Paper-4-History-of-Medieval-India-1000-CE-1526-CE-Engilish-Version-munotes

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1 1
FOUNDATION, EXPANSION AND
DECLINE OF DELHI SULTAN
Unit Structure:
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.2 A) Socio -Economic And Political Condition Of India On The
Eve Of The Turkish Invasion
1.3 Economic Condition Of India On The Eve Of The Turkish
Invasion
1.4 Political Condition Of India On The Eve Of The Turkish Invasion
1.5 B) Rise And Decline Of Slave Dynosty, Khilh Dynosty
1.6 Iltutmish (1211a.d. -1236a.d.)
1.7 Questions
1.8 Raziya Sultana (1 236 -1 240)
1.9 Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266 -1287)
1.10 Conclusion
1.11 Questions
1.12 Alauddin’s Rise To Power
1.13 Alauddin’s Accession To The Throne Of Delhi
1.14 Dream Of World Conquest:
1.15 Imperial Expansion
1.16 Deccan Campaigns Of Alauddin Khilji
4.17 Kingdoms Of The Deccan A nd The South
1.18 Mongol Invasions
1.19 Conclusion
1.20 Questions
1.21 (C) Tughlag, Sahyaid And Lodi Dynasty
1.22 Saayid Dynasty (1 41 4 -1 451)
1.23 Lodi Dynasty (1451 -1526)
1.24 Conclusion
1.25 Questions
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Medieval India
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2 1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studing this unit you will be abl e:
 To understand the Social condition on the eve of the Turkish invasion.
 To analyse the Economic Condition on the eve of the Turkish
Invasion.
 To know the Political Condition on the eve of the Turkish
Invasion.
 To understand the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate at the turn of
the thirteenth century.
 To know the invasions of Mahmud of ghazni and Muhammad Ghori
on India.
 To expalin the functioning of Slave Dynasty in India.
 To examine the role of Raziya Sultana as a first woman to rule Delhi.
 To understa nd the role of Balban as a defacto ruler of Delhi.
 To elaborate the administration of Balban as a dejure ruler of Delhi.
 To trace Alauddin’s accession to throne of Delhi.
 To Know Alauddin’s expansion of the Sultanate.
 To understand Southern expeditions of Alauddin.
 To understand the Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.
 To know the reign of Sayyids Dynasties.
 To study the period of Lodi Dynasties.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
The invasion of the Turks at the turn of the eleventh century from Central
Asia had far -reaching consequences on the history of India. The Turks
established the politico -military control over major regions of the country and
promoted the religion -Islam that they professed and introduced and nurtured
the Islamic culture in all spheres. These factors led to the eme rgence of the
Muslim community with a well -defined religion and its own socio -cultural
moorings. Unlike the invaders of ancient India, the Turks and the Indian
converts to Islam maintained their distinct religio -cultural identity. In
order to understand th e reasons behind the Turkish invasions and the
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, it is important to analyze the socio -
economic and political conditions that prevailed in India on the eve of the
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Foundation, Expansion And
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3 One of the significant events in the his tory of India was the establishment of
the Delhi Sultanate at the turn of the thirteenth century. The invasions of
Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori not only resulted in the
plunder of rich cities and destruction and desecration of temples but also to
the introduction of a new political factor in India. The campaigns of
Muhammad Ghori paved the way for the rule of the Turks and the Afghans.
While Mahmud of Ghazni targeted the North Indian temple cities for wealth
and iconoclastic fervour, Muhammad Ghori n urtured political ambition in
addition to these motives. He desired to make northern India part of his
Ghorian Empire. Thus, following his successful campaigns, Muhammad
Ghori nominated his trusted and prominent slave, Qutbuddin Aibak as his
representative to govern the newly conquered regions in India.
Delhi became the center of the Turkish and Afghan power. By its strategic
position Delhi seemed to be the ideal seat of power. From Delhi access to the
Gangetic plains as well as to the central and western r egions was possible.
Besides, Delhi was the convenient location on the route from Afghanistan.
The Turkish power was not only concentrated at Delhi but radiated in
different directions from there. The Turkish rule from Delhi came to be
known as the Delhi S ultanate. The phrase ‘Delhi Sultanate’ is applied
to the history of Northern India extending from 1206 to 1526. However,
it is important to note that ‘Delhi Sultanate’ does not mean that a particular
dynasty ruled throughout this period. It is a general ph rase ascribed to the
rule of five successive dynasties. These dynasties were (1) The Slave Dynasty
(1206 -1290), (2) The Khilji Dynasty (1290 -1320), (3) The Tughlaq Dynasty
(1320 -1414), (4) The Sayyid Dynasty (1414 -1451) and (5) The Lodi
Dynasty (1451 -1 526 ).
Iltutmish died in 1236 A.D. after expressing his conviction that among
his children his daughter, Raziya alone was fit to succeed him. He was
conscious of the problems caused by an indefinite law of succession. In order
to avoid a civil war among his children and to save the infant Delhi Sultanate
from disintegration, he wanted to nominate his successor and train him in
affairs of government during his own lifetime. Initially he chose his eldest son
Nasiruddin Mahmud and appointed him as the governor of Lahore and
subsequently of Awadh and later of Bengal. However, the premature death
of Nasiruddin jeopardized Iltutmish’s plans.
Following the end of the end of the slave dynasty in 1290, a new
dynasty, known as the Khilji dynasty (1290 -1320) came to power at Delhi.
The founder of the Khilji dynasty was Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji. He
overthrew the last of the slave sultans, Kaiqubad. However, the greatest
ruler of this dynasty was Alauddin Khilji under whom the Delhi
Sultanate expanded far and wide in the India n sub -continent.
Following the death of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq
dynasty under tragic circumstance, his eldest son, Fakhruddin Muhammad
Jauna Khan, who was also given the title of ulugh khan, ascended the throne
of Delhi in 1325 with the title of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. His reign is one
of the most striking epochs in the history of the sultanate. It was during his
reign that a major part of the Deccan and South India passed under the direct munotes.in

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Medieval India
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4 rule of the Delhi Sultanate. It marked the cli max of the territorial expansion of
the Delhi Sultanate. Paradoxically, the decline of the sultanate also began at
this time.
1.2 A) SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
CONDITION OF INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE
TURKISH INVASION
1.2.1 Division of the Society into Caste System:
Since ancient times the Indian society was divided into four hierarchical
castes with prescribed privileges and disabilities. The four major castes
were: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Sudras. The division of
the society into castes an d sub -castes had created sharp differences between
different sections of the society. This in turn had weakened the society. The
Brahmins and Kshatriyas commanded the highest respect in the society while
the position of the Sudras and the Chandalas had bec ome worse than before.
The Smriti writers of the period ascribed exaggerated the privileges to the
Brahmins. On the other hand the Sudras were condemned to rigorous social
and religious disabilities. Besides the traditional four castes, there was a
large s ection of the people called antayaja. The hunters, the weavers, the
fishermen, the shoemakers and other people who engaged in such
professions belonged to this section. They occupied a position lower than the
Sudras. Still lower in social status were the H adis, Doms, Chandalas
etc. who performed duties such as lifting the dead cattle, cremating the
dead people, scavenging etc. They were forced to live outside the cities
and villages. They were treated as outcastes and untouchables.
With the passage of time the caste system had become very rigid. Marriages
between different castes were forbidden. According to a writer Parasara,
eating a Sudra’s food, association with a Sudra, sitting alongside a
Sudra, and taking lessons from a Sudra are acts which drag down even a
noblest person. The position of the lower castes in the society can be
imagined by the fact that even the Vaishyas were not allowed to study the
religious texts. According to Al -Beruni if any one dared to study the
religious texts his tongue was cut off.
One of the important features of the Hindu society on the eve of the
Turkish invasion was the emergence of new castes such as the Kayastha
caste. Originally, people from different castes, including Brahmins and
Sudras, who worked in the royal establi shments, came to be known as
Kayastha. With the passage of time, they crystallized into a distinct caste. As
Hinduism was spreading it absorbed not only the Buddhists and Jains but
also many indigenous tribes and foreigners who embraced Hinduism
during thi s period. These groups came to be organized in new castes and
sub-castes. In most of the cases they continued their own social customs
and traditions in relation to marriage etc. They even continued to worship
their own tribal gods and goddesses. The caste system and the proliferation
of additional sub -castes with their distinct social customs and position in
the caste hierarchy made the Hindu society more complex and divided on
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5 1.2.2 Deterioration of the Position of Women:
The position of women in the Indian society had been gradually
deteriorating over the years since ancient times. Women were generally
considered mentally inferior. The women were regarded as objects of
enjoyment by men and a means to procure children. They were required to
be subservient to their husbands. The Matsya Purana gave power to the
husband to beat his erring wife with a rope or a split bamboo. The women
were denied education. They had no right to study the Vedas. Child
marriage was a common practi ce. The Smriti writers laid down that girls
were to be given away in marriage by their parents between the ages of
six and eight or between their eighth year and attaining puberty. In general
remarriage of the widows was not permitted. As women were distru sted
they were kept in seclusion and their life was regulated by the male
relations such as father, brother, husband and son. However, within the
family, the women occupied an honourable position. Polygamy was
practiced in the society. The practice of Sati among women of higher castes was
becoming quite widespread. It was made obligatory by some writers, but
condemned by others. An Arab writer, Sulaiman mentions about the
practice of Sati. According to him, wives of kings sometimes burnt
themselves on the f uneral pyre of their husbands. However, the choice was
left to the wives. It seems probable that to avoid property disputes after the
death of polygamous feudal chiefs the rite of Sati tended to spread.
1.2.3 Emergence of Feudalism:
Emergence of the Feudal ism was one of the most noteworthy
socio -economic and political phenomena in the Indian sub-continent on
the eve of the Turkish invasion. The common feature of a feudal society is
that those who drew their sustenance from land without working on it held
the dominant position in society. The feudalization of the society was due
to the growing power of a class of people who were called samanta, rank,
rautta etc. Some of them were government officials who were assigned
revenue -bearing villages in lieu of cash salary. Some others were defeated
chiefs and their supporters who continued to enjoy the revenue of limited
areas. Military adventurers, local hereditary chiefs, and tribal or clan
leaders were also the components of the feudal society that prevailed durin g
this period. The feudal chiefs were included within the kingdoms. Their
assignments were passed on to the succeeding generations and assumed the
nature of hereditary fiefs. The hereditary chiefs gradually began to assume
many of the functions of the gove rnment. They maintained law and order,
assessed and collected revenue and administered justice.
The growth of a feudal society had disastrous effects on the Indian socio -
political system. Socially, the feudal class represented parasitical exploiters
of the ir tenants. Politically, feudalism weakened the position of the ruler.
The ruler became increasingly dependent on the feudal chiefs who
maintained their own military forces. Feudalism discouraged trade and
commerce and promoted economic self -sufficiency wi thin a village or
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6 1.2.4 Religious and Moral Decline:
Buddhism and Jainism continued to decline during the period under
our study. Meanwhile there was a revival and expansion of Hinduism.
There was a growing popularity of Siva and Vishnu. The worship of the
Sun and Brahma gradually declined. The worship of Shakti, the female
creative energy became popular in eastern India. Buddhism was gradually
confined to eastern India. The Pala rulers patron ized Buddhism. Jainism
continued to be popular in western and south India especially among the
trading classes. In the south, a series of popular movements arose which
popularized the worship of Siva and Vishnu. This was the origin of the
Bhakti movement t hat turned people away from Jainism. Another
popular movement that arose during the twelfth century in Karnataka was the
Lingayat movement founded by Basava and his nephew Channabasava.
The Lingayats are the worshippers of Siva. They strongly opposed the
caste system and rejected feasts, fasts, pilgrimages and sacrifices.
In spite of these developments, deterioration of religion and morality was
increasingly damaging the social fabric on the eve of the Turkish invasion.
Shankaracharya had tried to safeguard Hinduism from the influence of
both Buddhism and Jainism by developing a common philosophy known
as Advaita. However, he could not get rid of the evils that had crept into
Hinduism. Different religious sects made their appearance in different
regions of I ndia. A new sect known as Vamamarga Dharma had become
popular especially in Kashmir and Bengal. The adherents of this sect
indulged in wine, flesh, fish and women. The great mathas, which had been
centers of learning and piety gradually, degenerated into centres of luxury
and idleness. The other evil that can be traced to this period was the devadasi
system. Most of the important temples employed a number of unmarried girls
dedicated to the service of the deity. They were required to please the
deity of the temple by their dance. This custom gradually degenerated into
temple prostitution. According to U.N. Ghoshal nearly four thousand
temples in Gujarat contained more than twenty thousand dancing girls.
The literature and art during this period assumed obsce ne character. The
cult of the erotic had entered not only the literature but also the temple
sculpture and the Tantric rituals. The craze for sensuality had also dominated
Indian art of this period. The erotic sculptures of the Khajuraho temples built
by the Chandelas are a testimony of the sensuality of the contemporary
rulers, artists and the people in general.
1.2.5 Insular Character of the Indian Society:
The insular character of the Indian society made it ignorant of the various
developments that were taking place beyond the natural frontiers of the
Indian sub -continent. Indians were ignorant of the political, military,
social, cultural, religious and scientific progress of their neighbouring
countries. The upper castes of the Indian society developed a false sense of
pride in their superiority. Al Beruni, who accompanied Mahmud Ghazni to
India in the course of the invasions made the following observations about
the Indian society: “The Hindus believed that there is no country like theirs, munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion And
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7 no nation like t h e i r s , n o k i n g l i k e t h e i r s , n o r e l i g i o n l i k e t h e i r s , n o
science like theirs...” This account of Al Beruni indicates that the Indians
did not desire to learn anything from others. Further Al Beruni writes:
“The Hindus did not desire that a thing which has once been polluted
should be purified and thus recovered.” This complacency naturally prevented
the Indians from rising above their fossilized, narrow -minded existence, which
ultimately led to their weak resistance against the foreign invaders.
Check Your Progress:
1. What was the Social Conditions of India on the eve of the Turkish
Invasion?
1.3 ECONOMIC CONDITION OF INDIA ON THE EVE
OF THE TURKISH INVASION
1.3.1 Self -sufficient Village Economy:
On the eve of the Turkish invasion, as in the past, Villages were based on a
self-sufficient economy. Local production, either agrarian or handicrafts was
sufficient to meet the local requirements. No attempt was made at producing
surplus, which could be used for trade or exchange. The peasants did not
make any att empt to produce surplus, as it would have led to a demand from
the landowner for a larger share. There was lack of incentive towards surplus
production and subsistence level production was the order of the day.
1.3.2 Economic Stagnation:
Limited production and lack of trade led to a decrease in the use of coins.
The emergence of a wide range of weights and measures further
hampered the trade. The feudatories and the ruling class did not invest
their surplus wealth in any kind of productive activity. They ne ither
promoted agriculture nor craft production nor trade. They used their
surplus wealth for conspicuous consumption. They built richly ornamented
palatial homes. A large part of their income was spent in building
magnificent temples. These wealthy temple s became the prime targets of the
Turkish invaders. Their iconoclastic religious zeal of destroying idols was less
than their greed for plunder.
1.3.3 Diffusion of Income through Intermediary Taxes:
The multiplication of the sub -feudatories in the feudal structure resulted in
a wider diffusion of the income from the land. The diversion of income into
the hands of the intermediaries weakened the position of those at both
ends of the scale, the cultivator and the king. With an increase in the
number of interm ediaries the peasant was forced to pay taxes additional to the
basic land tax. The land tax was quite high. Some peasants paid as much as
one-third of the total produce to the landowner although the most usual
assessment was one -sixth. Under the feudal system, the feudal tenants
were required to pay separate taxes distinct from the land revenue to
maintain public works such as roads, irrigation, etc. The temple
authorities also collected additional dues from the peasants. As the land munotes.in

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8 grants to the Brahmins were tax free, the loss of revenue from these lands
had to be reimbursed from other sources. These taxes, together with the
obligation to provide free labour reduced the cultivators to a miserable
condition. Goods produced by the craftsmen were also taxed. The Chauhan
inscriptions throw light on a variety of taxes. The condition was the same in
most of the contemporary feudal kingdoms.
The aristocracy lived on the revenue from the land without participating in
the cultivation of it themselves. The Brahmin landholders employed
cultivators, as caste laws forbade them to cultivate land. The cultivation
activity was usually carried on by the peasants who generally belonged to
the Sudra caste.
1.3.4 Decline of Trade and Commerce:
Between seventh and tenth century t r a d e a n d c o m m e r c e received a serious
setback. The economic self -sufficiency of the villages led to a decline in
trade, which in turn affected the growth of towns. Arab geographers have
pointed out the existence of fewer towns in India as compared with Ch ina.
Continual wars among the neighbouring kingdoms also hampered trade. The
collapse of the Western Roman Empire also contributed to the decline of
Indian trade. The rise of Islam leading to the collapse of old empires such as
the Sassanid Empire of Iran, a l s o a f f e c t e d I n d i a ’ s f o r e i g n t r a d e , especially
the overland trade. India’s favourable trade which had led to the coming
back of gold and silver in the form of surplus was hampered too.
The North Indian overland trade with China through Central Asia grad ually
declined with the opening up of Central Asia to Persian and West Asian
traders. Besides, the conflict between the Tibetans, Turks, Arabs and
Chinese made the overland route to China unsafe. Under these
circumstances the sea -route between India and Ch ina became more and more
important. The Indian overland trade with China practically came to an
end in the thirteenth century when the Mongol invasions cut India off from
Central Asia.
1.3.5 Overseas Trade in South Indian Coasts:
In the coastal areas of In dian peninsula maritime trade still supported
prosperous port towns, especially in regions such as Gujarat, Malabar and
the Tamil coast, which still had a large overseas trade. The prosperity of
coastal towns was due partly to the settlements of foreign me rchants who
controlled most of the trade between India and the West Asia. Arab
merchants attempted to eliminate the Indian middlemen in the trade between
India and China by proceeding directly to China and to Southeast Asia. The
Arab geographers mentioned ports like Debal in the Indus delta, Cambay,
Thana, Sopara, and Kaulam (Quilon) on the west coast. Arab ships chiefly
frequented these ports and carried to the West goods either produced in India
or brought by Indian merchants from China or Southeast Asia. On the
eastern sea coast of India trade with China and Southeast Asia kept up the
prosperity of the coastal towns.
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9 1.3.6 Decline of Guilds:
Though the internal trade had not disappeared it was at a minimum level.
Artisans worked both in the villages and towns. A large number of artisans
worked in towns, where professional associations or guilds were
recognized. However, these associations had lost their previous dominant
position and influence in urban centres. There was a gradual shift of power
from thes e craft associations to the landowning class in rural areas.
However, in South India there did exist some powerful guilds.
1.3.7 Emergence of the Class of Money -lenders:
While the peasants and craftsmen were living at a subsistence
level, and internal trad e was at a minimum level, the class of moneylenders
was raking in prosperity during this period. The Moneylenders charged
fifteen per cent on the money lent to the needy peasants or craftsmen.
However, the Chauhan records indicate much higher interest such as thirty per
cent charged by the moneylenders. In the Rashtrakuta Kingdom the
interest was as high as twenty -five per cent. It has been pointed out that the
decline of trade and the unavailability of money were the likely reasons for
higher rates of inte rest.
1.3.8 Affluence of the Feudal Class:
Though the vast majority of the Indian peasants lived at the subsistence level
with self -sufficient village economy under the feudal structure, the country
had enormous wealth accumulated for generations. The roya l families,
courtiers, feudal class, and aristocracy lived affluent and luxurious lives. The
affluent classes manifested their wealth by building grand palaces and
constructing huge temples, which were the repositories of wealth. The
concentration of wealt h in the hands of the royalty and in the abodes of
gods, tempted the Turkish invader Mahmud Ghazni at the turn of the
eleventh century and Muhammad Ghori during the last quarter of the
twelfth century to invade India and break the political power of the ru ling
class and plunder the temples.
Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the Village economy under the feudal Structure.
1.4 POLITICAL CONDITION OF INDIA ON THE EVE OF
THE TURKISH INVASION
The Indian subcontinent was a mosaic of many kingdoms of varying size an d
strength. The neighbouring kingdoms constantly indulged in warfare for the
extension of their territories. Political disintegration in North and Central
India can be traced to the death of Harshavardhana (647). On the ruins of the
Vardhana Empire a numbe r of new kingdoms came into existence. These
kingdoms were not bound by any principle of unity. Though some of these
kingdoms were quite extensive and powerful they could not present any
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10 to internal strife and external conflict. The chief kingdoms that existed on the
eve of the Turkish invasion were the following:
1.4.1 The Arab Kingdoms of Sindh and Multan:
The Arab invasion of Sindh in 712 under the leadership of Muhammad bin
Qasim resulted in the establishment of the Arab rule over Sindh and
Multan. Initially, the Arab rulers of Sindh owed their allegiance to the
Caliph of Baghdad. However, since 871 they asserted their political
independence from the Caliph. However, for diplomat ic reasons they offered
nominal allegiance to him. On the eve of the invasion of Mahmud Ghazni,
the Arabs ruled over Sindh and Multan and were under the control of Fateh
Daud who was a Karmathian. However, it is important to note that the Arab
conquest of Sindh did not help in any way in the establishment of the Turkish
rule in India. The Arabs remained confined to Sindh and Multan as the
sprawling deserts of Rajasthan and the existence of powerful kingdoms
beyond restricted their advance into northern and central regions of the
country.
1.4.2 The Brahmin Hindushahi Kingdom:
The Brahmin dynasty of the Shahiyas ruled over an extensive territory
spread from the river Chenab to Multan including the Northwestern Frontier.
The Hindushahi kingdom had played an important role in resisting the
advance of the Arabs in North India for nearly two hundred years. With
the rise of the Ghaznavid Empire in Afghanistan, the Hindushahis were
forced to give up a part of their kingdom including Kabul and shift their
capital to Wahind on the right bank of river Indus. The Hindushahi Kingdom
was the first victim of the Turkish invasion. The struggle between the
Ghaznavids and the Hindushahis lasted for about forty years. The
Hindushahi ruler at the turn of the eleventh century was Jayapala who had
to face the initial onslaught of Mahmud Ghazni.
1.4.3 The Kingdom of Kashmir:
Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (12th century) gives a detailed account of the
kingdom of Kashmir. After the death of emperor Ashoka Kashmir became
an independent kingdo m. The greatest ruler of Kashmir was Lalitaditya
(725-755) who defeated Yashovarman the ruler of Kanauj in 740. There
were a number of dynastic successions in Kashmir. Kshemagupta was the
king of Kashmir towards the end of the tenth century. However, his q ueen
Dida was the de facto ruler. Eventually, she crowned herself as the queen and
ruled Kashmir till 1003.
1.4.4 The Pratihara Rulers of Western India:
The origin of the Pratiharas is shrouded in mystery. A number of
scholars are of the opinion that they were the descendants of the
Gurjara race. The Pratiharas established a powerful kingdom in the
western regions of India. Vatsaraja was one of the prominent rulers of the
dynasty who acquired the title of Samrat. He defeated Dharmapala, the ruler of
Bengal and gained control over Kanauj, which had been the imperial munotes.in

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11 capital of Hardhavardhana and Yashovarman. There was tripartite struggle
for the control of Kanauj between the Pratiharas, Palas of Bengal and the
Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. Nagabhatta II was ano ther important Pratihara
ruler. He conquered Malwa and parts of central India and even resisted the
advance of the Arabs. He also defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala. Later the
Pratihara king, Mahipala was defeated by Indra III, the Rashtrakuta king.
The Pr atiharas even lost control over Kanauj. As the Pratihara power
declined its hold was restricted to the upper Ganga valley and parts of
Rajasthan and Malwa. Gradually, their feudatories such as the Chandelas of
Bundelkhand, the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Paramaras of Malwa
became independent. Mahmud Ghazni defeated the last of the Pratihara
king, Rajyapala in 1018.
1.4.5 The Palas of Bengal:
The Pala kingdom was founded in Bengal in the middle of the eighth
century. The Pala dynasty lasted for four centuri es and had seventeen
rulers. The Pala kingdom included considerable regions of Bengal, Bihar,
Orissa and Assam. The Pala influence extended to Tibet and Southeast
Asia. The greatest ruler of the Pala dynasty was Dharmapala. The struggle
for mastery over Kanauj began during his reign. At first Vatsaraja, the Pratihara
ruler defeated Dharmapala and gained control over Kanauj. As the Pratiharas
were weakened due to conflict with the Rashtrakutas, Dharmapala recovered
from his defeat, reconquered Kanauj and installed his own nominee on the
throne. Mahipala I, who ruled in the first quarter of the eleventh century, was
a contemporary of Mahmud Ghazni. Due to its distance, the Pala kingdom
was not affected by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni. However, at the turn
of the eleventh century the decline of the Pala power could not be prevented
as powerful vassals began to assert their independence.
1.4.6 The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed:
The Rashtrakutas were the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami.
Following the downfall o f the Chalukyas, one of their vassals,
Dantidurga laid the foundation of Rashtrakuta power in 750 with
Malkhed near Sholapur as capital. The Pratiharas and the Palas were the
contemporaries of the Rashtrakutas. The Rashtrakuta rule in the Deccan
lasted for a l m o s t t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s till the end of the tenth century. They
came into conflict with the Pratiharas for the control of Gujarat and Malwa.
The Rashtrakutas also went to war against the Palas of Bengal, the
eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, the Pallavas of Ka nchi and the Pandyas of
Madurai. Indra III (914 -922) and Krishna III (939 -965) were the most
powerful Rashtrakuta rulers. Krishna III was engaged in a struggle against
the Paramaras of Malwa, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Cholas of
Tanjore. He def eated the Chola king, Parantaka I and annexed the
northern part of the Chola empire. The death of Krishna III was followed
by struggle for succession among his sons and the decline of the Rashtrakuta
power. The Paramaras of Malwa took this opportunity to a venge their
defeat. The Paramara ruler, Siyak attacked the Rashtrakutas, advanced on the
capital, Malkhed and sacked it. This marked the end of the Rashtrakuta
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12 1.4.7 The Rajput Kingdoms :
With the break -up of the Pratihara empire, a number of Rajput kingdoms
came into existence in North and Central India. On the eve of the Turkish
invasions, the Rajputs ruled major parts of northern and central India.
Where and how the Rajputs originated is still a mystery. According to
some scholars, the Rajputs were of foreign origin. This is suggested by the
efforts that were made by the Brahmins to give them royal lineage and grant
them the Kshatriya status. They were provided with genealogies, which
connected them either with the solar or lunar race. In this way royal
respectability was conferred on them.
The Rajputs rose to political importance in the ninth and tenth centuries.
They were divided into a number of clans of which four claimed a special
status. These were the Pariharas, the Chauhans, the Chaulukyas (Solankis)
and the Paramaras. These four clans claimed to be the Agnikula or Fire
Family. According to a legend these clans claimed their descent from a
mythical figure that arose out of a vast sacrificial fire -pit near Mount Abu in
Rajasthan. On the eve of the Turkish invasion, besides these Agnikula clans;
other Rajput clans were also ruling different regions of northern and central
India. The chief among them were:
1.4.7.1. The Chaulukyas of A nhilwara:
Mulraja founded The Chaulukya kingdom in the middle of the tenth century.
It was the most important Rajput kingdom in western India. Under
Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarapala, the Chaulukya kingdom became
the most powerful state in western India. I t s t e r r i t o r i e s i n c l u d e d G u j a r a t ,
Saurashtra, Malwa, Nadol and Konkan. The Chaulukyas weakened themselves
due to a prolonged struggle against the Chauhans of Ajmer. Their
feudatories reasserted their independence leaving only Gujarat and Kathiawar
under t heir control. Mulraja II was the contemporary of Muhammad Ghori.
1.4.7.2 The Chauhans of Aimers:
The Chauhan kingdom was the most important Rajput power on the eve of
the invasion of India by Muhammad Ghori. The Chauhan principality
emerged as a powerful p olitical entity during the eleventh and twelfth
centuries. The Chauhans extended their territories by waging wars against their
neighbours including the Chaulukyas of Gujarat and the Paramaras of
Malwa. Taking advantage of the decline of the Ghaznavid powe r in the Punjab
the Chauhans annexed the territory between the Sutlej and the Jamuna.
They also captured Delhi from the Tomaras. Under Prithviraja III (1178 -
1193) the Chauhans became a predominant power. The Chauhans and the
Gahadavalas of Kanauj were on hostile terms. Prithviraja III and the
Gahadavala ruler, Jaichandra were bitter enemies. Chand Bardai’s epic
Prithviraja -Raso describes the career and achievements of Prithivraja III.
In the course of Muhammad Ghori’s invasion, Prithviraja led the Rajput
confederacy to victory against the invader in the First Battle of Tarain
(1191). However, in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192) Prithviraja was
defeated by Muhammad Ghori. The defeat and death of this illustrious
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13 1.4.7.3 The Gahadavalas of Kanauj:
Following the decline of the Pratiharas, the Rajput dynasty of the
Gahadavalas occupied Kanauj during the first quarter of the eleventh century.
The Gahadavalas had the responsibility of protecting the Hin du holy cities
of Kashi, Ayodhya, Kanauj and Indrasthana. During the twelfth century the
Gahadavalas collected a special tax known as Turushka -danda. This
imposition was meant to maintain an army to defend the region from the attacks
from the Ghaznavids st ationed in the Punjab. Jaichandra (1170 -1193) was
the last important ruler of the dynasty. He was a rival of the Chauhan
ruler, Prithviraja III. Following the defeat and death of Jaichandra in a war
against Muhammad Ghori led to the downfall of the Gahadav alas.
1.4.7.4 The Tomaras of Delhi:
The Tomaras, who were the feudatories of the Pratiharas ruled in the
Haryana region surrounding Delhi. In 1043, Mahipala Tomar captured
Hansi, Thaneshwar and Nagarkot. However, he failed in his attempt of
capturing Lahor e. The city of Dhillika (Delhi) was founded by the Tomaras
in 736. As the Tomaras were constantly attacked by other Rajput neighbours,
especially the Chauhans, they entered into some kind of an alliance with
the Muslims. However, the Tomaras were overthrow n by the Chauhans in
the twelfth century.
1.4.7.5 The Paramaras of Malwa:
The Paramaras of Malwa began as feudatories of the Rashtrakutas but
revolted against their overlords at the end of the tenth century and became
independent with Dhar as their capital . The Paramaras became powerful
under their greatest ruler Bhoja (1010 -1055). He was a contemporary of
Mahmud Ghazni. His achievements were considered to be greater in the field
of literature and arts due to his generous patronage than in political and mil itary
spheres. It is believed that the decline of the Paramara dynasty began during
the reign of Bola. During the twelfth century a considerable portion of the
Paramara territory including Ujjain, was occupied by the Chaulukyas of
Gujarat.
1.4.7.6 The Chan delas of Bundelkhand:
The Chandelas established their control over Bundelkhand, the region to
the south of Kanauj. They assumed prominent position in the tenth
century in the region of Kajuraho. The most important ruler of the Chandela
dynasty was Vidhyadh ara. He was responsible for the defeat and death of
Rajyapala, the last ruler of the Pratihara dynasty of Kanauj who had failed to
resist Mahmud Ghazni. The Chandela ruler, Kirtivarman, resisted an invasion of
his territory by a Ghaznavid army from the Pun jab. The Chandela
dominion comprised of Mahoba, Kajuraho, Kalinjar and Ajaigarh. In spite of
various attempt to annex the kingdom by the Delhi Sultanate, the
Chandelas existed as a political entity till the beginning of the fourteenth
century.
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14 1.4.7.7 The Kalachuris of Chedi:
The main branch of the Kalachuris ruled from Tripuri near Jabalpore in
Madhya Pradesh. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Gangeya
Vikramaditya (1019 -1 041) who extended his territories in the northeast up to
Benaras and a pa rt of Bihar. The Kalachuris fought for supremacy against the
Chandelas as well as the Paramaras. The history of the Kalachuris had been
like other Rajput neighbours, a saga of conflict and eventual decline and
absorption within the growing Delhi Sultanate.
1.4.7.8. The Sena Kingdom of Bengal:
Following the downfall of the Pala Empire, the Sena Kingdom was
established in Bengal. During the eleventh century, one of the members of
the Sena family named Vijaya Sena (1097 - 1159) established a principality
in Eas t Bengal. He extended his power by scoring victories over the rulers
of Kamrupa (Assam), Kalinga and South Bengal. His successor Ballala
Sena was responsible for the final collapse of the Pala power in North
Bihar. He also captured a part of Bihar from the G a h a d a v a l a s . L a k s h m a n
Sena (1178 -1205) was a contemporary of Muhammad Ghori. He extended
the Sena power by defeating the kingdoms of Kalinga, Pala and Kamrupa.
He had to face the invasion under Bakhtiyar Khilji, the military commander of
Muhammad Ghori. H owever, the conflict with the Turks did not result in the
extinction of the Sena power. The Turks ruled over the western and
northern parts of Bengal, while the Senas were confined to East Bengal
who ruled the region till 1245.
Check Your Progress:
1. Who was the founder of Chalukya kingdom in the middle of the tenth
century.
1.5 B) RISE AND DECLINE OF SLAVE DYNOSTY,
KHILH DYNOSTY
The Slave dynasty ruled from Delhi from 1206 to 1290 A.D. The first ruler
of the Slave dynasty, Qutbuddin Aibak could be conside red as the real founder
of the Turkish rule in India. Though Muhammad Ghori included the regions
conquered by him in India to his empire in Afghanistan, his centre of
power was not in India. He remained the Sultan of Ghor. Following the
assassination of Muhammad Ghori, his representative in India, Qutbuddin
Aibak, with great foresight separated the kingdom of Delhi from the non -
Indian territories of the Ghorian empire and gave it an independent status.
This led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
1.5.1 Background of Qutbuddin Aibak:
Qutbuddin Aibak was born to Turkish parents in Turkistan. He belonged
to the tribe of Aibek. He was sold as a slave in his boyhood and finally
came under the possession of Muhammad Ghori. Due to his capability
Aibak rose to prominence and became his trusted lieutenant. After the
Second Battle of Tarain (1192), Aibak, the confidant of his master munotes.in

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15 practically became the ruler of the latter’s conquests with power to extend
them. Further, he captured Meerut and Delhi and co -operated with his master
in the defeat of Jayachandra, the Gahadavala ruler of Kanauj in the Battle of
Chandwar. Next Aibak captured Koil (Aligarh) and proceeded to Ajmer to
suppress the rebellion of the Rajputs. He captured the fortress of
Ranthambhor. He p lundered Anhilwara. After a short interval Aibak took
Kalinjar and Mahoba in Bundelkhand in 1203. But two years later the
Chandelas recovered Kalinjar. Aibak was greatly responsible for the success
of Muhammad Ghori’s last expedition to India for suppressi ng a rebellion in
the Punjab. Thus, Qutbuddin Aibak practically became the de facto ruler of
Northern India.
1.5.2 Qutbuddin Aibak becomes the Ruler of Delhi:
Following the assassination of Muhammad Ghori, Qutbuddin Aibak,
supported by the chiefs in India, proclaimed himself as the ruler of Delhi.
However, according to the law of Islam no salve could become the
sovereign of an Islamic state and his master did not manumit Aibak. Being
aware of this shortcoming, in his inscriptions Aibak described himself as
malik or sipahsalar, though he exercised all powers of a sovereign.
Before consolidating his position at Delhi, Qutbuddin Aibak had to solve
a number of problems. He failed in his attempt of bringing Ghazni under
his control and it remained a separate kingdom under another slave of
Muhammad Ghori, Tajuddin Yaldoz. Aibak had also to deal with Rajput
revolts following the death of Muhammad Ghori. The achievements of
Aibak as a monarch were not as impressive as those as a viceroy. During four
years of his rule Aibak made no fresh conquests. On the contrary the
Rajputs recaptured some of their strongholds, which they had lost to the
Turks. Aibak also could not establish a sound system of administration. This
was due to paucity of time. His administration was pur ely military. The local
administration was left in the hands of native officers who followed the
traditional revenue rules. At the capital and provincial towns Muslim
officers were placed in charge of administration. Administration of justice
was ill organ ized. Thus, Aibak did not lay the foundation of a sound
structure of civil administration. He had very little time as an independent
ruler. He died in 1210 due to a fall from his horse while playing chaugan
(horse -polo). He was buried at Lahore, which had been his chief center of
activity.
1.5.3 An Estimate of Qutbuddin Aibak:
Qutbuddin Aibak was the most capable slave of Muhammad Ghori.
Muhammad Ghori rewarded his loyalty by appointing him as his agent in
India to consolidate his conquests. He had fine qua lities of head and
heart. According to Prof. Habibullah, Qutbuddin combined the
intrepidity of the Turk with the refined taste and generosity of the Persian.
The contemporary historians appreciated his virtues of loyalty, generosity,
courage and sense of justice. His generosity earned him the title of Lakh
Buksh (giver of lakhs). He patronized art and literature. His court included
famous scholars such as Hasan Nizami and Fakhre Mudir. He built two munotes.in

