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1 1
CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL
EVALUATION
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning, Nature, Purpose of Educational Measurement, Assessment
and Evaluation
1.3 Relationship between Measurement and Evaluation
1.4 Types of Evaluation: Formative Evaluation and Summative
Evaluation Meaning, characteristics, areas differences.
1.5 Functions and Applications of Educational Evaluation
1.6 Summary
1.7 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the student will b e able to:
a) Describe the concept and characteristics of educational evaluation.
b) Compare the types of educational evaluation.
c) Differentiate between test, assessment and evaluation.
d) Explain the relationship between test, measurement, assessment and
evaluat ion.
e) Describe the functions and applications of educational evaluation.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The National Curriculum Framework for School Education, 2000,
observes, "Teaching for successful learning cannot occur without high
quality evaluation."
Evaluation is a part of life. In educational settings, evaluation is all the
more important because only through evaluation, a teacher can judge the
growth and development of students, the changes taking place in their
behavior, the progress they are making in the class and also the
effectiveness of her/his own teaching in the class, Thus, evaluation has
been an integral part of any teaching and learning situation. It exerts an munotes.in
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Educational Evaluation
2 overwhelming influence on our educational system. The quality of any
educational system is, th us, directly linked with the quality of evaluation.
Teachers must be well trained in all the aspects of evaluation in order to
improve the quality of education. This unit will help the students to have
an idea of the concept of evaluation, types of evaluat ion, purpose of
evaluation, principles of evaluation and characteristics of a good
evaluation programme.
1.2 MEANING, NA TURE AND PURPOSE OF
EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT
AND EVALUATION
The Meaning, Nature And Purpose of Educational Measurement :
Measurement means quantification of some measurable phenomena.We
can measure anything that exists in some quantity. We can measure
heights, weight, age and intelligence, aptitude, and the interest of a child.
Some of the measurements are physical and so me are mental
measurements which are rather complex and which can’t be measured
through physical measurement.
In the words of E. L. Thorndike (1914) “If a thing exists, it exists in some
amount; and if it exists in some amount, it can be measured.”
J.P Gu ilford defined measurement as “Assignment of numerals to object
or event according to certain rules is called measurement”
Measurement refers to the process of assigning numerals to events,
objectives etc. According to certain rules, measurement quantifies data
obtained through observation rating scale or any other device can be
quantified.This measurement also ascertains the extent and quantity of
something.
In other words, Measurement is an act of giving a numeral index (i.e
quantification) to whatever be ing assessed, in some meaningful and
consistent manner . The result of measurement is simply a number which
expresses the amount of characteristics possessed by an individual.
Measurement can be defined in number of ways -
1. Measurement means comparing an unkn own quantity with a known
quantity which is taken as unity.
2. Measurement means “to give a precise quantitative value”.
3. Measurement is the process of assigning symbols to observation in
some meaningful and consistent manner.
4. Measurement is assignment of symb ols to the dimension of the
phenomena in order to characterize the status of the phenomena as
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Concept of Educational Evaluation
3 5. Measurement aims at determining the magnitude of a variate.
6. Measurement ascertains the extent and quantity of anything being
measured.
The three types of Measurement:
(1) Direct Measurement : When we wish to find length, breadth and
weight. This is accurate, if the measuring tool and the measuring method
are valid.
(2) Indirect Measurement : When we wish to know the quantity of heat
containe d by a substance, it involves the measurement of the temperature
of substance by using a thermometer and then we calculate the heat
contained by the substance.
(3) Relative Measurement : When we measure the intelligence of a pupil,
it involves relative me asurement, as the score obtained by the pupil in an
intelligence test is compared with the norms. The Nature of Educational
Measurement
1. Educational Measurement is quantitative
2. Error is naturally present in Education Measurement with improvement of
Measurem ent technique the margin of error decreases and thereby results
become more and more exact.
3. Educational Measurement is generally indirect rather than direct.
4. Educational Measurement is relative. It is not in any sense absolute.
Because there is no establi shed zero point. There is no unit of degree of
personality
The Meaning, Nature and Purpose of Educational Assessment :
Assessment in teaching learning process refers to strategies designed to
confirm what students know, demonstrate whether or not they hav e met
curriculum outcome or the goals of their respective programme or to
certify the proficiency and make decisions about students, the future of the
programme or their placement. It is designed to provide evidence of
achievement to parents, educators, th e students themselves and sometimes
to outside groups.
The Meaning, Nature And Purpose of Educational Evaluation :
Evaluation is an act or process that assigns ‘value’ to a measurement.
Evaluation means ‘to find the value of’ or judge the worth of when we are
evaluating we are making a judgment as to the suitability, desirability or
value of a thing.so evaluation is qualitative.
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Educational Evaluation
4 Evaluation is an act or a process that allows one to make a judgment about
the desirability or value of a measure. The word evalu ation means the act
or process of determining the value of something
Example:
1. A teacher measures Rahul’s height to 110 cm. She evaluates his
height when she says that he is short.
2. Riva and Shiva study in the same class, Riva gets 85 marks in history
while Shiva gets 35 marks. After getting these measurements their
parents evaluate their achievement in history when they say that
comparatively, Riva's progress is better.
Principles of Evaluation :
1. A teacher must be clear about the purpose of evaluation. I n other
words, he must be quite clear as to what is to be evaluated. He must
formulate the instructional objectives and define them clearly in terms
of pupil behaviour.
2. The teacher should select the appropriate evaluation technique.
Different evaluation te chniques are used for different purposes.
3. For comprehensive evaluation teachers can use a variety of evaluation
techniques.
4. Evaluation is a means to an end, but not an end itself. Evaluation is a
means to know the effectiveness of instruction and to assess how far
the objectives have been fulfilled.
THE NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION :
1. Evaluation helps teacher to know his pupils in details i.e. his abilities,
interest, attitude
2. Evaluation helps the teacher to determine, evaluate and refine his
instructio nal technique.
3. Evaluation helps the teacher to know entry behaviour of students
4. Evaluation helps an administrator in planning, selection, classification
and placement
5. Education is a complex process. Thus there is a great need for
processes and products. It helps to design better educational
programmes.
6. Evaluation helps us to know whether instructional objectives have
been achieved or not.
7. Evaluation helps in the improvement of the curriculum.
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Concept of Educational Evaluation
5 It is quite evident that evaluation is quite essential for promo ting pupil
growth.It is helpful for parents, teacher, student and administration.
Evaluation acts as a watchdog to all educational efforts.It creates an
awareness of objectives at every stage of education.
PURPOSE OF EVALUATION :
1. To achieve the important o bjective of education following the main
four purposes of evaluation can be identified.
2. Categorize students in different classes or sections of a class according
to their ability in some subject areas.
3. Diagnose individual students weakness in subjects to p lan remedial
work for him and revise teaching strategies.
Check your progress:
1. Explain the types and purpose of Measurement.
2. Why is Assessment important to students, parents and teachers?
3. Why is Evaluation important in education?
1.3 THE RELATIONS HIP BETWEEN TEST,
MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
Evaluation is a comprehensive and continuous process which covers every
aspect of an individual's achievement in an educational programme. It is
an integral part of education in which students and t eachers are partner.
Measurement implies only a quantitative assessment of instructional
objectives.
Evaluation depends on measurement but is not synonymous with it.
Measurement is a quantitative determination of how much an individual's
performance has be en, while evaluation is a qualitative judgment of how
good or how satisfactory an individual's performance has been.
Evaluation is not only quantitative but also qualitative and includes value
judgment mathematically.
It may be said that Evaluation = Mea surement (Quantitative description of
students achievement eg. a qualitative description of students abilities and
value judgment about students achievement and abilities.
Measurement is not an end in itself. It is only a part of the total process of
evalu ation. Measurement simply gives us quantitative data which must be
properly interpreted through evaluation. Thus measurement provides data
for evaluation. Interpretation will be clear when the data are quantified and
a value judgment is assigned. When we s ay ‘A Performance is better, it
does not give us the full picture , as to h ow much better is his performance
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Educational Evaluation
6 Measurement answers “how much ” whereas Evaluation answers ‘How
good’ or “How well ”.
Evaluation attach es meaning or value judgment to measurement.
Evaluation is the :
1. Quantitative description (Ex - Ram got 40 in a test of mathematics)
2. Qualitative description(Ex -Ram is not diligent.He is not studious)
3. Value judgment - Ram is an average student.
For all pract ical purposes assessment and measurement can be considered
synonymous. When assessment is taking place information or data are
being collected and measurement is being conducted.
Thus, Evaluation is a process that includes measurement, that is an act or
process that involves the assignment of a numerical index to whatever is
being assessed. The last stage in the process of gathering, using and
interpreting all relevant and accurate information is that of evaluation.
The Interrelation among Assessment, Eval uation and Measurement :
Though the terms assessment and evaluation are often used
interchangeably (Cooper, 1999), various writers differentiate between
them.
Assessment is defined as “gathering information or evidence”, and
evaluation is “the use of that information or evidence to make judgments”
(Snowman, McCown, and Biehler, 2012).
Measurement involves “the assigning numbers or scores to an attribute or
characteristic of a person, in such a way that the numbers describe the
degree to which the person p ossesses the attribute". (Nitco and Brookhart,
2011).
For eg. Allotting of grades and scores on a standardized achievement test.
Assessment, Measurement and Evaluation:
These concepts are Mostly used interchangeably by learners and if they
have the same m eaning. This is not so. As a teacher, you should be able to
distinguish one from the other and use any particular one at the
appropriate time to discuss issues in the classroom.
Measurement: The process of measurement as it implies involves
carrying out ac tual measurement in order to assign a quantitative meaning
to a quality i.e. what is the length of the black board? Determiningthis
must be physically done. Measurement is therefore a process of assigning
numerals to objects, quantities or events in order to give quantitative
meaning to such qualities. In the classroom, to determine a child’s
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Concept of Educational Evaluation
7 scores of the child. If the child scores 80in Mathematics, there is no other
interpretation you should give it.
You cannot say he has passed or failed. Measurement stops at describing
the quantity but not making value judgment on the child's performance.
Assessment: Assessment is a fact finding activity that describes
conditions that exist at a part icular time. Assessment often involves
measurement to gather data. However, it is the domain of assessment to
organize the measurement data into interpretable.
Educational Evaluation forms on a number of variables. Assessment in an
educational setting may describe the progress students have made towards
a given educational goal at a point in time. However, it is not concerned
with the explanation of the underlying reasons and does not proffer
recommendations for action. Although, there may be some implied
judgment as to the satisfactoriness or otherwise of the situation. In the
classroom, assessment refers to all the processes and products which are
used to describe the nature and the extent of pupils’ learning. A number of
instruments are often used to get measurement data from various sources.
These include tests, aptitude tests, inventories, questionnaires, observation
schedules etc. All these sources give data which are organized to show
evidence of change and the direction of that change. A test is thus one of
the assessment instruments. It is used in getting quantitative data.
Evaluation: Evaluation adds the ingredient of value judgment assessment.
It is concerned with the application of its findings and implies some
judgment of the effectiveness, social utility or desirability of a product,
process or progress in terms of carefully defined and agreed upon
objectives or values. Evaluation often includes recommendations for
constructive action. Thus, evaluation is a qualitative measure of the
prevailing si tuation. It calls for evidence of effectiveness, suitability, or
goodness of the programme. It is the estimation of the worth of a thing,
process or programme in order to reach meaningful decisions about that
thing, process or programme.
Check your progres s:
1. How is assessment different from Evaluation ?
2. Priya gets 30 marks in Test A and 65 marks in Test B.
Sonal gets 45 marks in Test A and 65 marks in Test B.
