Paper-1-History-of-Buddhism-English-Version-munotes

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LITERARY SOURCES
Unit Struct ure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Survey of Important Books in Pali and Buddhist Sanskrit
1.3 Canonical Pāli Literature – Tipitaka
1.4 Non-Canonical Pāli Literature
1.5 Buddhist Sanskrit Literature
1.6 Summary
1.7 Unit End Questions
1.8 Additional Reading
1.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To study the literature as the source of Buddhism .
 To be able to correspond the literature to the other sources of history
of Buddhism .
 To check the authenticity of the Litera ry sources vis -à-vis
archaeological sources.
 To understand the relevance of the literary sources and the translation
of the texts .
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
As far as our present knowledge goes, we find that the main stock of
systematized Buddhist literature, in t he originalor in translation, is
contained mainly in Pali, Sanskrit (pure or mixed), Tibetan and Chinese,
although the Buddhist texts were also translated into the language of the
countries to which Buddhism spread.
In the treasure -house of Buddhist litera ture, the Pali Tipitaka represents
the earliest available and most complete collection of Buddhist sacred
literature. It is preserved in three systematic collections: (1) the Vinaya -
pitaka, or the Book of Discipline, (2) the Sutta -pitaka, the popular book of
discourses, and (3) the Abhidhamma -pitaka, the collection of books on
abstruse philosophy based on psychological ethics. The names of various
books in these three Pitaka and their mutual relation can be understood
from the table on the next page. munotes.in

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2 Beside s this canonical literature in Pali, there is also the non-canonical
literature, consisting of the Milinda -panha, the Netti -pakarana,
Buddhadatta's Manuals on Vinaya and Abhidhamma, commentaries on the
Pali Tipitaka texts, including the Jatakas, written by or ascribed to
Buddhaghosa or Dhammapala, Chronicles of Ceylon like the Dipavamsa,
the Mahavamsa, and the Culavamsa and later worksin Pali modelled on
classical Sanskrit poetry. Among the works of grammar, those of
Kaccayana and Moggallana, the Rupasiddhi and the Saddaniti are also
well known. Buddhaghosa's masterly original work, the Visuddhimagga,
is veritably a small cyclopaedia on early Buddhism.
Unfortunately, we have at present no complete canon of Buddhist books
preserved in Sanskrit, as in Pali. It appears, however, that the Sarvastivada
school did possess the Agamas corresponding to the Pali Nikaya and
seven books of Abhidharma corresponding to the seven books of the Pali
Abhidhamma. The Mulasarvastivadins possessed a Vinayapitaka and large
section s of this preserved in the Gilgit Manuscripts have now been
published. These texts reveal in several places a remarkable divergence
from the corresponding Pali texts, though they have some resemblance in
general.
In Sanskrit, pure or mixed, therefore, we f ind several independent texts or
fragments of texts which are of a varied nature and belong to different
schools of both the Hinayana and the Mahayana type. The Mahavastu is
claimed to be a book on Vinaya belonging to the Lokottaravadins of the
Mahasaiighi kas but its subject matter is so varied that we find in its sutras
corresponding to some in the Digha, the Majjhima, and the Suttanipata as
well as stories which correspond to some in the Pali Jatakas. The
Lalitavistara, an incomplete biographical account of the Buddha in mixed
Sanskrit, is considered to be a text of the unorthodox (Mahayana) school
and forms part of the Vaipulya -sutra. Ashvaghosais known for his
Buddhacarita and Saundarananda and Aryasura for his Jataka -mala, a
Sanskrit text, though far more polished, corresponding to the Pali Cariya -
pitaka. There is also a vast Avadana literature, corresponding to the Pali
Apadanas, containing stories intended to explain the good or bad effects of
good or bad karma.
Among the Mahayanist sutras, nine texts or dharmas are regarded as the
most important, of which special mention might be made of the
Astasahasrika -prajnaparamita, the Saddharma -pundarlka, the Lalitavistara,
the Lankavatara, the Suvarna -prabhasa, the Gandavyuha, the Tathagata -
guhyaka, the Samadhi raja and the Dasabhumisvara. These are called the
Vaipulya sutras. Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu and Asanga are the authors of
the philosophical works of this school, and we shall have occasion to refer
to them elsewhere. In Tibet, too there is a large collection of translations
of Indian Buddhist texts numbering more than 4,566. Theseare divided
into two groups, namely, Bkahhgyur, popularly called the Kanjur,
consisting of 1,108 texts, and Bstan -hgyur, popularly called the Tanjur,
consisting of 3,458 texts.
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3 The Kanjur is divided into the following seven parts:
(1) Vinaya
(2) Prajna -paramita,
(3) Buddhavatamsaka,
(4) Ratnakuta,
(5) Sutra,
(6) Nirvana, and
(7) Tantra, while the Tanjur isdivided into
(1) Tantra, and
(2) Sutra.
There exists a large number of tr anslations from Indian texts into the
Chinese language. In his Catalogue, Bunyiu Nanjio records as many as
1,662, which are classified into four divisions: (I) Sutra -pitaka, (2)
Vinaya -pitaka, (3) Abhidharma -pitaka. and (4) Miscellaneous.
Hobogirin, a sti ll later catalogue, mentions as many as 2,184 texts printed
infifty -five volumes of the Taisho edition. In another 25 volumes, there
are supplementary texts, written in China and Japan. In Japan there are
three complete translations of the Chinese Tripitak a. including the
supplementary 25 volumes in the Taisho edition of the Tripitaka. In the
Manchurian language also there is a translation of the same, and in
Mongolian, a translation of the Tibetan Tanjur. The intention here is to
survey some important book s in Pali and Buddhist Sanskrit only.
1.2 SURVEY OF IMPORTANT BOOKS IN PALI AND
BUDDHIST SANSKRIT:
There was at one time a vast Buddhist literature in Pali, the Prakrit, mixed
Sanskrit and pure Sanskrit. It is, indeed, ironical that not a single Buddhist
work, with the exception of the Manjusrimulakalpa, has been found within
the borders of India. The main reasons for such a complete disappearance
of Buddhist literature from India are (i) that its study was confined to the
ordained monks and novices reside nt in the monasteries, (ii) that the
literature, which was mostly religious, was preserved in manuscript in the
libraries or the cells of the monasteries and never kept in the houses of
laymen, and (iii) that with the decay or destruction of the monasterie s,
whether by the passage of time or through desecration and vandalism,
these manuscripts were destroyed. The Buddhist literature that we study
today has come to us from monasteries outside India, in Ceylon, Burma,
Siam and Nepal, and in translations from Tibet, China and Mongolia. An
idea of the vastness of the literature can be formed from the works
mentioned in the Chinese and Tibetan Catalogues. A remarkable addition
to our knowledge of Buddhist literature has been made by the discoveries munotes.in

