Gandhara
region has proved the Indo-Greek contacts. The discovery of Roman
gold coins in South India revealed the act that there was brisk trade
between India and the Roman Empire. The excavation done in Andhra
Pradesh at Nagarjunkonda is a land mark in the historical archaeo logy of
India. From this excavation we have got a clear idea about ancient town
planning. The excavation of mound at Nalasopara in Thane District has
proved the spread of Buddhism in that area in the early period of the
Buddhism. The excavations done in several other places which are
associated with the Buddha such as Saranath, Bodhgaya, Kaushambi,
Rajgriha, Kapilavastu etc. have yielded remarkable archaeological
evidences which have enriched our knowledge about history of
Buddhism. Most of the times the excavations have provided historical
source material in the form of antiquities. Thus archaeology has become a
very significant and effective method and tool for the reconstruction of
history.
Archaeology provides ample materials for reconstructing ‘the common
man’s history’, our literary sources put emphasis more on the higher
classes and the heroes and the leaders of the society who were great men
of the time. But the archaeology often brings to light day to-day objects
of the common man and thus it supplies the source material for a social
history.
In brief, the study of archaeology is the study human struggles, efforts,
and victories of the society. It is the study of not only a particular country
or a particular society, but also different parts and societies of the word.
1.3 FOUND ATION OF ARCHAEOLOGY:
In the wake of Renaissance movement is Europe; there was a new wave
of interest in the classical world. The glorious past of ancient Greece and
Rome became the subject of the study of the scholars. It became a fashion
to decorate, their houses with ancient art treasures and antiquities. They
sponsored excavations in the ancient sites. These men of Renaissance
made wonde rful collections which were enriched by European museums.
In the 16th and 17th centuries in England, a different trend was
developed which was known as ‘Antiquarianism’. It was a sort of
interest in visiting and studying the monuments and other objects of
antiquarian interest which became very popular. Many detailed studies of munotes.in

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4 historical monuments were conducted. In the 18th century, many
developments took place which laid the foundations of new approaches
and study of the past. Growing interest of people in the history, and
natural science resulted into the growth of archaeology. Several
excavations were undertaken and many societies such as the Royal
Society (Lond on) established in 1666, the society of Antiquaries of
London (1718) took active part in the excavations. The antiquaries and
natural historians laid the foundation of archaeology in 19th century . and
the growth of archaeology was accelerated. Many important discoveries
were being made in other parts of the world such as near East and the
Mediterranean Countries like Babylon in Mesopotamia and Arco polis in
Athence (Greece). This period witnessed further developments such as
geological revolution, the development of sciences, an antiquarian
revolution and the doctrine of evolution. These developments witnessed a
climate of thought in which archaeology flourished and made further
advances in the 19th century.
1.4 HISTORY OF INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY:
Since India was part of British empire, during this period, a systematic
study of archaeology in India began. The immense epigraphical,
architectural and sculptural wealth of India was the subject of the
attraction for the foreigners. Especially, the holy religious centers
were always the subject of reverence for Indians and the curiosity for the
foreigners who visited India as traders, travelers and rulers. As a matter of
fact, Indians had respect and interest for preserving the old objects
and their epigraphical records. But we do not get evidence for any effort
to study them in an orderly manner until the Brahmi script was
successfully deciphered.
From the 18th Century onwards the Officers of British East India
Company began to take keen interest in the antiquarian wealth of
India. In 1784, under guidance of Sir William Jones, a Judge of the
Supreme c ourt, the ‘Asiatic Society’ was started in Calcutta for the study
of history, the Antiquities, Art, Sciences and Literatures of Asia. This
Society started publishing its own journal i.e. ‘Asiatic Researches’ in
1788. This gave a Phillip to Ideological studies in which archaeological
methods were also applied.
Archaeological work was limited to the preparation for notes on
monuments in its initial stages. But the explorations done by H. H.
Wilson in Afghanistan and Francis Buchanan in Bengal and M ysore
brought to light many interesting antiquities such as coins, structural
remains to temples etc. James Fergusson condu cted an architectural
survey of India between 1829-1847. After the survey, he classified the
monuments of India. Many other people, who were mainly concerned
with field work, collected coins, and some of them tried to study
them. Many epigraphic records were also found in almost all parts of
India. Unfortunately the script remained undeciphered in which the
records were written. It was successfully deciphered by James Princep in munotes.in

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5 1838. He was an officer of Calcutta mint. He deciphered the brahmi
script in which Ashokan edicts were written. This opened a new vista
in the historical studies in India.
Alexande r Cunningham is known as Father of Indian Archaeology. He, as
an army engineer had worked with Princep in his work on the
decipherment of Brahmi scri pt. He took keen interest in the study of
ancient monuments and cities of India. He insisted on the systematic
exploration and approached Lord canning – the Governor General of
India. Accordingly in 1861, Governor General established the
‘Archaeological Survey of India’ and appointed Alexande r Cunningham
as the Archaeological surveyor. He and his surveyors visited
several historical monuments and remains and published reports with
photo graphs and drawings. He identified the Chief Cities ad sacred places
of ancient India such as the City of Taxila, Sravasti, Kausambi, all
connected with Buddha, the Great Stupa of Bactrian, the
inscriptions of Ashoka on the new rock edicts in Barhaut,
characters. He published all his discoveries through which many scholars
were attracted towards the field of archaeology. As a matter of fact,
the archaeological techniques were not advanced, but Cunningham and
his assistants had a great enthusiasm to explore and study the
glorious past of India. They were the pioneers of Indian Archaeology.
The other Pioneers were K.F. Fleet Government Epigraphist and Hultzsch
– epigraphist for South Indian inscriptions. They made a wonde rful job in
discovery, study and publication of many inscriptions. Others were
Meado ws, Taylor and Bruce Fotte. They contributed to the study of
geology of peninsular India and took keen interest in archaeo logy.
They discovered numerous Paleolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic sites.
His collections of antiquities were published in two volumes in 1914.
James Burgess succeeded Cunningham as the archaeological surveyor.
He made many contributions in Indian Archaeology. He s tarted
publication of two journals viz. ‘Indian Antiquary’ in 1872 ‘Epigraphia
India’ he also published the results of his elaborate surveys in
‘Archaeo logical Survey of India’ and ‘New Imperial series’ in twenty
volumes.
Lord Curzon (1899-1905) also had sympathetic attitude for the
preservation or ancient cultural relics and archaeological researches. His
programme included exploration, excavation, research, epigraphy,
publication and preservation of monuments. He recognized and enlarged
the archaeological survey of India.
Sir John Marshall (1876-1958) was appointed as the District Gene ral in
1902 at very young age when he was just 26 years old. He placed Indian
archaeology on a permanent footing. During his tenure an administrative
depa rtment was formed to maintain the monuments. He led many
excavations. A number of historical and Buddhist sites were excavations
was the discovery of many sc ulptures, inscriptions seals and coins.
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6 discovered at Pataliputra and a fine town planning system under indo-
Parthians at Taxila.
It was during this period, that the great Indus Valley Civil ization was
discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo – Daro in Sind. The work of the
excavation of these sites was done earlier by D. R. Sahani and R. D.
Banerjee. Later on the sites were extensively excavated by John
Marshall and his assistants K. N. Diks hit, M. S. Vyas and Hargreaves.
This discovery of Indus – Valley Civilization created widespread
interest in archaeology in India which led to further more excavations in
India.
In 1939, the distinguished British archaeologist Sir Leona rd Wooley
was invited to advise on the further policy on exploration and
excavation. He cri ticized the excavation techniques as outdated
and propounded the need for latest techniques adopted in Europe and
America.
It was in this situation that Mortimer Wheeler was appo inted as Director
General of Archaeology in 1944. he recognized the department of
archaeology and expanded its activities in many branches such as
excavation and conservation. He invited the sc holars from the
Universities to participate in the excavation. His excavations gave
significant results and were published. He started a new series of
publication. They were Ancient India and Indian Archaeology. HE
realized the need to train young scholars in the field of archaeology and
started the training center at Taxila. In post-independence period in 1960,
this center was transformed into the ‘School of Archaeology’
Archaeo logy was introduced in Indian Universities. Indian archaeologists
were sent abroad to learn the latest techniques. In brief, wheeler brought
Indian archaeology in li ne with the best International Standard.
After Wheeler the Archaeological survey of India is practically
manned by Indian Archaeologists. M ost of them were trained by
Wheeler. In 1960 a School of Archaeology was established under the
Archaeo logical Survey of India. In present days it is functioning as the
Institute of Archaeology. In addition, many universities offer archaeo logy
as a subject. There are many state level and University depa rtments of
archaeology. May universities such as Deccan College (Pune), Karnataka
University (D harwar), Calcutta University and many other Indian
Universities have their depa rtments of ancient history and archaeology. In
these universities a large number of young scholars are trained in many
branches of archaeology such as explorations, excavations, art and
architecture, Numismatics, etc. the work now is carried on by may
research institutes such as “Deccan College Post Graduate and Research
Institute”, Pune, “Jayaswal Research Institute”, Patna. The eminent
archeologists viz, H. D. Sankalia and his associates such as S. B. Deo, A.
Ghosh, V. D. Krishnaswami, B. Subba Rao, B. B. Lal, G. R. Sharma, K.
R. Srinivasan, M. N. Deshpande, B. K. Thapar, S. R. Rao, K. V. Sunder
Rajan, R. V. Ghosh, K.N. Dikshit, J. P. Joshi, Suraj Bhan and others. All munotes.in

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Aim’s and Methods of
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7 these institution and individuals have made a valuable contribution in the
field of archaeology.
1.5 ARCHAEOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES
History is an inquiry into the past. History is a record of the growth of
human mind. It is the reflection of what goes on in the realm of reality
with which man is concerned.
1) Archaeology and History:
Archaeology is on the border of humanities and social sciences. We have
already seen that History mainly aims at the study of human cultures.
Like history, archaeology also focuses on the study of material aspects of
culture. His tory, can study the culture of mankind only on the availability
of the written or oral records. In one way the scope of History is limited
to the period of which we get some historical evidences in the form of
literature. But Archaeology has a much wider scope and it s tudies the pre
civilized or non-civilized cultures. The smallest cultural unit is called
as artifacts in the field of archaeology. The material culture of
mankind consists of such tangible forms, as tools, implements,
pottery, burials, ornaments, and structural remains such as house patterns,
religious monuments or other buildings. All these are called as
artifacts. In artifact is a product of human workmanship. In the words
of Gorden C hild “an archaeological culture is an assemblage of
artifacts that recurs repeatedly associated together in dwellings of some
kind and with burials of the same rite. Artifacts hand together in
assembles not only because they were used in the same age, but also they
were used by the same people, executed in accordance with techniques,
rites or styles prescribed by a social tradition, handed on by precept and
example and modifiable in the same way.”
In brief several similar assemblages found in several sites and covering a
reasonably full range of human constitute a culture according to an
archaeologist.
The artifacts are studied by the archaeologists. Artifacts are studied
mainly in relation to man and they tell us they story of huma n culture. For
studying the artifact in an orderly manne r, it is necessary to document,
classify, analyses and interpret them. An archaeologist has to place the
artifacts in their historical and environmental contexts.
2. Archaeology and Environment:
Archeology is closely related with environmental because the
archaeologist studies the artifacts in their environmental contexts. The
evolution of man depends upon his surroundings the therefore, the
environmental study is necessary to unde rstand the economic and social
life. Almost every culture is influenced and affected by it environment
life. Almost every culture is influenced and affected by it
environment i.e. geographical features. The rivers, hills, lakes,
mountains, seas & plains have always played a vital role in the history munotes.in

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8 and the development of human culture. Therefore, the environmental
study is necessary to unde rstand the economic and social life which is
directly related to human ecology or environmental setting. The artifacts
i.e. antiquities and the art factual remains like the soils, seeds, bone,
water source are also equally important for understanding the culture
because they provide the environmental background for the cultural study
of a human settlement.
As a matter of fact, in the early stage of archaeology, an archaeologist did
not pay due attention to those ecological factors. But this is a recent
development in archaeology which is called as ‘Palaeo Ecology’. The
ecological study helps in the study of many archaeological problems. For
example, with the help of ecological study of the sites of Indus – Valley
civilization we are able to know that the decline of that civilization, way
due to the extensive, decline of rainfall and the aridity that had set in.
Since archaeology is an interdisciplinary subject, an archaeologist has to
collect varied data and reconstruct the ecology of the past societies. It is
called as the ecological approach to archaeology. This ecological method
is more useful in the excavations of the pre-historical site than the
historical sites. In this method, an archaeologist takes the help of other
sciences such as botany, zoology, and geography to identify and analyses
the remains as the plants, animals, soils, rocks, bones and other factors.
Archaeology has its relation with many other sciences. According to
Gorden child, ‘Archaeology and Anth ropology are twin branches of a
single science’. But according to Glyn Danial, ‘Archaeo logy and
Anthropology are not sciences, but are social sciences.’
Whether it is a science or a social science, is not the matter of study here.
But archaeology and anthropology are closely related to each other and
seek the help of various other sciences for their studies.
3. Archaeology and Anthropo logy:
An archaeologist has to study the decline of anthropology for better
understanding of evolution of human beings and his culture. An
archaeologist uses the methods, techniques and result of physical and
biological sciences. An archaeologist at the same time, it’s a humanist
and a fact finder. According to Crowford, ‘Archaeo logy is an art which
employs scientific technique’. It is an interdisciplinary sci ence which
seeks help from various other disciplines like geology, anthropology,
physics, chemistry, zoology etc. It is mainly concerned with the history
and culture of mankind and therefore it is a human science.
4. Archaeology and Geology:
Geology is the science which deals with the condition and structure of the
earth and the evidence afforded of ancient forms of life. It is the study of
rocks, minerals, s oils, climatic changes and their effects on land
formation. Geological law of stratification has become a major tool for munotes.in

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Aim’s and Methods of
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9 the archaeological excavations. Geology has its own method of dating
which is known as ‘Glacial Verve Chronoly’.
5. Archaeology and Physics:
Physics also contributes in the archaeological investigations in many
ways. Physics provides the scientific aids in the archaeological survey
like the Proton-Magneto Meter (Material survey to detect buried iron and
kiln sites), Thermo-remnant. Magnetic s urvey (to detect burnt clay
artifacts and brick structures), Electricity Resistivity metric survey (to
study the buried soils, rocks, pits etc.). All these survey methods
have made a valuable contribution in developing the exploration
techniques. In methods of dating the cultures also, physics has
contributed a lot by the methods of the Radio – Carbon dating.
Thermoluminescence dating Arhaeomagntism dating and potassium
dating.
6. Archaeology and Chemis try:
Chemistry plays a vital role in preservation. Chemistry also has
contributed to the development of the archaeology especially in the field
of cleaning and preserving the antiquities. Metal objects like iron,
copper, or silver found in the preservation. Similarly it plays a vital
role in cleaning, Strengthening and preserving the ancient wall paintings.
The conservation of Ajanta Paintings is an outstanding example of the
work of chemistry. Chemistry has developed several methods like elector
– chemical and electrolytic reduction for cleaning the metal object found
in the excavations. Chemistry helps in dating of some of the antiquities by
the methods of flouring, Uranium and Nitrogen dating of Bones.
7. Archaeology and Botany:
Archaeology and Botan y also are closely related. An archaeologist has to
seek the help of Botany to study the flora and fauna for understanding
the ancient environmental setting. The study of ancient plant remains is
called as ‘palaeo Botany’. The method of pollen analysis is very useful
in palaeo – botanical studies. This study provides information regarding
the nature of vegetation climate, and the history of cultivation of any
place and also the food habits of the people inhabiting it.
8. Archaeology and Zoology:
Zoology is the science of animal biology. It deals with the structure,
classification and distribution of various members of the animal
kingdoms. Knowledge of Zoology helps the archaeologist in many ways.
Animal bones of various species are often found at historical sites. For the
study of fossil bones of the animals of the past ages, Zoology helps us. It
helps us to unde rstand how man learnt to control and domesticate animal
like sheep, goat, dog and pig in the Neolithic age.

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10 9. Archaeology and Statistical Methods and Computer Science:
Statistical method is also of great value to document archaeological data.
Statistical formulations serve as a tool for the easier handling.
Recently computer science also has become an important aspect of
archaeological analysis. Especially it is necessary for artifact analysis on
sites. It helps us in controlling, indexing and storing information and also
the classification of the data in the archaeological method.
Thus it is clear that archaeology is very much dependent on a multitude
of sciences and is itself increasingly adopt ing the methodology of a
natural science. In recent years i.e. last three decades a school of
archaeo logists led by Binford and David Clerk has been strongly
advocating that archaeology is a scientific discipline. This approach is
known as ‘New Archeology’.
Historical archaeology can again be divided on the basis of periods such
as ancient archaeology, medieval archaeo logy etc. Archaeology can be
classified on the basis of the subject matter or the problem of study such
as Economic archaeology, Ethn o- archaeology, Temple archeology.
There are some other types of archaeology also such as Marine
Archeology, Aerial archaeology and Salvage archaeo logy.
Aerial Archeology means the aerial survey of the site through the
study of the aerial photographs and preparation of maps a plane based on
the survey.

Aerial Photog raph of Ancient site of Shishupal Garh in Orissa
Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the types of Archaeology?
2. What is the relation between Archaeology and Chemistry?
3. Write the important names of various Archaeological sites of Ancient
India? munotes.in

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Aim’s and Methods of
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11 1.6 CONCLUSION:
Archaeology has a much wider scope and it s tudies the pre civilized or
non-civilized cultures. The smallest cultural unit is called as artifacts
in the field of archaeology. The material culture of mankind consists
of such tangible forms, as tools, implements, pottery, burials,
ornaments, and structural remains such as house patterns, religious
monuments or other buildings. All these are called as artifacts. In
artifact is a product of human workmanship.
Through this unit the meaning and defination of archaeology and its
relation with other social sciences are studied.
1.7 QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the meaning and scope of Archaeology?
2. How Archaeology is related with other social sciences ? Explain with
example.
3. Evaluate the relations of Archaeology with Basic Sciences?
1.8 ADDITIONAL READING

1. Chakrabarti, Dilip K, India - An Archaeological History: Paleolithic
Beginnings to Early History Foundation, Oxford University Press,
2010 (Fourth Edition)
2. Dani, A. H, Indian Paleography, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi,
1986.
3. Dhavalikar, M K, Indian Proto History, Books and Books, New Delhi,
1997.
4. Dhavalikar, M K, Aryans Myth and Archaeology, Munshiram
Manoharlal 2007.
5. Renfrew Colin and Bahn Paul, Archaeology : Theories, Methods and
Practice, Thames and Hudson, London, 199 1.
6. Singh Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India,
Pearson Longman, New Delhi, 2008.
7. Thapar Romila, Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, Oxford India
Perennials, (Third Edition), 2012.

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FIEL D ARCHAEOLOGY 2 Unit

2.0 Structure

Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of a Site
2.3 Exploration
2.3.1 Historical Information of a Site
2.3.2 Scientific methods for survey
2.3.3 Exploration Kit
2.4 Excavation
2.4.1 Characteristics of an Archaeo logical Excavation
2.4.2 The Excavation Team
2.5 Method s of Dating Antiquities
2.5.1 The Typological Method
2.5.2 Stratigraphic Method
2.5.3 Carbon – dating method (C-14)
2.6 Method s of Excavation
2.6.1 Trial Trenches
2.6.2 Vertical excavation or Rectangular Trenching System
2.6.3 Grid System or Horizontal Excavation
2.6.4 Open Stripping System
2.6.5
2.7
2.8
2.9 a Quardrant Method
Summary
Questions
Additional Reading
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit the students will be able to:
1. Understand h ow to fo rmulate the sites .
2. Know the historical methods to excavation sites.
3. Understand the Characteristict of archaeological excavation.
4. Evaluate the importance of Carbon -14 method. munotes.in

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13
2.1 INTR ODUCT ION
The field archaeology begins with the discovery of location of ancient site
of burial monument or an artifact. The chances of discoveries may be
casual, accidental or deliberate. The increasing activities or man like
construction of new road ways or railway lines, extension of land for
cultivation often lead to accidental discoveries.
Many ancient sites and settlements were covered by soil or the river silt
or sometimes by sea. Sometimes the floods or river and sea erosion
suddenly covered the presences of these ancient sites. To cite an example,
Madurai, the capital city of the Pandean rulers was eroded by sea.
Sometimes even buried structures would be exposed by the river erosion.
These sites are suspected sites from the archaeological point of view.
2.2 FORMATION OF A SITE
Formation of a site is the first important step in field archaeology. A site
survey can be unde rtaken for different objectives. It depends upon the
nature of the study taken up by the explorer. It depends on the interest of
archaeologists for example, if an archaeologist is a specialist in
prehistory, he would like to study the Paleolithic and Neolithic sites of a
region. If an archeologist is i nterested in the study of proto-history, he
would make a survey according to his requirements (For example the
survey of Indus Valley sites in Rajasthan and Gujarat). As regards the
survey of historical sites the best examples are the exploration of the
sacred Buddhist sites in India. One best example of the exploration is the
exploration of a small mound at Nalasopara in Thane district which gave
clues for the excavation of a Buddhist Stupa there.
Thus, the survey of cities, the study of land features, collection of the
artifacts and the strategy to be adopted in the field archaeology depe nds on
the objectives of survey.
2.3 EXP LORATION :
Site survey is a preliminary study of the field data available on the
surface of a site or an area. Site survey is preliminary study of the field,
data available on the surface of a site or an area which is called as
surface exploration. It is known as ‘Site Survey’ or ‘reconna issance’
in U.S.A. The term Exploration is used in India to distinguish
preliminary site survey from the actual excavation. Crawford called it as
‘archaeo logy without digging’.
Surface explorations play an important role in bringing to light the
nature and the distribution of artifacts of cultures not only in site but also
over a wide region. Field exploration helps us to enlarge our knowledge
about the archaeological materials of an area and acts as a good
indicator of the nature of the cities or cultures that one could expect in an
area. It collects various coins, terracotta, seals, figurines and thus helps up
to recognize or reconstruct the different cultures and periods, represented
in the collection. Especially when excavations are very expensive and munotes.in

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14 time consuming, surface exploration is of great value for an archaeologist
to plan his excavations in selected sites.
Map reading provides the information of the cities, towns, villages’
temples and other religious places, major highways, railways, stations and
rest houses and hotels. With the help of this information, an explorer can
plan his trip in a better way.
In the exploration of the prehistoric sites – especially in areas where
the hunter, gatherer and simple agricultural groups still exist, an
ethnographic study of the local inhabitants is necessary.
2.3.1 Historical Information of a Site:
The explorer must know the historical background of a site, which he is
going to be explorer. This historical background can be got from the
historical literature either in the form of the literary or epigraphic
evidences. However this historical data is not available for the study of
pre-historic sites and therefore it can be used only for the exploration of a
cite of historical period. Exploration of historical site enables us to know
the names of cities or villages.
The explorer of an area or a site must study the data available from the
early exploration or excavations conducted in that area. It can be
available in the form of published works or unpublished notes prepared
by an explorer. For example, Cunningham’s notes on his exploration and
his discoveries are very useful for the explorer in N orth-Indian sites.
The explorer must c onsult the Annual Reports of the earlier
Archeological Survey of India and now India Archaeology.
Local traditions also are very useful for the reconstruction of regional or
local history because local people and knowledgeable persons are able to
point out certain spots of historical importance. This helps the explorer to
choose the spot of his excavation.
2.3.2 Scientific methods for survey:
In the exploration, an explorer may take help of some sci entific methods
such as Magnetic and Electricity resistivity which c an be helpful in his
exploration.
In Magnetic Survey – The Proton Magnetometer which is a sci entific
apparatus is used for detecting buried from iron kiln sites and certain
kinds of soil. Another method is Thermo – Remnant Magnetic Survey by
which the existence of Burnt Clay, artifacts, burnt brick structures can be
detected.
In the Electricity Resistivity Survey the resistivity meter is used. This
method is use by geologists also. IT can be applied to detect buried
archaeological structures. This method was first used by Atkinson in
1946. Some other scientific are probe Augur, Drills geochemical methods,
Aerial Survey and Photo graphy which helps an explorer in his work.
2.3.3 Exploration Kit:
Exploration is a team work. The team consists of archaeologists who are
specialitzed in different branches of history. munotes.in

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15 In actual exploration an explorer has to carry an exploration kit with him.
It consists of many things:
1) Knap sack with Shoulder straps for carrying equipment’s to the site.
2) Potte ry cloth bags for collecting specimens like stone tools or
potteries.
3) Antiquity Packets to collect smaller antiquities like bead s, coins, etc.
4) Tape for measurements and excavation knives of scrap for
finding stratification.
5) Pocket compass to know the direction.
6) Portable camera, exposure meter and film rolls,
7) Site note book, pen pencils to record the field data for every site
explored, drawing sheets and geometry box etc.
8) First aid box and vehicle.
Surface exploration is a skillful job. If needs training and experience.
The field data which is collected and the features observed on a site
should be recorded accurately in his notes.
2.4 EXCAVATION :
When the exploration of a site is cover, and the ancient sites or mounds
are plotted and the field data about them is collected, the archaelogist
can proceed with the excavation work. Excavation literally means the
digging of the earth removing the buried soil. It is just a destructive
process. But the archaeological excavation is much different than the
simple excavation because in archaeological excavation, and excavator
is interested in knowing every inch of the soil which he digs below the
earth to find out, whethe r it is a part of an occupation layer or it contains
any traces of human activity. Archaeological excavation is a slow,
systematic and planned digging to study the nature and the contents of the
occupation layers.

Exca vated site at Kalibangan (Indus Valley Civilization)
Archaeological excavation is an elaborate which i nvolves time,
money, labou r and equipment. Excavation goes through many stages such
selection of site, setting up of the camp, laying out of the trenches, proper
excavation, documentation of the evidence, sorting out of the excavated
objects and then preservation and transportation of materials back to the munotes.in

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16 headquarters, preparation of technical reports, and publication of the
result.
2.4.1 Characteristics of an Archaeological Excavation:
The main characteristics of an archaeological excavation are as follows:
1. An archaeological excavation is done with great care and planning so
that every artifact discovered from the site is preserved.
2. Its position in relation to the layers or deposits in which it is
found (stratification) and relation to other objects is documented in
records for the verification at any time.
3. Environmental data such as flora, fauna, soil are recorded and studied
to know the ecological setting of the site.
4. The record of excavation is published.
2.4.2 The Excavation Team:
In the process of excavation, an archaeologist needs the services or
different technical persons. The actual excavation staff leads an
excavation the staff consists of:
1. Director – who is the chief of the excavation team.
2. Assistant Directors who closely work with the director.
3. Excavation Assistant who is called as Technical Assistant.
4. Site Supervisors or trench records.
5. Potte ry Assistant who mainly works in the Pottery yard.
6. Antiquity assistant cum curator.
7. Photographe r
8. Surveyor
9. Draughtsman for the preparation of measured drawing of the plans
and sections or the excavated trenches.
10. Marksman for making the pegs on lay out.
11. Foreman cum store – keeper who maintains stock register and roll
call and who is the charge of all the materials, like camp equipment,
excavation tools and plants etc.
12. Field Chemists – who help in many ways like consolidation of
bones before their removal, cleaning of coins etc. He attends the
work of conservation of excavated objects. Like chemist, services of
an Anthropologist, Zoologist, and Botan ists are also required.
13. Labourers – Indian archaeologists employ manual labourers to do all
the mechanical work.
The above mentioned technical and non-technical staff requires tools and
plants. Usually excavations are conducted in interior areas. Therefore the
team should be well equipped with boarding and loading facilities. They
also should be well equipped with various ki nds of tools facilities. munotes.in

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17 They also should be well equipped with various kinds of tools required
for excavation. For a proper understanding of a detailed history of a site
on a sequential basis excavations are undertaken to know:
i) The vertical dimension of a site from its earliest inception from the
soil upwards.
ii) The different period or phases in its history including the
different occupation levels and building levels.
iii) The horizontal dimension, the material contents of each period like
the lay-out of the town, the house patterns, nature of buildings and a
host of human artifacts throwing valuable light on the material culture
of the people.
As a matter of fact, excavations was considered merely as a method of
collecting antiquities, a glorified treasure hunt, but later on archaeologist
as emphasized on the context in which they were found and their relation
to the layers and objects. In earlier excavation s, the chronological factor
was neglected but in the modern excavations, the chronological factor is
carefully studied by the archaeologist. The cultural sequence and
chronology are important in an excavation and therefore, the methods of
dating are very important from the archaeological point of view.
2.5 METHODS OF DATING ANTIQUITIES
There are two types of dating system i.e. absolute and relative dating. In
archaeology of historical period, we often get evidences for absolute
dating with the help of a datable objects like c oins or inscriptions or
literary evidence. Coins and inscriptions of the rulers of some dynasties
given an absolute idea of the dates of the dynasties some copper plate
inscriptions also are very helpful for absolute dating system. However
for the archaeology of pre- historic and Proto historic cities, we have to
depend on the relative dating method, which is based mainly on
the stratigraphic sequence and typological comparisons etc. In this
relative method, a numbers of Geo-Chronological and other scientific
methods of dating such as Radio-Carbon, Thermo -luminescence etc.
are employed in modern times.
2.5.1 The Typological Method:
Artifacts are classified according to their form or shape and their relative
antiquity assigned on the presumption that the main cri terion-simple to
elaborate, poorly preserved to well preserve- which is co-related with
age. This a logical evolutionary arrangement constructed by the
archaeologist which is called as Serration. This method when we apply in
corrobation with stratigraphic m ethod serves as a very useful tool to
understand the different forms and traditions in the manufacture of
different classes of artifacts.
2.5.2 Stratigraphic Method:
William Smith was also called “Strafa Smith”. Later on this method was
adopted for the archaeological investigation, which has been universally
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18 This method consists of surest method of determining the order of
succession of events and cultures in a given site and hence, it has
been a major tool for archaeological interpretation of a site. This method
plays an important role in the archaeology and therefore, an
archaeologist has to understand the principles of stratigraphy.
Stratigraphical excavation means excavation – layer by layer, keeping
all the artifacts from each deposit in separate groups. The last laid deposit
must be removed first and the earlier ones successively unit the natural
soil is reached. This procedure gives an idea of the earliest culture at the
site and the later culture that came up successively unit the latest
represented by the uppermost layers. This procedure is known as the
sequence of cultures built on the principles of stratigraphy. The
excavations by this method ends at the layers where there is no longer any
trace of human workmanship i.e. artifacts.
Different kind of soil depends upon the cause of the deposition either
natural or human such as the layers of sand, clay, silt, gravel or lime
(chalk) can be identified. For example the layers or sand and clay on a
settlement usually can be by the floods or river. As regards the contents of
layer, they contain ash or charcoal, gravel or potte ry pieces, layers of brisk
bats etc. the texture is hard, it has gravel or pebb le. Within the layers
itself, we may find some local patches such as a patch of phase or lime
flooring. (Within a l ayer there may be many smaller laminations or
patches). Natural layers can be differentiated from manmade or cultural
layers. The layers depo sited by natural agencies like wind, floods
etc. are known as natural layers.
Thus method of stratigraphy provides us the sequence of cultures or the
order or succession of events in a site. It also enables u to make the
conclusion about the probable (relative) dates in terms of centuries.
2.5.3 Carbon – dating method (C-14):
This method of C-14 dating was devised in U.S.A. by Wilward F.
Libby in 1984.
Carbon 14 is a ratio – active heavy of isotope of carbon. It I present in the
upper atmosphere of the earth. The C-14 atoms c ombine with Oxygen to
form Carbon dioxide and get mixed in the earth’s atmosphere. They enter
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19

Carbon dating (C-14) Showing the process of Carbon decay
and animals. All living organism absorb carbon -14 (the radio – active
carbon) and carbon – 12 (ordinary carbon) in constant proportion till the
moment of death. After death, the radio – active carbon which was
absorbed already, starts decaying. It decays at a rate determined only by
half-life of the iso tope. The half-life of C-14 is 5568 + 30 years, it is
possible to determine the ages of an organic sample by ascertaining
the specific carbon – 14 activity in the sample. The amount of C-14
remaining in the dead organic matter is indicated by its radio –
activity – which will be proportionate to the time that elapsed since
death. This dating system is possible on the basis of the present day C-
14 content of living matter and the known half-life of C-14. the
dating of an ancient organic sample results from the measurements of its
C-1 contents and the calculation of its age from the amount of
disintegration that has occurred since death – The ample of organism
burnt in the laboratory, reduces it to pure carbon and measuring the ratio
– activity in a specially constructed radiation counter.
Many materials are suitable for carbon dating system. They are wood,
charcoal, textile piece, parts of the body, shell, dung, charred gains etc.
The sample should be collected in moisture free jars or aluminum or
plastic foils.
There are many institutions in India undertaking C-14 analysis. These
institutions are extensively used by archaeo logist. The Tat institute of
Fundamental Research Bombay, The Birbal Sahn i Institute of Palaeo
Botany, Lucknow, and the physical science laboratory Ahmedabad are
the chief laboratories in India. These institutions have helped a lot for
dating different cultures and sites in India which are very useful for
archaeological dating.
There are some other dating systems also such as Thermoluminescencfe
dating (T.L), Archaeo – magnetism, Potassium – Argon dating, Flurine, munotes.in

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20 Uranium and Nitrogen Dating of Bone s etc. In many ways these methods
are helpful for dating the cultures.
2.6 METHODS OF EXCAVATION:
When an excavator starts his work, he has to make a layout of the trench.
Different strategies and methods can be adopted in the excavations
depending upon the aims, the area and the time available for excavation.
Many a time, artifacts and structures are found in the trenches at
excavation time. There are different types of lay out of the trench. They
are
i) Trial trenching or sondage
ii) Rectangular Trenching System or Vertical excavation iii) Grid system
or Horizontal excavation
iv) Open striping
v) Quad rant method
2.6.1 Trial Trenches:
Trial Trenches are helpful for an archaeologist because they serve as
Preliminary sounding before excavation. It gives an idea of the nature,
depth and contents of the archaeological depo sits in a site which is to be
excavated. In this method, usually the trenches of one square meter are
dug out. The area of the dig is small in this method and hence their value
is limited because they cannot give a more detailed information.
2.6.2 Vertical excavation or Rectangular Trenching System:
Another method of layout of an excavation is the rectangular trenching
method. It is a regular method with definite objectives. It is one of the
popular methods of the excavation. This method is more useful when the
area of dig is small and especially, when the objective of excavation is
mainly to know the vertical sequence of cultures. It is also useful for
cross trenching a line of fortification to co-relate its Stratigraphical
sequence with that of the enclosure within. This method was used in
Harappa to establish the Stratigraphical relationship between two
cemeteries far away from each other.

Vertical excavation at the Ancient site of Ujjain munotes.in

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21 According to wheeler, recording the artifacts and other features in the
excavation is “There dimensional measurement.” With the help of this
measurement, we can understand and study the exact location and
stratigraphical position of the antiquities, structural remains and other
features that are discovered in the excavation.
In the vertical excavation a trench is dug out in the vertical direction. This
method gives an idea of the vertical depth of the object. Vertical
excavation supplies the information to the length of an occupation. The
vertical dig reveals the stratified deposits and furnishes the sequential
frame work.
2.6.3 Grid System or Horizontal Excavation:
There are two methods of investigation or lay in the system. One is the
Grid system in which a series of squares of uniform size are laid out, and
the other is Open Stripping System complete are without the aid of square
division or balks.
The Grid System: The orientation of grid system is necessary because it
enables the archaeologist to describe accurately any point on the size in
relation to the north south axis. (Here the surveyor lays out the metric grid
parallel to the datum line) usually 5 to 10 square meters trenches are taken
in the excavation.
This system helps the excavator the Co-relation or stratigraphy from the
different parts of the sites. This is a very convenient system to excavate a
vast area or a town site and every part of it can be plotted and integrated in
the overall site grid.
2.6.4 Open Stripping System:
Open Stripping may be used after knowing the stratigraphy of the site.
The square unit system which is used in the grid system is avoided here.
The open stripping system means each layer and feature of the site of
excavation is followed individually and cleared completely. This method
is often used when there is time limit for excavations. Open stripping
method is very useful to clear a large area. It can save the time and energy
also.
In the horizontal excavation, an excavator takes up an experimental dig at
the highest point of a given site. Here he takes a quick survey of the
nature of the different layers (control pit) in a pit of maximum deposits of
the variety of material objects which are associated with these layers.
2.6.5 Quardrant Method:
For excavating a circular mound such as a stupa, the trenches can be
laid out the Quardrant method. The m ound is divided into four
quarters, each of which excavated sequentially.
2.7 SUMMARY
The process of archaeological exacavation is destructive, irrecoverable
changes of the nature. Most of the archa eological investigation gives rise
to an inhearant conflict between the practices of archaeology, munotes.in

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22 requirements for physical conservation of fabric, the cultural values other
then archaeological ones that are associated with particular sites.
Therefore, th e Archaeologists may therefore be regarded as having an
ethical responsibility to care for and conserve the sites they put at risk
through excavation. Awareness and acceptance of this obligation have
come slowly. The excavation of historical sites are impo rtant but
simulteniously the limited irrecoverable changes of the nature needs to be
taken care by the team of exvacation with the help of geological experts.
2.8 QUESTIONS
1. Which methods are used for the formation of archaeological sites?
2. what kind of preperations are issential to initiate the excavation of any
archaeological sites.
3. Explain the various methods of excavation?
2.9 ADDITIONAL READING

1. Drewett Peter, Field Archaeology: An Introductio n, UCL Press,
London, 1999.
2. Ghosh A (Ed), Archaeological Remains, Monuments and Museums,
Govt of India, New Delhi, 1964.
3. LahiriNayanjyot, Ashoka in Ancient India, Harvard University Press,
2015.
4. Paddayya, K, The New Archaeology and Aftermath, Ravish
Publis hers, Pune, 1990.
5. Piggot Stuart, Approach to Archaeology, Adams and Charles Black,
London, 1959.
6. Renfrew Colin and Bahn Paul, Archaeology : Theories, Methods and
Practice, Thames and Hudson, London, 1991.
7. Singh Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India,
Pearson Longman, New Delhi, 2008.
8. Thapar Romila, Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, Oxford India
Perennials, (Third Edition), 2012.