Explain who has shown progress in their learning.
3. Explain how evaluation is depend ent on assessment.
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8 1.4 TYPES OF EVALUATION: FORMATIVE
EVALUATION AND SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
FORMATIVE EVALUATION
Formative evaluation is an integral part of the teaching -learning process.
It includes classroom interactions, questioning, struct ural classroom
activities and feedback aimed at helping students to minimize learning
gaps. Students are also actively involved in self assessment and peer
evaluation. Formative assessment tasks with timely and appropriate
feedback should be used throughou t a course. Classroom based formative
assessment has taken on an increasingly important role in education policy
in recent years.
Formative evaluation focuses on getting and providing feedback about
learners' achievement and instructional impact. Use of re adiness tests for
better placement using higher order of questions during teaching and
students questioning and during instructional phase are all meant to
improve quality of learning and instruction. It is carried out during a
course of instruction for pr oviding continuous feedback to both teachers
and learners. Formative evaluation motivates teacher and students and
reinforces learning by providing feedback both to pupil and teacher.
While teaching, a teacher gives pupils some new ideas, to evaluate
learn ing outcomes based on which he modifies method and techniques of
teaching to provide better learning experiences.Thus formative is
concerned with teacher, content instructional objectives and provision of
learning experience.
Ebel and Frisbie said, ”Format ive Evaluation is conducted to monitor the
instructional process and to determine whether learning is taking place as
planned..”
Characteristics of Formative Evaluation
1. Formative Evaluation relatively focuses on specific analysis of
instructional material for mapping the hierarchical structure of the
learning tasks and actual teaching for a certain period.
2. Formative Evaluation seeks to identify learning difficulties.
3. Formative Evaluation is designed as flexible and exploratory
4. Formative Evaluation monitors the teaching -learning strateg ies during
the instructional proc ess.
5. Formative Evaluation provides opportunit ies to students to get mastery
(perfection ) in the content.
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Concept of Educational Evaluation
9 SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
Ebel and Frisbie “Summative evaluation is conducted at the end of an
instructional segment to determine if learning is sufficiently complete to
warrant moving the learner to the next segment of instruction.
Summative evaluation is done at the end of a course of
instruction.summative evaluation is done at the end of a co urse of
instruction .summative evaluation helps a teacher to know how far the
objectives has been accomplished and to what extent the instruction has
been of active university exam are examples of summative evaluation.
Summative evaluation is judgemental a nd terminal in character. It comes
at the end of the course of instruction. Eg. The teacher made a
standardized test.
Summative evaluation is concerned with the outcome of learning or
product of education.
The term summative evaluation refers to assigning a grade for learners
achievement at the end of term, semester, course or instructional
programme.
Summative Evaluation can provide an overall picture on the basis of
learners performance, the effectiveness of teaching and the instruction is
evaluated. It serves the purpose of assigning grades or certifying learners
mastery of intended learning outcome.
Characteristics of Summative Evaluation :
1. Summative Evaluation is concerned with broad ranges procedure,
completed programme or product.
2. Summative Evaluatio n comes at the end of a programme or course.
3. Summative Evaluation is the terminal assessment of learners
performance at the end of instructions.
4. Summative evaluation determines to what extent instructional
objectives are achieved .
5. Summative Evaluation gives feedback to teachers as well as students.
6. Summative Evaluation measures the extent to which the learner has
achieved the desired outcome.
7. Summative Evaluation is almost non reactive .
8. Summative Evaluation is reliable and accurate means of grading
students achievement
9. Summative Evaluation uses well define d evaluation designs
10. Summative Evaluation focuses on descriptive analysis. munotes.in
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Educational Evaluation
10 The Difference between Summative Evaluation and Formative
Evaluation :
1. Formative evaluation provides feedback and reinforces le arning by
mastery whereas summative valuation is the final test of learners'
achievement.
2. Formative Evaluation is conducted during the development and
improvement of a programme whereas Summative Evaluation is
conducted after the completion of programme.
3. Formative Evaluation is organized for the benefit of internal and
Summative Evaluation is organized for the benefit of external
purpose.
4. Formative Evaluation takes the form of a dialogue between teacher
and learner while Summative Evaluation tests learning out of specific
instructional objectives.
5. Formative Evaluation checks learners progress by continuous
feedback whereas Summative Evaluation checks the final status of
learners.
6. Formative Evaluation is frequent and Summative Evaluative is less
frequent
7. Form ativeevaluation maintains record,profile of achievement and
summative evaluation uses limited records
8. Formative Evaluation scoring based on criterion referenced test while
summative evaluation scoring is norm referenced test.
9. The purpose of Formative Eval uation is to diagnose the strength and
weakness of students whereas Summative Evaluation classifies and
promotes students.
10. Formative Evaluation refers to continuous evaluation by means of
unit test, assignment and Summative Evaluation refers to paper penci l
test and annual test
11. Formative Evaluation Results in further improvement of instruction
whereas Summative Evaluation results are used for certification.
Check your progress:
1. Explain two characteristics of formative evaluation with two
examples.
2. Explain t wo characteristics of summative evaluation with two
examples.
3. How is formative evaluation different from summative evaluation?
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11
1.5 FUNCTIONS AND APPLICATIONS OF
EDUCATIONAL EVALUATION
How does Evaluation help students, teachers and administrators?
Evalu ation helps the students:
a) Feedback: evaluation provides feedback which will identify the pupils
strength, weaknesses & thus it plays a major role in guiding the
students future efforts. The feedback thus provides the pupil to
improve upon the subsequent performance.
b) Increases motivation: The knowledge that one's performance is to be
tested increases the pupils motivation which ultimately facilitates
learning & thus provides or motivates pupils to perform better. It
serves as a stimulus for greater eff ort on the path of pupils.
c) Encourages good study habits: Frequent evaluation encourages good
study habits as the pupil gets to know his own progress & also
development of certain skills whether he can apply his knowledge and
understanding to a normal si tuation. This kind of evaluation will thus
encourage him/her to build up a good study habit.
Evaluation helps the teacher :
There are three components of teaching and learning, which constitute an
integrated network in which each component depends on t he other. Thus,
through evaluation, the teacher not only assesses as to how far a student
has achieved the objectives of teaching but also judges the effectiveness
of the learning experiences, methodologies, means and the materials used
for achieving th ose objectives.
a) Evaluation provides the teacher with the direct knowledge concerning
a student's entry behavior, the pupils capacity for learning. What the
pupil currently knows For eg. to calculate the time of a particular
place – the information about the longitude & latitude is essential.
b) Evaluation helps the teacher in refining, clarifying setting objectives
on the basis of knowledge of the students' entry behaviour.
c) It also helps the teacher to improve her classroom procedure from the
results tha t are obtained.
d) Evaluation provides the teacher with a comprehensive picture about
the pupils progress.
Evaluation helps the administrator in making educational decisions:
wherein selection, making decisions regarding either admission,
placement or for classification. Also for guidance and counseling either
educational or vocational guidance. Also evaluation helps the
administrator to evaluate the efficiency of the teacher in her method of munotes.in
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Educational Evaluation
12 teaching & also serves as the basis for reporting to parents ab out the
progress of their children.
Evaluation helps the Headmaster to judge the extent to which the
objectives have been achieved, to identify the strengths and weaknesses in
the curriculum & also to appraise the various activities in the school.
Chec k your progress:
1. Describe the functions of Educational Evaluation for students.
2. Describe the functions of Educational Evaluation for teachers.
3. Describe the functions of Educational Evaluation for administrators.
1.6 SUMMARY
At every step of the t eaching -learning process, the appraisal of students is
necessary. The diagnostic and formative evaluation have to go hand in
hand. At the end of the session, summative evaluation needs to be made to
classify, grade, promote and certify students. Thus, eva luation helps the
teachers to make judgments and take decisions at different stages in a
pupil's educational career. If the school keeps the above aspects of
evaluation in mind, there is no doubt that it will lead to bringing about
qualitative improveme nt in education. The schools, which carry out
improved evaluation practices, may really prove to be effective schools.
To sum up, educational evaluation is an important aspect of any
educational system. It is a systematic process carried out in the class room
or school for providing information for taking important decisions. A
teacher should be well versed with the concept of evaluation and
procedures used for evaluation in order to make herlhis teaching more
purposeful and effective. The teacher should know what are the objectives
that are to be tested, what techniques and tools are to be used for testing
them most appropriately and how to use evaluation for making good
educational decisions.
1.7 REFERENCES
1. Agrawal, Mamta (1988). A Handbook of Evaluat ion in English,
NCERT, New Delhi.
2. Bloom, B.S., et a1 (1970) Handbook on Formative and Summative
Evaluation of Student Learning, New York, McGraw -Hill.
3. Gronlund, N.E., (1981) Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching, The
MacMillan Company, New York.
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Concept of Educational Evaluation
13 Web links:
1. Assessments in Education:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0xQKPz0zDL8
2. Formative Assessment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= -RXYTpgvB5I
3. Summative Assessment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SjnrI3ZO2tU
4. Comparison of Formative and Summative A ssessments
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bTGnJnuVNt8
5. Purpose of Assessments:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JHZsz_j_z7A
6. 14 Types of Assessments
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zTkQjH -_97c
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14 2
ASSESSMENT AND EXAMINATIONS
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Assessment
2.3 Internal Assessment and External Assessment
2.4 Continuous and Comprehensive Assessment
2.5 Open Book Examinations and Online Examinations
2.6 Summary
2.7 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
a) Describe the concept and purpose of assessment.
b) Compare the types of educational assessment.
c) Differentiate between formative and summative assessment
d) Differentiate between continuous and comprehensive assessment
e) Describe the concept and purpose of open book examinations
f) Describe the concept and purpose of online examinations
2.1 INTRODUCTION
We sometimes speak of testing and assessment together even th ough tests
are a specific type of assessment. When used in this way, assessment
emphasizes the broader array of performances and projects that might not
be called to mind by the word testing.
Assessment is a much more comprehensive and inclusive term t han
measurement or testing. Assessment on the other hand, may include both
quantitative descriptions (measurements) and qualitative descriptions
(non measurements) of students.
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Assessment And Examinations
15 2.2 TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
The Meaning, Nature And Purpose of Educational As sessment :
“Assessment” is considered as the systematic collection and analysis of
information to improve student lifelong learning.
Assessment is the process of gathering and discussing information from
multiple and diverse sources in order to develop a deep understanding of
what students know, understand, and can do with their knowledge as a
result of their educational experiences;
Nature of Assessment:
Assessment is tightly linked with the learning process. Similarly, it unites
with the course of stu dy and teaching. For keeping a check on students
progress and achievement, courses of study play a constant role. Also, the
teacher and students work to achieve the outcomes of the course of study.
Thus assessment includes all those activities undertaken by teachers, and
by their students in assessing themselves, which provide information to be
used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which
they are engaged.
The Functions of Assessment
Functional assessment is a continuous collab orative process that combines
observing, asking meaningful questions, listening to family stories, and
analyzing individual child skills and behaviors within naturally occurring
everyday routines and activities across multiple situations and settings.
The most important part of assessment is the interpretation and use of the
information that is gleaned for its intended purpose. Assessment is
embedded in the learning process.
Perspectives of Assessment:
Assessment for learning, Assessment of learning & As sessment of as
learning.
Types of Assessment:
One major purpose of assessment is to inform. The results from an
assessment process should provide information that can be used to
determine whether or not intended learning outcomes that faculty have set
are being achieved. The information can then be used to determine how
programs can be improved.