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4 of manuscripts in Central Asia and Gilgit as well as by the manuscripts
photographed in Tibet by Rahul Sankrityayan and collected by Prof. G.
Tucci. The original Sanskrit manuscripts, found in Central Asia, Gilgit and
Tibet, belonging mostly to the fifth or sixth centur y A.D. or to an earlier
period, were preserved in Central Asia and Gilgit in stone chambers built
under the stupas or monasteries, and in temples in Tibet where they were
meant to be worshipped only and not studied. These discoveries have
thrown a flood of light on the development of Buddhist literature and the
languages in which it was written, particularly on some extinct Central
Asian dialects into which some of the texts were translated.
Buddhist literature may be divided broadly into two sections: the
Hinayana (in Pali and mixed Sanskrit) and the Mahayana (in mixed and
pure Sanskrit). It can be further sub-divided into literatures of different
sects of both the Hinayana and the Mahayana schools.
1.3 CANONICAL PĀLI LITERATURE – TIPITAKA
Survey of Tipitaka: Pāli Literary development can be divided into the
following periods, Viz.,
1. The Canonical literature: Contemporary with the Buddha;
2. The Commentarial literature: 5th century CE;
3. The Sub -comm entarial literature: 12th century CE.
The canonical literature consists of three Pitaka (Tipitaka) viz., Vinaya
Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. A break up of these Pitaka is
as follows:
1. VINAYA PITAKA
VINAYA PITAKA (CODE OF DISCIPLINE): Vinay a literally means
guidance and contains the rules of monastic discipline. The five books of
Vinaya Pitaka are arranged according to subject -matter into these three
parts:
1. Vibhanga – Parajika and Pacittiya;
2. Khandaka – Mahavagga and Culavagga;
3. Parivara.
Vibhanga gives an elaborate explanation of all the rules laid down by the
Buddha for Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis. These rules, 227 for Bhikkhus and
311 for Bhikkhunis, are contained in the Patimokkha ‘Code Book’.
Patimokkha : The bhikkhunis have more P atimokkha rules in keeping with
feminine circumstances. Literally, it means that which ‘delivers’ (mokkha)
one from blame or impurity. It is divided into eight sections, viz., Parajika,
Sanghadisesa, Aniyata, Nissaggiya Pacittiya, Pacittiya, Patidesaniya,
Sekhiya and Adhikaranadhamma, these are formulated according to the munotes.in

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5 gravity of the offenses, so as to shield a monk or nun from conduct not
commensurate with holy life. These rules, therefore, reflect the nature of
transgressions and their remedies.
Patimo kkha is recited twice a month on full moon and new moon days,
known as Uposatha observance, in which all the resident monks and nuns
of a given area (separately) gather in a special Chapter House called Sima.
Before reciting the Patimokkha, the fully ordai ned monastics mutually
perform the act of confession of transgressions, if any. At the end of each
section of the recital, the reciter asks the assembly whether it is blameless
in respect thereof. If any member remembers an offence, he/She had
committed an d had forgotten to make a clean breast of it earlier, then the
member has to confess and receive absolution, that is, a formal release
from offence. The completion of the recitation, therefore, is an indication
that all those participating are blameless an d pure.
1. Historical analysis (Vibhanga): In the Vibhanga, consisting of
Parajika Pāli and Pacittiya Pāli, the bhikkhu and bhikkhuni Patimokkha
rules are treated analytically and in detail: At first an historical account is
given, as to how a rule came to be framed. After laying down a rule, the
Buddha gives an exhortation, which ends with
“Netamappasannanamvapasadaya, pasannanamvabhiyyobhavaya –This
(offence) does not lead to the rousing of conviction in those who are not
convinced, nor to the further growth of conviction in those who are
already convinced”. That is to say the bhikkhu’s or bhikkhuni’s conduct
should not only bring about self -purificaion, but it should also inspire
others to lead the pure life.
After a rule is laid down by the Buddha, it is fo llowed by a word for word
commentary. If a situation requires a rule to be modified the Buddha
amends the – rule, which is again explained in detail.
2. The Khandhakas : The second part of the Vinaya, consist of the two
books, Mahavagga and Culavagga. These de al with all such Sangha
matters which have not been dealt with in the rules of the Patimokkha.
From the view -point of history, Khandaka contain very valuable materials
which throw a flood of light on various aspects of contemporary Indian
life.
There is th e inspiring account of how the Buddha attained Supreme
Enlightenment, how he embarked upon his compassionate mission of
spreading the Dhamma ‘For the welfare and happiness of the many -
bahujanahitaya, bahujanasukhaya’ , and how he established the Holy
Order of Bhikkhus to serve as a ‘Living example’ of the truth he preached.
The Sangha also ensures the continuity of the Buddha’s dispensation by
passing on the Teaching from generation to generation of teachers
(Acariya Parampara ).
Khandhaka also provide the st imulating stories of the Buddha’s famous
disciples, like the venerables Sariputta, Moggallana, MahaKassapa,
Ananda, Upali, Angulimala etc., lay devotees, like the kings Bimbisara,
Pasenandi, Ajatasattu etc., and philanthropists like Anathapindika, munotes.in