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16 mosques known as Quwat -ul-Islam at Delhi and Dhai Din Ka Jhonpara at
Ajmer. Despite the stories of his power, generosity and love of justice
Qutbuddin Aibak could not establish a strong government in India.
However, in spite his shortcomings, Sir Wolsley Haig and a number of other
scholars regard him as the real founder of Muslim dominion in India.
Check Your Progress:
1. Who was the founder of Delhi Sultanate?
1.6 ILTUTMISH (1211A.D. -1236A.D.)
The death of Qutbuddin Aibak in 1210 brought to the forefront the
inherent defects of the ill -cemented sultanate. It raised the problem of
controlling the ambitious provincial governors and partisan nobles. The
spirit of provincial insubordination and assertion of authority by the
nobility were the chief difficulties that the Delhi Sultanate faced
throughout its period of exist ence.
1.6.1 Accession of Iltutmish:
Following the death of Qutbuddin Aibak, the Turkish nobles of Lahore,
who wanted to give the city the status of capital of the sultanate, raised
Aram Shah to the throne. According to some historians Aram Shah was
the so n of Aibak, whereas others were of the opinion that he was a person of
obscure origin. However, the nobles of Delhi, fearing the eclipse of their
importance and loss of the imperial status of Delhi refused to acknowledge
Aram Shah as the sultan. Thus, the Turkish nobles of Delhi proved stronger
than any other faction and favoured Iltutmish, the slave and son -in-law of
Qutbuddin Aibak as the next sultan. Iltutmish accepted the invitation
of the nobles of Delhi. Aram Shah, who was unwilling to give up his cla im
as Iltutmish near Delhi defeated the successor of Aibakin 1211.
Shamsuddin Iltutmish was born to noble Turkish parents of the Ilbari tribe
of Central Asia. He was sold as a slave when he was still young. Having
served many masters he was finally purchas ed by Aibak. By virtue of his
merit and hard work, Iltutmish won the confidence and trust of his master.
He held in succession the fiefs of Gwalior and Baran (Bulandshahr). Later,
he was appointed as the governor of Badaon. He also married a daughter
of Ai bak.
1.6.2 Difficulties faced by Iltutmish:
After assuming power at Delhi Iltutmish had to face a number of
difficulties and problems. The chief among them were:
(1) Apart from the supporters of Aram Shah he had to deal with a number of
Turkish amirs (nob les) in Delhi and its neighbourhood. They were unwilling
to accept his authority in spite of his victory over Aram Shah. (2) Iltutmish
had also to contend with his powerful rivals like Tajuddin Yaldoz and
Nasiruddin Qabacha. Yaldoz, the ruler of Ghazni, nu rtured an ambition to
exercise his authority over the Turkish dominions in India. Qabacha, munotes.in

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17 another slave of Muhammad Ghori, who was in possession of Sindh and
Multan aimed at setting up an independent principality in the Punjab. He
advanced from Sindh towa rds Lahore. (3) In the east, many Turkish nobles and
Hindu chiefs defied the authority of the sultan. (4) The Rajput chiefs, who
had been subjugated by Muhammad Ghori and Aibak, became rebellious.
They recovered Jalor and Ranthambhor from the control of th e Turks. Even
Ajmer, Gwalior and the Doab repudiated the authority of the Turks. (5) The
Khilji governor of Bengal, Ali Mardan asserted his independence from
Delhi. (6) Added to these political problems, Iltutmish had to face certain
personal difficulties as well. Technically he had been a slave of Qutbuddin
Aibak who in turn was a slave of Muhammad Ghori. Thus, Iltutmish was
a slave of a slave and freeborn Turks considered it humiliating to submit
to him.
1.6.3 Establishment of authority in Delhi and the D oab:
Confronted with these manifold difficulties Iltutmish faced the situation boldly
with a great deal of courage, intelligence, power and determination. As a
prelude to subsequent wars and conquest, Iltutmish proceeded to establish his
authority on a sou nd footing in the surrounding regions of Delhi and the
Doab. He decided to wipe out any possible challenge to his position and
power. In a campaign lasting for many months, Iltutmish suppressed the
Turkish and Hindu chiefs of Delhi, Badaon, Awadh, Varanasi and Tarai
region and forced them to accept his sovereignty. With his position secure at
Delhi and the surrounding regions, Iltutmish could plan the subjugation of
his powerful rivals and enemies.
1.6.4 Suppression of Yaldoz:
The security of the northweste rn frontier was of paramount importance for the
safety of the Delhi Sultanate. To achieve this Iltutmish had to resist the
claims of Yaldoz over the Turkish possessions in India and suppress the
rising power of Qabacha. Yaldoz advanced his claims of sovere ignty over
northern India and ascribed to Iltutmish the position of a vassal. Iltutmish
shrewdly and diplomatically recognized the over lordship of Yaldoz and
accepted from him the royal insignia in the form of canopy and mace. In a
similar manner Yaldoz d ecided to assert his authority over Qabacha. He
invaded the Punjab and occupied Lahore.
Meanwhile a new development in the politics of Central Asia posed a great
danger to the position of Iltutmish. In 1214, The Shah of Khwarizm (Khiva)
conquered Ghazni an d expelled Yaldoz. These developments had far
reaching implications. Firstly, having lost Ghazni, Yalodz might proceed to
the Punjab and even lay a claim on Delhi. Secondly, the Shah of Khwarizm
might claim Hindustan as a dependency of Ghazni. Thirdly, the Shah of
Khwarizm might proceed to India in pursuit of Yaldoz and having expelled
him from the Punjab might advance on to Delhi.
In order to face his enemies, Iltutmish began military operations. As
anticipated the Shah of Khwarizm occupied Ghazni and Yald oz fled to
Lahore. Asserting his sovereignty over Iltutmish, Yaldoz advanced towards
Delhi. Iltutmish had already proceeded at the head of a powerful army and munotes.in

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18 inflicted a crushing defeat on Yaldoz in the plains of Tarain. Yaldoz was
sent as a prisoner to Badaon where he either died or was killed a little later.
1.6.5 Defeat of Qabacha:
After the defeat of Yaldoz, Qabacha reoccupied Lahore. Outwardly he
accepted the suzerainty of Iltutmish but secretly he schemed against the sultan.
In 1217, Iltutmish sent a n army for the conquest of Lahore. Following his
defeat Qabacha fled from Lahore. Iltutmish appointed his eldest son,
Nasiruddin Mahmud as the governor.
1.6.6 Invasion of Chengiz Khan:
The external danger to the Delhi Sultanate chiefly came from the repeat ed
Mongol invasions through the northwestern frontier. This perpetual danger of
great magnitude was first felt in 1221. The Mongols of Central Asia were pagans
who became Muslims in the fourteenth century. Under their great warrior
leader, Temujjin, popula rly known as Chengiz Khan (1162 -1227), who
prided in calling himself ‘the scourge of God’, the Mongols advanced deeper
into Central Asia. With their advance the Muslim states began to crumble
and fall with great rapidity.
The Mongols destroyed the Khwarizm i empire in 1220. Having failed to
check the advance of the Mongols and suffering a defeat at their hands the
Shah of Khwarizm fled towards the Caspian Sea. However, his son and
crown prince Jalauddin Mangbarni crossed the Indus and entered the
Punjab. Dri ving out the agents of Qabacha he occupied Lahore. Mangbarni
sought an alliance with Iltutmish against the Mongols. But Iltutmish shrewdly
avoided being dragged into a conflict with the Mongols. He even demanded
the evacuation of the Punjab by Mangbarni so a s t o avoid Chengiz
Khan’s advance in pursuit of the fugitive. Having failed to find favour with
Iltutmish, Mangbarni sought the assistance of the Khokhars. He married a
Khokhar princess and tried to extend his influence in the Punjab. With
the help of th e Khokhars, Mangbarni drove away Qabacha and occupied
Sindh and the neighboring regions and later fled to Persia in 1224. The
wise policy of Iltutmish of refusing asylum to and alliance with Mangbarni
against the Mongols saved the feeble and disorganized D elhi Sultanate
from their scourge. Chengiz Khan, who perhaps did not desire to violate a
neutral state returned from Afghanistan.
The fall of Yaldoz, the providential escape of the Delhi Sultanate from the
Mongol scourge and the destruction of Qabacha’s po wer due to
Mangbarni’s activities in the Punjab and Sindh enabled Iltutmish to
consolidate his power at Delhi.
1.6.7 Conquest of the Punjab:
The Khokhars of the Punjab had been a source of trouble to Iltutmish. They
had supported Mangbarni during his sojou rn in the Punjab. Besides, the
Khokhars allied themselves with Saifuddin Qarlugh, who was trying to
maintain Mangbarni’s authority over the western Punjab. After a prolonged
fight against the Khokhars, which lasted for several months, Iltutmish munotes.in

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19 annexed a p art of their territory. Besides Lahore, Iltutmish captured Sialkot,
Jalandhar and Nandana. He garrisoned the forts with the Turkish and
Afghan soldiers. They were assigned Khokhar villages as jagirs. The
conquest of the Punjab and the creation of outposts were aimed at the
security of the northwestern frontiers of the sultanate.
1.6.8 Restoration of Bengal:
Following the death of Qutbuddin Aibak, the Khilji governor of Bengal,
Ali Mardan had declared himself independent from the authority of the
sultan of D elhi. As he was a tyrant and his rule proved to be oppressive, the
people of Bengal rose in revolt against him. In 1212 Ali Mardan was
deposed and put to death. Hisammudin Iwaz, who assumed the title of
Sultan Ghiyasuddin, captured the throne of Bengal. He was an able and
popular ruler. He annexed Bihar and exacted tribute from the neighboring
Hindu states of Jajnagar, Tirhut, Vanga and Kamrupa.
After securing the northwest frontier of the sultanate, Iltutmish turned
his attention towards the recovery of Be ngal. He would not tolerate the
existence of an independent ruler in a province, which had originally been a
part of the Delhi Sultanate. As a prelude to the recovery of Bengal,
Iltutmish sent an army to occupy south Bihar. In 1225, Iltutmish
personally pr oceeded against Ghiyasuddin. The latter accepted the
sovereignty of the sultan and agreed to pay an indemnity and annual tribute.
Iltutmish was satisfied with this arrangement and returned to Delhi. He
appointed Alauddin Jani as the governor of Bihar.
As s oon as Iltutmish returned to Delhi, Ghiyasuddin re asserted his
independence, drove Alauddin Jani out of Bihar and appointed his own
governor. Following the rebellion of Ghiyasuddin, Iltutmish dispatched his
son, Nasiruddin Mahmud, then governor of Awadh t o punish the former.
Nasiruddin captured Lakhnauti, the capital of Bengal in 1226 and defeated and
killed Ghiyasuddin. However, following the premature death of Mahmud the
affairs of Bengal once again fell into confusion leading to revolts in
Lakhnauti. Il tutmish led a second expedition to Bengal in 1230, suppressed
all opposition and once again appointed Alauddin Jani as the governor of
Bengal. He remained loyal to the sultanate throughout the reign of Iltutmish.
1.6.9 Suppression of the Rajputs:
Following Q u t b u d d i n A i b a k ’ s d e a t h t h e R a j p u t s m a d e vigorous
attempts to overthrow the authority of the Turks. The Rajput rebellions in
different regions of western and central India had resulted in the recovery
of a number of their strong holds, which had been occu pied by the Turks.
Up to 1225, Iltutmish was pre-occupied with the problems of the northwest
frontier and the subjugation of the Turkish nobles of the east. Thus, till that
time he did not wage any war against the powerful Rajput rulers to bring
them under his rule. His campaigns were confined to the suppression of
the Hindu chiefs of the Doab and Awadh.
Iltutmish began his major offensive against the Rajputs in 1226, when he
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20 advanced to Mandu, the capital of the Paramaras, which was recovered and
garrisoned. By 1230 the authority of the sultanate was firmly established over
Jalor, Ajmer, Bayana, Tahangarh and Sambhar. However, the Solankis of
Gujarat and the Guhilots of Nagda resisted the Turkish armies and succeeded in
retaining their independence. In 1231, Gwalior was besieged by the Turkish
armies. The Parihara ruler, Malayavarmadeva put up a gallant fight against
the Turkish invader for a year. However, he could not continu e the defensive
war any longer. He gave up and the Turks soon captured the fort.
Besides these conquests, Iltutmish sent his armies against Chandelas in 1233
to conquer Kalinjar. The Chandela ruler, Trilokyavarma could not resist the
Turkish invaders and l eft the fort that was plundered. However, the Turks
could not achieve much success as they were overwhelmed by the Chandelas
and had to withdraw. Iltutmish also sent expeditions towards Bhilsa and
Ujjain in 1234 -1235. But he did not achieve appreciable suc cess in these
regions.
When Iltutmish occupied the throne of Delhi there was every danger of the
disintegration of the sultanate. However, it goes to his credit that he not only
reasserted his authority but also safeguarded the sultanate from external
dang er and internal rebellions. Gradually, he regained all the territory,
which had one time formed a part of Muhammad Ghori’s empire. He also
added some regions towards the south. By bringing the Rajputs under
submission he made them realize that the sultanat e was a power to be
reckoned with. He appointed his personal followers as governors in the
conquered regions to curb the rebellious tendencies of the Rajputs and assert
his authority.
1.6.10 Administrative Policy of Iltutmish:
Prior to Iltutmish, the Turki sh state in India was not properly organized. The
government was essentially military in nature. The strategic forts were
occupied and garrisoned. Every military commander was expected to
realize annual tribute from the local Hindu chiefs and landlords, if need be by
the use of force. The rural masses had no contact with the Turks. Thus, a
sense of loyalty towards the alien government of the Turks was lacking
among the people. The rule of the Turks was, thus, essentially based on
military strength. Realizin g these defects, Iltutmish introduced a number of
measures to improve this state of affairs and give stability to the Delhi
Sultanate.
1.6.10.1 The ‘Group of Forty’:
Iltutmish realized the need to put the status and dignity of the sovereign beyond
anybody’ s challenge. As the Qutbi and other nobles were unwilling to
accept his over lordship, Iltutmish was convinced that he could command the
obedience of his subordinate officers only when almost all the high offices
were granted to his own favourites. Thus, h e organized a ‘group of forty’
and distributed all high offices among them. This ‘group of forty’ also
known as turkan -i-chahalagni became a new order of nobility that enhanced
the prestige of the Sultan. The ‘group of forty’ became the basis of his munotes.in

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21 power and strength. To give greater stability to the state, Iltutmish
selected able persons both foreigners and local inhabitants.
1.6.10.2 Administration of Justice:
Iltutmish made adequate provision for dispensing justice promptly and
impartially. According to an account of Ibn Battuta, there were statues of
two lions at the palace gate bearing chains in their mouths. When someone
pulled the chain, a bell rang at the other end. Thus, the aggrieved person
could get prompt attention from the royal officials. Perh aps this
arrangement was meant for the night. During the day a plaintiff could be
recognized by his red garment. Iltutmish had made provision for prompt
redressal of the grievances. Amirdads were appointed in all important towns.
In the imperial city of De lhi there were a number of qazis to dispense
justice.
1.6.10.3 New Currency (the Tanka):
Iltutmish was the first Turkish ruler to introduce a purely Arabic coinage.
His silver coin called the tanka weighed 175 grains. It had an Arabic
inscription on it. It was meant to replace the former Hindu coins. The issue of
the tanka in both gold and silver indicated that the Delhi Sultanate had
acquired stability and continuity.
1.6.10.4 Acquisition of the Letter of Investiture:
In order to justify his calm to the th rone of Delhi Iltutmish secured a letter of
investiture from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad, Al-Mustansir Billah. Thus,
Iltutmish initiated a fully sovereign and legally constituted Sultanate of
Delhi. He became the first legal sovereign of the sultanate an d may be
described as the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate.
1.6.10.5 An Estimate of Iltutmish:
Iltutmish can be regarded as the real consolidator of the Turkish conquests
in north Inida. At the time of his accession he had to face a number of
difficulti es and challenges. With shrewd diplomacy and military
maneuvering he not only subjugated his rivals but also consolidated the
power of the Delhi Sultanate over the Rajputs and even the distant province
of Bengal. By following wise administrative policy, su ch as maintaining law
and order, dispensing evenhanded justice, introducing new currency and
finally acquiring the letter of investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad, Iltutmish
attempted to provide permanency to the Turkish rule in India. In this
sense Iltut mish could be considered as the real founder and
consolidator of the Delhi Sultanate.
Check Your Progress:
1. Who was the founder of ‘Group of Forty’?

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22 1.7 QUESTIONS
1. Examine the role of Qutbuddin Aibak in the foundation of the Delhi
Sultanate.
2. Give an accoun t of the career and achievements of Iltutmish.
3. Discuss the role of Iltutmish in the consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate in
northern India.
4. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Qutbuddin Aibak
(b) Military campaigns of Iltutmish (c)
Administrative policy of Ilt utmish
1.8 RAZIYA SULTANA (1 236 -1 240)
1.8.1 Iltutmish nominates Raziya as his successor:
Ruknuddin was the eldest among the surviving sons of Iltutmish. But he
was indolent, feeble -minded and given to sensual pleasures. In spite of
getting an opportunit y to correct him, Ruknuddin could not develop the
sense of responsibility. Hence, Iltutmish seriously considered of leaving the
throne to his daughter Raziya. He gave her an opportunity to prove her
ability by associating her in administration of the centr al government.
During the year 1231 -1232, when the sultan was away on the Gwalior
campaign, Raziya was left in charge of the government at Delhi. During
this period, Raziya gave evidence of her ability, intelligence and sagacity.
On his return from the cam paign Iltutmish made up his mind to nominate
Raziya as his successor superseding all his sons. However, the Turkish
nobles opposed his move as improper and derogatory to their pride. But
Iltutmish overbore all opposition and managed to ensure the approval of
his nobles and ulemas.
1.8.2 Raziya ascends the throne of Delhi:
Following the death of Iltutmish, the Turkish nobles who were opposed
to the nomination of Raziya ignored her claim to the throne and selected
Ruknuddin as the next sultan. The wazir, Juna idi and the provincial
governors lent their support to Ruknuddin. As the new sultan was a
debased sensualist, his mother, Shah Turkan, directed public affairs.
Originally she had been a maidservant in the royal seraglio and had
embittered her relations wit h the great ladies of the realm. Later Iltutmish
had elevated her to the rank of a queen. With the accession of her son
Ruknuddin, Shah Turkan got an opportunity to wreak vengeance on her old
enemies.
Under these circumstances the ‘group forty’ felt that f or preserving the
dynasty and the good name of their master, Ruknuddin must be deposed.
The governors of Multan, Lahore, Hansi and Badaon collected their forces munotes.in

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23 and marched upon the capital. The wazir, Junaidi also joined them. When
Ruknuddin attempted to deal with the situation and left Delhi with an army to
oppose his detractors, his own troops deserted him. Meanwhile rebellion
broke out in the capital itself. Shah Turkan’s attempt to kill Raziya had
angered the citizens of Delhi. They attacked the palace , threw Shah Turkan
into prison and raised Raziya to the throne. When Ruknuddin returned to
Delhi he found that a bloodless revolution had already taken place. He was
arrested and thrown into a dungeon and was put to death later.
1.8.3 Initial difficulties of Raziya:
Soon after her accession Raziya found herself confronted with numerous
difficulties. (1) The wazir and the provincial governors were keen to
replace Ruknuddin by a person of their choice whom they could control and
influence. (2) The orthodox Muslims resented the enthronement of a woman
as a sultan. (3) Added to these problems was that a number of sons of
Iltutmish were still alive. They had their own supporters and partisans
among the nobles and people of Delhi. (4) The Rajputs, taking advantag e of
the prevailing confusion and uncertainty had started their offensive against
the sultanate.
1.8.4 Raziya strengthens her position:
The hostile provincial governors of Badaon, Hansi, Lahore and Multan
ably supported by wazir Junaidi, who felt isolated and ignored, mustered their
troops near Delhi. Realizing the difficulty of organizing a matching army,
Raziya avoided a military encounter with the rebels and instead resorted to
diplomacy. She entered into a secret alliance with Salari and Kabir Khan.
Thereafter she spread rumours that a number of rebels had joined her. This
caused suspicion and distrust among the rebel chiefs who withdrew from
the capital quietly. Raziya’s stratagem succeeded and her prestige was
enhanced. The provincial governors submitt ed to her authority.
Raziya adopted a number of measures to strengthen her position and to
increase the power and prestige of the monarchy. She distributed important
offices of the state amongst her supporters. The naib wazir, Muhazzab -ud-
din was put in ch arge of the wazarat. Her partisan Kabir Khan was
appointed to the governorship of Lahore. Tughril Khan, the governor of
Lakhnauti (Bengal) was rewarded with vice -royalty for not joining the rebels.
In an effort to break the monopoly of the Turkish nobles t o high offices,
Raziya adopted the policy of appointing non -Turkish nobles to higher posts.
A number of Indian Muslims were appointed as qazis. An Abyssinian,
Jamal -ud-din Yaqut was elevated to the position of amir -a-khur (master of the
horses). As a resul t of these measures, according to Minhaj -us-Siraj, “From
Debal to Lakhnauti, all the maliks and amirs manifested their obedience and
submitted.” Raziya also organized a campaign against the
Rajputs. Ranthambhor was besieged and captured.
Like her father Il tutmish, Raziya was determined to assert the authority
and establish an independent and absolute monarchy. Besides suppressing the
Turkish nobles, who challenged her authority, Raziya governed the munotes.in

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24 sultanate in a befitting manner. Bold and courageous, she g ave up purdha
(veil), held open court, listened to the grievances of her subjects and
exercised general control over the administrative departments. In battles,
Raziya rode at the head of her armies. Thus, she proved her ability, love
of justice and capaci ty for hard work.
1.8.5 Defeat and death of Raziya:
By consolidating her position against the Turkish nobles, Raziya drove
them to group themselves and conspire against her. They could not tolerate a
powerful and despotic monarch who was pursuing the polic y of imposing her
will on them. They resented the undue importance given to the non -Turkish
nobles, specially the Abyssinian officer, Yaqut with whom Raziya was
romantically linked. Besides, there was a section of people who could never
tolerate the notion of a woman being the head of the state. Raziya had given
offence to the orthodox Muslim opinion by casting off female attire and the
seclusion of the harem.
These factors led to a conspiracy against Raziya. The Turkish nobles at
the court and in the provi nces subscribed to a secret plot to depose Raziya
and to replace her with a puppet ruler who would abide by their wishes. The
leader of this conspiracy was Aitigin, who was the amir -i-hajib (queen’s
chamberlain). Other prominent members included Malik Altu nia, governor
of Bhatinda and Kabir Khan, governor of Lahore, who was once her partisan.
Aitigin was of the opinion that a palace revolution was not possible due to
Raziya’s vigilance and popularity amongst her subjects of Delhi and also
loyalty of her tro ops. Thus, the conspirators wanted to decoy her to a
distant place and liquidate her there. An attempt was made to put this plan
into effect when Kabir Khan, the governor of Lahore revolted early in
1240. However, Raziya was swift enough to put down the re volt. Within a
fortnight of the suppression of Kabir Khan’s rebellion, Altunia, the governor of
Bhatinda raised the standard of revolt against Raziya. Though she immediately
proceeded to crush the fresh challenge to her authority, luck did not favour
her. In her absence, Yaqut was captured and beheaded by Aitigin and fellow
conspirators. Being defeated in the encounter, Raziya was captured and
imprisoned at Bhatinda.
Following the imprisonment of Raziya, the conspirators elevated Bahram,
the third son of Il tutmish to the throne. Entrusting Raziya to the charge of
Altunia the other conspirators returned to Delhi. In the redistribution of posts
and offices, Altunia did not figure anywhere. Being away from Delhi, it
seemed that nobody bothered to safeguard his interests. Thus, he decided to
avenge himself. He released Raziya from the prison, married her and
proceeded with her to Delhi to capture it by force. But Bahram’s army
defeated them and both Altunia and Raziya were killed.
1.8.6 An Estimate of Raziya:
The brief reign of Raziya extending over a period of barely three and a half
years was too short to consolidate the sultanate. However, within this short
span of time she proved superior to other sons of Iltutmish. As the only munotes.in

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25 woman who sat upon the throne of Delhi, she never allowed her sex to
eclipse the efficiency of the state. Minhaj -us-Siraj describes Raziya as “a
great sovereign and sagacious, just, beneficent, the patron of the learned, a
dispenser of justice, the cherisher of her subjects and of war li ke talent and
endowed with all admirable attributes and qualifications necessary for
kings.”
1.8.7 Successors of Raziya:
For four years following the death of Raziya, there was no effective
government. The brief reigns of Bahram (1240 -1242) and Masud (1242 -
1246), former, brother of Raziya and the latter her nephew (son of
Ruknuddin), witnessed the rise of the ‘Group of Forty’ to the height of
power. The Turkish nobles once again dictated the state policy and held
sway over the puppet rulers. This led not on ly to the weakening of the
monarchy but also to corruption and inefficiency in the administration
and general lawlessness. To the problems of internal disorder were added the
danger of Mongol invasions. Once again another son of Iltutmish,
Nasiruddin Mahmu d and his ambitious mother hatched a conspiracy.
With the active support of Balban, Masud was deposed and Nasiruddin
Mahmud ascended the throne of Delhi in June 1246.
Check Your Progress
1. Who was the first women emperor of India?
1.9 GHIYASUDDIN BALBAN ( 1266 -1287)
The struggle between the monarchy and the Turkish nobility had been the
chief feature of the early years of the Delhi Sultanate. Iltutmish and to a
certain extent Raziya managed to keep the nobles under check.
However, the succession of weak rul ers following the death of Raziya led to
the ascendancy of the Turkish nobility in state affairs. Finally, Balban one of
the members of the elite ‘Group of Forty’, worked his way up in the political
hierarchy during the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud. He stren gthened his
position and became the de facto ruler. Following the death of the sultan he
ascended the throne and established a strong monarchy.
1.9.1 Balban’s rise to power:
Like Iltutmish, Balban was also an Ilbari Turk. In his early youth Balban
was capt ured by the Mongols and sold into slavery. Finally he became a
slave of Iltutmish. His ability and enterprise came to the notice of the
sultan, who promptly enrolled him as the member of the famous ‘group of
forty’. Balban became instrumental in deposing M asud and raising
Nasiruddin Mahmud to the throne in 1246. He became the adviser of the
new sultan and was given the new title of ulugh khan and was appointed to
the coveted office of naib-i-mumlikat. To strengthen his personal hold over
the sultan, Balban shrewdly gave his daughter in marriage to Nasiruddin.
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26 1.9.2 Balban assumes de facto power:
Balban attempted to extend his control over different organs of the
administration by appointing his close relatives and partisans to key posts.
In this way Balban gradually succeeded in assuming de facto power.
Indirectly, Nasiruddin Mahmud was responsible for allowing Balban to
exercise unrestricted power and authority. According to Minhaj -us-Siraj,
Nasiruddin was a man of amiable and pious disposition. He lived th e life of a
good Muslim in accordance with the Quran. He was an expert calligrapher,
who spent his time in copying the Quran. Thus, the sultan’s other
worldliness made Balban the de facto ruler.
The success of Balban excited the jealousy of the nobles, specially the non -
Turki amirs. A leading Indian Muslim, Imad -ud-din Raihan became their
leader. Failing in their efforts to murder him, the anti -Balban faction
persuaded the sultan to exile him to Dipalpur and Bhatinda (1253). There
was a general redistributi on of offices. Raihan took the place of Balban and
became the Prime Minister. Being an Indian Muslim he manifested his
hostility towards the Turkish nobles and ordered their removal
from key appointments in the administration. Raihan’s nominees filled thos e
vacancies.
The Turkish nobles at the court and in the provinces were not prepared to
accept an Indian Muslim as the de facto head of the government. They rallied
around Balban and decided to take action. Sensing danger of a possible coup
d’etat, Nasirudd in quickly shifted sides, reinstated Balban to his original
position and transferred Raihan to Badaon and from there to the outlying
province of Bahraich.
The recall and reinstatement of Balban led to the investiture of absolute
authority on him. He resume d the policy of consolidating the authority
of the monarch. He continued the policy of suppressing rebellions of
scheming Muslim rivals and revolts of the Hindus. A Mongol invasion of
Sindh was frustrated in 1257. Two years later the robber menace was wipe d
out from the vicinity of Delhi by indiscriminate massacre. Through these
measures Balban not only consolidated his own position in the state and
safeguarded the security of the sultanate but also paved the way for his
own accession as the next sultan.
1.9.3 Accession of Balban:
Following the death of Nasiruddin Mahmud in 1266, Balban who had been
the de facto ruler became the de jure ruler. Like Qutbuddin Aibak and
Iltutmish, Balban too started life as a slave and rose to become the sultan.
His long reign of twenty -one years (1266 -1287), is a remarkable epoch in the
history of the sultanate.


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27 1.9.4 Difficulties faced by Balban:
On his accession, Balban had to face a number of crucial problems.
1) During thirty years following the death of Iltutmish, the aff airs of the
sate had fallen into confusion due to the incompetence of his
successors.
2) A large part of the state revenue was spent in maintaining huge army.
3) Recurrence of revolts in different parts of the sultanate, defence against
the Mongols and suppressi on of lawlessness and disorder had also
led to heavy expenditure.
4) Defiance of the governors of distant provinces, refractory tendencies of
the Turkish nobles and the guerilla tactics of the people of Mewat,
Kathehar and Doab had affected the state revenue.
5) The select band of the Turkish nobles the ‘group of forty’ had become
leaders of the forces of disintegration since the death of Iltutmish. In
order to assert his supremacy, Balban had to liquidate the ‘Group
of Forty’.
6) Balban had to ensure the security o f the sultanate by suppressing all
those Hindu chiefs who continued to defy the authority of the sultan.
7) Doab and surrounding regions were infested with robbers and dacoits
who disrupted supplies and even entered the capital in broad daylight
and plundered the city.
8) In Rajasthan and Central India, the Rajputs were becoming bold
enough to defy the authority of the sultan.
9) Besides these internal problems, the Delhi Sultanate was exposed
to the menace of recurring Mongol raids.
10) Describing the condition of the sultanate, Barani paints a pessimistic
picture. According to him during the last days of Nasiruddin’s reign
the office of the sultan enjoyed no prestige and that people had lost
all fear of and respect for the king. “Fear of the governing power,
which is t he basis of all good government and the source of the glory
and splendour of the state, had departed from the hearts of all men
and the country had fallen into a wretched condition”, remarks
Barani.
1.9.5 Balban strengthens the power and prestige of the Mo narchy:
Balban was determined to set up ‘fear of the governing power as the best
remedy against the evil of turbulence.’ Thus, he decided to exalt monarchical
prestige and power till it became synonymous with despotism.

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28 1.9.5.1 Theory of Divine Right:
To e n h a n c e t h e p r e s t i g e a n d p o w e r o f t h e m o n a r c h y , B a l b a n believed in the
theory, which resembled the theory of Divine Right of Kings. He expressed
his views to his son Bughra Khan. He said, “The heart of the king is the
special repository of God’s favour an d in this he has no equal among
mankind.” He emphasized the sacredness of the king’s person. He had an
inherent despotic disposition. He was convinced that unalloyed
despotism alone could exact obedience from his subjects and ensure the
security of the sta te. Balban strengthened his claim to the throne by
asserting that he was a descendent of the mythical Turkish hero, Afrasiyab.
1.9.5.2 Splendour of the Court:
Balban established a pattern of court etiquettes, traditions and customs that
built a halo of spl endour around him and his court and held all the nobles in
awe of his personality. According to Barani no sovereign had ever before
exhibited such pomp and grandeur in Delhi. For the twenty -one years that
Balban reigned he maintained the dignity, honour an d majesty of the throne
in an manner that could not be surpassed. On his accession, Balban gave
up drinking wine and kept himself in studied aloofness and dignified reserve.
He prohibited drinking of wine by his courtiers and officials, prescribed
for them a special dress and a fixed ceremonial from which no deviation
was permitted. He introduced the sijda (prostration) and poibos (kissing the
monarch’s feet) in the court as normal forms of salutation. To heighten the
splendour of the court, Balban regulate d the court ceremonials on the model
of the Persian court. He introduced the annual celebration of the Persian
New Year, Nauroz. He appointed tall and fearsome bodyguards, who were
to stand round the king’s person with their swords drawn and dazzling in
the sun.
1.9.5.3 Promotion of the Turkish Nobility:
In order to strengthen his claim to the noble blood, Balban stood forth as the
champion of the Turkish nobility. Important government posts were granted
to only those who belonged to the noble family. Lower officers had no
access to him except through the higher dignitaries. He maintained a grave
demeanour in the court. No one was allowed to laugh or even smile in his court.
Thus, Balban infused dignity into monarchy and by rigid ceremonials and
dignity, he succeeded in restoring the prestige and power of the court.
1.9.5.4 Suppression of the ‘Group of Forty’:
While claiming to act as a champion of the Turkish nobility, Balban was not
prepared to share power with anyone, not even with members of his own
famil y. He realized that one of the great obstacles in the way of the sultan’s
absolute despotism was the select group of leading Turkish nobles, the ‘group
of forty’, who had reduced the crown to a mere figurehead. In order to make
the throne safe for himself and for his successors, Balban decided to destroy
the ‘Group of Forty’. To reduce the importance of the ‘Group of Forty’,
Balban promoted junior Turks to important positions. To win the
confidence of the public, he administered justice impartially. He infl icted munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion And
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29 severe punishment on the members of the ‘Group of Forty’ for even slight
faults so as to repress them and reduce their importance in the eyes of the
people.
1.9.5.5 Appointment of Spies:
To keep himself informed of all happenings in the kingdom and o f the
movements of the Turkish amirs and refractory Hindu chiefs, Balban
organized an extensive espionage system. He appointed secret news -
writers at every level of administration. They were required to transmit to him
daily report of all important events and movements. He paid special
attention to ascertain the character and loyalty of the news -writers. He
gave them good salaries and made them completely independent of the
provincial governors. If the news -writer failed in his duty, he was given
exemplary punishment. The well -established and efficient espionage
system became one of the important means of Balban’s despotism.
1.9.6 Organization of the Army:
For safeguarding his personal security and also that of the state, Balban
decided to reorganise the arm y on a sound footing. Balban did not abolish the
old practice of assigning lands in lieu of military service, but took care to
see that only such persons who were capable of rendering active military
service were given such assignments. Balban placed the c avalry and infantry
under officers of experience, who had given proof of their courage and
loyalty in battles. He put the army under the charge of Imad -ul-Mulk, a very
competent and loyal officer and made him diwan -i-ariz (Minister in charge of
the Army). He was made independent of the ministry of finance. Imad -ul-
Mulk took special interest in matters relating to recruitment, training,
equipment and salary of the troops. Under Balban the army became a
powerful instrument of force and the basis of his despot ism.
1.9.7 Suppression of the Mewatis:
The law and order situation in the area around Delhi and the Doab had
deteriorated since the death of Iltutmish. In the Ganga Jamuna Doab and
Awadh, roads were poor and were infested with marauders. Barani describes
their menace in these words, “At night they used to come prowling into the
city giving all kinds of trouble, depriving the people of their rest.... the
western gate of the capital had to be closed during the afternoon prayer...”
The Mewatis had become so bo ld as to plunder people even on the outskirts of
Delhi.
Having strengthened the position of the monarchy and reorganization the
army, Balban directed his attention to the suppression of lawlessness in the
Doab and the other neighbouring regions. He took st ern measures and
suppressed the brigands and marauders. He also put an end to the state of
insecurity, which had been prevailing for some time in the Doab and
Awadh regions.
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30 1.9.8 Mongol incursions:
The Mongol problem gave the greatest anxiety to Balban. The Mongols
had made the northwestern regions of India their happy hunting ground.
Lahore, Multan and Sindh were exposed to their repeated incursions. To
deal with the Mongol danger, Balban set up a line of garrisons along the
northwest frontier and manned them with sturdy Afghans. He placed the
entire region under the charge of his cousin, Sher Khan, who resisted the
Mongols for quite some time. Following his death in 1270, the command
of the frontier garrisons was shared between the two sons of Balban,
Muhammad Khan and Bughra Khan. The elder prince, Muhammad Khan,
died while fighting the Mongols. He was an able soldier and competent
administrator. Besides, he was a man of literary taste. Two of the greatest
poets of India, Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan were i n h i s s e r v i c e . P r i n c e
Muhammad Khan’s death was a great blow to the future plans of Balban.
1.9.9 Subjugation of Tughril Khan (1279):
Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal, who had been one of the slaves of
Balban, took advantage of the old age of the sul tan and his pre -
occupation in the northwest frontier to raise the standard of revolt. He
assumed the title of sultan, struck coins and read the Québec in his own name.
Balban sent three armies in succession against the rebel governor but
none of them, succeeded in suppressing Tughril Khan. At last, Balban
personally led a large army, two lakh strong and accompanied by his son
Bughra Khan, reached Lakhnauti, the capital of Bengal. At the approach of
the sultanate army, Tughril Khan fled to East Bengal. Balba n pursued the
rebel and put him to death. Returning to Lakhnauti, Balban ordered a
general massacre of those suspected of participating in the rebellion.
According to Barani, “On either side of principal bazar, in a street more than
two miles in length, a row of stakes was set up or the adherents of Tughril
Khan were impaled upon them. None of the beholders had ever seen a
spectacle so terrible and many swooned with terror and disgust.”
Following the suppression of the rebellion of Tughril Khan, Balban entr usted
the governorship of the troublesome province to his second son, Bughra
Khan with this warning, “Understand me and forget not, that if the
governors of Hind or Sindh, Malwa or Gujarat, Lakhnauti or Sonargaon, shall
draw the sword and become rebels to the throne of Delhi, then such
punishment as has fallen upon Tughril and his dependents will fall upon
them and their wives and children and all their adherents.” After a
remarkable career Balban died in 1287.
1.9.10 An estimate of Balban:
Balban was one o f the chief architects of the sultanate of Delhi. He showed
great political foresight in avoiding schemes of territorial expansion through
new conquests. He confined his energies in consolidating the Delhi
Sultanate. His government was despotic and he did not introduce any
administrative innovations. But he gave the sultanate peace and security.
Through various measures Balban enhanced the prestige and power of the
monarchy. He was strict in the administration of justice. As far as possible, munotes.in