1. Diagnostic assessments.
2. Formative assessments.
3. Summative assessments.
4. Norm -referenced assessments. munotes.in
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Educational Evaluation
16 5. Ipsative assessment
6. Criterion -referenced assessments.
1. Pre -assessment or diagnostic assessment:
Before creating the instruction, it’s necessary to know for what kind of
students the teacher is creating the instruction. The goal is to get to know
the student’s strengths, weaknesses and the skills and knowledge they
possess before taking the instruction. Based on the student data collected,
the teacher can create a specific instruction.
2. Formative assessment:
Formative assessment is used in the first attempt of developing instruction .
The goal is to monitor student learning to provide feedback. It helps
identify the first gaps in the instruction. Based on this feedback the teacher
can know what to focus on for further expansion for the instruction.
3. Summative assessment:
Summative assessment is aimed at assessing the extent to which the most
important outcomes at the end of the instruction have been reached. But it
measures more: the effectiveness of learning, reactions on the instruction
and the benefits on a long -term basis. The l ong-term benefits can be
determined by following students who attend your course, or test. You are
able to see whether and how they use the learned knowledge, skills and
attitudes.
4. Norm -referenced assessment:
This compares a student’s performance agai nst an average norm. This
could be the average national norm for the subject History, for example.
Another example is when the teacher compares the average grade of his or
her students against the average grade of the entire school.
5. Criterion -reference d assessment:
It measures student’s performances against a fixed set of predetermined
criteria or learning standards. It checks what students are expected to
know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education. Criterion -
referenced tests are use d to evaluate a specific body of knowledge or skill
set; it's a test to evaluate the curriculum taught in a course.
6. Ipsative assessment:
It measures the performance of a student against previous performances
from that student. With this method you’re trying to improve yourself by
comparing previous results. You’re not comparing yourself against other
students, which may be not so good for your self -confidence.
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Assessment And Examinations
17 Check your progress:
1. Describe the concept of educational assessment.
2. Explain the fun ctions of assessment for the teacher
3. Explain any three types of assessment, with a suitable example.
2.3 INTERNAL ASSESSMENT & EXTERNAL
ASSESSMENT
Internal Assessment and External Assessment:
The word assessment refers to a systematic process of coll ecting,
understanding, and acting upon the data related to a student. Furthermore,
this data helps in understanding the students learning about what they
know and what they do not know. Also, the performance of a student is
done on the basis of their educa tional experience. Besides, internal
assessment refers to the evaluation of the performance of students on the
basis of their internal performance. On the other hand, external assessment
refers to the evaluation of a student's performance by outside person s like
boards.
Internal Assessment
Internal assessment is the process in which the teachers and schools judge
the students’ performance on the basis of his performance. Also, this
process does not involve any outside person for assessment.
The Need for I nternal Assessment:
The internal assessment helps to give credit in the final assessment. Also,
it reduces the burden and tension related to the final examination. In
addition, it acts as a link which provides data related to a student's
performance. This gives teachers an opportunity to evaluate the students.
Moreover, it helps students in continuous learning.
Principles of Internal Assessment:
The subject teacher prepares these assessments. Furthermore, it is
continuous and does not replace exams. It i s a suitable evaluation
technique and tool. Also, they carry a fixed portion of marks for the
assessment. Most noteworthy, it gives feedback to teachers so that they
can improve their teaching. On the other hand, it gives students a chance
to improve their external assessment grade by seeing internal assessment
results. So, that student can improve learning.
Advantages of Internal Assessment:
It reduces the weight age of external assessment. Moreover, students
engage themselves in study throughout the yea r. The students will be more
attentive to studying in class. In addition, it reduces the chances of anxiety
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Educational Evaluation
18 Disadvantages of internal assessment:
There are chances that teachers may misuse it for their own benefit. Als o,
in the hands of the inexperienced and insincere teacher, it can cause harm
to students. Most noteworthy, it will lose its importance due to unfairness,
favoring a student, and bias -ness.
External Assessment
External assessment is a process and method of assessment developed and
used by an examination body or agency other than the learner's school.
This process commonly involves standardized testing and often serves to
candidates for further educational opportunities for certification purposes.
1. Extern al assessment is usually in the form of written examination
2. It is performed in groups.
3. It is conducted on a specific topic.
4. It is rigid in nature
5. It's theoretical in nature.
Successful learning depends on proof ( evidence), produced by learner
during learning activities, which shows that:
1) A learner is ready to learn
2) In spite of trying and attempting to learn and teach, a learner has not
yet understood.
3) Through this one can understand what measures or steps of
improvement should be taken.
External examinations are planned and executed by examination
authorities who are experts in their field. It's carried out under supervision.
Here, students are being assessed by trained staff and this process is
independent from school in which the s tudent learns. Students should
always try to keep in mind that examinations and results should not be
viewed in light of a scorecard but should be taken as an opportunity to
explore, learn, understand , clear concepts and should also have a practical
appro ach rather than just studying mechanically for examination purposes.
The most important thing that should be given utmost weightage and
importance. The aims and objectives should be clearly defined.
Question papers should be planned, organized, supervi sed and executed by
an expert or such team giving due importance to the whole content with
proper weightage and marks to all types of questions.
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19 Importance of External Examinations:
1. It helps to keep a track of the students progress
2. It has a great responsibility because it needs to maintain the overall
standard of the whole education system.
3. It sets selection criteria for taking admission in different schools,
colleges, universities.
4. It develops good studying habits among students.
5. Parents wh o are satisfied can also take a sigh of relief because of
belief in a true and fair assessment process.
6. Curriculum can be evaluated
7. Teachers have a chance to reflect and work on strengths and
weaknesses.
Advantages of External Examinations:
1) Student s can analyse his/ her performance, and learn and grow because
of exams
2) It forms and develops a habit of working hard, sincerely which
automatically helps in future.
3. It can have an overall positive impact on one's personality and
confidence if taken in the right spirit.
4. Students can know their knowledge level and develop a positive
competitive spirit
Disadvantages of External Examinations:
1. There is a chance that some students cdn adopt unfair means of
practice during examinations which is like an ob stacle in their
progress.
2. The inner personality apart from academics cannot be known only
through such examination.
3. Each and every topic may not be covered during exams.
4. Sometimes students can cheat and get good marks, which impacts
results and the reliability of the results comes under question.
5. Sometimes students may not study or cover the whole syllabus and
may study only selected topics in a hurry during examination.
Check your progress:
1. What is the concept of internal assessment?
2. What is the purpose of internal assessment?
3. What is the purpose of external examinations? munotes.in
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20 2.4 CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE
ASSESSMENT
Concept of Continuous Assessment :
The term continuous is used here to emphasize that evaluation is a
continuous pro cess. It involves regular assessment - unit test, feedback for
self evaluation, using corrective measures.
It is the educational policy where students are examined continuously. It is
often also used as an alternative to a final examination.
The best w ay is to pay attention to overall development of child.Each area
needs to be given due importance - physical,emotional and cognitive
The essence of continuous and comprehensive assessment is that the child
can know his/ her area of strength and weaknesses .
Continuous assessment means assessing aspects of learners' language
throughout their course and then producing a final evaluation result from
these assessments.
The best part is it provides an accurate and complete picture of the
learners level and h as a positive impact on learning.
This can be compared with a final or summative assessment, which only
assesses the learner at the end of the course
Continuous assessment helps in developing a habit of regularly studying
with attention by :
1. Under standing the concept properly
2. Learning to correct ones error which also develops a beautiful habit of
self-reflection, becoming one's own critic and learning to be aware of
oneself
3. Making decisions (eg. choosing one's career subject, courses, careers)
and it helps than when they are directed towards their asking of
meaningful questions to students helps them to think in the right
desired direction, clear concepts and in turn explain their thinking and
actions and put their own view point.
4. Sharing of n ew information and materials helps them to work on their
query and find relevant useful information.
Practical based conversation - teachers can plan individual or group
conversations which can help them to explore new ideas and learning
occurring throug h enquiry
It not only deals with the learning ability of a child, but also includes
teachers' efficiency to do one's duty properly and encouraging fellow
teachers to do so… for a healthy teaching - learning environment. munotes.in
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21 Objectives of Continuous Assessm ent :
1. to develop cognitive ability, thinking process of an individual.
2. to make continuous evaluation a very important part of teaching -
learning process.
3. to use the available data after evaluation for further improving
different teaching -learning stra tegies.
4. to keep learning activities as student centric.
Importance of Continuous Assessment :
1. Teacher knows how much the student has understood
2. Whether the student has gained knowledge
3. Whether the students can apply his knowledge practically wheneve r,
wherever necessary.
4. Whether the student can analyse things properly.
5. How creative the student is, encouraging him to make best use of it
6. It works towards continuous and overall growth of students be it
emotional, physical, cultural, social developm ent.
7. It helps in bringing awareness not only in child but also in teachers and
parents about the achievement
8. It also includes daily class work, course related projects, practical
work. Sitting and listening closely - One of the interesting thing in th is
is the behaviour of students is observed and their conversations are
listened to carefully to understand them wherever needed questions are
asked and rest of the time they are not being interfered with.
Characteristics of Continuous Assessment :
1. Conti nuous assessment means you will be assessed right through the
learning process and not only after the learning.
2. With the help of continuous assessment one can see how much the
learner has improved, accordingly guidance will be prolearning
3. Students are cl osely observed while they are engaged in learning
4. The students' learning activity is regularly assessed which follows
constructive regular feedback.
5. Practical skills are observed: Eg: workshops, projects, lectures.
6. Continuous assessment also involves as sessment criteria, how it was
carried out, what went right and which things we should work on. munotes.in
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22 Concept of Comprehensive Assessment The term ‘comprehensive'
means that the scheme attempts to cover both the scholastic and the co -
scholastic aspects of the students' growth. A comprehensive
assessment system includes summative, formative, interim and classroom
assessment all of these helps in getting intended learning outcomes.
Summative assessments are given at the end of the course which helps to
determine how much that student has understood the content, their
performance standard and concerted efforts should be made to extract
instructional relevant information from these assessments. Design clear,
effective questions
Interim assessment s are g iven periodically at the end relative to small
units of instruction. This helps us to know students progress, helps in
evaluation and prediction purposes.
Formative assessment is a range of formal and informal assessment
conducted by teachers during the learning process in order to modify
teaching and learning activities to improve. Eg: class discussions, weekly
quiz.
1. Keep clear criteria for what defines good performance.
2. Encourage students' self reflection.
3. Give students detailed actionable fe edback.
4. Provide the opportunities to close the gap between current and desried
performance.
5. Encourage teacher and student dialogue around learning.
6. This practice is performed around mid semester feedback and small
group feedback sessions.
7. Promotes positive motivational beliefs and self esteem.
8. Collect information which can be used to help shape teaching.
Classroom assessment Includes a wide range of activities and procedures
that teachers use to obtain information and provide feedback about
students progress on important learning outcomes.
A serious weakness of many classroom assessment is that they are not
properly aligned with the content standards they are used to assess
Check your progress:
1. What is the concept of continuous assessment?
2. What is the purpose of comprehensive assessment?
3. What is the purpose of continuous examinations?
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23 2.5 OPEN BOOK ASSESSMENT AND ONLINE EXAMS
Online examination s: Coming across the online system of education
anyone would wonder how they conduct the exam ination in this. The
types of examination involved in the online exams are online mock tests,
semester or text exams, campus placements, entrance exams, and other
types of assessments.
Advantages of online examination system
1. Less damage to nature
It is a sorry state of affairs that environmental damage is the least
discussed dilemma of the day.