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23 3
PALAEOLITHIC AND
MESOLITHIC CULTURES
Unit Structure
3.0 Objective s
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Beginning of Prehistoric Archaeology Studies
3.3 Lower Paleolithic
3.4 Middle Paleolithic
3.5 Upper Paleolithic
3.6 Mesolithic
3.7 Summary
3.8 Question s
3.9 Additional Readings
3.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To trace the origin of Prehistoric archaeology
 To understand the different prehistoric traditions found in India
 To make students aware of the geographical spread of the Prehistoric
cultures
 To analyze the devel opment of stone tool technology.
 To observe and understand the environmental conditions and the
location of sites during the Prehistoric period.
 To develop an understanding of the lifeways of the various Prehistoric
cultures found in India
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Archaeology is the study of past human behaviour and cultural changes
through the study of material remains. In other words, it’s a scientific
study of the past cultures and lifeways of the people based on things made,
used, and left behind by them. So, a rchaeologists study people by
examining the tools they used and places they lived. Prehistory is referred
to the period in human history when there was no written record or before
writing was known. Dr. Sankalia (Sankalia, 1962), mentions that
Prehistoric archaeology refers to that period in human history for which
we have no legend, no tradition, but only stone tools and bone tools and
remains of animals. Prehistory also refers to that period when man was
evolving biologically through its various extinct species to its present munotes.in

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24 form. This evolution of human species to modern man took millions of
years spanning most of the Stone Age.
3.2 BEGINNING OF STUDIES ON PREHISTORIC
ARCHAEOLOGY
The beginning of prehistoric archaeology was laid by the findings of
stone tools (hand axes) in association with fossil animal bones in the cliff
over the river Somme in France by Boucher de Parthes in 1836. This was
followed by the discovery of Pengelley in cave at Brixham, South Devon,
England in 1863. These discoveries led to the realization of the antiquity
of human past which was not only millions of years old but also associated
with a very different climatic and geographical condition. Then came the
discovery of skeletal remains of man. In 1857, a human skull was found
on the river Dussel in Germany. This was identified later as skull of a
Neanderthal man (now extinct). Herein lay the foundation of the
beginning of association of past environment and changes that it
underwent, with prehistoric studies. The finds of skele tal remains made it
an important part of the prehistoric archaeology.
Paleolithic records span from the Pliocene through the Pliestocene. The
Paleolithic period is dated to the glacial age. This entire period underwent
frequent climatic changes. Climatic c onditions varied from Glacial or Ice
Ages to similar conditions like present day. During the Ice Ages, there was
significant increase in ice cover. It increased by 30 percent. Sea level also
reduced by 100 metres. Areas located in higher latitudes were cov ered by
continental glaciers. This led to abandonment of sites and relocating
during favourable periods in these regions. In the Indian subcontinent,
though the climatic changes were significant, conditions remained
favourable for humans through all fluctu ations in weather conditions.
Climatic studies have also given evidence of evolution of tropical
grassland condition in the late Miocene in the Indian subcontinent.
The site of Dikika (Ethiopia) has yielded skeletal remains of an
Australopithecine child da ted to 3.3 million years old. This skeletal
material was found along with animal bones showing cut marks, probably
made by stone artifacts (Padayya, 2017). The earliest hominid
Australopethicus (4.4 and 1.8 mya) lived in Africa. Some of the oldest
stone to ols are found at Gona in Ethiopia ( 4.5 million years old). Also,
Omo valley and Afar valley of the Hadar region have yielded stone tools
dated between 4.3 and 4.4 million years. These stone tools made on
pebbles are called Oldowan because they were first f ound at the site of
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and are associated with a later species known as
Homo habilis. Homo erectus appeared 1.7mya and are found in Europe
and Asia apart from Africa. He is traditionally associated with the
discovery of fire. Important changes occurred in human evolution between
4.5 and 1.8 million years ago. Not only the stone tools first appeared,
brains expanded, bodies enlarged, limb proportions also developed
significant differences. Added to this there was a reduction in size of
cheek teeth. The changes in crania resulted in it sharing more unique
features with later Homo (McHenry and Coffing, 2000). The evolutionary munotes.in

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Mesolithic Cultures

25 tract of modern humans leaves a very complicated trail. Research is still
ongoing as to the relation of the various extinct species with one another
and their role in the eventual evolution into the modern Homo Sapien
genus.
In Indian context, the evidence of hominid fossils are extremely rare. The
site of Hathnora in Madhya Pradesh has produced archaic form of Homo
sapiens skull. Homo Sapiens fossil in well stratified context were also
found at the site of Jwalapuram, Andhra Pradesh. Its dated to 20,000 -
12,000 cal BP.
Prehistory of India, as elsewhere, is divided into three broad periods -
Paleolithic (paleo -old, lithic -stone, i.e., Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (meso -
middle, lithic -stone, i.e. Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (neo -new, lithic -
stone, i.e. New Stone Age). Each of these periods is marked by different
features as well as gradual improvement in tool making skill and
technology. The Paleolithic period is further divided into Lower, Middle
and Upper Paleolithic followed by the Mesolithic. Mesolithic period gives
evidence of domestication of plants and animals and eventual move
towards settled life in the form of tem porary settlements. These sites are
found all over the Indian subcontinent.
The prehistoric period in India is divided into the following timescale
Paleolithic
a) Lower paleolithic 1.5 to 0.2 million years
b) Middle paleolithic 0.2 million to 40,000 y ears
c) Upper Palaeolithic 40,000 to 10,000 years
Emergence of microlithic tradition 10,500 years to 48,000 years based on
blades (Jwalapuram in Kurnool area and Mehtakheri in central India)
Mesolithic 10,000 to 6,000 years
3.3 LOWER PALEOLITHIC
The discovery of the first stone tool by Robert Brucefoot in Pallavaram,
Tamil Nadu in1863 was the starting point of Indian prehistory. This was
followed by three decades of work by Robert Brucefoot in which he
further discovered sites in Gujarat and South I ndia. Numerous studies
focusing on the prehistoric archaeology of India has been conducted since
then. Sites have also been found all over the country in arid, semi -arid, dry
deciduous, moist deciduous zones. Though most of the finds are open air
sites, th ere’s also evidence of cave sites.
The period when the Paleolithic occupation took place is marked by
significant changes in climatic and environmental conditions. Mighty
rivers, originating from the Himalayas, flowed during the Early
Pleistocene in the s emi-arid region of Rajasthan. Due to tectonic
movements, these were replaced by pools and lakes. It was near these munotes.in

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26 lakes, pools and exposed gravel beds where Acheulian remains are found.
The climate during this period fluctuated between warm wet and cool d ry
periods. Semi -arid climate prevailed. In Madhya Pradesh, Bhimbetka rock
shelter, chemical analysis has shown existence of humid climate like
today. Faunal remains like, cattle, hippopotamus, wild boar, rhinoceros,
horse recovered from riverbeds suggests existence of forests and
grasslands and availability of plentiful water round the year. The
Acheulian hominin adapted themselves to a variety of ecological niches.
Acheulian -The beginning of Indian Lower Paleolithic is marked by the
acheulian cultural tr adition. It is so named after the site St. Acheul in
France where these tools were first discovered. It is a phase of the Lower
Paleolithic. Earliest dates from the Indian subcontinent come from the
sites of Isampur and Atirampakkam which have produced dat es of
1.2million years and 1.5 million years respectively (Padayya,2017). It
flourished in the Indian subcontinent from 1.5 to 0.5 mya. It is typified by
assemblages of large cutting tools, hand axes, knives, and cleavers. The
hand axe occupies a significa nt position. It was produced by knocking off
flake systematically from several directions most probably with the help of
large stone hammers. It is a heart or pear -shaped piece with a thick blunt
butt or holding hand and tapering working end to form a poin t. Cleaver is
another important tool which is flat and made from a big rectangular flake
and has a broad axe like cutting edge. These tools are primarily bifacial,
i.e., worked on both sides. Handaxes and cleavers could have been used
for cutting, chopping , animal bones. Handaxes could also have been used
for digging in the soil for roots or mollusk shells. Large flake tools are
associated with this tradition. Some of the sites yielding Lower Paleolithic
acheulian tools include Morgaon, Chirki -on-Pravara, B ori, in Maharashtra,
Isampur in Karnataka, Jwalapuram in Andhra Pradesh, Attirampakkam in
Tamil Nadu etc. Cleavers with sharp edges on the end of the tools and
handaxes with a pointed end are the handheld tools found at these sites.
Hammerstones are also f ound, though they are less in number.
The Indian Acheulian is closer in date to African Acheulian(1.8mya).
Acheulian tradition is also divided into early and late Acheulian. Early
Acheulian is marked by the large flake tools. Late Acheulian sees earliest
evidence of prepared core and Levallois technology. In Levallois
technique the core is prepared by giving centrally directed blows on the
surface of the core. A platform is created, so it’s no longer convex but
flattened. Then perpendicular blows were stru ck at that point. This was
done either directly or with the use of an intermediary tool. The flake
detached in this way would need very little further working because its
edges were already sharp. In this technique the core is totally reduced, and
numerous flakes are produced. Beginning of production of large blades are
also recorded at different sites., e.g., Bhimbetka during this period
Peninsular region is rich in Lower Paleolithic sites. The site of Morgaon
located in Deccan plateau, the central part of Indian peninsular region is
charcterised by acheulian stone tools. Morgaon excavations yielded large
number of tools (handaxes, cleavers, knives, hammerstones) made on
basalt which is found as bedrock in that part of the country. Large munotes.in

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Mesolithic Cultures

27 weathered nodules o r core were utilized weighing as much as 20 kgs and
more than 30 cm in dimension. An anvil stone seem to have been utilized
to split the core stone into two. Flakes were than detached. These kinds of
flakes are also called Kombewa flakes. Kombewa, named af ter a site in
Kenya..
The excavations at the various sites have given us a lot of evidence of the
Lower Paleolithic Acheulian tradition in India. In the southern peninsular
region of India, excavations at the site of Isampur in Hunsgi Valley
Karnataka ha s given evidence of different activity area. It’s a quarry cum
workshop associated with a weathered outcrop of silicified limestone.
Limestone blocks, finished tools, debitage, hammerstones of chert, basalt
and quartzite highlight the nature of the site as a tool processing
workshop. Finds of fossilized dental and bone remains of bovids and
cervids show that the site was also used for food processing and
consumption. Isampur has also given evidence of perforators and steep
sided hollow scrapers indicating w oodwork according to the excavator.
Acheulian hominin is also associated with the carrying of tools. The
earlier tool makers made and discarded tools at one place. The Acheulian
hominin made tools at one place and discarded at other places. Although
manufa cturing of tools occurred near the source of raw material, the
finished tools were discovered at other places. The site of Isampur and its
surrounding area give evidence for the same.
In western Rajasthan, Didwana region has given evidence of Acheulian
localities. Excavations at the site of Singi Talav has yielded evidence of
early Acheulian. Its thought to be more than 800 ka on regional chrono
stratigraphy. The tools here are made on quartzite, quartz. Handaxes,
cleavers, scrapers, denticulates, also a fa ir amount of debitage are part of
the assemblage. Nearby, at another site named 16R (fossilized sand dune
site), Lower Paleolithic to Mesolithic is recorded.
Rohri hills in southern Pakistan acheulian industry is also noted. This falls
in the late Acheulia n category. Here the Lower Paleolithic industry is
based on chert. Late Acheulian Lower Paleolithic occurrences made on
quartzite were also observed in the Siwaliks.
The raw material used for tool making was quartzite, basalt, limestone,
dolerite, and gra nite. Local variations depended on the available raw
material. In Maharashtra, basalt was commonly used and in Hunsgi,
Karnataka, limestone was used. Handaxes, cleaver, knives, picks,
chopping tools could have been used for variety of purposes. Procurement
and processing of plant and animal foods, clearing of vegetation, from
patches selected for occupation, creation of shelter, woodwork etc.
Evidently structural remains of hut were also found in the excavation of
Lower Paleolithic sites like, Chirki -on-Pravara (Maharashtra), Paisra
(Bihar), Hunsgi (Karnataka). Recent focus on the settlement pattern of
these early hominins has shown selection of sites with accessibility to
water resources (ponds, lakes, paleochannels, floodplains) and as well as a
wide vari ety of wild flora and fauna and the raw material (bedrock
outcrops) for making tools. The sites were located close to the higher munotes.in

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28 riverbanks or the hill terraces. Hunsgi Baichbal Valleys, Kortallayar valley
of Tamil Nadu, Tirupati Hills of Andhra Pradesh, K aladgi basin of
Karnataka, Pravara valley of Maharashtra, Raisen area of Madhya
Pradesh, Belan and Son Valleys of the middle Ganga basin and Paisra
valley of Bihar were intensively surveyed and have yielded similar
evidence of prolonged Acheulian occupatio n. The monsoon regime of the
Indian subcontinent, which was present since the Miocene times played an
important role in the evolution and development of the Indian stone age.

Handaxes,N evasa(After Sankalia,1960)


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29
3.4 MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC
The Indian Middle Paleolithic culture was first identified by H.D. Sankalia
at the site of Nevasa during his excavations (1954 -56). There he came
across flake industry comprising scrapers, points, bore rs. Subsequent
excavations at other places revealed that the Middle Paleolithic culture
comprising of tools, similar to those he found in Nevasa, was spread over
different regions in India. The acheulian culture slowly evolved into the
Middle Paleolithic. New forms, new tool types and techniques of making
them are found here. The earlier hand axes and cleavers continue but more
refined tool making technology becomes predominant. During the Middle
Paleolithic phase tools were made on flakes, cores, and nodul es. Tools
made on flakes being predominant, it’s also termed as flake industry These
flake tools are smaller and thinner and mostly made on siliceous material
like chert, jasper, agate, chalcedony. The flake -based industry uses mostly
prepared core techniq ue. Levallois technique is commonly employed.
Progressive diminution in the size of the stone tools are observed. The
main types include points, borers, and scrapers. Though quartzite, basalt
continued in use, agate, chert, jasper was commonly used. Acheul ian sites
have given evidence of gradual evolution of Middle Paleolithic stone tool
technology. The excavations at Attirampakkam have given oldest dates for
Middle Paleolithic of India.
In other parts of the world Middle Paleolithic is associated with the
Neanderthal man and at the same time India is conspicuous by the absence
of physical remains of the Neanderthal man. But the tools associated with
the remains of Neanderthal man is the same as those found in Indian
Middle Paleolithic. The Middle Paleolithi c culture developed during upper
Pliestocene. During this time areas in northern latitudes were facing severe
cold and glaciation. India was not facing the same. But the areas bordering
these areas were facing severe aridity. This is why there are less sit es in
Middle Paleolithic than the Lower Paleolithic. The Middle Paleolithic
population is generally found in the areas occupied by the acheulian
population. They are found in western Rajasthan, Son and Belan valleys of
Uttar Pradesh, Central India Narmada valley and its tributaries,
Chotanagpur plateau, Deccan plateau and the Eastern Ghats.
Atirampakkam (Tamil Nadu), Jwalapuram (Andhra Pradesh), Patne
(Maharashtra), Bhimbetka, Samnapur (Madhya Pradesh), Hunsgi,
Devapur (Karnataka)are among the sites giving evidence of Middle
Paleolithic phase.
The Middle Paleolithic sites gives evidence of extensive workshops like
the preceding Lower Paleolithic. But now they obtained siliceous stones as
nodules from veins or cobbles or pebbles from the river gravel. Sites l ike
Samnapur in Central India and Kovalli in Ghataprabha valley in the
Kaladgi basin are two elaborate workshops of the Middle Paleolithic
hominin. The chert occurred as veins or bands in the limestone formation
They procured the chert nodules to make to ols. Kovalli has given evidence
of scrapers, points, burins, borers and knives. Scrapers dominate the munotes.in

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30 assemblage here. Levallois technique is absent here. The assemblage is
both core based and flake based. Similarly, Samnapur has also given
evidence of use of chert as raw material. Fossil fauna was also associated
with this level. Jwalapuram site has given evidence of limestone as
dominant raw material during this phase. Limestone is followed by
dolerite, chert, quartzite, chalcedony, quartz etc. Prepared cores discoid
cores, retouched flakes, scrapers are found in the assemblage here. Also,
micro blade core start appearing in Middle Paleolithic assemblage at this
site. Production of blades, though few, is observed in sites, e.g.
Bhimbetka, Patne, Thar dese rt, Attirampakkam. During this phase bone
tools also start appearing. The site of Kalpi (Uttar Pradesh) on the
southern bank of the Yamuna has also given evidence of bone tools. Cattle
were used for manufacturing large number of bone tools. These artifacts
included end scrapers, burins, points found along with stone tools. This
phase is dated to 45,000 years ago.
The Middle Paleolithic hominin were using cores of different types to
shape single sided scrapers, double sided scrapers, denticulate with saw
like edge, notched tools, points, borers. Scrapers are retouched flakes,
formed by chipping the end of a flake to keep one sharp side. Both sides
are retouched are double sided scraper. Burins are made on blade like
flake. It has a screwdriver edge equal to t he thickness of the blade. It is
thought to be used to engrave on bone. Notch is a flake on which lateral
incurve is made. More than one notch in the same border or contiguous to
each other is denticulates. Flakes with lateral incurves made and has a
proje cted part is borer. Borer was used on leather or animal skin for
making holes.

Scrapers Maharashtra (After Sankalia, 1962)

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3.5 UPPER PALEOLITHIC
The Upper Pa leolithic succeeds the Middle Paleolithic and precedes the
Mesolithic. In geological timescale, it developed during the later part of
the Late Pleistocene. This period is marked by a dry and arid climatic
condition. This is further substantiated by the fin ds of ostrich (bird adapted
to arid climate) eggshells in many sites of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan during the later part of the Pliestocene. There was a decrease in
rainfall and poor vegetation cover in many parts of the country.
Paleoclimatic research in different parts of India shows that there was
intense cold in high altitudes and severe aridity in much of the country. In
northwest India, including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Harayana,
extensive sand dunes formed and there was a westward shi ft of rivers
during the Late Pleistocene. The vegetation cover reduced significantly
throughout the country as is suggested by the geomorphic data. Lowering
of sea level is recorded in coastal Tamil Nadu, Saurashtra and Kutch.
Fossil fauna evidence of elep hant, buffalo, cattle, hippopotamus comes
from Godavari, Ghod, Manjra and Krishna valleys of the Deccan, the
Mahanadi valley in Central India, southern part of Allahabad, the
Mahanadi valley in central India. This implies the existence of grassland
environ ment with pockets of swamps and forests.
M.L.K. Murthy’s discovery of blade and burin assemblages at Rallakalava
complex in the Chittoor district in 1960s established the Upper Paleolithic
in South Asia. Subsequent discovery of several blades, burin assemb lages
in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
and Jharkand established the Upper Paleolithic presence in Indian context.
Upper Paleolithic sees further reduction in size and weight of the tools.
This phase is dominated by production of parallel sided blades and burins.
Quartzite continued to be used alongside siliceous materials like chert,
chalcedony. Bone tool technology emerges as an important aspect.
Working on bones, antler, ivory for both tools and ornamentation is
observed during this phase. Characteristic feature of Upper Paleolithic
also includes cave paintings, engravings, female figurines ‘Venus’.
Jwalapuram (Andhra Pradesh), Metakheri (Madhya Pradesh), Patne
Maharashtra, Baghor (Madhya Pradesh), Muchchatla Chin tamanugavi
(Andhra Pradesh), are a few sites yielding Upper Paleolithic artifacts. The
Upper Paleolithic sites gave evidence of mass production of blades and
blade tools, backed blades, flake blades etc. Blade is a flake tool, the
length of which is more t han twice its width. A blade with parallel sides is
known as parallel sided blade. The knife blade is the elongated flake with
deliberately worked sharp edge. The technique used in Upper Paleolithic
is also known as pressure flaking. Pressure was applied b y chisel like
stone, which removed parallel sided blades with regular width and munotes.in

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32 thickness. Backed blades are made by retouching one side to make it
blunt. Lithic tool repertoire of this period also included scrapers (End
scrapers, single side scraper, doub le sided scrapers, notched scrapers),
points, knives, burins, borers, denticulate, small choppers. Chert and
chalcedony were preferred. The Muchchatla Chintamanugavi, bone tool
assemblages consisted of scrapers, perforators, chisels, spatulae, tanged
and s houldered points, splinters apart from several worked bones, bone
blanks, broken and cut bones were also found. These formed important
components of Upper Paleolithic kit. Evidence of faunal remains like
gazelle, deer cattle, horse, rhinoceros, hyena, fres hwater fish etc. from the
above -mentioned site suggests humid conditions prevailed in this area.
The presence of fossilized cattle bones, at the Upper Paleolithic site of
Maralbhavi, shows food processing activity also happened.
The use of various types o f scrapers were probably used for woodwork.
Thrusting spears, barbed fishhooks, fishing arrows, spear points, arrow
points, knives could have been made by using simple blades and backed
blades as inserts. Grinding stones could have been used for food
proce ssing.
Muchchatla Chintamanugavi has also given evidence of fireplace (Nambi
and Murty,1983). The structure of the fireplace is between 1.50 to 1.85m.
It was made by arranging limestone boulders in a horseshoe shape. Its
evident that it was used for roast ing meat and would have been used for
fire treatment of chert nodules for further production of artifacts.
Patne has given evidence of beads of ostrich eggshell and marine shell
along with the lithic tool implements. These beads of ostrich eggshells
have e ngraved designs on them. Forty or more sites in India have given
evidence of beads of ostrich eggshell. The site of Baghor II in Son Valley
Uttar Pradesh, has given evidence of a shrine identified with the worship
of mother goddess associated with the Uppe r Paleolithic periods. Here, a
rectangular rubble platform was exposed with a triangular stone with
natural concentric circle installed in its centre. The present -day traditional
hunter gatherer of that region worships similar stones installed on stone
platforms as mother goddesses. So, the archaeologists concluded that this
practice may have begun in the Upper Paleolithic and showcases
continuation in cultural practices. Decorative beads of ostrich eggshells
were also found at the site. munotes.in

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33

Patne Upper Pale olithic (PC:Sali,,1989) 1 -3 cores,4 notched blade, 5
simple blade,6 minutely retouched blade, 13,14 backed blades, 12 backed
point, 10 and 16 tanged blades,8 truncated blade, 9 blade with retouched
ridge, 11,21 -23 pen knife blades, 7 and 33 borers on blade s, 31 borer on
flake, 15, 17, 18 and 20 points, 32 tanged arrowhead,19,24 -30 lunates, 34
scraper on flake munotes.in

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34 Check your Progress:
1) What changes were noticed in the Upper Paleolithic tool industry?
2) Examine the development of art and religion in the Uppe r Paleolithic
3) Discuss the role of paleo -environment in the development of the
Paleolithic in the Indian subcontinent.
3.6 MESOLITHIC
Mesolithic was first identified by ACL Carlyle (1867 -68) an assistant of
Alexander Cunningham. He found microliths in t he caves and rock
shelters of Kaimur range in Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh. Next
important work was in 1950s at Langhnaj and few other places in Gujarat,
where excavtions were undertaken by H. D. Sankalia. This was followed
by V.N. Misra’s work in Ce ntral India and Rajasthan. Eventually
numerous sites of Mesolithic were explored and excavated.
Mesolithic succeeds the Upper Paleolithic. It connects the Old Stone Age
and the New Stone Age. It further represents the transition from the
previous hunting g athering stage of the Paleolithic to the agricultural stage
of Neolithic. Mesolithic phase is generally identified with warmer and a
very favourable climatic condition in the beginning of Holocene. Lakes
were formed and sea levels rose. The increase in rai nfall led to an
abundance of plant and animal life. This also led to significant growth in
population. This abundant supply of water, food also led to the increasing
number of Mesolithic sites. This growth of population manifested in the
presence of Mesoli thic sites in almost every part of the Indian
subcontinent. This phenomenon can be well understood by substantial
increase in the number of Mesolithic sites in areas previously inhabited by
the Paleolithic population. Mesolithic artifacts are present on th e
thousands of sand dunes present in western Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Similarly, in the case of rock shelters in Central India, earlier when few of
them were occupied, now all of them, amounting to several thousand
yielded evidence of Mesolithic occupation. A small district in Odisha,
Koraput, yielded more than one hundred Mesolithic sites. First human
colonization of the Ganga plains happened during this period which is
evident from over 200 archaeological sites found in the districts of
Prayagraj, Jaunpur, Mirzapur, and Varanasi districts. Effective
colonization of deltaic West Bengal and parts of West coast (around
Mumbai), Kerala took place.
The Mesolithic is dated to early part of Holocene 8,000 BP to 10,000 BP.
But the antiquity of microlithic traditio n based on absolute dates from sites
like Metakheri in Madhya Pradesh, Jwalapuram in Andhra Pradesh, goes
back to 48,000 BP. Though the Mesoithic way of life began from the early
part of Holocene, the microlithic tool tradition evolved way back in the
Pliestocene.
Microlithic tool tradition was marked by the use of mass production of
microliths or blades. Nodules of siliceous stones like chalcedony, chert munotes.in

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35 were used to produce these tiny tools or microliths which were 1cm to
5cm in length. Microliths were pr oduced from prepared rectangular or
cylindrical core with help of a bone or wooden hammer. A variety of
blades were made including triangles, trapeze, lunates, backed blades,
points, etc. These microliths were hafted in wooden rods or bone and used
as a co mposite tool like knife, barbed harpoons, spearheads, arrowheads.
Such composite tools are reported from some of the Mesolithic sites in
Europe and some later sites in India. Mesolithic tool kit also included
querns and mullers used for food processing. Qu erns, mullers, give
evidence of domestic activities like increased exploitation of wild food
plants. Perforated stone discs or rings -stones would have been used as
weights for digging sticks. Also, some sites from Odisha have given
evidence of choppers, ch opping tools, picks etc. These would have been
used for clearing forests.
Exacavations at various sites have given us lot of information about the
Mesolithic life. Some of the excavated sites include Sarai Nahar Rai,
Mahadaha, Damdama (Uttar Pradesh), Ada mgarh, Bhimbeka, Metakheri,
(Madhya Pradesh ), Bagor (Rajasthan), Billa Surgam cave, Jwalapuram
(Andhra Pradesh), Patne (Maharashtra), Hunsgi, Maralbhavi, Mudnur
(Karnataka), Ayodhya hill sites (West Bengal) etc.
It is thought that increased food supply would have led to decrease in
nomadic lifestyle. This is evident from the large size of sites, thickness of
habitation deposits and the presence of burials specifically in the Gangetic
Valley. Mesolithic people lived in semi -permanent habitations. Evidence
of structures are obtained from stone alignments, postholes, rubble wall,
paved floors etc. Intentional disposal of dead for the first time appears
during this period from different sites. Langhnaj in Gujarat, Damdama in
Uttar Pradesh, Bhimbetka in Madhya Prad esh are some of the sites giving
evidence of burials. Detailed studies on the skeletal remains of the
Mesolithic and protohistoric sites have been done with focus on
paleopathology, palaeodemography etc. Robust health of hunting
gathering societies is evid ent from these studies. Grave goods like
microliths and bone ornaments were also placed in the burials.
Mesolithic sites are also associated with rock art. It includes paintings and
engravings made on rock surface. Rock paintings are found in different
parts of the country but the most prolific is in Madhya Pradesh in
sandstone hills of the Vindhyas. Bhimbetka is one of the most important
site associated with rock art. It has around 600 painted rocks in an area of
10sq. km. Red is most common, followed by white. Green is also used but
rarely. .Haematite seems to have been used for colours. Depiction of wild
animals and hunting scene is quite common. Wild animals like deer,
nilgai, wild buffalo, boar, rhinoceros, tiger etc are depicted. Fishing and
gathering activities like collection of plant foods, honey is also portrayed.
Social life, religious life is also depicted.
Beads of jasper, agate have also been found in Bagor, Bhimbetka,
Adamgarh. Pottery also makes its appearance in the late Mesolithic sites munotes.in

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36 such as Bagor dated to fifth millennium BCE as it came in contact with the
neighbouring agriculturist communities.

Microliths from Birbhanpur (After Sankalia,1962)
Check your Progress:
1) Trace the evolution of semi sedentary lifestyle during the Mesolithic
phase.
2) Give a short account of the beginning of Prehistoric archaeology .
3) Analyse the Middle Paleolithic tool industry at the site of Jwalapuram.
4) Critically evaluate the role played by the Middle Paleolithic phase in
human cultural development .
3.7 SUMMARY
The Paleolithic period is the longest phase in human history. Decades of
research in Stone Age archaeology has en abled the reconstruction of Stone
Age settlement with reference to accessibility of raw materials for making
stone tools, availability water bodies and food resources like wild animals
and plants. Stratigraphical cultural sequences are also available from
Lower Paleolithic to Mesolithic in most of the sites. Paleoclimate studies
has helped in understanding Stone Age sites and its available resources
during the different periods of time. Evolution of tool technology is traced
from the Lower Paleolithic itsel f which over time evolves into finer
technology. Wood work seems to have begun from the later part of Lower
Paleolithic itself. The advent of Holocene sees the emergence of semi
sedentary lifestyle and the expansion of art forms. Rock arts depicting munotes.in

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37 variou s aspects of life is an important development. Micro wear analysis
of microliths along with associated features like hearths and grinding
stones point to increase exploitation of plant foods during the Mesolithic
phase. Apart from variety of wild animals, domesticated animals like
sheep, goat, cattle are present. This move towards partially settled life and
more exploitation of plant foods paves the way for the emergence of
agriculture.
3.8 QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss the importance of settlement pattern studies in
understanding Lower Paleolithic sites with reference to Isampur.
Q2. Write a note on the Upper Paleolithic site of Muchchatla
Chintamanugavi
Q3. Critically examine the site of Jwalapuram with reference to Middle
Paleolithic phase,
3.9 ADDITIONAL RE ADING S
1. Gaillard, C., and S. Mishra. 2001. The Lower Palaeolithic in South
Asia, in Origin of Settlements and Chronology of the Paleolithic
Cultures in SE Asia. (F. Semah,C . Falgueres,D . Grimaund - Herve,
and A.M. Semah Eds.) pp. 73 -94. Semenanjuang Paris
2. Gaillard, C., V.N. Misra, S. N. Rajaguru, D.R. Raju, and H.
Raghavan. 1985. Acheulian Occupation in the Singi Talav, Thar
Desert: A Preliminary Report on 1981 Excavation, Bulletin of the
Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute4 4: 141 -152
3. Mishr a S, 2006. The Indian Lower Palaeolithic. Bulletin of the
Deccan College Research Institute66/67,pp:47 -94
4. Misra, V. N . , and S . N. Rajaguru. 1989. Palaeoenvironments and
prehistory of the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India,”in South Asian
archaeology 1985. Edited by K. Frifelt and R.Sorensen, pp. 296 –320.
Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Occasional Papers 4.
5. Misra, V.N. 2001. Prehistoric Human Colonisation in India. Journal
of Biological Sciences. 26:491 -531.
6. McHenry, Henry M., and Katherine Coffi ng. 2000.Australopithecus
to Homo: Transformations in Body and Mind, in Annual Review of
Anthropology29, pp.125 -146
7. Murty, M. L. K. 1979. “Recent Research on the Upper Palaeolithic
Phase in India.” Journal of Field Archaeology 6:301 –20.
8. Paddayya, k . 198 4. The Acheulian culture of the HunsgiValley
(Peninsular India): A settlement system perspective. Pune: Deccan
College. munotes.in

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38 9. Paddayya, K. 2008. Paleolithic Cultures, in Deborah M. Pearsall
(Ed.) Encyclopaedia of Archaeology, Volume 1,pp. 768 -791
10. Paddayya, K. 2011 . Stone technology in India. Ancient India. New
Series. No.1:pp10 -68
11. Paddayya. K. 2017. The Acheulian and the beginning of
culturification, in Sushma Deo, Andre Baptista, Jayendra Joglekar
(Ed.), Rethinking the Past: A Tribute to Professor V.N. Misra , pp. 1-
15. Pune. ISPQS
12. Pal, J. N. 2004. “The Middle Palaeolithic Culture of South Asia.” In
Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: Prehistory, edited by S. Settar and
Ravi Korisettar, 67 –83. New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical
Research and Manohar.
13. Pant, P . C. 1984. Prehistory of Uttar Pradesh (a Study of Old Stone
Age). New Delhi: Agam Kala.
14. Pappu, S. 2001a. A Reexamination of the Palaeolithic Archaeological
Records of Northern Tamil Nadu, South India. BAR International
Series. Oxford, England: Archa eopress.
15. Pappu, S. 2001b. “Middle Palaeolithic Stone Tool Technology in the
Kortallayar Basin, South India.” Antiquity 75:107 –17.
16. Raju, D. R., and P. C. Venkatasubbaiah. 200 4. “The Archaeology of
the Upper Paleolithic Phase in India.” In India A rchaeology in
Retrospect: Prehistory, edited by S. Settar and R. Korisettar, 85 –109.
New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical Research and Manohar.
17. Sali, S. A. 1989. The Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Cultures of
Maharashtra. Pune, India: Deccan Coll ege.
18. Sankalia, H. D, S. B. Deo, Z.D. Ansari. 1960. History to Prehistory at
Nevasa India and Pakistan. Poona, India: Mumbai University.
19. Sankalia, H. D. 1964. Prehistory and Protohistory in India and
Pakistan. Mumbai, India: Mumbai University.
20. Sankalia. H. D. 1964. “Middle Stone Age Culture in India and
Pakistan.” Science 146:365 –75.

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39 4
NEOLITHIC
Unit Structure
4.0 Objective
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Indian Neolithic Complex
4.3 North India (Kashmir Neolithic)
4.4 Central India (Vindhyan and Gangetic Valley)
4.5 Eastern India (Bengal, Odisha, Northeast India)
4.6 South Indian Ne olithic
4.7 Summary
4.8 Questions
4.9 Additional Readings
4.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To trace the origin and growth of Neolithic
 To understand the different Neolithic Cultures found in India
 To understand the spread of domestication of plants and animals
 To analyze the development of tool technology in the New Stone Age.
 To observe and understand the environmental conditions, location of
sites and the development of agriculture
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the nineteenth century, it was the Danish archaeologist T homsen who
first divided his museum artifacts into Stone, Bronze, and Iron.
Subsequently, prehistorians further expanded the divisions into
Paleolithic, Neolithic, Copper, and Iron. This was further modified to
include the three stages of the Paleolithic. Neolithic or New Stone Age is
the last phase of Stone Age. Chronologically and stratigraphically, it
follows the Chalcolithic phase but it’s also contemporary with the
Chalcolithic in Indian context. Ground polished stone tools, having
smooth and round su rface, are the chief characteristic feature of this
period. Added to that is the beginning of settled life with introduction of
agriculture. It also marks the use of handmade and wheel made pottery. munotes.in

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40 V. Gordon Childe used the term Neolithic revolution to h ighlight the
importance of the change in lifestyle during this phase. It’s identified with
a new subsistence economy based on farming and stock raising. And
marks a major turning point in the progress of mankind. So, the Neolithic
phase led to the emergenc e of sedentary living and small village
communities. Some of the earliest Neolithic Cultures in the world are also
located at Jericho, Ain Ghazal in Jordan, Catal Huyuk in Turkey, Spirit
Cave in Thailand. These are dated to 8000 -6000 BCE.
Identification of Neolithic stone tools or celts started in nineteenth
century. Le Mesurie identified a celt or a Neolithic stone tool in 1842 in
Raichur district, Karnataka. This was followed by many more such
identifications including by John Lubbock, Meadows Taylor etc.
Eventually hundreds of such tools were discovered in various parts of the
country. Robert Brucefoot, pioneer in Stone Age studies, is also associated
with the identification and interpretation of the Neolithic sites in India.
Mortimer Wheeler’s excavatio n of the site Brahmagiri led to the
identification of the Neolithic cultural remains below the Megalithic.
Neolithic cultural material like pottery, stone tools were found below the
Iron Age Megalithic. This established the cultural sequence of the South
Indian Neolithic. Further research carried out in the last few decades has
brought to light many Neolithic and Chalcolithic Cultures located in a
variety of ecological zones across the country. They were the pioneers of
settled life in most part of the coun try.
Interestingly, the Neolithic phase in India developed in different regions at
different time periods. In the Ganga Valley, its dated to 7th to 6th
millennium BCE. The rest mostly fall in the range of 3rd-2nd millennium
BCE. The variation in time and space in the Neolithic Cultures was also a
result of adaptation to different ecological zones. Most of these Neolithic
Cultures have also given evidence of indigenous development from
previous Mesolithic phase. Some of these cultures were also contemporary
to the copper using Harappans and other Chalcolithic Cultures.
Check your Progress:
1) What is the importance of Neolithic phase?
4.2 INDIAN NEOLITHIC COMPLEX
The Indian Neolithic is spread across the Indian subcontinent. The Indian
Neolithic was divided i nto four zones by V.D. Krishnaswami (1962).
These were, A – Central and Western India, B – southern India, C - East
Indian Neolithic and D – Kashmir Neolithic. East Indian Neolithic was
further divided into two regions, i.e. Assam and Bengal -Bihar -Odisha.
B.K. Thapar (1978) divided the Neolithic of India into six geographical
zones, (i) Northern covering the Kashmir valley, (ii) Belan valley covering
the Vindhyan Plateau in districts Allahabad, Mirzapur, Rewa and Sidhi,
(iii) Northern Bihar or Mid -eastern cov ering district Saran, (iv) North -
eastern covering Assam and the adjacent sub -Himalayan region, (v) munotes.in

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41 Central -eastern covering Chotanagpur plateau extending in West Bengal
and Odisha and (vi) Southern, covering the Peninsular India.
So, broad division of the Neolithic - The Northern India with Kashmir
Neolithic, Central India with the Vindhyan and the Gangetic valley
Neolithic, Eastern India Neolithic with Bengal, Odisha, Northeast and the
Southern Indian Neolithic.
As noted earlier the site of Jhusi in the G angetic valley, Koldihwah in the
Vindhyan region have given dates going back to 7th-6th millennium BCE.
So, it precedes the Early Harappan in some case, but it is also
contemporary to the Chalcolithic and the Harappans (eg. South Indian
Neolithic). The dif ference between the Chalcolithic and Neolithic mainly
lies in the appearance of copper in the former and the presence of polished
stone tools in the latter.
4.3 NORTH INDIA (KASHMIR NEOLITHIC)
The Kashmir valley has revealed the remains of Neolithic habi tations at a
large number of sites. Gufkral and Burzahom are two most important
excavated sites. One typical characteristic of Kashmir Neolithic are
dwelling pits. Here people lived in underground dwellings with wooden
roof covers most probably as protecti on from cold. Hearths and storage
pits were found outside the dwelling pits. At Gufkral there is also a double
chambered dwelling pit the first phase is without pottery but stone celts,
querns, pounders, were found. Next phase sees the evolution of illfir ed
grey ware some of which had mat impressions and the following phase has
wheel made pottery. It is also notable for its bone tool industry made of
bones of sheep, goats and ibex. It included scrapers, chisels, awls,
harpoons, antimony rods, needles with eyes, daggers and points. Kashmir
Neolithic sites have given evidence of rectangular stone knives with two
or more holes on the blunt side also known as harvesters. Associated
faunal remains have given evidence of dog, sheep, goat, cattle, ibex, wolf,
deer and bear. It comprised of both domesticated and wild animals. Flora
remains included wheat, barley and lentil. An interesting feature of
Kashmir Neolithic was burial of animals like deer, wolf, humped cattle.
Dog burial associated with human burial is also found here. Ancient
surgical practices or trepanning of skull was found on one human skull.
The subsistence economy consisted of both incipient agriculture and
hunting. An interesting artistic depiction is found on a stone slab. The
engraving shows a hunting scene and also two sun and a dog.
Check your Progress:
1) Analyse the importance of Kashmir Neolithic.
2) Write a note on the different zones of Neolithic found in India.
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42 4.4 CENTRAL INDIA (VINDHYAN AND THE
GANGETIC VALLEY)
The Neolithic evidence comes from various sites in Uttar Pradesh in the
Vindhyan and the Gangetic Valley region. Explorations and excavations
by the Allahabad University, Benaras Hindu University also the State
Department of Archaeology, have led to the discovery of a large num ber
of sites in this region. Vindhyan region has given evidence of transition
from hunting gathering to sedentary agriculture. Huts, microliths,
handmade pottery, food processing equipments suggests cultural
continuity from the earlier Mesolithic. Among th e important excavated
sites are Koldihwa, Mahagara, Jhusi, Lahudewa, Sohagaura, and Chirand.
Some of the sites like Jhusi, Lahurdewa, Chirand have given evidence of
continuous development from Neolithic to Iron Age.
The Neolithic people lived in circular or semicircular huts with postholes.
(Wattle and daub) houses associated with hearths and storage pits.
Irregular water channel was exposed at the site of Lahurdewa. The lithic
component was composed of querns, mullers, hammerstones, ring stones,
microlith s and polished axes. The handmade cord impressed pottery of the
Neolithic is found here in the early phase. Eventually wheel made pottery,
are also found.
One of the most important features of the Vindhyan and Gangetic Valley
Cultures is the association of rice. Wild varieties of rice are found in
abundance in Mesolithic sites. Neolithic sites give evidence of both
domesticated and wild rice from the earliest phase. Associated with rice
are also the finds of wheat, moong. masur and barley. The crop package
also incorporated millets, legumes and pulses. Domesticated fauna
included cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pigs. The site of Mahagara has
also given evidence of cattle pen. Aquatic fauna fish, molluscs and turtle
were also recovered. Wild animals includ ed deer, antelope, elephant and
rhinoceros. Bones of birds were also recovered. Bone tools formed an
important part of Neolithic economy. Chirand is known for profuse
amount of bone tools. It consisted of both weapons and ornaments.
Scrapers, chisels, bor ers, awls, hammers, points arrowhead were the tool
component whereas the ornaments consisted of pendants, earrings,
bangles, combs etc. Steatite beads were found from the Neolithic levels of
Lahurdewa.
The site of Sonepur in Bihar is the only Neolithic si te to give evidence of
burial. Food for the dead would have been given in the form of animal and
bird bones found buried in the burial pits.
Check your Progress:
1) Discuss the evolution of Neolithic Cultures with reference to the site
of Koldihwah and Chira nd.
2) Assess the importance of faunal and floral remains in the economy of
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43 4.5 EASTERN INDIA
Explorations and excavations at the sites of Hikudi, Golbai Sasan, Kuchai,
Baidyapur(Odisha), Pandurajar Dhibi, Mahisdal (Wes t Bengal), Daojali
Hading, Sarutaru(Assam) have yielded data regarding the Neolithic of
Eastern India. Eastern Indian Neolithic specially the sites in West Bengal
has sites with surface collection of Neolithic celts. The excavated
collection of Neolithic p olished axes is generally associated with
Chalcolithic phase. The site of Kuchai in Odisha has yielded evidence of
transition from Mesolithic to Neolithic. The other sites in the region have
also yielded evidence of food production and also the production of
Neolithic polished stone tools in large numbers. The site of Lahanda has a
large number of debitage, showing evidence of stone tool preparation.
Large sized flake blade blanks, dolerite boulders with marks of core
preparation on their surfaces, hammers, alongside, semi -finished
specimens of adzes, axes and chisels. This was a typical characteristic of a
Neolithic manufacturing site which produced semi -finished specimen. The
finishing processes like micro chipping, pecking and grinding is done by
the peop le who finally used them. There are other sites giving similar
evidence like the site of Hirakud.These were established for production of
polished stone axes which were produced on the raw materials like
dolerite. These quarrying and production sites were located near the
outcrop. The end product was then traded.
Eastern Neolithic is associated with the presence of rice. The sites like
Golbai Sassan, Harirajpur, Khamreshwaripalli have all given evidence of
rice. The crops package also include pigeon pea, ur ad, millets, horsegram
Evidence of domestic faunal species include pig, domestic cattle, buffalo,
gaot, cattle and sheep. Hunting was also practiced. Wild fauna alongside
birds, turtles, fish were also recovered from these sites.
They lived in wattle and d aub houses with handmade cord impressed
pottery and wheel made pottery, used a variety of bone tools.
The Neolithic of the Northeast is dominated by shouldered celts.
Excavation at the site of Selbalgiri in Garo Hills, yielded hoe blades and
shouldered cel ts. The raw material used was sandstone. It seems that
modern iron hoe blade is an exact copy of the flat celt or hoe blades. They
have also yielded cord impressed pottery, butt end axes and microliths.
Presence of querns and mullers provide indirect evide nce of plant food.
Sandstone, quartzite, were used to make lithic tools. Fossil wood was also
used to make Neolithic tools.
Check your Progress:
1) Comment on the variation within East Indian Neolithic.
4.6 SOUTH INDIAN NEOLITHIC
South Indian Neolithic is one of the best studied Neolithic. It includes the
states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Robert Brucefooot munotes.in