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Foundation, Expansion And
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31 Balban scrupulo usly followed the principles of Islam. He discoursed
frequently on the doctrines of Islam and came in constant contact with
Muslim divines.
Check Your Progress
1. Which emperor destroys ‘group Forty?
1.10 CONCLUSION
Balban patronized many learned men. He gave good reception to
Madhava, the Acharya of Dvaita philosophy. Balban’s court was a center of
Islamic culture and learning. Throughout his long reign, first as the deputy
of Nasiruddin Mahmud and later as the sultan, Balban strived to consolidate
the De lhi Sultanate and enhance its prestige.
1.11 QUESTIONS
1. Examine the career and achievements of Raziya.
2. Trace the circumstances that led to the rise of Balban.
3. Discuss the measures adopted by Balban to enhance the power and
prestige of the Monarchy.
4. Make an estimate of Balban’s contribution to the consolidation of the
Delhi Sultanate.
1.12 ALAUDDIN’S RISE TO POWER
Alauddin was the nephew and son -in-law of Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji. He was
appointed as the governor of Kara -Manikpur near Allahabad. He was a very
active and spirited soldier and known to be ambitious. As the governor of
Kara-Manikpur, Alauddin made satisfactory arrangements for the
administration of the province. After obtaining the approval of Jalauddin
Firuz Khilji, Alauddin attacked Bhilsa in Ma lwa and systemically
plundered the treasures of the temples and rich merchants. He sent a part of
the loot to the sultan. As a mark of his appreciation, the sultan appointed
Alauddin as ariz -i-mumalik and granted the governorship of Awadh
in addition to th at of Kara -Manikpur.
Encouraged by his success against Bhilsa, Alauddin planned an expedition to
Devagiri, the capital of the Yadava kingdom in the Deccan. With an army
of eight thousand cavalry Alauddin proceeded towards Devagiri.
Alauddin swept across th e Yadava territory and appeared all of a sudden in
the northern frontier of Devagiri. In spite of gallant resistance the
Yadava ruler Ramachandra Deva was defeated and was forced to make
peace with the invader. The Yadava king surrendered to the invader hu ge
amount of gold, pearls and other precious articles. On his return from the
southern expedition Shankara Deva, son of Ramachandra Deva, contrary to
the advice of his father, attacked Alauddin’s army. However, he could not
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32 Ramachandra Deva to cede to him the province of Elichpur and to pay a very
huge indemnity. With this unprecedented success and colossal war booty,
Alauddin returned to Kara
1.13 ALAUDDIN’S ACCESSION TO THE THRONE
OF DELHI
Alauddin Khilji ascended the throne of Delhi by treacherously murdering
Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji, who was also his uncle and father -in-law. After
overcoming all opposition to his accession Alauddin entered Delhi and
was formally crowned in the Red Palace of Balban on 3 October 1296. He
conciliated the nobles and the people by lavishly distributing gold and
wealth brought from Devagiri. He took severe measures against the family
of the late sultan so that they should not have political ambitions. Alauddin
secured the loyalty of his followers by distributing gold, offices and honours to
them. In this manner he commanded unstinted loyalty and support from
Ulugh Khan, Alap Khan, Zafar Khan and Nusrat Khan. Titles, higher posts
and increments in salary were grante d to others. A large invading army of the
Mongols was defeated on the bank of the Sutlej in 1298. Alauddin
eliminated some of the old nobles who had deserted the sultan and
joined his rank. He believed that such people who could desert one master
and join another were not trustworthy. Due to his severe measures,
Alauddin succeeded in overcoming the initial difficulties and establishing
himself on the throne of Delhi.
1.14 DREAM OF WORLD CONQUEST:
The initial success against the rebels and the Mongol invader s fired the
ambition of Alauddin Khilji. Being confident of his inherent ability he dreamt
of imitating Prophet Muhammad and Alexander the Great by founding a
religion and conquering the world. Alauddin sought the advice of Ala -
ul-Mulk, the kotwal of Delhi and uncle of historian Barani, for his grand
project. Ala -ulMulk boldly but politely gave his opinion that prophetic and
royal functions were mutually exclusive to each other. Instead of
dreaming of world conquest, the kotwal advised Alauddin to think of conquering
the unsubdued Hindu princes of Northern India and the independent Hindu
states outside the frontiers of the Delhi Sultanate and to secure the
northwestern frontiers of India by resisting the Mongol invasions. It goes to
the credit of Alauddin t hat he accepted the frank counsel of Ala -ul-Mulk.
However, he could not resist the temptation of calling himself the
‘Second Alexander’ on his coins. Ala -ul-Mulk advised the sultan not to
dabble in religion but concern himself with the welfare of his subje cts. The
sultan gave up the idea of starting a new religion. He separated religion
from politics by reducing the influence of the ulemas.
Check Your Progress
1. What was the name of Aluddin’s uncle?
2. How did Alauddin ascend the throne of Delhi? munotes.in

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33 1.15 IMPERIAL EXPANSION:
The imperial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate begins with the
accession of Alauddin Khilji. He was of the opinion that defence,
expansion and consolidation could be undertaken simultaneously. Since
the death of Iltutmish serious attempts to annex new territories to the
sultanate had not been undertaken. Alauddin set his eyes on the conquest
of Northern India. The armies of the sultanate once again began to march in
different directions to conquer and plunder.
1.15. 1 Gujarat:
Gujarat was flourishi ng kingdom with its capital at Anhilwara. Fertility of
the soil and a liberal policy towards trade and industry had made the
region very prosperous. Arab and Persian traders frequented the ports of
Gujarat and carried Indian goods to West Asia and the Medi terranean ports.
For the conquest of Gujarat, Alauddin planned a two -pronged attack. An
army under Nusrat Khan proceeded across Rajasthan. Another army led
by Ulugh Khan advanced from Sindh. Meeting near the frontier of Gujarat,
the joint army advanced tow ards Anhilwara. The Vaghela ruler of Gujarat, Rai
Karan along with his four years old daughter Devala Devi fled to Devagiri.
His queen Kamala Devi was taken as a captive to Delhi and was later
added to the harem of the Sultan. The invading armies plundered the rich
merchants of Cambay Surat, Anhilwara, Cambay and Somnath. In the
course of loot and arson many temples including the famous shrine of Somnath
were desecrated. The lingam in the Somnath temple, erected as a substitute
for that broken by Mahmud Gha zni, was sent to Delhi. Towns and villages
were laid waste and thousands of people were killed or enslaved. Following
the conquest and plunder Gujarat became a province of the Delhi Sultanate
and Alap Khan was appointed its governor.
1.15.2 Ranthambhor:
In 1299, Alauddin turned his attention towards the conquest of Rajasthan.
As a prelude to the imperial expansion into Rajasthan, he decided to
capture the fortress of Ranthambhor, which was formerly a Muslim outpost
in that region. At that time Ranthambhor w as ruled by Hamir Deva, the
Chauhan ruler. The pretext to the invasion of Ranthambhor was the asylum
given by Hamir Deva to some of the rebellious ‘New Muslims.’ However,
the real reason was the strategic importance of the fort. A powerful army
commanded b y Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan was dispatched to
Ranthambhor. The fort was besieged. In the course of the siege, Nusrat Khan
was killed and the Rajputs succeeded in recapturing the fort. Following
these reverses, Alauddin proceeded to Ranthambhor in person. In spite of
his presence the siege of Ranthambhor continued for a year. Hamir Deva’s
prime minister, Ranmal and his general Ratipal betrayed their master.
Finally, the fort was captured in July 1301. Rana Hamir Deva and his
family were put to death. After appointing Ulugh Khan in charge of the fort,
Alauddin returned to the capital.
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34 1.15.3 Mewar:
Following his success against Ranthambhor Alauddin turned his attention
towards the conquest of Mewar. The Guhilots of Mewar had come into
conflict with the sulta ns of Delhi as different times during the thirteenth
century. However, prior to Alauddin no serious attempt was made to annex
this small Rajput kingdom. Mewar, with its capital at Chittor was well
protected by nature with a long chain of hills and deep for ests. The fort of
Chittor, cut from a rock located on top of a hill was considered to be
impregnable.
The conquest of the fort of Chittor was important to the Delhi Sultanate as it lay
on the route to Gujarat. With a powerful army Alauddin invaded Mewar an d
besieged the fort of Chittor. The fort could be captured after a siege of
eight months. The ruler of Mewar, Rana Ratan Singh put up stiff
resistance. But in the face of an onslaught of Alauddin the Rana was forced
to submit. The women performed the jauha r to save their honour. Incensed at
the strong resistance of the Rajputs, Alauddin ordered the general massacre
of the civilian population. According to Amir Khusrau, who was an
eyewitness, nearly 30,000 Rajputs were killed in one day. After the
conquest o f Chittor Alauddin appointed his eldest son, Khizr Khan as the
governor of the fort, which was renamed as Khizrbad.
One of the chief motives ascribed to Alauddin for the invasion of
Mewar was his desire to acquire the possession of Padmini, the peerless
queen of Rana Ratan Singh. In his Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan a
summary of the Rajput chronicles, Tod maintains that the principal motive
of Alauddin Khilji’s invasion of Mewar was to secure the beautiful wife of
Bhim Singh, the Rana of Mewar. Howeve r, the name of Rana was Ratan
Singh and not Bhim Singh. It is also important to note that the legend of
Padmini was a literary imagination of Malik Muhammad Jayasi, the author of
Padmavat, written in 1540. He attempted to give the Padmini episode a
histori cal interpretation. Modern writers, like G.H. Ojha, Dr. K.S. Lal and
others have rejected the historical relevance of the Padmini episode. However,
Dr. A.L. Srivastava is inclined to accept the correctness of the Jayasi legend.
1.15.4 Central India:
The br illiant victories of Alauddin Khilji over Ranthambhor and Chittor
frightened other states of Rajaputana into a willing submission to the sultan.
They agreed to pay an annual tribute to Delhi. In 1305, Alauddin sent a
military force for the conquest of Malw a. Initially the ruler of Malwa,
Mahlakdeva resisted the invaders. But the superior forces of Delhi
overpowered Mahlakdeva and conquered the region. Following the
annexation of Malwa to the Delhi Sultanate Alauddin appointed Ain -ul-
Mulk as the governor of the province.
After the conquest of Malwa, Alauddin led an army against the ruler of
Siwana, Raja Sataldeva. The siege of Siwana lasted for a long time. Finally,
the Rajputs were defeated and a large part of the kingdom was annexed
to the Delhi Sultanate. Malik Kamaluddin was given the charge of
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35 Initially the sultanate army suffered some reverses. But with the arrival of
reinforcement the Rajputs were defeated and Jalor was annexed to the Delhi
Sultanate.
Alauddin completed the conquest of Northern India. According to Tod,
“The entire agnikula race of the Rajputs, form Anhilwara to Deogiri
accepted the Khilji suzerainty.” Alauddin’s imperial power extended over
the whole of the norther n region except Kashmir, Nepal, Assam and parts of
northwestern Punjab.
Check Your Progress
1. Name the ruler of Ranathabhor at the time of invasion by
Alauddin Khilji.
2. What is Padmini episode?
1.16 DECC AN CAMPAIGNS OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI
Alauddin Khilji did not confine his conquest to the North India only. After
achieving unprecedented success in his expeditions against the Rajput
states of northern India, Alauddin decided to carry arms beyond the
Vindhyas into the Deccan and South India. However, his southern ca mpaigns
were not intended to stretch the frontiers of the sultanate. Alauddin did not
wish to supersede Hindu rule in the south by Muslim administration. His
southern campaigns were mainly plundering raids. His chief motive was to
utilize the resources of the south to further his imperialist ambition in
the north. Thus, Alauddin Khilji’s invasion of the south was a
continuation of his Devagiri adventure of 1294.
wanted to impress upon the Hindu rulers of the south his own power and
might and by doing so he desired to check their possible hostility to his
work and consolidating Muslim rule in northern India. Alauddin’s
objective was clear from the instructions that he issued to Malik Kafur,
the commander -in-chief of the southern expeditions. “If the Rai conse nted to
surrender his treasure and jewels, elephants and horses, and also to send
treasure and elephants in the following year, Malik Naib Kafur was to
accept these terms... If he could not do this, he was... to bring the Rai
with him to Delhi.” These inst ructions indicated that Alauddin was not
an annexationist with regard to South India. He did not want to multiply
centers of dissatisfaction and rebellion by pursuing a policy of territorial
expansion in the south. He also realized that he would not be abl e to rule
the Deccan from his base in the north. This manifests to statesmanlike
quality of Alauddin Khilji.
4.17 KINGD OMS OF THE DECCAN AND THE
SOUTH
There were four principal kingdoms in the south when Alauddin invaded
that region. The Yadavas, with thei r capital at Devagiri ruled the modern
Maharashtra region south of the Vindhyas. They had subjugated the entire munotes.in

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36 territory up to the river Krishna. Raja Ramachandra Deva was the Yadava
ruler, who was a contemporary of Alauddin Khilji. The Kakatiyas were the
southeastern neighbours of the Yadavas. Their capital was Warangal. The
contemporary ruler was Pratap Rudra Deva II. To the south of Devagiri lay
the kingdom of the Hoysalas whose capital was Dwarasamudra. At the time
of Alauddin’s invasion of the Deccan, Vira Ballala III was the Hoysala ruler.
In the far south there was the kingdom of the Pandyas with its capital at
Madura. The contemporary ruler was Kulashekhar.
The kingdoms of the Deccan and the south had become weak due to
mutual warfare. Like the nort hern kingdoms, they had neglected the defence
of their frontiers. Thus, it was easy to attack them. These kingdoms were rich
and prosperous. The royal treasuries were full of gold and precious stones.
Merchants and craftsmen had also grown rich. The temple s had large amount
of accumulated wealth due to strong religious sentiments of the people.
It was, therefore, natural for a powerful ruler of the north to covet the wealth
of the south and plan its conquest in the same way as the adventurers
beyond the nor thwest frontiers of India had carried on plundering raids in
Northern India.
1.17.1 Subjugation of the Yadavas of Devagiri:
The Yadava ruler, Ramachandra Deva had stopped paying annual tribute
since three or four years. Besides, he provoked Alauddin by giv ing
asylum to the ousted Vaghela ruler of Gujarat, Rai Karan and his daughter,
Devala Devi. In order to subjugate the Yadavas of Devagiri, Alauddin
dispatched Malik Kafur, one of the greatest generals of Alauddin at the head
of a large army in 1301. Marchi ng to the Yadava kingdom through Dhar in
Central India, Malik Kafur reached Devagiri. After a feeble
resistance Ramachandra Deva was compelled to sue for peace. A huge
amount of booty along with the Vaghela princess, Devala Devi was sent to
Delhi. The prin cess was later married to Khizr Khan, the eldest son of
Alauddin in 1314. Their love is immortalized in the verses of Amir Khusrau.
After the defeat and submission, Ramachandra Deva was taken to Delhi. He
was treated well by Alauddin Khilji. The sultan con ferred on him the title
of rai -i-rayan and the district of Navasari in Gujarat was assigned to him as
jagir. He was given one lakh gold peaces as gift by Alauddin. On his return
to Devagiri, Ramachandra Deva remained a loyal vassal of Delhi. By
conciliatin g the Yadava ruler, Alauddin Khilji found a reliable and suitable
base for his imperial penetration of the south. Ramachandra Deva rendered
valuable service to Malik Kafur during his southern expedition.
1.17.2 Invasion of Warangal:
In 1303, Alauddin Khilj i had sent an army from Delhi to invade and
plunder Warangal. But the Kakatiya ruler, Prataprudra Deva II, defeated the
sultanate army. Alauddin was anxious to wipe out the disgrace of the defeat
of his army. In 1309, after the pacification of the Yadava k ingdom.
Alauddin ordered Malik Kafur to subdue the Kakatiya kingdom of
Warangal. Malik Kafur marched to Warangal in 1309. Ramachandra Deva
of Devagiri rendered him useful service. On arrival at Warangal, Malik munotes.in

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37 Kafur besieged the fort. The siege of Warangal c o n t i n u e d f o r a l o n g t i m e .
Ultimately Prataprudra Deva surrendered and paid a huge tribute of 100
elephants, 7000 horses and precious articles. He promised to send an equal
amount of tribute in future years as well. Amongst the precious stones was
the fam ous kohinoor. After his success against Warangal, Malik Kafur
returned to the capital in 1310 laden with war -booty which, according to
Amir Khusrau, “a thousand camels groaning under the weight of the
treasure.”
1.17.3 Expedition to Dwarasamudra:
Malik Kaf ur’s third expedition in the Deccan was directed against
Dwarasamudra. In 1311, passing through Devagiri, where Shankara Deva
(Singhana) had succeeded his father, Ramachandra Deva. After
establishing a garrison at Jalna on the Godavari to protect his line of
communication with Delhi, Malik Kafur reached Dwarasamudra. The
Hoysala ruler, Vira Ballala III, who had gone to the south to participate in
the civil was raging in the Pandya kingdom, was taken by surprise. On
receiving the news of the invasion of his kingdom by Malik Kafur, he
hastily returned and offered resistance. He found that he was no match to
the invaders from the north. Vira Ballala III made peace with Malik
Kafur and agreed to pay tribute to the sultan
1.17.4 Campaign to Madura (Mabar):
The Mu slim historians referred the Pandya kingdom as Mabar. The ongoing
civil war between the Pandya princes gave an opportunity to Malik Kafur to
invade the kingdom. The civil war was between the two sons of the Pandyan
king, Kulashekara, Sundar Pandya, his leg itimate son and Vira Pandya, his
illegitimate but favourite son. Sundar Pandya murdered his father and seized
the crown for himself. However, Vira Pandya who sought Malik Kafur’s help
defeated him. Malik Kafur agreed to intervene and proceeded to Madura,
the capital of the Pandyas in April 1311. But Vira Pandya had already
evacuated the capital. Malik Kafur ransacked the city, plundered and
desecrated the temples. From Madura, Malik Kafur proceeded up to
Rameshwaram on the island of Pamban. He destroyed the temple there
and built a mosque and named it after Alauddin. After his successful
campaign in Madura, Malik Kafur returned to Delhi with an immense
booty. The subjugation of the Pandyan kingdom signified the fall of the
last of the southern kingdoms and t he establishment of the Khilji
paramountcy all over India.
1.17.5 Last expedition to Devagiri:
Following the death of Ramachandra Deva in 1312, his eldest son
Shankara Deva succeeded him. He was strongly opposed to the submission
to Delhi. He also had a pe rsonal grudge against Alauddin for seizing and taking
away to Delhi, Devala Devi whom he wanted to marry. On his accession,
Shankara Deva withheld the tribute to Delhi and thus, declared his
independence. Alauddin once again dispatched Malik Kafur to the D eccan in
1313 to subjugate Shankara Deva. Malik Kafur defeated Shankara Deva, who
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38 From Devagiri, Malik Kafur proceeded to Gulbarga and captured it. Next,
he occupied the territory between the Krishna and Tun gabhadra rivers and
established garrisons at Raichur and Mudgal. Thereafter he advanced
westwards and took the seaports of Dabhol and Chaul. Malik Kafur also
seized parts of Hoysala and Kakatiya territory. After his victories, Malik Kafur
had no intention of returning to the north. He wanted to establish an
independent kingdom in the south after the death of Alauddin. This was
chiefly due to his quarrels with Khizr Khan and his mother Malika Jahan.
However, Alauddin summoned Malik Kafurto Delhi.
Recognizing Harpala Deva as the next ruler of Devagiri, Malik Kafur
returned to Delhi in 1315.
Check Your Progress
1. Who was the head of Alauddin’s Southern campaigns?
2. Who was ruling Devgiri at the time of Kafur’s invasion?
1.18 MONGOL INVASIONS:
According to contempor ary accounts Alauddin repulsed more than a
dozen Mongol invasions. Alauddin was fortunate to have the service of
trusted and dedicated generals who were put in charge of the strategic
northwest frontier. One of his ablest generals, Zafar Khan met the first
three Mongol challenges boldly and repulsed the invaders in 1296, 1297
and again in 1299. However, in the last encounter, Zafar Khan lost his life. In
1303, another Mongol army, 1,20,000 strong, led by Targhi Khan invaded
India. Alauddin, then engaged in the siege of Chittor, hastened back to
Delhi but was unable to save the capital and its vicinity from the Mongol
raids. Fortunately for the sultan the Mongols retreated as suddenly as they
had appeared. It is said that Alauddin had beseeched Nizamuddin Aul iya,
the famous Sufi saint, to offer prayers to avert the crisis. Barani attributed
the sudden withdrawal of the Mongols to the prayers of Nizamuddin
Auliya.
The advance of the Mongols up to the vicinity of the capital made Alauddin
to realize the urgency of strengthening the northwest frontier. He repaired
the old forts, set up new garrisons at strategic points in the Punjab, Multan and
Sindh. He also entrusted the responsibility of guarding the frontier to a
special unit of the army. Though these special measures improved the defense
on the frontier they could not prevent the reappearance of the Mongols for the
fourth time under the command of Ali Beg in 1305. Malik Kafur and Ghazi
Malik who succeeded in inflicting heavy losses on them intercepted the
Mong ols on their way back from the Punjab. A large number of Mongols
were taken prisoners.
The last Mongol invasion took place in 1306 under Iqbalmanda and
Kubak. However, their attempts were foiled by Malik Kafur and Gahzi
Malik who first inflicted a severe d efeat on Kubak and captured him. Next
they turned against Iqbalmanda and attacked him in such vehemence that the
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39 1.19 CONCLUSION
The last days of Alauddin Khilji were clouded with troub le and
disappointment. Due to failing health, neglected by his wife and sons, he
became more and more dependent on Malik Kafur. Being ambitious, Malik
Kafur exploited the situation by poisoning the sultan’s mind against
the queen and Prince Khizr Khan. Conspiracies and murders led to
the weakening of the central government, which in turn led to rebellions and
mutinies. The army in Gujarat rose in mutiny following the murder of Alap
Khan due to the conspiracy of Malik Kafur. The rulers of Chittor and
Devagir i lost no time in proclaiming their independence. In the midst of this
confusion and court intrigue Alauddin died on 2 January 1316.
Following the death of Alauddin the Khilji dynasty began to decline. Court
intrigues and murders became a common feature. Malik Kafur desired to
usurp the throne of Delhi after exterminating Alauddin’s family. However,
Malik Kafur was not destined to enjoy his power. He was murdered at the
instigation of Mubarak Khan, the third son of Alauddin, who became the
sultan with the t itle of Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316 -1320). He was too
addicted to pleasure. His only need appeared to be beautiful dancing girls
and attractive eunuchs. He assumed the title of ‘Supreme Pontiff and Vice -
regent of God of heaven and earth’. He resigned his authority to Khusrau
Khan, a low caste Hindu converted to Islam, who acted as the prime
minister. Khusrau Khan, who was ambitious, conspired against his
master, murdered him and proclaimed himself the new sultan in April
1320. Khusrau Shah’s regime was short lived. He was defeated, captured
and beheaded by Ghazi Malik, the ‘warden of the marches’ and the governor
of Dipalpur in September 1320. Ghazi Malik ascended the throne of Delhi
with the title of Giyasuddin Tughlaq. This marked the end of Khilji
dynast y and the beginning of new dynasty, the Tughlaq dynasty.
1.20 QUESTIONS
1. Give an account of Alaudd in’s rise to power.
2. Discuss the imperial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate under
Alauddin Khilji.
3. Trace the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India under
Alauddin Khilji.
4. Examine the imperial policy of Alauddin Khilji towards the
kingdoms of the Deccan and South India.


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40 1.21 (C) TUGHLAG, SAHYAID AND LODI
DYNASTY
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1 325 -1 351)
1.21. 1 Campaigns and Expeditions
1.21.1 .1 Rajputs:
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s policy towards the Rajputs was not
particularly successful. His preoccupation in other regions or the
apprehension of the organized strength of the Rajputs might have been
the reasons for not attempting to subjugate the Rajput states. Mehdi Hussain
is of the opinion that Muhammad did not attack the Rajputs because he was
charitably disposed towards the Hindus. But the sultan’s relation with other
Hindu rulers does not justify such an observation. Most probably, knowing
that the previou s sultans had failed to fully subjugate the Rajputs,
Muhammad did not entangle himself with the difficult task of subduing
them. He wanted to conquer and annex other regions of India and extend his
empire.
1.21.1 .2 Mongol Invasion:
The northwest frontier o f the sultanate was threatened by a series of Mongol
invasions, which occurred after Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had ordered the
transfer of the capital to Devagiri. In about 1327, the ruler of Trans -Oxiana,
Tarma Shirin, son of Daud, who had tried to conquer and annex India
during the reign of Alauddin Khilji, led a Mongol invasion to India.
According to an account of Firishta the Mongols overran Laghman and
Multan and advanced towards Delhi. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was taken by
surprise and finding resistance impos sible made peace by paying a large sum
of money to the invaders. The Mongols withdrew after having
plundered vast areas in Gujarat and Sindh. The Neglect of the security of
the northwest frontier was a serious flaw in the policy of Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq.
1.21.1.3 Plan for the Conquest of Khurasan:
Shortly after the withdrawal of the Mongols, the sultan formed an
ambitious plan of sending an expedition of Trans Oxiana, Khurasan and
Iraq. For this purpose, according to Barani, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq collected
3, 37,000 troops who were paid the whole year’s salary in advance from the
public treasury. But the army did not leave Delhi and the troops were
disbanded. It would have been extremely difficult for the troops to pass
through the snow bound passes and to mak e adequate provisions for
transport and supplies. The situation within the country was also not
conducive for Muhammad Bin Tughlaq to dream of such foreign adventure.
A number of rebellions distracted the government. A severe famine was
stalking the land i n the Doab, and the sultanate army neither had competent
leaders nor did it possess necessary experience and training for operations
in a foreign land like Khurasan. Hence, the abandonment of the Khurasan munotes.in

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41 adventure was inevitable. But it caused incalculabl e financial losses to the
treasury. Disbandment of the army led to unemployment and loss of
prestige to the sultan.
1.21.1 .4 Nagarkot:
In 1337, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq led an expedition against the fort of
Nagarkot in the Kangra Valley. Nagarkot had defied th e authority of the
Turks since the days of Mahmud Ghazni. Even though Alauddin Khilji
had conquered the entire country, the fort of Nagarkot had remained in the
hands of a Hindu ruler. When Sultan Muhammad besieged the fort its Raja
offered stiff resistanc e. But he was defeated and compelled to submit to the
authority of Delhi.
1.21.1.5 Quarchal:
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq directed an expedition against Quarchal situated
in the Kumaon hills. According to Ibn Battuta, Quarchal was situated at ten
stages from Delhi . The Quarchal expedition was directed to quell the
hostilities of the hill tribes on the northern frontier, who must have defied
the imperial authority. The initial attack by the sultanate army was
successful. But the mountainous region and the incessant rains paralyzed
the supplies to the troops and the army suffered heavy casualties. However,
the military disaster was not politically fruitless. Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq was able to obtain from the raja of Quarchal the promise of a
tribute. But for this, an un necessarily heavy price had to be paid in terms
of loss of human lives.
1.21.1.6 Relation with China:
During the reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq the power of the Mongol rulers
of China was on the decline. Consequently, many of them tried to establish
friendl y relations with the sultan of India. The Mongol emperor of China,
Toghan Timur sent an envoy to Delhi in 1341 seeking Muhammad’s
permission to re -build Buddhist temples in the Himalayan region. The
soldiers of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had demolished these Bud dhist
temples during the Quarchal expedition. The sultan reciprocated by
sending Ibn Battuta as his special envoy to the imperial court of China in
1342. Regarding the reconstruction of the Buddhist temples, the sultan sent
a word to the Chinese emperor th at according to the laws of Islam no
permission could be granted for their rebuilding unless jizya was paid.
1.21.1.7 The Deccan:
In 1326 the governor of Sagar near Gulbarga and the cousin of the sultan,
Bahauddin Gursasp rebelled against the sultan. The w ind of rebellion spread
across Anegundi and Dwarasamudra. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq took
advantage of these rebellions to extend the frontiers of the sultanate to the
western sea -cost and the far south. In the course of suppression of these
revolts, the sultan annexed Anegundi, Dwarasamudra and Mabar and
incorporated them as provinces of the sultanate. In this way, the entire
Indian sub -continent came under the direct rule of the sultan. But the munotes.in

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Medieval India
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42 territorial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate to the far south prove d disastrous
to the sultan and the sultanate. His Deccan and South Indian adventure left
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq physically exhausted politically dissipated and
financially ruined. The process of assimilation without taking into account
the prevalent realitie s aroused the hostility and suspicion of the local
people. In the absence of faster means of communication it was impossible
to secure a permanent hold over the Deccan and South India.
1.22 SAAYID DYNASTY (1 41 4 -1 451)
The founder of the Sayyid Dynasty w as Khizr Khan (1414 - 1421).
According to the contemporary writer Yahya Sirhindi, author of the Tarikh -
i-Mubarakshahi, Khizr Khan, the founder of the Sayyid dynasty descended
from the Prophet of Islam, and was hence styled a Sayyid. He did not
assume the ti tle of a sovereign and preferred to regard himself as the
deputy of Shah Rukh, the son and successor of Timur. Throughout his
reign Khizr Khan was engaged in putting down rebellions in the provinces
nominally dependent on Delhi, particularly in the Doab.
Mubarak Shah (1421 -1434) succeeded his father, Khizr Khan. He
assumed the royal title. He had to face a number of revolts. He sent
expeditions against the Khokhars in the Punjab, the Hindus of Katehar,
the Doab, Mewat and Gwalior. As an administrator, Mubar ak Shah proved
a kind and merciful king. He patronized scholars. Yahya Si rh i nd i’s Trarikh -i-
Mubarakshahi is a valuable source of history of this period. Mubarak Shah
was murdered at the instigation of his ambitious wazir, Sarwar -ul-Mulk in
1434.
Muhamm ad Shah (1434 -1445), the nephew and adopted son of Mubarak
Shah was elevated to the throne by the rebel wazir, Sarwar -ul-Mulk. For about
six months all power was usurped by the wazir, who had received the title of
khan-i-jahan. A loyalist plot, however, ov erthrew the notorious minister.
Still the political situation worsened due to rebellions and the aggressive
policy towards Jaunpur and Malwa. Bahlol Lodi, the Afghan governor of
Sirhind helped Muhammad Shah in this crisis and gained his favour. As
he was a mbitious, Bahlol Lodi suddenly turned rebel and made a fruitless
attempt to seize Delhi.
The last Sayyid ruler was Alauddin Alam Shah (1445 -1451), son of
Muhammad Shah. He proved more incompetent than his father and only
hastened to collapse of the Sayyid dynasty. In 1451, he handed over the
throne of Delhi to Bahlol Lodi and retired to Badaon where he spent the
rest of his life in pleasure.
1.23 LODI DYNASTY (1451 -1526)
The Lodis ruled over the remnants of the Delhi Sultanate for 75 years. They
were Afgha ns by race and were endowed with bravery, ferociousness and
immense self -pride. The Afghans were divided into a number of clans. Lodi
was one of them. The Afghans were enrolled in large numbers in the army of
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Foundation, Expansion And
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43 occupied important positions in the government and army during the Khilji
and Tug hlaq periods.
The Afghan concept of government was democratic. The idea of a
sovereign king, superior to them in status and power was anathema t o t h e m .
They, at the most regarded the tribal head as primus inter pares, that is
‘first among the equals’. Thus, the position of monarchy was inherently
weak in such a tribal organization as powerful tribal chiefs always coveted
the throne.
1.23.1 Bahlo l Lodi (1451 -1489):
The founder of the Lodi dynasty was Bahlol Lodi. He put an end to the
Sayyid dynasty and foundation of the first Afghan or Pathan kingdom in
India. Although Bahlol was capable and ambitious, he had the
practical sense to realize that it was impossible to restore the former
power and prestige of the sultanate. He visualized the difficulty of
reconquering the provinces, which had become independent. However, he
suppressed rebellions in Multan, Mewat and Doab. The most significant
achieveme nt of Bahlol Lodi was the conquest of the Sharqi kingdom of
Jaunpur. The other areas over which Bahlol Lodi was able to extend his
sway were Kalpi, Dholpur and Gwalior.
Bahlol Lodi conducted himself on terms of apparent equality with the
Afghan nobles and kept them under control and succeeded in retaining his
throne. Bahlol was a good and charitable person, pious and humane, just
and sincere. He disliked the pomp of royalty and discarded vain display of
dress and jewellery. In spite of his lack of scholarsh ip, he appreciated the
company of savants and patronized them.
1.23.2 Sikandar Lodi (1489 -1 51 7):
The second surviving son of Bahlol Lodi, Nizam Khan ascended the throne
of Delhi under the title of Sikandar Shah. Soon after his accession, Sikandar
Shah co nsolidated his position by reducing his rivals to submission. Sikandar
Shah conquered Bihar and Tirhut and concluded an alliance with the sultan
of Bengal. In 1505 he founded Agra.
Sikandar Shah, unlike Bahlol Lodi, was determined to increase the
power and prestige of the sultan. Consequently, he introduced a number of
regulations and court etiquettes. To further strengthened his hold over the amirs.
Sikandar ordered a complete review of the entire administration, with special
emphasis on the auditing of ac counts. For discrepancies harsh punishments
were given either to high or low. Besides, the sultan reorganized the
espionage system and posted news -writers even in the houses of the
nobles.
Sikandar Shah was a vigilant administrator. He encouraged agricultu re and
trade and secured the safety of the public roads. He was just, benevolent and
charitable and worked for the welfare of the poor. He was himself a
Persian scholar. He patronized a translation of a medical work in Sanskrit
into Persian. He was the gre atest of the Lodi rulers. However, the outstanding munotes.in

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44 defect of his character was his religious intolerance. He destroyed
numerous Hindu temples. Like Firuz Shah Tughlaq, he too encouraged
conversion. He also persecuted numerous Hindus and imposed a number of
restrictions on them. A Brahmin who maintained that his religion was as
good as Islam was asked to choose between Islam and death. On his
refusal to give up Hinduism the Brahmin was put to death. This bigotry
alienated his Hindu subjects.
1.23.3 Ibrahim L odi (1517 -1526):
The last Lodi Sultan of Delhi was Sikandar’s eldest son, Ibrahim Lodi. He
lacked the virtues of his father and attempted to enforce his authority and
make his regal position a reality. His strong temper created chronic
misunderstandings be tween him and his Afghan nobles who were
disinclined to submit to a strong central government. While his grand
father Bahlol Lodi had controlled the Afghan nobility by a combination
of tact and diplomacy and his father, Sikandar Lodi did the same by sheer
strength of his personality, Ibrahim, on the other hand proved inferior to his
forefathers. He felt that monarchy was his by right of inheritance. He alienated
the proud Afghan nobles by introducing strict practices and denying them
many of their privilege s. As Firishta writes, “He said publicly that all around
be considered as subjects and servants of the state; and the Afghans chiefs, who
had hitherto been allowed to sit in his presence, were constrained to stand in
front of the throne, with their hands c rossed before them.” The disaffected
Afghan nobles tried to replace Ibrahim by his youngest brother Jalal. But
the rebellion of Jalal was suppressed. He was captured and killed. Ibrahim
also foiled several other attempts of the nobles to foster rebellion.
Ibrahim Lodi conquered Gwalior, which had defied the attempts of the
previous sultans of Delhi including Sikandar Lodi. Encouraged by his
success against Gwalior, Ibrahim Lodi planned to conquer Mewar, ruled by
the valiant Rana Sanga. According to the Musl im accounts the expedition
against Mewar was successful, but the Rajput sources speak of the defeat of
the sultan by Rana Sanga.
Ibrahim Lodi came in serious conflict with the Afghan nobility. The
cruel murders committed by Ibrahim alarmed the nobles who r ebelled
everywhere. Bihar became independent under Bahadur Shah. Daulat Khan
Lodi, the governor of the Punjab and the uncle of the sultan, Alam Khan,
sent envoys to Babur, the ruler of Kabul with an invitation to invade India
and to dislodge Ibrahim Lodi. Accordingly Babur invaded India, defeated
and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat (1526). This marked the
end of the Lodi dynasty and downfall of the Delhi Sultanate and the
beginning of a new dynasty and empire under the Mughals.
Check Your Progr ess
1. How many years the Sayyids ruled on Delhi?
2. Who was the last ruler of Delhi Sultanate?
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45 1.24 CONCLUSION
After Alauddin Khilji Tughlaq Dynasty also gave better administration to
Delhi Sultanate. Though Muhammad bin Tughlaq was not much successful
but his i d e a s w e r e v e r y n o v e l . H e w a s genious but lacked proper
understading of the situation. His successor Firoz shah was the benevolent
Sultan and introduced so many kinds of public works as like modern
times. The Sayyids were not much powerful. The Lodis had internal
dissension among their kith and kin which finally led to the destruction
of Delhi Sultanate and Rise of Mughal Empire.
1.25 QUESTIONS
1. Make an estimate of the career and achievements of
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.
2. Critically examine the administrative p olicy of Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq.
3. Examine the statement “With the best intentions, excellent ideas but no
balance or patience, no sense of proportion, Muhammad Tughlaq was a
transcendent failure.” (Lane Poole).
4. Comment on the following:
(a) Transfer of the capita l by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
(b) Currency reforms of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
5. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Military campaigns of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq Sayyids
(b) Lodis



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46 2
ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF
THE SULTANATE

Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 A) Central Administration And System
2.3 Iqta System
2.4 Conclusion
2.5 Questions
2.6 B) Administrative And Military Reforms Of Alauddin Khil ji
2.7 C) Reforms Of Firuz Shah Tughlaq
2.8 Conclusion
2.9 Questions
2.10 Administrative Policy
2.11 Rebellions And Break Up Of The Sultanate
2.12 An Estimate Of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the central administration of the Sult anate period.
 To analyse he Iqta system during Sultanate.
 To understand the Administartive Reforms of Alauddin Khilji.
 To study the Reforms of Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The state that came into existence in medieval India under the Turks was
theocratic in nature. The term theocracy implies a state governed directly
by God or through a priestly class. Throughout the medieval period the
state had its own religion, Islam, and it did not recognize other religions
such as Hinduism. The state was to be governed according to the Quranic
law (Shariat) and the resources of the state were to be utilized for the munotes.in