2. Technological advancements
In this regard, use of technology and getting better enhancements are
much appreciated.
3. It is cheaper
When any exam is org anized there are many requirements, for example,
allocating a large space for students, printing, and copying the paper,
providing the exam answer sheets, and then there are hiring invigilators as
well. All of this combines to form much of an expense. Now consider
switching to the online exam in which none of the above is required.
4. Online exam is time -efficient
All of that time is now saved up by conducting the exams online because
all you need is to install software and then get the evaluations right away.
5. Online exam is secure
Many people may assume that online exams are not cheating proof. Well
to bust the myth, online examinations have been working on many levels
to make the process as secure as possible.
6. Easy usage
The best thing about i t is that anyone can give an entrance examination
from anywhere without worrying about the transportation charges and
timings.
7. The automated system of grading.
Teachers can take advantage of this system because it saves their time and
energy through a n automatic system of grading
9. Online exams are setting new trends in how exams are conducted.
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24 Disadvantages of online examination system
1) Technological glitches If an institute is planning to adapt to the online
examination then there should be proper training of the students and
teachers.
2) Availability of facilities. We need to give systems required with stable
internet connections and power supply.
3) Limitations in question types. Although teachers in the first place
design the exam questions a major limitation is that these questions are
best evaluated close -ended.
4) Chances of cheating are wide. One form of it is deceitfulness in which
the actual examinee is replaced by someone else. Another form can be
the use of smartwatches or smartphones that can hack the examination.
5) Use of external material. If students are taking the exam from
anywhere then they are more susceptible to peek at their helping
material as well making it an open book assessment that turns out to be
of no use.
6) Lack of proctoring. Even if institutes come up with a plan through
which they are able to hire a proctor it will be very costly and the
purpose of online examination serves is that it saves up on the cost of
hiring invigilators.
So those institutes which consider online exam s to bring ease to their
examinee have to accept the problems related to it. However, we can be
optimistic about the future that these problems can be addressed and
resolved for the better.
Types of Tests
1. Diagnostic test. With this test you can test ho w much students already
know about a given subject or topic.
2. Placement test.
3. Progress or Achievement tests.
4. Internal test.
5. Objective tests.
6. Subjective tests.
Four types of examinations
Essay, completion, multiple -choice, and true -false, were constructed to
cover exactly the same subject matter.
The validity of the four types, when each is checked against the composite
of the three others, is nearly equal. Completion and multiple -choice tests
are most reliable. The essay examination shows les s correlation with munotes.in
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Assessment And Examinations
25 intelligence than do the three others. Considering the choice of all
students, the multiple -choice and true -false tests are preferred to the other
two types.
Open Book Tests and Examinations
Open -book exams allow you to take notes, texts or resource materials into
an exam situation. They test your ability to find and apply information and
knowledge, so are often used in subjects requiring direct reference to
written materials, like law statutes, statistics or acts of parliament.
Advantage s of Open Book Examinations
1. Less difficult on recall, as students can check the books.
2. Students get a second chance to obtain knowledge.
3. Enhances retrieval skills, in remembering things for a longer duration.
Disadvantages of Open Book Examination s
1. If students are not guided well to give open -book exams, they may just
copy what is in the textbook.
2. Training a large number of evaluators in the new evaluation method is
also a challenge.
3. The lack of quality teachers in India will be a serious challenge in
implementing the new way of teaching.
Practical Examinations
1. Practical exams test students’ practical skills and techniques usually in
laboratory, clinical or field settings.
2. They can be administered individually, in pairs or small grou ps.
Advantages of Practical Examinations
1. Practical learning, as mentioned above, has the unique ability to help
students apply their skills in a non -classroom environment.
2. Increases Your Understanding.
3. Creates a Deeper Impact.
4. Better Knowledge Retention.
5. Improved Skill Sets.
Disadvantages of Practical Examinations
1. Measures relatively superficial knowledge or learning.
2. Unlikely to match the specific goals and objectives of the program munotes.in
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26 3. May be cost prohibitive to administer as a pre - and post -test.
4. More summative than formative (may be difficult to isolate what
changes are needed).
Check your progress:
1. What is the purpose of open book tests and examinations?
2. What is the purpose of online examinations?
3. What are the disadva ntages of open book tests and examinations?
2.6 SUMMARY
Much assessment occurs during classroom interactions between teacher
and learners. The quality of questions asked by the teacher and learners,
the depth of answers supplied by learners, the quality o f class discussions
and the detailed observations of learners at work all provide evidence of
learning. Effective questions encourage learners to think more deeply and
provide the teacher with greater insight into the level of understanding of
student grou ps and individuals.
2.7 REFERENCES
1) Agrawal, Mamta (1988). A Handbook of Evaluation in English,
NCERT, New Delhi.
2) B. N. Dash (2014). Educational Measurement Statistics and Guidance
Services, Dominant Publishers and Distributors Pt. Ltd. Delhi.
3) Bloom, B.S ., et a1 (1970) Handbook on Formative and Summative
Evaluation of Student Learning, New York, McGraw -Hill.
4) Gupta Rainu (2017) Measurement, Evaluation and Assessment for
Learning. Shipra Publications, Delhi.
5) Gronlund, N.E., (1981) Measurement and Ev aluation in Teaching, The
MacMillan Company, New York.
6) Gronlund, N.E., and Linn Robert (2003) Measurement and Evaluation
Assessment in Teaching, (8th Ed.) Pearson Education Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
7) Patel R. N. (2011) Educational Evaluation: Theory and Pract ice.
Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi.
Weblinks:
1. Assessments in Education:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0xQKPz0zDL8
2. Formative Assessment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= -RXYTpgvB5I munotes.in
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Assessment And Examinations
27 3. Summative Assessment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sjnr I3ZO2tU
4. Comparison of Formative and Summative Assessments
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bTGnJnuVNt8
5. Purpose of Assessments:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JHZsz_j_z7A
7. Fourteen Types of Assessments
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zTkQjH -_97c
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28 3
EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Unit Structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Educational Aims and Objectives, Relationship between aims and
objectives, classification of educational objectives
3.3 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain,
3.4 Krathwohl and Masia’s Taxonomy of the Affective Domain
3.5 Dave’s Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain
3.6 Summary
3.7 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
a) Describe the concept of educational aims and objectives .
b) Explain the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain,
c) Explain the Krathwohl and Masia’s Taxonomy of the Affective
Domain
d) Explain the Dave’s Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain
e) Explain the relationship between aims and objectives, classification
of educational objectives.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
We are aware that any activity has some aim before it is done and there is
a very close relationship between activity and its aim. Education is a
purposeful activity and hence the process of education also has aims. An
aim is a conscious purpose which is set prior to performing any task or an
activity. The process of education will not take place if there are no
because an aim is always pre -determined which further inspires the
activity of education.
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29 3.2 CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL AIMS AND
OBJECTIVES
Although the words aim and objective are often used synonymously,
professionals and researchers from the field of education define
the educational aims and objectives in a narrow manner and consider them
to be distinct from each other. They state that aims are concerned with
purpose whereas objectives are concerned with achievement.
Aims act as an umbrella term where it can be chucked into various
objectives which together help in achieving the aim. Aims usually have a
long-range perspective which reflects aspirations and ambition of the
entity.In the words of John Dewey “An aim is a foreseen end that gives
direction to an activity or motivates behavior”.
While talking about objectives they relate to gaining of an ability, a skill,
some knowledge, a novel attitude etc. rather than merely having
completed a given task. The achievement of objectives takes place during
the course and the aims look forward into the individual’s life beyond the
course.Aims are relatively framed ke eping in long term achievements
whereas objectives can be restricted to the duration of the course.
Importance of Educational Aims and objectives:
All the teaching methods, the curriculum and the system of evaluation are
shaped and molded according to the aims and objectives of education. It is
the ignorance of right aims that has vitiated our educational system, its
methods and its products, and has successfully resulted in the physical,
intellectual and moral weaknesses of the race. There is a great nece ssity of
aims and objectives in education::
1. To direct efforts : Aims and objectives provide direction to the
teaching -learning process. Formulated aims and respective objectives help
the teacher and the taught to be on the correct track. They help by
provid ing a line of action and guidance to the teachers and also direct
learners and zest to their work. Wastage of time and energy is avoided if
proper aims and objectives are determined.
2. To evaluate ourselves : The aims and objectives act as a yard -stick
with which can be used to measure our success as well as our failure. They
are mandatory to assess the outcome of the educational process.
3. To provide efficient administration :They are necessary for
efficient working of the school's administration and organizati on. They
help the school authorities in organizing, equipping and administering the
school providing them with opportunities to progress.
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30 Factors determining Educational Aims and Objectives:
There are many factors that contribute to determining educatio nal aims
and objectives. These factors reflect every phase of human life that has
passed, that is or what will be in future, and are listed below:
1. Factors that are associated with Philosophy of life : Aim and
objectives of any educational system are always influenced by the
philosophy of life of the people of that country. Example, the aims and
objectives of the Indian education system will be different than those
from others because of the philosophy that we follow.
2. Factors associated with Psychology : The aims and objectives of
education should always be determined according to the needs,
inspiration, nature and interest of the learners. They should correlate
with knowledge and activities of life.
3. Factors associated with Political ideology : The aims and objectives
of education are fixed as per the ideology of the state to uphold the
right of state.
4. Factors associated withSocio -economic Problem : Not just political
ideologies of a country but its social economic problems also
determine the aims and objectiv es of education.
5. Factors associated with exploring knowledge : As far as educational
aims and objectives are considered; education has given due
consideration to the advancements in knowledge as per the era that we
are living in.
6. Factors associated with Culture: Preserving and developing culture
and heritage of our country is the most important function of the
education. The changing and developing pattern of cultural factors
directly influence the aims of education.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The word ‘aim’ is often misconstrued with objective, as they talk about
what an individual or entity may want to achieve. The following points are
important to understand the relationship between aims and objectives:
1. The word ‘aim’ is described as the ulti mate goal, which an individual
strives to achieve. The term ‘objective’ is something a person seeks to
achieve by chasing it continuously.
2. Aims reflect long -term outcomes whereas its objectives indicate the
short -term targets. Aims are usually long -term st atements of purpose
that are achieved over a long duration of time, maybe a year or few
years. Objectives on the other hand are bound to specificity and a
short duration of time say for example one teaching period or during
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31 3. The base of aim formation is provided by Philosophy but psychology
provides a base to objectives.
4. Aims are broader in nature whereas objectives are narrower. You may
need to enlist a number of objectives in order to achieve one aim.
5. Aims relate with the general direction of an individual/
institution/content. Objectives on the contrary are more specific to the
goal of an individual or institution.
6. Aim is a foreseen end whereas Objectives are driven by aims. Aim is
related to the mission and purpose wherea s objectives are concerned
with the achievements.
7. Aim helps in answering the question, what is to be achieved? Unlike
objectives which help in answering, how it is to be achieved?
8. Objectives are time bound whereas aims are not. Aims do not have a
time fram e within which they are to be achieved. Objectives are
always accompanied with a time frame, within which it must be
achieved.
9. The most important difference between these two is on measurability.
Aims may or may not be easily observable and measurable but
objectives are.
3.3 REVISED BL OOM’S TAXONOMY OF THE
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
One extremely useful guide in order to develop a comprehensive list of
educational objectives is the Taxonomy of Educational objectives. The
word taxonomy has been derived fro m a Greek word ‘taxis’ - plural, taxa -
meaning “arrangement” “division”. It is originally associated with
biology. It refers to a system of classifying plants and animals based on
division, class, order, family, germs and species. In the field of educatio n,
taxonomy refers to any systematic organisation.