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6 Upasika Visakha, Jivaka the physician and many others. People drawn
from all walks of life – royalties, nobles, leaders of the various sections of
the society, and the humblest of common folks sought refuge in the
Buddha. By embracing his Teachings, they brought a bout a change in the
society that was unheard of before.
The Khandhaka also contain some of Buddha’s most famous and
important discourses, such as the Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta,
Anattalakkhana Sutta, Aditta Pariyaya Sutta and so on. Again, the
Khandhaka c ontain most important text, called the Kammavaca. These are
‘Official Acts’ which govern the procedures of all institutional functions,
known as Sanghakamma. These acts relate to admission into the order,
suspension of expulsion from or rehabilitation into the Order,
ecclesiastical jurisprudence, Sangha properties, such as monasteries and
things, needed in a monastery, spending of the Rain’s Retreat (vassavasa),
confessions, punishments to offenders and so on.
There are altogether 22 Khandhaka which deal wi th all matters connected
with the members of the Holy Order, including the requisites of clothing,
food, dwelling, medicaments, etc., The last two khandhaka give a lucid
account of the first and second great councils.
3. The Parivara Pali: The third part of t he Vinaya, the Parivara Pāli is
a kind of manual. Compiled in the form of questions and answers
(catechism), it enables one to make a thorough analytical study of the
Vinaya Pitaka. All the rules, official acts, and other matters of the Vinaya,
are subject to a searching analysis and placed under separate themes.
Besides, it contains various lists to assist one’s memory. There are 21
chapters dealing with a particular list of the lineage of the teachers
(acariyaparampara) -34 in number from the Buddha’s tim e down to
several centuries i.e. till the Fourth Sangayana which committed to writing
the sacred Tipitaka. Parivara is called the key since it makes Vinaya
explicit.
Briefly, the rules of the Order fall into two categories; rules governing the
spiritual li fe of the bhikkhu or bhikkhuni , and rules governing the affairs of
the Order. The Bhikkhu -rules are again twofold – those that have a
spiritual basis, i.e., which lead to his spiritual edification, and those that
have a conventional basis, i.e., good manne rs, behavior and customs
which help maintain a good human relationship.
The rules of the Order are based on the highest of democratic principles.
Nothing is done or owned individually; it is the Sangha which owns
properties and promulgates a given code of conduct. In the matter of
jurisprudence unless an offence is accepted by the accused or is proved
beyond doubt, the accused has absolute protection of the Sangha.
As a historical document Vinaya is a mine of varied information on
contemporary social, polit ical and economic systems, on commerce,
taxation, law, agriculture, medicine, educational institutions, religious
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7 Decentralised Sangha: The Buddhist monastic order, particularly the
Theravada Sangha, is a completely decentralized body, and a self -
sufficient community, so formed as to provide the right environment for
spiritual development. Its rules are so framed as to free the bhikkhu/
bhikkhuni of all encumbrances, both subjective and objective. The so -
called sects among Theravada Budd hists are decidedly the product of this
spirit of decentralization, holding aloft the charter of individual liberty.
After all, the very purpose of leading the bhikkhu life is to gain Liberation
which can be achieved only in an atmosphere of personal respo nsibility
and freedom. Hence the Vinaya rules, instead of tying the bhikkhu down to
any rigid pattern, provide him with maximum inner freedom, since these
are entirely self -imposed. Since there is no difference of view among the
Theravada sects as far as t he basic Teachings of the Buddha are
concerned, these sects are, therefore, wholly organizational set -ups and
never doctrinal.
2. SUTTA PITAKA
The Sutta Pitaka is the mainspring of Buddhist thought, being the
repository of the original discourses of the Bu ddha. It is divided into five
main division called Nikayas which are collated according to the particular
size. Style and arrangement of the suttas.
1. DIGHA NIKAYA: The collection of lengthy discourses.
2. MAJJHIMA NIKAYA: The collection of medium –length
disco urses.
3. SAMYUTTA NIKAYA: The collection of (subject -wise) Connected
discourses,
4. ANGUTTARA NIKAYA: The collection of numerically arranged
discourses.
5. KHUDDAKA NIKAYA: The collection of Compact expositions in
the form of separate treatises. Here the entire Bu ddhist view of life
has been discussed in an objective and dignified way.
The famous orientalist Dr. Rhys Davids says: “The suttas are
distinguished in the depth of philosophy, in the method of Socratic
questioning, in the earnest and elevated tone of the whole, in the evidence
they afford of the most out -turned thought of the day.” The Sutta Pitaka
also contains the discourses of the Master’s principal disciple’s such as,
the Venerable Sariputta, Maha Moggallana, Maha Kassapa, Maha
Kaccana, and others.
A sutta literally means ‘thread’. It is so called since it leads one to a larger
content of meaning not expressed in so many words. Thus every sutta has
two contents -the vohara , conventional content and paramattha , the
ultimate content, which makes the suttas accessible to people at all levels
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8 Another characteristic feature of the suttas is that they are liberally
sprinkled with simple, yet telling, illustrations and homely stories. To
drive home a profound truth, the Master uses familiar similes, such as, the
bullock cart, seed, agricultural operations, or the irrigation ditch and so on
for the edification of the simple, rural folks.
Likewise, to tame an arrogant scholar, like the Brahmi n Bharadvaja, he
often used a telling analogy illustrated by personal example. Bharadvaja, a
learned scholar of the Vedas, scoffed at the idea of Gotama, a Khattiya ,
becoming a religious teacher, which, according to him, was the
prerogative of the Brahmin, however vile he may be. He was further
roused by some of Buddha’s unorthodox teachings. And his wrath broke
all barriers when his wife became an ardent devotee of the master.
Once, when the Buddha was preaching, he tore through the large crowd
and, facing the Master, started hurling filthy abuses at him until he was
tired. In his unbounded compassion, the Buddha gently put to him this
question: “Suppose, Brahmin, a friend of relative was to visit your house
and you were to offer him a plateful of sweets, a nd he was to decline it. To
whom would that plateful of sweets return?” “Ofcourse to me; it is mine,
and it comes back to me,” he replied rudely. “Likewise, good brahmin, I
decline to accept all that you said.”
The moral went right into his heart and illum ined his whole being, like a
flash of lightning piercing and illuminating the dark sky. As the insight
dawned on him that his actions recoiled on him with greater force, and
having failed to affect one who refused to be offended, he fell at the feet of
the Lord and requested the Buddha to admit him into the Sangha. No
learned philosophical disquisition could have wrought in Bharadvaja so
profound a change as this simple illustration did.
Further, the Sutta Pitaka is also an excellent document on the
contemp orary cultural history of India. One finds graphic accounts of
various conditions - social, cultural, religious, political etc., of the time. For
instance, once the King Ajatasattu bluntly asked the Buddha as to what
tangible benefits could one gain through the religius life, as one would
from one’s occupation then he enumerated a great many of the existing
occupations when the Buddha convinced him of the benefits of true
spiritual life, this blood thirsty despot became an ardent devotee of the
Master.
As to the form, the sutta begins with a historical account of how, where
and under what conditions a discourse was given Then follows the main
body of the sutta which ends with an expression of appreciation from the
audience.
1. Digha Nikaya: This work contains 3 4 lengthy suttas, some of which
could fill a book. This is particularly true of these three suttas: 1. The
Mahaparinibbana sutta which presents a moving narration of the master’s
last days together with many of his important teachings. 2. Mahasatipatthana sutta , which constitutes the quintessence of his
unique method of spiritual training by converting every experience into a munotes.in