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Administrative Structure of the Sultanate
47 protection and propagation of Islam. The sultan was not only expected to
follow this law in his own personal life, but also to administer it and
conduct the state affairs according to the injunctions of the Shariat. The
Muslim theologians, the Ulema, though not ordained clergy, guided the
sultans in interpreting and implementing the law. The ideal of the Islamic
state in India was to convert India fro m the land of infidels (dar-ul-harb) into
Islamic land (dar-ul-Islam). Under these circumstances the Delhi
Sultanate could be considered as the theocratic state.
Alauddin Khilji was not only a great conqueror but also a brilliant
administrator. He was a ma n of strong will and acted according to his own
convictions, unmindful of the consequences. He was not perturbed by the
unpopularity of some of his measures. He combined in a remarkable manner
his military and civil talents. He possessed much practical abi lity and
looked at questions from the common sense point of view.
However, his various administrative reforms manifested neither any
philanthropy, such as general welfare of his people; nor they exhibited his
love for reforms such as in the case of enlight ened despots. They were
solely motivated by the need for political and military security of the sultanate
and for the enhancement of his personal power.
2.2 A) CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION AND SYSTEM :
2.2.1 Relationship between the Caliphate and the Sultanate:
According to the Quran the master and sovereign of the entire universe
is Allah. Hence, every one must obey Allah. A number of prophets were
sent by Allah to preach his message at different times. Muhammad was the
last of the prophets. To obey the prophets was to obey Allah, but it is
obligatory for the prophet to obey Allah. After the death of Muhammad
government passed into the hands of the Caliphs. In theory the Caliph was
elected by the Muslim brotherhood. To avoid the practical difficulty of
election, t he Caliph acquired the right to nominate his successor. This
prompted the Caliph to nominate his own descendants as his successors.
Gradually, this practice led to the hereditary monarchy.
According to the Islamic theory of sovereignty, there is only one M uslim
sovereign (Caliph) for the entire Islamic world. As the Caliphs could not
govern the far away regions effectively, the practice of appointing
governors to these regions came into vogue. Even if a governor asserted his
independence or a Muslim adventu rer conquered a particular region and
established his independent rule, he sought the investiture of the Caliph in
order to maintain the theoretical unity of the Islamic world. This practice was
continued by the sultans of Delhi and considered themselves a s the deputies of
the Caliph and acquired letters of investiture from him, inscribed his name on
the coins and read the qutba in his name. Iltutmish was the first sultan of Delhi
to secure a deed of investiture from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad. By this
investiture, Iltutmish was recognized as an independent sultan. The other
two sultans who secured the letters of investiture from the Caliphs were
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq from the Abbasid Caliph of Egypt and Firuz
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Medieval India
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48 The sultans of Delhi invoked the sanction of the Caliph in order to
strengthen their political authority in the eyes of the people. The Muslims in
general expected their sultans to show respect to the Caliph. Further, the
Muslims were exp ected to show respect and owe allegiance to the sultan
who had been recognized by the Caliph or who called himself his deputy or
assistant. Opposition or rebellion against the sultan who had the sanction
from the Caliph was considered to be contrary to the Holy Law. Thus, the
sultans maintained the myth of subservience to the Caliph in order to
exploit this popular sentiment in their favour.
2.2.2 Position of the Sultan:
A number of scholars are of the opinion that the institution of monarchy was
not an Isl amic institution. It emerged gradually due to various
circumstances. The collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate led to the rise of
sultans who were only secular rulers. Gradually, the sultan became the
center of society and polity. The powers of the state came to be
concentrated in his hands and he tended to be an absolute ruler. He became
the chief executive and legislator, ultimate court of appeal in all judicial
cases and the commander –inchief of the armed forces. He maintained
magnificent court, and had gre at prestige and honour as patron of scholars,
artists and religious men. According to Barani, the heart of a monarch was a
mirror of God, that is, it reflected the wishes of God so that the actions of
a king could not be questioned. Emphasizing these aspec ts, Balban
assumed the title of Zill-Allah (shadow of God) and introduced ceremonies of
sijda (prostration) and paibos (touching the feet of the monarch).
The Muslim jurists assigned the following functions to the sultan:
protection of the Islamic faith; s ettlement of disputes between his
subjects; defense of territories of Islam, and keeping the highways and
roads safe for travelers; maintenance and enforcement of the criminal code;
protection of the frontiers against aggression; waging of holy war against those
who act in hostility to Islam; collection of taxes and duties; appointment of
officers to help him in his public and legal duties; keeping in touch with
public affairs and the condition of the people by personal contact.
Though the sultan was appare ntly an absolute ruler, in actual practice
his authority was limited by certain factors. It has been pointed out that
that unrestricted individual despotism is a myth. According to both Hindu
and Muslim tradition religion was the major institutional check on the
misuse of power by a monarch. He was required to function within the
ethical and moral norms prescribed by the religion. The ruler who violated
the Quranic Law could be removed from power by the people, supported
by the religious leaders. Besides, t he power of the sultan rested on the
loyalty of the army, support of the nobility, and the co ­operation of the
Muslim theologians (Ulema).
2.2.3 Ministerial Departments of the Central Government
In the task of administration, the sultan was assisted by a n umber of
ministers. The number of ministers or the departments was not fixed. The
number of departments could and did vary. The sultan could seek advice from munotes.in

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Administrative Structure of the Sultanate
49 any one in whom he had trust and confidence. The ministers did not form a
council, as there was no concept of joint responsibility. Each minister was
appointed by the sultan, and held office during his pleasure.
2.2.3.1 Deputy Sultan or Naib:
The post of deputy sultan was not a common appointment. Deputy sultan
was appointed when the sultan was weak an d incapable of governing
or a minor. The naib enjoyed all the powers of the sultan. This post was
usually assigned to a powerful noble. He exercised control over the different
departments on behalf of the sultan. He was usually a capable military
commander . Alauddin Khilji offered this high office to Malik Kafur as a
sign of special favour. He combined the post of wazir with the post of naib-
ussultanat. After the death of Alauddin, Malik Kafur as naib tried to act as
kingmaker. He was replaced by Khusrau M alik who also took the post of
naib, and then ascended the throne. The Tughlaqs discontinued the post of
the naib, but later it was revived by the Sayyid rulers under the title
Wakil -us-sultanat.
2.2.3.2 Diwan -i-Wizarat:
The wazir was the head of this depa rtment. He exercised much influence
on the administration of the sultanate. Much has been written on the role,
powers and qualifications of the wazir. He had to be a man of learning
rather than a warrior. He was also required to possess wide experience,
wisdom and sagacity as his views could be sought by the ruler on any
subject. Besides, he had to be a man of tact, as he had to control the
nobility without alienating it. The wazir gradually became a key figure in
the administration of the state. In importa nce he ranked next to the sultan.
In the fourteenth century the office of the wazir acquired more importance
as he was regarded as an authority on revenue matters. He looked after a
large and important department dealing with income and expenditure.
2.2.3.3 Diwan -i-ariz:
It was the military department under the charge of the Ariz-iMumalik. His chief
responsibility was to recruit, equip and pay the army. The Ariz was not the
commander ­in­chief of the sultan’s army. The sultan commanded his
own forces. Howev er, the Ariz was invariably a leading noble, and a
warrior in his own right. Balban established the department of Ariz ­i­
Mumalik. He appointed Ahmad Ayaz as the ariz-i-mumalik, who held this
post for thirty years. Balban gave more importance to this post t han that of
the wazir. However, it was under Alaud­din Khilji that the functioning of this
department was properly organized. In order to increase the efficiency of the
army new officials and sub ­departments were added to the military
department. The most important among them were the Mir-Hajib
(superintendent of the royal stables), the Daroga -i-Pil (keeper of the
royal elephant stables). The Ariz gradually became so important in the
sultanate that he acted as a check on the powers of the wazir. Thus, the
succeeding wazirs could not become powerful military leaders who could put
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50 2.2.3.4 Diwan -i-Insha:
This department dealt with the royal correspondence, especially with the
neighbouring and fo reign states. Formal letters were sometimes dispatched
to neighbouring rulers to register a new succession to the throne or
announce a major event, such as a victory. The Diwan -I-Insha drafted, copied
and dispatched these letters, which were written in flo urishing literary
style. This department was headed by Dabir -i-khas and he was assisted by a
number of dabirs. The dabir was also responsible for drafting orders
and communications to the important muqtis, and the neighbouring chiefs.
As the nature of the correspondence was confidential, only such persons who
had the trust and proximity of the sultan could be appointed to the post of
dabir.
2.2.3.5 Diwan -i-Risalat:
The Diwan -i-Risalat is one of the four major ministries mentioned by
Barani. However, he has not clearly defined its functions. According to
generally accepted notion, the Diwan -irisalat was the ecclesiastical
(religious) department. The minister in charge of this department was either
Sadr-us-sadur or Wakil -i-dar, who was also called Rasul -I -dar. This
department dealt with religious endowments, stipends and granting
revenue ­free lands to Muslim scholars and religious persons. It gave grants
in cash for the construction of mosques, tombs, madrasas and maqtabs.
Maintenance allowance was also grate d to the learned, the saintly persons, the
orphans and the disabled. The funds for charity were used exclusively for the
welfare of the Muslims. This department usually had a separate treasury,
which received all collection from the Zakat. The chief Sadr appointed
muhatsibs (censors of public morals). These officials were required to
check gambling, prostitution and other vices. They also had to ensure that
Muslims did not publicly violate what was prohibited in the shara. They were
also to check weights an d measures, and to keep a broad check on prices.
2.2.3.6 Qazi -ul-Quzat:
He was the head of judicial department. Usually the posts of the chief Sadr
and the chief qazi were combined in one person.
2.2.3.7 Barid -i-mumalik:
He was an important minister under the Delhi Sultanate. He was the head of
the intelligence department. Spies (barids) were appointed to different parts
of the empire. It was their duty to keep the sultan informed about all the
developments within the empire. Sultans such as Balban and Alud din Khilji
to keep effective control and check on the rebellious nobles used the well ­
organized espionage system. Only such nobles who enjoyed the sultan’s
confidence were appointed to this sensitive post. News outposts or dakchowkis
were under the control of Barid -i-mumalik.

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51 2.2.3.8 Royal Household and the Court:
The most important official concerned with the royal household was
the wakil -i-dar. He controlled the entire royal household. He supervised
the payment of salaries and allowances to the sultan’s personal staff. He
was also responsible for the education of the princes. As the post was of
great importance, it was assigned only to those nobles of high rank and
confidence.
The Amir Hajib (master of ceremonies) was another important official
associate d with the royal household and the court. He conducted the nobles in
the court according to their ranks and precedence. He also checked the
official visitors to the court. He took special measure to guard the sultan
against any plot or mischief. Other offi cials included Amir -i-Shikar,
who organized royal hunts, Amir -i-majlis, who made special
arrangements for feasts and celebrations, Sar-i-jandar, who was the chief of the
royal bodyguards. Only trustworthy nobles occupied the post of Sar-ijandar.
The royal ho u se ho l d w as a la rg e es t ab l i sh m en t . I t h ad t o b e provided with
different types of goods and articles. This task was fulfilled by the Royal
karkhanas. The karkhanas were responsible for the storing and
manufacture of all the articles required by the sultan and the royal
household as well as the court. This included food and fodder, lamps and oil,
clothes, furniture etc. Firuz Shah Tughlaq paid special attention to the
karkhanas. He trained a number of slaves to work in various karkhanas. Each
karkhana was supervised by a noble of rank, and was assisted by a number of
accountants and supervisors.
Another department that gained importance since the reign of Alauddin
Khilji was the department of public works (Diwan -iimarat). However, its
services were used to the maximum extent by Firuz Shah Tughlaq. He
repaired many old building and built a number of new ones. He also dug
canals and built many new towns.
2.2.4 Judicial Administration
The sultan was regarded as the fountainhead of justice. He was responsible
for upholding and maintaining the Shariat, which was the basic law in an
Islamic state. In the case of non ­Muslims, especially Hindus, in their social
relations such as marriage, inheritance etc., the customary law was followed.
As far as possible the state refrained from interfering in the personal law
of the Hindus. However, in criminal cases both Hindus and Muslims were
treated equally.
As the lawgiver and the final court of appeal, the sultan was the highest
judicial authority in the state. The departmen t of justice was known as the
Diwani -i-Qaza. The sultan made all appointments to the various judicial
posts. While deciding cases related to religious affairs, in which
interpretation of the shariat was required, the sultan took the advice of the
Sadr-us-Sadur and the mufti (legal interpreter). The sultan settled cases of
secular nature with the assistance of the Qazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Justice). The
chief Qazi supervised and controlled the lower judges in the province and munotes.in

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52 heard appeals from the lower courts. On the recommendations of the Qazi-
ul-Quzat, the sultan appointed qazis in the different provinces and localities.
Usually the same person held the offices of Sadr ­us­Sadur and the Qazi ­
ul­Quzat. Though the chief Qazi was designated as the head of the judi cial
department, he was only its nominal head. The sultan was the real head of
the department as he was the supreme judge. Thus, the sultan had the power
to reverse the decision of the chief Qazis. The Qazi -ul-Quzat was chosen
for his piety and knowledge o f the Islamic law. He held a position of
prestige and authority in the state.
There was a qazi in every province and one in every district. In big cities,
officials known as Amir -i-dad were appointed. Their chief functions
included detect ion of criminals and their trial with the help of the Qazi. In
the town the kotwal was responsible for maintaining law and order. Another
important official who was responsible for maintenance of law and order
was the muhatasib. He also super­vised markets checked weights and
measures, sale of wine and adulteration of food. He had to see that the
Muslims followed their rules and regulations. In case of violation of the
law he punished the guilty. He had to take the help of the Qazi in
exercising his responsibilities. In the village however, the ancient system of
local government was hardly touched by the sultans. The village or the caste
panchayat carried on its traditional duties as long as they did not clash
with the qazi’s jurisdiction.
The criminal law was very severe. C onfession was extracted from the
criminals by way of torture. Those criminals who were convicted of a crime
were punished according to the nature of the crime. Different forms of
punishment have been mentioned. These included simple impris­onment,
flogging , torture, fine and mutilation of limbs. Only the sultan awarded
death penalty.
2.2.5 Check Your Progress
1. What were the responsibilities of the deputy or naib?
2. How was the judicial administration was done during Sultanate?
2.3 IQTA SYSTEM
2.3.1. Origin of the Iqta System:
There is no sufficient information regarding the working of the provincial
and local government during the sultanate period. Initially the sultanate was
a loose structure made up of military commands. Uniform civil
administration could not be introduced throughout the sultanate in the initial
stages, as the military commanders were busy subduing the various Hindu
chiefs. Under these circumstances the iqta system came into existence.
2.3.2. Meaning of Iqta:
Literally the word iqta means a po rtion. Actually it was the land or
revenue assigned by a ruler to an individual instead of the service rendered to munotes.in

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53 the state. The iqtadar or muqti was expected to introduce administration in his
iqta. The iqta system helped the sultan in bringing about ter ritorial
expansion, keeping rebellious military commanders in check, maintaining
law and order in the conquered territories and collection of revenue.
During the thirteenth century the sultanate consisted of military
commands, which were known as iqtas. Each iqta was under a muqti, who
was a powerful military commander. During the Slave dynasty there were
twelve iqtas.
2.3.3. Iqta System during Alauddin Khilji’s Reign:
The situation underwent a gradual change during the Khilji dynasty. During
the reign of A lauddin Khilji, a considerable portion of northern, western and
central India was brought under the direct control of the sultanate. During
the Khilji rule, there are references to walis or muqtis who were
commanders of military and administrative tracts c alled iqtas or
wilayat. They could be compared to provinces and their heads, the
governors. After conquering the vast regions of the country, Alauddin
Khilji organized them into provinces. However, he did not disturb the
existing iqta system that he had in herited from his predecessors. While
retaining the old iqtas, Alauddin appointed military governors to the newly
organized provinces, which were larger in area and income. Besides, the
principalities conquered from the Hindu chiefs were also reduced to
provinces. Thus, since the days of Alauddin Khilji, there were three types
of provinces in the sultanate. The officer in charge of an iqta continued to be
known as the muqti as before. Those who were appointed to the new
provinces were called walis and someti mes amirs. Thus, a wali enjoyed a
higher status and greater authority than a muqti.
2.3.4. Responsibilities of the Muqti:
The responsibilities of a muqti were to collect revenue and remit it to the
state treasury and maintain law and order in his iqta. From the amount of
revenue he collected the muqti could appropriate the expenses that he
incurred for rendering service to the state such as maintenance of the army,
salaries of officials etc. He was allowed to keep a certain amount of
revenue for his persona l expense. He was required to send the remaining
amount to the sultan. The accounts of income and expenditure of a muqti
were properly audited. The muqti was severely punished in case of corruption or
malpractice and the amount was recovered from him. The sultan saw to it that
he recovered his due amount. Quite often the iqta holder tried to conceal his
real income from the iqta or he showed that his surplus was only nominal.
At such times an atmosphere of distrust prevailed in the state.
Due to the militar y nature of the state, the maintenance and command of the
provincial troops was the basic duty of the muqti. When the sultan needed
military help, the muqti was expected to render military service. Any refusal
to do so by the muqti was considered to be an act of rebellion. They could not
declare war or make peace on their own. They had to receive royal orders
before they undertook any scheme of conquests. The strength of the
provincial force varied probably according to the revenue of the province. munotes.in

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Medieval India
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54 Barani w rites that the booty that they collected was the income of the sultan.
No muqti was allowed to have his own court or use a royal emblem. They
could not mint coins in their name, nor could they have the Qutba read in
their name. The muqtis became powerful w hen the sultan was weak and
unable to control them. During the reign of the Lodi Sultans the
muqtis wielded considerable power and enjoyed freedom.
2.3.5. Position of the Muqti:
The muqti could not claim the ownership of the land assigned to
him. While the land belonged to the state, the muqti was granted the
revenue out of it in lieu of the service that he was required to render to the
sultan. He retained the land as long as the sultan allowed him to do so. In
case the sultan was displeased with the muqti he could withdraw his
assignment. The land grant or the iqta could vary in extent from a village to a
province. The muqti could be transferred from one place to another. He
could not treat his land as hereditary property.
As the control of the central gove rnment increased, the control over the
muqti’s administration also increased. In order to supervise the revenue
administration of the iqtas, the central government appointed the naib
diwan, also known as the khwaja. An intelligent officer (barid) was
appoi nted to keep a check on the activities of the muqtis in their respective
iqtas.
2.3.6 Check Your Progress
1. What was the meaning of Iqta?
2. Comment on the position of Muqti.
2.4 CONCLUSION
During the period of Sultanate the rulers used to call themselves as Su ltans.
Their administration basically was based on the Islamic laws of Quran and
Shariat. But Sultan always enjoyed position as fountain heads of political,
economic, military and judicial administration for the smooth
functioning of the administration the y created independent departments
and kept under the control of individual officers with subordinate officers. To
name, Alauddin and Firuz Shah Tughlaq gave very efficient
administration to Delhi Sultanate.
2.5 QUESTIONS
1. Describe the structure of the Centr al government under the Delhi
Sultanate.
2. Write a detailed note on the Iqta system under the Delhi
Sultanate.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Ministries of the Central Government munotes.in

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Administrative Structure of the Sultanate
55 (b) Judicial system under the Delhi Sultanate
(c) Iqta system
2.6 B) ADMI NISTRATIVE AND MILITARY REFORMS
OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI
2.6.1 Suppression of the Nobles:
Alauddin Khilji had to face a number of rebellions soon after assuming the
throne of Delhi. These rebellions, occurring at short intervals convinced the
sultan of the need for adopting preventive measures of a radical nature. He
made a careful analysis of the cause of such rebellions and came to the
conclusion that the rebellions occurred because of the inadequacy of the
espionage staff, excessive use of liquor, free social intercourse and inter ­
marriages among the nobles and possession of excessive wealth by some
of them.
In order to keep the nobles under effective check and prevent rebellions,
Alauddin Khilji promulgated four ordinances. These ordinances authorized
confisca tion of all religious endowments, prohibited free gifts of land,
reorganized the espionage system by placing news ­ writers and spies in
the residences of nobles and officers, prohibited public manufacture or sale
of liquor and forbade social gatherings and intermarriages among nobles
except when permitted by the sultan. It was said that the nobles were so
scared of the spies that they communicated in sign language.
2.6.2 Measures against the Hindus:
Among the Hindus, one class comprised of tributary chiefs. They were
allowed to possess their lands so long as they paid annual tribute to the
state. The other class comprised of landlords such as chaudharis (headmen
of Paraganas), khuts (zamindars) and muqaddams (headmen of villages).
They held land from the state and were allowed their dues so long as they
paid stipulated revenue. Besides, they had the added advantage of cattle
grazing facilities. This landed class acted as the intermediary between the
state and the peasantry and wielded considerable local influ ence and
amassed a lot of wealth. Alauddin Khilji came to the conclusion that the
landlords had successfully maintained their independence due to the
surplus income that they had gathered by evasion of various taxes.
Alauddin Khilji adopted a series of ste rn measures specially designed to curb
the Hindus. He increased the land revenue to one­half of the total
produce. Besides the land tax, he also imposed other levies such as grazing
tax on cattle, sheep and goats. Other taxes, such as jizya, customs and ex cise
taxes were continued as before. The privileges enjoyed by the chaudharis,
khuts and muqaddams were withdrawn. As a result of these stringent
measures the Hindus, who were mainly connected with land in one form or
the other were hit hard. According to Sir Wolseley Haig, “Hindus
throughout the kingdom were reduced to one dead level of poverty and
misery, or if there were one class more to be pitied than another, it was
that which had formerly enjoyed the most esteem, the hereditary assessors munotes.in

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56 and collecto rs of the revenue.” Summing up the effects of the measures of
Alauddin, Barani observes. “The chudharis, khuts and muqaddams were not
able to ride on horseback, to find weapons, get fine clothes or to indulge in
betel.”
2.6.3 Market Regulations and Price C ontrol:
2.6.3.1 Reasons for the Reforms:
The most important administrative reform introduced by Alauddin Khilji
was aimed at the regulation of the market and control of prices of essential
commodities. A number of factors prompted him to introduce these
reforms. He had to maintain a huge standing army with limited economic
resources. The cash salary paid to the soldiers was not adequate for their
comfortable living. The sultan was unwilling to enhance the salary of the
troops and officers due to paucity of resources. Thus, he tried the
alternative method of increasing the purchasing power of the tanka by
regulation of market and control of prices. Besides, his numerous
expeditions combined with Mongol invasions had exerted a heavy
burden on the state treasur y. The dislocation of trade and traffic had
resulted in the scarcity of food grains and a steep rise in prices of essential
commodities. To overcome all these problems related to the economic
principle of demand and supply and prices, Alauddin regulated th e market
and fixed prices of all commodities of daily use, from food grains to horses
and from the cattle and slaves to foreign articles of luxury. He took special
measures to enforce the schedule of prices on all traders and merchants. Thus,
Alauddin beca me a ‘daring political economist.’
2.6.3.2 Diwan -i-Riyasat:
The entire scheme of market regulation was entrusted to the care of diwan -i-
riyasat. For different trades separate markets were set up and each market
was placed under a separate shahna. At Delhi, Alauddin set up three
different markets. One market was meant exclusively for food ­grains, a
separate market for horses, cattle and slaves and a third one for costlier
articles such a foreign clothes, silks, perfumes, jewellery etc. Under the
shahnas there were a number of barids, who checked prices, weights
and measure and supervised general arrangement of the market and sent
daily reports to the sultan. The shahna -i-mandi kept a daftar or a register of
licensed dealers.
2.6.3.3 Difficulties in Implementi ng the Reforms:
There were certain problems, which were likely to occur due to such
stringent regulations and control of prices. As the sultan had reduced the
prices of all commodities, it was possible that merchants might refuse to sell
their goods at tho se prices or they might create artificial scarcity and
blame it on the price control. Brokers lost their employment because
prices had been permanently fixed. Having lost their trade, they might
instigate the traders to create difficulties. Problems could also arise due to
natural calamities such as droughts and famines. The merchants might
outwardly agree to conform to these regulations but they might defraud munotes.in

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Administrative Structure of the Sultanate
57 the people by under ­weighing, under measuring or substitution of a lower
grade article for a highe r grade one.
2.6.3.4 Regulations:
To meet these difficulties, Alauddin issued detailed regulations.
Merchants were classified broadly into two categories ­ the importers, who
supplied the demands of local markets and whole ­salers and retailers, who
had the ir shops in the market and dealt with the customers. Descriptive lists
of merchants of both categories for each trade were prepared. Each one
of the merchants was asked to apply for the trading license. These
merchants were required to give an undertaking that they would bring the
required commodities in sufficient quantity at the proper time and to sell
them at the prices fixed by the government. Once they gave satisfactory
undertaking, licenses were issued to them. Costly and rare articles such as
fine si lks, woolens, brocades, cosmetics etc. could be purchased only by
special permits. Alauddin inflicted severe punishment on those who
violated the rules.
2.6.3.5 Measures to Implement the Regulations:
In order to have a regular supply of food grains, all pe asants of the Doab
region and the country to a distance of 200 miles were ordered to pay land
revenue in kind. Further, they were ordered to sell their surplus grains to
registered merchants at the rate fixed by the government. To guard against
scarcity, i n case of failure of crops due to famines and droughts, Alauddin
ordered grain to be stored in state granaries. Hoarding was strictly forbidden.
During emergency rationing was introduced. On such occasion no family
was supplied more than 6 or 7 seers of ce reals at a time. Merchants were
severely punished if even the slightest irregularity was detected. According to
Barani prices were not allowed to be increased even by a jital (one tanka of
Alauddin’s reign was equivalent to the Indian rupee and comprised 4 8­
50jitals. In weight, a man during Alauddin’s reign was equal to 12 to 14
seers of modern times).
Although in the beginning traders and merchants resisted the market
regulations and price control, later they reconciled themselves to low profits
and obeyed the regulations as long as Alauddin lived. The sultan assured the
traders and merchants certain privileges and facilities also. Though their
margin of profit was reduced, there was no apprehension of loss in
any contingency. The sultan advanced them loans f o r p u r c h a s e o f
commodities and if the cost price was more than fixed price for sale, the
trader was allowed a certain percentage on the total sale and the entire
loss of the transaction was borne by the state. Copies of schedules of
prices were supplied to shahnas, barids, traders and merchants and diwan -i-
riyasat.
The market regulations were, in all probability, enforced in the capital
city and its neighbourhood . These were not in force throughout the empire.
Even if Alauddin desired to implement these regulations throughout the empire,
lack of proper and adequate agencies might have prevented him to do so.
These market regulations and price control have been regarded by some munotes.in

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58 historians as ‘marvels of medieval statesmanship’. The sultan was able to
check cheating and profiteering, but in the long run trade and agriculture
suffered. He did not allow any rise in prices. Due to his stern measures
Alauddin could enforce order in the market. The scheme of market regulations
and price control died with him. His successors did not have the will or the
mechanism to implement them.
2.6.4 Land Revenue Policy:
Alauddin Khilji was not content with regulating markets and controlling
prices. He aimed at increasing the financial resources of the state. Hence, he
turned h is attention to the revenue reforms. He not only desired to
introduce efficiency in the revenue administration but also wanted
to make a fundamental change in order to increase his revenue collection to
the maximum. Keeping in view these objectives, Alaudd in introduced a
number of new measures, which transformed the revenue rules, and
regulations of the Delhi Sultanate.
Alauddin’s first measure was to confiscate land held mostly by Muslim
grantees and religious men. Thus, all land of the empire was converte d into
the khalisa land, i.e., under the direct control of the state. Land held as inam
(gift), milk (proprietary rights given by the state), idrarat (pensions) and waqf
(endowments) was resumed. The only concession allowed to some was that
they were allow ed to enjoy the fruits of their original holding.
Alauddin’s second measure was to withdraw all the privileges, which
the Hindu muqaddams, khuts and chaudharis, had enjoyed for generations.
Like all others they were also required to pay the land revenue an d house
and grazing taxes.
In the central regions of the empire land revenue was assessed on the basis
of measurement and the share of the government was fixed at half of the
total produce. Earlier, land revenue could be paid both in cash and kind.
But whe n market regulations were introduced, Alauddin preferred the
payment of land revenue in kind. The peasants also had to pay the house and
grazing taxes. In addition, the Hindus had to pay jizya. According to Barani,
the grazing tax was levied on all cattle heads going to the village commons.
But Firishta says that a person having two pairs of oxen, two buffaloes, two
cows and ten goats was exempted from the grazing tax. Those who owned
more than this minimum number were required to pay the grazing tax.
2.6.5 Military Reforms:
Alauddin Khilji was a true militarist. In order to support his theory of
absolute kingship, to satisfy his ambition of conquests and annexations and to
guard the sultanate from the recurring Mongol invasions, it was necessary to
have a p owerful army. With these objectives Alauddin introduced far
reaching military reforms.

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59 2.6.5.1 Permanent Standing Army:
Prior to Alauddin Khilji, the sultans of Delhi depended on the forces of
provincial nobles and feudatory chiefs for strengthening their own
forces. Alauddin decided to put an end to this dependence. He devised
a programme of raising and maintaining a centrally recruited and trained
army. Thus, Alauddin was first among the sultans of Delhi to lay the
foundation of a permanent standing arm y. The minister in charge of the army
(ariz-i-mumalik) was assigned the responsibility of directly recruiting the
soldiers of the sultan’s army. He took steps to recruit able and
promising young men to the army. They were supplied with horses, arms
and other equipments at the expense of the state. They were paid salary
in cash from the state treasury. The soldier with one horse (Yak aspa) was
paid 234 tankas for a year, while a soldier with two horses ( Do aspa) was
paid 78 tankas more.
2.6.5.2 Composition o f the Army:
Alauddin maintained one of the largest armies during the early medieval
India. According to Ferishta, Alauddin’s army consisted of 4, 75,000
cavalry men. The strength of the infantry must have exceeded the
cavalry. As in the case of other India n armies, Alauddin’s army also had a
large number of war elephants. Swords, bows and arrows, mace, battle ­axe,
daggers, spears were the important weapons used by the soldiers. As India
lacked good quality horses, Alauddin imported horses from Persia, Arabi a
and Central Asia.
2.6.5.3 Chehera and Dag:
The organization of Alauddin’s army was based on the Turkish model.
Division of units of army was based on the decimal system. Alauddin tried
to eliminate two corrupt practices, which were prevalent during medie val
times. One was that regular soldiers used to send irregular and untrained
soldiers in their place in times of war. Another common corrupt practice
was that the soldiers used to replace good quality horses supplied by the
state with ordinary horses. Bot h these corrupt practices were detrimental to
the efficiency and morale of the army. In order to root out these practices,
Alauddin ordered the maintenance of a descriptive roll (chehera or huliya)
giving detailed particulars of individual soldiers. He als o introduced the
practice of branding horses ( dag) so that substitution of the horses would
not be possible. Diwan -i-Arz maintained the records of all soldiers recruited
by the government. These practices were common in many countries outside
India. Howeve r, Alauddin Khilji became the first sultan of Delhi to adopt
these measures in India. A periodic review of the soldiers, horses and
equipments was also undertaken to keep a proper check on the quality and
efficiency of the armed forces.
2.6.5.4 Forts:
Forts played an important role in the defence of the territories of the
sultanate, especially in the northwestern frontiers. Alauddin repaired the forts
constructed by Balban on the northwest frontiers and also constructed new munotes.in

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Medieval India
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60 ones. He constructed new forts within the conquered territories as well.
These forts were garrisoned and arrangements were made for regular
supply of arms, food and fodder.
Check Your Progress
1. Write a short note on Alauddin’s Market Regulations.
What are Dag and Chehera in the military of Alauddin?
2.7 C) REFORMS OF FIRUZ SHAH TUGHLAQ
The military failure of Firuz Shah was in striking contrast with his success
as an administrator. His character was well suited to the achievement of
victories of peace. Though it could be an exaggeration to compare him with
Akbar, he did much good to his people and his reign was a welcome calm
after the storm of the previous regime. Though he had great regard for his
famous cousin, he abandoned the latter’s policies. A large share of the
credit for the sultan ’s mild and beneficent administration should be given to
his prime minister, Malik ­i­Maqbul.
2.7.1 Reform in the Revenue System:
Firuz Shah was a true friend of the peasants. Their debts, resulting from the
exactions of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq were cancelled. L a n d r e v e n u e w a s
fixed after a proper assessment. The land revenue was lowered. He
abolished more than twenty frivolous, unlawful and unjust taxes, which
were collected by his predecessors. He considered them to be not in accordance
with the shariat. He m ade changes in the existing practices and customs in
order to bring them into conformity with the sacred law. For this reason he
strictly realized jizya from the non ­Muslims. Being a devout Muslim,
Firuz Shah charged six taxes. These were kharaj or land­tax from non ­
Muslims. Its rate varied from one ­fifth to one ­half of the produce; ushr, one­
tenth of the produce charged from Muslim cultivators; khams, one­fifth of the
booty captured in war; tarkat, heirless property; zakat, a two per cent tax
on property r ealized from the Muslims to be spent for specific religious
purpose only and jizya, a poll tax payable by the non ­Muslims. Later,
with the approval of the ulema the sultan imposed the irrigation tax on those
cultivators who made use of the water supplied b y the state canals, the rate
being one ­tenth of the produce of the irrigated area.
2.7.2. Promotion of Trade and Commerce:
Firuz Shah took special measures to promote trade and commerce. He
withdrew the internal duties and artificial barriers on the moveme nt of
commodities from one province to another. The result of these steps was
steady improvement of agriculture and commerce, general prosperity of the
people and increase in the revenue of the state. The necessities of life became
cheaper. In the words of A f i f , “ T h e h o m e s o f t h e p e o p l e w e r e r e p l e t e w i t h
grain, property, horses and furniture; every one had plenty of gold and
silver; no woman was without her ornaments and no house without good
beds and divans. Wealth abounded and comforts were general.” munotes.in

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Administrative Structure of the Sultanate
61 2.7.3. Public Works:
Firuz Shah is known as an excellent builder. He is credited with 845 public
works. He constructed five major irrigation canals. The longest and most
important of these ran for 150 miles from the Yamuna watering the arid
regions as far as t he city of Hissar founded by the sultan. Another canal, 96
miles long, connected the Sutlej with the Ghaghra. Two others ran
respectively from the Ghaghra and the Yamuna to the town of Firuzabad.
The fifth served the tract from the neighbourhood of Sirmur hills to the
town of Hansi. He also sank 150 wells for the purpose of irrigation. Firishta
credits him with the construction of 50 dams across rivers to promote
irrigation, 40 mosques, 30 colleges, 20 palaces, 100 caravanserais, 200
towns, 30 reservoirs or lakes, 100 hospitals, 5 mausoleums, 100 public baths,
10 monumental pillars, 10 public wells and 150 bridges besides numerous
gardens and pleasure houses.
2.7.4. Builder of Cities:
Firuz Shah had great passion for founding cities and towns. His chief
architects were Malik Ghazi Shahna and Abdul Haq. Among the
important towns founded by him were, Fatehbad, Hissar, Firuzpur,
Jaunpur and Firuzabad. The last named city, built on the bank of Yamuna,
became his favourite residence. At present its ruins are found in Firuz Kotla,
located to the south of the Red Fort in Delhi. Two monolith pillars of
Ashoka were removed from their original places Topra and Meerut. The
sultan relocated them, one in his new city named after him and the other
near Delhi. This was extre mely difficult task and the historian Shams ­
i­Siraj describes in detail how the great engineering feet was achieved.
2.7.5. Benevolent Measures:
Firuz Shah brought the administration of justice in harmony with the
Quranic injunctions. He abolished torture and other barbarities. He
introduced benevolent measures for the benefit of the people. He
established diwan -i-khairat, a charity bureau to help the widows and orphans
and give financial help to facilitate marriages of Muslim girls who
remained unmarried f or want of dowry. A charitable hospital, dar-us-
shafa was founded, where patients were treated by skilful physicians and
got medicine and food free of charge. An agency was set up to provide
employment to the unemployed youth. Names of unemployed persons w ere
registered and they were given suitable employment. It was conducted
more on a charitable basis than a regular bureau of employment.
2.7.6. Jagir and Slave System:
The jagir system, abolished by Alauddin Khilji was re introduced by Firuz
Shah. Military a n d c i v i l o f f i c e r s b e c a m e f i e f holders of the feudal type.
Though frauds were checked and the cavalry was properly maintained, the
efficiency of the army suffered due to the sultan’s excessive benevolence in
allowing the relations of old soldiers to take their place. Another impolitic
measure of the sultan was the employment of slaves on a large scale and
the creation of a separate department for them. They were taken into civil munotes.in

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62 and military services. These slaves numbered around 1, 80,000, out of
whom 40, 000 were employed in the imperial palace. Like the ulema, the
slaves also interfered in the administration and the slave system became an
important factor in the disintegration of the sultanate.
2.7.7. Promotion of Learning:
Firuz Shah was greatly interest ed in learning. He established schools, colleges
and monasteries and patronized scholars. The sultan was fond of history
and the chief chroniclers of his reign were Barani and Shams ­i­Siraj. Barani
wrote Fatwa -i-Jahandari and Tarikh -i-Firuzshahi. The sulta n wrote his
own autobiography entitled Futuhat -i-Firuzshahi. After the conquest of
Nagarkot, a large library containing Sanskrit manuscripts fell into the
hands of Firuz Shah. He got some of these works translated into Persian.
One of these translations wa s called Dalyal -i-Firuzshahi.
2.7.8. Policy towards the Hindus:
In spite of his benevolent activities, in some respect Firuz Shah was a
religious bigot. In two respects the sultan was more oppressive towards the
Hindus than his predecessors. In the first place he reimposed jizya on the
Brahmins, who were never required to pay it earlier. In the second place,
the sultan himself boasted that he adopted every means to induce the Hindus
to embrace Islam. The desecration and destruction of the temples of Jaganna th
in Puri and Jwalamukhi in Nagarkot demonstrate his inability to rise
above sectarian intolerance.
2.7.9. An Estimate of Firuz Shah Tughlaq:
If goodness was greatness, Firuz Shah was certainly great. The
contemporary historians, Barani and Afif are full of praise for the sultan
and describe him as a just, merciful and benevolent ruler. His administration
was largely beneficent and conducive to the happiness of his subjects. But
his excessive mildness and generosity weakened royal authority. He was
ruling during an age in which the most prudent approach for a monarch
should have been to assert martial qualities to maintain the strength of his
office and the stability of the state. The active interest and interference of the
ulema in the affairs of the state , the connivance and the inefficiency of
public servants, misplaced leniency in dealing with civil and military
officials, and undue favour shown to the nobility weakened the entire
administrative foundation of the sultanate. His aversion to war against th e
Muslims, even when it was imperative, his unwillingness or inability to
carry the fight to the finish undermined the stability of the empire. The
slave system, which developed into something like a praetorian guard
proved to be a great distracting factor in th e s ta te. I n s p i te o f c o m par at i ve
peace, prosperity and contentment that prevailed during the long reign of
Firuz Shah, the fact remains that his policy and administrative measures
contributed to a great extent to the weakness and downfall of the Delh i
Sultanate.
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Administrative Structure of the Sultanate
63 Check Your Progress
1. What were the public works of Firoz shash Tughlaq?
2. How was the policy of Firoz shash Tughlaq towards Hindus?
2.8 CONCLUSION
Alauddin introduced many reforms to the Delhi Sultanate such as
market regulations, price control , a special department for it ,land revenue
policy and military reforms. He implemented thse reforms very efficiently.
So far Tughlaq Dynasty concern the reforms of Firuz Shah are very
important. Among them revenue, promotion of trade and commerce, public
works, creation of citie and towns etc. marked the impessions on his
benevolent sultanship.
2.9 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the administrative measures introduced by Alauddin Khilji.
2. Why and how did Alauddin Khilji introduce market regulations and
price control?
3. Give an account of the administrative reforms introduced by Firuz
Shah Tughlaq.
4. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Revenue policy of Alauddin Khilji
(b) Market regulations and Price Control
(c) Military reforms of Alauddin Khilji
Administrative reforms of Firuz Sha h Tug hlaq
2.10 ADMINISTRATIVE POLICY
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was an ambitious and a diligent ruler. He
adopted new and revolutionary policies in the matter of administration. He
had a fancy for innovations, both in foreign and domestic affairs. In
domestic p olicy he introduced certain experiments with best intentions.
However, these innovations and experiments ended in failure and adversely
affected the fortunes of the Delhi sultanate.
2.10. 1 Revenue Reforms:
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was keen to improve the reven ue administration
of the sultanate. Soon after his accession he promulgated a number of
ordinances for the improvement of the revenue administration. As a first step,
he ordered the compilation of a detailed register of income and expenditure
of all provin ces of the sultanate. The governors of the provinces were
directed to send to the center all relevant records for the compilation of the munotes.in