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44 was one of the earliest workers on South Indian Neolithic. Excavations at
Brahmagiri by Mortimer Wheeler, Piklihal by Raymond Allchin a nd work
of K.Paddayya (Paddayya, 2002) at Budihal are important contribut ions to
South Indian Neolithic . Excavations at the sites of Piklihal, Maski,
Budihal, Hallur, Sangankallu, Nagarjunakonda, has helped in
understanding the South Indian Neolithic.
Ashmound sites are characteristic feature of South Indian Neolithic. They
are mostly associated with habitation sites yielding rich Neolithic cultural
material. Ashmound sites are located in areas more suited to pasture and
less suited to agricultural activ ities. The excavation of the site of Budihal
has given us a comprehensive idea about the lifestyle of the Neolithic. The
entire site consists of ashmounds and habitation deposits. It has different
areas marked for chert workshop, butchering activity (where stone tools in
association with faunal remains were found), cattle penning area and
living area and burials. Specified area for polished stone axe grinding was
also located. The Neolithic people lived in circular huts made of low walls
of stone supported by conical thatched roofs. Similar dwellings are also
found at other sites like Brahmagiri, Piklihal, Palavoy, Hallur,etc. Hearths
and storage jars were found in all the huts at Budihal. The dwelling
structures in the South Indian Neolithic were invariably accompanied by
mullers, querns, and storage pits, and ground stone axes. Manufacturing of
ground axes was another important characteristic feature of Neolithic
South India. Manufacturing centres have been fonud profusely across the
South Indian Neolithic horizon.
Ashmounds were formed of burnt cow dung. It’s been postulated that this
activity was initiated to keep the cattle penning area hygienic. It could also
have held ritualistic significance. As cattle was very important in the
pastoral economy.
Hill s ites like Sangankallu were commonly found. They were located
close to water springs. At the site of Sangankallu, a Mesolithic phase
preceded the emergence of Neolithic stone axes. Neolithic phase structural
remains are associated with circular huts and hea rths. At Sangankallu
Neolithic complex, manufacture of polished stone axes was carried out by
quarrying the dolerite dykes. Here, like in Odisha Neolithic the axes were
traded to other sites where the grinding activity was carried out. Sites in
Tamil Nadu also gave evidence of axe manufacture. Typically, in all these
sites the, the factory sites did not yield finished products. Dolerite was
commonly used for manufacturing chisels, adzes, axes. Querns and
mullers were mainly made of quartzite.
The Neolithi c people of Tamil Nadu also lived on hills, slopes of hills,
and foothills. Rock shelters are associated with the sites though they were
not used for dwelling purposes. Rarely they settled on riverbanks. Terrace
cultivation would have been practised. The sites here give evidence of
Neolithic followed by Megalithic. Associated with the Neolithic sites are
ground stone tools, pounders, mullers and querns. The Neolithic pottery
included handmade grey ware, buff and brown ware. Sites like
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45 South Indian Neolithic. Appukallu is an ashmound site which is located at
a foothill. Neolithic ground stone tools were recovered from the
excavtions here.
The sites of Andhra Pradesh have yielded evid ence similar to the rest of
South Indian Neolithic. It also is characterized by ashmound sites
associated with the granite -gneiss hills. Gamalapadu and Budada were
Neolithic habitational cum manufacturing centre of axes. These sites have
also given evidenc e of spouted pots, dish on stand, in the pottery
repertoire. Presence of steatite disc beads provides evidence of trade or
exchange. Raw material for manufacturing steatite beads is not available
locally. Excavations at some of the sites have yielded evide nce of pale
grey ware in the earlier phase and ill fired brown and buff ware in the later
phase. Palavoy finds includes profuse amount of bone tools. Some sites
like Nagarjunakonda, Palavoy have given evidence of microliths before
the appearance of Neolith ic cultural materials. Apart from that, most of
the sites have given evidence of Megalithic Iron Age following the
Neolithic.
The sites like Hallur, Tekkalkota have given evidence of two types of
millets, horsegram, mung bean, wheat, barley, legumes, bla ck gram, green
gram. Among the fauna, cattle predominate, though there is presence of
sheep and goat. Wild animals like nilgai, deer, gazelle, tortoise were
found. Frequent depiction of cattle and bull as rock art further emphasizes
the importance of cattl e. Pastoralism was the most important part of
subsistence economy which also consisted of incipient agriculture, hunting
and fishing Copper fishhooks were found at some sites. Matt impressed
pots suggests presence of weaving. Chisels, adzes, axes would ha ve been
used for woodwork
Beads of semi -precious stones and steatite become quite common.
Appearance of copper show contact with the Chalcolithic cultures to the
north. Spouted pots show contact with the Chalcolithic Jorwe culture of
Maharashtra. The pott ery was handmade grey or reddish pottery. Later
stages saw the emergence of wheelmade sturdy pottery.
Burial was practiced. Burial in jars was also observed. They also practiced
extended burials and secondary burials
Rock art is most profusely found in roc k shelters, boulders around hill
sites. They are either engraved or painted in white and depict figures of
cattle, deer and hunting scenes.
The South Indian Neolithic seems to emerge out of a earlier Mesolithic
phase. Sites like Nagarjunakonda, Sangankallu give evidence of a
Mesolithic phase. The South Indian Neolithic is succeeded by the Iron
Age Megalithic.
Check your Progress:
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46 4.7 SUMMARY
Neolithic is the period identified with a majo r change in world economy.
Pastoralism and agriculture emerge as mainstay of the Neolithic economy.
Hunting continues as associated activity along with fishing. As observed
earlier these sites were located in very different ecological zones and
occupied v ery different time periods. Inspite of this, they shared the
common traits of polished stone axes, use of bone tools, continued use of
microliths and in many cases cord impressed pottery. Burials are also
found at many sites. Subsistence activity differed according to the
locations. The early dates of presence of rice coming from the Vindhyan
and the Gangetic regions, is of immense importance. This marks the
earliest phase of beginning of cultivation, the antiquity of which can be
dated to 7th to 6th millen nium BCE.
Exchange economy was active both locally and regionally. Introduction of
wheat and barley, presence of steatite beads in South Indian Neolithic
throw light on the regional exchange network. The emergence, growth
and spread of Neolithic way of l ife laid the foundation of Indian rural
economy. The local or indigenous development is visible in the evolution
of these cultures from the earlier Mesolithic phase traced at many sites.

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47 4.8 QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss the importance characteristic features of Kashmir Neolithc.
Q2. Write a note on the Eastern Indian Neolithc with reference to the site
of Golbai Sassan
Q5. Critically examine the Neolithic practices of Central India.
4.9 ADDITIONAL READING
Allchin, F.R. 196 5. Neolithic Cattle -Keepers of South India: A Study of
the Deccan Ashmounds . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Allchin, B. & R. Allchin (1996). The Rise of Civilization in India and
Pakistan. New Delhi: Foundation Books.
Basa, Kishore K . and Pradeep Mohanty (eds). 2000. Archaeology of
Orissa, Vol. 1. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan.
Behera, P.K., D.K. Ray, K. Dutta, G.B. Ravi Prasad, T.R. Routray and
R.K. Choudhury. 2007. Radiocarbon Dates from the Middle Mahanadi
Valley, Orissa. Man and Envir onment XXXII (2): 41 -46.
Boivin, N., R. Korisettar, P.C. Venkatasubbaiah, H. Lewis, D. Havanur,
K. Malagyannavar & S. Chincholi, S. 2002. Exploring Neolithic and
Megalithic South India: the Bellary District Archaeological Project.
Antiquity 76, 937 -8.
Boiv in, N., Korisettar, R & Fuller, D. 200 5. Further research on the
Southern Neolithic and the Ashmound Tradition: The Sanganakallu -
Kupgal Archaeological Research Project interim report. Journal of
Interdisciplinary Studies in History and
Archaeology: 2(1): 5 9-86
Datta, A. & R. Sanyal (2013). Neolithic -Chalcolithic Problem in Eastern
India.In. K N Dikshit (Ed.), Neolithic -Chalcolithic Cultures of Eastern
India (pp.1 -16). New Delhi: Indian Archaeological Society.
Dhavalikar, M.K. 1988. Environment and Culture: A Historical
Perspective . Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental research Institute
Dikshit, K.N. & M. Hazarika (2011 -2012). The Neolithic Cultures of
Northeast India: A Comparative Study, Journal of Indian Ocean
Archaeology 7 & 8:98 -148.
Fuller, D.Q., N. Boivin & R. K orisettar (2007). Dating the Neolithic of
South India: New Radiometric Evidence for Key Economic, Social and
Ritual Transformations, Antiquity 81(313):755 -778.
Ghosh, A. (Ed.) (1989). An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology , Vol. I.
New Delhi: Munshi Manoha rlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. munotes.in

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48 Gupta, M.C., J.N. Pal & V.D. Misra (2008). Beginnings of Agriculture in
the Middle Ganga Plain with Special Reference to Recent Excavations at
Jhusi. In V.C. Srivastava & L. Gopal (Eds.), History of Agriculture in
India (up to c.1 200 A.D.) (pp.87 -99). New Delhi: Concept Publishing
Company.
Krishnaswami, V.D. (1960). Neolithic Pattern in India, Ancient India 16:23 -25.
Mani, B.R. (2006). Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan: A Linkage,
Pragdhara 18:229 -247.
Mishra, K. & M. Hazarika ( 2013). A Glimpse of the Neolithic -Chalcolithic
Cultures of Eastern and Northeast India. In P. Rag, V. Shinde & O. Prakash
(Eds.) Art and Archaeology of Madhya Pradesh and Adjoining Regions: Recent
Perspectives (pp. 323 -344). Bhopal : Govt. of M.P .
Misra, V. D., J.N. Pal and M.C. Gupta. 2002 -2005. Further Excavations at
Jhusi: Evidence of Neolithic culture. Pragdhara 13: 227 -229
Paddayya, K., 199 5. Ashmound investigations at Budihal, Gulbarga
District, Karnataka. Man and Environment 18, 57 -87.
Paddayya, K., 19 98. Evidence of Neolithic cattle -penning at Budihal,
Gulbarga District, Karnataka. South Asian Studies 14, 141 -155.
Paddayya, K. (2002). The Problem of Ashmounds of Southern Deccan in
Light of Recent Research. In K. Paddayya (Ed.), Recent Studies in India n
Archaeology (pp.81 –111). New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
Paddayya, K. 2011. Newer Perspectives in the Investigation of Early
Agropastoral Cultures of India. Man and Environment XXXVI (2): 1 -19.
Pal, J.N. 2007 -2008. The Early Farming Culture of the Midd le Ganga
Plain with Special Reference to the Excavation at Jhusi and Hetapatti.
Pragdhara 18: 263 -281.
Reddy, V.R. (1985). South Indian Neolithic Culture Seen in Retrospect,
East and West 35 (1/3): 43 -65.
Sankalia, H. D. 1962. Introduction to Archaeology . Deccan College Post
graduate and Research Institute. Pune:

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49 5
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Chalcolithic traditions
5.3 Central Indian Chalcolithic
5.4 Deccan Chalcolithic -Jorwe, Savalda
5.5 The Chalcolithic C ultures
5.6 Ganeshwar Jodhpura Cultural Complex
5.7 Summary
5.8 Questions
5.9 Additional Readings
5.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To study the evolution of Chalcolithic
 To understand the different Chalcolithic traditions found in India
 To assess the salient points in the appearance of copper technology.
 To make the students aware of the settlement pattern studies in the
context of Chalcolithic archaeology
 To observe and understand the development of agriculture and trade
activities
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Chalcolithic came from the two terms, chalco meaning copp er and lithos
meaning stone. It denotes a culture using copper and stone. This was the
first stage in the history of mankind when man started using metal
technology. Copper was the first metal introduced. Stone tools continued
to be used. The introduction to metal technology was a big leap in the
history of mankind. So, this phase denotes a society using copper and
stone tools, wheel made painted pottery, practicing agriculture, pastoral
activities, hunting and involved in long distance trade. Chalcolithic
cultures symbolize the end of the Prehistoric period and beginning of
Protohistoric period in the Indian subcontinent.
Protohistoric period includes the Harappan cultures and the Chalcolithic
cultures. Protohistory denotes a phase when writing was known b ut the
script is not deciphered unlike the historic phase when the written munotes.in

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50 documents become available. The presence of script signifies an advanced
economy from the previous stage. A large number of regional and local
cultures evolved and for the first tim e, the rise of urbanization (Harappan)
and proto urbanization is observed. Protohistoric period bridges the gap
between the Prehistoric and the Historical periods.
The nineteenth century saw a lot of work regarding Stone Age
archaeology and Historical Ar chaeology. But the archaeological evidence
connecting the Prehistoric period with earliest archaeological period was
missing. Only after the discovery of the Harappan Civilization in the
1920s, that we find the missing link between the Stone Age archaeolog y
and Historical archaeology. H.D. Sankalia speaks about the sixteen
janapadas mentioned in the Sanskrit literature, Buddhist literature, which
were dated to 6th century BCE. These sixteen janapadas stretched from
Malwa (Avanti) in the west to Mithila (Bih ar) in the east. He also says that
the later Vedic texts mentioned Saurashtra, Vidarbha, Narmada Valley.
Basically, from these texts we come to know of kingdoms from Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Saurashtra (Gujarat), Rajasthan,
Vidarbha (Maharasht ra). We also didn’t know of any archaeological
cultures where these sites were located It was only after the discovery of
the Harappan Civilization, intensive explorations and excavations were
carried out, especially after independence, by various Univ ersities,
Archaeological Survey of India and various State departments of
Archaeology. This resulted in the discovery of numerous unknown
cultures in the Gangetic Valley, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Central India,
peninsular region. These cultures were eventual ly related to either
Harappan or the Neolithic, Chalcolithic phases of Indian history.
Subsequently, many cultures located in these areas saw the advent of Iron
Age and eventual development of the flourishing janapadas of the Early
Historical period.
5.2 CHALCOLITHIC TRADITIONS
Chalcolithic was first identified at the site of Jorwe, in Ahmednagar
district of Maharashtra. Further explorations revealed hundreds of
Chalcolithic settlements in the Deccan, Central India, Rajasthan, Gangetic
doab, Gujarat. Thes e were mostly regional and rural in character. So, the
Neolithic Chalcolithic cultures in the Indian subcontinent were found in
Baluchistan and adjoining regions, Indus Valley, Padri and Prabhas Patan
tradition of Saurashtra, Ganeshwar Jodhpura cultural co mplex, Anarta
tradition of North Gujarat, Ahar culture of Mewar, Neolithic Kashmir,
Kayatha and Malwa traditions, OCP Copper Hoard traditions of North
India, Savalda and Jorwe traditions. The excavations at Brahmagiri had
already identified Neolithic Megal ithic cultural sequence in South India.
The excavation at the site of Jorwe and Nasik by H. D. Sankalia and S.B.
Deo in 1952 gave stratigraphic evidence of these early farming
communities.

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51 Chalcolithic traditions --
 Centra Indian Chalcolithic: Ahar, Kayat ha, Malwa
 Deccan Chalcolithic -Savalda and Jorwe
 Eastern India – Bengal, Odisha
 North India - OCP -copper hoards, Vindhyan, Middle Ganga Valley
 Ganeshwar Jodhpura Cultural Complex
Check your Progress:
1) Discuss the beginning of Protohistoric archaeology.
5.3 CENTRAL INDIAN CHALCOLITHIC
Central India a distinct geographical unit, forms a link between the Indo -
Gangetic plain to the north and the peninsula to the south. It consists of
Malwa plateau, and the Chambal Valley. South -eastern Rajasthan is a part
of the Chambal Valley. Ahar culture of Rajasthan and Malwa, Kayatha
cultures of the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh are in this region. The
excavations at the sites of Balathal, Ahar, Gilund, Kayatha, Navdatoli
have given evidence of early farming cultures i n this region. The dates
from the sites of Balathal go back to 3700 BCE whereas the dates from the
Malwa region is later between second to third millennium BCE.
Ahar culture sites flourished on the banks of the river Banas. Later, it also
extended into the Chambal Valley in Malwa region. Kayatha and Malwa
culture sites evolved a little later than the Ahar culture of Rajasthan. The
sites of the Malwa culture and Kayatha culture were located on the banks
of the river Narmada, Chambal and their tributaries. Ce ntral Indian
Chalcolithic cultures were located in a region with semi -arid climate and
fertile black cotton soil.
The Ahar Chalcolithic is also known as Ahar Banas Chalcolithic complex.
Excavations at the site of Gilund, Balathal have given evidence of l ocal
development of this culture. Mesolithic phase was found at the earliest
level in Gilund before the beginning of Chalcolithic. The origin of the first
farmers of Ahar culture was rooted in the earlier Mesolithic phase. The
continuous growth and develo pment of the Chalcolithic is observed at
these Ahar culture sites.
The sites of Ahar, Gilund Balathal have given evidence of structures of
mud, mudbrick and stones. These sites gave evidence of evolution from
flimsy round structure to multi room structur e of mud and stone and
mudbricks. Bakedbricks were also used. Malwa culture sites have given
evidence of huts either rectangular or circular made of mud and wattle and
daub. Some sites like Nagda have also given evidence of use of mudbrick.
These chalcoli thic sites have also given evidence of public architecture.
The sites of Ojiyana, Balathal and Gilund have given proof of outer
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52 settlement. Gilund has a parallel wall structure identi fied as warehouse.
The Ahar culture sites have yielded details of well -planned layout of the
settlement developed by the middle Chalcolithic phase. The Malwa culture
sites have also given evidence of mud ramparts. The domestic structures
generally have he arths and storage pits or jars for storing grains associated
with them. The site of Gilund sees the earliest evidence of the use of
burntbrick for construction, dated to the beginning of 4 th millennium BCE.
The craft manufacture area of Gilund have structu res of burnt bricks.
Burntbricks were not common in Chalcolithic settlements. It was rarely
used, like the sites of Nagda and Eran yielded evidence of such bricks in
the construction of fortification wall.
Archaeo botanical remains have given evidence of wheat, barley, rice,
mustard, pea, lentils, millets, black gram, green gram among others.
Remains of domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goats and buffalo
were found. They practiced a mixed economy of farming and animal
hubandry. Hunting continued as is evident from the remains of wild
animals like nilgai, blackbuck, four horned antelope, elephant, among
others. Turtle, fish and molluscs remains were present. Fishing was also
practiced.
Efflorescence of art and craft activity is witnessed during this p hase.
Navdatoli has produced beautiful painted pottery, which included channel
spouted cup, pedestalled goblets etc. The Ahar culture sites produced
many beautiful pottery but its dominated by Black and Red Ware with
white paintings. Stone blade tools incl uding blunted backs, lunates,
trapezes, and points made of chalcedony have also been found. Terracotta
objects include skin rubbers, ear studs, votive tank, crucibles, bull
figurines, pottery discs, wheel miniature pot, pendants, lamps, bangles,
human firg urines., gamesman etc. Lithic components also included querns
and muller and microliths.
Copper craft is developed, as the smelting and melting of metal begin and
thereby obtaining the desired shape. Copper tools include copper dagger,
axes, chisels, fish hooks, swords, arrowheads, and copper ornaments like
rings, bangles, kohlsticks. Some of these sites were producing copper.
This is evident from the sites of Balathal and Ahar in the form of
crucibles, slags. The site of Kayatha has produced two copper axe s,
twenty -eight bangles and one chisel. which had been cast in moulds
showed the advances in copper technology achieved by these people.
Beads of semiprecious stones were found at many of these sites.
Carnelian, agate, jasper among others were reported. It is believed that
these Chalcolithic people acquired copper from western Rajasthan, gold
from Karnataka in South India, semi -precious stones from Gujarat and the
Deccan, marine fish and conch shell for manufacturing bangles from the
Saurashtra coast. Bead s of terracotta were also manufactured. 100 clay
seal impressions from 10 different seals were found at the site of Gilund.
The presence of these suggest long distance trading network existed in the
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53 Religious beliefs of the Chalco lithic people are reconstructed based on the
artifacts found at the site and ethnographic parallels. Numerous terracotta
bull figurines have been found at Kayatha, Ahar, Marmi, and Gilund
indicating the probable existence of a bull cult. Fire worship seems to have
been practised as evident from the site of Navdatoli. A rectangular fire
altar, 2.30 by 1.92 m and 1.35 m deep, with its sides and bottom plastered,
was located here. A shrine depicted in applique pattern on a storage jar
from Navdatoli has a fem ale worshiper on the right and a lizard on the left,
with the former being associated with Parvati, the consort of Siva. Burial
was not practiced. Only Balathal has given evidence of few burials in the
fortified ash deposits. These three skeletons seem to have been buried due
to exceptional circumstances.
Settlement pattern studies have shown that the Chalcolithic farmers
located their settlements on the availability of natural resources and
viability of communication. Sites such as Eran and Kayatha were
emclosed by river bends. Such sites were chosen because of the natural
protection provided as well as the presence of water pools at such
locations. The availability of good pasture in proximity to the settlement
was also important in the location of sites. Identification of regional centre
was done on the basis of the size and location of the settlements. Gilund
and Navdatoli were identified as regional centres because they were the
largest site and also based on their location. Multiple smaller sites were
located around the regional centre. These would be camp site, pastoral
sites or small agricultural sites for planting and harvesting seasons or
exploitation of raw material resources. The presence of a chief or the
existence of chiefdom society is evident. The presence of public
architecture shows mobilisation of labour. This requires the presence of
chief. Division of labour would also have existed as so many different
craft activities were practised. A complex society was emerging during the
Chalcolithic phase.
Check your Progress:
1) Analyse the Chalcolithic economy of the Ahar culture
2) Write a note on the different types of rituals or religious practices.
5.4 DECCAN CHALCOLITHIC -SAVALDA, JORWE
The Deccan Chalcolithic sites are located in the semi -arid bel t of the
contemporary states of Maharashtra and northern Karnataka, east of the
Western Ghat escarpment. It encompasses archaeological sites from the
second millennium BCE. The region is drained by three major river
systems, Tapi, Godavari, and Bhima. Hi ghest concentration of
Chalcolithic sites are in the Tapi basin. The number of sites reduces as one
moves farther south to the Godavari and Bhima basin. The location of
Chalcolithic settlements along these river valleys, ensured plentiful water,
arable lan d, and pasture.
One of the best studied areas of the Chalcolithic is the Deccasn
Chalcolithic. Inamgaon, Daimabad, Bahal, Chandoli, Kaothe, Nevasa are munotes.in

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54 some of the sites of this culture. The beginning of settled life in
Maharashtra can be dated to the Sava lda culture in the second millennium
BCE. Based on intensive research at various sites its now known that the
Savalda culture originated indigineously. Savalda culture was identified
on the basis of unique pottery discovered at the site of Chinchoda and
Savalda. These potteries have unique weapon motifs, apart from plantlike
motifs, geometrical motifs, animal motifs painted on them. Usually black
on red painted pottery. Jorwe culture first found at the site of Jorwe is
dated to 1400 BCE. The Jorwe culture is spread all over Maharashtra
except the coastal strip on the west and Vidarbha in the North East.
(Dhavalikar, 1970). A. Sundara’s (1968; 1969 -70; 1970 -71) extensive
field surveys have revealed that the region of Jorwe culture could be
extended upto Karn ataka. These sites have been identified by Dhavalikar
(1989a) as Late Jorwe settlements But the most intensively researched site
of this culture is Inamgaon. First inter disciplinary scientific studies was
conducted here. This helped in the reconstruction of various kinds of
structures, social organisations, economic activity and religious practices.
The Savalda culture flourished in the Tapi valley,though its also found at
the site of Daimabad in the Pravara Valley. Jorwe culture are found
throughout Mahar ashtra except the coastal zone . The fertile black cotton
soil of the Tapi Valley would have attracted the first farmers of the
Deccan. Settlement pattern studies have led to the identification of
regional centres. Prakash in the Tapi Valley, Daimabad in th e Godavari
Valley and Inamgaon in the Bhima Valley have been identified as the
regional centres. Smaller sites have been identified as seasonal camps,
factory sites, farmsteads etc.
Excavations have revealed circular pit dwellings. It was observed that
three to four pits formed one complex. Shallow storage pits for keeping
poultry and deeper pits for keeping grains were also unearthed in the
courtyards. Hearths are a common feature At Daimabad, the houses were
made of mud walls, with two or three rooms, a circular hearth, and a
common main entrance. The house floors were decorated with shells. At
Inamgaon, 130 structures of the Jorwe phase were exposed during
excavation. Space was left between houses in this phase, a linear type of
arrangement that suggest s the negative spaces served as lanes. Early Jorwe
people built lived in rectangular structures, with low mud walls and wattle
and daub construction. Small oval fire pits or armed hearth built of clay
were found inside the houses. Storage was important as storages pits were
found in the courtyard and round mud platforms for storage units were
found in the corner of the house. Evidence of extended family living
together is observed, additional rooms were attached later and up to three
storage pits and chulh a (ovens) built in the courtyard. The crafts people’s
houses were also identified like potter’s house, house of coppersmith, lime
maker, lapidary or bead worker. Granary and irrigation channel give
evidence of public architecture.
The early farming communi ties in the Deccan also practised farming and
stock raising, along with hunting and fishing. Barley, wheat jowar, ragi,
bajra, black gram, green gram, lentils peas, horsegram, kulith were grown munotes.in

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55 here. The rich plant economy suggests a congenial environment of these
early farmers. Cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig, and dog form part of the
Chalcolithic economy. Wild animals include nilgai, deer, fox, langur,
birds, fish, reptiles, and molluscs.
They were using stone and copper tools like all other Chalcolithi c cultures.
Kaothe has given evidence of bone tools. The presence of groundstone
objects such as mullers, querns, and grinding stones indicates that grain
and other vegetal foods were processed at the sites. The stone tool
assemblages are dominated by blad e/flake industries. Heavy duty stone
objects include a bead polisher, ringstones, hammers, saddle querns,
mullers, stone balls, pestles, sharpeners, polishers, polished semi -precious
stones, and stone sculptures. Material remains include copper artifacts a nd
terracotta objects. Terracotta objects included terracotta bull figurines,
skin scrubbers, cakes, balls, pendants, perforated discs, and many more
such objects. But the Chalcolithic phase was dominated by copper objects.
Metal technology was rudimentary . Boat shaped copper furnace was found
at Inamgaon.Copper objects included bangles, pendants, rings, fishhooks,
spear heads, antimony rods, chisels etc.
Trade was an important activity. Conch shell present here shows contact
with Gujarat. They would have obtained gold and ivory from the
Karnataka. Copper ore from Rajasthan or Gujarat. In exchange they were
also supplying copper to Karnataka and to local hunting gathering
communities.
Religious belief included finds of female figurines who would have been
venerated as mother goddesses. Small figurines of mother goddess were
placed in storage pits and are thought to be associated with fertility.
Another interesting find was at Inamgaon of a clay box containing a
female figurine and over the box was another fe male figurine without head
and a bull and all of these are unbaked Ethnographic parallels show that a
tribe near Mumbai, the Warlis, also worship a headless figurine. She
relates to fertility. Deccan Chalcolithic cultures are also characterised by
burials in all phases. In the Jorwe phase in the adult skeletons, feet below
the ankle was chopped off. Adults were buried in pits. Child burials were
in urns. Food was provided. A unique burial in Inamgaon is of an adult in
the courtyard of a five roomed house. T he feet was not chopped and the
entire body was placed in a four legged jar in a seated position . It is
thought because of this special treatment, it must be the burial of a person
of importance. This has led the archaeologist to identify him as the
chieft ain.
Check your Progress:
1) Analyse the socio religious structure of the Deccan Chalcolithic.
2) Write a note on the Jorwe culture

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56 5.5 THE CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES
The Chalcolithic cultures of Middle Ganga Valley and the Vindhyan
encompasses eastern Uttar Prade sh. Lower Gangetic region also includes
Bihar and Bengal. Eastern Uttar -Pradesh extends from Allahabad and
Kaushambi districts in the west to the Bihar -Bengal border in the east and
from the Nepal tarai in the north, to the Baghelkhand region of Madhya
Pradesh state in the South. The entire region may be divided into three
distinct geographical units – The Ganga Plain, the Vindhya -Kaimur ranges
and the Saryupar region. This region is one of the early centers of
agriculture which paved the way for the deve lopment of the Neolithic -
Chalcolithic. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Bihar, Odisha come under
similar ecological zones. These regions occur in a region where there is
plentiful availability of water and dense forests.
Some of the important excavated si tes of this region are Koldihwa
Lahurdewa, Imlidih khurd, Sohgaura, Hetapatti, Jhusi, Chirand, Taradih,
Senuwar, Mangal kot, Mahisdal, PanduRajarDhibi, Gobai Sasan,
Khamreshwaripalli,
They lived in houses made of wattle and daub and mud. Partition walls
separated the house into multiple rooms. Lahudewa has given evidence of
a number of armed clay or hearth and earthen storage bins. The site of
Oriup has given evidence of circular, semi -circular ovens. Floors paved
with lime plaster, postholes and ovens ar e also found at the site of
PanduRajar Dhibi. Here, the earliest inhabitants made their huts with
floors of pellety laterite sometimes burnt. The earliest level at Chirand
revealed a circular hearth and post -holes and floors of burnt earth. The exposed
lime floors at Sonpur had circular pits representing circular huts, with varying
diameters of 1.84 to 2.44 m. and with bones of animals and birds inside.
Bharatpur had two habitational floors along with open hearths containing pottery
and animal bones. Golbai Sasan has also given evidence of circular huts with
partition walls and post holes.
Bone tools and microliths were important part of Chalcolithic economy of
this region. Khamreshwaripalli in Odisha has also given evidence of quite
a few bone tools. Antler tools were found. Bones of cattle, sheep, goat,
tusk of wild boar were used to make burins, chisels, scrapers, adze,
needles, arrowheads, blades, harpoons, etc. At Sonpur and Chirand finds
include tanged and socketed arrowheads having circular or square s ection
and pins of bone, arrowheads of ivory and styli of both materials. Earrings
made of fish vertebrae were recovered at the Chalcolithic settlement of
Global Sassan.
Khairadih, Narhan and Sohagaura yielded evidence of beads of agate,
chalcedony, carnel ian, jasper, steatite which were also found in other sites
of the region. Teracotta beads, also incised variety, were found at various
sites like Khamreshwaripalli, Lahurdewa etc. Terracotta human figurines
and animal figurines were also recovered from the se sites. Shell beads
were also found. The ceramic industry was associated mainly with Black
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57 Copper objects are scarce but present. They include spiral bangles, fish
hooks, antimony rods, fishhooks, beads, chisel, recovered from different
sites.
Agriculture was the mainstay of the economy supplemented by hunting
and fishing. Rice is the most important crop. Other archaeo botanical
remains include cotton, barley, wheat (club wheat, dwarf wheat, bread
wheat) pea, green gram, chickpea, khesari mu stard oilseeds, millets, kodo
millet, flax or linseed, castor, safflowere, jackfruit, watermelon seeds,
mango. Cattle, goat, sheep dog, pig were domesticated and the wild faunal
remains show the continuation of hunting.
Compared to the preceding Neolithic culture, there was a dramatic
increase in the number and size of the Chalcolithic sites. This would have
been due to a sharp increase in population. Not much work has been done
on the social structure of the Chalcolithic period. The presence of various
types of ceramic wares and small objects of stone, bone, ivory, etc.
indicates the specialization of crafts and beginning of emergence of
complex society .
The Copper Hoards are a variety of copper tools found in caches. Most of
these have been chance discover ies, discovered while ploughing a field,
making a road. Typical copper hoard objects included harpoons, rings,
swords with mid ribs, anthropomorphs, flat celts, shouldered celts, bar
celts, antennae and hooked swords and axes. These tools could be
typicall y used for cutting trees, mining, digging, killing wild animals or
fish. The copper hoard tools display superb craftsmanship. As the copper hoards
are not found in stratified context, it’s difficult to exactly date them. But
sometimes if they are found in association with objects in stratified context, it’s
easier to trace their aniquity. Like at Lothal a lugged axe found in Mature
Harappan levels, a harpoon at the Late Harappan levels at the site of Mitathal.
These point to a period contemporary with the M ature Harappan and Late
Harappan pottery. Some more such associations are recorded from Jorwe level at
Maharashtra
Excavations at the spot where copper hoards were found was excavated by B.B.
Lal at Bisauli and Rajpur Parsu. This revealed Ochre Coloured po ttery. Upper
Ganga plains were originally inhabited by the Late Harappans and Ochre
Coloured Pottery using people immediately before the beginning of the 1 st
millennium B.C E. OCP succeeds the Late Harrapans Excavations at
Saipai (Lal and Wahal,1971) and a t many other sites by scholars
demonstrate that this OCP was associated with Copper -Hoards.
Check your Progress:
1) Comment on the Chalcolithic cultures of Odisha
2) Explain the cultural development of the Chalcolithic cultures with
special reference to Lahurd ewa.

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58 5.6 GANESHWAR JODHPURA CULTURAL COMPLEX
Ganeshwar Jodhpura Cultural Complex is in northeastern Rajasthan. It’s a
collection of Chalcolithic sites having similarities in material culture,
production of copper tools, and geographic proximity to copper mines. It
is situated within the regions of the Northern Aravalli Hill Range. The
Ganeshwar -Jodhpura Cultural Complex (GJCC) is the largest copper
producing community in Chalcolithic South Asia. The GJCC demonstrates
an indigenous development which was th e result of a larger regional
economic need for copper products.
The excavations at the sites of Ganeshwar Jodhpura have given
information about this culture. They belong to the OCP culture.
Ganeshwar located in Sikar district of Rajasthan was excavated by R. C.
Agarwala and Vijay Kumar. During the excavation almost 1000 copper
objects in association with the OCP was found. Copper objects include
celts, chisels, balls, rings, bangles, spearheads, copper arrowheads etc.
Here the earliest phase is the Mesolit hic which is followed by the OCP.
Jodhpura, is situated on the banks of the river Sabi in the Jaipur district of
Rajasthan. It has OCP associated with the Black and Red ware and later
Painted Grey Ware. The findings of microliths along with the copper
objects suggest that they developed metallurgical technology while still in
the foraging stage. The economy is based on mining, extracting and
supplying to the neighboring Chalcolithic cultures and the Harappans.
Check your Progress:
1) Underline the importance of Copper Hoards
2) Discuss the growth of Ganeshwar Jodhpura Cultural Complex
5.7 SUMMARY
The Chalcolithic Cultures laid down a firm foundation of sedentary village
life in India. Emergence of settled life is observed at about 7th millennium
BCE in the I ndian subcontinent. By third millennium BCE, these agro -
pastoral settlements practicing a number of craft activity become
prosperous settlements. Settlement pattern studies has clearly shown the
evolution of a chiefdom society. Most of these settlements sh ow a natural
progression towards the next phase with the appearance of Iron. Due to
change in climatic conditions there’s a decline in the lifestyle of the
Chalcolithic and many of the settlements in Western India are abandoned.
But most of the sites conti nue their progression into the next stage. The
development of Early Historic cities or the Janapadas is the result of the
internal growth of these sites


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59 5.8 QUESTIONS
Q1. Critically examine the role of settlement pattern studies in
understanding Chalcol ithic archaeology with special reference to
Deccan Chalcolithic
Q2. Assess the importance of the Ahar culture site of Gilund.
Q3. Explain the different facets of Copper Hoards
5.9 ADDITIONAL READING
Agrawal, D. P. The Copper Bronze Age in India , Munshira m
Manoharlal, Delhi, 1971
Agrawala, R C and Kumar, V 1993 Ganeshwar: Jodhpura culture: New
Traits in Indian Archaeology. In: Possehl, G L (ed.). Harrapan
Civilization: A Recent Perspective . American Institute of Indian Studies
and Oxford Publishing co, New Delhi, 125 –136.
Agrawal, D. P. Ancient Metal Technology and Archaeology of South Asia:
A pan -Asian perspective , Aryan Books International, Delhi, 2000
Agrawal, D.P. and Kharakwal, J.S. Bronze and Iron Ages in South Asia ,
Aryan Books International, Delhi, 2003.
Ansari, Z. D. and Dhavalikar, M. K. Excavations at Kayatha ,
Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Pune, 1975
Dhavalikar, M.K. First Farmers of the Deccan , Ravish Publishers,
Pune, 1988.
Dhavalikar, M. K., Sankalia, H. D. and Ansari, Z. D. Excavations at
Inamgaon, Vol. I, Parts i and ii, Deccan College Post -Graduate and
Research Institute, Pune, 1988
Dhavalikar, M. K. (1988). First Farmers of the Deccan . Pune: Ravish
Publishers
Kingwell -Banham, E, et al. 2018. Archaeobotanical Investiga tions into
Golbai Sasan and Gopalpur, Two Neolithic -Chalcolithic Settlements of
Odisha. Ancient Asia, 9: 5, pp. 1 –14
Ghosh, A. (Ed.) (1989). An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology , Vol. I.
New Delhi: Munshi Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd
Misra VN. 1997. Ba lathal: a Chalcolithic settlement in Mewar, Rajasthan,
India: results of the first three seasons’ excavation. South Asian Studies
13: 251 –273.
Misra VN. 2007. Rajasthan: prehistoric and early historic foundations.
New Delhi: Aryan Books International. munotes.in

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60 Misr a VN, Mohanty RK. 2001. A rare Chalcolithic pottery cache from
Balathal, Rajasthan. Man and Environment 26(2): 67 –76.
Misra VN, Shinde V, Mohanty RK, Pandey L. 1993. Terracotta bull
figurines from Marmi: A Chalcolithic settlement in Chitorgarh district,
Rajasthan. Man and Environment 18(2): 149 –152.
Pal, J.N. 1986. Archaeology of Southern Uttar Pradesh, Ceramic Industry
of Northern Vindhyas. Allahabad, Swabha Prakashan.
Pal, J.N. 2007 -2008. The Early Farming Culture of the Middle Ganga
Plain with Special Re ference to the Excavation at Jhusi and Hetapatti.
Pragdhara 18: 263 -281 .
Robbins G, Mushrif V, Misra VN, Mohanty RK, Shinde VS. 2007. Adult
skeletal material from Balathal: a full report and inventory. Man and
Environment 32(2): 1 –26.
Sankalia, H.D. Pre a nd Protohistory of India and Pakisthan.
Deccan College, Pune, 1974
Sankalia, H. D., Deo, S. B. and Ansari, Z. D. 1971 Chalcolithic Navdatoli:
The excavations at Navdatoli 1957 -59, Deccan College Postgraduate and
Research Institute, Pune
Sankalia, H D, Deo, S B and Ansari, Z D 1969 Excavations at Ahar .
Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune
Singh, B. P. ed., (2004) Early Farming Communities of the Kaimur
(Excavations at Senuwar), Jaipur: Publication Scheme.
Singh, P. (1992), "Neolithic -Chal colithic Cultures of Eastern U.P.", in
Rakesh Tiwari, ed., Archaeological Perspectives of Uttar Pradesh and
Future Prospects, Part I, Lucknow: pp. 67 -79.
Shinde, V S and Possehl, G L 2005 A Report on the Excavations At
Gilund, 1999 –2001. South Asian Archae ology 2001 , Catherine, J and
Vincent, L (eds.). Paris: 1: 293 –309.
Shinde, V S, Shweta, S D and Yasuda, Y 2004 Human Response to
Holocene Climate Changes in Western India between 5th and 3rd
Millenniums BC. In: Monsoon and Civilisation. New Delhi: Roli Bo oks,
pp. 383 –406. Southwest. American Antiquity , 71(3): 403 –432.
Shinde, V.S., Possehl, G.L., and M. Ameri (2005). A Report on the
Excavations at Gilund, 1999 -2001. In C. Jarrige and V. Lefevre (Eds.),
South Asian Archaeology 2001 (pp. 293 -302). Paris: Edi tions Recherche
sur les Civilisations.
Shinde, V.S., Raczek, T. P., and G.L. Possehl (2014). Excavations at
Gilund: The Artifacts and Other Studies (Museum Monograph 138)
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. munotes.in

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61 Tewari, R., R.K. Srivastava, K.K. S ingh, K.S. Saraswat, I.B. Singh. 2002 -
03. Preliminary Report of the Excavation at Lahuradeva, District Sant
Kabir Nagar, U.P. 2001 -02: Wider Archaeological Implications.
Pragdhara 13: 37 -68.
Tewari, R., R.K. Srivastava, K.K. Singh, K.S. Saraswat, I.B. Sing h, M.S.
Chauhan, A.K. Pokharia, A. Saxena, V.Prasad and M. Sharma. 2005 -06.
Second Preliminary Report of the Excavations at Lahuradeva District Sant
KabirNagar, U.P.: 2002 -03-04 & 2005 -06. Pragdhara 16: 35 -68.
Tewari, R., R.K. Srivastava, K.S. Saraswat and K.K. Singh. 1999 -2000.
Excavtion at Malhar, District Chandauli(U.P.) 2000: A Preliminary
Report. Pragdhara 10: 69 -98.
Thapar, B.K. (1967). Prakash 1955: A Chalcolithic Site in the Tapi Basin.
Ancient India, 20 -21, 1-167.