Benjamin Bloom in 1956, headed a group of educational psychologists
who invented and developed the classification system for levels of
cognitive skills and learning behaviour. This classification system th at was
created is often referred to as Bloom's Taxonomy of cognitive domain.
The word taxonomy refers to the classification of structures. Bloom’s
Taxonomy is a hierarchical structure ordering of cognitive skills according
to six cognitive levels of complex ity, with knowledge at the base followed
by comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation at the
top. With the exception of Application, each of the categories viz.
knowledge, comprehension, analysis, synthesis and evaluation were
broken i nto subcategories These categories are ordered from simple to
Complex and from concrete to abstract that helps teachers teach and
students learn. The classification is often referred to as a progressive claim
in order to develop a higher level of thinking w ith the highest -level being munotes.in
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32 evaluation, at the top of the pyramid. The taxonomy is depicted in the
figure below:
Figure 1: Bloom's Taxonomy (1956)
The basic or lowest level in the hierarchy or the taxonomy deals with
simple acquisition of knowledge. At t his level students simply memorize
or recall list and repeat information that has already been learnt.The
cognitive complexity grows at a very early age and when the individual
reaches at the highest level they are able to build a cognitive structure
from diverse elements and are also able to put parts together in order to
form a whole as well as to make judgment about the values of ideas that
they possess. Bloom’s Taxonomy can be used to create assessments for
students, plan lessons as per cognitive abilit ies, evaluate the complexity of
assignments keeping the hierarchy in mind, design curriculum maps,
develop online courses and content, plan higher -order learning
like project -based learning and also helps in self -assessment.
In 1990’s, Lorin Anderson and a group of other cognitive psychologists
updated Bloom's taxonomy. The revisions that were made may appear
fairly minor, however, they have a significant impact on how people use
the taxonomy. The changes in the taxonomy can be divided into three
following categories: terminology, structure and emphasis.
Terminology in the revised version of Bloom's taxonomy changes the
names of each of the six levels. The six levels are remembering,
understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating. The
Knowledge level which was the lowest level of the original taxonomy was
renamed and classified as remembering. The most significant change to
the Cognitive Domain was the removal of ‘Synthesis’ level and the
addition of ‘Creation’ as the highest -level of Bloom’s Tax onomy. Creation
being at the highest level, its implication is that it is the most complex and
demanding cognitive skill. It is equally important to note that the change
in the name of levels in the taxonomy is from noun form to verb form in
order to descr ibe the different levels of the taxonomy. The names were
changed to indicate action because thinking implies active engagements.
Say for example Knowledge is an outcome of thinking, it is not merely a munotes.in
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33 form of thinking. Consequently, since the word “knowled ge” inaccurately
described a category of thinking, it was replaced with the verb
“remembering.” The revised Bloom's taxonomy with respect to
terminology is depicted in the figure below:
Figure 2: Revised Bloom's Taxonomy based on change in
Terminology
Structure in the revised version of Bloom's taxonomy
The top two levels are swapped from the old to the new version. The
revised taxonomy places the “evaluation” stage down by a level and the
highest element becomes “creating.” At the second to the highest -level
that is at the evaluation stage people try to defend, justify, support and
evaluate their opinion on the information. whereas at the highest level that
is the creating level people try to generate new concepts, ideas, create or
construct a new perspect ive. This major change was made as the
taxonomy is viewed, since its origin as a hierarchy which reflects
complexity of thinking in an increasing manner. Also, creative thinking
that is the creating level is considered a far more complex form of thinking
as compared to critical thinking that is the evaluating level as per the
revised taxonomy. The justification for this can be such that a person can
evaluate information without being creative, but for creative thinking it is
mandatory to have some level of evaluation or critical thinking in other
words for an individual to be creative it is important for them to evaluate
the effectiveness of their novel idea. munotes.in
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34
Figure 3: Revised Bloom's Taxonomy based on change in Structure
The revision in the taxonomy empha sizes the application of it as a tool for
aligning curriculum planning, instructional delivery and assessment. The
additional benefit of it is that the revision is aimed at a broader audience.
The original taxonomy was viewed and best used as a tool that w as
applied for younger grades at school. However, the revised version is
more universal and easily applicable not only at elementary, secondary
grades but also for adult training.
The six levels of cognitive learning in the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy
1. Rememb ering: Relates to retrieving, recalling or recognizing relevant
knowledge or information from long -term memory. For example, students
try to recall important dates of events in Indian history, remember the
components of a plant and animal cells, etc. Appro priate learning outcome
verbs for this level include: identify, cite, name, match, define, tabulate,
reproduce, describe, enlist, label, list, outline, quote, recall, report, etc.
2. Understanding: Demonstrate comprehension through one or more forms of
explan ation. For example, classifying foods based on their nutritional
values, comparing ritual practices in two religions. Appropriate learning
outcome verbs: abstract, explain, elaborate, estimate represent, arrange,
articulate, associate, categorize, clarify, classify, compare, compute,
conclude, contrast, defend, diagram, differentiate, discuss, distinguish,
exemplify, extend, extrapolate, infer, generalize, give examples of,
illustrate, interpolate, interpret, match, rearrange, outline, paraphrase,
predict, reorder, rephrase, restate, summarize, transform, translate, etc.
3. Applying: Appropriate use of information or a skill in a novel
situation. e.g., use Newton's third law to solve a problem, apply various
statistical measures in order to do analysis, etc. Ap propriate learning
outcome verbs: employ, apply, calculate, organize, carry out, classify,
complete, compute, demonstrate, dramatize, examine, predict, execute,
experiment, generalize, interpret, illustrate, transfer, implement, infer,
manipulate, modify, operate, outline, solve, translate,
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35 4. Analyzing: The analyze level considers breaking the material into
its constituent parts and then determining how these parts relate to one
another and to the overall structure or purpose. e.g., analyze the
relationship between different working systems in our body like the
respiratory, digestive, excretory, nervous system; analyze the relationship
between different characters in a play; analyze the relationship between
different religious contributions to our society. A ppropriate learning
outcome verbs: analyze, detect, arrange, break down, explain, categorize,
classify, relate, compare, connect, contrast, identify, deconstruct,diagram,
differentiate, discriminate, divide, integrate, inventory, order, organize,
separate, structure, distinguish.
5. Evaluating: The evaluate level helps to make judgments based on
provided criteria and standards. e.g.,judge which out of the two methods is
the best way to solve a given problem, determine the quality of a product
based on the prov ided disciplinary criteria. Appropriate learning outcome
verbs: appraise, apprise, test, argue, assess, compare, conclude, judge,
grade, consider, contrast, convince, rank, determine, criticize, critique,
decide, discriminate, evaluate, justify, measure, r ate, recommend, review,
score, select, standardize, support,validate, etc.
6. Creating: Create level helps students to put each element together
to form a new coherent or functional whole, in other words it reorganizes
elements into a new pattern or structur e. For example, write a project or
thesis, develop an alternative hypothesis based on criteria, invent a novel
product, compose a piece of music. Appropriate learning outcome
verbs: arrange, propose, assemble, build, collect, reorganize, combine,
compose, rearrange, constitute, construct, create, design, develop, devise,
formulate, generate, prepare, hypothesize, integrate, invent, make,
manage, modify, organize, perform, plan, produce, reconstruct, revise,
rewrite, compile, specify, synthesize, write, etc.
3.4 KRATHWOHL AND MASIA’S TAXONOMY OF
THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Most people think that learning is an intellectual or mental function,
however, the fact is that learning is not just limited to cognitive (mental)
functions individuals can also learn behaviors, attitudes and physical
skills. These different categories as described create three domains of
learning that can be categorized as cognitive (knowledge) domain,
psychomotor (skills) domain and affective (attitudes) domain.
The affective domain also known as attitude domain (Krathwohl, Bloom,
Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which a person deals with situations
emotionally, such as values, feelings, enthusiasm, appreciation,
motivations and attitudes. This domain is further categorized into 5 major
subdo mains as enlisted below moving from the lowest order to the highest.
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36 1. Receiving (actively participating in the process of learning)
2. Responding (not only aware of a stimulus, but reacting to it in some
way)
3. Valuing (ability to see the worth of something an d express it.)
4. Organization (Putting together different information and ideas, relating
them and creating own novel value system)
5. Characterization (Acting consistently in accordance with the values
that have been internalized)
Figure 4: Krathwohl and Mas ias Taxonomy of Affective Domain
1. Receiving: forms the lowest level of the affective domain. It is simply
the awareness of one’s feelings and emotions. It involves paying
attention passively and being aware that certain ideas, material or
phenomena do exist . No learning can take place without this level. If
no information is ever received then it cannot be remembered as well.
Examples: Listening attentively to someone who is talking or listening
to a lecture, watching a movie, observing the sunset and sunris e, etc.
Key Words: acknowledge, asks, attentive, courteous, dutiful, follows,
gives, listens, understands, etc.
2. Responding is placed above receiving which involves the learners
participating actively in the learning process. They are not only aware
of th e stimulus, but also react and respond to it in some way. Learning
outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to
respond or satisfaction in responding (motivation).
Examples: Participation in class or group discussion, giving a
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Educational Objectives
37 in order to fully understand them, Knowing the safety rules and
practicing them, etc.
Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses,
greets, helps, labels, performs, presents, tells.
3. Valuing: People attach value to a particular object or phenomenon or
behavior depending on the importance of that particular object. This
ranges from simple acceptance to the most complex state of
commitment. Simple acceptance includes innovations, desire to
improve the skills or talent of the team whereas more complex level of
acceptance includes taking the responsibility for the overall
development of the team. Valuing is dependent upon internalization of
a set of specified values, while clues to t hese values are expressed in
the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable.
Example: proposing a plan in order to improve skills among the team
and enhance social behavior to achieve long time commitments,
demonstrate problem solving skills and a lso a feeling of democracy,
sensitivity towards individual and cultural differences, etc.
Key Words: appreciates, cherishes, treasure, demonstrates, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies, proposes, respect, shares.
4. Organizing: involves putting together diff erent information, values,
concepts and ideas that are related to the existing belief system in
order to form new ideas and philosophies and also a unique value
system.Essentially, it is the ability to prioritize one value over another
and create a unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing,
relating, and synthesizing values.
Example:Accepting the professional ethical standards that have been
predetermined, spending more time studying rather than playing
sports, recognising the importance of balanc e between work and
families, also utilizing time effectively in order to meet the desired
goals, etc.
Key Words: compares, relates, synthesizes.
5. Characterizing: forms, the highest level of the Affective domain
which is all about internalizing values. Here , the value system controls
the individuals’ behaviors. The behavior is pervasive, consistent,
predictable and form the most important characteristic of the learner.
In other words,the values are internalized and then they guide and
control individuals’ be havior.
Examples: spending time with family, reframing priorities, making
friends based on personality and not looks, value people for what they
are rather than how they appear, cooperating while conducting group
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38 Key Words: acts, discrimi nates, displays, influences, modifies, performs,
qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.
3.5 DAVE’S TAXONOMY OF THE PSYCHOMOTOR
DOMAIN
Psychomotor skills are those skills or abilities that require a
physical component. Rather than using th e cognitive or metacognitive
skills, or individuals’ ability to speak and observe in order to develop
social skills, these are things that are done physically. These skills
require a degree of dexterity, suppleness or strength and motor control.
In order t o understand the Psychomotor Domain, the psychomotor
taxonomy developed by R. H. Dave has been elaborated below. This
model of psychomotor domain was finalised by Ravindrakumar Dave in
1975, who argued that learners must first observe, imitate skills, and then
repeat them from memory before mastery can be achieved.