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64 register. The chief motive of the sultan in undertaking this exercise was to
introduce a uniform standard of land reven ue and to see that no village
remained unassessed. A department called diwan -imustakhriz was
established to recover dues and arrears.
2.10. 2 Taxation in the Doab:
In order to raise resources of the state the sultan increased the taxes by ten
to twenty tim es more. Barani ascribed this measure to the sultan’s
tyranny and bloodthirstiness, and spoke in detail about the suffering caused
to the people due to rigorous exaction of taxes. The increase in taxes in the
Doab coincided with the outbreak of famine owin g to the failure of rains.
As a consequence the rich were reduced to poverty, the cultivators
abandoned their lands and vast areas became depopulated. According to
Dr. A.L. Srivastava, the sultan made an attempt to help the cultivators by
giving them loans to buy seeds, bullocks etc. He also made arrangements for
digging of wells for irrigation, but the policy failed.
2.10. 3 Department of Agriculture:
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq realized that for an uninterrupted flow of
revenue into the treasury, improvement of a griculture was essential. For this
purpose he set up a separate department of agriculture under a minister,
amir -i-kohi. Its main task was to increase the land under cultivation.
According to Dr. A. L. Srivastava, a large tract of land sixty miles square
in area was chosen for state farming. The land was cultivated and
different crops were sown in rotation. In three years the government spent
over seventy lakh tankas on this experiment. In spite of all efforts the
experiment ended in a failure and the schem e was abandoned after three
years. Poor quality of land chosen for the experiment, corruption among the
officials and indifference of cultivators were some of the reasons for the
failure of the well ­intentioned experiment. Moreover, the scheme was
given up in haste. Besides, three years was a short period for any tangible
result.
2.10.4 Transfer of the Capital (1327):
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s most daring and equally misunderstood
measure was an attempt to transfer the capital from Delhi to Devagiri,
renamed a s Daulatabad. Several reasons have been ascribed for undertaking
this disastrous decision. With the extension of territories of the sultanate,
specially further south, the sultan desired to have a capital. Devagiri
(Daulatabad) with its strategic location and impregnable fort was the natural
choice of the sultan. Besides, Daulatabad being in the interior of the country was
considerably safe from the Mongol invasions. As the southern India was rich
in resources, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq thought it proper to exploit its wealth.
In 1327, the sultan along with the Queen Mother and the members of the
royal household left for Daulatabad. They were followed by the government
and state officials and nobles as well as by all the people of Delhi, who
were ordered to migra te to Daulatabad. According to Ibn Battuta, the mass
exodus was enforced with such severity that even a crippled and a blind munotes.in

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65 man could not escape. The sultan made excellent arrangements for the
comfort of the travellers all along the seven hundred miles lo ng route,
providing them with free food and shelter.
The whole exercise of the transfer of the capital proved to be a costly and
miserable failure. The people of Delhi, according to Barani, could not
endure the exile and suffering. Daulatabad was not large e n o u g h t o
accommodate the large number of immigrants. The Muslims who were
accustomed to living in Delhi with its predominantly Islamic character found
it difficult to live amidst the predominantly Hindu area like Daulatabad. The
sultan also realized that as it was difficult to control the south from the north
as he could not control the north from the south. Thus, the sultan allowed those
who wished to return to Delhi to do so eight years after the transfer of the
capital. However, Daulatabad was abandone d as the imperial capital after
seventeen years. Daulatabad remained, as Lane ­Poole observes, ‘a monument
of misdirected energy.’
2.10.5 Currency Reforms:
Besides the attempt to transfer the capital, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s reign
was best known for his fail ed currency reforms. He introduced the currency
reforms during the year 1329 ­1330 by adjusting the new coins to
correspond the changed value of gold and silver. His new coins were noted
for their design and execution. A new coin called dokani was introduce d.
Quaranic verses were inscribed on the coin. Small coins were minted in
large quantities for the convenience of the people. Thus, he earned the
epithet as, the ‘Prince of Moneyers.’
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq also initiated a new experiment in coinage by
issuing token currency. According to Barani, in order to meet demands of
ever­increasing military expenses the sultan ordered the copper and brass
tokens to be treated as legal tender in all monetary transactions, like gold
and silver coins. The other reasons b ehind this novel experiment were that
the treasury had been drained due to wars and rebellions and also by
costly experiments.
The consequence of the experiment in token currency was disastrous. The
sultan failed to take precautionary measures against coun terfeit coins
with which the market was flooded. According to the natural law of bad
money driving out the good, the old sliver coins disappeared from
circulation, while the copper tokens circulated but became practically
valueless. According to Barani, th e house of every Hindu was turned into an
unauthorized mint. The farmers paid their revenue in token currency; people
paid their taxes in it and hoarded silver and gold coins. Foreign
merchants used the token currency to purchase Indian
commodities, but re fused to accept them while selling their goods. This
resulted in economic chaos. Trade was paralyzed and government incurred
heavy losses. Accepting the failure of his experiment, the sultan withdrew the
copper and brass coins and ordered the people to exc hange them with gold
and silver coins from the treasury. Thus, the treasury was depleted. The munotes.in

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66 sultan became bitter and his severity increased and the people became
rebellious.
The failure of the experiment in token currency was due to the absence of
govern ment monopoly over the issue of tokens. It was difficult to distinguish
between coins minted by the state and counterfeit coins manufactured by
private agencies. Even if the technical difficulties could be got over, the
success of the scheme depended on th e credit of the royal exchequer,
that is, the confidence of the people in the sultan’s government. The
scheme was not eccentric. It failed, as proper care for its implementation
was not taken.
2.10.6 Administration of Justice:
The sultan was known for his sense of justice. Special officers held a
durbar every Monday and Thursday in the diwan -ikhas to listen to public
complaints. The sadr-i-jahan or the chief justice could be directly
approached. The mir-i -dad saw to it that the officials did not take the law in
their hand. Cases of capital punishment were recorded by the munsif. Torture
was used to force confessions. Even the sayyids and the ulema were not spared
from the law.
2.10.7 Relation with the Ulema:
Like Alauddin Khilji, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was determined
to keep the secular issue free from the control of the ulema. He did not go
out of his way to defy the shariat. But at the same time he did not strain
himself to win over the support on of the ulema on important matters. The
sultan wanted to make himself not only the absolute head of the state but
also claimed himself to be ‘the shadow of God.’ He dropped all references to
the Caliphate. This naturally turned the ulema hostile towards the sultan.
Initially the sultan did not think it necessary to seek the investiture from the
Caliphate. But, in spite of his justice, generosity and personal ability, the
sultan found that he was becoming more and more unpopular. Thus, he
changed his attitude towards the Caliphate and sought confirmation from
the Cali ph of Egypt of his position as the sovereign. He removed his own
name from the coins and inserted that of the Caliph. However, these
measures did not restore the popularity of the sultan, neither was he spared
from the recurring rebellions which ultimately proved detrimental to his
authority and ruinous to the sultanate.
2.11 REBELLIONS AND BREAK UP OF THE
SULTANATE
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s reign was seriously distracted by sporadic
rebellions. The areas affected by these rebellions ranged from Multan in the
northwest to Bengal in the east and Mabar in the south. The sultan had to
face as many as twenty ­two rebellions during his rule. Among these, the
rebellion of Mabar in 1335 was of a special significance. The governor of
Mabar made a successful attempt for independence and the sultan’s effort to
suppress the rebellion ended in failure. Thus, independence of Mabar within a munotes.in

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Administrative Structure of the Sultanate
67 decade of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s accession indicated the beginning of
the break up of the Delhi Sultanate.
As many as sixteen rebellions t hat followed the Mabar revolt proved
successful and led to the foundation of independent kingdoms. More
serious rebellions broke out in the Deccan. The Hindu rebellion in the
Deccan led to the foundation of the Vijayanagara kingdom in 1336 and
the revolt o f the foreign amirs led to the establishment of the Bahmani
kingdom in 1347. In Malwa and Gujarat also the disaffected foreign nobles
rose in open defiance of the sultan’s authority as they suffered the loss or
curtailment of their privileges. Mabar and Be ngal were lost to the sultanate
and Muhammad Bin Tughlaq made no serious attempts to prevent the
disintegration of the sultanate. The rebellions of Taghi in Gujarat took a
serious turn. The rebel was hunted down by the sultan at Thatta in Sindh. He
had to spend three years in order to bring peace and order to the rebellion
infested province. From Gujarat, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq proceeded to
Sindh in pursuit of the rebel. But on his way to Thatta the sultan fell ill and
died on 20 March 1351. In the words of B adauni, “The king was freed from
his people and they from their king.”
2.12 AN ESTIMATE OF MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was the most remarkable personality
among the sultans of Delhi. He was deeply interested in the pursuit of
widely differing arts and sciences as logic, philosophy, astronomy and
mathematics. He had knowledge of Persian classics. He composed verses of
considerable literary merit both in Persian and Arabic. He was an excellent
calligrapher, a lover of music and a patron of lette rs and arts. He even
developed love for Sanskrit. He possessed great memory and had insatiable
thirst for knowledge. Ibn Battuta regards him as a ‘wonder of the age’.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was deeply religious. He lived a remarkably simple
life. He was regu lar in his prayers and charitable in his disposition.
Sometimes his generosity exceeded his resources. He was a brave and
experienced general, a well ­intentioned ruler and a lover of justice.
The above observation is only one side of Muhammad’s personality a n d
character. His personality and character was so complex and enigmatic that
it had defied correct analysis. That is why scholars have formed widely
divergent estimates of his character. He was impatient, egotistic,
tyrannical and eccentric. Due to thes e contradictions in his character,
scholars like Elphistone expressed the doubt “whether he was not
affected by some degree of insanity.”
To promote public welfare, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq introduced many
reforms. But some of them were so novel and revolution ary in character that
people failed to understand their significance. Some of his military adventures
and administrative measures, such as the transfer of capital and the
introduction of token currency had been condemned as instances of his
insanity. Howev er, such an opinion is not justified. By themselves these
administrative experiments were excellent, but Muhammad did not realize
the practical difficulties of implementing such novel experiments. He was munotes.in

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68 much advanced of his time and the people could not v isualize their utility.
He has been held partly responsible for the decline and disintegration of the
Delhi sultanate. His policy and actions, no doubt undermined the
stability of the Delhi Sultanate but it is important to note that the final
end of the em pire did not come till a century and three ­quarters after the death
of this controversial ruler, whom S.R. Sharma has described as the
‘Wisest fool in the Crescendom’. According to Lane Poole “With the best
intentions, excellent ideas but no balance or pat ience, no sense of
proportion, Muhammad Tughlaq was a transcendent failure.”
Check Your Progress
1. Why did Muhammad bin Tughlaq impose taxation in Doab? a
Comment on the transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad.


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69 3
EMERGENCE OF VIJAYNAGAR AND
BAHAMANI KINGDOMS
Unit Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1. Introduction
3.2 A) Rise, Growth And Decline Of Vijayanagar Of Bahamani
Kingdom
3.3 The Bahamani Kingdom:
3.4 Questions
3.5 B)Administration, Socio Economic And Culture Of T he
Vijayanagar Of Bahmani Kingdom
3.6 Economy Under The Vijayanagar Empire
3.7 Society Under The Vijayanagar Empire:
3.8 Culture Under The Vijayanagar Empire
3.9 Questions
3.10 C) Administration, Socio Economic And Cultiral Conditions Of
Bahmani Kingd om
3.11 Administration: Military And Civil
3.12 Economic Condition
3.13 Cultural Condition
3.14 Summary
3.15 Questions
3.0 OBJECTIVES
 To elaborate the development of Vijaynagar kingdom.
 To understand the rule of Bahamani kingdom.
 To understand the eco nomy of Vijaynagar empire.
 To analyse the society during Vijaynagar empire.
 To explain the culture of Vijaynagar empire. munotes.in

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70  To study the administrative system in BahamaniKingdom.
 To understand the social and religious condition in Bahamani rule.
 To know the cultural condition in BahamaniKingdom.
3.1. INTRODUCTION
For a long time South India enjoyed a ‘splendid isolation’, with her own
culture and way of life. However, the political changes in North India were
bound to affect the South Indian fortunes. Imperi al expansion of the Delhi
Sultanate gradually engulfed South India as well. It was Alauddin Khilji
who began to extend the hegemony of the sultanate over the peninsula.
Successively and successfully through his able general Malik Kafur,
Alauddin succeeded in subjugating the South Indian kingdoms and extracting
tributes from them. With the accession of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, the
imperial policy of the Delhi Sultanate towards the South Indian states
underwent drastic change. In an attempt to extend the boundar ies of the
sultanate to natural frontiers of the sub -continent, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
effected the annexation of the South Indian states. The Hindus resented the
extension of the Muslim rule over the peninsula. Resistance to the
Muslim rule spread to differ ent parts of South India. With the
foundation of the Vijayanagar Kingdom the resistance to the Delhi
Sultanate assumed new dimensions.
The Vijayanagar Empire was largely the outcome of South India’s
determination to save its culture, religious and politica l integrity against the
threat of Muslim domination. During its active existence of over two
centuries and a quarter it served as an effective centre and citadel of Indian
culture and civilization. A large number of Vijayanagar rulers were promoters
of ort hodox religion, liberal patrons of culture and artistic activities and lovers
of Sanskrit and vernacular literature.
In the Deccan, t he transfer of the rule from Delhi Sultanates to the
Bahamanis was marked by a particular change in the political and
econo mic organization in Medieval India. It also affected the social and
cultural patterns of the society. The Bahamanis had inherited the
traditional system of the army organization of the Delhi Sultanates. It had
continued over hundred years since the establis hment of the Bahamani
kingdom. TheBahamanis allowed the growth of the army to take its
natural course.




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71 3.2 A) RISE, GROWTH AND DECLINE OF
VIJAYANAGAR OF BAHAMANI KINGDOM
3.2.1 Rise of the Vijayanagar Kingdom:
The forces of disintegration that set in motion during the reign of
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq contributed to the foundation of the Vijayanagar
Empire. There are various theories regarding the origin of the Vijayanagar
Empire. Based on the description contained in the works Raja
Kalanirnaya and Vidyara nya Kalajnana, some scholars are of the
opinion that Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagar Empire. Robert
Sewell, the author of the Forgotten Empire, discusses the origin of the
Vijayanagar with reference to the accounts of Nuniz and Ibn Battuta.
Sewe ll gives as many as seven traditional accounts of the foundation of
the city and kingdom of Vijayanagar.
Harihara and Bukka belonged to the family of five brothers, all sons of
Sangama (Harihara, Kampana, Bukka, Marappa and Mudappa).
Originally, they were in the service of the Kakatiya ruler, Prataprudradeva
II. Following the conquest of the Kakatiya kingdom by the sultanate army
in 1323, Harihara and Bukka went over to Kampili or Anegundi and
became ministers of the ruler of Kampili. Pursuing the rebel, Ba hauddin
Gursasp, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq came in conflict with the ruler of
Kampili for giving refuge to the fugitive, Gursasp. With the fall of
Kampili, Harihara and Bukka became prisoners of the sultan. They were
taken to Delhi, converted to Islam and were sent back to the province of
Kampili to take over its administration from Malik Muhammad. They
were also given instruction to deal with the revolt of the Hindu subjects.
Haihara and Bukka soon gave up Islam and the cause of Delhi and
proceeded to set up an independent Hindu state, which soon grew up into
the powerful Vijayanagar Empire. They came under the influence of sage
Vidyaranya, whom they accepted as their guide both in temporal and
spiritual matters. They were convinced that it was their duty to ren ounce
Islam and champion the cause of the ancient Hindu dharma. Harihara was
crowned in 1336 as the king of the new kingdom of Hampi -Hastinavati.
To commemorate the event he laid the foundation of the new capital,
Vijayanagar on the southern bank of river Tungabhadra. This marked the
origin of the Vijaynagara Empire.
3.2.2 Growth of the Vijayanagar Kingdom
3.2.2.1 Harihara I(1336 -1356):
Harihara I was the first ruler of the Sangama dynasty. His reign is marked
for the beginning of an era of conquest and territorial expansion. By 1342,
most of the Hoysala territories were captured. The important fortress of
Penugonda in the Anantapur district was captured from the Hoysalas. The
treacherous murder of the Hoysala ruler by the Sultan of Madura and the
conflict b etween the two kingdoms led to the weakening of the Hoysala
power. This enabled Harihara to extend the territories of the munotes.in

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72 Vijayanagar kingdom over the remnant Hoysala kingdom. The Kadambas
of Banavasi on the coast of Konkan were also incorporated within th e
Vijayanagar kingdom.
3.2.2.2 Bukka I (1356 -1377):
Harihara I died without an issue. Hence, Bukka I succeeded him as the
sole sovereign of the kingdom. After assuming the control of the state,
the important task before Bukka I was to unify the kingdom and strengthen
his position. Soon after his accession Bukka I was compelled by
circumstances to interfere in the affairs of the Tamil country. Bukka’s
second son Kampana Odeya led the southern expeditions in about 1360.
Two objectives of this expedition were to subjugate the
refractory chief of the Sambuvaraya family ruling in the north and
south Arcot districts and the subversion of the Sultanate of Madura. Both
these objectives were achieved during the reign of Bukka I.
The conflict between Vijayanagar and t he Bahamani kingdom,
founded in 1347, began during the reign of Bukka I and continued till the
Battle of Talikota in 1565. Following the death of the founder of the
Bahamani kingdom, Alauddin Hasan Bahaman Shah, his son Muhammad
Shah Bahamani succeeded him . However, the new sultan was not still secure
on the throne. Taking advantage of the situation Bukka I, in alliance with the
ruler of Telangana sent an ultimatum to the Bahamani Sultan to return the
Telangana territories as far as the river Krishna and th e forts of Raichur
and Mudgal to the Telangana ruler. When the sultan refused, Bukka I
dispatched an army of 20,000 to assist the Telangana ruler against the
Bahamanis. These armies invaded the Krishna -Tungabhadra Doab. The
conflict between the Bahamanis and the allies ended with the treaty by which
Bukka I acquired territories in the Krishna -Tungabhadra Doab. River
Krishna was fixed as the boundary between Vijayanagar and the Bahamani
kingdom. Bukka I also waged war against the Reddis of Kondavidu.
3.2.2.3 Harihara II(1377 -1404:
Following the death of Bukka I, his son Harihara II ascended the throne of
Vijayanagar. He took the imperial title of Maharajadhiraja. He
consolidated his power by suppressing insurrections in Konkan and other
provinces. His son Vir upaksha Odeya was successful in suppressing the
rebellious chieftains in the Tamil country. He also invaded Ceylon and
obtained tribute from its ruler.
Conflict with Bahamani kingdom continued during the reign of Harihara
II. He invaded Konkan and northern Karnataka. Harihara’s minister
Madhava Mantri defeated the Bahamani armies and captured the port of
Goa. Chaul and Dhabol on the coast of northern Konkan were also
acquired.
Taking the advantage of political confusion in the east coast, Harihara II
occupi ed the Reddi territories. This involved him in a war with the Velama
ruler of Rachkonda, who was an ally of the Bahamani sultan. He dispatched a
strong army under his son Immadi Bukka that penetrated as far as Warangal. munotes.in

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73 The Vijayanagar armies defeated the Velamas and their Bahamani ally. Firuz
Shah, the sultan of Bahamani was forced to lose certain territories to the
north of the Krishna -Tungabhadra Doab.
3.2.2.4 Devaraya I (1406 -1422):
After a brief period of war of succession following the death of Hariha ra
II Devaraya I succeeded to the throne of the Vijayanagar kingdom.
The reign of Devaraya I was a period of constant military activity. During
the sixteen years of his reign he was constantly engaged in waging wars
against the Bahamani Sultans, the Velama s of Rachkonda and the Reddis of
Kondavidu. Devaraya I entered into marriage alliance with the newly
founded Reddi kingdom of Rajmundry under Katya Vema. This enabled
him to check the designs of his Velma enemy, the ally of the
Bahamanis. According to Firi shta, Firuz Shah, the Bahamani Sultan marched
unopposed to Vijayanagar. Devaraya I sued for peace, and gave his
daughter in marriage to the sultan. He also ceded the fort of Bankapur as the
price of peace. A few years later Devaraya I retaliated by invadin g the
Bahamani kingdom and drove out the Bahamani army.
The acquisition of the coastal Andhra brought Devaraya I into conflict
with the gajapati of Orissa, Bhanudeva IV, who invaded the kingdom of
Rajmundry. To assist his ally, Devaraya I dispatched a mili tary
expedition to the Godavari delta. Though the war was averted due to
diplomacy, the rivalry between the Vijayanagar and the gajapatis
continued in the east coast of the peninsula.
The last years of Devaraya I were peaceful. He was the first Vijayanagar ruler to
realize the value of an efficient cavalry. He obtained the monopoly of the
horse trade from the Portuguese for the Arabian and Persian horses. He
also employed the Turkish bowmen in his army. Devaraya I was a follower
of Saivism. He was especiall y devoted to the worship of the Goddess Pampa
of the Tampi -tirtha. He built several temples at Vijayanagar. He
patronized scholars, artists and philosophers.
Following the death of Devaraya I in 1422, his son Ramachandra occupied
the throne for a few month s. He was followed by his brother Vira
Vijayaraya (1422 -1426). According to Nuniz, he did nothing worth
recording. The traditional enmity with the Bahamanis continued. The
Bahamani Sultan, Ahmad Shah began a war against Vijayaraya and
inflicted a defeat on his forces. It was followed by slaughter and
destruction of the civil population of the kingdom.
3.2.2.5 Devaraya II(1426 -1446):
By about 1428, Devaraya II effected the conquest and annexation of the
Kondavidu country. He followed this up with the invasio n of the kingdom of
Orissa. Devaraya II also carried his arms into Kerala, subjugating the ruler of
Quilon and other chieftains. The Zamorin of Calicut, however, seems to have
continued to retain his independence. Abdur Razaq, the Persian ambassador
who vi sited South India during this period states that although the Zamorin
was not under the authority of Devaraya II, he lived in great fear of him. munotes.in

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74 According to Abdur Razaq, the supremacy of Devaraya was felt from
Ceylon to Gulbarga and form Orissa to Malabar . Nuniz also supports the
views of Abdur Razaq and asserts that Devaraya also exacted tribute from the
rulers of Quilon, Ceylon, Pulicat, Pegu and Tenasserim.
Like all his predecessors, Devaraya’s II relation with the Bahamani
kingdom continued to be hosti le. He had to confront the Bahamanis in several
wars. The Bahamani Sultan, Ahmad Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to
Bidar as a measure of safety as Gulbarga was very close to the Vijayanagar
frontiers. An epigraph found in the South Kanara district dated 1429 -30
refers to the defeat of a large and powerful Turushka cavalry by Devaraya II.
In the same epigraph, two other victories against the rulers of Andhra and
Orissa are attributed to Devaraya II. After these wars for about six or seven
years Vijay anagar enjoyed peace. However, with the death of the Bahamani
Sultan, Ahmad Shah and the accession of his son, Alauddin, Devaraya II
was once again involved in wars with the Bahamanis in 1435 -36 and 1443 -
44. Both wars were confined to the Krishna -Tungabhad ra Doab and mainly
centered round the fortresses of Mudgal and Raichur.
Devaraya II’s long and generally prosperous reign came to an end with his
death in 1446. He was succeeded by incompetent rulers which led to the
weakening of the Vijayanagar Kingdom. T he ruler of Orissa invaded the
country and conquered almost all the coastal districts of Vijayanagar as far
south as Trichinopoly. The Bahamanis under their great minister Mahmud
Gawan invaded Vijayanagar. Under these circumstances one of the most
powerful nobles of the Vijayanagar Kingdom, Saluva Narasimha put an end
to the old dynasty, assumed the royal title and founded a new dynasty
known as the Saluva dynasty.
3.2.2.6 Saluva Narasimha:
By the act of ‘usurpation’, Saluva Narasimha and his supporters sav ed the
Vijayanagar Kingdom from disruption. At the same time Narasimha had to
face a lot of opposition. He had to devote considerable amount of time and
energy in fighting and subduing recalcitrant chieftains like the Sambetas of
Peranipadu (Cuddapah distr ict), the Palayagars of Umattur near Mysore and
others. Though Narasimha overcame his internal troubles, he found it
difficult to resist his foreign enemies. When Purushottama Gajapati,
taking advantage of the weakness of the Bahamani kingdom after the
death of Muhammad Shah III, conquered all the eastern coastal country
south of Orissa up to Udayagiri, Narasimha’s attempt to raise the siege was
unsuccessful. He was defeated in the battle and taken prisoner. He could
secure his release by agreeing to surren der the fort and the surrounding
country.
Saluva Narasimha died in 1490 leaving behind his two minor sons. At the
time of his death Narasimha appointed his minister Narsa Nayaka as the
regent. As the regent (1490 -1503) Narsa Nayaka subdued rebellions in
the Pandya, Chola and Chera countries in the south and brought all the
internal enemies under control. He also had to face the invasion of the munotes.in

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Emergence of Vijaynagar
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75 kingdom by the Orians. He also had to go to war against the Muslim rulers
of Bidar and Bijapur.
Narsa Nayaka was su cceeded by his son Vira Narasimha as the regent of the
kingdom. After about two years (1505), he had the nominal king, Immadi
Narasimha murdered and proclaimed himself king. This is known as the
‘second usurpation’. The new dynasty founded by Vira Narasimh a is known
as the Tuluva dynasty (Narsa was son of Tuluva Isvara). Vira Narasimha
ruled as the king for five years (1 505 -1509). His rule was a period of turmoil.
His usurpation of throne evoked much opposition. There were rebellions
all around. However, h e subdued most of them and forced the rebels to
acknowledge his authority.
3.2.3 Krishnadevaraya (1 509 -1 529)
3.2.3.1 Challenges before Krishnadevaraya:
On the death of Vira Narasimha, his half brother Krishnadevaraya
succeeded him as the ruler of Vijayan agar Empire. He proved to be the
greatest of the Vijayanagar kings and one of the most distinguished rulers
in Indian history. During his reign Vijayanagar attained the apex of glory
and progress in all spheres. Krishnadevaraya’s task as a ruler was daunti ng
one. He did not inherit a kingdom, which was peaceful and consolidated. A
number of vassals were still in a rebellious state. The rebel chieftain of
Umattur was contesting the lordship of the best part of the Mysore region.
The gajapati of Orissa was op enly hostile and aggressive. He had occupied
the northeastern districts. Though the Bahamani kingdom had practically
broken up into five separate sultanates, the Muslim pressure from the north
had lost none of its old vigour. Yusuf Adil Khan, the founder o f the Adil
Shahi dynasty Bijapur was persistent in his efforts to extend his boundaries at
the expense of Vijayanagar. There was also the newly founded Portuguese
power on the west coast with which Krishnadevaraya had to contend. The
Portuguese were rapidl y establishing control over the routes and the
maritime trade on the west coast. They were keen to establish profitable
political contacts with the ‘country powers’.
3.2.3.2 War against the Bahamanis:
One of the initial tasks of Krishnadevaraya was to repu lse the Bahamani
forces, which invaded the territories of Vijayanagar in pursuit of the policy of
annual jihad. The prominent Bahamani nobles assembled at Bidar and
marched with Sultan Mahmud Shah on their annual raid into Vijayanagar
Kingdom (1509). When the Bahamani army arrived at Adoni on the
Vijayanagar frontier, it was effectively checked by Krishnadevaraya’s army and
was decisively defeated by the latter. Krishnadevaraya pursued the retiring
armies particularly that of Yusuf Adil Shah, who were kille d in the battle
that followed and Bijapur, was thrown into confusion and disorder. Taking
advantage of the anarchic condition prevailing in Bijapur,
Krishnadevaraya invaded Krishna -Tungabhadra Doab and captured
Raichur (1512). Advancing further he also cap tured Gulbarga after a brief
siege and inflicted a severe defeat on Barid -iMumalik and his allies. He next set
out for Bidar in pursuit of Barid. Having defeated him, restored Sultan munotes.in

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76 Muhammad Shah to his throne, whom Barid had confined in an attempt to
usurp power.
3.2.3.3 Suppression of Rebellious Vassals:
The Palayagars of Umattur had been defiant of the central authority even
during the reign of the predecessors of Krishnadevaraya. The Palayagras
were ruling over the upper Kaveri valley and were in poss ession of the
forts of Seringapatam and Sivasamudram situated on the island between two
branches of the Kaveri River. Following his success against the
Bahamanis, Krishnadevaraya undertook campaign against Gangaraya of
Umattur, who had been rebellious sinc e the last years of Vira Narasimha’s
reign. Krishnadevaraya captured the fort of Seringapatam and later
Sivasamudram, the headquarters of Gangaraya. The siege lasted for nearly a
year. Finally, Gangaraya fled from the fort and was drowned in the Kaveri
River while fleeing. The conquered territory became a new province with
Seringapatam as the capital. Saluva Govindaraya was appointed its first
governor. Local administration was entrusted to three local chieftains. The
famous Kempe Gauda of Bangalore was one of them.
3.2.3.4 War against Orissa:
Following his success against the Bahamanis and the internal rebels such
as the Palayagars, Krishnadevaraya felt strong enough to undertake expedition
against the gajapati of Orissa who had conquered two provinces of
Vijayanagar, Udayagiri and Kondavidu during the reign of his
predecessors. After the termination of campaign against Gangaraya of
Umattur, Krishnadevaraya sent an army to besiege Udayagiri in 1513 and
soon the raya himself joined it and conducted the operat ion in person. The
gajapati, Prataprudra sent a large army to relieve the fort, but it was defeated
and driven as far as Kondavidu. Udayagiri fort was captured after a siege,
which lasted for a year. On his way back to his capital, Krishnadevaraya and
his queens, Tirumala Devi and Chinna Devi visited Tirupati and offered
thanksgiving to Venkatesvara in July 1514.
After reducing the fort of Udayagiri, the Vijayanagar army marched into the
Kondavidu province. On its way a number of forts such as Kandukur,
Vinukonda, Nagarjunakonda, Tangeda fell into the hands of the
Vijayanagar army. The Vijayanagar general, Saluva Timma, undertook the
siege of Kondavidu. As he failed to storm the fort, Krishnadevaraya himself
came down to conduct the siege personally and ulti mately the fort was
captured by escalade. Many Oriya noblemen including the son and heir of the
gajapati, Virabhadra and one of his queens were captured and taken as
prisoners of Vijayanagar. Krishnadevaraya entrusted the administration of
Kondavidu to Sal uva Timma.
From Kondavidu, the Vijayanagar army proceeded to Vijayavada on the
Krishna River and laid siege to the fort. After its fall, Krishnadevaraya
advanced to Kondapalli, to the northwest of Vijayavada. An army sent by
Prataprudra to the relief of Ko ndapalli was thoroughly defeated. The fall of
Vijayavada opened the gates of Telangana to Krishnadevaraya. The
Vijayanagar forces captured the forts of Nalgonda and Warangal districts. munotes.in

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77 After effectively subjugating Telangana, Krishnadevaraya turned his att ention to
the Kalinga country. Rajmundry was captured with ease and Vengi was
subjugated. As the gajapati Prataprudra was reluctant to sue for peace,
Krishnadevaraya advanced up to his capital, Cuttack. This prompted the
gajapati to sue for peace (1518). A ccording to the terms of the peace, the
gajapati gave his daughter in marriage to Krishnadevaraya. In return the
raya returned to the gajapati all the territory north of the Krishna conquered
by him during the war.
3.2.3.5 War against Qutb Shah of Golconda :
When Krishnadevaraya was busy with campaign against the gajapati of Orissa,
Quli Qutb Shah, the sultan of Golconda became powerful in Telangana. He
attacked Pangal and Guntur on the Vijayanagar frontier. A little later he
occupied Warangal, Kondapalli, E llore and Rajmundry. He also forced the
gajapati to cede him the entire territory between the mouths of the Krishna
and Godavari rivers. Following these conquests, he made inroads into the
Vijayanagar territories. With a large army Quli Qutub Shah marched to
Kondavidu and besieged the fort. Saluva Timma being away at Vijayanagar,
his nephew Nandindla Gopa, who was in charge of the place, was unable
to resist the besieging forces of Golconda. On receiving the news of the siege
of Kondavidu, Krishnadevaraya immediately dispatched Saluva Timma from
Vijayanagar with a large army to Kondavidu. The Qutub Shahi army was
defeated and its commander Madar -ul-Mulk and several officers were
captured and sent as prisoners to Vijayanagar.
3.2.3.6 War with Bijapur:
Taking advantage of Krishnadevaraya’s preoccupation with the Oriyan and
other wars on the east coast, Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur invaded the
Krishna -Tungabhadra Doab and captured Raichur. In 1520, as soon as
Saluva Timma returned to the capital from Kondavidu, K rishnadevaraya
marched against the sultan with a large army and began a regular siege of
the fortress. Ismail Adil Shah came to its relief with strong contingents of
cavalry and advanced within nine miles of Raichur where he entrenched
himself. The decisiv e battle took place on the morning of 19 May 1520 in
which the Bijapuris suffered a disastrous defeat. Though the sultan fled
from the battlefield, the Bijapuri garrison did not give up the fort of
Raichur. Krishnadevaraya persisted in his siege of the fort with the help of
Portuguese musketeers in his service and finally succeeded in storming
and capturing it. Soon after his return to Vijayanagar, Krishnadevaraya
conducted a raid into Bijapur, occupied the capital for some time causing
much destruction to it. The fortress of Gulbarga was captured and as stated
by Nuniz, it was destroyed and razed to the ground. This was the second
siege of the Bahamani capital. Krishnadevaraya even tried to revive in vain
the Bahamani Sultanate by restoring the eldest son o f Muhammad Shah II.
But his attempt to resurrect the Bahamani sovereignty under Hindu patronage
did not have any possibility of success. On the other hand it only served to
irritate the sultans of the five succession states.
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78 3.2.3.7 Relation with the Port uguese:
Krishnadevaraya had realized the importance of the Portuguese friendship.
The Portuguese, having defeated the Arab and the Persian merchants and
destroyed the Egyptian navy, established virtual monopoly over the horse
trade form Arabia and Persia. Krishnadevaraya’s friendship with the
Portuguese enabled him to secure horses for his army without which he could
not have waged successful wars against the Bahamanis. The Portuguese
were also keen to secure Krishanadevaraya’s favour. Soon after the
access ion of Krishnadevaraya, when he was involved in the war with the
Bahamanis, the Portuguese governor, Albuquerque sent an envoy
promising the Portuguese aid to Vijayanagar in return for its support
against the zamorin of Calicut. He also promised to supply Arab and
Persian horses exclusively to Vijayanagar and not to send any to Bijapur.
Though Krishnadevaraya was eager to secure a monopoly in the horse
trade, he did not accept the offer. He resisted the temptation of being
dragged into an alliance with the Portuguese against the native
powers. The Portuguese embassy sent by governor Almeida secured
permission from Krishnadevaraya to erect a fort at Bhatkal. However, in
1523, when the Portuguese conquered the mainland near Goa,
Krishnadevaraya sent a small fo rce under his minister Saluva Timma
against them. But the campaign ended in failure as the small Vijayanagar
army had to beat a hasty retreat. In spite of this, normal relations were
maintained between the Vijaynagara and the Portuguese. A large number of
Portuguese travellers, merchants and adventurers visited the Vijayanagar
Empire.
Krishnadevaraya was a great warrior and general. He was equally great as a
statesman, an administrator and a patron of arts. As a warrior and general
he won many victories aga inst his enemies in spite of
discouraging circumstances. As an administrator he toured the
remote corners of his empire and heard and redressed the grievances of the
people. He set up excellent administrative machinery. He patronized
scholars and artists. His court was adorned by the ashtadiggajas who
were eminent poets and writers. Krishnadevaraya himself was a great
writer and poet. His famous Telugu poem Amuktamalyada is one of the
greatest poems in that language. His reign witnessed a tremendous activit y
in architecture as well.
3.2.4 Decline of the Vijayanagar Empire:
The death of Krishnadevaraya signalled the decline and disintegration of the
Vijayanagar Empire. The enemies of the empire took advantage of the
death of their scourge to renew their attac k on it. Ismail Adil Shah invaded
Raichur Doab and seized Raichur and Mudgal. At the same time the
gajapati of Orissa and the Sultan of Golconda also invaded Vijayanagar
territories. Achyutaraya (1530 -1542) managed to drive out the armies
of Orissa and Gol conda. The whole of Achyutaraya’s reign was spent in a
struggle against adverse conditions such as internal rebellions, foreign
aggression and the intrigues and ambitions of Ramaraya,
Krishnadevaraya’s son -in-law. During the later half of his reign, Ramara ya munotes.in