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9 meditative, which is also known as Householders Book of ethics, ( Gihi
Vinaya ).
2. Majjhima Nikay a: This work contains one hundred fifty-two middle -
length suttas of rare beauty, both in content and language. All the
fundamental teachings, such as, Dependent origination, ( Paticca
Samuppada ), the law of kamma and Rebirth, the four Noble Truths, ( Ariya
Saccani ) and the Noble Eightfold Parh, ( Ariya Atthangika Magga ), have
been lucidly expounded in this work. Of the fifteen chapters, one entitled
Opammavagga is devoted to exposition by way of illustration, and another
to the householders, Gahapativagga .
3. Sam yutta Nikaya: This work contains seven hundred sixty -two
(7762) suttas of varied length, generally short, arranged in a special order
according to subject -matter. Thus, there are fifty-six connected subjects
(samyutta) arranged in five divisions, e.g., o n Enlightenment factor
(Bojjhanga Samyutta), mental defilements (Kilesa Samyutta), mental
powers (Bala Samyutta), etc. Some samyuttas are named after principal
enlightened disciples, (Arahats), such as, the Venerables Sariputta,
Kassapa, and Anuruddha etc. Devata Samyutta, deals with gods like
Brahma, Sakka or Indra, who are ardent followers of the Buddha.
4. Anguttara Nikaya: This work contains nine thousand five hundred
fifty-seven (9557) short suttas which are numerically arranged into eleven
sections known as Nipatas. For instance, the first Nipata deals with
subjects having a single aspect or view -point; likewise, the subject -matter
of the second Nipata has two view -points; the third has three view -points,
and so on, till the eleventh Nipata, in which all such matters that can be
viewed in eleven different ways. Thus, this work presents the Dhamma
arranged numerically. In the whole of the Sutta Pitaka, Anguttara Nikaya
is considered to be an important source -book on Buddhist psychology and
ethics. The Ang uttara contains a unique chapter entitled Etadaggavagga
wherein the Buddha enumerated the names of those enlightened disciples
(bhikkhu -bhikkhuni -upasaka -upasika ) who had achieved pre -eminence in
a certain field of spiritual attainment. For example, while the Venerabe
Sariputta was pre -eminent in Intuitive Wisdom (Panna); the Venerable
Moggallana was pre -eminent in Supernormal powers (Abhinna); the
Venerable Uppalavanna was pre -eminent among nuns in Panna, and the
Venerable Khema in Abhinna; the upasaka Anathapindika and the upasika
Visakha were pre -eminent in act of generosity (Dana), and so on.
5. Khuddaka Nikaya: Khuddaka Nikaya is a collected of 18
independent treatises of great merit. These are: -
1. Khuddaka Patha (Compact Handbook).
2. Dhammapada (Path of wisdo m).
3. Udana (Solemn Utterances).
4. Itivuttaka (Inspired Sayings, lit. Thus, was said by the Buddha).
5. Sutta Nipata (Treatise of important discourses).
6. Vimanavatthu (Lit. Divine Mansions, Accounts of divinities).
7. Petavatthu (Stories of departed ones of spirits). munotes.in

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10 8. Theragatha (Inspired verses of the elder monks)
9. Therigatha (Inspired verses of the elder nuns).
10. Jataka (Stories of Buddha’s past lives).
11. Niddesa (Exposition).
12. PatisambhidaMagga (Analytical way).
13. Apadana (Biographical Treatises).
14. Buddhavamsa (Chronicle of Buddhas).
15. Cariyapitaka (Buddha Gotama’s past life)
1. Khuddaka Patha: It is an anthology used as a manual for under -
training monks. It contains some very important texts, e.g. the catechetic
section called Kumara Panha. The young novice, Kumara Kassapa,
already an Arahat at the age of seven, was asked by the Buddha ten
questions of fundamental spiritual importance. He answered all the
questions with consummate skill and clarity which only an enlightened
disciple can do. He received his higher ordination (upasampada) at that
tender age as a special case. Normally nobody can be ordained a bhikkhu
before the age of twenty. The Questions were put in a numerical order;
e.g. what is the One? What are the two three etc., upto the tenth? The
answers being ‘Nut riment’ that sustains life of beings, i.e., the one factor
that sustains life is Nutriment, both material and mental. Similarly, the
two factors to which all phenomena of existence could be reduced, are
Mind and Matter ( Nama -rupa , lit. Mentality and Mater iality). Answer to
the tenth being. ‘The ten super -mundane attainments of an Arahat - a
Perfected disciple of the Buddha, constitute the ultimate state of spiritual
perfection. That means, there is nothing higher than the spiritual
attainments of a Perfec t One.
2. Dhammapada: It is a famous world classic which epitomizes the entire
teaching of the Buddha in four hundred twenty -three gathas (verses).
Culled from different works of Tipitaka each verse is a rare gem sp arkling
with practical wisdom. The Dhamma pada has been translated and re -
translated into virtually all the import languages of the world.
The first gatha of this inspiring anthology is about the Mind. It underlines
the importance of mind because one’s samsaric bondage or nibbanic
freedom i.e., o ne’s misery or happiness now and one’s destiny in future,
entirely depend on the working of one’s mind. Buddhists do not depend on
any external p ower for spiritual liberation. On the contrary, they rely
entirely on the transforming power of their own minds . The Buddha said:
Manopubbangamadh amma, manosetthamanomaya;
manasacepadutthenabhasativakarotiva,
tatonamdukkhamanveticakkkam’vavahatopadam.
Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chi ef; they are all mind -
wrought. If with an impure mind a person s peaks or acts, suffering follows
him like the cart -wheel that follows the foot of the ox.
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11 Manopubbangama dhamma, manosetthamanomaya;
manasacepasannenabhasativakarotiva,
tatonamsukhamanvetichayavaanapayini.
Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their ch ief; they are all mind -
wrought. If with pure mind a person speaks or acts, happiness follows him
like his never departing shadow.
These first two gathas of the Dhammapada spell out what really matters in
life- it is the good or bad mind, and the good or ba d action arising there
from. So, for a spiritual seeker, what matters is focusing oneself to the
purification and development of the mind. In the fifth gatha, the Lord
Buddha similarly teaches another eternal law, concerned with life, both at
the individu al and at the collective levels.
“By hatred one can never appease hatred”. it will only persist and prolong
suffering.
Contrarily, non -hatred, meaning good -will and amity as well as the spirit
of patience and forbearance, all combined, is the panacea for the deadly
affliction created by hatred. This is a verifiable reality throughout the
world and throughout the world and through millennia. Whenever human
beings have engaged in mutual hatred, revenge and hostility, civilization
itself, created by so much o f noble human values and actions, got wiped
out. Both parties destroyed each other. Thus the eternal law is –“Good
will alone triumphs over ill -will.” Buddhists are therefore enjoined to
practice good -will and universal love, under all circumstances, in keeping
with this eternal law, viz:
Na hi verena verani, sammantidhakudacanam,
averena ca sammanti, esadhammosanantano.
Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this world. By non -hatred alone is
hatred appeased. This is a Law Eternal.
The Buddha succi nctly summarized his teachings in the Dhammapada
gatha No. 183. “Avoid all evil, cultivate the good, and cleanse the mind -
This is the Teaching of the Buddhas.”
Spiritual life need not become loaded with all kinds of complicated
theological dogmas and philo sophical theories. Unfortunately, religions, as
organized institutions, throughout the world, and at all times, tended to be
loaded with emotional or intellectual assertions and doctrines, demanding
from the adherents unquestioned acceptance or blind faith .
Spiritual progress is possible only when the mind is exposed to the
sunshine of virtue, mental purity and wisdom. These three spiritual
excellences ultimately stand for spiritual development and freedom.
Virtue needs to be cultivated, deliberately, thro ugh rightly understanding
the nature of moral principles. munotes.in