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62 6
MEGALITHIC AND EARLY HISTORICAL
PERIODS
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Megalithic Culture
6.2 Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture
6.3 Northern Black Polished Ware Culture
6.4 Conclusion
6.5 Questions
6.6 References for further reading

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, the students will be able:
 To understand the early historic sites in India.
 To Ancient culture through the pottery and its sites.

6.1 MEGALITHIC CULTURE
The word Megalith is derived from two Greek wor ds- mega (big/huge)
and lithos (stone). They are found in Europe, Asia, Africa, Central and
South America. It is a nomenclature used for certain burial style which
involves stone erect structures for dead.
In the Indian context, megaliths generally belong to the Iron Age. More
than 2000 sites have been recorded since 19th century. The oldest
megaliths in Indian subcontinent are found in the westernmost part of the
present -day Afghanistan, dated to about 3000 BC. They are in the form of
stone circles. But the megaliths are also found in almost all parts of the
subcontinent including Central, Southern and Eastern India where they are
a part of continuing traditions by communities like Khasis of Assam and
Mundas of Chhotanagpur. However, the heavy concentrati ons of
megaliths have been reported from Central and Peninsular South India.
These monuments are assumed to be associated with burial or post burial
rituals including memorials for those whose remains may or may not be
available (Vahia et al: 2010).

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Historical Periods
63 6.2.1 TYPES
U.S. Moorti has classified the megalithic burials into two categories
(Vahia et al: 2010):
1) Sepulchral megaliths
The sepulchral megalith contains the remains of the dead in a variety of
forms. They could be primary burials, in which the dead is placed soon
after his or her death. It will contain a complete skeleton (in either flat or
curled up positions) with some burial goods as homage to the dead so that
they could use them in afterlife. In some cases, these primary burials may
also be in a sa rcophagus made of terracotta. Similarly, secondary burials
are also common when the remains of the dead, essentially his or her
bones, are put in urns or pits. The location of the dead is most often
marked with stone circles but Cairns, slab circles are al so found on the
surface.
2) Non-sepulchral megaliths
The most common amongst the non -sepulchral megaliths are the menhirs,
stone alignments and avenues. These are difficult to make but more
elaborate in their construct and more spectacular. They tend to b e spread
over a much larger area of several hundred square meters. They always
have alignments which are either north south or east west with one
prominent marker stone or a porthole in one stone pointing to either north
or east. The earliest of these tend to have large stones put at specific
locations but the later ones tend to be thin well -worked stones made with
care and the boulder type ones also tended to be dressed.
The architecture of burial monuments is subjected to regional variations.
Even within a site there are overall significant variations. Each burial is
unique in their nature, architecture and human remains. The different types
of burial monuments are as follows (Mohanty et al: 2017; Reddy 1991):
1) Cist
A chamber type of burial with orthostats in a rectangular, swastika or box -
type pattern has mostly has a capstone. It is usually accompanied with a
stone circle periphery. Some cist burials have a passage and some have a
port- hole on the main orthostat.
2) Urn
These are huge urns that are sometim es legged. Legged Urns are called
sarcophagus.
3) Cairn burials
These are pit burials with a cairn packing of stone rubble.
4) Stone Circles:
These are a variety of cairn burials but having a periphery of stones
generally boulders. munotes.in

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64 5) Kudai - Kal (Umbrella Stone)
It is an Urn burial capped by a slab and above there is an umbrella like
stone.
6) Topi - Kal (Hat Stone)
It is like the umbrella stone but the cap stone is similar to a hat.
7) Dolmen
It is non - sepulchral chamber burial with one side open. There is a port -
hole when the dolmen is closed on all sides.
8) Dolmenoid cists
Burial chambers made of multiple stones for the sides and top with single
or double stone circles around them.
9) Menhir
A monolithic slab erected in memory of the deceased. There are some
other types k nown as avenues and stone alignments. Few sites in South
India, the burials are marked by carved monoliths known as
'anthropomorphic figures'. The megaliths or the rocks near the megaliths
are reported with rock paintings or engravings at some sites and th e
excavations also have revealed a large number of art objects.
10) Alignments
Menhirs erected in lines of particular order.
11) Avenues
Two or more alignments which lie roughly parallel to each other are called
Avenues.
12) Barrows
Earthen mounds over the surface of which occur chips of granite. The pit
covered by the barrow contains urns or terracotta legged sarcophagus.
13) Rock -cut caves
The Rock -cut caves are nothing but burial caves cut into the lateritic rock.
They form an oblong or circular structure with a vaulte d dome.
6.2.2 Settlement Pattern
Settlement pattern studies are useful in understanding human adaptation.
Initially it was believed that megalithic people were pastoral. Mahurjhari,
as an important megalithic site excavated extensively by Deo, was
believed to be only a burial site. However, a habitation site was later
located and excavated at Mahurjhari. Habitation deposits were
subsequently located in close proximity of burial sites were also found at
Panchkedi and Vyahad in Nagpur district and Malli in Go ndia district.
Explorations by various scholars have shown that almost all burial sites
are associated with habitation, except in few cases where substantial
changes in the landscape have taken place. Mohanty and Joshi classified
megalithic sites into thre e categories (Mohanty &Thakuria: 2014): munotes.in

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65 i) Category A - It includes all the sites that directly contribute to the
better understanding of the life and pattern of megalithic community of
Vidarbha. Sites like Mahurjhari, Naikund, Takalghat -Kapa, Raipur,
Borgaon, Bhagimohari, Vyahad, etc. which have either megalithic
monuments or megalithic burials along with habitation are in this group.
ii) Category B - It includes those sites where no trace of megalithic
burials is found in vicinity, but the presence of Megalithic phase
succeeded by the early historic period in stratigraphical order is found.
Sites like Kaundinyapura in Amaravati and Arni in Yavatmal district
comes under this category.
iii) Category C - It includes sites where evidence of Megalithic and early
historic cu lture is found in the vicinity of megalithic burials.
Moorti commented that location of habitation sites was dependent on
environment and resources both for subsistence economy and construction
for burials. Therefore, megalithic sites are located in mainly resource rich
areas of mineral and ore resources like iron, copper, gold and mica, biotic
resources, arable land and water, raw material for burial constructions. He
further emphasized that some of the sites were located on the trade routes
and in deltaic zones convenient for trade activity.
6.2.3 Distribution
Indian megaliths are found in different chronological context in all over
India. The south Indian megaliths are dated the oldest megalithic culture in
India erected during the Iron Age i.e. 1000 B C onwards. Many megalithic
sites are found in the states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Maharashtra. Different types of megaliths are found in
South India varying from menhir, dolmen, chamber tomb, rock – cut
burials, alignments and stone circle. In Kerala, megalithic sites are located
in Tengakkal, Mangadu, Pumimattu and Peria which are associated with
burial sites. Megaliths of Andhra Pradesh are also associated with the
burial sites and many sites are discovered from Nagarjunkunda ,
Kadambapur, Gallapalli and Amravati. The megaliths of Karnataka are the
most important one in South India with the important sites like hire
Benkal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Hanamsagar and Hallur. Hallur is an
important site in Indian megaliths where iron obje cts are recovered along
with the human skeletons.
The megalithic culture of Central India is found in many districts of
Jharkhand like Ranchi, Ramgarh, Chatra, Singbhum and Lohardagga. The
practices of erecting megaliths in central India is still continuin g among
the tribes or Adivasi communities like Gond, Munda and Oraons in
Jharkhand. Many megalithic sites are also present in Kashmir and
Uttarakhand in North India. In Kashmir, along with the Neolithic Phase,
Burzaham and Gufkral also have the witnessed m egalithic culture around
mid-second millennium BCE. From these two sites, different types of
menhirs and stones circles are found. In Uttarakhand, megalithic sites are
reported from Almora, Kumaon, Ramganga and so on. The types of munotes.in

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66 megaliths found from Utta rakhand are: menhir, dolmen, cist and cairn
circle.
North East India comprises of eight states - Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. The
megalithic culture is found widespread among many indigenous groups of
North East India and it is a living tradition in many parts of this region.
The origin of megalithic culture in North East is controversial. According
to scholars, the North East megaliths are formed between late Neolithic
and early Chalcolithic period an d it is most probably influenced by the
Southeast Asian megaliths.
The Khasi society of Meghalaya mostly erects megaliths as burial stones.
Besides this, they have also erected stones as boundary stone and gate
stone. The Garos of Meghalaya also practice megalith with modified form.
In the memory of the dead person, the Garos erect some decorated ‘Y’
shaped wooden post instead of stone in their society. Generally, three
types of megaliths are found predominantly in Meghalaya. These are -
menhir, dolmen and cist.
In Karbi Anglong district of Assam, megalith is a living practice. Both the
Plain and Hill Karbis erect megaliths as a commemorative stone after
someone’s death. The Nagas of Nagaland mostly used megaliths as war
memorial stone. After a successful r aid, most of the Nagas like, Ao,
Angami, Lotha and Konyak Nagas used to erect stone or megaliths as a
symbol of their bravery in past. Despite these, cist burial is also found
among many Naga societies which were used clan wise to keep the skulls
of the de ath persons. The Nagas also used megaliths as a gate stone,
boundary stone and foundation stone. In Arunachal Pradesh, megaliths are
found among the Wancho, Nocte, Hrusso and Sherdukpen people. The
Noctes and the Wanchos generally used menhir as a war memo rial stone.
Cist burial is also common among the Noctes and Wanchos in Arunachal
Pradesh (Gogoi: 2019).
Some of the important sites are as follows:
a) MAHURJHARI
This site is located in Nagpur district of Maharshtra. The presence of
megalithic monuments at M ahurjhari village was brought to light by
Hunter in 1933. Later in 1958, Banerjee from Archaeological Survey of
India explored the site and recorded 300 megalithic stone circles. The site
was further selected for exploration and excavation by Mohanty with the
aim of locating the habitation deposit Excavations at the habitation
deposits revealed typical micaceous red ware, black and red ware, thick
red and black slip ware of Vidarbha megalithic culture. Besides, sherds of
black - painted red ware were also f ound. Several floor levels were
exposed along with silos, hearths, roasting places, fireplaces, washing
platforms made with pebbles and clay. The floors were made by ramming
the black clay upon which stone chips were laid and then it was covered
with a thi n layer of brownish earth and sticky fine clay paste. U -shaped
earthen hearth and storage pits are the other characteristic finds. The munotes.in

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67 circular post holes indicate some kind of superstructures made of wood or
other perishable materials. The burnt clay clum ps found with impression
of bamboo and mat indicate mud plaster over the bamboo mat. Besides,
artifacts like semiprecious stone beads, terracotta beads, clay tablets,
pottery discs and grounded -flat-circular stones of different wrights were
found along wit h large amount of animal bones and charred grains.
There are 270 burials identified in 11 localities located in considerable
distance from each other at Mahurjhari. They are located on barren, less
fertile, un -productive landscape and hilly tracts (Mohanty &Thakuria:
2014).
b) PACHKHERI
Pachkheri is located in Kuhi taluk of Nagpur district and was excavated by
the Archaeological Survey of India. The site has menhirs and stone circles.
Excavation revealed five cultural levels between the Mesolithic and the
medi eval. Period II is megalithic, with mainly black and red ware, red
ware, black on red painted ware and black slipped ware. Discovery of the
patches of mud floor and iron rod, ring fastener and a copper bowl are
some of the important finds. Excavation of th e menhirs revealed that a pit
was dug to erect the monolithic stone or slab. No funerary materials were
found in the excavation of menhirs. One stone circle was also excavated,
where a central pit was surrounded by a circular chamber made of pebbles.
The f unerary materials include a copper bowl, iron coiled rings, ring
fastener and red ware vases (Mohanty &Thakuria: 2014).
c) ADICHCHANALLUR
Adichchanallur is known for the remains of urn burials. The site was
excavated by Alexander Rea in 1902 -03. Later Chennai Circle of
Archaeological Survey of India’s excavation at the site resulted discovery
of 160 urn burials. Based on the urn types and nature of skeletal remains
excavated, urns were divided into three phases. Phase one is dominated by
primary burials. Urns of phase I invariably contain non -articulated human
skeletal remains along with grave goods like pottery, iron tools and
ornaments. The skeletal remains interned in urns are in crouched position.
Example of double burials in the same urn was also noticed. In Phase II
primary burials are fewer and urns containing secondary burials more. The
phase III is dominated by secondary burials.
In the secondary burials, the body was first allowed to decompose and
then bones were collected for secondary burial. In the primary burials, as
evident from Adichchanallur, the fore and hind limbs of the body were
folded and tied by vegetal or bark rope and then kept inside the urn. The
urn no.83B revealed a double burial with bodies kept in such manner.
The grave goods found in the urns are mainly bowls, dishes, ring stands
and lids of black and red ware, black polished ware, red ware and black
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68 Wares were also found. Other finds include axe, arrowheads, dagger and
spearhead of iron and copper ornaments. Traces of rice husk and
impression of cloth also noticed. A piece of potsherd found inside an urn
with human skeletal remains shows the appliqué figures of two crocodiles
and a deer on one side of a standing women and a sheaf of paddy an d a
crane on her other side is a noteworthy discovery (Mohanty &Thakuria:
2014) .
d) UMMICHIIPOYH
This is a rock cut burial site in the Kasargod district of Kerala. A cluster of
rock cut caves was noticed on the western slope of a lateritic outcrop. Two
caves were excavated by Thrissur circle of Archaeological Survey of
India. The caves are circular on plan. A circular hole was made on the top
of the cave. The rectangular entrance was closed by placing a slab. A steep
slope was provided as passage to the entra nce. No antiquity save pots of
various size, bowls and lids of black and red ware and red ware were
found (Mohanty &Thakuria: 2014).
e) AMRAVATI
This site situated in Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh. It is well known
for its Buddhist stupas. Alexander Rea had excavated this site to restore as
well as to study the nature of the stupa. The excavation revealed the
presence of megalithic culture at this site, attested by the discovery of
seventeen huge urn burials. But the excavator had assigned Neolithic
affiliation to them. However, evidences show that they belong to
megalithic period (Murali: 1993).
f) CHITTOOR
This site is situated about in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh. It has
been excavated by Captain Newbold. Dolmenoid cist with port -hole
surrounded by slab circle is the type noticed here. The orthostats of the
chamber were arranged in anti -clock wise pattern and contained legged
terracotta sarcophagi in them. The sarcophagi were filled with earth and
human bones. Other finds included spear —heads, swo rds, presumably of
iron, and some pottery (Murali: 1993).
g) NAGARJUNAKONDA
The site is situated on the right bank of the river Krishna in the Guntur
District of Andhra Pradesh and has been excavated by the Archaeological
Survey of India. Fifteen burials hav e been excavated out of which thirteen
were pit burials and the remaining two were oblong cists with port -hole.
Secondary and multiple burial practices were the prominent types here.
There are only two instances of extended burials. Skeletal remains and
associated objects were placed on ash or lime bed. Pottery and iron objects
were found in abundance. Animal bones were also found frequently in
these burials. Megalith III had yielded only skeletal remains of 1 an
animal and no human bones, pottery or iron objects were found. Both east -
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69 Megalith XIV is interesting in as much as it yielded an extended skeleton,
probably of a female, with ornaments on its body. Two gold wire earrings
and bead s of gold and silver were found along with this skeleton, apart
from pottery and iron interments (Murali: 1993).
h) HIRE BENKAL
The megalithic burial complex at Hire Benkal is situated in Gangavati
Taluka, Koppal District of Karnataka. The megaliths on the hi ll
encompasses an area of nearly 20 ha and spread at three different localities
in an east - west orientation, together to a distance of about 1 km. The
three clusters could be classified as the western group, central group and
the eastern group. The site is world renowned for the existence of
thousands of megalithic structures with dolmens in large numbers,
standing on mound for more than 2500 yrs. Several subtypes that have
been identified at Hire Benkal are as follows: Port -holed Dolmenoid Cist –
Circles , Oblong Dolmenoid Cists or Cists with or without port -holes,
Irregular polygonal chambers, Rock Shelter Chambers, Anthropomorphic,
etc.
A unique feature of Hire Benkal is its prehistoric rock paintings. In Hire
Benkal, 11 rock shelters have been discovere d so far. However, few
paintings from Mesolithic period have also been reported. Majority of the
paintings belong to overlapping period of Late Neolithic and Early Iron
Age-Megalithic, i.e. c. 700 -500 BCE. The depictions in rock art from Hire
Benkal provid es clue about subsistence strategies (hunting), weapons used
(spears, Axes comparable to the one reported from megalithic excavated
sites), fauna etc. of the Iron Age - megalithic period.
Leonard Munn first published the report in 1934 - 35 about 3 rock
paintings near the well -known groups of megalithic dolmens reported
earlier by Keis. He also mentioned about the ash mounds near the village.
Later, Archaeological Survey of India’s Darwad Circle undertook
excavations at two habitation sites of Durgadi Dadi a nd Talavarmule, in
the vicinity of Hire Benkal (unesco.org).

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Check your progress
Q 1. What is Megalithic Culture? Discuss the Megalithic Culture of India
with special reference to South India.
6.2 PAINTED GREY WARE (PGW) CULTURE
6.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The PGW culture belongs to the Iron Age. Its most important feature is the
pottery. The ware is grey in colour, made of fine grain, well levigated clay
and fired under reducing condition in the kiln. It consists of dish, pan, lota,
etc. and is often painted in black or deep chocolate brown color on grey
surface with designs like dots, dashes, criss - cross lines, concentric circles, munotes.in

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73 semi - circles, sigmas, swastikas, etc. (Ghosh 1989). This ceramic was first
discov ered at Ahichhatra (1940 - 44) in association with NBPW but its
independent existence in stratigraphic context was established only after
the Hastinapur excavation in 1950 - 52. The exploration by B.B Lal during
1954 - 55 shows the presence of this ceramic wi th the sites associated with
Mahabharat. (Dhavlikar 1999).

Credit: Uesugi 2018
6.1.2 CHRONOLOGY
The chronology of PGW is controversial. An attempt has been made to
date the culture through both relative and absolute dating methods. In
terms of absolute chronology Painted Grey Ware culture has been
comfortably place before 2890±105 BP. from Atranjikhera (Singh et al
2014).
When it comes to relative dating, B.B. Lal, who excavated the site of
Hastinapur assigned a time bracket of 1100 - 800 BCE on the basi s of
stratigraphy. However other scholars like Childe and Wheeler did not
accept this time bracket. According to Childe, the PGW could have
established at the site Hastinapur from 1400 -600 BCE and Wheeler
believed that the beginning of the ware at the site Hastinapur would be
800 BCE. After the excavations at Hastinapur, a number of sites in
western Uttar Pradesh and northern Rajasthan have been excavated that
resulted into a considerable amount of information about its chronology.
The Bhagawanpura excavati on by J.P. Joshi revealed the origin of this
pottery in the late second millennium BCE. The end of the Harappan
ceramic tradition and the emergence of a new ceramic style represented by
PGW signify not only the change in pottery but also the socio cultural munotes.in

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74 transformation from the Bronze Age society to the Iron Age society
(Uesugi 2018).
R.C. Gaur on the basis of Atranjikhera excavation, assigns the time
bracket of 1100 - 600 BCE whereas, V. Tripathi, after ex amining the
evidence from different sites has concluded that at Hastinapur the PGW
stratum should be assigned to 850 -550 BCE and at Atranjikhera it may
have started a little earlier by 900 BCE (Dhavlikar 1999). Sites like
Ahichchhatra, Atranjikhera, Sravas ti, Kaushambi shows overlap of this
ware with Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). However, the origin of
NBPW cannot be placed later than 600 BCE. Therefore, similar date may
be proposed for the end of the PGW i.e. 600 BCE. Hence the time bracket
for Pain ted Grey Ware from 1200 - 600 BCE seems to be most reasonable
under the available evidences (Ahmed 2015).
6.1.3 DISTRIBUTION
Post-Independence, many PGW sites have been discovered especially in
Punjab, Haryana, North Rajasthan and Western Uttar Pradesh (Upp er
Gangetic Plain). It has an extensive distribution of more than 1000 sites
ranging from Sutluj/ Hakra basin on the west and the Aravalli range in the
south; the Chambal in the southeast and the foothills of Himalayas in the
north. Most of the sites are l ocated on the riverbanks and very few in the
interiors. The main concentration of the sites is found in Indo - Gangetic
Divide (Haryana), Sutlej basin and upper Ganga plains. Important PGW
sites include Hastinapur, Alamgirpur, Ahichchhatra, Allahpur, Mathur a,
Kampli, Noh, Jodhpura, Bhagwanpura, Kausambi, Jakhera and Shravasti.
Overall, there are four kinds of stratigraphic contexts where PGW occurs
(Singh 2009):
I) Sites like Rupar and Sanghol (Punjab), Daulatpur (Haryana) and
Alamgirpur and Hulas in Western U P have yielded the PGW
ceramic assemblage after a late Harappan level, with a break in
between the occupation.
II) Sites like Dadheri, Katpalon and Nagar (Punjab) and Bhagwanpura
(Haryana) have witnessed an overlap between the two cultural
assemblages i.e. PGW and the Late Harappan phase.
III) Sites like Hastinapur and Ahichchhtra in UP have yielded the PGW
ceramic assemblage after the OCP culture, with a break in between
the occupation.
IV) Sites like Atranjikhera in UP, Noh and Jodhpura in Rajasthan have
yielded the PGW ceramic assemblage after the BRW phase, with a
break in between the occupation.
Scholars have studied the sites and settlement patterns associated with the
PGW phase. Makkahn Lal’s study (1984) of Kanpur district identified 46
PGW sites. Of these 26 si tes were below 1 hectare, 14 between 1 and 1.99
ha, 2 between 2 and 2.9 ha, 3 between 3 and 3.99 ha and 1 between 4 and munotes.in

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75 4.99 ha. He also noticed that the sites which are far from the rivers were
smaller than those along the riverbanks. Average spacing betw een two
settlements was 10 -14km.
Another scholar Erdosy’s study (1988) traced the history of settlements in
Allahabad district of UP between c. 1000 BCE and 300 CE. In Period I
(600-100 BCE) there was a two -tier hierarchy of settlements. 15 sites were
0.42- 2.80 ha in size, the average size was 1.72 ha. The largest site was
Kausambi with 10 ha. Erdosy estimates that between 60 to 450 people
lived in these villages. A similar hierarchy was visible in northern
Haryana. Out of 42 PGW sites, one site was 9.6 h a and others were not
more than 4.3 ha. The evidence is comparable with that of Mughal’s
analysis of PGW settlements in the site of Bahawalpur, where 14 sites
ranging between 0.5 and 5 ha except for Satwali which is the largest PGW
site so far with 13.7 ha .
These data show that it was particularly small village settlements with few
large one’s as exceptions. Some of the important PGW sites are as follows
(Dhavlikar 1999, Singh 2009 & Singh 2014):
a) Abhaipur
The site falls in the Bisalpur tehsil of Pilibhi t district of Uttar Pradesh. It
was excavated from 2001 -02 to 2005 -06. Painted Grey Ware culture was
the main culture at the site found in Period -III. The people in this period
lived in wattle and daub houses and later on made mud -wall houses with
mud plas tered floors. The presence of a large number of pits in this phase
is conspicuous. A bones tool making workshop was found where in both
finished and unfinished bone tools and beads along with equipment’s were
found. The excavators are of the view that main ly hunting, gathering,
fishing contributed to the economy, while iron and copper metallurgy,
pottery making and trade played subsidiary role. Beads of agate, carnelian,
jasper, crystal indicates the existence of long -distance trade. P.G.W.
ceramics with pa intings are common. On some sherds stamped decoration
was also noticed. A low bund or dump like structure along with moat is
noteworthy. Post holes and circular wattle and daub structure give us an
idea about their houses.
Numerous floors and a few undergr ound storage pits are important
structure that was found. Circular and oval furnaces with iron objects,
slag, bin shaped ingots and a chunk of magnetite ore shows the local
manufacturing facilities. Copper metallurgy and gold smelting were well
developed. Bone objects making industry was quite proliferated one along
with ivory working. Terracotta human, animal, birds’ figurines and other
objects are commonly found in the PGW levels.
b) Ahichchhatra
The site of Ahichchhatra is located in the Bareilly district o f Uttar
Pradesh. It is first reported site which yielded Painted Grey Ware. It was
excavated by Archaeological Survey of India from 1940 -44 by Ghosh and
Panigrahi. The lowest level here has yielded the sherds of Painted Grey munotes.in

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76 Ware. This period was then date d to pre -300 BCE. The site was again
taken up for excavations in 1964 -65 under the direction of N.R. Banerjee
and four -fold cultural sequences were encountered.
Period -II has a deposit of about one meter and belongs to Painted Grey
Ware culture. People in this period lived in huts and mud -brick houses. A
broken brunt brick is also reported in this phase. The Painted Grey Ware is
accompanied by plain red ware of coarse fabric. Some of the PGW were
found over -heated resulting in brownish red colour which the excavator
included in a separate category. Different shapes and forms of PGW were
found in this category. Polished grinding objects fixed in a mosaic pattern
are the interesting finds of this period. Terracotta animal figurines, spindle
whorls, beads etc. are other important finds. Copper and iron objects point
to the metallurgical technology of the people who were mostly agro -
pastoral.
c) Atranjikhera
This site is situated on the right bank of Kali river in Etah district of Uttar
Pradesh and. It was excavated by R.C. Gaur. This is the most important
PGW site in India. Period -II belongs to PGW whose deposit is up to 2.20
m. Earlier the excavator had divided the deposits into two phases but in
the final report two sub phases of PGW and one phase of Late PGW were
added. Some sherds of PGW show fabric impression. A good number of
iron objects like shaft, axes, clamps, hooks, borers, chisels, knives,
needles, bangles and a pir of domestic tongs were found in this period.
Use of copper is found in the form of toiletr ies, ornaments and fish -hook
etc. Houses were made of mud and reed, post holes indicate the presence
of huts, whose floors were made of yellowish rammed earth. Terracotta
beads, toys, discs, along with handmade human figurines were found.
Remains of a mud bund were also encountered. Unfortunately, this could
not stop flood from washing way the final deposits of this period.
Agriculture, cattle rearing, fishing and hunting was the bases of economy
here.
d) Dadupur
The site is located at further east of the vill age across Nagwa nullah. U.P.
State Archaeology Department, under the direction of Rakesh Tiwari
excavated the site. Period -II belongs to the PGW culture and the average
deposit is 35 cm. Common shapes of PGW with painted motifs is the hall
mark of this pe riod which has other associated wares like Grey Ware,
Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware and Red Ware were found.
Three successive floor levels were encountered, which were made of mud
rammed, mixed with pot sherds. Brunt clay lumps with reed impressio n
indicate that wattle and daub houses were made. Bone artifacts, terracotta
hop scotches, bead along with iron objects were found. A bone tool
making workshop was also found at the site from where finished and
unfinished produced were found. Period -III is marked by the presence of
NBP ware and associated wares, a few sherds of PGW continued in this
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77 e) Hastinapur
This famous site is located about 96 km. north -east of Delhi in Mawana
Tehsil of Meerut district. This is a signature site of PGW culture whi ch
was excavated by B.B. Lal (1955). Here five occupational deposits were
excavated with a definite gap between each.
There was a gap between periods I & II. The PGW is the main ware of the
period -II which is of fine fabric and most of the pots were wheel made,
though handmade specimens were also encountered. Common shapes are
bowls and dishes, painted with black, chocolate and reddish -brown
pigment. Mud wall or mud brick houses were made. Use of copper and
iron was attested by the presence of various objec ts. Chert and jasper were
also used for making beads. Terracotta objects in the form of animal
figurines, discs, stamps, pendent, beads; glass objects mainly bead; bone
objects like beads, points etc. were main antiquities of this period. A huge
flood dest royed the settlement of PGW and in the next period, people
using NBPW inhabited this site. There is hiatus between this period and
next period which belonged to 3rd century AD.
f) Jakhera
This site is located in Etah district of Uttar Pradesh on the left bank of Kali
nadi to the north -west of Kasganj tehsil. This site is spread over an area of
about 25 hectare and was excavated by MDN Sahi of Aligarh Muslim
University in 1988 -89. Four periods were unearthed here.
The period IIIA is named as proto PGW. In this period BRW, BSW and
Red slipped ware having painted designs were introduced. The slipped red
ware’s colour ranges from deep brown thorough red to orange. This
pottery was labelled as Proto PGW. The colour of this pottery is due to
careless firing as a res ult of which sherds intend to be of grey colour were
reduced red due to reducing heat technique.
Period -IIIB is labeled as mature PGW and has deposits varying from 50
cm to 2 m. This period is characterized by the continuation of BRW, BSW
and red ware alon g with PGW and grey ware. Paintings are found on the
sherd and few sherds were found decorated with stamped design.
g) Mathura
The ancient mounds at Mathura were subjected to excavations in number
of seasons starting from 1954 -55 and again from 1972 -76. The e xcavation
at AmbarishTila during 1975 -76 yielded a few PGW sherds in the small
area of the huge mound in the northern side. Phase 1A has a few sherds of
PGW but bulk of pottery is BSW, GW, B&RW and Red Ware. Out of
painted designs, special mention may be m ade about a ladder design.
Common PGW antiquities were found here.
h) Sankisa
The site is located in the Farrukhabad district of U.P. The excavations
were conducted under the direction of B.R. Mani in 1995 -96 and a munotes.in

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78 fourfold cultural sequence was encountered h ere. The layers of period -I
have yielded PGW and associated ceramics. Red ware is both handmade
and wheel made having coarse to fine fabric. Clay lumps with reed marks
give us an idea about their houses. Common PGW, shapes and painted
designs were found al ong with some course Black & Red ware sherds. A
large number of terracotta discs with a variety of decorations and other
antiquities were found in this period along with a few semi -precious stone
and two bone objects.
i) Sonkh
The site is located in the Mathu ra district of U.P and it was excavated by
Hartel (1993). It measures 320x280 m. and had 17.20 m. thick deposit.
The lowest deposit here belongs to the PGW using people who lived in
thatched huts resting on post holes. Other wares of this period include
BRW, Red Ware and Grey Ware. Artifacts like Iron objects, terracotta
figurines, discs, balls, bangles etc. were found. Besides, beads of
carnelian, agate and copper are the other antiquities were also found in this
phase.
6.1.4 TECHNOLOGY
The PGW is very fi ne, smooth and has a thin fabric. Scholars like Lal and
Dhavlikar believed that it is due to the excellent quality of clay which is
available in the Ganga Valley. Sana Ullah opines that the color was due to
the presence of black ferrous oxide produced by the controlled firing
technique. According to Tripathi, a uniform high temperature must have
been maintained in the kiln. Although no kiln has been found at PGW
sites, it seems that PGW was fired not in an open kiln but in the closed
ones, in which a high temperature could be attained (Uesugi 2018). Few
wares found at the site of Ahichchhtra were partly reddish, and partly
bluish or bluish grey in color. The reason behind this coloration might be
due to the peculiar conditions of firing in the kiln attribut ed to the
presence of oxygen. The pots were wheel made and once they were hard,
they were turned on the wheel again for send time. Though majority of
PGW pots have been wheel made, handmade potteries were also found at
some sites. Outside the Gangetic plai ns, especially from Rajasthan
medium grained PGW sherds are reported (Ahmed 2015). To give a
smooth and matt finish, some smoothening agent was applied.
As mentioned earlier Bowl, dishes, dish on stand, cup, basins, lotas are
commonly found. Bowls and dis hes have straight, convex, carinated,
corrugated sides with outgoing tappers. Dish on stand have corrugated
sides. Basins are extremely thicker with grooved rim. Lotas are very rare
might be used for drinking and washing, reported from Ropar. The
paintings executed on the surface include geometric as well as naturalistic
designs. Designs like sun and floral patterns are very uncommon.
Interestingly, some sites in Rajasthan have yielded stamped or incised
designs on the pottery. Paintings are thick in execut ion and do not seemed
to have been painted with a fine brush. Since very small percentage of
total pottery assemblage is found at a given site (3 -10%), scholars have munotes.in

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79 assigned PGW to a deluxe table ware, used by the rich people. (Dhavlikar
1999; Singh 2009) .

Examples of PGW
(Credit: Uesugi 2018) munotes.in

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80

(Credit: Ahmed 2015)
Check your Progress
Q. 1 Give an outline of Painted Grey -Ware Culture of India with special
reference to the excavated sites.
6.3 NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE CULTURE
The Painted Grey Ware Culture was succeeded by the NBPW culture. As
the name suggests this pottery has lustrous black polish and it is found
mostly in northern India. Its fineness is sometimes as thin as 1.5 mm. The
ware is also well levigated; wheel made and well fired. Apart from black,
it is also found in other shades and colours. The popular shapes in which it
is found are bowls with straight, convex, tapering and corrugated sides;
dishes with incurved rims and convex sides, straight sides, knobbed lids,
carinated handis an d miniature vases. The NBPW was first discovered at
the sites of Sarnath, Bhita and Bhir in Varanasi, Allahabad and Taxila
respectively. Marshall believed it to be a variety of Greek Black Ware
which is a deluxe ceramic of 4th- 3rd century BCE. However, he had
doubts whether it was locally made or imported from somewhere (Ghosh
1989). munotes.in

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81 Interestingly, the introduction of NBPW marks the beginning of Second
Urbanization in the Ganga plain and coincides with other factors like
Buddhist archaeology, introduction of coinage and art of writing in the
middle Ganga plain. It not only marks a new era in the field of ceramic
industry but also in respect of ancient political, socio -economic and
cultural history of India.

Credit: Ahmed 2015
6.3.1 Chronology
The chronol ogy of NBPW is also controversial like that of PGW. Marshall
found it in pre - Greek levels at Taxila i.e. pre -300 BCE and therefore
provided 500 - 200 BCE as the time bracket. The work on chronology was
done by Wheeler and Krishnadeva. They proposed the tim e bracket of 5th
BCE to early 2nd BCE because at Taxila, the NBPW was mainly pre -
Greek. At Hastinapur, there was a break inoccupation between the PGW
period & the NBPW period and since Lal placed the former in 1100 - 800
BCE, he assigned the NBPW period to 600- 200 BCE. On the basis of
evidence from Ayodhya and Sringaverapur, he stretched back its antiquity
to the 7th Century BCE.
On the basis of Carbon dating, a bracket of c.550 to 50 BCE has been
proposed by Agarwal (Ghosh 1989). The pottery is not homo genous when
it comes to the distribution. Two phases have been identified on the basis
of stratigraphical evidence and fabric. The earlier phase has been
identified at Shravasti and the other is represented by the sites like munotes.in

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82 Vaishali and Rajgir (Bihar) whe re the beginning is placed at 7th Century
BCE. K.K. Sinha thinks that Hastinapur and and Ropar belongs to the later
phase. T.N Roy has divided the NBPW period into two phases of which
the earlier ones are represented by the sites in UP or middle Ganga basi n.
It should be understood that the ceramic is bound to undergo changes in
six or seven centuries over a vast area. The pottery is divided into 3 phases
(Dhavlikar 1999):
I) 7th- 6th Century BCE - Beginnings in Kausambi - Patna region
II) 5th- 2nd Century BC E- Emergence of Magadhan Empire where the
pottery reaches up to the Gandhara region in the west, Tamluk in the
east and also towards South. However, when the mass production for
the purpose of export starts during the Mauryan period, the quality of
the fab ric deteriorates.
III) 2nd- 1st Century BCE - With the downfall of Mauryan Empire, the
NBPW too waned out which represents its last phase.
6.3.2 Distribution
The NBPW has a wide distribution in India. The ceramic is not only
limited to North India but hav e been found at various sites in southern,
western and eastern parts of India as well as beyond the present political
boundaries of India like Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Sri
Lanka etc. There are almost 1,500 sites where this ceramic has been found
ranging from Taxila and Charsada in the north - west to Amravati in AP in
the south; and from Prabhas Patan in Gujarat to Tamluk in Bengal. The
main excavated sets are Rupar (Punjab); Raja Karna ka Qila and
Daulatpur (Haryana); Bairat, Noh and Jodhpu ra (Rajasthan); Hastinapur,
Atranjikhera, Shravasti and Kausambi (UP); Vaishali, Patna and Sonepur
(Bihar) (Singh 2009). Though middle Ganga plain has been accepted as
the place of NBPW yet there have been contradictory claims, regarding
the epicenter of the ware. While scholars like B.P. Sinha and Sahay are of
the view that the epicenter of the ware would have been around Pataliputra
(Patna) and, on the other hand, scholars like G.R. Sharma proposed
Kausambi as epicenter. Even though early dates of NBPW c ome from
Bihar but on the basis of distribution Uttar Pradesh surpasses Bihar. The
wide distribution of this ceramic is attributed to the spread of Mauryan
imperialism, Buddhism or iron technology through trade routes (Ghosh
1989 & Kanungo et al 2021).
The NBPW phase is preceded by the PGW, sometimes with an overlap at
sites like Punjab, Harayana, Rajasthan and Western UP whereas when it
comes to the eastern UP and Bihar, Black and Red Ware (BRW) precedes
this phase (Singh 2009).
Some of the important site s are as follows (Ahmad 2015):
a) Bhita
It is located in the Allahabad district. The NBPW was discovered and
reported from the excavation at this site by John Marshall in 1909 -10 and
1910 -11. The deposits of the site are divided into five periods ranging munotes.in

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83 from pre-Mauryan to Gupta times. Besides the NBPW, punch -marked
coins, un -inscribed cast coins, tribal and Kushan coins and several sealings
of Kushan and Gupta Periods were reported also. Two phases of NBPW
are found. These are pre -structural ones (Early NBP) and the structural
ones (Late NBPW).
b) Kausambi
The site is located near Allahabad. According to the Puranas, when
Hastinapura was swept away by floods at the time of Nichakshu, the
capital of the Pandavas was shifted to the site of Kausambi. The ruins
were identified for the first time by Cunningham. Period II yielded huge
number of NBPW shreds and several floor levels. The excavation from
1951 -56 led to the discovery of Ghoshitarama monastery besides other
objects. In the courtyards, a number of small stup as and a small shrine of
Hariti were also found. The monastery marked the place where Buddha
preached his Sermons which was described in detail by Hiuen -tsang.
The third cultural period ( circa 605-45 BCE) identified on the basis of
pottery is marked by the appearance of NBPW, PGW and Black and Red
ware. The inscribed cast coins of Mitra Kings, lanky bull type and silver
and punched marked coins along with terracotta figurines were also found
in the period.
According to Sharma, Kausambi II belongs to a late phase of PGW phase
and the view of the gap between the end of the PGW and the beginning of
NBPW is no longer tenable. Here also, below NBPW (period III) there is a
deposit of Black and Red ware (period II). And above NBPW is a post -
NBPW deposit (Period IV) . It is not possible here to demarcate the early
and late phases of NBPW in Period III.
c) Patna
The site was first studied by P.C. Mukherjee in 1897 -98 who reported
several punch -marked coins and a coin of Chandragupta II in his
exploratory diggings at Lahan ipur besides other antiquities. D.B. Spooner
conducted archaeological excavations at Bulandibagh and Kumrahar in
1912 -13. At Bulandibagh, he traced the wooden beams and reported about
two hundred uninscribed cast coins, two terracotta human figurines and a
chariot wheel with iron round the hub. At Kumrahar, he brought to light
Mauryan pillared -hall and several other antiquities like a polished stone
pillar, punch -marked, Kushan and Gupta coins and terracotta Figurines.
Thus, the antiquity of the site from M aurya to Gupta periods was more or
less established by his work.
Under the direction of A.S. Altekar and V.K. Mishra, the site was
excavated again from 1951 to 1955. The occupation was divided into six
periods, the first five, corresponding roughly to the Mauryan, Sunga,
Kushan, Gupta, late Gupta times and the sixth once again cropped in 17the
century CE after a gap. Period I & II recovered the NBPW sherds, dated
prior to circa 150 BCE and circa 150 BCE to 100 CE respectively. Only munotes.in