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79 and his two brothers, Tirmuala and Venkatadri, dominated Achyutaraya.
They advanced the claim of Sadasivaraya, son of Ranga, who was the brother
of Achyutaraya. The death of Achyutaraya in 1542 was followed by a
fierce struggle for the throne and the co ronation of Sadasivaraya and Venkata
I (son of Achyutaraya), both minors, by their respective supporters. But
Venkata I was murdered by his partisan, Salakaraju. The tyranny of Salakaraju
and the intervention of Bijapur made the affairs complicated. Ramara ya
overthrew the tyrant and re -crowned Sadasivaraya and himself became the
regent and de facto ruler.
3.2.5 The Battle of Talikota (1565):
Ramaraya began to interfere in the affairs of the Deccan Sultanates. He
often participated in their quarrels and conf licts either as a participant or
as an arbitrator. This policy was motivated by an interest to safeguard the
frontiers of the Vijayanagar Empire against the invasion of the Deccan
Sultanates. Ramaraya first formed an alliance with Ahmadnagar and
Golconda a gainst Bijapur and Adil Shah was defeated. Later, he organized
another confederacy of Bijapur, Golconda and Vijayanagar against
Ahmadnagar. By playing mutually one against the other, Ramaraya failed to
foresee the consequences of his policy that he was inc urring the enmity
of his former allies. The invasion of Ahmadnagar had caused much
injury and heart burning to the people of Ahmadnagar. This was the first
of the destructive invasions of that kingdom. The atrocities committed by
the Vijayanagar army stirr ed up religious feelings of the Muslims
against the Hindus of Vijayanagar. In 1562 -1563, Ramaraya once again
joined Bijapur against Ahmadnagar and the horrors of the previous invasions
were more than repeated. Firishta gives a vivid account of the destruct ion of
property, desecration of mosques and violation of the modesty of women.
The provocative actions of Ramaraya led to the organization of a
confederacy for the overthrow of the Viajyanagar towards the close of
1564. It is believed that Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur was the chief promoter of
this confederacy of Muslim powers of the Deccan against Ramaraya. Hussein
Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar, Ibrahim Qutb Shah of Golconda and Ali
Barid Shah of Bidar joined the grand alliance. Burhan Imad Shah did
not join the co nfederacy because he was not on good terms with Hussein
Nizam Shah.
Converging at Bijapur, the allied troops began their march to the south on
25 December 1564. They entrenched themselves 25 miles north of the river
Krishna at Talikota. Ramaraya faced the situation with utmost confidence.
He first sent his brother Tirumala with considerable force to guard the
Krishna and prevent the enemy from crossing it. Then he dispatched his
another brother, Venkatadri, and finally he proceeded with the rest of the
forces of the empire. The Hindu camp was on the south of the Krishna,
while the Muslims occupied both banks. The rival armies were facing
each other for over a month. During this period there were preliminary trial of
strength. The decisive battle was fought o n 25 January 1565. For the first time,
two armies of enormous size faced one another. Initially the Vijayanagar
armies seemed victorious. However, the situation changed with the opening munotes.in

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80 of the artillery wing of the allied forces and within a short time fiv e thousand
Hindu soldiers were slain. The cavalry followed up the charge. Though
Ramaraya fought bravely, he was wounded. As he was unable to escape, he
was seized by his enemies and beheaded.
It is believed that two Muslim generals of the Vijayanagar play ed a
treacherous role and the tables were turned against Ramaraya. Venkatadri
died or fled from the battlefield. Tirmuala, who had lost an eye in the
contest hastily withdrew to Vijayanagar and soon left with Sadasivaraya and
others, carrying away as much treasure as possible, probably for Tirupati.
After three days stay on the battlefield the confederates marched to
Vijayanagar and sacked it. Sewell gives the following account, though a little
exaggerated, “With fire and sword, with crowbars and axes, they carr ie d on
day after day their work of destruction. Never perhaps in the history of the
world has such havoc been wrought, and wrought so suddenly on so a
splendid city teeming with a wealthy and industrious population in the full
plenitude of prosperity one day, and on the next day seized, pillaged
and reduced to ruins, amid scenes of savage massacre and horrors.” Six
months later, the Muslim armies left Viajaynagar and returned home after the
capture of Raichur and Mudgal. Thus, Vijayanagar finally lost the Raichur
Doab.
Soon after the Battle of Talikota, Tirmuala made himself regent and left
Vijayanagar with Sadasivaraya. He transferred the capital to Penugonda. He
deposed Sadasivaraya in 1569 and founded the Aravidu dynasty with himself
as the ruler. Ti rumala succeeded in restoring a part of the power and
prestige of the empire. Tirmuala was succeeded by his son Sriranga I
(1572 - 1585). He carried on the work of restoration of the empire, but there
were many obstacles in his way. When Sriranga died witho ut an issue, his
younger brother Venkata succeeded him. Venkata II (1586 -1614) shifted
his capital to Chandragiri. Ranga III (1614 - 1618) was the last important
ruler of the Aravidu dynasty. He was unable to suppress the rebellious vassals
who practically became independent of the central authority; neither was he
able to resist the aggression of the Sultans of Bijapur and Golconda. He
could not prevent the break up of the Vijayanagar Empire. Gradually the great
empire split into a number of small independe nt units ruled over by the
local princely families.
Check Your Progress
1. Who were the founders of VIjaynagar kingdom?
2. Write a short note on the battle of Talikot.
3.3 THE BAHAMANI KINGDOM
3.3.1. Foundation:
The Bahamani kingdom arose out of one of the sever al revolts that
broke up the Tughlaq Empire towards the close of the reign of Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq. The numerous foreign officials known as the amir -i-sadah munotes.in

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81 (Amirs of the hundred or centurions) rebelled against Muhammad Bin
Tughlaq and set up their kingdom at Daulatabad. They proclaimed one
among themselves, Ismail Mukh, the Afghan, king of the Deccan under
the title Nasiruddin Shah (1 346 -1 347). As he was well advanced in age
and lacking in vigour resigned soon after in favour of Zafar Khan, who
assumed the title of Abul Muzaffar Alauddin Bahaman Shah (1347 -1358).
Alauddin Bahaman Shah shifted his capital to Gulbarga. According to
Firishta’s version Zafar Khan chose the title of Bahaman in memory of his
master, a Brahman named Gangoo for whom he had worked as a servant in his
early days. However, the more accepted version is recorded in Nizamuddin’s
Tabaqat -i-Akbari. According to Nizamuddin, Zafar Khan derived the title
by tracing his descent from a half mythical hero of Persia, Bahaman, son
of Isfandiyar.
3.3.2. Alauddin Bahaman Shah:
Sultan Alauddin (I) Bahaman Shah spent most of his time waging war or
conducting negotiations calculated to extend the territory under his sway.
He crushed the refractory chiefs, and during his reign extended the
kingdom from the Wainganga to the Krishna and from Goa and Dabhol to
Bhongir. He adopted the feudalistic pattern of administration. He divided
the kingdom into four tarafs or provinces. Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Bidar and
Berar. These were assigned to his loyal Amirs, who were appointed as
governors. In turn they were required to render military service to the
king. Alauddin Bahaman Shah secured recognition of his position as
sultan from the Egyptian Caliph in 1356.
3.3.3. Muhammad Shah I:
Alauddin Bahaman Shah was succeede d by his son Muhammad Shah I
(13758 -1375). He took steps to consolidate his authority through a series of
administrative measures. He established a council of eight ministers
including the peshwa. His foreign policy was marked by hostility towards
the Hind u kingdoms of Vijayanagar and Warangal. The conflict between the
Bahamani kingdom and the Vijayanagar was aimed at the possession of the
Raichur Doab. Muhammad succeeded in defeating the rulers of both
Warangal and Vijayanagar and compelled them to pay a h uge war indemnity.
The ruler of Warangal was forced to surrender the fort of Golconda. The
Vijayanagar kingdom, however, continued to take the offensive.
3.3.4. Mujahid Shah:
Muhammad Shah I was succeeded by his son Mujahid Shah (1375 -1378). He
continued h is father’s policy of waging war against Vijayanagar. He besieged
Vijayanagar but failed to capture it. Following court intrigue he was
murdered by his cousin, Daud Khan, who in turn was killed by his slave. A
grand son of Alauddin Bahaman Shah, Muhammad S hah II (1378 -1397) was
raised to the throne. He was a man of learning, of peace loving disposition
and a patron of scholars. His reign was marked by peace with
Vijayanagar.
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82 3.3.5. Firuz Shah:
The next ruler, Firuz Shah (1379 -1422) continued aggressive pol icy
towards Vijayanagar and Warangal. In his first campaign against Vijayanagar,
Firuz Shah forced Harihara II to pay a large amount of war indemnity. In his
second campaign Devaraya II was forced to conclude peace with Firuz
Shah and to cede Bankapur as d owry for one of his own daughters married
to the sultan and a war indemnity. However, in the third campaign Firuz
Shah had to face defeat in the hands of the Vijayanagar army.
3.3.6. Ahmad Shah:
The successor of Firuz Shah was his brother Ahmad Shah (1422 -1435). In
1425, he transferred his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. Ahmad Shah
carried on a war of revenge against Vijayanagar to wipe out the
disgrace of his predecessor’s failure. He saw the armies Vijayanagar and
Warangal on the bank of Tungabhadra, cros sed the river and ravaged the
country, massacring people, demolishing temples and slaughtering cows.
Vijayanagar was reduced to inactivity and the army of Warangal withdrew.
His blockade of Vijyanagar reduced its inhabitants to misery and the raya
accepted the ter ms i mpo se d by the v ict or, who returned home with immense
treasure and innumerable prisoners. One of them was a Brahmin, who was
converted to Islam under the name of Fathullah, who ultimately became the
founder of the Imad Shahi dynasty of Berar. An other Brahmin, who was
converted to Islam under the name of Hasan rose to the highest office in the
Bahamani kingdom. His son, Ahmad founded later the Nizam Shahi line of
Ahmadnagar. In 1424 Ahmad Shah annexed Telangana. Four years later
the sultan triumph ed over Hoshang Shah of Malwa.
3.3.7. Alauddin Ahmad Shah II (1436 - 1458) :
Alauddin Ahmad Shah II (1436 -1458), the next ruler led a series of
campaigns against Vijayanagar. He led an expedition against Konkan and
reduced its chief to submission. He compe lled the Raja of Sangameshwar to
give his daughter in marriage to him. But this new matrimonial alliance
angered the queen and consequently her father, Nasir Khan of
Khandesh. He invaded Berar in 1437, but was defeated and pursued right up
to his capital Burhanpur. Though a stern ruler, Alauddin Ahmad Shah was
a patron of learning and architecture. He founded a free hospital at Bidar.
3.3.8. Humayun:
The successor Alauddin Ahmad Shah II, Humayun (1458 - 1461) was a
fierce tyrant and was known as zalim or opp ressor. His minor son, Nizam
Shah (1461 -1463) was eight years old when he ascended the throne. This led
to the formation of a Council of Regency consisting of the Queen Mother,
Nargis Begum, Khwaja Jahan and Mahmud Gawan. During the reign of
Nizam Shah the Bahamani kingdom was exposed to attacks led by the
Hindu rulers of Orissa, Warangal as well as by Sultan Mahmud Khilji of
Malwa. But the intervention of Mahmud Beghara of Gujarat and the ability
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83 3.3.9. Muhammad Shah III:
Niza m Shah was succeeded by his brother Muhammad Shah III (1463 -
1482). As he was only nine years of age, the Council of Regency
continued, but the attempt of Khwaja Jahan to domineer over the
other members of the council led to his execution at the instance of the
Queen Mother. However, she retired into private life on the sultan
attaining the age of fifteen. Mahmud became the sole adviser to the
sultan.
3.3.10.Mahmud Gawan:
Mahmud Gawan was born in 1411 at Gawan in Persia and belonged to the
ancient nobility o f that country. Suspecting the disposition of the ruling
sovereign towards him, he left his home as a merchant and came to Bidar in
1453. He entered the service of Alauddin Ahmad Shah II. Under
Humayun, Mahmud Gawan became chief minister and also governor of
Bijapur. During the minority of Nizam Shah, he was one of the two
ministers. During the reign of Muhammad Shah III he was the de facto ruler
of the kingdom for about twenty -five years. Under the able guidance of
Mahmud Gawan, the Bahamani kingdom attain ed great power and prosperity.
He fought most hazardous of wars and extended the dominions of the
kingdom to an extent never achieved by former Sultans. The annexation of
Konkan and Goa extended its frontier to the western sea and the annexation
of the God avari -Krishna Delta brought it to the coast of the eastern sea. The
Raja of Belgaum, who had revolted at the instigation of Vijayanagar, was
subdued. In 1478 Mahmud Gawan raided Orissa, suppressed a rebellion in
Kondavidu. In the south the Bahamani power w as extended till Kanchi,
which was seized from Vijayanagar.
Besides undertaking territorial expansion, Mahmud Gawan provided for
the consolidation of the kingdom through administrative reforms.
He tried to maintain equilibrium between the Deccani and the I rani Amirs.
According to Haig, ‘‘the natives of Deccan were less energetic and
enterprising. ..and being unable to compete with the hardy Arab, the
intellectual Persian and the virile Turk, were obliged to give place to them
at courts as well as in camp.’’ Besides the natives were all Sunnis and the
foreigners were Shias. Hence, they had mutual jealousy and distrust.
Mahmud Gawan, knowing well the dangers of factionalism, though himself a
foreigner refused to identify himself with either of the factions and divided the
honours evenly between the two groups.
As Mahmud Gawan found that the four provinces of Gulbarga,
Daulatabad, Telangana and Berar were too unwieldy to administer
efficiently divided each of them into two divisions and placed separate
governors o v e r t h e m . T o s t r e n g t h e n t h e c e n t r a l administration, Mahmud
Gawan curtailed the powers of the Tarafdars or governors.
Many of the paraganas were converted into crown lands. Special officials
were appointed to collect revenue from central places. Only one fort in each
province was left in the charge of the governors. The remaining forts were
entrusted to officers and troops appointed by the sultan. This was munotes.in

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84 aimed at making rebellions difficult if not impossible. To improve the
revenue administration, a syst ematic survey and assessment of the land
revenue was ordered. The army was thoroughly reorganized. The pay of the
soldiers was increased. No department of the state failed to engage the
attention of Gawan and his reforms extended to finance, justice and
education.
Mahmud Gawan added dignity and scholarship to his martial and
administrative qualities. He founded a madrasa, an academy of learning at
Bidar. It was provided with a valuable library, which comprised of 3,000
volumes, He was a great scholar with p rofound knowledge of mathematics. He
was also a poet and a prose writer, and two books are ascribed to him. A
man of simple habits, he always helped the poor and the needy.
Mahmud Gawan’s various reforms and his pre -eminent status in the
kingdom fostered j ealousies among other amirs, especially the Deccanis.
They conspired to get rid of him and hatched a conspiracy. They forged
a letter of treason against Sultan Muhammad Shah and persuaded the
sultan to kill the ‘traitor’. Mahmud Gawan was executed in 1481 by
the sultan’s orders on the charge of treason. The sultan soon discovered his
own colossal stupidity and was plunged in grief.
The death of Mahmud Gawan ushered in a period of steady decline in the
fortunes and prestige of the Bahamani Sultanate. Muhamma d Shah III was
succeeded by Mahmud Shah (1482 - 1518). He was utterly incompetent.
The provincial governors took advantage of the growing weakness of the
government for their self-aggrandizement. The quarrel between the Deccani
and foreign amirs continued. Within a short interval the provincial governors
asserted their independence. The kingdom was reduced in size and the sultan’s
authority remained confined to a small area around the capital. On Mahmud
Shah’s death, three rulers succeeded one after another in quick
succession. But they were puppets in the hands of Qasim Barid -ul-
Mumalik, and after his death in those of his son, Amir Ali Barid. The last
sultan of the Bahamani kingdom was Kalimullah Shah. With his death in
1527 the Bahamani Sultanate came to a n end. On the ruins of the
Bahamani Sultanate, five independent splinter sultanates came into
existence -the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur; the Nizam Shahi
kingdom of Ahmadnagar; the Imad Shahi kingdom of Berar; the Qutub
Shahi kingdom of Golconda and the B arid Shahi kingdom of Bidar.
Check Your Progress
1. Who was the founder of Bahamani kingdom?
2. Comment on Mahmud Gawan.


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85 3.4 QU ESTIONS
1. Give an account of the rise and growth of the Vijayanagar Kingdom.
2. Make an estimate of Krishnadevaraya as the conqueror and ruler.
3. Examine the circumstances that led to the downfall of the Vijayanagar
Empire.
4. Discuss the origin and growth of the Bahamani Kingdom.
5. Trace the conflict between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani
Kingdoms.
6. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Devaraya I I
(b) Krishnadevaraya
(c) Battle of Talikota (1565)
(d) Mahmud Gawan
3.5 B) ADMINISTRATION, SOCIO ECONOMIC
AND CULTURE OF THE VIJAYANAGAR OF
BAHMANI KINGDOM
3.5.1 Administration Of The Vijayanagar Empire
3.5.1.1 The King:
The Vijayanagar administration was a vast feud al organization
presided over by the king. The king of Vijayanagar, like all
contemporary rulers, was an autocrat with unlimited authority in
civil, judicial and military matters. However, the desire of the king to
promote the welfare of the people accordi ng to the principles of dharma
limited the urge for despotism. A detailed study of Krishnadevaraya’s
book Amuktamalyada helps us to understand the nature of political
philosophy of the Vijyanagar kings. Krishnadevaraya advises the king
in these words, “Wit h great care and according to your power you should
attend to the work of protecting the good and punishing the wicked,
without neglecting anything that you see or hear.” He further says, “A
crowned king should always rule with an eye towards dharma.” Enum erating
the king’s duties Krishnadevaraya says that he should rule collecting round
him people skilled in statecraft, counteract the activities of his enemies by
crushing them with force and protect one and all of his subjects.
3.5.1.2 Council of Ministers :
The king was advised by the council of ministers. However, it was left to the
discretion of the king whether to heed to their advice or not. He also
consulted his own favourites on very important matter. Even the most munotes.in

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86 powerful minister held his office at the pleasure of the king, and was liable
to be degraded and summarily punished. Krishnadevaraya punished Saluva
Timma when he was suspected of poisoning the heir apparent. The office of
the minister was some times hereditary and some times based on select ion.
Ministers and officers of the state held jagirs which the king could resume at
will. Abdur Razaq mentions some public offices such as diwankhana (council
chamber), daftarkhana (secretariat) and zorrabkhana (mint).
3.5.1.3 Division of the Empire into P rovinces:
For administrative convenience the Vijyanagar Empire was divided into
provinces, which were known as rajya, mandala, or chavdi. These were
further sub -divided into smaller units known as venthe, nadu, sima, sthala,
kottam, parru etc. The division of the empire into provinces was on military
lines. The governors were primarily officers who generally remained at the
imperial headquarters and governed the provinces as deputies except on
the frontier. Governors were described as mandalesvaras, nadapra bhus,
nayakas and mahamandalesvaras. Governors kept their own courts, army
etc. They performed civil, judicial and military functions in their
jurisdiction. They were required to submit regular accounts of income and
expenditure of their province to the central government. In time of need they
had to render military service to the king. The governors of Vijayanagar
enjoyed the position of vassal in relation to the king. But they acted as
autocrats in relation to the people of their provinces. To keep the go vernors
under check the king appointed royal officers to be present in their courts.
3.5.1. 4 Village Administration:
The village was the lowest administrative unit. As in ancient times, the
villages had their assemblies. They were self -sufficient units. He reditary
officers called ayagars looked after the village affairs. They decide petty
disputes, collected revenue and enforced law and order. The central
government exercised general supervision over the village administration
through an officer known as mahanayakacharya.
3.5.1. 5 Land Revenue:
Land revenue comprised the main source of income of the state. The other
sources of income included, tributes and gifts from the vassals and provincial
governors during the great festival of Mahanavami, custom duties, taxes on
various professions, houses, markets and licenses etc. The flourishing seaports
brought huge wealth. Inland trade and commerce also formed an
important source of income. Payment of taxes could be made both in cash
and kind.
The land revenue was co llected on the basis of the assessment fixed after a
careful survey of land. On the basis of productivity, the land was classified
in three categories, wetland, dry land, orchards and woods. According to
Nuniz, the peasants had to pay nine -tenths of their produce to their lords,
who paid one -half to the king. There was a special department known as
athavane to supervise the administration of land revenue. Among the
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87 throughout the empire. It was later abolished at the instance of Saluva
Timma. The fiscal system of the Vijayanagar Empire was not at all
favourable to the peasants. There is some clear evidence of their
sufferings and migrations to other places due to the oppression of the fie f-
holders and others. Rulers like Krishnadevaraya remedied the injustice
brought to their notice. However, during the reign of weak rulers, the
exploitation and oppression by the nobles and others continued without
check.
3.5.1 .6 Treasuries:
Two treasuries , a smaller one for day -to-day remittances and withdrawals and a
larger one to deposit huge amounts and valuable gifts from the vassal kings
and mandalesvaras controlled the revenue of the state. According to Paes,
the larger treasury was ‘‘kept locked and sealed in such a way that it could
not be seen by anyone and is not opened except when the kings have great
need.’’
3.5.1. 7 Expenditure:
The chief items of expenditure were the upkeep of the palace,
maintenance of the military forces and charitable endowm ents.
Krishnadevaraya suggested in the Amuktamalyada that the income of the
state be divided in four parts: one quarter to maintain the palace establishment
and charity; two quarters for the military expenses and the remaining
should be deposited in the reserve treasury.
3.5.1 .8 Administration of Justice:
The Vijayanagar kings administered even -handed justice. The king
presided over the sabha, which was the highest court of appeal. In most cases
special judicial officers administered justice. There were reg ular courts for
administering justice in different parts of the empire. The Dharma Shastras
were the basis for deciding the civil cases. The criminal law was severe.
Death or mutilation was awarded as punishment for theft, adultery,
murder and treason. The re were village courts, caste panchayats and guild
organizations to decide petty offences such as violation of caste rules,
trade regulations etc.
3.5.1 .9 Police System:
The police system in the Vijayanagar Empire was fairly efficient.
According to a gener al rule when a theft occurred, the property was
recovered or made good by the police officers. There was an excellent
espionage system. The spies always kept the king informed of all the
development in the state. This prevented conspiracies, intrigues and
revolts of the defiant nobles and provincial governors. In towns, the streets
were patrolled regularly at night. The police arrangement at the capital was
so efficient that the foreign travellers like Abdur Razaq were full of praise for
them.
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88 3.5.1 .10 Mil itary Organization:
The vastness of the empire, the need to suppress the recurring internal
rebellions and the necessity to counteract the perennial threat from the
Deccan sultanates prompted the Vijayanagar kings to maintain a large and
efficient army. Be sides the feudal levies, the kings recruited soldiers
including the Muslims. There was a military department called kandachara
under the control of dandanayaka. The emperors maintained a large standing
army consisting of an elephant corps, cavalry and infa ntry. More attention
was paid to cavalry than to infantry. As compared with the Deccan Sultanates,
the artillery of Vijayanagar was defective and weak. The Portuguese traveller
Paes maintains that Krishnadevaraya’s army consisted of 700,000
infantry, 32,60 0 cavalry and 600 elephants.
According to Abdur Razaq, the soldiers received their pay every four
months. Besides, military fiefs spread over the length and breath of the
empire, each under a military leader or nayaka. He was authorized to
collect revenue and to administer a specified area provided he maintained
an agreed number of elephants, horses and troops ever ready to join the
imperial forces in war. Nuniz counted more than two hundred such nayakas.
There were regular military schools in which men wer e trained in martial
arts such as archery, swordsmanship etc. and were later enlisted in the army.
Foreigners generally manned the artillery. Fortresses played an important
part in the defence organization. The command over several ports and
parts of Ceylo n leads one to infer that Vijayanagar might have had a
naval force. However, we do not have definite information regarding its
strength or organization.
3.5.1 .11 Check Your Progress
1. What was the position of the king during Vijaynagar Empire?
2. How was a the administration of justice during Vijaynagar
Empire?
3.6 ECONO MY UNDER THE VIJAYANAGAR
EMPIRE
3.6.1. Accounts of Foreign Visitors:
A number of foreign travellers who visited Vijayanagar have left interesting
and valuable accounts of their impression about t he social and economic life of
the people. The Vijyanagar Empire was one of the richest states then known
in the world. The economic prosperity was reflected in the thickly populated
cities and towns, flourishing trade and commerce, and the lavish life at the
royal court. The Italian traveller, Nicolo Conti, who visited Vijayanagar in
1420, writes that its circumference was sixty miles and protected by massive
walls. Further he says that in the city there are ninety thousand men fit to
bear arms.
Abdur Raza q, the Persian envoy who visited the empire in 1442 -43, speaks
of chambers in the king’s treasury filled with masses of molten gold. The munotes.in

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89 inhabitants of the country, whether high or low wore jewels and gilt
ornaments in their ears and around their necks, ar ms, wrists and fingers.
About the splendour of the city, Abdur Razaq records his impression
thus,” The city of Vijayanagar is such that the eye has not seen or heard any
place resembling it upon the whole earth. It was so built that it has seven
fortified walls, one within the other.”
The Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes writing about the city of
Vijayanagar says, “This is the best provided city in the world and is stocked
with provisions such as rice, wheat, grains, Indian corn, a certain amount of
barle y and beans, moong, pluses, horse -grain and many other seeds.... the
streets and markets are full of laden oxen without count.... In this city you
will find men belonging to every nation and people.”
Eduardo Barboza who visited Vijayanagar in 1516 confirms the
information of earlier travellers. Praising the city of Vijayanagar he says,
“The city was of a great extent, highly populous and the seat of an active
commerce in country - diamonds, rubies from Pegu, silk of China and
Alexandria and cinnabar, campho r, musk, pepper and sandal from
Malabar.”
3.6.2. Agriculture, Industry and Trade:
These testimonies of different foreign travellers leave no doubt that the
Vijayanagar Empire was rich and prosperous. Agriculture was in a
flourishing condition. The emperors t o o k k e e n i n t e r e s t i n p r o m o t i n g
agriculture through various irrigation projects. Various industries
supplemented the agricultural wealth. The most important of these industries
were textile, mining and metallurgy. Perfumery was another important
industry. T r a d e a n d i n d u s t r y w a s organized and regulated by guilds. There
was flourishing inland, costal and over -seas trade. According to Abdur Razaq,
the empire possessed 300 seaports. The chief seaports were Honnavar,
Bhatkal, Mangalore, Calicut, Cochin, Quilon, Kaval, Negapatam, St.Thome
and Pulicat. Foreign trade was in the hands of the Portuguese, Arabs and
Indians. Vijayanagar Empire had commercial relation with the islands
in the Indian Ocean, the Malaya Archipelago, Burma, China, Persia,
Abyssinia, South Af rica and Portugal. The principal articles of export were
cloth, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar and spices. The commodities imported
into the empire were copper, coral, mercury, China silk and velvet. Besides
horses and elephants were also imported.
3.6.3. Co inage:
The Vijayanagar emperors issued brilliant coinage in gold and silver.
The gold series were called the varaha. The full varaha weighed 52 grains and
there were also half and quarter varahas. On the obverse the Vijayanagar
coins contained the bull, el ephant, various Hindu deities and the
gandaberunda, a double eagle, either alone or holding an elephant in each
beak and claw. On the reverse these coins had the name of the reigning
king.
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90 Check Your Progress
1. Which Italian traveler visited the Vijaynagar Empire?
2. What was the gold coin called during Vijaynagar Empire?
3.7 SOCIETY UNDER THE VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE:
The social life under the Vijayanagar Empire was well developed. The
upper and the middle classes of the people were wealthy and had a
considerably hi gher standard of life. The common people had to bear
the burden of the taxation.
3.7.1. Royal Court:
The king and his courtiers led an extravagant and luxurious life. It was in
striking contrast to the modest living standard of the rest of the population.
The palace always had a large number of establishments attached to it. In the
establishment there were large number of women, especially chosen for their
youth and beauty. Some were brought from abroad while others were
captured in war and enslaved. Many w ere courtesans, skilled in the art of
music and dance while others were the concubines of princes, nobles and
courtiers.
3.7.2. Caste System:
The institution of caste with all its social and economic implications was a
universally accepted social organizat ion. The great poet Allasani Peddana, in
his famous work, Manucharitramu mentions the four castes that existed in
the Vijayanagar society. They were viprulu (Brahmins), rajulu (Kshatriyas),
motikiratalu (Vaisyas) and nalavajativaru (Sudras).
3.7.3. Positio n of Different Castes in the Society:
In civil life the Brahmins occupied highly respected position. With the
exception of a few who entered the state service in the army and
elsewhere, they generally devoted themselves to religious and literary
pursuits. Nuniz describes the Brahmins as “honest men, given to
merchandise, very acute and of much talent, very good at accounts, lean men
and well formed but little fitted for hard work”. According to the Domingo
Paes the Brahmins were vegetarians and their womenf olk were known for
their beauty and seclusion. The Kshatriyas were generally associated with the
ruling dynasties, assisting them in matters of state and warfare. Most of
the nobles and men of rank belonged to this caste. The Vaisyas were the
same as the m erchants who carried on trade and commercial activities.
These upper castes appeared to have enjoyed the privileges attached to
their status in the society. Economically they were well placed, commanded
royal favours and were fortunate to be educated. Sudr as were considered
inferior in their status. They rendered manual services to earn their livelihood.
Both in towns and villages the castes tended to live in separate quarters of
their own and followed their own peculiar customs and habits. The outcastes munotes.in

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91 who tilled the land and did menial work lived in hamlets at a distance from
the village.
3.7.4. Position of Women in the Society:
Women played an important role in social life of the Vijayanagar Empire.
Some of them were highly learned. They received opportu nities of
training not only in literary and fine arts such as music but also in
wrestling. They were also employed as astrologers, keepers of accounts and
even as judges. Princesses of the royal family generally received a good
education in literature and fine arts. Gangadevi, the wife of Kampana, was
the author of the famous work Maduravijayam. Triumalamma was
a distinguished poetess in Sanskrit during the time of Achyutaraya. According
to Nuniz large number of women was employed in palaces as dancers,
domestic servants and palki bearers. The custom of devadasis was in
vogue. They were dancing girls attached to the temples. They were also
summoned for festivities held in the royal palace. Polygamy was
recognized and was practiced by the wealthy people. Chil d marriage was also
common. According to Nuniz the practice of sati was in vogue. He says, “The
women have the customs to burning themselves when their husbands die
and hold it a honour to do so.”
3.7.5. Amusements:
The people of Vijyanagar used to relax f rom serious work through hunting,
gambling, playing a game like polo and by witnessing theatrical
performances and cock fighting. Paes states that every morning before
daylight Krishnadevaraya drank gingelly oil and exercised with earthenware
weights and a sword till he had sweated out all the oil. He then wrestled
with one of his wrestler and later went riding before his morning bath.
There were areas inside royal palace in Vijayanagar for the amusement
of the monarch and his court. Fights between animals and wrestling
matches were arranged. There were also women wrestlers. Festival
and fairs offered means of amusement and enjoyment for the people.
3.7.6. Food Habits:
The kings and the general public were meat -eaters. They ate meat of all kinds
of animals except the flesh of oxen or cow. Animal sacrifices were common.
Some sections of the population such as Brahmins, Jains and Saivas were
strict vegetarians.
3.7.7. Religion:
The early rulers of Vijayanagar were worshippers of Siva. Virupaksha was
their fami ly God. Later they came under the influence of Vaishnava
saints. The Vaishnava work Prapannamritam gives the legendary
account of the conversion of the Vijayanagar king, Virupaksha to
Vaishnavism. Krishnadevaraya was devoted to Vishnu and Siva.
Achyutaraya was a great patron of Vaishnavism. Sadasivaraya followed a
very liberal policy. He worshipped Siva, Vishnu and Ganesa. Besides Vedic
religion there were also other religious sects like the Jains who munotes.in

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92 enjoyed protection and patronage of the Vijayanagar king s. They were
tolerant to other religions. Barbosa, who visited Krishnadevaraya’s court
observes, “The king allows such freedom that every man may come and go
and live according to his own creed without suffering any annoyance and
without enquiries whether he is a Christian, Jew, Moor or Hindu”.
3.7.8 Check Your Progress
1. How did Nuniz describe the castes during Vijaynagar Empire?
2. What were the food habits of the people of Vijaynagar Empire?
3.8 CULTU RE UNDER THE VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
3.8.1. Art and Architecture :
Under the Vijayanagar Empire, South Indian art and architecture attained
fullness and freedom of rich expression. This was in keeping with the general
consciousness of the great task of the empire, namely the preservation and
development of all that rema ined of Hinduism against the onslaught of Islam.
During this period, temples became very elaborate both in structure and
organization.
The capital city of Vijayanagar was described by Domingo Paes as large as
Rome and very beautiful to look at. The extensi ve ruins of Hampi now
represent it. In its glorious days the city of Vijayanagar was one of the
foremost cities in Asia. Paes refers to the strong and massive fortifications
of the city, its imposing gateways, its wide streets lined by beautiful
houses, it s elaborate and effective works of irrigation, its orchards, groves,
its many temples, market places and other amenities suitable to a royal city.
Following the Battle of Talikota (1565) this splendid city was destroyed
and plundered by the Muslim armies o f the Deccan Sultanates. The remains
of this magnificent city are still seen and they illustrate one of the most
significant phases of South Indian architecture.
3.8.2. Building Material:
There was an extensive use of granite for the construction of buildi ngs, both
religious and secular. In most of the Vijayanagar buildings, at least in the
earlier buildings of the Sangama and Tuluva dynasty, mortar was not used
for construction of buildings though its use was fairly well known. The
granite blocks were so huge and heavy, and so beautifully dressed and
accurately fitted together that cementing and plastering material were not
necessary to hold the blocks. The idols in the temples and other free -standing
sculptures were made of chlorite stone, which was soft, dark in colour
and was amenable for extreme sculptural designs and decorations. Some
such icons resemble the soap stone sculptures of the Hoysalas at Belur and
Halebid.
3.8.3. Structure of the Temple:
During the Vijayanagar period, the temple became a more c o m p l e x a n d a
very elaborate institution with several new halls and pavilions constructed for munotes.in

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93 various purposes. The gopuram, of the Cholas, which was small, plain and
unsculptured, evolved into a huge structure, rising to a height of five,
seven, nine or even thirteen storey, tapering towards the top in pyramidal
fashion. Stone or bronze kalasams or other sculptures crowned the summit of
the towers. Images of Saiva and Vaishnava gods and goddesses adorned
the niches on the outer walls of the gopuram.
The antarala (small passage between the main sanctum and the
mahamandapa of the shrine) of the Chola period evolved into a big passage
with sculptural decorations on its walls. This passage came to be known as
the aradhamandapa during the Vijayanagar period. It was also used to store
articles used in the daily worship of the main deity. Another important feature
of the temple architecture was the so -called ‘thousand pillared mandapa’. In
fact the varied and complicated treatment of the pillar was perhaps the
most striking feature of the Vijayanagar style. The shaft becomes just a core
round which is grouped a vast amount of statuary of great size and sculptured
in the round. The pillar and sculptures were carved out of a single block of
stone. Less complicated, b ut equally effective, is the pattern of the
monolithic pillar consisting of a central column with slender columnettes
attached all round. All pillars had ornamental brackets as part of their capitals
and below the bracket a pendant that was elaborated in t his period into an
inverted lotus -bud. Continuous panels of sculptures, illustrating various myths
and legends appear on the exterior surface of the walls.
During the Vijayanagar period, temples became very elaborate, both in
structure and organization. Ev en old temples were modified by the addition
of pillared halls, pavilions and other subordinate structures. The most
important characteristic of such addition was the kalyana -mandapa, generally
put on the left in the courtyard of the temple. This was a ver y ornate
pillared pavilion with a raised platform in the center for the reception of the
deity and his consort at the annual celebration of their marriage ceremony.
Gradually, marriages of all castes of the Hindus, except the shudras
were performed in the kalyana -mandapa. The other mandapas included the
unjal mandapa meant for placing images of deities on the swing while
performing religious ceremonies; vasanta mandapa was located amidst
gardens; neerudam mandapa, located in the midst of the temple tank was
used to give ceremonial bath to the deity. From the foreign accounts
Vijayanagar appears to have been as much a capital city as a city of temples.
A number of interesting temples may still be found extant in this ruined site.
The temple of Pampapati was t he most sacred. The other principal temples
in the city of Vijayanagar were Vitthalaswami and Hazara Rama.
3.8.4. Vitthalaswami and Hazara Rama Temples:
The Vitthalaswami temple is the most ornate. The construction
of this temple had begun during the reign of Devaraya II and continued
even in the reign of Achyutaraya, but was never entirely finished. There are
three entrances with gopurams. The main temple occupies the centre and
there are five other structures mostly of the nature of pillared halls within the
enclosure. The main temple is dedicated to Vishnu as Vitthala. It comprises
three distinct sections, the mahamandapa, an open pillared hall in front, an munotes.in