Figure 5: Dave’s Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain
1. Imitation: As the name suggests it means simply observing and copying
someone else or patterning their behavior. Performance through imitatio n
may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art, copying the way
letters are written, etc. Key Words: copy, follow, mimic, repeat, replicate,
reproduce, trace.
2. Manipulation: is guided via instruction and practice to perform a certain
action or skil l or task. Example: Creating a model on your own after
reading about or observing it, following the route by provided instructions,
etc.In other words, it is being able to perform certain actions by memory
or following instructions. Key Words: act, build, execute, perform.
3. Precision : Without the presence of original source, accuracy, proportion
and exactness exists in the skill performed. Refining, becoming more exact
and accurate. Example: Working and reworking on something to gain
accuracy or till the poin t ‘it’s just right’, performing skills and task munotes.in
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Educational Objectives
39 without any assistance. Here, performing a skill is with a high degree of
precision.Key Words: calibrate, demonstrate, master, perfectionism.
4. Articulation: has two or more skills combined, sequenced and perfo rmed
consistently. Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and
internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music,
drama, color, sound, etc. Combining a series of skills or activities to meet
a novel requirement.Key Words: adap t, constructs, combine, creates,
customize, modifies, formulate/
5. Naturalization: When t wo or more skills combined, sequenced, and
performed consistently and with ease. The performance is automatic with
little physical or mental exertion. Having high level p erformance become
natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan
playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting golf ball, etc. Mastering a high -
level performance until it become second -nature or natural, without
needing to think much a bout it.Key Words: create, design, develop,
invent, manage, naturally.
3.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What do you understand by the term aim and objectives?
2. State the various factors that affect aims and objectives
3. Why are aims and objectives important?
4. Different iate between aims and objectives
5. Define the taxonomy and domain
6. What is the cognitive domain? Explain Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of
the Cognitive Domain.
7. Explain Krathwohl and Masia’s Taxonomy of the Affective Domain
8. Elaborate on Dave’s Taxonomy of the Psych omotor Domain
3.7 REFERENCES
Adams, N.E. (2015). Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive learning objectives.
Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA, 103 3, 152 -3 .
1. Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. (2001). A taxonomy for learning,
teaching, and assessing : A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of
educational objectives
2. Armstrong, P. (2010). Bloom’s Taxonomy. Vanderbilt University
Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from
https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides -sub-pages/blooms -taxonomy/.
3. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Tax onomy of Educational Objectives: The
Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook 1; Cognitive Domain. munotes.in
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Educational Evaluation
40 4. Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H.,
Krathwohl, D.R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,
Handbook I: The Cognitive Doma in. New York: David McKay Co
Inc.
5. Clark, D. (2010). Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains: The three
types of learning. Big Dog & Little Dog’s Performance Juxtaposition.
6. community: Social presence and learning engagement. Paper
presented at the World Confe rence onthe WWW and the Internet
(WebNet); San Antonio, TX.
7. Dave, R.H. (1970). Psychomotor levels in Developing and Writing
Behavioral Objectives, pp.20 -21. R.J. Armstrong, ed. Tucson,
Arizona: Educational Innovators Press.
8. Katambur, D. (2020, January 22). The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy in
eLearning and its Application. Retrieved from CommLab India:
https://blog.commlabindia.com/elearning -design/blooms -taxonomy -
examples
9. Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S., Masia, B.B. (1973). Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals.
Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.
10. Overbaugh, R. & Schultz, L. “Bloom’s Taxonomy.” Krathwohl, D. R.
(2002). “A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An Overview.” Theory
into Practice 11/11
11. Polhemus , L., Shih, L -F., Richardson, J.C. and Swan, K. (2000).
Building an affective learning
12. Zvacek, S. M. Effective Affective design for distance education. Tech
Trends. 1991; 36: 40 -43.
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41 4
LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND
OUTCOMES
Unit Structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Learning Experiences: Meaning, Types, Significance of Value
Based Learning Experiences
4.3 Learning Outcomes: meaning, significance.
4.4 The Relationship between Objectives, Specifications, Learning
Experiences and Evaluation
4.5 Exercise
4.6 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
a) Describe the concept of Learning Experiences
b) Describe the significa nce of value -based Learning Experiences
c) Describe the concept of Learning Outcomes
d) Differentiate between test, assessment and evaluation.
e) Explain the relationship between Objectives, Specifications, Learning
Experiences and Evaluation
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning occurs when the pupil has an experience, ie. when the individual
reacts and responds to the situation in which s/he finds him/herself.
Individuals learn by thinking, feeling and doing. Learning results from the
active participation of the individual , to the stimulus situation which the
teacher creates in the class. Experiencing is seeing, hearing, tasting,
smelling and touching. The individual reacts to these experiences and
learning takes place. All experiences are learning experiences. Learning
takes place by interaction between the situation and the learner. Learning
will not take place in the absence of any experiences.
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42 4.2 LEARNING EXPERIENCES: MEANING, TYPES,
SIGNIFICANCE OF VALUE BASED LEARNING
EXPERIENCES
Meaning of Learning Experiences:
Experiencing is simply seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, smelling &so on.
The individual reacts to those experiences and learning take place. We
learn because things happen to us and we do something in turn. It is only
through experience that we learn. Lear ning will not take place in the
absence of any experience. The phrase learning experience is probably a
tautology. All experiences are learning experience.
A child exposed to various learning experiences Learning Experiences
are not just a part of the syllabus, nor is it a unit or a teaching point. It is
not a traditional lesson plan or simply activity. It is the interaction of the
learner and the situation provided by the teacher. Each of these learning
experiences modifies the behavior of the pup il.
Definition of Learning Experiences: ‘Learning experiences are pupils'
activities planned with the specific purpose of producing desired behavior
change in them.’
Characteristics of Learning Experiences:
The responsibility of the classroom teacher is t o provide to his students a
learning situation composed of a variety of learning activities, so that they
may have direct as well as indirect learning experiences which ultimately
results in learning.
1] It should be directly related to the instructional o bjectives
2] It should be meaningful. E.g. asking students to take down the theorem
written on the blackboard without understanding it will not result in a
meaningful experience.
3] It should satisfy the psychological needs of the learner. E.g. for
adoles cents, detective stories may be made available and for school
children the fairy tales.
4] It should be appropriate to the maturity level of the learner. E.g.
primary school children should be asked to write essays on topics like the
cow, the postman, whil e secondary school children should be asked to
write essays like if I were a headmaster, patriotism, an evening at the
seashore.
5] It should be related to life situations.
6] While selecting the experience, availability of material and of time
should be c onsidered.
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43 7] It should be varied and rich in content and novel. E.g. a student who
studies the digestive system of various animals will get a richer experience
than the one who studies the digestive system of only one animal. E.g. a
pupil who observed th e habits of birds and their nests has a richer
experience than the one who merely sees the habits of one bird.
Sources of Learning Experiences:
1] Home: It is one of the influential centers of education. The child learns
a number of things at home. The ho me, an informal agency, provides a
number of learning experiences, e.g. sitting, standing, walking, running,
talking, oral expression etc. Some children get enough material for reading
and & games. Parents influence the child’s behavior by their own action s.
2] Society: Many desirable and undesirable experiences are provided by
society. Many likes or virtues can be developed through all these
experiments, lottery, gambling are some of the illustrations which may
have an adverse effect while some other expe riences have a whole some
effect. People who work in society with a sense of dedication provide
desirable learning experiences. You can develop honesty or dishonesty.
This is again an informal agency.
3] Mass media: Radio, TV. Newspaper, libraries enrich t he lives of
individuals by providing rich and varied material.
4] Play ground: It is our experience that many qualities are developed on
the playground. Skill in various games, attitude of co -operation, lead ship
qualities are likely to be developed throug h activities on the playground.
5] Peer group: A child learns a number of things while he/she is among
his/her peers. Qualities such as co -operation, honesty, helpfulness,
leadership, etc are developed in the peer group.
6] Journeys and excursions: they pr ovide learning experience which may
help students to develop certain good qualities like cooperation,
helpfulness etc. again they help to develop the skill to budget for the
expenditure & how to face problems. The students come in contact with
people of va rious types speaking different languages.
7] Schools: A school is a miniature society. This is a formal agency
providing a variety of learning experiences including:
a) Experiments: provide learning experiences related to laboratory skills.
b) Audio -Visual aids: Radio, films, film shop, epidiascope etc, enrich
teaching and develop pupil interests. They widen the scope of knowledge
and understanding. Again, they provide learning experiences which
develop pupil’s interest.
c) Co-curricular activities: Debatin g, elocution, dramatization help
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44 d) Method of teaching: Group discussion method, assignment method,
workshops, seminars etc provide various types of learning experience to
widen th e horizon of the students knowledge and understanding.
Types of Learning Experiences:
A] Direct Learning Experiences: First hand experiences with various
objects or symbols are formed by direct experience. These experiences are
more th an perceptual learning in the sense that they include experiences
with symbols. Perceptual learning arises out of experiences dependent
upon seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, feeling, handling etc
through perceptual learning. We use symbolic wo rds to describe them.
Merits of Direct Learning Experiences:
1) It is a firsthand experience.
2) It is most reliable.
3) It is long lasting.
4) It gives an opportunity for developing an observation skill.
Limitations of Direct Learning Experiences:
1) For each conten t it is not possible. E.g. heart
2) It is very different to have direct experience in all matters.
E.g. earthquake.
B] Indirect Learning Experiences: Those experiences which are not
firsthand experience are formed indirect experiences.
1) It makes use of the direct experience of others.
2) We learn much through the experience of others.
3) This experience includes such activities as reading, looking at
pictures, listening to lectures and discussion and so forth.
4) We must keep in mind constantly however that the abil ity of the
learner to profit by the experiences of others depends upon the extent
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45 Merits of Indirect Learning Experiences:
1] It can be used easily in classroom teaching.
2] Students are given opportunities to observe with proper class control.
3] Indirect experiences are less time and energy consuming.
4] Indirect experiences can be given as per regular classroom periods with
the help of different teaching aids to complete the syllabus on time.
5] There is no risk involved as only pictures, models and charts are used
for teaching. For e.g. while conducting an experiment in the laboratory,
involving the preparation of gases, students might be harmed in case of
leakage of gases.
6] Indirect experi ences are useful in teaching concepts which cannot
otherwise be taught with the help of direct experiences.
7] While narrating certain incidents or explaining meanings of proverbs or
phrases, verbal explanation is necessary and effective.
Limitations of Le arning Experiences
1) These are indirect, so could be a limitation to comprehend the whole
concept or incidences.
2) These experiences are limited in nature.
3) These are not too effective to understand.
4) Not suitable for slow learners.
5) Not effective for small children .
Check your progress:
1. What are Learning Experiences?
2. Describe the various sources of Learning Experiences
3. Describe the types of Learning Experiences, with suitable examples,
4.3 LEARNING OUTCOMES
Meaning of Learning Outcomes: meaning and s ignificance.
Learning outcomes are descriptions of the specific knowledge, skills, or
expertise that the learner will get from a learning activity, such as a
training session, seminar, course, or program.
Learning outcomes are measurable achievements that the learner will be
able to understand after the learning is complete, which helps learners
understand the importance of the information and what they will gain from
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46 Learning outcomes are statements that descri be significant and essential
learning that learners have achieved, and can reliably demonstrate at the
end of a course or program. In other words, learning outcomes identify
what the learner will know and be able to do by the end of a course or
program.
Creating clear, actionable learning outcomes is an important part of the
creation of training programs in organizations. When developing these
programs, both management and instructors need to be clear about what
learners should understand after completing t heir learning path.