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84 one shred of NBPW was, ho wever, also reported from Period III which
was dated from circa 100 CE to 300 CE.
The site was excavated again in 1955 -56. This time a sequence of five
periods, the earlier four were continuous in occupation from circa 600
BCE to 600 CE and the fifth begi nning from 1600 CE was established.
NBPW which was the distinctive pottery in Period I (From circa 600 B.
CE to 150 BCE) degenerated in fabric and diminished in quantity in
Period II (from circa 150 BCE to 100 CE) and finally went out of use in
Period III (from circa 100-300 CE).
On the basis of excavation report in 1970, there are two phases of NBPW
at the site. Period I, represents the early or pre -structural phase while
Period II is marked by the presence of late NBPW complex. In this phase,
NBPW occurs in small quantity, sometimes stamped with symbols like
hollow cross and crescent hill, sometimes also riveted with copper and
lastly interlocked with coarse grey ware. Structures also start occurring in
this phase. Period III is post -NBPW when the NBPW wen t out of use.
d) Ahichchhatra
Ahichchhatra which is identified by Alexander Cunningham as
Ahichchhatra of ancient literature is located in Bareilly district. This site
was first excavated by him and then by K.N. Dikshit and others in 1940 -
44. They identified nine periods of occupation called 'strata' starting from
pre Mauryan period (pre -300 BCE) up to 1100 CE. Besides other things
the excavation also revealed number of coins which includes caste coins
from the earliest strata followed by Panchala coins (1st C entury BCE),
Kushana coins, coins of Acyu, who is identified with Acyuta, the king
who was defeated and the territory annexed by Samudragupta etc.
Ahichchhatra was excavated again by N.R. Banerjee in 1963 -64 and 1964 -
65 which brought to light four cultura l periods named as Period I to IV
starting from OCP. PGW followed by NBPW up to Kushana - Gupta
period. The deposits of Period III were characterized by burnt clay and
brick -bats, rammed into compact mass was represented by NBPW, thick
Grey Ware, carinated handis and pear -shaped vases in Red ware. The use
of burnt bricks along with mud -floors having evidence of multiple ovens,
indicated structural remains. The other antiquities included animal and
human terracotta, beads of carnelian and terracotta, pestles and querns,
iron objects, and copper rings, nails and pins. These are all indicate
towards the late phase of NBPW.
This period at Ahichchhatra is comparable with Sravasti II, Hastinapur III
and Prahladpur IC.
e) Atranjikhera
It is situated on the right bank of the Kali -Nadi in Etah district. This site
was excavated by R.C. Gaur in 1960 - 61for the first time. After this, it was
taken up for wide excavation in sessions 1962 -63, 1963 -64, 1965 -66,
1966 -67, 1967 -68 and 1968 -69. munotes.in

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85 The excavation revealed seven occu pational deposits. Period IV, which
represents an overlap of the PGW and NBPW, has been also divided into
two phases, pre -structural and structural. The ceramic of this period was
similar to that of NBPW levels of Hastinapur (Period III). But in the
earlie r phase no definite house -plans could be noticed except the remains
of burnt mud clods with bamboo and reed impression. In the late phase,
however, mud brick as well as burnt brick structures were reported. The
pre-structural NBPW Phase in which the entire cultural pattern of the
preceding period continued was ended by a flood. After this the site was
fully urbanized perhaps also fortified and showed intense structural
activities in form of brick floors, houses and ring wells. The Characteristic
shapes like carinated handis , pear -shaped vases were absent from this pre -
structural phase.
f) Hastinapur
This site is known in literature as the capital of the Kauravas from the
Mahabharata. It is located in Meerut district of U.P as small streamlet
Burhi Ganga a tribu tary of Ganga flows near the mound. Lal had
excavated the site (1954 -55) in which five occupational levels were
encountered with a break between each have been recognized. Period III
represents NBPW, the people were more sophisticated than their
predecesso rs as they used burnt -brick structures, terracotta ring wells and
brick drains. Iron was regularly used and money also came into circulation
in form of punch -marked and un -inscribed cast coins. Other finds of the
period dated from early sixth to early thir d century B.C. were terracotta
figurines of animal like elephants, horse and human figurines with
elaborate head dress and ornaments. Beads, glass bangles and rings made
of copper, chalcedony and horn were the other collections.
g) Tamluk
The site is situate d in Purba Medinipur district in West Bengal. According
to scholars, present day Tamluk is the site of the ancient city known as
Tamralipta or Tamralipti. It was excavated in 1954 -55 by M.N.
Deshpande. Period II was represented by the use of Northern Black
Polished Ware. In Period III, Rouletted Ware, sprinkler type vessels, ring
wells and a brick built stepped tank were noteworthy. It is observed Period
II and Period III represent the late phase of NBPW.
h) Ujjain
It is located in Malwa region on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River, a
tributary the Chambal. Its importance as a Northern Black Polished Ware
bearing site was only felt when Y.D. Sharma gave a short description of
the site in 1953. The site was excavated by N.R. Banerjee from 1955 -56 to
1957 -58 a nd then by K.M. Srivastava in 1964 -65 primarily to collect
carbon -14 material for dating. The archaeological deposit is divided into
four cultural periods. In Period II (from circa 500 to 200 B.C.), besides
earlier potteries, Northern Black Polished ware w as introduced in huge
quantity. Structures of both mud -brick and kiln burnt brick made their munotes.in

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86 appearance. Brick -built tank, a canal and a mud -built tile -roofed workshop
were the other important findings.
i) Sugh
The site is positioned about 5 km east of Jagadh ari in Ambala district.
Under the supervision of Chhabra and Suraj Bhan of the University of
Punjab, this site was excavated in 1963 -64 and again in 1965 -66.
The excavation revealed two cultural periods. Period I, was divisible into
two sub -periods. Sub -period IA (circa 600 -500 B.C) was characterized by
the occurrence of Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polished ware.
In Sub -period IB ( circa 500-100 B.C.), all the ceramic of preceding phase
continued except PGW. Human and animal terracotta figurines, b one
points, punch - marked and Indo –Greek coins in silver, copper inscribed
and un -inscribed cast coins, soapstone casket beads of semi -precious
stones and iron and copper objects have been reported also from this
period. Brick -built houses, terracotta drai n pipes and ring wells were the
ruins of structural activity.
j) Nashik
This site is situated on the southern bank of river Godavari in
Maharashtra. The site was traced by Pt. Bhagwanlal Indraji and Henry
Cousens of the Archaeological Survey of India in 190 7. In 1948, the site
was explored by H.D. Sankalia and M.N. Deshpande where some sherds
of the NBPW were recovered.
The excavation was taken up by H.D. Sankalia in 1950 and total human
occupation of about 7.5 m was revealed. It was divided into four periods
from Chalcolithic or Early Bronze Age to Maratha times. After Period I
the site remained deserted. It was re -occupied in a about 400 B.C. with the
advent of Northern Black Polished ware for the first time. The early
historical period, called Period II, wa s divided into two phases, A and B,
dated to 400 -200 B.C and 200 B.C. – 50 A.D. respectively. The common
pottery was Northern Black Polished ware, Black -and-Red ware and
coarse Red ware. Iron implements, beads of semi -precious stones, bangles
of shell and uninscribed cast copper coins in the late levels of this period
were the other finds. The mud -walled houses, large storage -jars and
soakage pits lined with rings (ring wells) and bricks constituted the
dwellings of the people. It is observed that Period II is related to the Late
Phase of NBPW.
k) Jodhpura
It is located near Jaipur. The excavation work (IAR 1972 -73: 29 -30) was
directed by Vijay Kumar (1976) under the Supervision of R.C. Agrawal in
the session 1972 -73. The ancient mound of Jodhpura was situated on the
right bank of the river Sabi, forms a part of Ancient Mastsya -desa. The
total deposit was divided into five periods. Period IV is marked by the
occurrence of the Northern Black Polished ware and slipped red ware.
Important finds of this period inclu de iron arrow -head and nails, shell
bangles, terracotta humped bull and a stone bead. It must be said that the munotes.in

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Historical Periods
87 early phase of Northern Black Polished ware related with period III i.e.
with the late phase of the P.G.W. and the late phase of Northern Black
Polished ware by period IV.
l) Noh
The site is located near Bharatpur district. It was reported by B.B. Lal as a
site containing both Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polished
ware. The Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of
Rajasthan, under R.C. Agrawal and Vijay Kumar, excavated the site in
1963 -64. The excavations yielded deposits of five cultural periods. Period
III contained satisfactory quantity of Painted Grey Ware and Northern
Black Polished ware from the related layers. Other major fi nds included
terracotta discs (incised and scalloped), bone points, several objects of
iron, charred rice. In Period IV, Terracotta human and animal figurines,
un-inscribed cast coins, floors, hearths and a seal reported. The Middle
phase is enclosed by pe riod III having both Painted Grey Ware and
Northern Black Polished ware. The late phase is covered by period IV in
which NBPW and other assemblage of the Late phase of NBPW are
reported.
m) Sisupalgarh
This site is located near Puri district of Odisha. An exc avation was
conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India under B.B. Lal in 194 7.
In order to find out the facts of the fort and its gateway and other
important findings, the excavations at the site was again resumed in 1970 -
71 by the Government of Odish a. The total occupation deposit was
divided into three periods. Period II B yielded three sherds of NBP. A
silver punch -marked coin, a copper coin of Huvishka, clay bullae imitating
Roman coins were the additional finds.
In Period III ( circa A.D. 200 -350), a gold coin, copied from the coinage of
the Kushan King Vasudeva, some Puri -Kushan coins and houses of bricks
or of cut laterite slabs with streets were the additional findings. The
excavation also revealed the existence of a rampart of heaped earth built
round about 200 B.C, during the first constructural phase. In the second
phase, a thick layer of laterite was laid on the earlier earth work. In the
third phase, two brick walls with mud filling between were added along
with a revetment with stepped exter ior. It was observed that the defense
wall with two structural phases has been reported in the excavation of
1970 -71. It is said on the basis of above facts that this site is significant
parallelism from the sites of the late phase of NBPW culture.
n) Amravat i
This site is located in Guntoor district of Andhra Pradesh. Under the
direction of Krishna Murthy and L.K. Sharma of Archaeological Survey of
India, this site was excavated in the sessions of 1958 -59 and 1973 -74. It
revealed five cultural periods. Period I (circa 4th – 3rd Century B.C.) has
divided into two sub -phases. Sub -period IA is characterized by the
occurrence of Black -and-Red ware and Nothern Black Polished ware, munotes.in

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88 sometimes in association with Iron. Among the noteworthy antiquities of
the site were remains of hut and two inscribed potsherds in early Brahmi
Characters. Sub period I -B is also connected with a large quantity of
Nothern Black Polished ware. Period II (2nd - 1st Century B.C.) is marked
by the continuation of the Northern Black Polished w are and punch
marked coins. No other site in peninsular India has yielded so much of
Northern Black Polished ware (NBPW). Period I and II belonged to late
phase of Northern Black Polished ware.
6.3.3. Technology
Scholars believe that the Northern Black Po lished Ware was fast wheel
made and fired in the sagger -kiln at high to very high temperatures and
cooled in reducing atmosphere. The technology behind the highly polished
and mirror like surface of NBPW has not been fully understood yet. One
theory is tha t some ferruginous compound was applied on the surface of
the pots before firing and its black color was due to firing the pots in
reduction condition. According to B.B. Lal, the lusture was achieved by
applying some agent such as oil or plant juice after the pots was fired
while still hot. Besides, other theory suggests that magnetic iron oxide
gave the pottery its black glassy look, while the shine was due to
application of liquid clay, containing hematite, along with natural alkaline
substance before fir ing the pot under reducing conditions. This ceramic is
usually unpainted but there are some instances of designs consisting of
bands, wavy lines, concentric and intersecting circles, semi - circles, etc.
which are painted in yellow and light vermillion (Dha vlikar 1999, Singh
2009 & Ahmed 2015)
NBPW was highly valued; perhaps it was limited for elite usage which is
indicated through the limited assemblage. Some interested finds are some
specimens where fragments have been repaired with copper rivets, fillets ,
or pins. Ropar in Punjab, Bairat in Uttar Pradesh, and Sonepur, Juafardif,
and Kumrahar in Bihar are some of the sites where such repaired NBPW
are found. This suggests that NBPW vessels with minor breakage were not
usually thrown away after they had bee n damaged but were used after
repairing (Kanungo et al 2021).
6.4 CONCLUSION
The painted grey Ware culture clearly, identifiable with the later Vedic
Aryans. The painted Grey ware people was much oriented about the iron
technology. Through the excavation o f the various sites it is observed that
they are the first to have brought about a revolution in the settlement
pattern in the Ganges -Jamuna basin -the Madhyadesa of old. Further, it is
the painted grey ware period that brought northern India to the thresho ld
of what is known as the second urbanization.
Therefore, through the excavations of early historic sites the clear picture
of the knowledge of technology was existed among the people who were
settled in the various places of early Indian culture. munotes.in

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Historical Periods
89

Credi t: Ahmed 2015
Check Your Progress
Q. 1. Why is NBPW also linked with Second Urbanization?
Q. 2. Write the important sites in the north India where NBPW are found?
6.5 QUESTIONS
1. To highlight on the various sites of painte d Grey ware sites in early
India?
2. Evaluate the important features of the Megalithic sites in Early India?
3. Write a detailed note on the North Black polished Ware sites.

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90 6.6 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING
Ahmed J. 2015. Technology and Culture Change (Northern Black
Polished Ware Culture in the Middle Ganga Plain), International E –
Publication www.isca.me, www.isca.co.in
Dhavalikar M.K. 1999. Historical Archaeology of India , Books & Books,
New Delhi.
Ghosh A. 1989. An Encyclopaedia of Indian Achaeolog y1,
MunshiramManoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Kanungo A, Kulkarni C, Ingle V & Roy O. 2021. Northern Black Polished
Ware in Indian Archaeology: A Study of Spatial and Chronological
Distribution in C. Smith (ed.), Encyclopedia of Global Archaeolo gy:
1- 19.
Singh U. 2009. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (From
Stone Age to the 12th Century) , Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd. India.
Singh A. 2014. A Study of Cultural Emergence from O.C.P. to N.B.P.W. in
the Upper Ganga Val ley, unpublished PhD thesis submitted to the Deccan
College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune.
Gogoi, S. 2019. Megalithic Traditions in Arunachal Pradesh , unpublished
PhD thesis submitted to the Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar.
Mohanty, R.K and Thakuria T. 2014, Early Iron Age Megalithic culture of
peninsular and South India, In History of Ancient India: Vol -III: The
Texts, Political History and Administration Till C. 200 B.C . (Eds: D. K.
Chankarbartiand Makkhan Lal), pp.343 -378, AryanPublisher a nd
Vivekananda Centre, New Delhi.
Mohanty R.K, Vaidya S, Kharakwal J.S, Sontakke V &Thakuria T. 2017.
The Early Iron Age Megalithic Culture of Vidharbha in Broader
Perspective: A Pragmatic Observation, in ShodhPatrika Year 68: 21 -25,
Rajasthan University, Udaipur.
Murali M. 1993. The Megalithic Culture of Andhra Pradesh A Study (With
Special Reference To Anantapur District) , unpublished PhD thesis
submitted to the Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur.
Reddy, V. 1991. Neolithic and Post Neolithic Culture s; New Delhi: Mittal
Publication.
Vahia M.N, Menon S.M, Abbas R & Yadav N. 2010. Megaliths in
Ancient India and Their Possible Association to Astronomy, in Inaugural
Review Talk presented at the 7th International Conference on Oriental
Astronomy , Japan.
https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6529/
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91 7
EPIGRAPHY
Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 History of Indian Epigraphy
7.4 Beginning of Epigraphical Studies in India
7.6 Contribution of Epigraphy to Indian History
7.6.1 Importance for the study of Political history:
7.6.2 Importance for the Study of Social Conditions:
7.6.3 Importance for the Study of Economic Conditions:
7.6.4 Importance for the Study of Religious Life:
7.6.5 Importance of inscriptions in the Cultural Life:
7.3 Types and Features of Inscriptions
7.4 Summery
7.5 Questions
7.6 Additional Reading
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit the students will be able to:
1. Understand the history of Indian Epigraphy.
2. Know the contribution of Epigraphy to Indian History.
3. Highl ight on the study of socio -cultural and economic life of the people.
7.1 INTR ODUCT ION
An inscription m eans an old engraved record. It is also k nown as
epigraph and therefore, the study of inscriptions is known as epigraphy. In
other words “epigraphy is the study of inscriptions and inscriptions
literally means any writing engraved on some object.”
Inscriptions are of immense value for the reconstruction of ancient Indian
history for they provide authentic evidence based on actual finds of
contemporary periods. They provide the information regarding
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92 and therefore, they are of utmost importance for the study of ancient
Indian history and culture.
The objectives which were used for engraving inscriptions in India were
of various types such as lithic, metallic, earthen or woode n objects,
pottery, bricks, shells, Ivory plaques and other objects. The term
inscription also includes in it – the writing in relief such as the legends on
coins and seals which are usually produced out of moulds or dyes. Even
the records painted on the walls or wri tten in ink or on wooden tablets are
regarded as inscriptions, although here the letter are not actually engraved,
but painted.
8.2 HISTORY OF INDIAN EPIG RAPHY
The earliest records in writing are attributed to the Indus – valley peop le.
They certainly knew the art of writing as is seen from their seals and
pottery. However, this script is still unde ciphered. Many scholars and
historians are making serious efforts to decipher the Indus script. If
deciphered successfully, the beginning of Indian epigraphy will be pushed
back by about three thousand years.
There are ample references to the art of writing and writing material in
the ancient Indian literature. However, the earliest wri tten records,
engraved on stones are Ashokan inscriptions. These were engraved in
about 3rd century B.C. They contain the words like Lipi, Libi, Dipi all
mentioning scri pt. At least two types of scri pts i.e. Brahmi and Kharosthi
were prevalent in the time of Ashoka as is evident by his inscriptions in
both the scripts.
However some scholars do not agree to this view of Ashokan inscriptions
being the earliest epigraphic records. According to them Soha gaura and
Ghosundi inscriptions are prior to those of Ashokan inscriptions.
According to them, the letters of these inscriptions certainly belong to
pre Ashokan era.
As a matter of fact, it is only during the reign of Ashoka, that we get a
clear evidence of engraved records incised on imperishable rock or stone
surface in either Brahmi or Kharosthi scri pts and this system of engraving
the inscriptions on rocks or stone material was probably unknown prior to
the times of Ashoka.
7.3 CONTR IBUT ION OF EPIG RAPHY TO INDIAN
HISTORY
The historical research of ancient Indian history is primarily based only
on the literary sources. But unfortunately the Brahmi scri pt in which
most of the ancient epigraphs were written, remained undeciphered till
the nineteenth century. However, it was successfully deciphered by James
Princep in 1836 . This year witnessed the beginning of the Study of
Indian epigraphy and numismatics in India. It was during this year that
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93 The successful reading of the Brahmi script accelerated the reconstruction
of Indian history while bringing many historical facts into light. It goes
without saying that for the reconstruction of the history of ancient India,
epigraphic information of immense value. It is the most important source
to understand Indian history and our great culture. By the study of
inscriptions, we can amass a wealth of information about historical
facts. Let us discuss the various inscriptions and their significance
under the following head ings.
7.2.1 Importance for the study of Political history:
Inscriptions are the living testimonies of historical facts in absence of
literary or any other evidence. For example, the Hathigumpha inscription
of king Kharavela. None of the literary sources mention the name and
achievements of king Kharavela. This inscription is the only source
regarding the information of the king Kharavela.
The history of many Indian dynasties can be traced by the epigraphic
evidences as the inscriptions mention their genealogy. For example,
inscriptions of the Satavahans, the Traikutakas, the Abhisaras, The
Shilaharas, the Kalachuries and the Kalatiyas are of immense value as
they provide their genealogical information. The tiles of rulers, their
achievements accomplishments, personality skills etc. are often
described in the inscription especially of the eulogistic type.
The inscriptions provide detailed information about the political
conditions of those times. Inscriptions give the information about the
issuing ruler, his military achievements, inter-state relations political
ideas and institutions and the administrative set up for example,
1) Eulogy of Samudragupta which was composed by his poet
Lauriet Harishena on Allabad pillar inscription describes the early life
of Samudragupta and his selection as a successor to the early life of
Samudragupta and his selection as a successor the throne by his father
Chand ragupta-I. This inscriptions also gives a wonde rful account of
his various military campaigns which provide us information about his
contemporary rulers and their acceptance of his sovereignty.
2) The inscriptions of Ashoka record the names of many
contemporary states such as Kalinga, Andhra, Pulindas, Keralaputras and
Satyaputras. One of the inscriptions of Gautami balasri, who mother of
Gautamiputra Satakami, also mentions many contemporary states in
Deccan such as Asika, Ashmaka, Kukura, Aparanta, Vidarbha, Anupa
and Akaravatias the contemporary state during the satavahan a period.
3) The Poona copper plate inscriptions of Prabhavati Gupt a reveal the
relationship between the Vakatakas and the Guptas. Another
inscription of Kanheri records the donation of the queen of Vaisthiputra
Pulumavi. In this inscription, she is mentioned as the daughter of
Mahakshtrapa Rudradaman of the Karddamaka (the Western
Kshatrapas) dynasty, this makes clear the relationship between these
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94 Inscriptions help us to determine the extent of the territory of a king. For
example, Ashokan inscription found at Muski in South Karnataka prove
the extension of his empire in Southern part up to Karnataka.
The Nasik inscription of Gautami Balasri, mother of Gautamiputra
Satakarni describes him as the destroyer of the Shakas and one how
destroyed the Yavanas and Pahlavas, who uprooted the Ksharata race and
restored the glory of Satavahana race. In this inscription, he is also
described as Lord of many countries including Surashtra (Saurashtra),
Kukura (in Gujarat – Saurashtra region), Anupa (the Mandhar or
Maheshwara region on the Narmada), Aparanta (North Konkan, Akara
(East Malwa) and Avanti (West Malwa), Ashika (District r ound Rishika
Nagara on the river Krishna), Asmaka territory abou t Bodhan, ancient
Paundannya in the Hyderabad state), Mulaka (with Pratishthana i.e.
modern Paithan on the Godavari as Gautamiputra Satakarni seems to have
extende d over the whole land from the Krishna in south of Malwa and
Saurashtra in north and from Berar in east to the Aparanta – the coastal
region in west. The extent of his kingdom is further indicated by the
mention of Mountains such as the Vindhya, the Riks havant, the
Pariyatra, The Sahya (Sahyadri), the Krishagiri (Kanheri), the Macha,
the Sristana, the Malaya, the Mahendra, the Svetagiri and the Chakora.
The inscriptions also throw considerable light on the political ideas and
the administrative set-up of the kings. For example, the inscriptions of
Ashoka contain his instructions to his officers and the subject about his
ideal of religion, morality and relations between the king and his
subject. His edicts highlight his morality and thus help us with a detailed
study of his personality. His edicts also r ecord many grades of his
administrative officers such as the Yuktas, the Rajukas, the Pradeshikas,
the Antamahamatras and the Dharmamahamatras.
Another inscription of Vasisthiputra Pulumavi, son and successor of
Gautamiputra was a Digvijay which is proved by the description that his
horses had drunk the water of the tree oceans and his commands were
obeyed by all Raja-Manda las.
7.2.2 Importance for the Study of Social Cond itions:
The study of inscriptions is of immense value in revealing the Social
conditions of the times. They provide us information about the social
life of the peop le, especially pointing out the caste system, joint
family system, the different clans (Gotra) innumerable existing
communities etc. in one of the inscriptions, Gautamiputra/Sata karni has
condemned the inter caste marriages which shows his faith in the
traditional caste system. This caste system is clearly seen by many other
inscriptions, as they contain the names of the people along with their
castes.
That the joint family system was the Chief featu re of Indian society
during the ancient period is clearly noticed in the inscriptions
found at several places. The best evidence of this fact is found in the
inscriptions at Kanheri showing an ideal picture of the joint family. The munotes.in

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95 words such as daughter, sis ter, wife, son, grandson and grand daughter
which are mentioned in these inscriptions give an idea of the joint
family system and the terms like Gahapati Gharini and Kutumbini
indicate their importance in the joint family organization.
Inscriptions also refer to certain castes such as Brahmins, Kshatriya and
Vaisya. For example, the Satavahanas called themselves Brahmans. In
one of the inscriptions, Gautamiputra Satkarni is described as Ekbhamana
i.e. unique Brahman. Another inscription at Kanheri records the donation
of Gajasen and Gajamit, who were engaged in the mercantile profession
though they were i.e. Khatiyas i.e., the Kshatriyas. The Gotras such as
Gautama, Vasistha also are mentioned in the inscriptions of the
Satavahanas. Inscription mentions many mercantile communities, foreign
communities and different families too. This information is referred in
the inscriptions in relation to donations and thus indicates a well-knit
society.
As regards the status of women, inscriptions give clear information.
Although the joint family system was mainly in the patriarchal form, the
status of women was not one of being a subordinate. Several
inscriptions found at different places referring to gifts made by the
persons in common with their parents, wives, brothers, sisters, daughters,
grandsons and grand daughters prove this especially the words referred in
the inscriptions such as Gharini & Kutumbini indicate their importance in
the family organization.
For example, Ind. No. 43 in cave no. 75 at Kanheri records than
“Lavanika, the wife (Gharini) of upasaka sethi Achala, resident of Kalyan
made a meritorious donation of a cave, cistern and a tank for bath, for the
welfare of all the family members”. Women in many kinship relations are
recorded in the inscriptions. Position of mother in her family appears to be
very high from the Satavahana inscriptions.
There is reason to believe that the women enjoyed a better position in the
society during those days compared to the later days. There were
many women who spent their wealth in charity.
Inscriptions of the age record generous endowments made by ladies.
For example, out of twenty nine inscriptions from Nasik nearly sixteen
inscriptions record gifts by ladies or with the gifts by ladies or with the
giving of which ladies are associated.
The process of assimilation of foreigners through matrimony was a
common feature of the Satavahana period. For example, the Karddamaka
Princess married with the Satavahan a prince as is evident from one of the
inscriptions at Kanheri. Polygamy at least in the upper classes was
fairly common. For example, in an inscription at Kanheri there is a
reference to Step Mother which cl early throws light on the system of
polygamy. This inscription corroborates the information about polygamy
as is clearly seen in the contemporary literary work i.e. Gath a Saptashati
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96 Anuloma system of marriage was prevalent during this period. The
Brahmins and other were allowed to marry girls of their own and those of
lower castes as is evident from the Poona copper plates or Vakataka queen
Prabhavati Gupta which was has contributed fresh history of the
Vakatakas. Prabhavati was the daughter of Chandragupta – II of
Gupt a dynasty who was a Vaishya and was married to king Rudrasena
– II who was a Brahmana.
As regards the careers of women, inscriptions give some information, that
some women were engaged in the regular service. For example, an
inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarni at Nasik mentions door keeper Lota
who took down the order of Gautamiputra Satakarni. Anjaneri copper
plate inscription also prove the fact that women were working during
those times. In this inscription, there is a mention to the women working
as porters.
7.2.3 Importance for the Study of Economic Cond itions:
A large number of inscriptions throwing light on the economic
life of the people have been discovered in almost all parts of India.
Different mercantile professions are recorded in the inscriptions such as
Sethi, Nigama and Vanija Trad and industrial guilds were a common
feature of economic life since very early time references to such
organizations functioning during the ancient period are found in a number
of inscriptions.
There are references to the terms i.e. Akshya- Nivi which means, the
permanent deposits of Karshapana or Drammas handed over to Sangha
for the welfare of fraternity in inscriptions. These terms i.e. karshana and
Dramma clearly indicate how the currency in form of money was in use
during the ancient period.
Mention is often made on some of the inscriptions about the cities and
market towns of economic importance. From inscriptions, information can
be drawn that during ancient times, urban centers were of two types i.e.
Nagar and Nigama. The nagaras were the cities which could either
be capitals or the kingdom or administrative centers of large unit
and the other were the market towns (Nigama). Mercantile interests
dominated the life of these market towns.
For example, several inscriptions at Kanheri, Kuda , Karle, Junnar and
Nasik record the names of the donors from different market towns and
other places. The inscriptions at Junnar and Kanheri throw a welcome
light on the ancient cities i.e. Sopara and Kalyan which were not only the
flourishing port – cities but were the market towns of international repute.
Again the inscriptions indicate that these were the chief ports of the
western coast of India from which many Indian commodities were
exported to the west – i.e. Greece & Rome. This corroborates the
historical fact that these cities flourished in about the beginning of a
Christian era and there was a brisk trade between India and the Western
countries. Again this fact is corroborated by many inscriptions which
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97 7.2.4 Importance for the Study of Religious Life:
For the understanding of the religious life of ancient Indian culture,
inscriptions have proved to be a source of immense value. They are
called the dedicative inscriptions. Their main subject is either with the
construction of temples or with the installation of images. They have
preserved some of the noteworthy aspects of our religion viz., words in
Praise of the daily, names of different sects of a religion, names of the
religious teachers who were well versed in different branches of religious
scriptures.
Another significant source of information is derived from donative
inscriptions in which are recorded endowments made by different classes
of people in the society namely, devotees, trades, housewives, Nigamas
including the royal families.
The endowments were usually given to different religious establishments
for the installation of images or construction of temples in order to
earn Punya (religious merit) for all the members of the family and the
welfare of the society at large. Inscriptions at Kanheri-a Buddhist
establishment e.g. specifically mentions that the merits acquired from
donations were shared by the donors, parents and other relatives.
In some inscriptions the ideas of hell and heaven are also mentioned. For
example one of the Shilahara inscriptions dated 853-54 A.D. says “O
Buddha who is in heaven”. The words clearly s uggests that the idea of
heaven and hell was accepted by the Buddhist community. The concept
of hell is furnished in terms such As “Avichi” “Paritapa”,
“Kumbhipaka” as the places where the person would be reborn if he
would misappropriate the gift.
The inscriptions shed considerable light of the Buddhist monastic
organization and intellectual activities of the fraternity as is evident by
the terms such as Bhikhu and Bhikkhuni, Pavaita and Pavaitika, Yati and
tapasini. The inscriptions describe in detail how the Buddhist Sangha
enjoyed local autonomy as they record many endowments to the sangha
for the distribution of food, clothing, almbowls and sandals. The
inscriptions have recorded various categories of monks of the Sangha
such as U pasak, Pavajita, Samanera, Bhikkhu, Bhadanata, there
Bhadanta, Acharya Bhadanta and Bhadanta Arya Arhata.
Inscriptions dealing with traditional Brahminism record different Vedic
deities which were worshipped by the people such as Indra, Dharma,
Sankarshana (Balarama). The Moon and the Sun, the four guardians of
the quarters viz. Yama, Varuna, Kubera and kumaravara (Kartikeya).
The performance of Vedic sacrifices and the worship of Puranic
Gods prevailed during ancient period. Many sacrifices performed by
rulers are reflected in the inscriptions of the time. The legend on
Ashvamedha types coins of the Gupta rulers prove this fact. Even in the
inscriptions of the Satavahana, the mention is made for Ashvamedha,
Rajasuya, Anvarambhaniya, Saptadstiratra, Bhagaladasaratra, munotes.in

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98 Gargatriratra, Gavamayana Satatiratra, Agnirasatriatrea etc. These
sacrifices were performed by king Satakarni – I, along with his queen
Naganika. From this inscription, we realize that women also actively
participated in religious rituals.
The inscriptions also give information that may Vedic scholars were
invited for the performance of these sacrifices and were offered large
Dakshina and offering Dakshina to a learned Brahmana was a popular
custom.
In the Naneghat inscription of queen Naganika, she is described as to “be
an eminent lady of Naga race, who observes fast of a mouth (at a stretch)
who lives in her home like a recluse, who leads a chaste life, who is adep t
in the performance of vows, initiatory ceremonies and sacrifices,
performed sacrifices with increase regularly w hich makes the idea clear
abou t the individual religious like.
Many inscriptions throw light on Jain religion also. Sometimes, these
inscriptions begin with the words “namo Arhata”
for example, Hathigumpha inscription of king Kharavela. Jain
inscriptions are found in South India also at Shravanbe lgol,
Siyamangalam, Jain pillar inscription at Varuna near Mysore shows the
spread of Jain religion in these regions. These inscriptions throw light
on the Jain religious ideas and the monastic order. For example, the
Varuna inscription refers to the famous Ganga family and introduces
Gangabbe as Jain kanti who hailed from this Ganga family of 10th century
A.D. Gangabbe was a Jain kanti who represents a special class of runs in
the monastic order.
7.2.5 Importance of inscriptions in the Cultural Life:
A great significance is attached to art and architecture in the cultural
history of India. The inscriptions again have been very informative
in narrating details about the architectural terminologies like Lena
(cave), Kodhi (resided room), Kuti (mediation room), Ovaraka (cells),
Patha (steps), Podhi (cistern), Sangharama (monastery), Talaka (tank) and
Vihara. It gives us an idea of the development of rock – cut architecture in
ancient times.
Many private inscriptions are discovered which were engraved by private
individuals. As mentioned earlier, they were mainly in the form of
endowments made by these individuals. They are found mostly on pillars,
walls of the rock-cut caves of western Deccan and on the stupa railings at
Bharhut. Sometimes, they were engraved on the objects such as water
cistern and Benches. Usually these inscriptions give a short account of
the name of the donor, place, to which he belongs and sometimes date on
which it was dona ted. Sometimes, the names of father, husband, Guru are
mentioned.
Apart from this, Yupa Shasanas (inscriptions on sacrificial post),
Pratima-shasana (image inscription), Viragal ( hero stone) and munotes.in

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99 Mahasati (sati stones) are also found. Epitaphs curved on tombs are
also found on a large scale. All these inscriptions belong to the category
of private inscriptions and they help us mainly for the study of cultural
history.
Inscriptions found in many south-east Asian Countries such as Java.
Indonesia c ertainly give evidences of India’s cultural expansion in these
countries.
Inscriptions throw a welcome light on history of languages and
paleography also. That the later Satavahanas preferred Sanskrit to Prakrit,
a language originally used by their predecessors is known from the
inscriptions found here.
Inscriptions not only retain the nature of language but keep record of its
own development, communicate different ideas of history and provide
phenomena of diffusion of culture. For example, the Marathi inscriptions
in the early period are influenced by Sanskrit. These inscriptions record
constructions of temples, Mathas, their repairs, installation of images etc.
Some inscriptions are recorded in more than one language, for example,
the famous “Shravana – Belgola” inscription of Chavudaraja dated Shaka
era 1038 is recorded in three language i.e. Hale Kannada, Tamil and
Marathi. This show the development of the regional languages from
Sanskrit and prakrit. Inscriptions engraved from time to time show us
how the style of writing was changed from time to time.
Along with other branches of knowledge, medical science has also
been traditionally s tudied in India. Those who are intimately
conne cted with the profession of medical treatment are called Vaidayas.
Some epigraphic bearings on them are available from the study of certain
inscriptions. The vaidyas are mentioned in connection with the grant of
“Agrahara” through copper plate grants. We have the epigraphic
reference to a temple hospital from the Syan Prasasti of the Pala king
Nayapala (1027-43 A.D.). This inscription has been found at Syanvillage
near Bolpur in the district of Birbhum, West Bengal.
“Arogya – satamarogya – heton” in the vicinity of a Vishnu temple, the
hospital was built up with a view to removing diseases from the diseased.
The next words in the inscription i.e. “Tatha Vaidya – Vasah rasyantike”
makes it clear that the provision were made for the settlement of vaidya
near the temple – hospital and the existence of a number of a vaidays in
association with the religious institutions. An inscription at Kanheri
also records a person Nanna by name, whose profession was Vaidya.
A short discussion on inscriptions or epigraphic records thus makes it
clear that for these authentic, historical evidences the study of Ancient
Indian History would remain incomplete for want of sufficient information

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100 7.3 TYPES AND FEATURES OF INSCRIPTIONS
Broadly speaking, epigraphic records can be classified into two main
groups.
i) The inscriptions issued by a ruling autho rity or issued on its behalf.
For example, inscription of Ashoka, King Kharavela, Gauamiputra
Satakarni and Pulakeshin – II.
ii) Inscriptions issued by Private i ndividuals or private
organizations. In this category, largest number of inscriptions record the
donations (endowments) made in favour of religious establishments or
installation of images for worship.
The first category can again be divided into four types. a) Royal edict :
e.g. edicts of Ashoka, King Kharavela.
b) Epigraphs regarding endowment grants in favour of learned
Brahmans, religious institutions or deserving individuals. For example,
inscriptions at Kanheri, Kuda etc.
c) Epigraphs commemorating particular achievements of a king in a
eulogistic form known as Prasasti. For example, eulogy of Samudragupta
on Allahabad pillar inscription, Eulogy of king Satakarni in Nasik cave
inscription, eulogy of king Kharavela in H athigumpha inscriptions,
Mandasore inscriptions of King Yashovarman etc.
d) Misc ellaneou s inscriptions : The second category of inscriptions
issued either by private individuals or Private institutions. Inscriptions of
this category are largest in number which record donations made in
favour of religious establishments or installation of images for worship.
The inscriptions were incised on the object which were donated or
installed and were usually small.
In general, when we analyze the inscriptions on the basis of its contents,
we come across many of its types and features as shown below:
Comme rcial Inscriptions: The specimens of this type are found on the
seal of Indus Valley. It is generally assumed that “these seals must
have been used for the stamping of bales of merchandise”. Probably these
inscriptions bear either the issuer’s name or the seal of particular
workshop.
Another example of this category is the Mandasore stone inscription of
the time of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarman. Another example is a clay
seal inscriptions found at Bhokardan (ancient Bhovardhan) in Jalana
district of Maharashtra during the time of excavation, which was a
personal seal of female trader named Indra who was an inhabitant o
Thanenagara i.e. modern Thane near Bombay. On the basis of the
Prakrit language and early Brahmi scripts in which the inscription was
written, it is dated in about 2nd century A.D. Though this inscription
consists only a few words i.e. Thanenagara gota Indra it provides munotes.in

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101 valuable information to our historical knowledge. To quote Dr. H.S.
Thosar in following words:
1) It indicates that the city of Thane existed in the 2nd century A. D.
2) It reveals the commercial contacts between Thane and
Bhokardan (ancient Bhogavardhan ) in those days.
3) It consists the antiquity of Bhogavardhan as a flourishing trade
center during the early centuries of the Christian era.
4) It corroborates the brisk-trade relations between India and the
Roman Empire.
5) It brings to light the active participation of women in commercial
activities in ancient India.
Magical Inscriptions: Magical inscriptions are found on the seals of
Indus valley. They were used as amulets and contained magical formulae
on them. Since they are undeciphered, it is difficult to know their
contents. It has been observed that the magical formulae continued to
be written on metals as well as birch bark (Bhojapatra) and other
materials.
Religious and Didactic Inscriptions: Deal with the religious and moral
matters. For example, the inscriptions of Ashoka are the best specimen of
this type. His edicts relate relate to ethical aspects of Buddhism rather
than its fundamental tenets. It contained his Dhamma or law of piety or
the moral codes like.
a) Samyam or mastery over senses. b) Bhavasudhhi or purity of thought.
c) Kritajnata or gratitude.
d) Dridh – Bhakti or steadfastness of devotion. e) Daya or kindne ss.
f) Dana or charity. g) Sauha or purity.
h) Satya or truthfulness. i) Sushrusha or service
j) Sampriti patti or support k) Apichiti or reverence.
In the second minor rock edict, Ashoka says, “Father and Mother must be
obeyed. Similarly, respect for living creatures must be enforced, truth
must be spoken. These are the virtues of law of piety which must be
practiced. Similarly the teachers m ust be revered by the pupil and
proper courtesy must be shown to relatives.”
Dedicative and Donative Inscriptions: These inscriptions record the
donations or endowments m ade for the religious establishments.
Innumerable dedicative inscriptions, big and small are engraved on the
walls of a temple or religious establishments and the Pilgrim centers such
as the inscriptions found in Buddhist monasteries, at Kanheri, Kuda ,
Karle, Bhaje, Mahad and temples at Bbubaneshwara, Kanchipuram and
Aihole give an account of the endowments. munotes.in

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102 The majority of donations recorded in these epigraphs were made by
pilgrims. Among these pilgrims were the kings, chiefs or the royal
officers’ traders and common people. Many times we see that women also
have made generous endowments to the religious institutions. Buddhist
monks i.e. Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis and the common layman also have
endo wed for the Buddhist establishment such as Kanheri, Junnar, Nasik,
Kuda etc.
As regards the types of endowments usually the endowments in
the monasteries were the utensils, images of worship, cells, benches,
water cisterns, caves, chaitya, residential rooms etc. Sometimes money
in the form of Karshapana or Dr amma was given to learned
Brahmanas. Cows and land grants were also given as endo wments to the
learned Brahamanas and Shramanas.
Administrative Inscriptions: These inscriptions provide us the
information about the administrative system. For example, two Kalinga
edicts and rock edict number VI of Ashoka give a clear picture of his high
ideal of kingship. Some of the edicts of Ashoka give very good
information about the provincial administrations that in the time of
Ashoka there were at least four provinces and their capitals were Taxila,
Ujjain, Toshali and Suvarnagiri. Besides, there is a reference to certain
officers of the state in the inscriptions of Ashoka such as Yuktas,
Rajukas, Pradeshika, Antamahamatras and Dharma – Mahamaltras.
These inscriptions provide valuable information regarding the Mauryan
administration. Another example of this category is the Sohagaura copper
plate inscription of 3rd century B.C. which is an example of pure
administrative inscription. Junagarh rock inscriptions of King
Rudradaman – I and a large number of copper plate inscription have been
found in India which c ontain many useful administrative details.
Eulogistic Inscriptions: Eulogistic compositions are called as Prasasti.
These prasastis were sometimes, composed and engraved on stone
tablets or pillars. Usually these inscriptions contain the name and
genealogy of the issuing ruler, the early life of a king, his personal
accomplishments, his political, military and administrative achievements.
Some of the examples of this type of inscriptions are – eulogy of
Gautamiputra Satakarni in the Nasik c ave inscription, Junagarh Rock
inscription and Bhitari stone pillar inscription of Skangdgupta. Allahabad
Pillar inscriptions of Samudragupta, eulogy of king Yashovarman at
Mandasore, eulogy of king Kharavela in Hathigumpha inscription etc.
Many of the epigraphic records especially the eulogies, were composed by
the poets of great ability and their compositions are f a high literary
order. For example, eulogy of Samudragupta was composed by Harishena
who was a poet – lauriet, eulogy of Yashovarman by Vasula in
Mandasore inscription and eulogy of Pulakeshsin – II on Aihole stone
inscription.
The epigraphs regarding Royal Grants of Land: The epigraphs regarding
Royal Grants of land were generally engraved on copper plates. munotes.in