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94 aradhamandapa, and a similar closed hall in the middle and the garbagriha
in the rear. Of the remai ning structures, the kalyanamandapa is excellent
in its statuary. The Hazara Rama temple, constructed during the reign of
Virupaksha II is a modest but perfectly finished example of the Vijayanagar
style of temple architecture. Besides the main temple ther e is a shrine for
the goddess, a kalyanamandapa and other subsidiary temples all enclosed
in a courtyard.
3.8.5. Provincial Architecture:
In the rest of the empire, Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchipuram,
Tadpatri and Srirangam are also famous for temples design ed and built in the
Vijayanagar style of architecture. The kalyanamandapa of the temple at
Vellore is considered to be the most beautiful structure of its kind, and its
gopuram is typical of the style of the century. The Ekamranatha and the
Varadaraja temp les at Kanchipuram contain pavilions of remarkable size.
Two gopurams of the temple of Ramesvara at Tadpatri are remarkable for
their rich and exquisite carvings. “These carvings,” says Ferguson, “are in
better taste than everything else in this style”.
3.8.6. The Madura Style:
The last stages of Vijayanagar architecture are rightly known as the
Madura style. This is because of the great encouragement given by the
nayakas of Madura. Among the more important temples of this period
were built at Madura, Srira ngam, Triuvalur, Ramesvaram, Chidambaram,
Tinnavelly, Tiruvannamalai and Srivilliputur. The temple of Madura is,
perhaps, the most typical of them. It is a double temple, one dedicated to
Sundaresvara and the other to his consort Minakshi. These two shrine s take
the largest space inside the main enclosure with four large gopurams
towards the center of each of its four sides.
In the capital, Vijayanagar, there was a Jain temple called the Ganigitti
temple. The monolith pillar in front of the temple contains an inscription
dated 1385, which states that it was built by Irugappa Dandanatha, the Jain
minister of Harihara II.
3.8.7. The Audience Hall:
Due to the extremely fragmentary nature of the majority of the remains, it
is difficult to understand clearly thei r designs and other arrangements.
Two masonry platforms deserve special mention. Of these, the one known
as the King’s Audience Hall seems to have been part of building of
considerable dimension. The Audience Hall was a hall of a hundred pillars,
ten rows of ten pillars each. The pillars evidently had square bases,
cylindrical shafts and bracket capitals, Abdur Razaq describes the Audience
Hall as being ‘elevated above all the rest of the lofty building in the citadel’.
The considerable dimensions of the ba sement lend support to such
description.
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95 3.8.8. The Throne Platform:
The other important structure is the Throne Platform. Paes calls it the House
of Victory erected by Krishnadevaraya in 1513 to commemorate his conquest
of Orissa. The Throne Platform is smaller in dimensions but more ornate.
Like the Audience Hall it also ascends in three diminishing terraced
stages and is approached by balustrade stairways.
3.8.9. The Lotus Mahal:
Other secular buildings at the Vijayanagar include the Lotus Mahal, the
Elephant Stables and watchtowers of the Zanana enclosure. The building
called Elephant Stable is Islamic in appearance and character. It is an
extremely elegant and dignified structure having the best of proportions. Its
fine ranges of arches in the facade re present Islamic conventions so also the
graceful domes over the roofs. The projected balconies on brackets in the
facade and the square turret -like super -structures in the center of the roof
represent indigenous style. Thus, the Elephant Stable is a fine b lending of
the Islamic and indigenous conventions in a pleasing manner.
3.8.10. Sculpture:
The art of sculpture also made considerable progress during the
Vijayanagar period. Stone and metals were used to make the images of gods
and goddesses. They were us ed to adorn the niches in the exterior faces
of the temple walls. The most noteworthy of the Vijayanagar sculpture is
a huge monolith statue of Narasimha, an incarnation of Vishnu enshrined
within the walled enclosure. The art of casting bronze, which bega n to be
practiced on an extensive scale under the Cholas, continued to flourish under
the rulers of Vijayanagar and their feudatories. The subjects of sculpture and
the mode of treatment continued to be the same as before. But during the
Vijayanagar period a remarkable progress was made in sculpting life -size
portraits, which have survived even today. In the Tirupati temple there are
life size portraits of Krishnadevaraya, his two wives and of Venkata I.
3.8.11. Painting:
The Vijayanagar rulers continued th e tradition of painting of the imperial
Cholas. Hampi, Lepakshi, Anegundi and Kanchipuram were the chief
centers of the art of painting. Religious themes, especially scenes from
Ramayana, Mahabharata and Vishnu Purana were depicted in the murals
in Vishnu temples. Scenes from the Siva Purana dominated the paintings in
the Siva temples. Incidents from the lives of Jain Tirthankaras are found
in Jain temples and monuments. In the Hazara Rama temple at Hampi,
scenes from the life of Sri Rama adorn the walls of the temple. The paintings
at the temple of Lepakshi, besides representing divine figurines, portray
animals and birds including the colourful peacock and the parrot. Painting
reached a new height during the reign of Venkata II, who gave
encouragement to J esuit painters of his age.
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96 3.8.12. Literature:
Though militant Vijayanagar was primarily the expression of the political
need of the time, was given to cultural progress. The culture of Vijayanagar in
the fourteenth century and later is best represented b y literature. Vedantadesika
(1 268 -1 369) was a great author in Sanskrit and Tamil. His
Yadavabhyudayam is a long epic poem on the life of Krishna; the
Hamsasandesa is on the model of Kalidas’s famous poem; the
Sankalpasuryodaya is an allegorical drama in ten acts from the
visishtadvaitic point of view; the Tattvamuktakalpa discusses the
philosophical and religious questions. Like Vedantadesika, Madhava
Vidyaranya was a literary luminary. He wrote a full exposition of the
Mimamsa. His Panchadasi is a treati se on advaita in fifteen chapters; the
Parasara Madhaviya, a commentary on the Parasarasmriti, exhibits a liberal
outlook and the Sarvadarsanasangraha is a critical account of sixteen
philosophical systems from materialism to monism.
Madhava and his brothe rs, Sayana and Bhoganatha enjoyed the patronage
of Vijayanagar Kings . Madhava wrote the Veda Bhashya a commentary on
the Vedas. Sayana wrote on grammar, poetics and medicine. Boghanatha
wrote poems and compiled a list of examples of grammatical rules. Gan ga
Devi, wife of Kumara Kampana wrote Madura Vijayam, an account of the
conquest of Madura by Vijayanagar.
The important Jain authors of the fourteenth century are Madhura, who wrote
a Purana on Dharamanatha, a Tirthankara in 1385 and Ayatavarma whose
Ratnakarandaka deals with the three jewels of Jainism. Bhimakavi
composed the Basava Purana in 1369, in which the founder of
Virasaivism or Lingayatism is regarded as an incarnation of Nandi, Siva’s
bull.
Krishnadevaraya was not only a great patron of literatu re, but also an
author of many works in Sanskrit and Telugu. His play, Jambavatikalyanam
and Ushaparinayam are the only extant works of the emperor in Sanskrit.
Appaya Dikshita (1520 -1592) was a great writer in Sanskrit. He was the
author of over a hundred works in many branches of Sanskrit learning. He
was patronized by the nayakas of Vellore. His great works include
Chitramimamsa and Lakshanavali on literary criticism and the
appreciation of poetry, Varadarajastava and many other devotional poems.
The fam ily of Appaya Dikshita produced a considerable number of
talented authors. These included Nilakantha Dikshita, Appaya’s great -
nephew, who was a greater poet than his uncle. At the court of the nayaka of
Tanjore, at about the same period flourished Govinda Dikshita. Two of
Govinda’s sons also gained distinction as writers. Another family of the
Dikshitas rose to literary fame under the nayakas of Jinji.
The Reddis patronized the principal Telugu writers of the fourteenth
century, Errapragada and Srinatha. Na chana Soma (1 355 -1 377) was one
of the court poets of Bukka I. He wrote the Uttara Harivamsa. Potana
(1400 -1475), the translator of the Bhagavata, shunned royal contact. Pina
Virabhadra (1450 -1480), the author of the Jaimini Bharatamu and the munotes.in

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97 Sringara Sak untala, was patronized by Saluva Narashima. The authors of
the Varahapuranamu, Nandi Mallaya and Ghantam Singaya were
patronized by Narasa Nayaka. The other notable names include
Duggupalli Duggaya author of Nachiketapakhyana, Dubagunta Narayana,
author of Panchatantra, Vennalakanti Suranna, author of Vishnupurana
and Gaurana, author of Harishandrapakhyana.
The reign of Krishnadevaraya was a glorious epoch in the Telugu literature.
The impetus he gave to the Telugu literature lasted far beyond his time.
Krishnadevaraya was also a prolific writer in Telugu. His great work in
Telugu, Amuktamalayda is one of the five great kavyas in Telugu. It also
marks the beginning of the influence of Vaishnavism on Telugu literature. It
deals with the life of the alvar Vishnucitta (Periyalvar). His exposition of
Vaishnava philosophy and the love between his foster -daughter Goda
and God Ranganantha. Like the navaratnas of Vikramaditya’s court, the
Ashtadiggajas were Allasani Peddana, Nandi Timmana, Ayyala Raju,
Rambhadraiah D urjati, Madayagiri Mallana, Suranna, Ramraja
Bhushana and Tennali Ramakrishna. On Allasani Peddana,
Krishnadevaraya conferred the title of Andhrakavitapitamaha (Grandfather
of Telugu poetry). Durjati was a Saiva poet from Kalashti. He evoked the
admiration of Krishnadevaraya by his work, Kalahasti Mahatmaya. His
grandson Kumara Dhurjati chronicled the conquest of the emperor in his
Krishnadevaraya -Vijava. Madayagi ri Mal lana’s Rajashekharacharita is
dedicated to Nadendla Appa, a nephew of Saluva Timma and governor of
Kondavidu. Ayyalar Rambhadraiah wrote the Sakalakathasara -sangraha,
an abridgement of many Puranic stories. Suranna, though counted among
the Ashtadiggajas, came under later than the reign of Krishnadevaraya. His
Raghava Pandaviya, tells the st ory of the Ramayana and Mahabharata
simultaneously.
In the age of Vijayanagar, the Jains were steadily pushed out by the
rising influence of Saivas of different schools and Vaishnavas. But they
continued to write in Kannada on the lives of Tirthankars and other holy
persons. Jainism flourished in Tuluva country more than anywhere else in
this period. Hence, quite a number of Kannada writers were from this
country. Vadi Vidyananda of Gersoppa, an able champion of Jainism in
public debates at Vijayanagar and many provincial capitals, compiled the
Kavyasara in 1533. It is an anthology with forty -five different heads. Salva
court poet of a petty prince of Konkan produced a Jain version of the
Bharata, in Shatpadi in sixteen parvas. Ratnakara varni, a Kshatriya o f
Mudabidre wrote a number of works. His Triokasara is an account of Jaina
cosmogony. The Aparijata -sataka treats the philosophy, morals and
renunciation; the Bharatavarsa -charita gives the story of the legendary
emperor Bharata, the son of the first Tirth ankara who turned Jaina ascetic.
After the Jains, the Vira-saivas did most for the development of Kannada
language and literature. The Basava -purana of Bhimkavi is an
important and popular work on hagiology. It treats Basava as an incarnation
of nandi, Siv a’s bull, specially sent to re establish Vira-saiva faith on earth and
dwells at great length on the miracles performed by Basava in his lifetime.
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98 was named Mala -Basava -raja-charit a. It recounts the eighty -eight miracles of
Basava.
Tamil language and literature prospered under the nayakas of Tanjore and
Madura, who came to power after the downfall of the Vijayanagar Empire.
Tirumalainatha of Chidambaram was the author of Chidambara Puranam, a
translation of Sanskrit work of the same name. His son Paranjotiyar wrote
Chidambarapattiyal. The Tamil poet, Haridasa makes a comparative
study of Saivism and Vaishnavism in his Irusamyavilakkam. Other Tamil
writers such as Kumara Sarasvati and others appear to have enjoyed the
patronage of Krishnadevaraya.
Check Your Progress
1. Comment on the Vitthalswami temple during Vijaynagar Empire.
2. What did Madhava write?
3.9 QUESTIONS
1. Describe the administration of the Vijayanagar Empire.
2. Discuss the econo mic and social conditions under the Vijayanagar
Empire.
3. Give an account of the cultural development in the
Vijayanagar Empire.
4. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Economy under the Vijayanagar Empire
(b) Society in the Vijayanagar Empire.
(c) Art and architecture of Vijayanagar
(d) Literary development in the Vijayanagar Empire
3.10 C) ADMINISTRATION, SOCIO ECONOMIC AND
CULTIRAL CONDITIONS OF BAHMANI KINGDOM
In the Deccan, t he transfer of the rule from Delhi Sultanates to the
Bahamanis was marked by a particular change in the political and
economic organization in Medieval India. It also affected the social and
cultural patterns of the society. The Bahamanis had inherited the
traditional system of the army organization of the Delhi Sultanates. It had
continued over hundr ed years since the establishment of the Bahamani
kingdom. TheBahamanis allowed the growth of the army to take its
natural course.

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99 3.11 ADMINISTRATION: MILITARY AND CIVIL
The army grew and adapted itself to the changing modes of the fighting
technique su itable in Deccan. A new element had, however, entered the
field of battle and that was the use of cannon as an effective weapon of
offensive warfare. A specific mention is made of the use of fire arms as
early as in 1366 in the siege of Adoni. The account says that these cannons
were operated by Rumiyanwa -Firangiyan. The use of cannon as an
offensive weapon revolutionized the whole system of warfare. Fortresses
were built on hill tops, cities and towns were surrounded by thick walls.
Pigeon holes for musket ry and various other devices were constructed to
put up a strong defense.
To the Bahamanis recruitment to the army never posed a problem because
people had grown so much accustomed to war that a special call up was
not regarded as necessary nor was it hea rd of. As a matter of fact
possession of vast armed forces was not only a sign of strength in those
days but a sure guarantee of victory. On the basis of the account of the
numerous wars fought by the Bahamanis it would be a fair estimate to put
the streng th of the standing army of the Bahamanis at about hundred to
hundred and fifty thousand men. It will be interesting to state here what
Nicolo Conti, an Italian traveller, who visited India during the middle of
the 15th century, has to say in connection wit h the arts of war and peace.
The territorial possessions of the Bihamaniscomprised, the west coast of
the Deccan. The Bahamanis possessed a strong navy. Nicolo Conti says
that the ships lying at anchor in the ports of the Deccan were much larger
than those built in the shipyards of Italy. Each of them bore five sails and
as many masts. The lower part of these vessels was built with triple planks
in order to withstand the force of the storm to which they were exposed in
monsoon climes.
On the advice of his v azir or prime minister Malik SaifuddinGhori, the
Kingdom was divided into four provinces viz., Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar
and Gulburga. Of these Daulatabad, Berar and Gulburga covered the
major territory of Maharashtra. The governors of these respective
provinces were designated as Masnad -i-Ali, Majlis -i-Alt, Azam -i-
Humayun and Malik Naib. Sultan Muhammad I. On the advice of his vazir
or Prime Minister Malik SaifuddinGhori, the Kingdom was divided into
four atrafs or provinces viz., Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar a nd Gulburga. Of
these Daulatabad, Berar and Gulburga covered the major territory of
Maharastra. The governors of these respective provinces were designated
as Masnad -i-Ali, Majlis -i-Alt, Azam -i-Humayun and Malik Naib.
The Bahamani Sultans rarely assigned l ands in Jagir and when it was thus
assigned it was situated far away from the territory which a Jagirdar
administered as a governor or an officer. The tenure of a Jagir depended
upon the will of the Sultan. He could transfer or reassign the Jagir. It was
not hereditary but purely military in character and was bestowed for some
exceptional service rendered to the state. The position of the Jagir holder
was thus a dual one. He was a member of the Sultan's court as also the
chief administrator of the local aff airs. In his former capacity he was munotes.in

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100 responsible to the state ministers, whereas in his latter capacity he had his
own authority and had ample discretion. The Bahamanis also introduced
the system of mokasa which was more in vogue than the bestowal of a
Jagir. Mokasa denoted a country or paragana bestowed upon a person for
its revenue management on behalf of the state and signified a territory
assigned to an officer of the state or grandees of the court either rent -free
or at low quit -rent on condition of ser vice. Like the Jagir holder the
Mokasi also functioned in a dual capacity. It is significant to note that the
influx of foreigners into the Kingdom continued throughout the period of
the dynasty. Immigrants from Persia, Turkey and the Arab countries
entere d the Deccan, through the ports of Dabhol, Caul and Goa. They
brought military and political strength and vigour to the Bahamani
Kingdom. The names of KhalafHasanBasri, Khvaja Mahmud Gavan,
Yusuf Adil, Sultan Quli and Amir Barid are a few among the hundred s of
foreigners who came to the Deccan . in search of career. Some divines
who migrated from Persia and the Arab countries soon obtained a great
influence in the, Bahamani court. The family of SahNimatullah, who
wielded a decisive influence in the councils of the Bahamani King can be
cited as an example.
With regard to the civil administration, the Bahamanis made use of the
hereditary Vatandars such as the Desmukh, Despande, Desai, Patil and
Kulkarni for the collection of land revenue which was the principl e source
of income of the state. The Vatandar who collected revenue for the state
received commission to see that villages were populated and lands were
brought under cultivation. The attachment of the general population of
Maharastra to Vatans, large and small, is a striking feature of the
mediaeval society in Maharastra. The village watchman, the artisan, the
trader, the accountant and the collector of revenue, even the priest were all
hereditary vatandars. They went to any length of co -operation with the
rulers for the sake of their vatan. The rulers thus found that they could
continue their rule by limiting their interference in the life of the village to
the minimum and by making full use of the body of vatandars for the
administration of the country at the l ower level. The army, high civil
posts, forts and strongholds continued to be held by the Muslims but there
was little interference in the daily life of the people. This system ensured
that the Hindu society was not subjected to any violent changes. This
feudal society continued throughout the mediaeval period without any
basic change in its pattern.
3.12 ECONOMIC CONDITION
The Bahmani rulers followed the administrative structure of the Delhi
Sultanate. The Sultan was the head of the state and supreme authority
followed by Wakil, Wazir, Bakshi and Qazi and a host of officials like
Dabir or Secretary, Mufti or interpreter of law, Kotwal, Mehtasib or
censor of public morals and Munhihans or spies. The Bahmani kingdom
was divided into 4 Tarafs or province s. They maintained a strong army of
soldiers, cavalry and elephants and they knew the use of gun powder in the
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101 Systematic measurement of land fixing boundaries of the villages and
towns was undertaken by Muhammad Gawan. By this process, Gawan
streamlined the revenue system and improved the revenue collection of the
state. Further, by this process the income of the state was known in
advance and corruption of the nobles was also minimized. From the
statements of Nikitin, a Russian traveller who vis ited Deccan during AD
1469 -1474, we come to know that trade and commerce too flourished in
the Bahmani kingdom.
Nikitin mentions that horses, cloth, salt, and pepper were the main items
of merchandise and Mustafabad -Dabul as a centre of the commercial
activity. Horses were imported form Arabia, Khurasan and Turkistan.
Musk and fur were imported from China. Interestingly, trade and
commerce was mostly in the hands of Hindu merchants, whereas in
Vijayanagara kingdom, coastal trade and long distance trade was in the
hands of foreign and indigenous Muslims.
Bahmani rulers were mostly Sunnis, but the Bahmani society was cosmo -
politan in character. The Muslims, local and foreign, Hindus and the
Portuguese were the components of the society. Consequent to multi -Jati
composition of the society, we notice multiple languages Persian, Marathi,
Dakhini or proto -Urdu, Kannada and Telugu being spoken by different
social groups. Economically, the population of the Bahmani state appears
to be divided as poor and the affluent nobles, according to Nikitin.He says
that the nobles were carried on their silver beds, preceded by 20 gold
caparisoned horses and followed by 300 men on horseback and 500 on
foot along with 10 torch bearers. Nikitin also describes the luxurious
lifestyle of Muhammad Gawan. He observes that every day, 500 men
dined with Gawan and 100 armed personnel kept watch over his palace.
Besides these two social classes, we also come across the community of
merchants who were not as affluent as nobles and as poor as common
people.
In the Bahmani kingdom, we notice the predominant influence of the Sufis
of the Chisti, Qadiri and Shattari orders. Bidar has emerged as one of the
most important centers of the Qadiri order. Sheikh SirajuddinJunaidi was
the first Sufi to re ceive the royal honour. The famous Chisti saint of Delhi,
Syed Muhammad GesuDaraz migrated to Gulbarga in AD 1402 -03 and
Sultan Firuz granted a number of villages for the maintenance of
Khanquah of GesuDaraz.With the influx of Afaqis, the Shia population o f
the Bahmani kingdom also increased. An interesting feature of the
communal life is the mingling of Muslim and Hindu traditions and in
particular, during the Ursu celebrations, the Jangam, a Lingayat in a
Muslim cap blew the conch and offered flowers to t he Muslim saint. Thus,
the Bahmani culture was composite and tolerant.
3.13 CULTURAL CONDITION
The Bahmani Rule predominantly institutionalized Islamic culture in
Deccan which was reflected in literature, art, architecture and other
spheres of life. The ru lers attached great significance to the advancement munotes.in

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102 of culture in Deccan and contributed notably for the cultural promotion of
the region. They invited scholars, saints, artists and other cultural
personalities from the Middle East and enabled them to invi ted scholars,
saints, artists and other cultural personalities from the Middle East and
enabled them to institutionalize the salient features of Persian culture
which enhanced the status of Deccan in several ways. The rulers raised a
new nobility based on aliens coming from Iraq, Iran and Central Asia.
Scholars have studied the development of language and literature of
Bahmani Kingdom under three heads namely – Arabic, Persian and Urdu
The rulers had highest respect for Islam and championed the growth and
development of Arabic literature. It was due to the fact that the West Coast
had direct trade relations with Persian Gulf. The commercial transactions
between Deccan and Middle East prompted the rulers to promote Arabic
language and literature as a promine nt means of communication
communication. Literature The Bahmanis emerged as the patrons of
literature and encouraged many Arabic scholars during the regime of
Alaud -din Bahman Shah, Sultan Muhmmad Shah II, Muhammad Shah III
and Mahmud Gawan who were great patrons of learning and culture.
Some of the prominent literary works of this period include – Gesu Daraz
Bande Navaz’sDiwan (collection of poems), Sahabuddin Ahmad
Daultabadi’s Bahre Mawwaj, Mullah Daud Bidari’s Tohafutul Salatin,
Azari’s Bahaman Nama and so on. Mahmud Gawan played a crucial
crucial role in the promotion promotion of literature and academic
excellence in Deccan. The Sufi movement popularized the Deccani
language which emerged as a language of the Muslim ruling class of
Deccan. It was developed in a similar way like north Indian Urdu. The
Sufi saints and scholars also developed Dakhani grammar and produced a
literature in Dakhani for the ruling class.
Their works, which are mostly in Persian, enriched the contemporary
Indo-Persian literature. A size able chunk of Arabic, Urdu and Persian
literature dealing with religion, mystic, and lexicographical subjects were
written by various scholars under the patronage of Bahmani rulers. Urdu
language which was born in the north became a prominent means of
comm unication in Deccan. Khwaja Band Nawaz GesuDaraz was the
foremost scholar in Deccan who produced a treatise in Urdu and Persian
script entitled MiratulAshiqin
Art and Architecture
The Deccan witnessed the general process of fusion of the Hindu -Muslim
cultures with respect to the art and architecture. Historians have pointed
out that two entirely different styles of architecture came in contact with
each other in medieval India. The temple and the mosque clearly
exemplified the Hindu and Muslim beliefs and practices. In particular, the
Muslim architecture underwent a significant change because of the
influence of Persian Gulf. There is much evidence that the Bahmani
sultans employed architects and craftsmen from Persia to build the Jami munotes.in

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Emergence of Vijaynagar
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103 Masjid at Gulbarga, C hand Minar at Daulatabad and the Madrasa of
Mahmud Gawan at Bidar
The fortresses built during the period were a mixture of the work of
Hindu, Tughlaq and Bahmani sovereigns. Mahur, Bidar, Narnulla and
Golkonda are some of the architectural examples of the Sultans. The
Golgumbaz in Bijapur shows the skill of the architecture of Bahmani
kingdoms. It is one of the largest domes in the world. The Golgumbaz
with its enormous dome covers an area of 18,000 square feet. The
MihtarMahal, which is an ornamental gatew ay to the courtyard of a
mosque, is a notable building.
The monuments of Gulbarga namely – Great Jami Masjid, Takht Mahal,
mausoleum of Hazrat Gesu Daraz, the mosque built by Qalandar Khan,
Firoz’s tomb, the Bidar Fort, tombs of Hazra t Samsu’d Din, Ala -ud-din
Hasan, Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I, Muhammad Shah II and so on
remain as perpetual monuments of the magnificence of Bahmani dynasty.
The tombs of the Bahmani Sultans are situated in the East of Gulbarga
which demonstrates massive square domed structures a nd handsome stone
tracery on the outer walls. The decorated tombs vividly depict the free
intermingling of Hindu and Muslim art. These monuments typify
practically all the peculiarities of architecture in vogue in those days.
The Bahmani rulers replaced Tu ghluq tradition by Dhakani tradition in the
fields of art, architecture and culture. The architectural wealth of Bahmani
Kingdom reveals extravagant artistic designs or huge buildings built in
marble slabs with impressive creative additions additions. The Bahmani
rulers revolutionized the Deccan architecture which bears a testimony to
the new influences which were at work. The arts and crafts in Deccan
during medieval India based on metals, alloys, gems and minerals had
attained global fame. Sultan Shah Wal i of the Bahmani Kingdom brought
from Iran the master craftsman Abdullah -bin Kaiser to decorate his
palaces
Bidar had special properties in making the moulds for their creations.
Hence koftgari became known as bidriware. The Iranian craftsman created
many artistic treasures after settling down in Bidar. The rulers of Bahmani
Kingdom made great contribution towards the development of art,
architecture, education, society and cultural aspects of the Deccan in the
medieval period. The Bahmani rulers left to po sterity their names in the
shape of gardens, dams and magnificent edifices. Their architectural
monuments speak of their simplicity and interest in various field s. The
Bahmani rulers inherited Iranian legacy but they were greatly influenced
by the Indian c ulture and brought about cultural rejuvenation in Deccan.
3.14 SUMMARY
The Bahamanis had inherited the traditional system of the army
organization of the Delhi Sultanates. It had continued for well over
hundred years since the establishment of the Bahamani kingdom . With
regard to the civil administration, the Bahamanis made use of the munotes.in

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Medieval India
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104 hereditary Vatandars such as the Desmukh, Despande, Desai, Patil and
Kulkarni for the collection of land revenue which was the principle source
of income of the state.The Bahm ani Rule predominantly institutionalized
Islamic culture in Deccan which was reflected in literature, art,
architecture and other spheres of life. The rulers attached great
significance to the advancement of culture in Deccan and contributed
notably for th e cultural promotion of the region.
3.15 QUESTIONS
1) Explain the administration of Bahamani Kingdom.
2) Trace the cultural progress during Bahamani Rule.
References
1) Lane Poole Stanley – Medieval India, London,1910 6. Majumdar
R.C(ed) -The History and Cult ure of the Indian People, VolVI:The
Delhi Sultanate, Bombay, 1967, VolVII:The Moghul Empire, Bombay,
1974.
2) Raychaudhuri T and Irfan Habib (ed) -The Cambridge Economic
History of India, London,1982.
3) Moreland W.H -From Akbar to Aurangzeb:Study in Economic Hist ory,
London, 1923
4) Moreland E.H -India at the Death of Akbar:An Economic Study,
London,1920
5) Pandy A.B. -Early Medievel India, Central Book
Depot,Allahabad,1970


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105 4
SOCIETY, ECONOMY, RELIGI ON AND
CULTURE OF DELHI SULTANATE
Unit Structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 A) Socio -Economic And Religious Life
4.3 Relation Between The Hindus And The Muslims
4.4 Seclusion Of Women
4.5 Slavery
4.6 Economic Condition
4.7 Religious Life
4.8 Sufism
4.9 Summary
4.10 Questions
4.11 References
4.12 B) Education Andliterature
4.13 Education Under The Delhi Sultanate
4.14 Literature Under The Sultanate
4.15 Regional Languages
4.16 Summary
4.17 Questions
4.18 References
4.19 C) Arts And Architecture
4.20 Painting
4.21 Calligraphy
4.22 Architecture
4.23 Provincial Architecture
4.24 Summary
4.25 Questions
4.26 References
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106 4.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit the student wilt be able to
1) To know the caste system during Sultanate period.
2) To understand the position of women during Sultanate period.
3) To know the slavery system during Sultanate period
4) To understand education system during Sultanate period.
5) To trace the literature during S ultanate period.
6) To study the literature of regional literature during Sultanate period .
7) To know the art of calligraphy and painting under the sultanate period.
8) To understand the art of sculpture under the sultanate period.
9) To study the art of painting under the sultanate period.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The changes in the political and economic life had their impact on caste
groupings. Many old castes vanished and new ones arose or came into
prominence, both in the north and the south.The practice of sati preva iled
in different parts of India during the medieval period.The agricultural
producers formed the vast majority of the population. The villages were
more or less self -sufficient with regard to production and consumption.
Cultivation was based on individual peasant farming. This era was marked
by the emergence of the bhakti saints . They observedcertain common
approach in their beliefs and teachings.
4.2 A) SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND RELIGIOUS LIFE
4.2 Caste System
The broad framew ork of the Hindu society as pre scrib ed by the smritis
continued unaffected during the Sultanateand Mughal period. The Hindu
society has been divided into varnas on the basis of division of labour
since the ancient times. The sentiment of high and low characterized the
social organization. Bu t in matters of marriage and inter -dining the entire
Aryan community was looked upon as a great brotherhood descended
from a common ancestor. However, by the beginning of the medieval age
the ancient social system underwent a drastic change and the sentime nt of
fraternity in social relations began to be restricted to a narrower group.
Primary Castes:
The social structure in the smritis consists of four primary castes -the
Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the Shudras with diminishing
rank and status , an indefinite number of subcastes and mixed castes of
varying status and of a group of despised castes coming at the bottom of
the scale. Al -beruni lists eight antyaja castes below the status of the
Shudras. They were the shoemaker, the juggler, the bask et maker, the
sailor, the fisherman, the hunter of wild animals and the blacksmith. All
those who did not fit into any of the traditional castes were ‘simply classed
as the ‘outcastes’ or the chandalas. The high caste people exploited the munotes.in

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107 low castes and tr eated them in an inhuman manner heaping on them
insults and indignities. Even the state discriminated between the citizens
on the basis of caste.
Emergence of New Castes:
The changes in the politico -economic life had their impact on caste
groupings. Many old castes vanished and new ones arose or came into
prominence, both in the north and the south. While the Brahmins,
Kshatriyas and Vaisyas were theoretically bound to their traditional
occupation, there was no rigidity about it in practice. Among the
innumerable sub -castes in northern India, the Kayasthas came into great
prominence as government servants. The Khattris who came from the
Punjab were astute financiers and successful administrators and their
influence spread over the whole of northern India. The Nagar s of Gujarat
migrated to differ ent parts of northern India and exercised much political
and social influence in Agra and Malwa. In South India the Brahmins
retained their social leadership, since they continued to be the custodians
of Hindu religi on. The Konkan or Chitpavan Brahmins of Maharashtra
produced great administrators.
4.3 RELATION BETWEEN THE HINDUS AND THE
MUSLIMS
With the advent of the Muslims the caste system became more rigid. In
order to save their religion and social system the Hin du population tried to
isolate themselves from the Muslims. The Hindus treated the early
Muslims as mlechchas and assigned to them a social status much lower
than the Sudras. With the passage of time the attitude of exclusiveness on
the part of the Hindus underwent a change. A promise of better treatment
and economic advantages led to the conversion of a large number of low
caste Hindus to Islam. Even the high caste Hindus reconciled with the
changed situation and began to mix up with the Muslims. The desce ndants
of the Muslim immigrants came to be regarded as Indians. Even the
Muslims began to identify themselves with their adopted land and
developed a greater affinity with the new land.
4.4 SECLUSION OF WOMEN
Purdha or veiling of women was a common practic e among the Muslims.
With the advent of the Muslim rule this system was adopted by the Hindu
women as well specially belonging to the upper classes. It was also in
vogue in ancient Iran and Greece. This custom was later adopted by the
Arabs and Turks and b rought it to India. Under their influence the use of
purdha became widespread especially in northern India. According to R.C.
Majumdar, the Hindus used purdha as a protective measure to save the
honour of their women and to maintain the purity of their soc ial order.

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108 Child Marriage and Widow Remarriage, Divorce etc:
The practice of sati prevailed in different parts of India during the
medieval period. The contemporary historical records give the most
authentic evidence of the prevalence of sati in differ ent parts of India.
Friar Odoric (1321 - 22) noticed it as a peculiar custom among the Indians
of Quilon on the Malabar Coast. Friar Jordanus (1323 -1330) witnessed the
practice of sati near Dhar in Malwa. Nicolo Conti and Durate Barboza
give an account of t he prevalence of sati in the Vijayanagar Empire in the
beginning of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries respectively.
FEMALE INFANTICIDE
There were families where the birth of a daughter was regarded as a
misfortune while the birth of a son was celebrate d on a grand scale. A wife
who gave birth to a number of girls in succession was also despised. The
evil practice of infanticide, which is, killing of the female infants soon
after their birth, was practiced among certain sections of the Rajputs. The
girl was brought up under parental supervision and was married without
her consent. She was under the control of her mother -in-law once she was
married. She had to obey all the commands of her husband and mother -in-
law. If she failed, she might be divorced in a Muslim family and her life
would become miserable in a Hindu home.
4.5 SLAVERY
The Mamluk sultans and their Turkish nobility themselves happened to be
the products of a highly commercialized institution of slavery. In fact from
1206 to 1290 the rulers of the Delhi Sultanatebelonged to the Slave
Dynasty. Importance of Slaves: Both the Muslim and Hindu communities
maintained slaves. The slaves rendered almost all the manual and menial
services. Slave markets for men and women existed in West Asia as well
as India. The Turkish, Caucasian, Greek and Indian slaves were much
sought after. Skilled slaves, handsome boys and beautiful girls
commanded higher price in the slave market. Skilled slaves rose to high
positions in the admin -istration and military. Firuz Tu ghlaq maintained a
separate department of slaves and collected about 180,000 of them. Many
of them were employed in the royal karkhanas, imperial household and as
the sultan’s personal bodyguards.
Treatment of the Slaves
The communities, Hindus, as well as Muslims prescribed that good
treatment should be given to the slaves. In the Hindu society the slaves
lived like the members of the family. They were treated generously during
occasions such as festivals and other ceremonies. In the Muslim
community, theo retically, since a slave was usually a convert to Islam, he
possessed the same rights as any other member of the Muslim society with
a feeling of brother -hood and equality. Thus, his moral claims, though
they might not be fully recognized, could never be d enied. But in practice,
the position of a slave was very different. As a prisoner of war, his life
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109 4.6 ECONOMIC CONDITION
Agriculture was carried on by the peasants living in villages. The
agricultural producers formed the vast majority of the population. The
villages were more or less self -sufficient with regard to production and
consumption. Cultivation was based on individual peasant farming. The
size of land cultivated by them varied fro m the large holdings of the khuts
(headmen), to the petty plots of the balahara (village menials). Besides the
peasants there must have existed a large landless population. During the
sultanate period state functioned in relation to the villages through
intermediaries such as khuts, muqaddams and chaudharis. Alauddin Khilji
discontinued this practice and collected the land revenue directly from the
peasant.
Methods of Agriculture and Irrigation:
The methods and implements of agriculture and irrigation rema ined
generally unchanged during the medieval period. Besides sowing by the
ordinary plough, drill sowing seems to have been an equally common
practice. Ibn Battuta mentions the use of Persian wheels in East Bengal.
Means of irrigation were both natural and artificial. Wells, tanks,
reservoirs and canals were constructed wherever necessary. Wells were
probably the major source of artificial irrigation in most areas.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq advanced loans to peasants for digging wells for
the purpose of extendin g cultivation. In some areas small dams were
constructed across streams to block water, which was used for irrigation.
Some of these were built through local initiative and the government
constructed some. Canals were constructed during the fourteenth cent ury.
The first sultan to construct canals was Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. However,
during Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s reign the biggest network of canals known in
India until the nineteenth century was constructed. From wells and canals
peasants drew water by various me ans. Leather buckets and the Persian
wheel, lifting water by means of a dhenkh (a system worked on the lever
principle) and baling were some of the means employed by the people to
irrigate their fields.
Revenue and other Taxes:
With the establishment of t he Delhi Sultanate, the older systems of
revenue collection continued. But with the passage of time and the
growing authority of the sultanate attempts were made to increase
revenue. The different taxes levied in the Islamic world became a model
for the De lhi Sultans to increase their revenue in India. It was Alauddin
Khilji who imposed a uniform taxation system over a large part of
northern India. The tax could be paid both in cash and kind. Alauddin
decreed that three taxes were to be levied on the peasan try, the kharaj (tax
on cultiva tion); charai, (tax on cattle); and gharai (tax on houses.
Alauddin’s taxation system was probably the one institution from his reign
that lasted the longest. The land revenue became the chief form by which
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110 Methods of Collection of Taxes :
There was a need to devise a mechanism to collect the taxes from the rural
masses and distribute it among members of the ruling classes. This led to
the development of the iqta system, which combined two functions of
collection and distribution of the revenue. The iqta was territorial
assignment and its holder was known as muqti. The muqtis were required
to collect and appropriate taxes, specially land revenue due to the king an d
maintain troops and furnish them at call to the sultan. Every year the muqti
was required to send a particular amount of the revenue to the sultan’s
treasury. Thus, the iqtas were the main instrument for transferring agrarian
surplus to the ruling class and its soldiery.
4.7 RELIGIOUS LIFE
BHAKTI MOVEMENT:
Origin of the Bhakti Movement:
Though the bhakti movement became the dominant feature of Hinduism in
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, its origin can be traced to ancient
Indian religious traditi ons. We find mention of bhakti in the Vedas,
Upanishads, the epics and the Puranas. The Vedanta philosophy
enumerates the concept of the Creator and the creation. God (Brahman or
Paramatman) and soul (atma). The other two basic principles are the
doctrine of rebirth or transmigration of the soul and the theory of karma
(deeds).
Teachings of the Bhakti Saints :
Most the bhakti saints on a broader plane observed cer tain common
approach in their beliefs and teachings. The bhakti saints did not observe
any rit ual or ceremonies, nor followed any dogma, and most of them
severely denounced idolat ry. They con demned polytheism, believed in one
God and realized the unity of God invoked by various religious sects
under different names such as Krishna, Rama, Siva, and Allah etc. The
bhakti cult cut across distinctions of high and low birth, the learne d and
unlet tered, and opened the gateway of spiritual realization to one and all.
Being revolutionary reformers, most of the bhakti saints campaigned
vigorously against the deep -rooted socio -religious evils. They refused to
accept the supremacy of the Bra hmin pri ests who considered themselves
as the custodians of all religious knowledge and institutions. Some of the
saints challenged the sanctity of ancient Indian scriptures and Sanskrit
language
The Bhakti Saints
1) Ramanuja: The earliest exponent of the bhakti movement was
Ramanuja (1017 -1137) who hailed from modern And hra Pradesh. He was
great Vaish nava teacher. He popularized the cult of devotion to a personal
God and em phasized that salvation can be achieved through the bhakti
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111 on devotional worship to a personal God who constituted the supreme
reality. Ramanuja travelled widely to popularize his te achings and wrot e a
number of books and treatis es on the bhakti cult. His famous works are
Vedanta Sanghmaha, and the commentaries on Brahmasutras and the
Bhagavad -Gita.
2) Nimbaraka: Nimbaraka, a young contemporary o f Ramanuja from the
south estab lished his ashram near Mathura and preached to the common
people in the Gangetic valley about the dedication to God, per -sonified by
Krishna and Radha.
3) Madhvacharya: Madhvacharya, a Vaishnava saint from the south
wrote as many as thirty -seven works on vaishnav ism. His works mostly
deal with the bhakti cult based on the concept of dualism (dvaita) as
distinct form the monistic philos ophy of Shankaracharya.
4) Vallabhacharya: Vallabhacharya was another prominent Vaishnava
saint form the south. He advocated a sys tem of pure nondualism. He
glorified the intense love of Radha and Krishna. Vallabhacharya
advocated a universal religion that did not believe in distinctions of caste,
creed, sex or nationality. He insisted on complete identity of both soul and
world with the supreme spirit. Vallabhacharya’s philosophy was known as
shuddhadvaita or pure non -dualism.
5) Ramananda: Ramananda, a disciple of Raghavananda, who belonged
to Ramanuja’s sect, spread the bha kti movement in the north. Rama nanda
was born at Prayag ab out the end of the fourteenth century. He was
educated at Prayag and Benaras and visited the various religious places in
northern India. He also came in contact with learned scholars of all faiths
including Muslims. He advocated the worship of Rama and Sit a in place
of Vishnu. He believed in the Vishistadvaita philosophy of Ramanuja. He
preached through Hindi, the language of the common people in the
Gangetic valley. He ignored the traditional barriers of caste and creed. His
disciples included members of t he higher castes as well as lower castes.
6) Kabir: Of all the disciples of Ramananda, Kabir was the most
outstanding and popular. It is said that he was the son of a Brahmin widow
and was brought up by a Muslim weaver at Varanasi. He spent much of
his tim e in the company of ascetics, saints and Muslim Sufis. He stood for
Hindu -Muslim unity and declared “Allah and Rama were the names of the
same God.” He lived the life of a householder, earning his living by
weaving. Ramananda initiated him into the bhakti cult. Kabir denounced
the Brahmins and the mullahs alike to be the sole custodians of their
religious order and criticized them for their orthodox and exploitative
attitude.
7) Raidas: Raidas, a contemporary of Kabir and fellow -disciple of
Ramananda, was a cobbler of Varanasi. He was also a householder like
Kabir. Raidas as Kabir belonged to the Nirguna School of mysticism.
8) Guru Nanak: munotes.in