Learning outcomes also play a key role in assessment and evaluation,
making clear what knowledge learners should have upon completion of
the learning activity.
A well -written learning outcome will focus on how the learner will be able
to apply their new knowledge in a real -world context, rather than on a
learner being able to recite information.
The most useful learning outcomes include a verb that describes an
observable action, a description of what the learner will be able to do and
under which conditions they will be able to do it, and the performance
level they should be able to reach
OUTCOMES: An outcome indicates the change of behavior that is
observable and measurable.
Criteria for writing the statement of learning outcomes:
1) The statement of specification should contain an action verb.
E.g. The pupil calculates the percentages of the given problem.
2) The statement of specification should indicate a worthwhile objective.
E.g. for 7th standard student The pupil criticizes the policy of Lord
Curzon. (Not proper) The pupil constructs different types of triangles.
(Proper)
3) The statement of specification should be related to human ability.
Teachers should not frame the following type of statement of
specifications.
E.g. The pupils explai n the method of changing the features of a face.
(Not proper)
4) The statement of specification should also mention the subject matter
area (content)
E.g. The pupil explains (modification part) causes of freedom struggle
of 1857(content part).
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Learning Experiences And Outcomes
47 5) The statement of specification should be in the form of a student's
achievement. E.g. The pupil recalls the names of mountains and rivers
of India
6) The statement of specification should be written in the form of the
achievement of every single pupil.
E.g. Pupils recal l the names of mountains and rivers of India.
(improper) The pupil recalls the names of mountains and rivers of
India. (Proper)
7) The statement of specification should contain only one ability to be
developed or achieved or modified.
E.g. the pupil recognize s and draws different parts of the flower .
(improper) The pupil recognizes different parts of the flower . (Proper)
The pupil draws different parts of the flower . (Proper)
SIGNIFICANCE OF LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Learning outcomes help the student choose appropri ate
courses /programmes .
2. Well defined learning outcomes remove the risk of wasting time.
Reduce unnecessary stress on the students.
3. Learning outcomes gives a clear headstart idea t o students of what
they are going to learn or achieve at the end of the cla ss.
4. Learning outcomes highlights what exactly and more importantly
students should know to achieve from that particular course.
5. By achieving Learning outcomes students can demonstrate that he/she
has reached the summit of the course.
Benefiting Teachers find it easy to plan a lesson
1. Learning outcomes help teachers plan a lesson
2. Learning outcomes give a clear idea of what and how much to teach
and plan accordingly. Learning outcomes help teachers design their
teaching material more effectively
3. Learning outcomes help teachers select appropriate teaching
strategies.
4. Learning outcomes help teachers avoid extra teaching which
ultimately helps in saving time.
Help in writing Assessments & Evaluation
1. Learning outcomes make assessment mapping clear & easy.
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48 3. Learning outcomes make students study on their own and come to the
class well prepared. Evaluation
4. Learning outcomes help in measuring the effectiveness of the unit.
5. Learning outcomes play a major role in allocation of marks while
setting question papers.
Check your progress:
1. Explain the parts of a well written learning outcome.
2. Why are learning outcomes important?
3. Explain any two criteria for writing good learning outcomes, with
suitable examples.
4.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEARNING
OBJECTIVES, SPECIFICATIONS, EXPERIENCES
AND EVALUATION
Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting
evidence of a student's progress. Proper evaluation of learners is necessary
for suc cessful teaching. Evaluation is integrated with the process of
teaching and learning.
Learning Objectives may be general or specific. General objectives
include appraising the changes in student behaviour, to relate
measurement to the goals of the instruct ion, etc.
Specifications indicate behavioral changes that are observable and
measurable.
Learning Experiences are planned and organized based on the objectives.
It refers to any interaction, course, program, or other experience in which
learning takes plac e.
Evaluation is a continuous process of discovering the extent of the
effectiveness of the experiences at every stage in the learning process to
bring out the desired changes in students.
Relationship of Educational Goals and the Curriculum
The knowledg e, skills, and abilities that students achieve at the end of
their courses are affected by how well courses and other experiences in the
curriculum fit together and build on each other. Any curriculum can be
organized into three major components:
1. objec tives (“where” are we going),
2. content or subject matter (“what” we’re doing to get there), and
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49 Curriculum developers and teachers must always be concerned about what
should be included in the curriculum and how to present and arrange what
is selected. In other words, the teachers must:
1. formulate behavioral objectives, which act as a road map for the
curriculum development and implementation process.
2. deal with subject matter (content analysis) , and then,
3. deal with the learning experiences.
Regardless of the curriculum approach or development model used,
curriculum developers and teachers cannot ignore these three components.
Curriculum Developers must decide not only what content and learning
experiences to include, but also, and more importantly, the relationship of
objectives and content as well as the relationship of objectives to learning
experiences.
Relationship of Educational Objectives and Learning Content
Objectives are usually state d in terms of expected outcomes. For example,
a school science teacher might develop a chronological list of topics to be
covered in a biological science course: functions of human organisms, use
of plant and animal resources, evolution and development, et c. This type
of list shows what the science teacher intends to teach but not what the
expected outcomes of instruction will be.
The content outline is useful for the teacher in planning and guiding
instruction, but it is insufficient for the statement of behavioral objectives.
To be useful in teaching, behavioral objectives must be linked to the
content (learning material).
The real contribution of stating objectives for learning is to think of how
each objective can be achieved by students through the co ntent or subject
matter they learn.
1. The first type of behavior is to develop understanding of important facts
and principles;
2. The second type is to develop familiarity with dependable sources of
information;
3. The third type of behavior is to de velop the ability to interpret data;
4. The fourth type is to develop ability to apply principles that are taught
in that specific subject content to concrete and real problems in life;
5. The fifth type of behavior is to develop the ability to study and report
the results of an investigation;
6. The sixth type is to develop broad and mature interests as they relate to
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50 Instructional Objectives (Learning Specifications):
During a classroom session, the instructional objective is the teacher’s
specific statement of a measurable step it will achieve that leads to an
instructional goal. Instructional Objectives capture the means by which the
teacher will implement its stated m ission, as specified in course criteria.
Measurable instructional objectives specify the minimum acceptable
performance in terms of quality, quantity or time. These objectives are
used by the institution to evaluate progress in meeting its basic educationa l
mission and may be expanded as appropriate to encompass the complex
nature or special focus of each institution.
Major difference between an instructional objective and a competency is:
1. Instructional Objectives specify what the institution intends to d o to
achieve its instructional goals.
2. Competencies, on the other hand, clearly define what the student will
do to demonstrate learning for a workforce -related need.
Relationship of Objectives to Learning Experiences
The term “learning experience” is not the same as the content with which
a course deals nor the activities performed by the teacher. Learning takes
place through the active behavior of the student. Learning experiences
refer to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions
in the environment to which he/she can react .
Relationship of Learning Experiences to Assessment and Evaluation:
The measurable and observable Learning Outcomes (Instructional
Objectives) are directly linked to questions, to measure and quantify the
result s of learning ; through various assessment techniques of testing
(oral -written -performance tests), student presentations, and assignments.
Check your progress:
1. Describe the relationship between Objectives, Specifications, Learning
Experiences and E valuation
2. Describe the relationship between Learning Experiences to Objectives
and Assessment
3. Describe the importance of Instructional Objectives.
4.5 SUMMARY
The purpose of focusing on learning outcomes is to make learning more
meaningful and e ffective for both students and teachers. Making education
more meaningful for students requires that they understand that education
can enable them to enrich their lives, by developing learning experiences
based on what students should be able to do with t heir knowledge.
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51 4.6 REFERENCES
1. Dandekar W.N. (1971), Evaluation In Schools, Shri Vidya Prakashan
Publishers, Poona.
2. Gupta Rainu (2017) Measurement, Evaluation and Assessment for
Learning. Shipra Publications, Delhi.
3. Gronlund, N.E., (1981) Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching, The
MacMillan Company, New York.
4. Gronlund, N.E., and Linn Robert (2003) Measurement and Evaluation
Assessment in Teaching, (8th Ed.) Pearson Education Pvt. Ltd., Delhi
5. Patel Rambhai N., Pandey Meena (2014), Educational Evaluation,
Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi.
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52 5
PRACTICAL WORK IN EDUCATIONAL
EVALUATION
Unit Structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Evaluation methods
5.3 Practical work
5.4 Practical Assessment
5.5 Need of Practical Assessment
5.6 Merits of Practical Assessment
5.7 Limitatio ns of Practical Assessment
5.8 Suggestions for Practical Test
5.9 Methods of evaluation
5.10 Practical activities can include the following
5.11 Summary
5.12 Exercise
5.13 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
State the meaning of Practical Evaluation,
Explain the factors affecting on practical work.
Explain the advantages and limitations of Practical exam.
Enlist the ways to assess practical exam.
EVALUATION
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53 5.1 INTRODUCTION
Evaluation is the wider term a nd play a very important role in teaching
learning process. Assessment of student learning requires the use of a
number of techniques for measuring students achievement. But assessment
is more than collection of techniques. It begins with the identificatio n of
the goals and ends with a judgment concerning the extent to which those
goals have been attained.
The secondary education commission observed ,”nevertheless
examination and especially external examinations have a proper place in
any scheme of educati on. External examinations have a simulated effect
both on the pupils and teachers by providing a well -defined goal and
objective standard of evaluation .
Evaluation means to ascertain the growth and changes, taking place in
pupils as a result of teaching l earning experiences. To evaluate means to
characterize the work or value of something. It is a methods of
determining the extent to which established goals or objectives have been
achieved. It is a “process of making an overlay of the outcomes as an
educat ive experience against the background of anticipated or stated
objectives”. It is not restricted to the result of tests and examination or the
teachers 'estimate but includes the learners’ own estimates of his own
ability.
5.2 EVALUATION METHODS
An evalua tion can use quantitative or qualitative data, and often includes
both. Both methods provide important information for evaluation.
These methods are rarely used alone; combined, they generally provide
the best overview of the project.
Forms of Evaluation:
1. Quantitative
a) Written Nominative
b) Oral Projective
c) Practical
2. Qualitative data
a) Observation
b) Self
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54 Quantitative Methods
Quantitative data provides information that can be counted to answer such
questions as “How many?”, “Who was involved?”, “What were the
outcomes?”, and “How much did it cost?”
Quantitative data can be collected by surveys or questionnaires, pretests
and posttests, observation, or review of existing documents and databases
or by gathering clinical data.
Surveys may be self - or interviewer -administered and conducted face -to-
face or by telephone, by mail, or online. Analysis of quantitative data
involves statistical analysis, from basic descriptive statistics to complex
analyses.
Quantitative data measure the depth and breadth of an implementation
(e.g., the number of people who participated, the number of people who
completed the program).
Quantitative data collected before and after an intervention can show its
outcomes and impact.
The strengths of quantitative data for eva luation purposes include their
generalization ability (if the sample represents the population), the ease of
analysis, and their consistency and precision (if collected reliably).
Qualitative Methods :Qualitative data answer such questions as “What is
the value added?”, “Who was responsible?”, and “When did something
happen?’’
Qualitative data are collected through direct or participant observation,
interviews, focus groups, and case studies and from written documents,
essays, scenarios, projects, artifact s, personal experiences, introspection,
visual texts, portfolios, direct observation, role play or simulation.
Analysis of qualitative data include examining, comparing and
contrasting, and interpreting patterns. Analysis will likely include the
identific ation of themes, coding, clustering similar data, and reducing data
to meaningful and important points, such as in grounded theory -building
or other approaches to qualitative analysis. Observations may help explain
behaviors as well as social context and m eanings because the evaluator
sees what is actually happening.