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103 Gradually the tenden cy to introduce copper plates on which
inscriptions were engraved was also developed. These copper plate
inscriptions are called Tamrapatra, Tamrasasana, Shasana pattra or
Danapattra according to its contents. It is interesting to note that land
grants were invariably inscribed on copper plates and were handed over
to the donor so that they may serve as title deeds. The Sohgaura copper
plate of the 3rd century B.C. is the earliest copper plate inscriptions.
These copper plates give an elaborate eulogy of the donor and his
ancestors.
Many land grants are recorded on the surface of a rock – i.e. stone
inscriptions or on the walls of the caves also. As a matter of fact, major
part of inscriptions is endowment grants. R ulers of almost all ruling
dynasties of ancient India has issued such grants mainly engraved on
copper plates and the main object of these grants is the registration of an
endowment.
Inscription on the coins of various rulers of ancient India also are very
useful as they provide the information regarding contemporary social,
economic, religious and cultural conditions.
Inscriptions may vary greatly in the size. Sometimes an epigraph contains
only a mark or single word or expression indicating the name of an
individual. For example, inscriptions of the Satavahanas in the
Naneghat cave.
Sometimes one sentence inscription is found mostly in the case of
donative inscriptions from the Buddhist caves of western Deccan or Stupa
railings at Sanchi and Bharhut.
Sometimes there are very big inscriptions which contain the who9le text
of Kavya, Mahakavya or a Sanskrit Drama. However the historical
importance does not depend on the size of an inscriptions. Sometimes
very small inscriptions also are very useful for providing valuable
historical information as we have already seen in the case of persona
seal of a female trader Indra which was discovered in the excavation at
Bhokardan in the Jalana district of Maharashtra.
Some other remarkable features of inscription in the words of Dr. H.
S. Thosar are as follows, “At the beginning of an inscripti8n as well
as at the end there is an auspicious symbol or work or passage in
adoration of a deity, the words are Om, Siddham and Swasti or
their symbols are engraved at first. Symbols of Swastika, Trident or
Shrivatsa are also found on some inscription. In the concluding section
imprecatory verses and symbols of circles are carved on it. If it is a stone
inscription, its top which is generally triangular, figures of Sun, Moon,
Cow with call and Shivalinga are carved on it. If it is a copper plate
inscription, the places are tied together with a ring on which the royal seal
of the issuing dynasty is carved. On some seals the name of the issuing
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104 In later inscriptions, particularly in Kanna d and the early M arathi
inscriptions, a figure of an ass having intercourse with a woman is
carved. It is known as ass-curse of Gadhegolo. In some inscriptions the
ass-curse is written in letters also. Few inscriptions have the figure of a
plough being drawn by an ass. These curses were obviously directed to
those persons who would violate the grant or provision made through the
concerned inscriptions.
Many a time inscriptions record the welfare activities of a king. For
example, Ashokan inscriptions describe his public welfare activities such
as the provision of medical facilities, Plantation of the trees on both sides
of the road etc. Hathigumpha inscription of king Kharavela also describes
that he had repaired a canal originally constructed by a ruler of Nanda
dynasty before three hundred years.
Different chronological eras mentioned in Indian inscriptions is another
feature of the inscriptions. Ashokan edicts were dated from the
succeeding years from his coronation such as year 3-5, 7, 9… etc. He did
not follow any specific earlier era. As a matter of fact, rulers of
different dynasties such as Shunga, Satvahana etc. also followed the same
pattern of mentioning years starting from the coronation ceremony of a
particular king.
Buddhists followed an era which started from Mahapari nirvana of the
Budha which took place in 484 B.C. This era was known as the Mahapari
nirvana era.
The Jains also has their own dating s ystem which is recorded in the
inscriptions as the Aguptayika era.
The Kaliyuga era which is dated in 3102 B.C. is the oldest Indian era.
Since it is mentioned in the later inscriptions, its historicity and
authenticity is matter of controversy. Some other eras mentioned in the
inscriptions are as follows –
Vikram Samvat which is believed to have started in 58 B.C. It was also
known by different names such as krita era or krita – malwa – vikrama
era.
The Shaka era which commenced in 78 A.D. But who – whethe r the
Shakas or the Kushanas started it is a matter of controversy. Later
on, Satavahanas also followed an era and therefore it was also came to
be known as Shaka- Shalivahan a Samvat.
Another era recorded in the inscriptions is Chedi – Kalachuri era which
according to V. V. Mirashi was started in 248-249 A.D. by Abhira King
Ishwarasena from is coronation ceremony.
Gupta – Valabhi era was another important ancient Indian era which
was started by the Gupta Emperor Chand ragupta – I in about 320 A.D.
This era was continued by the Maitrakas of Valabhi in Saurashtra and
therefore it came to be known as Gupt a – Valabhi era. munotes.in

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105 Sometimes two different eras are mentioned in the inscription at
a time. For example, Aihole inscription of the Brahmi Chalukya king
Pulakeshin mentions kali era (3102 B.C.) along with the Shaka era.
7.4 BEGINNING OF EPIG RAPHICAL STUDIES IN
INDIA
Brahmi script is the oldest Indian script and dates back to one
thousand years, i.e. 3d century B.C. to 7th century A.D. It remained the
main script of writing in India. During this period the scri pt underwent
paleographic changes after every two hund red years. Due to these
changes the script of different periods came to be known by different
names such as Ashokan Brahmi, Satavahana Brahmi, Gupta Brahmi
etc.
In the course of time, many new scripts came into existence. By abou t
10th century A.D. the new scripts such as Devanagri, Sharada, Gujarati,
Bengali etc. oriented from the old Brahmi and the original Brahmi was
completely forgotten.
As a matter of fact, attempts were made for this first time to decipher the
old Brahmi script by sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq in the 14th century A.D.
He saw the Ashokan edicts at Topra and Meerut and desired to learn
about the contents of those scripts. He brought them to Delhi and invited
several scholars to read the matter which was engraved on them. But no
scholar could decipher the script.
In the years that followed, an attempt was made also by the Mughal
emperor Akbar to decipher it, but the effort was futile.
In the Modern times, the systematic study began only during the British
period. In year 1839, Elphinstone wrote his famous book, “His tory of
India.” In this book, he pointed out that in Indian history, “No date of a
public event can be fixed before the invasion of Alexande r”. In 1866
Cowell also agreed to the observations made by Elphinstone.
The real beginning of epigraphical studies can be traced back only
to the end of 18th century. The foundation of the epigraphic study
was laid by the European Scholars.
On 15th January 1784 , The Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by
Sir William Jones, a judge of the supreme court at Calcutta. The main
purpose of the society was to study the ancient inscriptions, coins,
sculptures and other records by which India’s past history can be
revealed. This society began a systematic Study of Indian epigraphy.
However, Indian epigraphical research commenced only in 1836. In that
year James Princep, an officer of the mint at Calcutta, could decipher the
Brahmi script successfully deciphered many letter from Kharosthi
script. He deciphered it with the help of the bilingualcum biscriptal
legends (i.e. Greek legends in Greek Script and Prakrit legend in munotes.in

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106 Kharosthi scri pt on the coins of Indo-Greek rulers who held the sway for
some time in North West India after the Mauryas).
James Princep also succeeded in identifying many Kharosthi letters. His
greatest achievement was the he successfully deciphered the Brahmi
legend on some coins which were discovered in the Gujarat – Saurashtra
region and also the famous inscriptions of Ashoka. Princep pointed out
the need for arranging epigraphical records systematically mainly for the
reconstruction of the ancient Indian history. He placed the study of Indian
history. He placed the study of Indian epigraphy on a sound and critical
foundation for the first time.
Later on, the efforts were made to study Indian epigraphy by many
scholars – Europeans as well as Indians such as Kittoe, Fergusson,
Sir Walter Elliot, Rev. Steenson and Bhau Daji Lad. They followed the
footsteps of Princep and discovered and examined a number of early and
medieval inscriptions.
The efforts made by Stalwarts showed immediate effects. M any
inscriptions were published in the journals. Some of them were as
follows:
1. Asiatic Researches.
2. Journal of the Asiatic Society (both published by Asiatic Society)
3. The Indian Antiquary (started by James Burgess in 1872)
4. The Madras Journal of Literature and Science.
5. The Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (London).
6. The Journal of Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
8. The Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay.
By this time, more and more antiquities and inscriptions were discovered
and hence British Government of India created the Post of
“archaeological Surveyor” in year 1861 . It encouraged official and
unofficial search for inscriptions, their study and publication. Alexande r
Cunningham was the first Director General of the “Archaeo logical Survey
of India” (1871-85). He had already prepared his report on
“Archaeo logical Survey” Volume No. I and II from 1861 – 65.
A number of epigraphic records were discovered respectively till the
seventies and eighties of the 19th century and more and more studies
of ancient Indian epigraphy were undertaken by many scholars and
institutions. They were as follows
1) Alexande r Cunningham collected Ashokan Inscriptions in
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107 2) J.F. Fleet edited the “Inscriptions of the Gupta Age” between
1883-1886. He was an epigraphist to the Government of India (1883-
86).
3) E. Hultzsch, an epigraphist of Government of Madras (1886-
1903) published the first volume of “South Indian Inscriptions” in 1890
and published 2nd edition of corpus Indica.
4) James Burgess was Alexande r Cunningham’s successor as Dir ector
Gene ral of the Archaeological Survey of India. He started an official
journal entitled “Epigraphia Indica” in 1888 and within two years
published two volumes. This journal exclusively published detailed
information of inscriptions.
5) The Government of Madras published “the notices of inscriptions”
examined by its officers in an Annual Report from 1887 till 1921. Later
on the name of publication was changed to “Annual Report of South
Indian Epigraphy”. In this journal, nearly twenty five thousand
inscriptions on temple walls and other monuments and about 500 copper
plate grants were reviewed.
6) Again a number of inscriptions were discovered and studied and hence
several lists of inscriptions were published in 1898-969 as an Appendix
to “Epigraphia India”.
7) Two more important Epigraphical series viz. “The corpus
Inscriptionum Indicarum” and “South Indian Inscriptions Series” are also
publishing their annual report on Indian Epigraphy.
In the beginning of the 20th century, V. A. Smith published his
celebrated work entitled “Early History of India”. In his book he made an
attempt to sort out and arrange the accumulated stores of knowledge from
the Epigraphic and Numismatic evidences for wri ting the political and
cultural history of Ancient India. An attempt of this type was made for the
first time by him. This book was revised and enlarged in subsequent
editions in 1908, 1814 and 1924.
The discovery and study of new inscriptions was ably utilized for the
reconstruction of Ancient Indian History by many historians and
scholars. The progress was made year after year in the field of Indian
Epigraphy. It became more perfect which facilitated the clarity in the
comprehensive study of Ancient Indian History. H.C. R oychaudha ri
wrote a book “Political History of Ancient India” first published in 1923
and repeatedly revised in 1927, 1931, 1938, 1950 and 1953.
In post independence period, the departments of Archaeology of
some the State Governments notably Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh
also have taken keen interest in publishing their periodicals in which
many new inscriptions are published.
In 1974, “The Epigraphical Society of India” was founded. This society
holds its annual sessions. A tremendous interest is shown by Research munotes.in

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108 Scholars, who read the papers on the Epigraphic materials. The society
since its foundation has been publishing its annual journal solely devoted
to epigraphical studies.
The work of reconstruction of the early period of history was inaugurated
by European scholars in 18th century. This was followed by the valuable
contributions made by the Indian Scholars.
The credit for the decipherment of early Indian inscriptions wri tten in
Brahmi and Kharosthi goes to scholars like Princep, Lassen, Norris
and Cunningham. The other European scholars who have contributed in
the study of Epigraphic records of India successfully are – G. Buhler, E.
Senart, F. Kielhorn, E. Hultzsch, L. Ric e, W. Elliot, J. F. Fleet and L. P.
Barnett.
Among the Indian Scholars, the most outstanding contributions were
made by D. R. Bhan darkar, N .G. Mazumdar, Venkayya and
Krishnamurty. Othe r scholars were Pand it Bhagvanlal Indraji, R. L.
Mitra, R. G. Bhandarkar, R. D. Bane rjee, P. N. Bhattacharya, H. P.
Sastri, N. P. Chakravarti and others.
The eminent Epigraphists of the day are Dr. K. V. Ramesh, Prof. K. V.
Raman, Dr. S. R. Rao, Dr. Ajaymitra Sastry, Dr. S. H. Thosar, Dr.
Shobhana Gokhale and others and making their valuable contributions in
the field of epigraphy.
7.4 SUMMERY
Epigraphy is t he is the study of inscriptions. In the study of epigraphy the
epigraphers reconstruct, translate and date inscriptions. followed by the
epigrapher the historians come into pitucre to interpret and determine the
vevnts that led to the inscriptions. The writings of inscriptions was found
in the ancient history, during Gu pta period. particularly, during the rin of
Samudragupta.
During the colonial period Sir Alexander Cunningham has strted to focus
on the study of epigraphy. Therefore, he is known as the father of
epigraphy. The inscription s are the primary sources for t he study of
history.
7.5 QUE STIONS
1. What is importance of Epigraphy in the study of History?
2. How Epigraphy contributed in the various subjects of Social sciences?
3. Highlight on the begining of Epigraphic study in India?


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109 7.6 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Ramesh K.V, Indian Epigraphy, Vol I, Sundeep Prakashan, New
Delhi, 1984.
2. Sircar DC, Indian Epigra phy, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1965.
3. Soloman Richard, Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of
Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit and other Indo Aryan Languages,
Oxford University Press, 1998.
4. Murthy Sathya K, Textbook of Indian Epigraphy, Low Price
Publications, Delhi, 1992.
5. Singh Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India,
Pearson Longman, New Delhi, 2008.
6. Renfrew Colin and Bahn Paul, Archaeology : Theories, Methods and
Practice, Thames and Hudson, London, 1991.
7. Piggot Stuart, Approach to Archaeology, Adams and Charles Black,
London, 1959.
8. Lüders Heinrich, Mathura Inscriptions,Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht,
Göttingen, 1961.
9. Lüders, Heinrich, A List of Brahmi Inscriptions from the Earliest
Times to About A.D. 400, with the e xception of those of Asoka,
Appendix to EpigraphiaIndica , Vol. X.
10. Majumdar Basu Sushmita, Barabar -Nagarjuni Hills, Kashi
PrsadJayaswal Research Institute, Patna, 2017.
11. Majumdar Basu Sushmita, The Mauryas in Karnataka, Mahabodhi
Book Agency, Kolkata, 201 6.
12. Mirashi V. V., The History and Inscriptions of the Satavahanas and the
Western Kshatrapas, Maharashtra State Board for Literature and
Culture, Bombay, 1981.
13. KonowSten, Kharoshthi Inscriptions, Corpus InscriptinumIndicarum,
vol-II-I, (Reprint) 1991.
14. LahiriNayanjyot, Ashoka in Ancient India, Harvard University Press,
2015.
15. Lüders Heinrich, Mathura Inscriptions,Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht,
Göttingen, 1961.
16. Lüders, Heinrich, A List of Brahmi Inscriptions from the Earliest
Times to About A.D. 400, with the exception of those of Asoka,
Appendix to EpigraphiaIndica , Vol. X.

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110 8
EVOLUTION OF BRAHMI AND
KHAROSHTHI SCRIPTS
Unit Structure
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Ancient Indian Scripts
8.3.1 Brahmi
8.3.2 Kharosthi
8.4 Summary
8.5 Questions
8.6 Additional Reading
8.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this uni t the students will be able to:
1. Understand the ancient scripts.
2. Know the origin of Brahmi and Kharosti scripts.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
In this unit the detailed information and its analysis has been given on the
origin and developments of Brahmi and Kharos ti scripts in India. In this
unit it is discussed about the minar difference between both the scripts.
Specially, during the rin of Ashoka in the mouryan age, many inscriptions
are found in the various museums. The Brahmi script is the earliest writing
system developed in India after the Indus script. Brahmi is the most
influential writing systems; all modern Indian scripts and several hundred
scripts found in Southeast and East Asia and derived from Brahmi script.
Therefore, the detail study can be initiat ed through this unit to know in
more details about the ancient scripts.
8.3 ANCIENT INDIAN SCRIPTS
8.3.1 Brahmi:
Brahmi is the oldest Indian script. There are many references to the world
script in ancient Indian literature. References of the art of wri ting and
writing material in the Vedic literature reveals the fact the Vedic people
has developed the art of writing. Panini wrote his book on Grammar
known as Astadhyayi in circa 8th century B. C. in this book he mentions a
script by name i.e. Yavani. This shown that the existence of the script munotes.in

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111
was known to him. Arthasastra of Kaut ilya also refers of script (Lipi)
as one of the subject to be taught to a prince. However, we do not get any
more information from it. The Jain sutras i.e. Pannavanasutra and
Sanavayangasutra also mention the list of the eighteen scri pts such as
Brahmi, Yavarti (Greek) Kharosthi, Gandharva, Maheswari etc.
However the Bhagvat sutra refers to only one script i.e. Brahmi.





Bhahmi Inscription from Bharhut
The Buddhist work Lalitavistara also gives information about the scripts
which were known to people during that time. It contains a very big list of
64 lipis such as Brahmi, Kharosthi, Anga, Vanga, Magadha etc.
However, it is only during the reign of Ashoka, that we get a clear
evidence of engraved records, incised on imperishable rock or stone
surface in either Brahmi or Kharosthi scri pt. This system of engraving the
inscription on rocks or stone material was probab ly unknown prior to the
time of Ashoka.
As a matter of fact, the origin and invention of Brahmi script is a matter
of controversy. Ancient Indians believed that Brahma was the God of lipi.
He invented this lipi and therefore, it came of be known as Brahmi. In
the course of time, many regional scripts came into existence from the
Brahmi and the original Brahmi script was forgotten. Many efforts were
made by different scholars to decipher it but were futile. It was
successfully deciphered by James Princep in the third decade of the
nineteenth century. Since then, its origin, the source from which it was
derived, is the matter of controversy among the scholars. Their opinion
differs sharply.
The protagonists are divided into two groups. One propagating a foreign
source of inspiration for its origin and development and the other group
is trying to prove Brahmi as an Indigenous innovation. There are many
theories about foreign origin of Brahmi scri pt such as Greek origin,
Chinese origin and in the same way Assyrian, Phoenician, South Semitic
and North sematic origin of Brahmi script.
Apart from these theories of foreign origin, there are some other theories
of Indigenous origin such as those who attribute a Vedic or Aryan
invention and another of its Dravidian origin.
Some scholars on the basis of figural similarities between the Indus
script and the Brahmi and the Brahmi letters believe that the Brahmi was munotes.in

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112 derived from the Indus script. These are some other theories also
regarding the origin of Brahmi script.
However, the North Semetic origin of Brahmi script has widely
been accepted. This theory was originally put forth by James Princep and
subsequently supported by others. Weber elaborated this theory in
1851. The greatest advocate of this theory was Buhler and recently Dani.
This theory is based on three main evidences.
i) The absence of tangible evidence for the presence of writing prior
to the 5th century B.C.
ii) Similarity of forms between the characters of both the lipies (i.e.
North sematic and Brahmi).
iii) The contention that initially Brahmi was written from right to left.
Considering all these points, the theory of the North Semetic origin of
Brahmi has widely been accepted.
Brahmi was in use for writing in India for nearly one thousand
years from about 3rd century B.C. to 7th century A.D. D uring this
period, the Brahmi script unde rwent some paleographic changes after
every two hundred years and hence the script of different periods came to
be known by different terms such as Ashokan Brahmi (e.g. Ashokan
edicts), Satavahana Brahmi (e.g. Inscriptions of the Satavahanas), Gupt a
Brahmi (e.g. Inscriptions of the Gupta rulers) etc. These different
forms of Brahmi are one of the important features of the Brahmi script.
Another feature of Brahmi script is that there were local variations
in some of the Brahmi characters prevalent in different parts of our
country. On the basis of these local variations, the precise nature of the
script was described in different terms such as Northern Brahmi, Southern
Brahmi, Eastern Brahmi and Western Brahmi.
Besides these variations, stylistic and calligraphic differences are also
seen in the inscriptions of different periods and different regions.
However, as a whole, the Brahmi script continued to be the common
script throughout India for nearly one thousand years.
8.3.2 Kharosthi:
In the North Western part of India, a parallel script was introduced by the
foreign rulers such as the Shakas, Indo – Greeks and the Kushanas.
Of all the scripts of ancient India, Kharosthi is a unique script by its
feature of its writing which is written from right to left instead of from
left to right. This script was first noticed on the coins of the Bactrian
Greek rulers and hence it was called as Bactrian characters. It was
called as Bactrian characters. It was also referred to as Indo-
Bactrian script. The use of this script was confined to Ariana on the
west the river Indus. The language which was used in this script was munotes.in

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some form of Pali or Prakrit. Therefore, the script came to be known as
Bactro – pali, Ariano palli. Buhler named it as Kharosthi, who found
evidence for this name in Lalitavistara and in the Chinese
encycloped ia (Fa-Wan-Shu-Lin which was compiled in 668 A.D.).








A Kharoshti Inscription of the Kushana Age referring to Ashoka
This script was used only in the north-west part of India. The eastern
most limit where the Kharosthi script was in use is in the Punjab at
Manikala. Two inscriptions from Kangra district and another inscriptions
from Karnal district in Punjab shown that Kharosthi was used in
addition to Brahmi in these areas also. Foreign Conquerors – i.e.
Indo-Greeks from the North-West part of India used this script in the
well-known inscriptions at Mathura on the river Jamuna, where Brahmi
was commonly used in the inscriptions and the coins. Some coins bearing
Kharosthi inscriptions have been found in Seistan and Kandahar, Kawat
in Afghanistan and Trial Valley of Baluchistan.
In the north, the Kharosthi records are found in Tirath in Swat and
Khalalse in Kadakh. Some Kharosthi inscriptions are found at
Mohenjo Daro in Larkhana district, Mansehara in Hazora district and
Shahbazgari in Peshwar district of Pakistan. The coins of some of the
western Kshatrapas bearing the Kharosthi legend are also found from
Hindukush to Gandhar-Taxila region.
The Kharosthi records have been found on stone inscriptions,
metal plates and vases, on coins, cameos etc. A small piece of birch bark
(Bhurja patra) from a Stupa in Afghanistan and a birch bark manuscript of
the Dhammapada a Khotan which were wri tten in the Kharosthi scri pt
also have been found Kharoshi documents on wood, leather or paper were
also discovered by stein in Chinese Turkestan. In general, in all these
writings, Kharosthi maintains its unified character.
Kharosthi was originated from the Aromai script, which was the main
branch of the north Semetic Alphabet (script). It was wri tten from
right to left. munotes.in

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114 The earliest inscriptions in Kharosthi are Ashokan inscriptions found
at Shahbazgari and Mansehara (3rd century B.C). Since then, for about
600 to 700 years. i.e. 4th century A. D. this scri pt was in use in these
regions. The latest Kharosthi inscriptions are those of the later Kushana
rulers (3rd to 4th century A.D.). A few private records might have been
written slightly, later, but already Brahmi was adopted by these
Indianized foreign rulers in this region and in the 5th century A.D.,
when the Hunas appeared in India, no trace of Kharosthi script is seen.
Like Brahmi script, Kharosthi scri pt also underwent stylistic changes.
These changes can be described in several groups such as:
1. Kharosthi of Ashokan rock edicts.
2. Kharosthi of Indo – Greek coin legends (Coins of Indo-Greek rulers).
3. Kharosthi of Indo-Greek inscriptions (e.g. Bajaur Casket inscription
of the region of Menander).
4. Kahrosthi of Scytho-parthian period. A large number of inscriptions
are included in this category of which some are dated and other
undated. (These eras is a matter of controversy among the scholars).
5. Kharosthi of Kushana period are again divided into four groups viz
a) Inscriptions which mention the name of Kushana.
b) Stone inscriptions dated in new series and referable to the time of
Kanishka group of rulers.
c) Third group is that which introduces the true kanishka style of the
time of the Kanishka group of rulers.
d) The inscriptions which re-dated in the series 303 to 399
The important feature of Kharosthi script is that it maintains uniformity
of the Kharosthi through all these periods, as opposed to the changing
forms of the Brahmi script.
8.4 SUMMARY
Most of the Ashokan inscriptions are found in the various research.
Through which the caves, inscriptions, copper plates, rock pillers and
small seals fo und during the rin of mauryan period. With the rise of
Buddhism as the dominent faith in India, we find the brahmi cripts are
available on various monumental constructions known as ' donative
records' where we find the names of different doners. To study u nderstand
the ancient Indian history inscriptions are the most authentic primary
sources and because of Brahmi scripts and its recognition and reading the
original history writing started.
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115 8.5 QUESTIONS
1. Write an essay on the development of Indian scripts with special
reference to Brahmi.
2. Write short notes on :
a) Contribution of James Princep to the Indian Epigraphy. b) Brahmi :
the oldest script of India
c) The Kharosthi script.
8.6 ADDITIONAL READING
1. KonowSten, Kharoshthi Inscriptions, Corpus InscriptinumIndicarum,
vol-II-I, (Reprint) 1991.
2. Lüders, Heinrich, A List of Brahmi Inscriptions from the Earliest
Times to About A.D. 4 00, with the exception of those of Asoka,
Appendix to EpigraphiaIndica , Vol. X.
3. Murthy Sathya K, Textbook of Indian Epigraphy, Low Price
Publications, Delhi, 1992.
4. Majumdar Basu Sushmita, Barabar -Nagarjuni Hills, Kashi
PrsadJayaswal Research Institute, Pa tna, 2017
5. LahiriNayanjyot, Ashoka in Ancient India, Harvard University Press,
2015.
6. Gupta, S P and Ramchandran, K S, The origin of Brahmi Script, DK
Publications, Delhi, 1979.
7. Cunningham Alexander, Inscriptions of Ashoka, Corpus
InscriptinumIndicarum, Vol -I, 1877.
8. ChakrabortiHaripada, Early Brahmi Records in India, Sanskrit
PustakBhandar, Calcutta, 1974.
9. Burgess Jas Report on the Buddhist Cave Temples and their
Inscriptions, Archaeological Survey of Western India, (Vol -IV),
London, 1883
10. D. R. Bhandarkar, A soka. Calcutta, 1955
11. R. Mookerji, Asoka. Delhi, 1962
12. Amulyachandra Sen, Asoka's Edicts. Calcutta, 1956
13. Seneviratna (editor), King Asoka and Buddhism. 1993
14. D. C. Sircar, Inscriptions of Asoka. Delhi, 1957


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116 9
EDICTS OF ASOKA

Unit Struct ure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Edicts of King Asoka
9.3 The Fourteen Rock Edicts
9.4 The Kalinga Rock Edicts
9.5 The Seven Pillar Edicts
9.6 The Minor Pillar Edicts
9.7 Summary
9.8 Unit End Questions
9.9 Additional Reading
10.0 OBJECTIVES:
The study is carried out with the following objectives -
 To study emperor Asoka through inscriptions and literary sources.
 To understand the relevance of the Pali literary sources for the
authenti cation of history of Asoka.
 To analyse and see how the literary sources match the archaeological
sources giving us the role of Asoka in the spread of Buddhism.
10.1 INTRODUCTION:
King Aśoka, the third monarch of the Mauryan dynasty in the third
century B.C ., was the first ruler of a unified India and oneof the greatest
political figures of all time. After he embraced the teachings of the
Buddha, he transformed his polity fromone of military conquest to one of
Dharmavijaya — victory byrighteousness and truth. By providing royal
patronage for the propagation of Buddhism both within and beyond his
empire, he helped promote the metamorphosis of Buddhism into a world
religion that spread peacefully across the face of Asia.
Though there is a discrepancy in the lite rary sources from northern India
and southern India regarding the contribution of Asoka, the authenticity of
the southern literature is accepted by many scholars due to its
corroboration with the inscriptions. Thus, we taking the Sri Lankan
sources of Dipa vamsa, Mahavamsa, Samantapasadika as the literary
source and the inscriptions as the archaeological source, discuss the role of munotes.in

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117 Emperor Asoka in the spread of Buddhism inside and outside his vast
kingdom, through
 Third Buddhist council and purification of the Sangha
 Writing of Kathavatthu by Thera Moggaliputtatissa
 Sending missionaries to all different parts of the country their
authenticity
 Schism edicts at Sarnath, Sanchi and Kosambi
 Mahinda thera, and Sanghamitta theri
 Dhammayatra and erection of pillar s and stupas
 Excavations of caves for the ajivikas
 Construction of 84000 stupas and viharas all over his kingdom.
It is important that the Sri Lankan testimony on Aśoka is reviewed with
much greater care. The Sa gha of the island has, right through its
existence to this date, taken a continuing interest in both recording and
studying its ecclesiastic history. In the p rocess they have focused
considerable attention on political, social and economic aspects. In this
respect Sri Lanka’s twenty -five centuries of written history remains a
unique example in the whole of the Indian subcontinent.
The historical sense of the Sa gha has been exceptionally well developed
and the information recorded only by them has dramatically proved to be
invaluable especially for the following.
Purposes:
(1) The identification of “Piyadasi” of the Rock Edicts and Pillar
Inscriptions with Aśoka , whose full name was preserved in Sri Lankan
records only. Without this confirmation the historical interpretation of
Aśokan inscriptions would have been long delayed by nearly a century, if
not rendered impossible.
(2) The assessment of the role and achi evements of MoggaliputtaTissa
who had merited such special veneration in Asokan times as to have had
his relics enshrined with the utmost honour in Stūpa No. 2 of Sānchi in a
relic casket bearing the inscription “Sapurisasa Mogalīputasa.”
(Incidentally, si milar finds havenot yet established the historicity of any
names like Upaguptaor Yasa occurring in the Northern Buddhist records.)
(3) The establishment without doubt of the significance ofthe epithet
“Hemavatācariya” occurring on the relic -caskets of Sānc hi and Sonari
Stūpas containing some remains of Majjhima, Kassapagotta and
Dundubhissara, who, in a comprehensivelist of missionaries sent out after
the Third Councilaccording to Sri Lankan Pali sources, were assigned the
conversionof the Himalaya region. (This and the above informationnot
only confirm the historicity of the Third Council andthe missions but also
provides the only literary support to themissionary role claimed by Aśoka
in R.E. XIII.)
(4) The identification and interpretation of the sculptur ed scene depicting
the transplanting of a Bo -sapling, found on the eastern gateway of the munotes.in

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118 Great Sānchi Stūpa as further confirmed by the symbolism of peacocks
and lions in the decorative motifs which seem to reflect Maurya -Sinhala
solidarity. (The very exi stence of the Bodhi Tree at Anuradhapura
furtherconfirms the tradition.) With such an array of confirmation from
archaeological andepigraphical evidence, the Sri Lankan Pali sources
deserve to begiven a much higher degree of credibility especially when
their information differs from that of Northern Buddhist records.
The place which the Sri Lankan Pali sources — faithfully copied and
preserved in many versions in all other Theravāda Buddhist countries,
namely, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos — have given Aśoka in
history is as a pious and generous patron of Buddhism. The main aspects
highlighted are as follows:
(1) Aśoka was attracte d to Buddhism because of the serene demeanour of
a Buddhist monk as contrasted with the usual conduct of the brahmin
priests whom the court had traditionally supported. He began to seek the
association of monks which proved intellectually and spiritually m ore
satisfying.
(2) His munificence to the Buddhist Order was immense. He was a great
builder and the number of shrines constructed allover his empire on his
command is held out as 84,000, possibly a traditional symbolism for
“innumerable.” (N.B. Sanskrit Buddhist sources mention the same figure
whereas Chinese sources have it as 80,000.)
(3) He was convinced that his patronage of Buddhism was not complete
until and unless a child of his entered the Sagha. Accordingly, his son
Mahinda and daughter Saghamitt ā were ordained. They became the
missionaries to establish Buddhism in Sri Lanka and, as such, the heroes
of the Sri Lankan tradition.
(4) Aśoka’s generosity had a negative effect on the Sa gha in that many
joined it to enjoy its privileges. The need arose for purge and reform.
Aśoka himself gave his patronage to the cleansing process. At first, he
even attempted to enforce his imperial authority. But in due course he had
to seek the assistance of the senior monk, Moggaliputta Tissa.
(5) The reformed Sagha undertook a programme of missions to propagate
Buddhism in and around the empire ofAśoka and, by implication, these
missions were supported bythe Emperor. At least as far as Sri Lanka was
concerned, Aśoka continued to support the mission by sending sacred
objects of veneration (i.e. relics, Bo -sapling, etc.), additional missionaries,
and skilled craftsmen to erect shrines.
In short, Aśoka was the instrument for the establishment of Buddhism in
Sri Lanka. There was no special sanctity attached to him and he was not
an object of veneration. He was for all purposes only a historical person —
the greatest patron of Sri Lankan Buddhism and that was all. The entire
Theravāda Buddhist world saw him in that role. munotes.in

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119 This review of a number of prevalent opinions on the place of Aśoka in
history has enabled us to answer the two main questions to which we
focused attention. These answers in brief would be as follows:
(1) On the criterion of being corroborated by independent literary,
archaeological or epigraphical evidence , the Sri Lankan Pali records and
the Theravāda tradition founded on them can be relied upon as providing a
credible account of the role and achievements of Aśoka as far as his
services to the Buddhist cause are concerned.
The Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan sources of the Northern Buddhist
tradition do reflect the memory of Aśoka’s munificence, pilgrimages and
religious buildings. But their historical reliability has been considerably
reduced, firstly, because Aśoka figured in Avadānas where his spiritual
adviser Upagupta was more prominent, and, secondly, because the
chronology had been confused due to Upagupta’s contemporaneity with
Kā-āśoka.
Many of the problems in determining accurately Aśoka’s place in history
are to be traced to the proper evaluation o f the historicity of these sources.
(2) The impact of Aśoka’s policy of Dharmavijaya on contemporary India
cannot be in any way evaluated as the sources atour disposal say nothing
on it. If Aśoka had not elaborated his concept of Dhamma and the efforts
he made to propagate it by means of his own edicts and inscriptions, both
his Dhamma and the policy of Dharmavijaya would have gone into
oblivion.
The mainstream Indian literature and tradition had either ignored or
forgotten him. An obvious assumption would be that neither his Dhamman
or his policy of Dharmavijaya made any lasting impression in the Indian
mind. On the contrary, he was not only remembered gratefully but even
glorified sanctimoniously for his unique contribution to Buddhism by both
the Theravāda Buddhists of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia and the
Mahāyāna Buddhists of Northern and Eastern Asia.This paradox becomes
more confusing on account of the determined effort of several Indian
scholars to prove that the Dhamma of Aśoka should not be equated with
Buddhism.
In short, the study of the inscriptions and the southern Pali sources would
give the historical role played by emperor Asoka in the spread of
Buddhism. Let us also study Asokan inscriptions for better understanding
through transla tions.
9.2 THE EDICTS OF KING ASOKA:
With the rediscovery and translation of Indian literature by European
scholars in the 19th century, it was not just the religion and philosophy of
Buddhism that came to light, but also its many legendary histories and
biographies. Amongst this class of literature, one name that came to be
noticed was that of Asoka, a good king who was supposed to have ruled
India in the distant past. Stories about this king, similar in outline but munotes.in

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120 differing greatly in details, were found in the Divyavadana, the
Asokavadana, the Mahavamsa and several other works. They told of an
exceptionally cruel and ruthless prince who had many of his brothers
killed in order to seize the throne, who was dramatically converted to
Buddhism and who ruled wisely and justly for the rest of his life. None of
these stories were taken seriously — after all many pre -modern cultures
had legends about "too good to be true" kings who had ruled righteously
in the past and who, people hoped, would rule again soon. Mo st of these
legends had their origins more in popular longing to be rid of the despotic
and uncaring kings than in any historical fact. And the numerous stories
about Asoka were assumed to be the same.
But in 1837, James Prinsep succeeded in deciphering an ancient
inscription on a large stone pillar in Delhi. Several other pillars and rocks
with similar inscriptions had been known for some time and had attracted
the curiosity of scholars. Prinsep's inscription proved to be a series of
edicts issued by a kin g calling himself "Beloved -of-the-Gods, King
Piyadasi." In the following decades, more and more edicts by this same
king were discovered and with increasingly accurate decipherment of their
language, a more complete picture of this man and his deeds began to
emerge. Gradually, it dawned on scholars that the King Piyadasi of the
edicts might be the King Asoka so often praised in Buddhist legends.
However, it was not until 1915, when another edict actually mentioning
the name Asoka was discovered, that the id entification was confirmed.
Having been forgotten for nearly 700 years, one of the greatest men in
history became known to the world once again.
Asoka's edicts are mainly concerned with the reforms he instituted and the
moral principles he recommended in h is attempt to create a just and
humane society. As such, they give us little information about his life, the
details of which have to be culled from other sources. Although the exact
dates of Asoka's life are a matter of dispute among scholars, he was born
in about 304 B.C. and became the third king of the Mauryan dynasty after
the death of his father, Bindusara. His given name was Asoka but he
assumed the title DevanampiyaPiyadasi which means "Beloved -of-the-
Gods, He Who Looks On With Affection." There see ms to have been a
two-year war of succession during which at least one of Asoka's brothers
was killed. In 262 B.C., eight years after his coronation, Asoka's armies
attacked and conquered Kalinga, a country that roughly corresponds to the
modern state of O rissa. The loss of life caused by battle, reprisals,
deportations and the turmoil that always exists in the aftermath of war so
horrified Asoka that it brought about a complete change in his personality.
It seems that Asoka had been calling himself a Buddh ist for at least two
years prior to the Kalinga war, but his commitment to Buddhism was only
lukewarm and perhaps had a political motive behind it. But after the war
Asoka dedicated the rest of his life trying to apply Buddhist principles to
the administra tion of his vast empire. He had a crucial part to play in
helping Buddhism to spread both throughout India and abroad, and
probably built the first major Buddhist monuments. Asoka died in 232
B.C. in the thirty -eighth year of his reign. munotes.in

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121 Asoka's edicts are to be found scattered in more than thirty places
throughout India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Most of them are
written in Brahmi script from which all Indian scripts and many of those
used in Southeast Asia later developed. The language used in the e dicts
found in the eastern part of the sub -continent is a type of Magadhi,
probably the official language of Asoka's court. The language used in the
edicts found in the western part of India is closer to Sanskrit although one
bilingual edict in Afghanistan is written in Aramaic and Greek. Asoka's
edicts, which comprise the earliest decipherable corpus of written
documents from India, have survived throughout the centuries because
they are written on rocks and stone pillars. These pillars in particular are
testimony to the technological and artistic genius of ancient Indian
civilization. Originally, there must have been many of them, although only
ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet
in height, and weighing up to fifty t ons each, all the pillars were quarried
at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of
miles, to where they were erected. Each pillar was originally capped by a
capital, sometimes a roaring lion, a noble bull or a spirited horse, and the
few capitals that survive are widely recognized as masterpieces of Indian
art. Both the pillars and the capitals exhibit a remarkable mirror -like polish
that has survived despite centuries of exposure to the elements. The
location of the rock edicts is governed by the availability of suitable rocks,
but the edicts on pillars are all to be found in very specific places. Some,
like the Lumbini pillar, mark the Buddha's birthplace, while its
inscriptions commemorate Asoka's pilgrimage to that place. Others are to
be found in or near important population centers so that their edicts could
be read by as many people as possible.
There is little doubt that Asoka's edicts were written in his own words
rather than in the stylistic language in which royal edicts o r proclamations
in the ancient world were usually written in. Their distinctly personal tone
gives us a unique glimpse into the personality of this complex and
remarkable man. Asoka's style tends to be somewhat repetitious and
plodding as if explaining som ething to one who has difficulty in
understanding. Asoka frequently refers to the good works he has done,
although not in a boastful way, but more, it seems, to convince the reader
of his sincerity. In fact, an anxiousness to be thought of as a sincere per son
and a good administrator is present in nearly every edict. Asoka tells his
subjects that he looked upon them as his children, that their welfare is his
main concern; he apologizes for the Kalinga war and reassures the people
beyond the borders of his e mpire that he has no expansionist intentions
towards them. Mixed with this sincerity, there is a definite puritanical
streak in Asoka's character suggested by his disapproval of festivals and of
religious rituals many of which while being of little value w ere
nonetheless harmless.
It is also very clear that Buddhism was the most influential force in
Asoka's life and that he hoped his subjects likewise would adopt his
religion. He went on pilgrimages to Lumbini and Bodh Gaya, sent
teaching monks to various r egions in India and beyond its borders, and he
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122 the monastic community. It is also very clear that Asoka saw the reforms
he instituted as being a part of his duties as a Buddhist. But, w hile he was
an enthusiastic Buddhist, he was not partisan towards his own religion or
intolerant of other religions. He seems to have genuinely hoped to be able
to encourage everyone to practice his or her own religion with the same
conviction that he prac ticed his.
Scholars have suggested that because the edicts say nothing about the
philosophical aspects of Buddhism, Asoka had a simplistic and naive
understanding of the Dhamma. This view does not take into account the
fact that the purpose of the edicts w as not to expound the truths of
Buddhism, but to inform the people of Asoka's reforms and to encourage
them to be more generous, kind and moral. This being the case, there was
no reason for Asoka to discuss Buddhist philosophy. Asoka emerges from
his edict s as an able administrator, an intelligent human being and as a
devoted Buddhist, and we could expect him to take as keen an interest in
Buddhist philosophy as he did in Buddhist practice.
The contents of Asoka's edicts make it clear that all the legends a bout his
wise and humane rule are more than justified and qualify him to be ranked
as one of the greatest rulers. In his edicts, he spoke of what might be
called state morality, and private or individual morality. The first was
what he based his administra tion upon and what he hoped would lead to a
more just, more spiritually inclined society, while the second was what he
recommended and encouraged individuals to practice. Both these types of
morality were imbued with the Buddhist values of compassion,
mode ration, tolerance and respect for all life. The Asokan state gave up
the predatory foreign policy that had characterized the Mauryan empire up
till then and replaced it with a policy of peaceful co -existence. The judicial
system was reformed in order to ma ke it more fair, less harsh and less
open to abuse, while those sentenced to death were given a stay of
execution to prepare appeals and regular amnesties were given to
prisoners. State resources were used for useful public works like the
importation and c ultivation of medical herbs, the building of rest houses,
the digging of wells at regular intervals along main roads and the planting
of fruit and shade trees. To ensue that these reforms and projects were
carried out, Asoka made himself more accessible to his subjects by going
on frequent inspection tours and he expected his district officers to follow
his example. To the same end, he gave orders that important state business
or petitions were never to be kept from him no matter what he was doing
at the ti me. The state had a responsibility not just to protect and promote
the welfare of its people but also its wildlife. Hunting certain species of
wild animals was banned, forest and wildlife reserves were established
and cruelty to domestic and wild animals w as prohibited. The protection
of all religions, their promotion and the fostering of harmony between
them, was also seen as one of the duties of the state. It even seems that
something like a Department of Religious Affairs was established with
officers ca lled Dhamma Mahamatras whose job it was to look after the
affairs of various religious bodies and to encourage the practice of
religion. munotes.in

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123 The individual morality that Asoka hoped to foster included
respect (susrusa) towards parents, elders, teachers, friend s, servants,
ascetics and brahmans — behavior that accords with the advice given to
Sigala by the Buddha (DighaNikaya, Discourse No. 31). He encouraged
generosity (dana) to the poor (kapanavalaka), to ascetics and brahmans,
and to friends and relatives. No t surprisingly, Asoka encouraged
harmlessness towards all life (avihisabhutanam). In conformity with the
Buddha's advice in the AnguttaraNikaya, II:282, he also considered
moderation in spending and moderation in saving to be
good (apavyayataapabhadata). Treating people properly (samyapratipati),
he suggested, was much more important than performing ceremonies that
were supposed to bring good luck. Because it helped promote tolerance
and mutual respect, Asoka desired that people should be well -
learned (bahu sruta) in the good doctrines (kalanagama) of other people's
religions. The qualities of heart that are recommended by Asoka in the
edicts indicate his deep spirituality. They include kindness (daya), self-
examination (palikhaya), truthfulness (sace), gratitude (katamnata),
purity of heart (bhava sudhi), enthusiasm (usahena), strong loyalty
(dadhabhatita), self-control (sayame) and love of the Dhamma (Dhamma
kamata).
We have no way of knowing how effective Asoka's reforms were or how
long they lasted but we do know that monarchs throughout the ancient
Buddhist world were encouraged to look to his style of government as an
ideal to be followed. King Asoka has to be credited with the first attempt
to develop a Buddhist polity. Today, with widespread disi llusionment in
prevailing ideologies and the search for a political philosophy that goes
beyond greed (capitalism), hatred (communism) and delusion
(dictatorships led by "infallible" leaders), Asoka's edicts may make a
meaningful contribution to the develo pment of a more spiritually based
political system.