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12 Likewise inner purity needs to be developed, consciously, thorough the
practice of meditative concentration, leading to purification and tranquility
of mind.
Similarly, wisdom needs to be cultivated by assiduous practice of insight
meditation aimed at development of intuitive wisdom. For wisdom alone
is capable of penetrating into the realities of one’s own life, of the world in
which one lives, and of the Beyond, namely, spiritual freedom, Nibbana.
Hence the Buddha’s enunciation:
Sabbapapassa akaranam, kusalassa upasampada,
sacittapariyodapanam, etam Buddhanasasanam.
To avoid all evil, to cultivate the good, and to cleanse one’s mind - this is
the teaching of the Buddhas.
3. Udana: This work contains the ‘Ecstatic Utterances’ of the Buddha.
Udanas are outpourings or inspired sayings of sheer bliss. It is mostly in
verse form inspired by a particularly intense emotion. It is collection of 80
joyful utterences made by the Buddha on unique occasions of s heer bliss.
4. Itivuttaka: It contains 112 suttas divided into four nipatas with verses
and prose mixed. The peculiarity is each passage is preceded by the
phrase: “Itivuttam Bhagavata – It was said thus by the Buddha,” it is
called Itivuttaka. The divisi on into nipatas instead of vaggas denotes that
the collection is classified in ascending numerical order.
5. Sutta Nipata: In an archaic style of mixed prose and verse, it is a work
of great philosophical and literary merit, and one of the most inspiring i n
the whole of the Tipitaka. The language of this work resembles that of the
Chandas. The language style and its contents all indicate it to be one of the
oldest books of Pāli canon. For understanding primitive Buddhism, it is of
great use. We get the picture not of monasteries but of the life of hermits
in the first stage. On the Bhabru Edict of Ashoka out of seven discourses
mentioned three belongs to suttanipata only.
6. Vimanavatthu: This book contains vivid accounts of the lives of the
devas in various heavenly abodes (vimana), and of the deeds that enabled
them to gain acces s into these wonderful domains.
According to Buddhism, gods (devas) are not immortal, nor are they
creators, or saviors of other beings. But they are spiritually more evolved
beings in various divine realms, which too are subject to the law of kamma
and Re birth and have to achieve the deathless state of Nibbana. And there
are many gods who have already attained Nibbana.
7. Petavatthu: This book contains graphic accounts of the miserable
states of the spirit world and of the evil deeds that lead to one of th ese
states. A certain and immediate release from such miseries can be given to
them if former relatives perform meritorious deeds and share their merits
with them. munotes.in

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13 8. Theragatha: This book contains some of the finest pieces of poetry
embodying the ecstatic sayings of the finest pieces of poetry embodying
the ecstatic sayings of the Arahat theras, enlightened disciples of the
Buddha.
9. Therigatha: Analogous to Theragatha, this work contains the inspired
utterances of Arahat theris, enlightened nuns.
10. Ja taka: this is a book of 550 stories of the Buddha’s previous lives
when he was the boddhisatta, engaged in training himself to become a
Buddha. In these stories are embeded moral principles and practices which
Bodhisatto had observed for sel f-development a nd perfection to attain
Buddhahood. The ten virtues to be developed are d āna, sila, nekkhama,
panna, viriya, khanti, sacca, aditthana, metta and upekkha.
11. Niddesa: Divided into two books, Mahaniddesa and Culaniddesa, this
work is a commentary by V enerable Sariputta on some important suttas
from Suttanipata.
12. PatisambhidaMagga: Entitled “The Path of Analysis,” this is anothe r
work of Venerable Sariputta analytically dealing with the salient teachings
of the Buddha in the style of the Abhidhamma.
13. Apadana: It is a biographical work containing the life -stories (past
and present) of various Arahat Theras and Theris. This gives a short
historical account of Gotama Buddha and of the former twenty -four
Buddhas who had prophesied his attainment of Buddha hood.
14. Budddhavamsa: This contains the biography, in verse, of Gotama
Buddha and of the 23 previous Buddhas prior to him.
15. Cariyapitaka: This contains 35 Jatakas illustrating the Buddha’s
fulfillment of the ten Paramis (three times over), which dete rmines the
attainment of Sambodhi, Supreme Enlightenment.
3. ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA
AbhidhammaPitaka: While the Sutta Pitaka treats the Dhamma in
conventional ( Vohara sacca ) terms, the AbhidhammaPitaka treats it
entirely in terms of ultimate reality ( Paramatth a sacca). It resolves all
phenomena into their ultimate contents (sarupa) analytically and then aims
at synthesis by finding the relations (paccaya) between the various
concomitant factors. The language of the Abhidhamma is purely objective
and impersonal , hence truly scientific. It contains no such words as ‘I’,
We, He, She, Man, ‘Tree, ‘Cow,’ Mountain,’ ‘God,’ etc, which are just
conventional names given to an object.
Here everything is expressed in terms of Khandha - five groups or
aggregates of existen ce, Ayatana five sensory organs and mind and their
respective objects, Dhatu -eighteen elements, Indriya - twenty -two
faculties, Sacca - the four Noble truths. All relative concepts, such as,
man, tree, etc., are reduced to their ultimate contents, such as, Khandha,
Ayatana etc., and viewed as an impersonal psycho -physical process which munotes.in