Observations can include watching a participant or program, videotaping
an intervention, or even recording people who have been asked to “think
aloud” while they work.
Interviews may be conduc ted with individuals alone or with groups of
people and are especially useful for exploring complex issues.Interviews
may be structured and conducted under controlled conditions, or they may
be conducted with a loose set of questions asked in an open -ended
manner. It may be helpful to tape -record interviews, with appropriate
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55 interviews have a specific focus, such as a critical incident that an
individual recalls and describes in detail. Ano ther type of interview
focuses on a person’s perceptions and motivations.
The strengths of qualitative data include providing contextual data to
explain complex issues and complementing quantitative data by
explaining the “why” and “how” behind the “what” . The limitations of
qualitative data for evaluation may include :
1. Lack of generalizability
2. The time -consuming data collection,
3. Costly nature of data collection,
4. The difficulty and complexity of data analysis and interpretation
Advantages of Quantitative Techniques :
● They help to produce more accurate, objective and conclusive results.
● They can help you to quantify the progress of your project and assess
whether or not you have met the indicators outlined in your log frame.
● They are useful in establishing baseline data at the start of a project
(eg. Proportion of pupils aged 12 to 16 passing end of year exams in
mathematics)
● They can enable you to generalize on the basis of your findings. With
statistically significant sample sizes, the results can sometim es even be
generalized to an entire target group
● They can allow you to draw comparisons and correlations (e.g. is the
percentage of girls aged 14 passing science exams lower than boys of
the same age and, if so, could this be linked to differences in the
school syllabus followed by boys and girls?
● They are particularly important where there is a need for accurate,
concrete answers (e.g. on improved literacy rates, increased annual
yields, percentage of population vaccinated)
● They can also be particularly ap preciated by donors who put a
premium on the demonstration of success.
● They can be used with hard and soft data
● They can be used to display data visually in meaningful tables, graphs,
pie-charts, and other formats. See the example below from
Development In itiatives.
Disadvantages of Quantitative Techniques :
● Quantitative techniques can lead to misleading results, not least if you
use them incorrectly. If, for example, you count the number of children
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56 focus only on the past three months when the yield was high and
ignore the 21 months before where the yield was extremely low
● They are not good at capturing feelings
● They can be open to misrepresentation or misinterpretation. Graphs
can sug gest sharp or slow increases depending upon the variables used
in the X and Y axes
● They may require a certain skill set or level of numeracy if they are to
be drawn on effectively and accurately
● They can lead to over -generalization: for example if you make claims
that your findings apply to an entire country when they relate to a
sample of only two towns or regions
ACHIEVEMENT TESTS: This test that measures the achievement of an
individual after a period of learning is called achievement test.
Achievement t est: Teacher Made: Oral ,Written and Practical
5.3 PRACTICAL WORK
“Knowledge is of no value unless you put it into practice.” – Anton
Chekhov .
The world of education has changed. In today’s education, a student
focuses on learning skills and gaining knowl edge. Practical learning has
replaced bookish education in many ways. Though theoretical education is
important, practical education is the key to understanding life better.
Can anyone teach you to swim in a classroom? The answer is impossible.
You should get into the situation to learn a few things with expertise.
These skill -based learning’s change students into successful individuals.
Theory gives you good grades but only if you apply practical learning to
it, only then actually become knowledgeable.
Practical work is an important aspect of science education. It includes a
range of activities and is also used for a range of purposes, such
as: illustrating a concept or idea to help students generate arguments from
evidence in the process of knowledge cons truction
Science practicals are one of the fundamental tools enabling our students
both to learn scientific knowledge, and how to do science. Practical work
has clear benefits, helping students acquire the essential skills that not only
give a fluid transi tion to higher -study, but open the doors to science as a
profession.
Different purposes in which practical work has been used has provoked
vigorous contestations among researchers. Practical work activities have
been described as enhancing learning of scie nce and developing scientific
skills among students. The goals of practical work are to improve students'
understanding, develop their skills in solving problems and understanding
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57 5.4 PRACTIC AL ASSESSMENT
It is used for those subjects in which pupils are taught to follow specific
procedures and / or create some products.
5.5 NEED OF PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
1. Supplements the written examinations to provide comprehensive
evidence of pupil’s developme nt.
2. Practical application of theory brings in realism.
3. Provides an opportunity for developing the fundamental skills related
to vocations of a practical nature.
4. Develops manipulative skills.
5. Develop skills in observation and recording of data.
5.6 MERITS O F PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
1. Facilitates Learning by Doing
2. Enhances psychomotor skills
3. Better retention
4. Builds up concentration power
5. Emphasis on application of skills
5.7 LIMITATIONS OF PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
1. Time consuming
2. Not feasible for large groups
3. Scope of manipulation
4. Lack of skilled and trained teachers
5. Requires practice
5.8 SUGGESTIONS FOR PRACTICAL TEST
1. Small groups (may be 5 to 7 students)
2. Efficient and trained teachers
3. Proper guidelines
4. Neatness and cleanliness
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58 6. Abili ty to perform the given task
7. Patience
8. Feedback (how and why aspect)
Criteria for evaluation – Practical Test
1. Planning phase
2. Execution phase
3. Reporting phase
Aspects of practical work
1. Skill in observation & recording of data
2. Ability to assess & interpret data
3. Ability to plan procedures of solving problems
4. Manipulative skill
Attitudes towards practical work
1. Acceptance
2. Enthusiasm
5.9 METHODS OF EVALUATION
1. Set exercises (presenting practical problem)
2. Project work
3. Course work (community work, Socially Useful Productive Work)
4. Oral questions
5. Observation or impression (teaching aids preparations)
5.10 PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES CAN INCLUDE THE
FOLLOWING
1. Making and using simple machines and equipment;
2. Carrying out experiments in a classroom, laboratory or fiel d;
3. Working on a farm or garden, establishing a nursery, growing or
planting trees, growing crops or rearing animals;
4. Doing management tasks like keeping records, accounts, etc.;
Everyone learns differently, and learning styles can vary from person to
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59 But there’s one type of learning that benefits most students, and that’s
practical learning.
When studying, it’s important to get a hands -on understanding of your
subject and how the th eory you learn applies to real -life situations.
Practical learning allows you to learn quick adaptations needed for daily
challenges and scenarios and allows you to get a better understanding of
your course topic.
Benefits to practical learning
1. Improved S kill Set: Practical learning, as mentioned above, has the
unique ability to help students apply their skills in a non -classroom
environment. While it’s important to learn the theory of a topic or
subject, getting out and applying the theory to a practical situation
enables you to build upon existing skills such as problem -solving.
It also allows you to apply your technical knowledge in the field,
which is incredibly beneficial in all subjects but particularly in
subjects such as horticulture, aged care a nd disability care.
2. Increases Your Understanding: There are some things that need to
be experienced to be understood, and this is true for most subjects.
For example, a certificate in aged care may prepare you theoretically,
but working one -on-one with a s enior citizen in need of your help will
give you a better understanding of how to care for something, and the
best way to do certain tasks.
3. Creates a Deeper Impact: Interactive education in the form of
practical learning can strengthen your understanding a nd
comprehension on a subject. While theoretical education utilized
textbooks and research papers, practical learning allows you to learn
things first hand. This learning is a fundamental part of education and
works incredibly well to improve a student’s l earning level and
understanding.
4. Better Knowledge Retention: Taking a hands -on approach to
learning often results in more ingrained knowledge, with the ability to
retain information quickly and for longer periods of time. The reason
being that when learni ng in a theoretical, text -based style, our brains
attempt to remember words. However, when learning in a practical
environment, we’re remembering actions and scenarios which our
brains find easier to retain.
Why is Practical Learning more important?
1. Promot es Self -learning: Your thought process slowly matures in this
process. The seed of practical education should be sown right from
the beginning. A student understands and imbibes a practical
approach which changes his learning style. This way of practical
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60 2. Powerful Memory Tool: Practical learning is a powerful memory
tool. It’s always said and proved that you remember something better
when you do it on your own. With good practice and experience
comes great memories . Let’s take an example of car driving. When
you learn while driving and practice it well, you can learn it better.
3. Deep Understanding: In theoretical education, students are passive
and slow learners. Many students fail to memorise and often end up
muggi ng their notes. On the other hand, practical education makes
students understand the concepts at a different level. It makes you
active learners. There will always be clarity in the thought process
too.
4. Improves Skill Set: Bookish knowledge helps you to pa ss an exam
but it needs the right skills to perform a job. Why are new employees
trained before they start their job? To polish their skills and brush up
their basics before they start off. Skills play a major role in a person’s
development. This practical approach is a boost to your analytical
skills. You can understand and analyse better.
5. Handle Real Problems: The main motto of practical learning is to
shape you into a better individual. If you are theoretically strong, you
will just be an employee who kn ows how to operate. But if you are
capable enough to manage and solve real life problems and deal with
situations, you can become the boss. This is the difference between an
employee and his boss. If students are exposed to practical learning
from a young age, they’ll apply it later in their jobs and become a pro
in what they do.
6. Boosts Interest to Learn: What’s more interesting? A classroom
lecture or a field trip. For students, learning should be made
interesting and fun. Classroom learning and examinati ons make
students pressurized. Learning is not about grades and targets. A
learning environment has to be created where they can practically
understand what they’ve listened to in class. For example, a chemistry
class becomes more interesting when the stud ents are taken to a lab
where they can understand the reactions.
7. Interactive approach: Practical education is not one -sided like
theoretical education where students are fed with lectures. When
students think and understand on their own, they come up with many
doubts. Clarifying doubts and making it an interactive session helps
students understand more. The inputs from students are a great source
of understanding their level of thinking. Teachers should surely
incorporate interactive sessions in practical education.
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61 5.11 SUMMARY
Practical education is the best way to gain knowledge and skills to manage
things. To survive in this competitive world and enhance your skills, you
need to learn every day. Books give you knowledge but experience
teaches you li fe lessons. Trial and error method is the best way when it
comes to practical learning. You will learn from your mistakes and will
never repeat them again. There are a lot of hard things you can learn by
practically doing and experiencing it.
“I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.” –
Confucius
5.12 EXERCISE
Q.1 Why Practical Work is important?
Q.2 What are the benefits of Practical Work?
Q.3 How can we create interest in teaching the learning process through
practical work?
Q.4 What are the merits and demerits of Practical work ?
5.13 REFERENCES
1. Assessment in Education by Lewis, D.G.
2. Assessment in Higher Education by Heywood, John
3. Assessment for Excellence by Alexander Astin
4. Assessment of Social Skills , Becker, R.E. and Heimberg, R.G.
5. Social Skills Assessment by Kim T. Mueser and Margaret D. Sayers
6. Measurement and Assessment in Education by Reynolds, C. R.;
Livingstone, R. B. and Wilson, V.
7. Essentials of Educational Measurement by Eble, R.L. and Frisbie
D.A.
8. Enhancing Learning by Self Assessment by Boud and David
9. Digital Portfolio in the Classroom: showcasing and assessing students
work by Renwick, M.
10. Assessment of Students Achievement by Waugh, C. Keith and
Gronlund, N.E.
11. Essentials of Science Classroom Assessment by Liu Xiuteng
12. The Learning Portfolio: Reflective Practice for improving students
learning by Zubizoorreta, J.
13. Portfolio Assessment: uses, cases, scoring and impact by Banta, T.W.
14. Assessment in practice: putting principles to work on college campus
by Banta, T.W.
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