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124



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125 9.3 THE FOURTEEN ROCK EDICTS:
1. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has caused this Dhamma edict to
be written. [1] Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered
or offered in sacrifice. Nor should festivals be held, for Beloved -of-the-
Gods, King Piyadasi, sees much to object to in such festivals, although
there are some festivals that Bel oved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does
approve of.
Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds
of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now
with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks
and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not even these
three creatures will be killed.
2. Every where [2] within Beloved -of-the-Gods, Ki ng Piyadasi's domain,
and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the
Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek
king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of
Antiochos, [3] everywhere has Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made
provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for
humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medi cal herbs
suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported
and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had
them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees
planted for the benefit of hum ans and animals. [4]
3. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: [5] Twelve years
after my coronation this has been ordered — Everywhere in my domain
the Yuktas, the Rajjukas and the Pradesikas shall go on inspection tours
every five years for the purpose of Dhamma instruction and also to
conduct other business. [6]
Respect for mother and father is good, generosity to friends,
acquaintances, relatives, Brahmans and ascetics is good, not killing living
beings is good, moderation in spen ding and moderation in saving is good.
The Council shall notify the Yuktas about the observance of these
instructions in these very words.
4. In the past, for many hundreds of years, killing or harming living
beings and improper behavior towards relatives, and improper behavior
towards Brahmans and ascetics has increased. [7] But now due to Beloved -
of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's Dhamma practice, the sound of the drum has
been replaced by the sound of the Dhamma. [8] The sighting of heavenly
cars, auspicious elephants, bodies of fire and other divine sightings has not
happened for man y hundreds of years. But now because Beloved -of-the-
Gods, King Piyadasi promotes restraint in the killing and harming of
living beings, proper behavior towards relatives, Brahmans and ascetics,
and respect for mother, father and elders, such sightings have increased. [9]
These and many other kinds of Dhamma practice have been encouraged
by Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, and he will continue to promote munotes.in

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126 Dhamma pract ice. And the sons, grandsons and great -grandsons of
Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, too will continue to promote
Dhamma practice until the end of time; living by Dhamma and virtue, they
will instruct in Dhamma. Truly, this is the highest work, to instr uct in
Dhamma. But practicing the Dhamma cannot be done by one who is
devoid of virtue and therefore its promotion and growth is commendable.
This edict has been written so that it may please my successors to devote
themselves to promoting these things and not allow them to decline.
Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has had this written twelve years
after his coronation.
5. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: [10] To do good is
difficult. One who does good first does something hard to do. I have done
many good deeds, and, if my sons, grandsons and their descendants up to
the end of the world act in like manner, they too will do much good. But
whoever amo ngst them neglects this, they will do evil. Truly, it is easy to
do evil. [11]
In the past there were no Dhamma Mahamatras but such officers were
appointed by me thi rteen years after my coronation. Now they work
among all religions for the establishment of Dhamma, for the promotion of
Dhamma, and for the welfare and happiness of all who are devoted to
Dhamma. They work among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Gandharas,
the Rastrikas, the Pitinikas and other peoples on the western
borders. [12] They work among soldiers, chiefs, Brahmans, householders,
the poor, the aged and those devo ted to Dhamma — for their welfare and
happiness — so that they may be free from harassment. They (Dhamma
Mahamatras) work for the proper treatment of prisoners, towards their
unfettering, and if the Mahamatras think, "This one has a family to
support," "Th at one has been bewitched," "This one is old," then they
work for the release of such prisoners. They work here, in outlying towns,
in the women's quarters belonging to my brothers and sisters, and among
my other relatives. They are occupied everywhere. Th ese Dhamma
Mahamatras are occupied in my domain among people devoted to
Dhamma to determine who is devoted to Dhamma, who is established in
Dhamma, and who is generous.
This Dhamma edict has been written on stone so that it might endure long
and that my de scendants might act in conformity with it.
6. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: [13] In the past, state
business was not transacted nor were reports d elivered to the king at all
hours. But now I have given this order, that at any time, whether I am
eating, in the women's quarters, the bed chamber, the chariot, the
palanquin, in the park or wherever, reporters are to be posted with
instructions to report to me the affairs of the people so that I might attend
to these affairs wherever I am. And whatever I orally order in connection
with donations or proclamations, or when urgent business presses itself on
the Mahamatras, if disagreement or debate arises in the Council, then it
must be reported to me immediately. This is what I have ordered. I am munotes.in

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127 never content with exerting myself or with despatching business. Truly, I
consider the welfare of all to be my duty, and the root of this is exertion
and the prompt despatch of business. There is no better work than
promoting the welfare of all the people and whatever efforts I am making
is to repay the debt I owe to all beings to assure their happiness in this life,
and attain heaven in the next.
Therefore this Dham ma edict has been written to last long and that my
sons, grandsons and great -grandsons might act in conformity with it for
the welfare of the world. However, this is difficult to do without great
exertion.
7. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires tha t all religions should
reside everywhere, for all of them desire self -control and purity of
heart. [14] But people have various desires and various passions, and the y
may practice all of what they should or only a part of it. But one who
receives great gifts yet is lacking in self -control, purity of heart, gratitude
and firm devotion, such a person is mean.
8. In the past kings used to go out on pleasure tours during which there
was hunting and other entertainment. [15] But ten years after Beloved -of-
the-Gods had been coronated, he went on a tour to Sambodhi and thus
instituted D hamma tours. [16] During these tours, the following things
took place: visits and gifts to Brahmans and ascetics, visits and gifts of
gold to the aged, visits to peo ple in the countryside, instructing them in
Dhamma, and discussing Dhamma with them as is suitable. It is this that
delights Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, and is, as it were, another
type of revenue.
9. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus :[17] In times of
sickness, for the marriage of sons and daughters, at the birth of children,
before embarking on a journey, on these and other occasions, people
perform various ceremonies. Women in particular perform many vulgar
and worthless ceremonies. These types of ceremonies can be performed by
all means, but they bear little fruit. What does bear great fruit, however, is
the ceremony of the Dhamma. This involv es proper behavior towards
servants and employees, respect for teachers, restraint towards living
beings, and generosity towards ascetics and Brahmans. These and other
things constitute the ceremony of the Dhamma. Therefore a father, a son, a
brother, a ma ster, a friend, a companion, and even a neighbor should say:
"This is good, this is the ceremony that should be performed until its
purpose is fulfilled, this I shall do." [18] Other ceremonies are of doubtful
fruit, for they may achieve their purpose, or they may not, and even if they
do, it is only in this world. But the ceremony of the Dhamma is timeless.
Even if it does not achieve its purpose in this world, it pr oduces great
merit in the next, whereas if it does achieve its purpose in this world, one
gets great merit both here and there through the ceremony of the Dhamma.
10. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not consider glory and
fame to be of great accou nt unless they are achieved through having my
subjects respect Dhamma and practice Dhamma, both now and in the munotes.in

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128 future. [19] For this alone does Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desire
glory and fame. And whatever efforts Beloved -of-the-Gods, King
Piyadasi, is making, all of that is only for the welfare of the people in the
next world, and that they will have little evil. And being without merit is
evil. This is dif ficult for either a humble person or a great person to do
except with great effort, and by giving up other interests. In fact, it may be
even more difficult for a great person to do.
11. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: [20] There is no gift
like the gift of the Dhamma, [21] (no acquaintance like) acquaintance wi th
Dhamma, (no distribution like) distribution of Dhamma, and (no kinship
like) kinship through Dhamma. And it consists of this: proper behavior
towards servants and employees, respect for mother and father, generosity
to friends, companions, relations, Br ahmans and ascetics, and not killing
living beings. Therefore a father, a son, a brother, a master, a friend, a
companion or a neighbor should say: "This is good, this should be done."
One benefits in this world and gains great merit in the next by giving the
gift of the Dhamma.
12. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, honors both ascetics and the
householders of all religions, and he honors them with gifts and honors of
various kinds. [22] But Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not
value gifts and honors as much as he values this — that there should be
growth in the essentials of all religions. [23] Growth in essentials can be
done in different ways, but all of them have as their root restraint in
speech, that is, not praising one's own religion, or condemning the religion
of others without good cause. And if there is cause for criticism, it should
be done in a mild way. But it is better to honor other religions for this
reason. By so doing, one's own religion benefits, and so do other religions,
while doing otherwise harms one's own religion and the religions of
others. Whoe ver praises his own religion, due to excessive devotion, and
condemns others with the thought "Let me glorify my own religion," only
harms his own religion. Therefore contact (between religions) is
good. [24] One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by
others. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all should be
well-learned in the good doctrines of other religions.
Those who are content with their own religion should be told this:
Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts and honors as
much as he values that there should be growth in the essentials of all
religions. And to this end many are working — Dhamma Mahamatras,
Mahamatr as in charge of the women's quarters, officers in charge of
outlying areas, and other such officers. And the fruit of this is that one's
own religion grows and the Dhamma is illuminated also.
13. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, conquered the Kalingas e ight
years after his coronation. [25] One hundred and fifty thousand were
deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from
other causes). After th e Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved -of-the-
Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dhamma, a love for the munotes.in

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129 Dhamma and for instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved -of-the-Gods feels
deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.
Indeed, Beloved -of-the-Gods is deeply pained by the killing, dying and
deportation that take place when an unconquered country is conquered.
But Beloved -of-the-Gods is pained even more by this — those Brahmans,
ascetics, and householder of different religions who live in thos e countries,
and who are respectful to superiors, to mother and father, to elders, and
who behave properly and have strong loyalty towards friends,
acquaintances, companions, relatives, servants and employees — that they
are injured, killed or separated fr om their loved ones. Even those who are
not affected (by all this) suffer when they see friends, acquaintances,
companions and relatives affected. These misfortunes befall all (as a result
of war), and this pains Beloved -of-the-Gods.
There is no country, e xcept among the Greeks, where these two groups,
Brahmans and ascetics, are not found, and there is no country where
people are not devoted to one or another religion. [26] Therefore the
killing, death or deportation of a hundredth, or even a thousandth part of
those who died during the conquest of Kalinga now pains Beloved -of-the-
Gods. Now Beloved -of-the-Gods thinks that even those who do wrong
should be forgiven wher e forgiveness is possible.
Even the forest people, who live in Beloved -of-the-Gods' domain, are
entreated and reasoned with to act properly. They are told that despite his
remorse Beloved -of-the-Gods has the power to punish them if necessary,
so that they should be ashamed of their wrong and not be killed. Truly,
Beloved -of-the-Gods desires non -injury, restraint and impartiality to all
beings, even where wrong has been done.
Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved -of-the-Gods considers to be
the best conq uest.[27] And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here,
on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king
Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy,
Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the
Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. [28] Here in the king' s
domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the
Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas,
everywhere people are following Beloved -of-the-Gods' instructions in
Dhamma. Even where Beloved -of-the-Gods' envoys have not be en, these
people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances
and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved -of-the-Gods, are following
it and will continue to do so. This conquest has been won everywhere, and
it gives great joy — the joy wh ich only conquest by Dhamma can give.
But even this joy is of little consequence. Beloved -of-the-Gods considers
the great fruit to be experienced in the next world to be more important.
I have had this Dhamma edict written so that my sons and great -grandso ns
may not consider making new conquests, or that if military conquests are
made, that they be done with forbearance and light punishment, or better
still, that they consider making conquest by Dhamma only, for that bears munotes.in

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130 fruit in this world and the next. May all their intense devotion be given to
this which has a result in this world and the next.
14. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has had these Dhamma edicts
written in brief, in medium length, and in extended form. [29] Not all of
them occur everywhere, for my domain is vast, but much has been written,
and I will have still more written. And also there are some subjects here
that have been spoken of again and ag ain because of their sweetness, and
so that the people may act in accordance with them. If some things written
are incomplete, this is because of the locality, or in consideration of the
object, or due to the fault of the scribe.
9.4 THE KALINGA ROCK EDICT S:
1. Beloved -of-the-Gods says that the Mahamatras of Tosali who are
judicial officers in the city are to be told this: [30] I wish to see that
everything I conside r to be proper is carried out in the right way. And I
consider instructing you to be the best way of accomplishing this. I have
placed you over many thousands of people that you may win the people's
affection.
All men are my children. What I desire for my own children, and I desire
their welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, that I desire
for all men. You do not understand to what extent I desire this, and if
some of you do understand, you do not understand the full extent of my
desire.
You must attend to this matter. While being completely law -abiding, some
people are imprisoned, treated harshly and even killed without cause so
that many people suffer. Therefore your aim should be to act with
impartiality. It is because of these things — envy, anger, cruelty, hate,
indifference, laziness or tiredness — that such a thing does not happen.
Therefore your aim should be: "May these things not be in me." And the
root of this is non -anger and patience. Those who are bored with the
administration of justice will not be promoted; (those who are not) will
move upwards and be promoted. Whoever among you understands this
should say to his colleagues: "See that you do your duty properly. Such
and such are Beloved -of-the-Gods' instructions." Great fruit wi ll result
from doing your duty, while failing in it will result in gaining neither
heaven nor the king's pleasure. Failure in duty on your part will not please
me. But done properly, it will win you heaven and you will be discharging
your debts to me.
This edict is to be listened to on Tisa day, between Tisa days, and on other
suitable occasions, it should be listened to even by a single person. Acting
thus, you will be doing your duty.
This edict has been written for the following purpose: that the judicia l
officers of the city may strive to do their duty and that the people under
them might not suffer unjust imprisonment or harsh treatment. To achieve
this, I will send out Mahamatras every five years who are not harsh or
cruel, but who are merciful and who can ascertain if the judicial officers munotes.in

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131 have understood my purpose and are acting according to my instructions.
Similarly, from Ujjayini, the prince will send similar persons with the
same purpose without allowing three years to elapse. Likewise from
Takha sila also. When these Mahamatras go on tours of inspection each
year, then without neglecting their normal duties, they will ascertain if
judicial officers are acting according to the king's instructions.
2. Beloved -of-the-Gods speaks thus: [31] This royal order is to be
addressed to the Mahamatras at Samapa. I wish to see that everything I
consider to be proper is carried out in the right way. And I consider
instruct ing you to be the best way of accomplishing this. All men are my
children. What I desire for my own children, and I desire their welfare and
happiness both in this world and the next, that I desire for all men. [32]
The people of the unconquered territories beyond the borders might think:
"What is the king's intentions towards us?" My only intention is that they
live without fear of me, that they may trust me and that I may give them
happiness, not sorrow. Furthermore, they should understand that the king
will forgive those who can be forgiven, and that he wishes to encourage
them to practice Dhamma so that they may attain happiness in this world
and the next. I am tel ling you this so that I may discharge the debts I owe,
and that in instructing you, that you may know that my vow and my
promise will not be broken. Therefore acting in this way, you should
perform your duties and assure them (the people beyond the borders ) that:
"The king is like a father. He feels towards us as he feels towards himself.
We are to him like his own children."
By instructing you and informing you of my vow and my promise I shall
be applying myself in complete fullness to achieving this objec t. You are
able indeed to inspire them with confidence and to secure their welfare
and happiness in this world and the next, and by acting thus, you will
attain heaven as well as discharge the debts you owe to me. And so that
the Mahamatras can devote them selves at all times to inspiring the border
areas with confidence and encouraging them to practice Dhamma, this
edict has been written here.
This edict is to be listened to every four months on Tisa day, between Tisa
days, and on other suitable occasions, it should be listened to even by a
single person. Acting thus, you will be doing your duty.
Minor Rock Edicts
1. Beloved -of-the-Gods speaks thus: [33] It is now mor e than two and a
half years since I became a lay -disciple, but until now I have not been very
zealous. [34] But now that I have visited the Sangha for more than a ye ar, I
have become very zealous. Now the people in India who have not
associated with the gods do so. This is the result of zeal and it is not just
the great who can do this. Even the humble, if they are zealous, can attain
heaven. And this proclamation has been made with this aim. Let both
humble and great be zealous, let even those on the borders know and let
zeal last long. Then this zeal will increase, it will greatly increase, it will munotes.in

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132 increase up to one -and-a-half times. This message has been proclaimed
two hundred and fifty -six times by the king while on tour.
2. Beloved -of-the-Gods speaks thus: [35] Father and mother should be
respected and so should elders, kind ness to living beings should be made
strong and the truth should be spoken. In these ways, the Dhamma should
be promoted. Likewise, a teacher should be honored by his pupil and
proper manners should be shown towards relations. This is an ancient rule
that conduces to long life. Thus should one act. Written by the scribe
Chapala.
3. Piyadasi, King of Magadha, saluting the Sangha and wishing them
good health and happiness, speaks thus: [36] You know, reverend sirs, how
great my faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and Sangha is. Whatever,
reverend sirs, has been spoken by Lord Buddha, all that is well -
spoken. [37] I consider it proper, reverend sirs, to advise on how the good
Dhamma should last long.
These Dhamma texts — Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way of
Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, the Discourse on the
Pure Life, Upatisa's Questions, and the Advice to Rahula which was
spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech — these Dhamma texts,
reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks and nuns may constantly listen to
and remember. [38] Likewise the laymen and laywomen. I have had this
written that you may know my intentions.
9.5 THE SEVEN PILLAR EDICTS:
1. Beloved -of-the-Gods speaks thus: [39] This Dhamma edict was written
twenty -six years after my coronation. Happiness in this world and the next
is difficult to obtain without much love for the Dhamma, much self -
examination, much respect, much fear (of evil), and much enthusiasm. But
through my instruction this regard for Dhamma and love of Dhamma has
grown day by day, and will continue to grow. And my officers of high,
low and middle rank are practicing and conforming to Dhamma, a nd are
capable of inspiring others to do the same. Mahamatras in border areas are
doing the same. And these are my instructions: to protect with Dhamma,
to make happiness through Dhamma and to guard with Dhamma.
2. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speak s thus: Dhamma is good,
but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little evil, much good,
kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. I have given the gift of sight
in various ways. [40] To two -footed and four -footed beings, to birds and
aquatic animals, I have given various things including the gift of life. And
many other good deeds have been done by me.
This Dhamma edict has been written that people might follo w it and it
might endure for a long time. And the one who follows it properly will do
something good.
3. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: People see only their
good deeds saying, "I have done this good deed." But they do not see their munotes.in

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133 evil deeds saying, "I have done this evil deed" or "This is called evil." But
this (tendency) is difficult to see. [41] One should think like this: "It is
these things th at lead to evil, to violence, to cruelty, anger, pride and
jealousy. Let me not ruin myself with these things." And further, one
should think: "This leads to happiness in this world and the next."
4. Beloved -of-the-Gods speaks thus: This Dhamma edict was w ritten
twenty -six years after my coronation. My Rajjukas are working among the
people, among many hundreds of thousands of people. The hearing of
petitions and the administration of justice has been left to them so that
they can do their duties confidently and fearlessly and so that they can
work for the welfare, happiness and benefit of the people in the country.
But they should remember what causes happiness and sorrow, and being
themselves devoted to Dhamma, they should encourage the people in the
countr y (to do the same), that they may attain happiness in this world and
the next. These Rajjukas are eager to serve me. They also obey other
officers who know my desires, who instruct the Rajjukas so that they can
please me. Just as a person feels confident h aving entrusted his child to an
expert nurse thinking: "The nurse will keep my child well," even so, the
Rajjukas have been appointed by me for the welfare and happiness of the
people in the country.
The hearing of petitions and the administration of justi ce have been left to
the Rajjukas so that they can do their duties unperturbed, fearlessly and
confidently. It is my desire that there should be uniformity in law and
uniformity in sentencing. I even go this far, to grant a three -day stay for
those in pris on who have been tried and sentenced to death. During this
time their relatives can make appeals to have the prisoners' lives spared. If
there is none to appeal on their behalf, the prisoners can give gifts in order
to make merit for the next world, or obs erve fasts. Indeed, it is my wish
that in this way, even if a prisoner's time is limited, he can prepare for the
next world, and that people's Dhamma practice, self -control and
generosity may grow.
5. Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Twenty -six years
after my coronation various animals were declared to be protected —
parrots, mainas, aruna, ruddy geese, wild ducks, nandimukhas, gelatas,
bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, vedareyaka, gangapuputaka,
sankiya fish, tortoises, porcup ines, squirrels, deer, bulls, okapinda, wild
asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons and all four -footed creatures that are
neither useful nor edible. [42] Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which
are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are
young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks
hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forests are not to be burnt
either wit hout reason or to kill creatures. One animal is not to be fed to
another. On the three Caturmasis, the three days of Tisa and during the
fourteenth and fifteenth of the Uposatha, fish are protected and not to be
sold. During these days animals are not to b e killed in the elephant
reserves or the fish reserves either. On the eighth of every fortnight, on the
fourteenth and fifteenth, on Tisa, Punarvasu, the three Caturmasis and
other auspicious days, bulls are not to be castrated, billy goats, rams, boars munotes.in

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134
and other animals that are usually castrated are not to be. On Tisa,
Punarvasu, Caturmasis and the fortnight of Caturmasis, horses and
bullocks are not be branded.
In the twenty -six years since my coronation prisoners have been given
amnesty on twenty -five occasions.
6. Beloved -of-the-Gods speaks thus: Twelve years after my coronation I
started to have Dhamma edicts written for the welfare and happiness of the
people, and so that not transgressing them they might grow in the
Dhamma. Thinking: "How can the w elfare and happiness of the people be
secured?" I give attention to my relatives, to those dwelling near and those
dwelling far, so I can lead them to happiness and then I act accordingly. I
do the same for all groups. I have honored all religions with var ious
honors. But I consider it best to meet with people personally.
This Dhamma edict was written twenty -six years after my coronation.
7. Beloved -of-the-Gods speaks thus: In the past kings desired that the
people might grow through the promotion of the Dh amma. But despite
this, people did not grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. Beloved -
of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, said concerning this: "It occurs to me that in
the past kings desired that the people might grow through the promotion of
the Dhamma. But d espite this, people did not grow through the promotion
of the Dhamma. Now how can the people be encouraged to follow it?
How can the people be encouraged to grow through the promotion of the
Dhamma? How can I elevate them by promoting the Dhamma?" Beloved -
of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, further said concerning this: "It occurs to me
that I shall have proclamations on Dhamma announced and instruction on
Dhamma given. When people hear these, they will follow them, elevate
themselves and grow considerably through the promotion of the
Dhamma." It is for this purpose that proclamations on Dhamma have been
announced and various instructions on Dhamma have been given and that
officers who work among many promote and explain them in detail. The
Rajjukas who work amo ng hundreds of thousands of people have likewise
been ordered: "In this way and that encourage those who are devoted to munotes.in

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135 Dhamma." Beloved -of-the-Gods speaks thus: "Having this object in view,
I have set up Dhamma pillars, appointed Dhamma Mahamatras, and
announced Dhamma proclamations."
Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, says: Along roads I have had banyan
trees planted so that they can give shade to animals and men, and I have
had mango groves planted. At intervals of eight krosas, I have had wells
dug, re st-houses built, and in various places, I have had watering -places
made for the use of animals and men. But these are but minor
achievements. Such things to make the people happy have been done by
former kings. I have done these things for this purpose, th at the people
might practice the Dhamma.
Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: My Dhamma
Mahamatras too are occupied with various good works among the ascetics
and householders of all religions. I have ordered that they should be
occupied with t he affairs of the Sangha. I have also ordered that they
should be occupied with the affairs of the Brahmans and the Ajivikas. I
have ordered that they be occupied with the Niganthas. [43] In fact, I have
ordered that different Mahamatras be occupied with the particular affairs
of all different religions. And my Dhamma Mahamatras likewise are
occupied with these and other religions.
Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: These and other
principal officers are occupied with the distribution of gifts, mine as well
as those of the queens. In my women's quarters, they organize various
charitable activities here and in the provinces. I have also ordered my sons
and the sons of other queens to distribute gifts so that noble deeds of
Dhamma and the practice of Dhamma may be promoted. And noble deeds
of Dhamma and the practice of Dhamma consist of having kindness,
generosity, truthfulness, purity, gentleness and goodne ss increase among
the people.
Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Whatever good deeds
have been done by me, those the people accept and those they follow.
Therefore they have progressed and will continue to progress by being
respectful to moth er and father, respectful to elders, by courtesy to the
aged and proper behavior towards Brahmans and ascetics, towards the
poor and distressed, and even towards servants and employees.
Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: This progress among
the people through Dhamma has been done by two means, by Dhamma
regulations and by persuasion. Of these, Dhamma regulation is of little
effect, while persuasion has much more effect. The Dhamma regulations I
have given are that various animals must be prote cted. And I have given
many other Dhamma regulations also. But it is by persuasion that progress
among the people through Dhamma has had a greater effect in respect of
harmlessness to living beings and non -killing of living beings.
Concerning this, Beloved -of-the-Gods says: Wherever there are stone
pillars or stone slabs, there this Dhamma edict is to be engraved so that it
may long endure. It has been engraved so that it may endure as long as my munotes.in

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136
sons and great -grandsons live and as long as the sun and the moon shine,
and so that people may practice it as instructed. For by practicing it
happiness will be attained in this world and the next.
This Dhamma edict has been written by me twenty -seven years after my
coronation.
9.6 THE MINOR PILLAR EDICTS:
1. Lumb ini Pillar
Twenty years after his coronation, Beloved -of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi,
visited this place
and worshipped
because here the
Buddha, the sage
of the Sakyans,
was born. [44] He
had a stone figure
and a pillar set up
and because the
Lord was born
here, the village
of Lumbini was
exempted from
tax and required
to pay only one eighth of the produce.
2. Kosambi Pillar
Beloved -of-the-Gods commands: [45] The Mahamatras at Kosambi (are to
be told: Whoever splits the Sangha) which is now united, is not to be
admitted into the Sangha. Whoever, whether monk or nun, splits the
Sang ha is to be made to wear white clothes and to reside somewhere other
than in a monastery. [46]
#Author - Ven. S. Dhammika -The Edicts of King Asoka
9.7 SUMMARY:
The F irst Evidence of the Religion Spreading outside India Coinsides with
Ashoka's rule as he sent emissaries to Sri Lanka and an area called
Suvarnabhumi, which could be in modern Myanmar. Ashoka's son, monk
Mahinda, converted king Devanampiya Tissa and other nobility in modern
day Sri lanka to Buddhism. King Tissa built the Mahavihara monastery,
which became the main centre of Buddhism in the island nation. After Sri
Lanka, it took more a thousand years for Buddhism to become a leading
religion in Myanmar. Slo wely and gradually buddhism spread rapidly in
south east asia. Therefore, the spread of buddhism in Asia, East and West.
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137 9.8 QUESTIONS
When did Buddhism start spreading outside India?
Why Buddhism became dominent religion in Srilanka and Myanmar?
Why em porer Asoka is known as the poineer of spreading buddhism in
outside India?
9.9 ADDITIONAL READING
 Cunningham Alexander - Corpus inscriptionum indicarum - Vol. I
Inscriptions of Asoka, 1877
 D. R. Bhandarkar, Asoka. Calcutta, 1955
 R. Mookerji, Asoka. Delhi, 1962
 Amulyachandra Sen, Asoka's Edicts. Calcutta, 1956
 Seneviratna (editor), King Asoka and Buddhism. 1993
 D. C. Sircar, Inscriptions of Asoka. Delhi, 1957

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138 10
NUMIS MATICS

Unit Structure:
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Int roduction
10.2 History of Numismatical Study in India
10.3 Beginning of Numinismatical Studies in India
10.3.1 The first Phase (1784-1849 AD)
10.3.2 The Second Phase (1850-1900 AD)
10.3.3 The Fourth Phase (1940-195 AD)
10.3.5 The Fifth Phase (1920 onwards)
10.4 Summary
10.5 Questions
10.6 Additional Reading
10.0 OBJECTIVES:
After going through this unit the students will be able to:
1. Understand the history Numism atic studies.
2. Study the different phases of Numismatic studies.
10.1 INTR ODUCT ION
Numismatics literally means “collection of coins”. In course of time, it
came to be known as the “study of old coins”. Now, it is the study of
coins as historical objects and a source of history.
Since his branch of the historical research has been developed, it
contributes wealth of information to our understanding to the past. Coins
as a source of history, throw light on various aspects of history.
Sometimes, many historical events are hidden in the dark and therefore,
those historical facts are unknown to us. At this juncture the coins are
very important as they add to our historical knowledge.
Sometimes, coins confirm the historical facts, known from other sources.
Many historical facts which are evident from the literary sources are
corroborated by the numismatic evidence. Thus, the coins are one of munotes.in

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139 the most valuable sources for the reconstruction of ancient Indian
history and they are most essential from the historical point of view.
10.2 HISTORY OF NUMISMATICAL STUDY IN INDIA
Ever since man’s existence on earth, he tried to make his material and
spiritual life purposeful. He tried to progress and with this objective he
moulded his activities. He manufactured goods from the raw material,
which ultimately led to the rise of human civilization in different parts of
the world.
In the beginning, man was confined to himself or his family and his needs
also were limited. However, with developing process of socialization and
growing contacts with other communities, they started exchanging their
own products with others.
At this stage, the mutual exchange of commodities was introduced in
which goods were exchanged for goods, later on, the mutual exchange
took the shape of Barter system.
Soon the disadvantages of this barter system were realized and new
method of exchange was evolved. A common commodity was fixed to
serve as an intermediary in all transactions.
With the advancement of time, certain commodities were given
preference over other and a higher value was attached to them. So
commodity became a medium of exchange and got a standard by which
the value of other things was estimated. This was the first stage towards
the evolution of coinage.
Medium of Exchange:
In this beginning, Agricultural products were used as the medium of
exchange. Pastoral Vedic people used their cows as the medium of their
transactions. It remained the medium of exchange till the Brahmanic
period. The cows proved to be more stable in value then agricultural
products because they had a capacity for multiplication, for work and for
the supply of milk.
In course of time, even this medium of exchange proved to be
inconvenient and therefore, precious stones and metals were accepted as
medium of exchange.
The Vedic people used gold for their ornaments. Later on they were
used for their currency and money also. There are references to old
bullion as Hiranya panda in the Rig-Veda . In the epics – Ramayana and
Mahabharata, there are references to Hir anya and suvarna as a medium of
exchange. Nis hka (gold currency), Mana and Pada were others
forms or currency mentioned in the Vedic literature. Besides Niskha,
Satamana and Pada, a number of other coin terms like vimsatika,
trimsatika, Sana and karshapana are also mentioned in the Ashtadhyayi of munotes.in

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140 Panini – which is dated to centuries circa 8th B.C. These terms indicate
that usage of coin had become common among the people in India.
10.3 BEGINNING OF NUMISMATICAL STUD IES
IN INDIA
The effort to know and study about coins is known as
Numismatography.
During the era of Renaissance, there was a new wave of interest in the
classical world. The men of Renaissance delighted in the fine arts. They
collected the masterpieces of art. The first great collection of coins also
was made during the Renaissance period. In the beginning, these coins
were collected only as little masterpieces of art, but later on, particularly
in the 18th century, the importance of numismatics for the study of history
was recognized.
The collectors of the coins were mainly men who were concerned with
field work such as army officers, engineers etc. They collected coins
for the purpose of their own pleasure. Some of them tried to study them
and supply new information to history.
However the organized study of coins as a science of numismatics began
only in beginning of 19th century in United Kingdom, when
‘Numismatics Society’ was organized on June 22, 1836. In 1907, this
society became, ‘Royal Numismatics Society’.
In India, the real coin collecting started only in the beginning of the 19th
century. When the British civil and military officers of India took been
interest in it. As a matter of fact, numismatics was recognized as a
primary source of history and was utilized for historiography in India,
as early as the 12th century A.D. by Kalhana – the chronicler of
Kashmir and the author of Raj – Tarangini. However, the modern
numismatography in India was led by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in
1784 , and the real study of numismatic began only in the first half of the
nineteenth century. The Indian numismatography can be divided into
many phases.
10.3.1 i) The First Phase (1784 – 1849):
a) During this phase some European scholars such as Mionnet and
Viscounti published different Indo – Greek Coins which were
discovered in earlier centuries.
b) R oyal Asiatic Society also published a memoir in which Greek,
Parthian and Indian medals illustrated by engravings were published.
c) Efforts were made to search coins from Mathura and other
Indian cities of celebrity, and nearly 20,00 0 coins were discovered. It
included coins each of Appo lodotus and M enander which
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141 d) Attempts were made to study these coins from historical point of view
by Wilhem Von Schlegel.
e) Gene ral Ventura led remarkable discoveries of Bactrian and Indo
Scythian coins in Punjab in 1830. in Afghanistan, Charles M esson
discovered m any coins which proved to be of great value in the
advancement of numismatic studies. He published 3 memoirs from 1834
to 1836 on the coins discovered by him. With the help of these coins only
James Princep could decipher the ancient Indian Alphabets (script).
f) During this phase, a large number of coins were discovered.
Gene ral Ventura, Lt. Burnes, Dr. Martin Honiberger and especially Mr.
Messon and others collected the coins. Their collection materially
contributed to our knowledge of numismatics.
g) The listing of the coins was done by the Asiatic Society. Wilson and
Princep played an important role in listing of the coins. The catalogues of
the Roman and Greek coins were published during this time.
h) During this time, the early history of India with the help of
numismatics was writte. Lassen is the first historian of ancient Indian
history who successfully used numismatics. Lassen, Wilson, Raoul
Rochette, Mionnet and others made valuable contributions in this phase
of Indian numismatography.
10.3.2 ii) The Second Phase (1850 – 1900):
The phase of numismatography is known as the era of classification,
cataloguing and survey. During this phase, numismatic studies was taken
up by many scholars and on that basis their application to historiography
flourished in the 20th century.
New the planned discoveries and explorations took the place of chance
discoveries. A scientific basis was established and planned thinking led
to classification, analysis and survey. Alexande r Cunningham played
a vital role in this regard. He wrote many books on coins such as –
1) ‘Coins of Alexande r’s successors in East’ published in 1873.
2) ‘Coins of Indo Scythians’ in 1892.
3) ‘Coins in Ancient India’ in 1894.
4) ‘Coins of Medieval India’ in 1894.
5) ‘Coins of Later Indo Scythians’’ in 1895.
These books provided a comprehensive, up to date and scholarly
account of entire coins series of Ancient India. His observations serve as
source material for early Indian numismatics.
During 1880-190 some other basic catalogues of important collection of
coins were published. During this phase only the foundation of the studies
of coins of Deccan and South India was laid by Pand it Bhagvanlal munotes.in