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14 is Anicca (impermanent, changeful) Dukkha (unsatisfactory) and Anatta
(without a permanent core, e.g. ego or atma, i.e., unsubstantial or non -
self).
The purpose of this analyt ical approach is to get rid of egocentricity or
selfhood which hinders spiritual progress and is the root - cause of bondage
in samsara. Abhidhamma can be called the ‘Science of mind’ in a real
sense, i.e. more than modern psychology.
The most Venerable Ac ariya Buddhaghosa describes Abhidhamma as
Uccatara (higher) or Visesa (special) dhamma (teachings) of the Buddha.
That is to say, a system of appraisal purely from the Buddhist
psychological and philosophical stand -points.
This special higher teaching w as first expounded by the Buddha at
Tavatimsa (Sakka, the divine ruler’s, heavenly realm) to his mother who
was reborn as a god. This exposition was in the 7th year of his ministry
during the 3 months’ Rain’s –Retreat. After teaching the devas, the Master
repeated the teaching verbatim to Venerable Sariputta, who in turn taught
five hundred Arahats, who memorized the Abhidhamma and passed it on
to others. It is therefore regarded as the most priceless heritage of
Buddhism.
The following seven books of Abh idhamma are so many portals of
analytical wisdom. They contain different methods of analysis and
synthesis.
1. Dhammasangani: It provides a detailed enumeration of all
phenomena, and is divided into three divisions:
a. An analysis of consciousness (citta) and its concomitant mental
factors (cetasika)
b. An analysis of corporeality (rupa)
c. Summary in which all phenomena of existence are brought under
122 categories (matika), in group of three (tika) and two (duka), e.g.
Kusala (wholesome) dhamma, akusala (unwholesom e) dhamma,
abyakata (indeterminate) dhamma.

When analysed, these three comprehend everything, mundane and
supermundane. It is invaluable as a source -book of psychology.
2. Vibhanga: It consists of 18 independent treatises (vibhangas), each
of which is div ided into three parts: (i) Sutta explanation (ii) Abhidhamma
explanation (iii) Summary in question -answer form. It is distinct from that
of Dhammasangani w.r.t. this analytic procedure.
3. Dhatukatha: This and the next book, PuggalaPannatti, are small -
sized books, written in the form of a catechism. Dhatukatha consists of 14
chapters in which all phenomena of existence are discussed with reference
to the three categories of Khandha, Ayatana and Dhatu. munotes.in

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15
4. Puggalapannati: It resembles the style of the Anguttara Nikaya
and consists of 10 chapters in which various types of individuals (puggala)
are discussed, often with similes and comparisons.
5. Kathavatthu: As mentioned earlier, this work was compiled by the
Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa, the presiding Arahat of the Third Great
Council, in order to uproot all points of controversy regarding
Buddhadhamma. There are 23 dialogue -form chapters dealing with some
21 controversies in a purely logical style.
6. Yamaka: This is a work of applied logic which deals with the
delim itation as to the range and content of all the doctrinal terms and
content of all the doctrinal terms and concepts. Yamaka clears up all
ambiguities and distortions which may creep into the manifold doctrines
of Abhidhamma. For every discussion, througho ut the work there are two
sets of questions in contrast, e.g., (a) Are all wholesome phenomena
(kusala dhamma), wholesome roots (kusalamula)? Or (b) Are all
wholesome roots, wholesome phenomena?
7. Patthana: This is a gigantic work which, together with
Dhamm asangani, constitutes the quintessence of Buddhist Philosophy.
The 4 divisions of Patthana adopt four different ways - Positive, Anuloma;
Negative, Patiloma; Negative -positive, Patiloma -anuloma - to elucidate
the profound philosophy of Relations (paccaya) otherwise known as the,
Law of Conditionality. This Law is based on 24 paccaya, conditions or
relations, which, in different combinations and permutations, keep the
‘wheel of existences (samsara) moving. These paccaya explain the law of
universal interdep endence.
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16
1.4 NON -CANONICAL PĀLI LITERATURE
Introduction: Pāli literature is broadly classified into Canonical Pāli
literature and Non -canonical Pāli literature. The Buddhavacana or the
Tipitaka is the Canonical Pāli literature and all the remaining literature
written o n the canonical is the Non -canonical Pāli literature.
Non-canonical Pāli literature comprises mainly of the Atthakathas, Tikas
and Anutikas. Atthakathas are the commentaries of the canonical munotes.in