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112 Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, was a mystic of the Nirguna School.
He was opposed to idol worship, pilgrimages, f asts etc. He, however,
believed in the doctrine of karma and the transmigration of the soul. He
had both Hindu and Muslim disciples. His teachings are included in the
Adi Granth compiled by the fifth Guru, Arjun Das.
9) Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra: The bhakti movement in
Maharashtra ran parallel to that north. The center of the bhakti movement
in Maharashtra was Pandharpur with its famous temple of Vithoba. The
leaders of the movement were Jnaneshvar, Namadeva, and Ek nath in the
early medieval period.
4.8 SUFISM
The term Sufi, according to E dward Sell, is most probably de rived from
the Arabic word suf meaning wool. The eastern ascet ics used to wear the
coarse garments prepared out of wool. This practice was also followed by
the Sufis as a mark of poverty. The Sufis did not form an organized sect.
They neither had a Prophet, nor a sacred book, nor a uniform code of
religious doctrines. They accepted Muhammad as their Prophet and the
Quran as their sacred book. But in course of time they were influenced by
a number of ideas and practices from different sources such as
Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Indian philosophical system
of Vedanta and yoga.
The Sufis were the peaceful messengers of Islam. They dedicated
themselves to the service of mankind a nd the spread ofIslam. The Sufis
regarded the service of h umanity as part of mystic disci pline. The Sufis
migrated to the far -off countries and lived in the midst of the non -Muslims
and carried out their work of proselytization through peaceful means. The
advent of the Sufis in India dates back to the Arab conquest of Sindh.
After the establishment of the Muslim rule in northern India, Sufis from
different Muslim countries began to migrate and settle down in different
parts of India.
The Chisti Silsilah:
Khwaja Abdul Chisti founded The Chisti order. Khwaja Muinuddin
Chisti, a native of Sijistan in Persia, introduced it in India. He reached
India before the battle of Tarain and settled down at Ajmer, which was a
center of considerable political and religious importance. His simple,
pious and dedicat -ed life had great impact on those who came in contact
with him. Khwaja Muinuddin worked amongst the low caste people and
spent his life in the service of the helpless and the downtrodden. He
attracted a large numbe r of followers. He died in 1236. Two eminent
disciples of Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti were Shaikh Qutbud -din Bhaktiyar
Kaki and Shaikh Hamiduddin. The former popularized the Chisti order in
Delhi and the latter in Rajasthan. Shaikh Hamiduddin lived in a mud -
house in a village near Nagaur in Rajasthan. He lived like a simple peasant
and cultivated a bigha of land. He was a strict vegetarian. He mixed freely
with the Hindus and won their admiration for his simple and virtuous munotes.in

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113 living. Shaikh Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki was an immigrant from
Farghana. He settled down at Delhi during the reign of Iltutmish. He
refused to accept the royal patronage and preferred to live in poverty. The
famous Qutub Minar was named after this venerable Sufi saint. Shaikh
Fariduddin Ganj -i-Shakar was a disciple of Bhaktiyar Kaki. He was also
known as Baba Farid. He popularized the Chisti order in Hansi and
Ajodhan in modern Haryana and the Punjab. He led a householder’s life.
To convey his message he spoke in local dialects. Some of his s ayings are
included in the Adi Granth of the Sikhs. Baba Farid had a number of
disciples who spread the message of Islam through mysticism in India and
abroad.
The most prominent of Baba Farid’s disciples was Shaikh Nizamuddin
Auliya (1236 -1325). Though S haikh Nizamuddin Auliya witnessed the
reign of seven sultans of Delhi, he never visited the courts of any one of
them. Nizamuddin Auliya gave an Islamic touch to the sociocultural
atmosphere of the capital. He lived a virtuous life and rendered social
service to the poor and needy. He represents a great spiritual force in the
history of Muslim India. For nearly sixty years he was a source of
inspiration to thousands of pe ople who came seeking his bless ings. He laid
stress on the element of love as means of realization of God. In his opinion
love of God implied love of humanity. Nizamuddin Auliya practiced
celibacy unlike a number of other Chisti saints. He adopted yogic
breathing exercises so much so that the yogis called him a sidh or perfect.
His successor was Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh -i-Delhi. Another great
Chisti saint was Shaikh Salim Chisti, a contemporary of Akbar the Great.
He lived the life of an ordinary householder in his cave dwelling at Sikri.
He was Akbar’s spiritual guide. Most of the Chisti sa ints belonged to the
liberal school of thought. Their popularity in India was due to their
understanding of the Indian conditions and the religious attitudes and
aspira tions of the Indian people. They adopted many Hindu customs and
ceremonies in the initia l stages of the development of their silsilahs in
India. They laid much emphasis on the service to mankind. The Chisti
mystics we re believers in pantheistic mon ism, which had its earliest
exposition in the Upanishad of the Hindus. As a result many Hindus f elt
closer to the Chisti silsi-lah and became its followers. Many of the Chisti
saints lived in utter poverty and refused to accept any grants from the
state. They were of the opinion that possession of any kind of private
property was an obstacle to spiri tual advancement.
The Suhravardi Silsilah:
The other mystic order, which had reached India almost at the same time
as the Chisti silsilah, was the Suhravardi order. It was founded by
Shihabuddin Suhravar di, a teacher in Bagh dad. It was introduced in India
by his disciples Jalaluddin Tabrizi and Bahauddin Zakariya. Tabrizi settled
down in Bengal where he converted a large number of Hindus. Zakariya
was chiefly responsible for organizing the Suhravardi silsilah in India. He
carried on his missionary work at M ultan till his death in 1262. Unlike the
Chistis, the Suhravardis did not believe in leading a life of poverty and
excessive austerity and self -mortification. They lived comfortable family munotes.in

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114 lives. They made ample provisions for their families. They felt no scruples
in accepting costly presents and patronage from the Muslim aristocracy.
Suharvardis believed that there was no harm in possessing and dispensing
of wealth, if the heart was detached. They did not shun the ruling elite.
They actively associated wit h the government and accepted the posts of
Shaikh -ul-Islam and Sadr -i-Wilayat . The Suhravardi silsilah was confined
mostly to the upper strata of the Muslim society. Some of the saints of the
Suhravardi silsilah adopted a rigid and uncompromising attitude on many
matters of religious and social significance.
4.9 SUMMARY
With the advent of the Muslims the caste system became more rigid. In
order to save their religion and social system the Hindu population tried to
isolate themselves from the Muslims . Sufism is a Muslim movement
whose followers seek to find divine truth and love through direct
encounters with God. The Sufi Saints like Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti,
Bakhyiya Kaki, Nizamudin Aulia and Nasiruddin Chirag -i-Delhi etc.
attempted to restrain the fanaticis m of the Muslims and tried to bring them
nearer to the Hindus. Several Hindus became followers of the Sufi saints
but without relinquishing their own religion.Agriculture during the
Sultanate Period: Agriculture was carried on by the peasants living in
villages.
4.10 QUESTIONS
1) How was the seclusion of women during Sultanate period?
2) Review briefly the economic condition under the Delhi Sultanate.
3) Discuss the socio -religious conditions during the Delhi Sultanate.
4.11 REFERENCES
1) Chitnis K.N -Socio -Economic H istory of Medieval India, Atlantic
Publishers and D istributors, New Delhi,1990.
2) Chopra P.N., Puri B.N., Das M.N -A Social, Cultural and Economic
History of India, Vol II . Macmillan India, Delhi,1974.
3) Lane Poole Stanley – Medieval India, London,1910 6. Maj umdar
R.C(ed) -The History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol VI:The
Delhi Sultanate, Bombay, 1967, Vol VII:The Moghul Empire,
Bombay, 1974.
4) Mehta J.L – Advanced Study in the History Of Medieval India VolII,
New De lhi sterling Publishers,1983.
4.12 B) Education andLiterature
Under the Sultanate period, Hindus conducted their own pathsha las started
by the local inhabitants with their own funds in the big cities . The state
made no attempt to organize or regulate public system of education. The
Brahmin sch olars and priests, with the resources at their command
continued the tradition of education. Sometimes the schools were run in
their homes. However, education was denied to the lower castes. Buddhist munotes.in

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115 monks imparted education to all those who wanted to lear n, as they did not
believe in social hierarchy and the caste system.The Muslim system of
education was also basically religious in nature.
4.13 EDUCATION UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE
A) Hindu System of Education
At the primary level, the pathshala or the el ementary school was attached
to the temple whether Hindu or Jain. The priests imparted education or
sometime appointed pandits or Jain scholarsto teach free of charge.
Children learnt the basic three R’s - reading, writing and arithmetic. They
also learnt to memo ries and recite the holy texts. Each village had its own
Sanskrit pathshala. A Hindu child was sent to the pathshala when he was
five years old. An initiation ceremony known as the upanayana was
performed before he was sent to the school. During thi s period of study,
the child lived with the family of his guru. In return for the education he
received from his teacher or guru, the pupil had to render all kinds of
service to the guru and his family. Learning tradition was oral as the
manuscripts were r are and expensive and the art of printing was not
known. Great emphasis was laid on memorization. A student was expected
to spend the first twenty years of his life with his guru in the pathshala and
observe brahmacharya, a life of chastity and self -discip line. As he grew
older, he was introduced to ne w subjects like mathematics, as tronomy and
astrology.
The learned men and the public at a specially held meeting once the
student’s education was complete, which took about ten to twelve years.
He was th en rea dy to enter the stage of Grihasthas or life of a householder.
The fees of the teacher or the Gurudakshina could be a cow, fruits and
eatables, grain, horse, garments or anything, which the student could
obtain easily. According to R.K. Mookerji, the Guruda kshina was
“enjoined more as a religious act formally bringing to a close the period of
studentship and marking the fulfillment of a sacred vow than a s any kind
of material remunera tion, for the education imparted to him by the
teacher”.
The Hindu centers of higher learning were usually attached to temples or
were situated at centers of pilgrimage as the devotees made generous
grants at these places. Renowned scholars lived here and could pursue
their profession from the endowments and charity these centers received.
Some of the institutions became famous due to the influx of scholars from
the Muslim occupied areas and the generous patronage of Rajput rulers.
B) Muslim System of Education:
The Muslim system of education was basically religious in nature. Th e
duty of Islamic state and its sultan was to spread Islam. The sultans
established educational institutions in the areas they conquered. Along
with the Muslim invaders several Persian and Arabic scholars had
migrated to India. Delhi became an important ce nter of studies. New
languages, Persian and Arabic were introduced in India. There was an munotes.in

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116 outburst of literary activity and great literary works in Persian and Arabic
were composed during the medieval period.
1. Elementary Education:
Elementary education was given in a maqtab, which was attached to a
mosque. It could be compared with a Hindu pathshala where the Hindu
students learnt the basic three R’s. The maulavi in charge of the mosque
would impart religi ous instruction to his pupil, just as a Brahmin woul d do
in a pathshala. Sometimes the maulavi would conduct classes in his house.
A child was sent to sch ool, according to Islamic tradi tions when he was
four years, four months and four days old. A ceremony called bismillah
was performed before the child beg an his formal education.
Practice of private tuitions for the child ren of the affluent was also
common. The ataliqs (tutors) visited the patron’s house to impart the
education. Astrologers were consulted to decide on a suitable date to start
schooling for the pupil. The takht (a wooden board) and black ink were
used for writing. The lesson began with the opening sentence of the
qalima. The maulavi recited it and the students followed him. Emphasis
was on oral education andlearning by rote. Learning passages from the
Quran was ess ential for every student. Educa tion was given in both
Persian and Arabic languages. Once the child was familiar with
recognizing alphabets, he was taught grammar. He learnt short stories,
poems and lessons in hadis in simple language . Early in life the child
learnt the art of calligraphy. It was considered to be an accomplishment
and later earned him a livelihood. The maqtabs received grants from the
state or endowments from nobles.
2. Higher Education:
The madrasas were the center of hi gher learning. It was also known as
jamia. It was mostly established in provincial capi tals and large towns,
which had a considerable wealthy population. The madrasas were
residential institutions, comparable to the Hindu gurukula. The madrasas
were patron ized by the state and were not starved of funds. The scholars
who taught here received a generous salary. The Hindu centers of higher
learning were the result of individual enterprise and funded by charitable
institution. Once the student completed educati on a ceremony called
dastarbandi (tying the turban) was held. At this solemn service the teacher
tied a turban around the head of his pupil and this meant that the student
had completed his studies. Degrees were conferred on the students. The
theologians a warded sometimes certificates to the pupils as a result of
which the pupils could impart instructions.
Amir Khusrau’s Ijaz -i-Khusravi (1319) and Sirat -i-Firuz Shahi of the
reign of Firuz Tughlaq gives an idea of the content of education. Persian
and Arabic literature, Islamic studies, mathe matics, astronomy, ethics,
philosophy, mysticism, logic, history, rational sciences were some of the
subjects studied at the madrasas. The library was an e ssential part of each
of the ma drasas containing popular texts and rare manuscripts. The
madrasas fulfilled the objective of imparting religious instructions, the munotes.in

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117 purpose for which they were founded. Multan, Sindh, Lahore and Delhi
were known for their renowned madrasas.
4.14 LITERATURE UNDER THE SULTANATE
Sanskrit in me dieval India was the medium of thought and expression. It
was the language of the learned and had not reached the masses. Literary
works in Sanskrit were produced despite the establishment of Muslim rule.
Works in the fields of Advait philosophy by Ramanuj a, Madhava,
continued to be written in this period. However, in this period there were
no great original writings. Accord ing to R.C. Majumdar, “The crea tive
period, however, had long been a matter of the past, there being little of
intrinsic merit, though the production is immense and almost every branch
of literature is represented. There is no originality”.
Hindu rulers of Vijayanagar, Warangal and Gujarat patronized scholars.
Poets and dramatists drew their inspiration from the great epics, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Themes from the Puranas were also
popular among the writers. Most of the literary outburst was in the south,
Bengal, Mithila and Western India also contributed to the enrichment of
Sanskrit literature. There are very few translations o f the rich Arabic and
Persian literary works into Sanskrit. This may be due to, as Al -beruni
mentions, the insular outlook of the Indians. Much of the writing of this
period, according to Dr. Satish Candra, “is repetitive and lacks fresh
insight or origina lity.”
Persian and Arabic Literature
The establishment of Muslim rule not only introduced a new religion but
also introduced different languages in India. Arabic and Persian languages
gradually became the languages of learning, education and administration
in India. Persian in particular became more widespread. It was the court
language and hence more popular. Use of Arabic language remained
confined to theologians and Islamic scholars. With the help of Indian
scholars, digests of Islamic law were prepared in Persian, particularly in
the reign of Firoz Tughlaq. Two great poets who composed poems in
Persian were Fi rdausi and Sadi. Lahore gradual ly became the center of
literary activity. Amir Khusrau was an outstanding literary giant of this
period. He wrote s everal poetical works and historical romances. He
created a new style of Persian, which came to be called the Sabaq -i-Hindi
(the style of India). Amir Khusrau was full of praise for the Hindi
language, which he called Hindavi or Dehalavi, which he recogniz ed as
the language of the common man. He used Hindavi freely in his poetic
compositions.
The use of Persian and Devanagari script led to the development of Urdu
and Hindi languages respectively. In course of time Urdu became the court
language of the Decca n Sultanates. In the north, Persian remained the
court language. Apart from being a literary figure Khusrau was an
accomplished musician and participated, along with the Sufi saint,
Nizamuddin Auliya in musical gatherings. Amir Khusrau died the day munotes.in

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118 after t he saint’s death in 1325. With the passage of time Persian became
not only the language of the court and administration, but also the
language of the upper class people. With the territorial expansion of the
sultanate, Persian language spread to differ ent parts of the country.
Sansk rit and Persian languages spread more widely. There is a vast
collection of literature on varied subjects in these languages. An important
translation of Sanskrit stories into Persian was done by Zia Naqshabi
(1350). His book cal led Tuti Nama (Book of the Parrot) was a translation
into Persian of Sanskrit stories. This work was done during the reign of
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq encouraged
translation work. Books on medicine were translated into Persian.
Trans lations helped in the dissemination of knowledge. Sultan of Kashmir,
Zai-ul-Abidin had the Mahabharata and Kalhan’s R ajtarangini translated
into Per sian. There are several chronicles, historical works in Persian,
written during this period, which constitut e important source material.
Knowledge of Persian en abled Indians to develop cultur al ties with
Central Asia.
4.15 REGIONAL LANGUAGES
The bhakti saints contributed to the devel opment of regional languages.
Their verses were composed in the languages easily understood by the
common man. According to Dr. Romilla Thapar, “Literature in t he
regional languages was strik ingly different from Sanskrit literature in one
main respect, it was as spontaneous and imbued with genuine sentiment as
the latter had become ar tificial and forced.” Amir Khusrau had also
praised the richness of the regional languages.
The bhakti saints contributed to the devel opment of regional languages.
Their verses were composed in the languages easily understood by the
common man. According t o Dr. Romilla Thapar, “Literature in t he
regional languages was strik ingly different from Sanskrit literature in one
main respect, it was as spontaneous and imbued with genuine sentiment as
the latter had become artificial and forced.” Amir Khusrau had als o
praised the richness of the regional languages. These manuscripts was that
there were miniature paintings on them. Manuscript illustrations became
quite popular. In Bengal and Bihar, the Buddhist scholars also used
miniature illustrations on their manusc ripts between the ninth and the
twelfth centuries. The Jain and Buddhist paintings have different styles.
Two developments to be noted are the use of paper instead of palm leaves
for writing purpose. The Arabs introduced the use of paper in We stern
India a nd the Jains started writing on paper. A lot of material was
transcribed from the palm leaves to the paper. The Turks introduced the
second change. Their books had beautiful miniatures by Persian artists,
who excelled in the blending of different colours. So instead of the bold
bright red or blue colour commonly used by Jain artists different colours
came to be used. Narasimha Mehta (1415 -1481) was an eminent bhakti
saint from Gujarat who composed his devotional lyrics in Gujarati. His
name is remembered in Gujarat even today. munotes.in

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119 The literature of the sultanate period dealt with varied themes and
subjects, ranging from poet ry, devotional songs to philoso phy. Local cults
and creeds also contributed to the development of literature. The vast
plains of North India witnessed spread of literary ideas and themes from
the Punjab to Bengal and the other way round. There were of course
variations in languages as one travelled from one region to another.
Persian language greatly influenced Indian writing at the time. Pers ians
introduced the art of writing history in India and later on one finds
historical works in different regions and languages of India.
4.16 SUMMARY
The Hindu centers of higher learning were usually attached to temples or
were situated at centers of pilgr image as the devotees made generous
grants at these place . The Muslim system of education was basically
religious in nature. The duty of Islamic state and its sultan was to spread
Islam. The sultans established educational institutions in the areas they
conquered. Along with the Muslim invaders several Persian and Arabic
scholars had migrated to India. Delhi became an important center of
studies. The establishment of Muslim rule not only introduced a new
religion but also introduced different languages in I ndia. Arabic and
Persian languages gradually became the languages of learning, education
and administration in India
4.17 QUESTIONS
1) Give an account of the development of education during the Delhi
Sultanate.
2) Review the progress of education under the sultanate .
3) Trace the literary activities during the early medieval period.
4.18 REFERENCES
1) Moreland W.H -From Akbar to Aurangzeb:Study in E conomic History,
London, 1923
2) Moreland E.H -India at the Death of Akbar:An Economic Study,
London,1920
3) Pand ey A.B. -Early Medievel India, Centra l Book
Depot,Allahabad,1970
4) Pand ey A.B.-Later Medieval India (1526 -1761AD) Central Book
Depot, Allahabad,1967.
5) Prasad Ishwari - History of M edieval India,Allahabad,1952.

4.19 C) ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE
The art of painting that had f lourished in ancient India gradually began to
decline after the collapse of the Gupta Empire. After the decline of the
Guptas the royal patronage to painters might have come to an end. This
did not prevent the painters from seeking patronage from regional rulers in munotes.in

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120 central and western India, where the art of painting continued to flourish.
After the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206, though the Muslim
rulers did not encourage the art of painting as it was prohibited by their
religion, the indigen ous artist continued with their painting work and
different schools of painting flourished.
4.20 PAINTING
Rajasthan School of Painting:
Rajas than was another center of painting. In Mewar a paper manu script
called Supasanahachariyam, (1422 -23) has been fou nd containing thirty -
seven illustrations. The Gujarat school of painting influenced the
Rajasthani style of painting till about 1583.
Jain School of Painting:
In spite of the Muslim invasions, in western India, especially Gujarat,
Malwa and Rajasthan, the classical Indian art of miniature painting
survived. This school of art is generally known as the Jain, Gujarat or
Western School of Art. The Chaulukya rulers patronized the painters who
were commissioned to illustrate a large number of Jain scriptures fo r
almost three centuries from 961 onwards. In spite of the conquest of
Gujarat by the armies of Alauddin Khilji in 1299, the art of miniature
painting continued due to the support of the Jain merchants and local
chiefs. Most of these twelfth century illust rated palm leaves manuscripts
contain Jain religion and philosophy. With the introduction of paper in the
fourteenth century, the painters had greater scope to manifest their artistic
skills. Paper replaced palm leaves and bold colours were used in paintin g
the miniatures. Floral decorations and use of gold and silver for writing
became very common.
Mandu and Jaunpur:
The art of miniature painting also flourished at Mandu and Jaunpur. In the
later fifteenth century manuscripts of the Kalpasutra were writte n on paper
and illustrated. The figures in the miniature paintings were characterized
by local variations in facial expressions and costumes. There was an
illustrated volume of a cookery book known as Nimat -Khana. This work
was completed some time during th e reign of Sultan Nadir Shah of Malwa
in the fifteenth century. Paintings in the Nimat -Khana show Persian
influence.
The Sultanate Paintings:
The early Muslim rulers have left many architectural monuments of their
rule, but there is hardly any example of court painting during the
Sultanate. However, the contemporary writings help us in concluding that
some kind of art of painting was in vogue during the Sultanate period. In
Tabaqat -i-Nasiri, Minhaj -us-Siraj writes that when the envoy of the Caliph
of Baghd ad came to the court of Iltutmish, the city of Delhi was decorated
with large portraits of the sultan. Ziauddin Barani, in his work Tarikh -i-munotes.in

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121 Firuz Shahi mentions that the palace of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq had a
number of frescoes painted on its walls.
The provincial sultanates also encouraged the art of painting. Hermann
Goetz, in his famous book India: 5000 Years of Indian Art, refers to a
number of illustrated manuscripts, which were produced in the courts of
the provincial sultanates. Sultan Hussein Sh arqi of Jaunpur (1458 -79) was
a great patron of art. During his reign a Hindu romance in Avadhi Hindi,
called Laur -Chanda was completed. The illustrations in the manuscript
show Persian and Rajput influence. The portrait of Sultan Firuz Shah
(1533) and the Ragmala miniatures of Bikaner show a mixture of the
Vijayanagar and Rajasthani influence. Tarif -i-Husain Shahi, a manuscript
from Ahmadanagar, the Persian -Hindi murals of Kumtagi, and the
Timurid -Persian Hatifi manuscript at Patna, are some of the importa nt
examples of the art of painting during the Sultanate period.
4.21 CALLIGRAPHY
Calligraphy is the art of fine handwriting, in which the form of the letters
is decorative or elaborate. The term ‘calligraphy’ is derived from the
Greek word kalligraphia, wh ich means beautiful writing. This term is
usually applied to writing done in ink, but can also refer to inscriptions in
a cursive script on stone or engraved in metal
While Islam forbade the depiction of living things, the written word of
God was considere d worthy of the finest craftsmanship. Fine copies of the
Koran were produced in which the elegant Arabic script was further
embellished with illuminations. Kufic, a square and angular form of
Arabic script, was used prominently as decoration on buildings. Verses of
the Koran carved in stone or laid out in mosaics were used as ornament on
the walls of mosques. Kufic script also appears on metalwork, textiles, and
ceramics, and delineated in enamels on mosque lamps and other glass
vessels. Nashki is a more cu rsive form, from which modern Arabic
handwriting has evolved
4.22 ARCHITECTURE
The Muslim rulers, during the Sultanate period proved to be great builders
and they made greatest contribution in the field of architecture. The salient
features of Islamic arch itecture were massive and extensive buildings,
domes, tall minarets, lofty portals, open courtyards, huge walls without
any sculpture. The Hindu architecture, on the other hand was characterized
by vastness, stability, majesty, magnificence, sublimity, and infinite
richness.
ARCHITECTURE DURING THE DELHI SULTANATE
The Slave Dynasty
In the beginning the Islamic architecture was light and graceful. However,
with the passage of time it became heavy and solid. Qutbuddin Aibak
constructed the Quwwat -ul-lslam mos que at Delhi and another mosque at munotes.in

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122 Ajmer called the Dhai Din Ka Jhonpra. The Quwwat -ul-Islam was
constructed in 1197 out of material taken from twenty -seven Hindu and
Jain temples. The major part of the mosque was retained in original with
some modificatio n aimed at making it a ‘Muslim House of prayer’. The
images and carvings were either defaced or concealed. Later sultans made
many additions and modifications to this mosque. The Dhai Din Ka
Jhonpra mosque was raised in 1200 at the site of a destroyed coll ege of
Sanskrit and a Jain temple. Therefore, both these mosques have the
imprint of both the Hindu and the Muslim art.
Qutbuddin Aibak also started the construction of the famous Qutb Minar
in 1197, but Iltutmish completed it. The planning of Qutb Minar w as
purely Islamic as it was originally intended to serve as a place for the
muazzin to call Muslims to prayer. However, later it became famous as a
tower of victory. Consequently, Firuz Shah Tughlaq made certain
modifications. Sikandar Lodi is also said to have carried out some repairs
in the upper storeys. The Hindu artisans who were employed in the
construction of the Qutb Minar were unconsciously working towards the
fusion of Islamic and Hindu forms of architecture and ornamentation. The
Qutb Minar is an impressive building and Ferguson regarded it ‘as the
most perfect ‘example of a tower known to exist anywhere in the world.’
Besides completing the Qutb Minar, Iltutmish constructed a tomb on the
grave of his eldest son, Nasiruddin Mahmud, known as Sultan -Ghari,
nearly three miles away from the Qutb Minar. The decorations of Sultan -
Ghari are done purely in Hindu style. Iltutmish also built a single compact
chamber near the Qutb Minar, which was probably, the tomb on his own
grave. The other important build ings constructed by Iltutmish are Hauz -i-
Shamsi, ShamsiIdgah, and the Jami Masjid at Badaun and the Atarkin -ka-
Darwaza at Nagaur (Jodhpur). Balban constructed his own tomb at the
southeastern end of the Quwwat -ul-Islam. Though in a dilapidated
condition no w, Balban’s tomb marked a notable landmark in the
development of Indo -Islamic architecture. Balban also constructed the Red
Palace at Delhi.
The Khilji Dynasty:
The reign of Alauddin Khilji marked a new phase in the history of
medieval architecture. He had better economic resources at his command
and, therefore, constructed beauti -ful buildings. Hisbuildings were
constructed with perfectly Islamic viewpoint and have been regarded as
some best examples of Islamic art in India. His architectural designs were
an improvement upon that followed by the previous sultans. He had a plan
to build a minor and a big mosque near the Qutb Minar, which he could
not pursue because of his death. But there still stands his splendid gateway
to the southern entrance hall called the Alai Darwaza. It is perhaps the first
building where wholly Islamic principles were employed. Alaudding
Khilji also founded the city of Siri, built a palace of thousands of pillars
within it, Jamait Khan Mosque at the shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya. His
city and the palace had been destroyed but the Jamait Khan mosque and
the Alai Darwaza still exist which have been regarded as beautiful munotes.in

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123 specimens of Islamic art. According to Marshall, “the Alai Darwaza is one
of the most treasured gems of Islamic archite cture.” Alauddin also
construct -ed a magnificent tank covering an area of nearly seventy acres,
known as Hauz -i-Alai or Ifauz -i-Khas near his newly constructed city of
Siri in the neighbourhood of the old city of Delhi. It had stone and
masonry wall around it and provided water to the city during the year.
The Tughlaq Dynasty:
The style of architecture underwent a marked change under the Tughlaq
dynasty. In contrast to the lavish ornamentation of the preceding centuries
their buildings were characterized by massiveness and extreme simplicity.
The Tughlaq sultans did not construct beautiful buildings. Economic
difficulties might have been one of the reasons for austerity and simplicity
in their buildings. Besides, they were puritanical in their taste, and
therefore avoided ornamentation in their buildings. Ghiyasud -din Tughlaq
constructed the new city of Tughluqabad east of the Qutb area, his own
tomb and a palace. Though the city and the palaces built by Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq are now in ruins an idea of their m agnificence can be still found
in those ruins.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq undertook the construction of a number of
buildings. He constructed the new city of Jahanpanah near the city of old
Delhi, the fort of Adilabad and some other buildings at Daultabad. He
constructed many build ings but all of them were just ordinary and weak.
Among his notable - buildings were the new city of Firuzabad near the old
city of Delhi, the palace -fort known as Kotla Firuz Shah within it, a
college and his own tomb near Hauz -i-Khas. Firuz Tughlaq also built a
number of mosques. The important among them are Kali Masjid,
Bagampuri mosque, Khirki Masjid at Jahanpanah and Kaba Masjid
The Sayyids and Lodi
The invasion of Timur in 1398 destroyed not only the political power of
the Delhi Sul tanate, but also the continuity of the architectural
magnificence. The Sayyids and the Lodis tried to revive the architectural
style of the Khilji period. The Sayyids, with their severely shrunken
resources, founded two poorly built cities called Khizrabad and
Mubarakbad. The only monuments of this period, which have survived,
are the tombs. A large number of tombs were built, mostly on the pattern
of Khan -i-Jahan Tilangani’s octagonal mausoleum. The important
mausoleums built on this model were the tombs o f Mubarak Shah Sayyid,
Muhammad Shah Sayyid and Sikandar Lodi. A new element was
introduced in the time of Sikandar Lodi. Instead of one, two domes were
built, one within another, leaving some space between the two. The other
type of tombs was square in pl an, without any verandah. The tombs of the
square design were the Bara Khan Ka Gumbad, Chota Khan Ka Gumbad,
and Poli Ka Gumbad.

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124 4.23 PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURE
Apart from Delhi, notable buildings were also constructed in various
provinces during this perio d. The Muslim rulers in provinces built palaces,
tombs, forts, mosques etc. in their respective kingdoms. Primarily, the
provincial styles drew inspiration from the Delhi style of architecture. But
as the economic resources of provincial rulers were limite d, they could not
provide that grandeur to their buildings as was provided by the Sultans of
Delhi. Besides, the local circumstances also influenced the provincial
styles and, therefore, the architecture of provinces differed not only from
the Imperial sty le but also from each other.
Multan: There are four notable buildings in Multan, which were
constructed during this period, namely, the shrine of Shah Yusuful --
Gardizi, the mausoleum of Bahlul Haqq, the tomb of Shamsuddin and the
tomb of Rukn -i-Alam built up by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. Among them, the
tomb of Rukn -i-Alam has been regarded as the best.
Bengal: Bengal developed its own style of architecture, which was greatly
influenced by local climatic conditions and the environment. Mostly
bricks were used in the buildings constructed in Bengal. The principal
features of the Bengal Style of architecture were the use of pointed arches
on pillars, Hindu decorative designs and adaptation of Hindu architecture
to Islamic art. Yet, the Bengal style of architecture r emained inferior to
other styles, which were adopted in several other provinces.
Jaunpur: Firuz Shah Tughlaq built the city of Jaunpur in 1359 -60. The
rulers of the Sharqi dynasty at Jaunpur greatly patronized architecture and
some fine buildings were cons tructed during their rule, which adopted
certain good features of both the Hindu and the Islamic architecture. The
salient features of the buildings raised at Jaunpur were square pillars,
small galleries and absence of minarets. The most important of the
surviving structures at Jaunpur is the Atala Masjid. Although its builders
borrowed several features from the Tughlaq architecture, it has its own
individuality.
Malwa: The buildings constructed in Malwa closely resembled those,
which were constructed by th e Sultans of Delhi. However, they possess
distinctive style of their own. These buildings are mainly found at Mandu,
Dhar and Chanderi. The fort of Mandu has been regarded as a beautiful
protected city. The most notable build -ings of Mandu are the Jami Mas jid,
the Hindola Mahal, the Ashrfi Mahal, the tower of victory and palaces of
Baz Bahadur and his queen Rupmati. The buildings in Malwa have their
own distinct style and occupy a respect -able place among the architectural
styles of provinces during this pe riod.
Gujarat: The architectural style of Gujarat was the product of an
extraordinary blending of Hindu and Muslim building traditions. Sultan
Ahmad Shah founded the capital city of Ahmadabad in the first half of the
fifteenth century. He adorned the city with many buildings. The most
important building at Ahmadabad erected by Ahmad Shah himself was munotes.in

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125 Jam-i-Masjid. It occupies a large quadrangle and has four cloisters on four
sides of the open courtyard. The tomb of Ahmad Shah situated in the
enclosure of the Jam-i-Masjid is another important monument.
Kashmir: There was a harmonious blending of the Hindu and the Muslim
architecture in Kashmir. The most notable buildings constructed here
during his period are the tomb of Mandani, the Jami Masjid at Srinagar
and the mosque of Shah Hamadan.
Hindu Architecture:
Hindu architecture in northern India declined as a result of the fall of the
Hindu kingdoms. The Hindus could maintain their political existence in
north India only in Rajasthan. Thus, the specimens of me dieval Hindu
architecture could be found in Rajasthan only. Rana Kumbha of Mewar
erected many forts, palaces and other buildings, the best known among
them being the fort of Kumbhalgarh and the Kirti Stambha (tower of
victory). Part of this pillar is built of red sandstone and part of it is that of
marble. It has been regarded as the most remarkable tower in the country.
There is another beautiful tower at Chittor known as Jain Stambha, which
is decorated with beautiful carving and latticework. Many other f orts and
palaces were built by the Rajput rulers at different places. The forts have
existed but most of the palaces have perished. The Hindus, no doubt,
learnt something about the art of construction from the Muslims but kept
their architectural style fre e from their influence. Therefore, their
buildings maintained their separate identity and differed from the
buildings of the Muslim rulers
4.24 SUMMARY
Most of these twelfth century illustrated palm leaves manuscripts contain
Jain religion and philosophy. With the introduction of paper in the
fourteenth century, the painters had greater scope to manifest their artistic
skills.The salient features of Islamic architecture were massive and
extensive buildings, domes, tall minarets, lofty portals, open courtyar ds,
huge walls without any sculpture. The Hindu architecture, on the other
hand was characterized by vastness, stability, majesty, magnificence,
sublimity, and infinite richness.The art of miniature painting also
flourished at Mandu and Jaunpur.Apart from Delhi, notable buildings
were also constructed in various provinces during this period.
4.25 QUESTIONS
1. Trace the development of architecture during the Delhi Sultanate
period.
2. Explain the painting, calligraphy and sculpture during the Delhi
Sultanate
3. Give a detailed account of Provincial Architecture during Delhi
Sultanate
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126 4.26 REFERENCES
5) Raychaudhuri T and Irfan Habib (ed) -The Cambridge Economic
History of India, London,1982.
6) Raziuddin Aquil, Sufism and Society in Medieval India (Debates in
Indian Histor y) (Oxford in India Readings. Debates in Indian History
and Soci.
7) Chopra P.N., Puri B.N., Das M.N -A Social, Cultural and Economic
History of India, Vol II . Macmillan India, Delhi,1974.
8) Lane Poole Stanley – Medieval India, London,1910 6. Majumdar
R.C(ed) -The History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol VI:The
Delhi Sultanate, Bombay, 1967, Vol VII:The Moghul Empire,
Bombay, 1974.


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