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142 Indraji, E. J. Rapson, W. Elliot and others. ‘The Coins of Southern
India’ by Elliot in 1886 and ‘Indian Coins’ by E. J. Rapson in 1897 were
published. ‘Indian Coins’ is the first valuable book which gives a short
summary of the whole range of ancient Indian coinage with well selected
examples.
10.3.3 iii) The Third Phase (1990 – 1940) :
During the third phase, Vincent Smith, George Macdona ld, John Allan
and R. B. Whitehead contributed to Indian Numismatics. Two other
events which accelerated the numismatic studies in India were as follows:
a) Fr om year 1904 ‘Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal’ (JASB)
started publishing numismatic supplements which enab led the students
and collectors of the coins to take big leap towards publication of their
discoveries and results of their research.
b) In Year 1910, ‘Numismatics Society of India’ was founded at
Allahabad. It provided a forum to students and collectors of coins to
discuss their problems. It also helped in coordination and publication
the results of their studies.
Since 1921, numismatic was introduced as a subject of study in
Indian Universities – first in Calcutta and then, Banaras, Bombay etc.
This period witnessed increased but organized activities towards
collecting and classifying numismatics data. Another feature of this
period is constructive utilization of numismatic material for historical
writing of ancient India. The notable featu res of the attempts made of
systematic studies during this period are as follows:
a) To study and interpret the symbols found on Punch Marked Coins
(PMC).
b) To study the coinage of Bactrian Greeks (in the excavation of Taxila
by John Marshall a very large number of coins of Indo – Greek rulers
were discovered).
c) To study coins of the Gupta Sovereigns. d) To study coins of the
Hunas.
e) Coins of Gurjara Pratihara / Gujarat Chalukyas popularly known as
Solankis were noticed for the first time by Burn.
10.3.4 The Fourth Phase (1940 – 1950) :
During the period, the numismatic material was discovered and
published. Most of it was published in the ‘Journal of numismatic Society
of India’. Some of the important publications were.
a) Memoir on ‘The technique of casting coins in ancient India’ by
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143 b) ‘A hoard of silver punch marked coins from Purnea’ c) ‘Numismatic
parallels in Kalidasa’ by Shivram Murti. d) ‘Coins of Marwar’ by
Pand it B. N. Reu.
e) ‘Bhartiya Sikke’ by Mr. Upadh yaya.
Scholars like C. R. Singhal, Prof. A S. Altekar, Mr. Walsh, Mr.
Chakravarti, Dr. Parmeshwarilal Gupt a and Diks alkar have also
contributed to Indian Numismatics through their writings.
Several new hoards of Punch Marked coins were either discovered or
published during this period. Dr. P. L. Gupta’s research on Punch Marked
Coins given a comparative study of the subject and is valuable for the
study of Punch Marked coins. D. D. Kosambi m ade a considerable
progress in the classification of these coins and the analysis of hoards.
During this period, considerable new light has also been thrown upon the
history and numismatic of Central India by the discovery of the coins
of the Post Mauryan Period.
10.3.5 The Fifth Phase (1950 onwards) :
After 1950, the work was continued by Dr. As. Aletkar, Mr. Sohani, Dr.
Jaiswal, V. V. Mirashi, Dr. P. L. Gupt a and others. Tremendous work has
been continued by many other scholars as well as ‘Numismatic Society
of India’, and the ‘Institute of the Research in Numismatic studies’
near Nasik in Maharashtra.
Contr ibution of Numismatics to Indian History:
Numismatics is one of the greatest and most valuable source of
ancient Indian history. Coins help us to build up the history of our
country.
By the study of different types, symbols monograms, inscriptions,
portraiture, fabric metallurgy etc. of a coin, we can amass a wealth of
information about historical facts. This data or information is extremely
valuable for the study of ancient Indian political history.
Coins reveals the names of unknown kings. For example, most of the
Indo-Greek kings are known from their coins. Their coins are the only
information we have regarding their existence. Only two of these
Indo-Greek kings are mentioned in the inscriptions and seven in
literary sources. All other remaining Indo- Greek rulers are known only
from their coins. Anot her example is that, according to some puranas
there were 30 kings of the Satavahana dynasty. However we have got four
other rulers whose coins have been found but are not mentioned in the
above mentioned puranic lists or any other literary works. They are Saka
Satakarni, Rudra Satakarni, Kumbha Satakarni and Karna Satakarni.
There are kings of many other North Indian dynasties of the pre-Mauryan
period, often called as local or tribal, whose existence is revealed by the
Numismatic evidence only. Many rulers of the Kushana dynasty are also
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144 Coins sometimes give us information about the titles of kings. For
example, titles of the Sakas and the Gupta emperors are known from their
coins.
The coins help up to fix-up the chronology. Many of the coins mention the
year in which they were issued for example, coins of Samudragupta have
helped us to fix-up the exact dates of Samudragupta. The genealogy and
chronology of the karddamaka Sakas who ruled about three hundred
years, which is reconstructed mainly with the help of their coins. There
coins given the year in which they were issued along with the name and
title of issuer and also the name and title of issuer’s father and thus
these coins reveal to us the relations between two kings such as father-
son or uncle-nephew or brother relationship.
The great importance or Numismatic evidence for reconstruction of
political history is beyond question. For example it confirms important
political events. The fact that a Demetrius – a Parthian king ruled in north
western India is proved by his bilingual coins both – silver and copper.
Numismatic evidence also reveals important facts about Sytho-parthian
and Kushana age, numismatic testimony is of immense value. Also for
the study of Gupta political history, coins play an important role. For a
historian, Gupta coins are one of the basic source material for the
reconstitution of the Gupta history. For example, the fact that
Kumaragupta – I performed an Ashvamedha sacrifice is known only
from his coins.
The location of the coins help us to determine the extent of the territory
of a king. For example, the coins of the Satavahanas give us an idea of the
extent of their empire.
The ancient Indian coins are of a great value for the study of
constitutional and administrative history also. Some coins bearing the
legend ‘Yaudheya Gana sya Jayah’ and ‘Malava Gana sya Jayah’ of the
Yaudheya and Malava repub lic confirm the existence of repub lican
form of government.
Coins throw a welcome light on the history of scripts and languages also.
For example, relative popularity of Brahmi Kharoshthi and Greek scripts
in the age of the Kushana is indicated by their coins.
From the economic point of view, also coins are mist valuable. They
throw light on several aspects of economic history. For example, the use
of coins in an ancient of the dynasty usually indicates the growing
poverty of its treasury. For example, the depreciation of currency
during the time of Skandagupta is the best example of this nature.
‘Find sots’ of the coins reveal the area of the concentration of economic
activities and brings to light on commercial activities, ancient Indian
trade route, trade centres and the market towns. For example, the
discovery of a large number of Roman gold coins in India confirms the
fact that there was a brisk trade between India and the Roman Empire.
Another fact that silver punch marked coins were produced in large munotes.in

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145 number in India. However silver in India is found extremely meager in
quantity. This show that the sil ver was imported from the western
countries, since, it was imported from the west, this also throws the
light on Indian trade with the western countries and also the
economic prosperity of India.
The ship type coins of the Satavahanas and the Pallavas suggest that it
was an important tool of their economy. It also refers to the maritime
activities of the rulers. Artistic execution may indicate the peaceful
economic activities of the rulers. Artistic execution may indicate the
peaceful economic condition of the society. Sometimes complete non
availability of coins is generally taken as an indication of economic
decline or backwardness.
From social and cultural point of view also coins prove to be of great
value. The Gupta coins for example, give clear picture of the Royal
amusements, hobbies, furniture, house materials, weapon s of war and
hunting etc.
The aspects of cultural life such as dress, ornaments, furniture, weapon s,
lifestyle etc. also can be studied with the help of coins.
Numismatic evidence furnishes valuable material for religious
history. Especially the punch marked coins are a store house for religious
symbols in India. The depiction of deity and symbols of coins help us in
determining the associations of different cults with different regions.
Sometimes temples are depicted on the coins.
In the socio religious history of India the important fact is the adoption of
Indian religious by an absorptions into Hindu society by the foreign tribes
which poured into India from time to time. Numismatic evidence
furnished important data in this regard. They prove that many foreigners
embraced Hi nduism and Buddhism and some of them adopted Indian
names. For example, Vasudeva – a Kushana ruler. From the coins of
Mihirkula, who was a Huna invader, worshipped Nandi, the vehicle of
Shiva. From the coins of Gupta it appears that Vishnu and Lakshmi were
the most famous deities of the Gupta ruler. On many of coins, Goddess
Lakshmi is shown seated on the throne or a lotus. Durga was also very
popu lar during that time. The coins are also important for, they tetify the
fact that some of the Gupta emperor performed Vedic sacrifices such as
Ashamedha. Coins are of a great help in the study of art and
iconography. From example, coins of Kanishka and Huvishka depict a
large number of deities, some with peculiar iconographic features.
However, the coins of Guptas mainly depict the Bramanical deities.
Coins can be studied as pieces of art, Gold coins of Gupta rulers with
their numerous types and varieties are the finest example of
Numismatic in India. They also indicate the advanced technical skill in
the field of Metallurgy of the period.
It thus goes without saying, that coins are the most important and
authentic sources because they provide a detailed information about the munotes.in

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146 ‘socio, economic, cultural, religious and other aspects of the life of the
people of Ancient India.’
Check your progress:
1. Which European scholars published Indo – Greek Coins?
2. When did Numismatics Society’ was established?
10.4 SUMMARY
Coins are an important primary source for the s tudy of Ancient and
medieval period. Coins provide information about the particular king,
dynesty, trade and commerce, social organization, leadership, beliefs and
mythology. The study of coins are included in the science of Numismatics.
The Numismatics re veals facts and customs of the period of that coins.
The historians have traced the records and authentic information about
ancient dynesties and kings through the various primary sources, coins is
one of the important source to write the authentic histor y and to analyse
the proper information based on primary sources.
In the early periods, coins had played an important role of the newspapers.
The Romans and Greeks used coins to announce new emporers, winning
battles, holidays, celebrations and charitable s events. Similarly it happens
in India during Ancient period. Therefore, the study of numismatics is
very ittential to trace the authentic information in the history.
10.5 QUESTIONS
1. Why Numismatics is an important science to study o the various the
coins?
2. How coins are the authentice sourc to study the history?
3. What are the different phases of Numismatics to study the Indian
History?
10.6 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A. S, Coinage of the Gupta Empire, Numismatic Society of
India, Varanasi, 1957.

2. Altekar A.S., Catalogue of Coins of the Gupta Empire, Varanasi,
Numismatic Society of India, 1937

3. Chakraborty, S K, A Study of Ancient Indian Numismatics,
Mymensingh, 1931.

4. Datta, Mala, A Study of the Satavahana Coinage, Harman Publishing
House, Delhi, 1990.

5. Gardener P, The Coinage of the Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria
and India in British Museum, 1986. munotes.in

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147 6. Goyal S R, Indigeno us Coins of Early India, KusumanjaliPrakashan,
Jodhpur, 1994.

7. Gupta P L and Sarojini Kulashreshtha, Kushana Coins and History,
DK Publishers, New Delhi, 1993.

8. Jha, Amiteshwar and DilipRajgor, Studies in the Coinage of Western
Kshatrapas, Indian Institute o f Research in Numismatic Studies,
Anjaneri, 1994.

9. Rajgor, Dilip, Punch -Marked Coins of Early Historic India, Reesha
Books, International, 2001.

10. Salatore R N, Early Indian economic History, Popular Prakashan,
1993.

11. Sircar D C, Studies in Indian Coins, Motil al Banarasidas, Delhi, 1968.

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148 11
ANCIENT INDIAN COINAGE
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Punch Marked Coins
11.3 Kushana Coinage
11.4 Coins of The Satvahana s and the Sakas
11.5 Coins of Guptas
11.6 Contribution of Numismatics to Indian History
11.7 Summar y
11.8 Questions
11.9 Additional Reading
11.0 OBJECTIVES:
After going through this unit the students will be able to:
1. Understand the history of coins.
2. Know the details of coins made by various dynaties
3. Analyse the contribution of Numis matics in Indian History.
11.1 INTR ODUCT ION
Approximately 2500 years ago, the coins were struck in India for the first
time. They were used as a symbol and token of value. Thus the system
of barter exchanges was replaced by the coin have been discovered in
large hoards in almost all parts of India. We get a clear evidence of the
coin currency in India during the Sixth century B./C. from the writings of
Herodotus-a Greek historian and Panini – the author of Ashtadhyayi
empire, paid 300 tablets of gold dust as annual tribute from about 518 B.
C. to 350 B. C.
Panini in his Ashtadhyayi has also mentioned about the stamped
metallic pieces of coins. In this book, instances of transactions in terms of
Satamana, Nishka and Pada and the coin term such as Vimsatika,
Trimsatika, Sana and Karshapana are mentioned.
In the Third Century B. C. Kautilya in his Arthasastra has described how
coins were manufactured. He describes the method of minting coins in his
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149
11.2 PUNCH MARKED COINS
The earliest coins of the India are made of silver. These coins bear
the stamps of one to five punches. Unlike today, more than one punch
was used to stamp the coins. Because of its manufacturing technique
these coins are known amongst the numismatists and scholars
(historians) as Punch Marked Coins. The symbols were usually punched
on metal pieces.
Coins:
The following are the important features of Punch Marked
a) The earliest coins of India have only Figures, devices or
symbols. They were in various forms like hills, trees, birds, animals,
reptiles, human figures, floral and geometrical patterns, religious symbols
etc. They did not contain and inscription.
b) The coins of ancient period have the shapes of the conceivable liner,
geometrical forms, round, oval and elliptical. They bear the stamps from
one to five punches.
c) The coins enable us to isolate the coins of one area from those of
another one.
d) The early silver punch marked coins have been found in large
numbers, sc attered all over the country. The earliest of them were issued
by the Janapadas and Mahajanpada was which existed after the
Mahabharata war (circa 11th century B.C.)
e) These coins are found only in a particular area or locality. Some or
probably all of the Mahajanpadas might have been using metal as
currency and money during the later Vedic period (circa 8th century B.C.
and after). Gradua lly the idea of coin must have originated among them.
However it may only be said that the coins of these states were current in
prior to the Fifth century B.C. and they gradua lly disappeared by the end
of Fourth Century B.C., when the Magadha Empire extended.








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150 The states which issued the Punch Marked Coins were :
1) Surasena 2) Uttar Poanchala 3) Dakshina Panchala 4) Vatsa
5) Kosala 6) Kuntala (Kuna la) 7) Kasi 8) Malla 9) Magadha
10) Vanga 11) Kalinga 12) Andhra 13) Asmaka 14) Mulaka
15) Avanti 16) Saurashtra 17) Gandhara
The coins of each state differ from one another in their execution,
fabric, weight, quality of metal and symbology. They have been
discussed. The coins of Asmaka and Kunala were produced by pouring
out molten metal on a flat board. They were stamped, when the metal was
still soft.
a) The Asmaka coins were thick, circular or oval and slightly sc yphate .
The symbol is very simple, appears like two small pulleys attached to a
bigger pulley with two separate belts. Their weights varied from 21 to
23 to 108 to 121 grains.
b) The Kunala coins were also thick and dumpy pieces, but in shape
they were irregular and linear. The coins had a few small symbols around
the centre. The bold symbol on these coins appears like a lotus patte rn or
three semi circles with round ed ends around a pellet. The coins weighted
105 and 50 grains.
c) The coins of Saurashtra were thin, small pieces of about 15 grains in
weight. The symbol represented a bull surrounded by several minute
symbols.
d) The coins of Saurasena, Uttar Panchala and Dakshin Panchala were
approximately of 25 grains.
 Surasena coin has a cat or lion like animal placed over two inverted
semicircl es, taurine, triskelis, crescent etc. were found in the field on
the right.
 Uttara Panchala coins had fish, bull, elephant with or without a rider
as the main symbols.
 The coins of Dakshin Panchala were in about a hundred varieties
according to the form and symbol. The symbols were found,
composed of dots solid and hollow circles, pellets, lines, squares,
taurines etc.
e) Gandhara issued coins of a peculiar shape of a concave long bar
bout 1’ to 1.75” in length and about 4 centimeters in width. They
appea red as the Bent Bars. The common symbol was circ ular design
composed of six tridents and pellets radiating from a central circle. They
weighed between 150 to 180 grains.
f) The coins of Vanga were thin, rectangular pieces, about half inch
in size and 50 to 52 grains in weight. They had symbols like a single munotes.in

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151 decked ship, a wheel, a six armed symbol consisting of six arrows placed
around on double circle.
g) Vatsa coins were thin in fabric which weighed 42 grains. The
symbols were geometrical pattern, animals, whorls and six armed
symbols.
h) Earlier Kosala coins were broad, thin and roundish pieces and later
coins were a medium thick fabric. The symbols on these coins were
mostly geometrical patterns, elephant, bull and hare, some forms of the
trees also seen. These coins weighted only 42 grains.
i) The coins of Kasi appeared a little saucer – like due to the mode of
punching the symbols. The symbols were composed of a compiled form
of whorls, consisting of four arms and having several curved branches.
Some symbols appeared like a lotus pattern. They weighed 75 grains.
j) The Andhra coins were thin pieces of irregular shape and bore neatly
punched symbols. An elephant facing left or right was the most common
and was found on almost all coins. The other symbols were a
conventionalized form tree, geometrical pattern made by circles, taurine,
dots etc. occasionally bull was also found. The coins weighted about 20
grains.
k) The Kalinga coins were very similar to Andh ra coins in their
fabric and weight. They also followed one of its varieties for their
symbols. They seemed to be interrelated with Andhra Coins.
l) Some of the coins of the kingdom of Malla were dumpy, thick and
weighed 65 grains while some others weighed from 10-12 to 48-50
grains. They had two symbols. These were simple geometrical patterns.
m) Magadha coins were grouped into two periods.
1) The coins which were issued when Magadha was merely a kingdom.
2) The coins which were issued during the period of its imperial
expansion.
They weighed in three groups : 46 to 49 grains, 92 to 97 grains and 125
grains. Some coins were oval shape d flat pieces round or elliptical. The
symbols on them were lotus patterns, a symbol of common type which
appeared to be six armed symbol.
Important Symbols found on the Punch Marked Coins:
i) On the main variety of wheel marked coins occurred the wheels or sun
like design.
ii) A mountain of three or more peaks with or without crescent.
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152 iv) Trees and branches also played significant part in the symbols of the
punch marked coins. They were shown in several forms. The most
common of them had the tree in railing.
v) Rarely weapo n and tools were shown. They contained bow and
arrow with or without taurine symbols.
vi) One very common symbol was caduceus arrangements of squares
or triangles were also found.
vii) The symbols apparently represented buildings.
viii) Sometimes, human figures were also found. The most important was
the group of 3 human figures struck by one punch.

Symbols found on Punch Marked Coins
The Interpretation of the Punch Marked Coins :
The interpretation of Punch marked symbols on the coin is a matter of
guess work. Some sc holars think that they are religious in nature. Others
feel that they are official marks adopted freely from animal and plant
world. Sometimes it is assumed that they stand for ruling dynasties or
kings while some scholars are of the opinion that they stand for ruling
dynasties or kinds while some scholars are of the opinion that they are
marks of the bankers.
The issue of these silver punch marked coins stopped sometime in the
second century B.C. However the coinage exerted a wide influence
during the next 400 to 500 years. During this period, the punch
marked coins of Magadha continued to be in circ ulation.
The copper came into use for coins most likely during the time of the
Mauryan and Kautilya refers to them. But copper punch marked coins
were very rare and were most likely local issues, which were issued in the
post Mauryan period.


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153 11.3 KUSHANA COINAGE


Coins of the Kushanas
After the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, a number of smaller state
emerged in India. The North-western part of India was occupied by
foreign rulers such as the Indo-Greeks, Parthians and Shakas. They issued
coins of Greek style in India. It obviously i nfluenced the Indian
coinage. From about 2nd century B.C. onwards many ruling dynasties
of India, as well as the repub lics were highly influenced by the Greek
Pattern of coinage.
In the beginning of Christian era, the Kushanas became predominant
in North India and Afghanistan. For the first time, Gold coinage with
legends in Greek, Brahmi and Kharosthi scri pts was introduced by the
Kushanas, known to Chinese as Yueh-chi.
Yueh-chi was a nomadic tribe and their homeland was the Chinese
Turkistan. They were forced to migrate from their homeland. They
arrived in the Oxus region and settled at Bactria. They stayed there for
about hundred years. After that a prince of Kue-shuang of Indo-Parthian
realm in Afghanistan, Gandhar and lower swat valley. His successors
spread their rule in the North Indian territories. The Kushanas occupied
the land upto Varanasi in the east lasted for more than a century.
According to some scholars, the Kushanas had moved into Bihar and
the Gangetic delta in Bengal and probably also in Orissa. The original
name of the tribe was lost in the course of time they were referred to as
Kushanas in their coins and the inscription. They are mentioned in
Buddhist literature such as Madhyamik sutra by Nagarjuna and
Buddhacharita by Ashvaghosha.
a) Coins of Kujula Kadfises: He was the first Kushana ruler of India.
The earliest Indian Kushana coins were issued by him. They were made
by copper. On some of these coins the symbols were a bull on the one
side and a double humped Bactrian Camel on the other. On some coins
Hermaeus was depicted on one side of the coin and Herakles on the other.
He issued some other type of coin on which Roman style male head
was depicted on one si de and on the other was shown a male munotes.in

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154 dressed in Indo-Scythian c ostume and seated on a coach who was
probab ly Kujula Kadfises.
All these coins were bilingual having Greek inscriptions on the observe
and Kharosthi on the reverse.
b) C oins of Wima Kadfises : Wima was the son and successor of
Kunjula Kadfises. He also iss ued many varieties of the coins. His c oins
were radically different from his father’s he issued copper coins like his
father and also extensive gold coins for the first time in India. Probably he
issued these coins inspired by Roman gold coins – that were pouring into
India in plenty through trade. He issued gold coins of 3 denominations
which were Double Di nara, Dinara and Quarter Dinara. The last one was
rare.
Wima is portrayed on observe side of these coin as an elderly man
in various moods, i.e.
1) Seated on a coach
2) Seated at a window
3) Riding on an elephant
4) Standing sacrificing at an alter etc.
On the reverse si des of these coins were – ‘Mahishwara Sarvaloka
Ishvara.’ This shows that he had identified himself with Shaivism. His
coin were also bilingual – i.e. Greek and Kharosthi. He was succeeded by
Kanishka.
c) Coins of Kanishka : Kanishka is sued coins in gold and copper and on
them he used the same type of his father’s portrait standing, holding
a spear in his hand etc. On the reverse of his coins many deities were
depicted. He introduced three deities with Greek name. But they were not
portrayed on their iconographic forms.
He also introduced some mid-Iranian (Bactrian or Khotanese) deities on
his coins. These were a number of deities make and female, bearing the
Iranian names Mihira or Mithra. Mao (moon), Oado (vayu), Athsho
(fire), Mazdhah (supreme Zoroastrian deity) etc. These coins bear legend
– ‘Shaona no shao kaneshki koshana’. Kanishka also retained Shiva of his
father’s coins under the name of osho (shiva). He introduced the figure
of Buddha with the legend ‘Bodo’ or ‘Sakamano Boddo’
(Shakyamani Buddha). He stopped the bilingual tradition of Greek and
Kharosthi and retained only Greek legend. His c oins were of two
denominations i.e. Dinara and Quarter Dinara.
d) Coins of Huvishka: Kanishka was succeeded by Havishka. He also
issued gold and copper coins on which he was portrayed I various moods.
The inscription on the coins is informally ‘ Shao Nano Shao Oeshki
Kushana’. All the Iranian deities seen on the cons of Kanishka were
also seen of the coins of Huvishka. Besides, he added to the list of munotes.in

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155 deities a number of new ones. His coins also had a few non Iranian
deities such as Herakles (the Greek God). Oron (Varuna) etc. Some Indian
gods such as Shiva with his consort Ommo (Uma), their son Kartikeya
also find place on his gold coins. Skandakumra and vizago (vishkha) also
were depicted on his coins.
e) Coins of Vasudeva: Vasudeva succeeded Huvishka. He also iss ued
coins on which he himself was portrayed on one side and three deities
– Nana, Oesho (shiva) and Vasudeva. Vasudeva has come to light only
recently from a coin. His Oeho (shiva) type coins were well struck and
neatly engraved.
Coins of later Kushana Rulers:
The Kushana coins of later rulers such as Kanishka – II, Vasishka etc. are
also available for the historical studies. On these coins, the deity Oesho
was replaced by the Goddess Ardoksho. Recently a coin bearing the name
of Masra of this kushana dynasty has been found. This has revealed the
fact that he was the last ruler of the dynasty. With his rule ended the
kushana dynasty in India.
11.4 COINS OF THE SATVAHANAS AND THE SAKAS
The coins of Satvahanas:
The successors of the Mauryas in western Deccan were the Andh ra-
Satvahanas. In the puranic lists they were mentioned as Andh ras.
However the inscriptions refer to this dynasty as Satvahanas. According
to some puranas, there were thirty kings of this dynasty, who ruled for
more than 450 years. According to M atsya Purana, the duration of
dynasty was 460 years and Brahmanda Purana, it was 456 years.
Simuka (Shrimukha) was the founder of dynasty as is mentioned in the
puranas.
However, when we analyse, and study the numismatic evidence of this
Andhra-Satvahana dynasty, it gives an entirely different historical picture.
The first twenty one rulers of the dynasty mentioned in the Puranic lists
are not familiar with our numismatic series. It is only the last nine rulers
of the Puranic lis ts whose historicity is suppo rted from coins.
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156
Silver Portrait Coins of the Satvahanas
These nine rulers issued their own coins and these coins show that they
were the rulers of some considerable importance. They were – Sri
Pulumavi, Siva-Sri Pulumavi, Skanda Satkarni, Sri- Yjna Satkarni, Vijay
Satkarni and Karna Satkarni who issued their own coins but are not
mentioned in the puranic lists.
Some c opper punch marked coins bearing a legend on them as ‘Sri-sata
and ‘Sir Satkarni’ have been found in Gujarat, Malwa, Saurashtra,
Maharashtra regions. These rulers have been identified as ‘Sri svati’ and
Gautamiputra Satkarni by Dr. P. L. Gupta.
One of the notable features of the Satvahana coinage is that, they are of
different labrics and motifs, made of lead and copper.
In Gujarat – Malwa region, their coins bear the figure of a lion
predominantly. In Gujarat Saurashtra region, their coins have an elephant
on one side and a tree railing on the other side. In Maharashtra, a large
number of lead, copper and potin coins are found. An elephant with trunk
upraised is shown on them as main symbol.
Besides lead, copper and potin coins at least seven of the Satvahana rulers
issued Silver coins. They were – Vasisthiputra Pulumavi, Vasisthiputra
Satkarni, Vasisthiputra Sivasa Pulumavi, Gautamiputra S atkarni,
Gautamiputra Yajnasri Satkarni, Skandasri Satkarni and Vijaya Satkarni.
Some of these silver coins bear their life like portrait – heads in Roman
tradition on the obverse with the name in Brahmi script and Prakrit
language. The main symbols on them are a six arched hill and an Ujjain
symbol with a common legend on them. The legends are written either in
Tamil or Telugu language. Perhaps this is earliest example of the
bilingual coins bearing two indigenous languages.
One notable thing of these silver coins is that, Gautamiputra Satkarni,
who was perhaps the most powerful king of the dynasty, did not issue any
silver coins of his own. He only counterstruck the silver coins of his
vanquished for, Nahapana – the western Kshatrapa – with his own
devices – a hill symbol with the legend –
‘Rano Gautamiputasasiri – Sataknisa’ on the one side and the Ujj ain
symbol on the other. This is evident by a discovery of a hoard of some
13,000 coins of Nahapana was discovered at Jogalthembi in the Nasik
district of Maharashtra. Many of these coins had been restruck by
Satavahana king Gaut amiputra Satakarni. This clearly r eveals the
historical fact that – ‘Nahapana’ sometimes had conquered the Konkan
and western Maharashtra from the Satavahanas as is evident by their
inscriptions. However, these territories had been re conquered by
Gautamiputra is evident by coins of Nahapana, which Gautamiputra had
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157
The Satavahana coinage was highly influenced by the Graseco – Roman
coinage is explained by Dr. H.S. Thosar as given below:
a) The Satavahanas started the use of election in their coinage from
the imitation of Romans. Such coins belonging to Sri Satkarni,
Vsisthiputra Pulumavi and Kochhiputra Satakarni were found. In this
coinage, the Satavahana s not only adopte d the mixture of different metals
but also the western technique of weight standard.
b) The practice of engraving the portrait or mask of the kind on con was
adapt ation by the Satavanas from the Romans which is mostly found on
the coins of Pulumavi and Yajnasri Satakarni.
c) Soph istication and variety were among other characteristics which
the Satavahanas borrowed from the Roman coinage. For example, some
coins of Yajnasri Satakarni display different stages of his life. In some
of the coin his mask looks middle aged and elderly one. In the hair
style the Hellenistic effect is clearly seen.
d) The classic example of Graceo – Roman influence on the Satavahana
coinage is the joint silver coin of Sri-Satakarni and his queen Naganika.
It reminds us of the coin of Hermaeus and his consort Calliope.
e) The ship type of coins of Pulumavi and Yajnasri were inspired by
the Roman Counter parts issued by the Roman Emperors Hardrian and
Commodus.
The Satavahanas has thus a major contribution in the development of
ancient Indian coinage. Their coinage was in circ ulation in the major
parts of India, stretching from Vidisha in the north to Kanchipura in the
south and from the Arabian sea in west to the Bay of Bengal in the east.
Almost all the Satavahana kings had issued their own coinage. They
followed uniform weight standard and fixed the relative value of coins of
different metal. The main symbols on the Satavahana coinage include
bull, elephant, hill, tree, conch, lion, chakra, horse, ship, auspicious signs
and Ujjain symbol.
The Sakas (Western Kshatrapas):







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158 Coins of the Sakas
The Western Kshatrapas were the contemporary of the Satavahanas.
While Satavahanas ruled in Western Deccan, the Sakas ruled mainly over
the Western coastal region of Gujarat and M aharashtra, especially, in
Gujarat, Saurashtra and Malwa. They were groupe d into two dynasties
viz.
1) The Kshaharatas – consisting of more than twenty five rulers.
2) The Karddamakas – consisting of two rulers.
1) The Kshaharapa Family:
Bhumak a was the first member of Kshaharata family and only a few
coppe r coins issued by him are found in the coastal regions of Gujarat,
Saurashtra and Mava. His coins bear the name ‘Bhumaka’ on both the
sides, one in Brahmi script and Sanskrit language and another in
Kharosthi scri pt and in Prakrit language. He was succeed by
Nahapana.
Nahapana - He issued silver coins. The notable feature of his coins is
that they are Triscri ptural. The blundered mixture of Graeco-
Roman characters on the obverse, with an exact translation of Prakrit
legend, which is written on the reverse in Brahmi and Kharosthi. A few
copper coins of Nahapana have also been found.
2) The Karaddamaka Sakas:
The first member of this family was Chastana. He issued silver coins. His
earlier coins had traces of a Graeco-Roman legend which unde rwent a
change into partly ornamental design. The main symbol on his coins are –
a crescent and a star, three arched hill surmounted with a crescent. The
legends on these coins are in Brahmi script. The Karddamaka Sakas
issued coins in silver and potin commonly and copper rarely. A few led
pieces attributed to Swami Rudradaman III have been found who was a
later ruler.
The important features of the Saka coinage :
The most important feature of the coinage of these rulers is that the
Brahmi inscriptions on the coins are fully informative. They give us the
names and titles of the issuers. Sometime they give us the names and
titles of the issuers. Sometime they give the names and titles of their
father or relative, whom they succeeded.
Another important feature of the Saka coins is that the system of the
year of issue of the coins in numerals was introduced for the first time on
the obverse of these coins. It was introduced during the region of
Jivadaman. These Saka coins are the earliest coins with dates which
help us in fixing the chronology of the western Kshatrapas as well as
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159 Depicting higher as well as lower tiles of kinds is a unique feature of the
Saka coins especially the coins of the Karddamaka dynasty bear a higher
title such as ‘Maha Kshatrapa’ and a lower title ‘Kshatrapa.’
The module and the weight of these coins appear to have been based on
the Indo-Greek of Roman silver coins.
The Sakas issued chiefly the silver coins, very few copper, potin and lead
coins of these rulers have been found.
The symbols on the coins of chastana, a horse is depicted, while on the
coins of Jayadaman, jivadaman, Rudradaman-I, bul id depicted. On some
other coins an elephant is seen.
Their coinage was similar to the coinage of the Kushanas on one side and
to that of the Satavahanas on the other.
11.5 COINS OF THE GUPTAS
The disintegration of the Mauryan Empire resulted in the rise of many
repub lics in Northern India. They were Malavas, Yaudhe yas, Kunindas,
Arjunayana etc. These repub lics issued the coins, some of them bearing
the legend on them like ‘Yaudheya Gana sya Jayah’. ‘Malava Gana sya
Jayah’ etc.
However the first quarter of the fourth century A.D. saw the foundation of
an empire by the Gupta family. The reign of Guptas in Indian history is a
fascinating one. As a matter of fact, it saw a prosperous and plentiful life.
The founder of the dynasty was ‘Sri Gupta’. This dynasty produced
emperors of cl ass, who consolidated the political power of India.
As compared to the empire of the Mauryas, Gupta empire was less
extensive, but more enduring that the Mauryas. This period witnessed the
growth of arts and science in all the conceivable branches of learning.
Almost all the Gupta rulers iss ued their own coins. The coins of the Gupta
rulers are very useful for the reconstruction of their history. These coins
can be classified into four groups viz.,
a) Gupta Gold Coins b) Gupta Silver Coins
c) Gupta Copper Coins d) Gupta Lead Coins
a) Gupta Gold Coins:
The Gupta emperors chiefly issued Gold Coins. They issued them in such
a large numbers, that a contemporary poet has rightly termed the
phenomenon as ‘a reign of gold’.
The earlier gold coins of the Guptas were deeply influenced by the
coinage of the later Kushanas. But the later Gupta coinage show more
superiority in their execution, and they are considerably original in their
style. The influence of the Kushana coins on the early coins of the Guptas
is seen especially in their dress and posture as depicted on their coins. For
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160 This is very much si milar in pose and posture of the kings as shown of
the Kushana coins. The king on these coins is seen wearing the Kushana
long – coat and trousers of the Kushana pattern are replaced by Indian
Dhoti and the form was changed as the kind is shown bare bodied. It
must be remembered that the art of Indian coinage reached the zenith
during the period of Chandragupta – I.

Gupta Coins
The following are the notable stages of development of the Gupta
coinage:
a) The Guptas retained the method of placing the name of the king
perpendicularly in Chinese fashion on the left hand.
b) They placed a circular Brahmi inscription around the king
towards the edge of the flan.
c) On the reverse side of the early coins of the Gupta rulers, Greek
Goddess Ardoksho was retained. Gradually, this patte rn was changed, and
Lakshmi, an Indian Goddess with a lotus in her hand is depicted on the
coin. On some coins she is shown, seated on a throne and on some others
seated on a lotus.
d) The system of naming the deity as is seen on the kushana coins was
replaced on the above coins with epithet on the issuing king by the Gupta
rulers.
e) The archer type coins of the Guptas are most common coins issued
by al the rulers of Gupta dynasty. Generally these coins show the king
who is holding a bo0w in his left hand. Sometimes the kind also
holds an arrow in his right hand.
The coins of Chandragupta – II and Kumaragupta – I of this type were
issued I a number of varieties and sub-varieties. These coins show the
king in
Different postures, figures either left or the right
Wearing a dress or bare bodied and,
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161 However, Samudragupta iss ued the coins mostly depicting him with a
spear or a standard. A few coins of this type were issued by Chand ragupta
– II also. A coin of Kumaragupta – I and a few coins of Samudragupta
depict them holding a sword in place of standard. Samudragupta issued
another type of coin of this series.
There he hold a battle axe, his right hand is on his hip and a dwarf is
standing on his right.
Besides the above mentioned coins, the Guptas issued coins of many
other types. These coins are truly original in this contents and are
excellent in their art. These are as follows :
a) On one of the types of the coins, we see both the king and queen
are portrayed. They were issued by Chand ragupta – I, Kumaragupta – I
and Skandagupta. Chandragupta – I’s coins bear the names of both i.e.
Chandragupta and his consort Kumaradevi. But Kumaragupta I and
Skandagupta’s coins dot not mention the names of their queens.
b) On another the coins, the king is shown seated on the coach, playing
the Indian Lute (vina). This lyrist type coins were issued by
Samudragupta and Kumaragupta – I. In these coins, the king is portrayed
in Indian dress. The excellent modeling of the king’s figure, the skillful
delineation of the features and the careful attention to details rank
these coins amongst the best expression of the excellence of the
Numismatic art of the Guptas.
c) Ri ding on a horse or elephant, shown on some other coins, shows
the royal interest in riding. Some coins of Chandragupta
– II, Kumaragupta – I are portrayed as riding on horse. On some are coins,
Kumaragupta – I is shown riding an elephant.
d) Royal interest in hunting also has become the subject of some other
coins; Samudragupta’s interest in hunting wild animals is portrayed on
his tiger – slayer type coins. Chand ragupta – II issued coins of the Lion –
Slayer type and Kumaragupta issued both types and added another type of
coins, riding a horse and killi ng a rhinoceros and on the other type, riding
an elephant and killi ng a lion.
On these coins, the issuing kings are gene rally shown shooting the animal
with now and arrow. However on a unique coin, Chandragupta – II is
portrayed as attacking a lion with his Sword.
e) On one of the types of coins, the king is portrayed with dwarf, male
attendant who is holding a chhatra (parasol) at the back. On one type of
Kumaragupta-I’ coin, three standing figures are shown.
f) Ashvamedha type coins were issued by Samudragupta and
Kumaragupta – I. These coins do not have a figure of the king, but show
figure of the horse tied to a sacrificial post. Probably these coins were
issued for distribution of Dakshina amongst the priests who has
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162 g) On the reverse side of all the coins, the Goddess is shown either
sitting or standing. On some coins were she is seen riding
a lion, she may be identified as Durga. On some, where she is standing
over a crocodile, she may be Ganga. On some coins, the Goddess is seen
seated in profile on a wicker stool. One type of Kumaragupta –I’s coin,
the God Kumara (Kartikeya) is shown seated on his peacock.
h) Most of the inscriptions of Gupta coins are in the form of a verse
celebrating in highly ornate language. The king’s glory on the earth and
his further bliss in the heaven attained through this merits. 6 different
legends are noticed on the coins of Samudragupta, 10 on Chand ragupta –
II and nearly 24 on the coins of Kumaragupta – I.
b) Gupta Silver Coins:
No silver coins of the early Gupt a rulers are known. However, silver
and copper coins of the Guptas were issued for the first time by
Chandragupta – II, when he came into contact with the Malwa region,
where the silver coins of the Sakas were in use. These silver coins
follow the Kshatrapa coins only. On the obverse side of these coins,
kings’ bust appears with the date of Gupta era, and on the reverse, the
symbol of the Sakas coins is replaced by the figure of Garuda. But these
silver coins of Chandragupta – II are few in number and are found mostly
to the western regions of his empire. Kumaragupta – I also issued silver
coins in large number in Gujarat – Saurashtra territories of his empire. But
the metal of his silver coins is debased. As a result, sometimes it appears
to be made of copper. On reverse si de of some of the coins, Garuda is
replaced by fan tailed peacock. These coins are rare and found in eastern
part of his empire (called as eastern type).
Samudragupta also issued silver coins of both the above types (western
and eastern). He also issued two new types – having a bull or fire
alter on the reverse. The notable feature of his coins is that the
debasement of metal that is found in silver coins of Kumaragupta – I is
quite absent.
Budhagupta was the last ruler, who issued silver coins. His c oins are only
of eastern type and are extremely rare.
c) Gupta Copp er Coins:
Coppe r coins of the Gupta rulers are very rare. They were iss ued only by
Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I. Only a coppe r coin
of Samudragupta has recently come to light. Coppe r coins of
Chandragupta – II and Kumaragupta – I are in seven or eight varieties
and follow the gold or silver patte rns for their obverse side. On the
reverse, the Gutpa Royal Seal served as the Prototype – a Garuda with the
wings spread at the top and the name and title of the king below it.

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Ancient Indian Coinage

163 d) Gupta Lead Coins:
Some square lead coins of Chandragupta – II, Kumaragupta
– II and Skandagupta have come to light in the recent years. They are
found only in Gujarat – Malwa region.
The description of the Gupta gold currency during the later period,
country passed through an uneven situation. It was mainly due to the
foreign invasion by the Hunas.
After the disintegration of the Gupta Empire, Indian economy faced a
great west – back due to which, Indian coinage saw the downward trend.
The succeeding dynasties such as Chalukyas of Badami, Gurjara
Pratiharas. The Rashtrakutas etc. issued their own coins. But by far the
Gupta coins were the best.
Check Your Progress:
1. Which Ancient Dynesy had issued gold coins?
2. What was the important features of panchmark coins?
11.7 SUMMARY
The study of coinage i n Indian history is called Numismatics. In this unit
the period of ancient India coinage traced to understand the authentic
history based on primary sources. The coins in different forms and metals
are created by the various dynesties and the kings. Maurya , Guptas,
Chalukyas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Satvahana has created their own
coins. The history of ancient India written by the historians and scholars
based on the primary sources. Coinage has its own importance in the study
of history.
11.8 QUESTIONS
1) What is numismatics? Trace the growth of Numismatical studies in
India during the 18th and 19th centuries.
2) Write an essay on the Punch Marked Coins of India.
3) Discuss the importance of the Kaushana coinage for the
reconstruction of Ancient Indian history.
4) Give a brief account of the Gupta Coinage as a source
material for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history.
5) Write short notes on :
a) Developments in Numismatical studies during the 20th Century.
b) Satavahana coins c) Gupta gold coins
d) Silver and copper coins of the Guptas.

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Introduction to Archaeology

164 11.9 ADDITIONAL READING
1. Altekar A. S, Coinage of the Gupta Empire, Numismatic Society of
India, Varanasi, 1957.
2. Altekar A.S., Catalogue of Coins of the Gupta Empire, Varanasi,
Numismatic Society of India, 1937
3. Chakraborty, S K, A Study of Anc ient Indian Numismatics,
Mymensingh, 1931.
4. Datta, Mala, A Study of the Satavahana Coinage, Harman Publishing
House, Delhi, 1990.
5. Gardener P, The Coinage of the Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria
and India in British Museum, 1986.
6. Goyal S R, Indigenous Coin s of Early India, KusumanjaliPrakashan,
Jodhpur, 1994.
7. Gupta P L and Sarojini Kulashreshtha, Kushana Coins and History,
DK Publishers, New Delhi, 1993.
8. Jha, Amiteshwar and DilipRajgor, Studies in the Coinage of Western
Kshatrapas, Indian Institute of Resea rch in Numismatic Studies,
Anjaneri, 1994.
9. Rajgor, Dilip, Punch -Marked Coins of Early Historic India, Reesha
Books, International, 2001.
10. Salatore R N, Early Indian economic History, Popular Prakashan,
1993.
11. Sircar D C, Studies in Indian Coins, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1968.



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