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17 literature, the commentaries of the Atthakathas are the Tikas an d the
commentaries of the Tikas are the Anutikas and so on.
Generally, the commentary of any literary work of the ancient language
gives the meaning of the difficult verses or the words with the grammar.
But the commentaries of the Pāli literature are uniq ue and different from
any other literature for they not only give the meanings of the difficult
verses with grammar but talks more about the time period - as to when
Buddha uttered the verses, the place - as to where Buddha uttered the
verses and also the ba ckground of the situation as to why he uttered the
verses. This information gives the whole picture of the social, political,
geographical, historical background of India of 6th century BC as well as
the life sketch of the Buddha and his chief disciples al ong with their daily
routines.
Another characteristic of the atthakatha, which make them unique in the
literary world, is the contents of the literature. Pāli literature is Buddhism,
that too the early Theravada Buddhism. Even today whatever is written in
the language Pāli is Buddha and his teachings, in the form of the
atthakatha, tika and anutika of the Tipitaka. India, Sri Lanka Burma and
Thailand are the only countries where the Pāli literature is mainly written
and also found.
Origin of the Attakatha - it is believed that the attakatha came to Sri Lanka
from India along with the canonical literature. When thera Mahinda
brought with him the original Tipitaka [in the oral form] to Sri Lanka after
the Third Buddhist Council, the attakatha were there with it. He translated
them into Sinhalese. But we don’t find the mention of the m anywhere.
Even when the Pāli Tipitaka were written down in the 1st century BC in
Sri Lanka during the reign of King Vattagamini, no mention of the Pāli
Attakatha to be written down is found.
The direct mention of the Pāli Atthakatha is found in the 4th-5th century
A.D when Buddhaghosa went to Sri Lanka to translate the atthakatha from
Sinhalese to Pāli language. Therefore, generally the age of atthakatha is
believed to be from the 4th-5th century A.D onwards that is about 1000
years after the Buddha. But the authenticity of the words of Buddha is
believed due to the existing atthakatha in the Sihalese language, which
Thera Buddhaghosa often refers to in his atthakatha. [The Sihalese
atthakatha existed until the 12th century A.D, but thereafter no referenc es
of them are found anywhere.]
The non -canonical Pāliliterature is broadly divided into three phases or
three periods.
100 BC to 400 A.D Prior to Buddhaghosa
400 A.D to 1100 A.D Buddhaghosa era
1100 A.D until today Age of Tikas
100 BC to 400 A.D- there are three main li terary works in this period.
They are munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
18  Netipakarana
 Petkopadesa and
 Milindpanha.
These three books are so important that the Burmese tradition includes
them in the Tipitaka, but the Sinhalese and the Indian tradition consider
them as non -canonical work. Of the three the Milindapanha is the most
popular work. It is the dialogues between the king Milinda [Menandros -
the Greoco -Bactrian king who ruled northwest of India in the 2nd century
BCE] and the thera Nagasena.
400 A.D to 1100 A.D- this period is also cal led the period of Atthakathas.
Most of the commentaries on the Tipitakas are written in this period and
the three commentators who stand out distinctly in this era are the thera
Buddhadatta, thera Buddhaghosa and thera Dhammapala.
Thera Buddhadatta and the ra Buddhaghosa were contemporary while thera
Dhammapala is of a little later date. The main works of these three great
commentators are -
Thera Buddhaghosa
 Vishudhimagga – a book written on the two verses from Samyutta
Nikaya
 Samantapasadika - commentary on Vinayapitaka
 Kankhavitarani - commentary on Pattimokkha
 Sumangalvilasini - commentary on Digha Nikaya
 Papancasudani - commentary on Majjhima Nikaya
 Sarathapakasini - commentary on Samyutta Nikaya
 Manorathapurani -commentary on Anguttara Nikaya
 Paramatthajotika - commentary on commentary on Khuddhakapatha
and SuttaNipata of the Khuddhaka Nikaya
 Atthasalini - commentary on Dhammasangini
 Sammohavinodini - commentary on Vibhanga
 Panc apakaranatthakatha - commentary on the remaining five books
of Abhidhammapitaka except t he Dhammasangini and Vibhanga.
 Jatakatthavannana - commentary on the Jataka
 Dhammapadatthakatha - commentary on the Dhammapada
Thera Buddhadatta
 Abhidhammavatara - summary of the commentary on Abhidhamma
by Buddhaghosa
 Rupavibhanga
 Madhurathavilasini -Commenta ry on Buddhavamsa
 Vinayavinicchaya - Commentaries on the Vinaya pitaka
 Uttaravinicchaya - Commentaries on the Vinaya pitaka munotes.in

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19 Thera Dhammapala
 Paramathadipani - is the commentary on the Udana, Ithivutthaka,
Vimanavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragatha, Therigatha, Cha riyapitaka
[remaining all the books on which Buddhaghosa did not write the
commentaries]
 He also wrote the atthakatha of Netipakarana
 Linatthavannana - the commentary on the atthakatha of the
Netipakarana
 Paramatthamanjusa -commentary of the Visuddhimagga
 Linatthapakasini - commentary of the four atthakathas of the Nikayas
of the Buddhaghosa
 Tika of the atthakathas of the Jataka written by Buddhaghosa
 Tika on Madhurathavilasini - the commentary of Buddhadatta on the
Buddhavamsa.
There are other authors like The ra Anurudha who wrote the
Abhidhammattasangaho, also in this period.
1100 AD upto today - this phase is the also called the age of tikas. During
this period many tikas were written down on the atthakathas. It starts with
the reign of the king Parakrambahu -1 of Sri Lanka. The monks of Sri
Lanka and Burma contributed to the literature.
The Sarathadipani - the tika written by thera Sariputta on the atthakatha of
the Vinayapitaka called Samantapasadika by Buddhaghosa.
There are many tikas written and all the nam es cannot be given, but the
latest of the tikas written in Devanagari script by Indian scholar
Dhammananda Kosambi in 1933 is the Navnita tika –a tika on the book
Abhidhammathasangaho written by thera Anurudha. He also wrote the
commentary on the Visuddhim agga of the Buddhaghosa called
Visuddhimaggadipika.
The Vamsa Literature or the Chronicles of Ceylon: The chronicles of
Ceylon are the combination of the history of the country along with the
poetic legends, which connects them to the land of Buddha and Bu ddha
himself. The Dipavamsa - the history of the Island, is the oldest of the
vamsa literature and goes back to the pre -Buddhaghosa era. The author of
the book is not known, but it was probably written between the beginnings
of the 4th century CE.
The Mahav amsa is written by the thera Mahanama. Though the chronicle
gives the history of the Ceylon, we also get historically important
information of India from them, especially the era after the
mahaparinibbana of the Buddha and the reign of Emperor Asoka.
Mahav amsa tells about how Buddhism reached the island through the
thera Mahinda and theri Sanghamitta.
In early days the scholars were skeptical about the value of the Dipavamsa
and Mahavamsa, as source of authentic historical information. But now it munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
20 has been realized that these books contain the truth [history] buried under
the legends, myths and fables.
Besides the Dipavamsa and Mahvamsa, there is Culavamsa , which is the
continuation of the Mahavamsa written by many authors through
centuries. The Dathavamsa, the Thupavamsa, the Gandhavamsa and the
Sasanvamsa are some of the Vamsa literature.
The Gandhavamsa and the Sasanvamsa belongs to the 19th century CE and
to the country of Burma /Myanmar .
Origin And Growth of the Commentaries: According to Indian
traditi on, a commentary means reading new meanings back into old texts
according to one’s own education and outlook. It explains the words and
judgments of others as accurately and faithfully as possible; and this
remark applies to all commentaries, Sanskrit as well as Pāli.
The need for an accurate interpretation of the Buddha’s words which
formed the guiding principle of life and action of the members of the
Samgha, was felt from the very first, even during the life time of the
Master. There was at that time th e advantage of referring a disputed
question for solution of the Master himself, and therein we can trace the
first stage in the origin the Buddhist comments.
The Buddhist and Jaina texts tell us that the itinerant teachers of the time
wandered about in th e country, engaging themselves wherever they
stopped in serious discussions on matters relating to religion, philosophy,
ethics, morals, and polity. Discussions about the interpretation of the
abstruse utterances of the great teachers were frequent and the raison d’
etre of the development of the Buddhist literature, particularly of the
commentaries, is to be traced in these discussions.
There are numerous interesting passages in the Tipitaka, telling us how
from time -to-time contemporary events suggested manifold topics of
discussion among the bhikkhus, or how their peace was disturbed by grave
doubts calling for explanations either from the Buddha himself or
explanations either from the Buddha himself or from his disciples.
Whenever an interested sophist spoke vehemently in many ways in
dispraise of the Buddha, the Doctrine, and the Order (Digha -I) whenever
another such sophist misinterpreted the Buddha’s opinion (Majjhima Vol,
III), whenever a furious discussion broke out in any contemporary
brotherhood (Majjhima, Vol.II, Sanagana Sutta) or whenever a bhikkhu
behaved improperly, the bhikkhus generally assembled under the pavilion
to discuss the subject, or were exhorted by the Buddha or by his disciples
to safeguard their interests by presenting a strong defense of their case.
The Digha and Majjhima Nikaya contain many illuminating expositions of
the Buddha, e.g., Mahakammavibhanga, the Salayatanavibhanga,
(Majjhima, Vol.III) etc. Then we have from Thera Sariputta, the chief
disciple of Buddha, a body o f expositions of the four Aryan truths, the
Saccavibhanga. We have also to consider other renowned and profoundly munotes.in

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21 learned disciples of the Buddha, among whom were some women, who in
their own way helped forward the process of development of the
commentarie s. Mahakaccayana wrote some exegetical work like
Kaccayanagandho, Mahaniruttigandho, etc. we have similar contributions
from Mahakotthita, Ananda, Dhammadinna, and Khema, but it is needless
to multiply instances.
The Three Great Commentators: The works of Thera Buddhadatta,
Thera Buddhaghosa, and Thera Dhammapala are most important in Pāli
commentaries. They are rich in materials for reconstructing a secular and
religious history of ancient India. They also throw a flood of light on the
philosophical psy chological and metaphysical aspects of the period with
which they deal. A large variety of information is available from these
commentaries and hence their importance is very great.
Thanks to the indefatigable labours of the Pāli Text Society, London, f or
printing and publishing a major portion of the Pāli commentaries and
making them accessible to the reading public. Besides, there are some
other Pāli commentaries, such as the Saddhammapajjotika or a
commentary on the Niddesa written by Upasena; Saddha mmapakasini, a
commentary on the patisambhidamagga written by Mahanama Thera of
Anuradhapura, and the Visuddhajanavilasini or a commentrary on the
Apadana written by an unknown author.
Buddhaghosa Thera: The greatest of Commentators on the Tipitaka. He
was born in a village near Buddhagaya and became proficient in the Vedas
and allied branches of knowledge. One day he met a monk, named Revata,
and on being defeated by him in controversy, entered the Order to learn
the Buddha's teachings. Because his speech was profound, like that of the
Buddha, and because his words spread throughout the world (like those of
the Buddha), he came to be called Buddhaghosa. While dwelling with
Revata, he wrote the Ñ ānodaya and the Atthasālinī , and also began to
write a Parittatthakathā (a concise commentary) on the Tipitaka.
In order to complete his task, he came over to Ceylon at the suggestion of
Revata (Sās.p.29, says he was sent to Ceylon as punis hment for thinking
himself wiser than his teachers) and studied the Singhalese Commentaries
at the Mahāvihāra, under Sanghapala. When his studies were ended, he
wrote the Visudd hiMagga , and having thereby won the approval of the
Elders of the Mahāvihāra, he rendered the Sinhalese Commentaries into
Pāli. During this period, he lived in the Ganthākaravihāra, and on the
accomplishment of his task he returned to Jambudīpa.
Besides the above -mentioned works of Buddhaghosa, we have also the
Samantapāsādikā and the Kankhāvitaranī on the Vinaya Pitaka; the
Sumangalavilāsinī, the Papa ñcasūdanī, the Sāratthappakāsinī and the
Manorathapūranī on the Sutta Pitaka. He is also said to have com piled
Commentaries on the Khuddakapātha and the Sutta Nipāta (called the
Paramatthajotikā) and on the Dhammapada. He also wrote a series of
Commentaries on the Abhidhamma Pitaka (the Atthasālinī, the
Sammohavinodanī and the Pa ñcappakaranaatthakath ā). munotes.in

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22 Ther a Buddhadatta: In the early half of the 5th century A.D,
Buddhadatta, who is famous and wise scholar in Buddhism, was born in
Uragpura in south of India (modern time Kaveri River region near
Truchirappalli). He was a member of Tamil family living in Chola
country.
Like most thera Buddhaghosa, thera Buddadatta went to Sri Lanka to
study Buddhism in Mahavihara temple which is the main seat of the
ancestral branch for present day Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka, and
which was founded by King Devananpiya Tissa in the capital of
Anuradhapura on the site of the Tissarama, given to visiting missionary
from King Asoka. Thera Buddhadatta wrote many books living in Chola
country by supporting of king and delivered the Buddha’s teaching to his
fellowship.
Buddhadatta a nd Buddhaghosa: On the way by boat to India, thera
Buddhadatta met thera Budhaghosa, the great Buddhist scholar. When the
Buddhadatta having accomplished the task was en route back to India by
boat which was crossing to another boat by which Budhaghosa wa s a trip
to Lankadipa from Jambudipa. Some time, boats on the way faced the
heavy winds so both of them had been stopped. By the time boats being
stopped by side by side very closely, Buddhadatta and Buddhaghosa met
each other on board their own vessels. A nd they introduced themselves
with being exchanged courtesy greetings according to being Indian
tradition. Firstly, venerable Buddhaghosa said to Buddhadattathera;
"Bhante, the doctrine of the Buddha is available in the Sinhala language, I
am proceeding to Lankadipa to render them to Magadhi* (early Pāli)". In
the end of the Buddhaghosa’s the first talking, Buddhadatta replied, “Dear
Bhante, I too had come to Sri Lanka for the same task, but as I shall not
live very long now, I cannot finish the task". And Buddhadatta requested
Buddhaghosa to send each copy of his commentaries to him in India. For
boats departed in the conversation in position of subside winds, the limited
time did not allow them to discuss more.
As Buddhadatta requested on the boat, Budhag hosa sent him copies of
each commentary written by himself. Later Buddhadatta summarized
Buddhaghosa s’ commentaries on the abhidhammapitaka into
abhidhammavatra and vinayapitaka into vinayavinicchaya. But Rohan L.
Jayetilleke said; “Among Buddhadatta's wor ks Abhidhammavatara stands
supreme. Buddhadatta did not accept Buddhaghosa's commentary on
Abhidhammapitaka blindly”. Even though they lived in different places,
they had friendly discourse with communicating each other by charring
knowledge concerned with the Buddha’ s teachings from another to
another.
In accordance with describing of some scholars, while Gupta king kumara
Gupta was a patron of venerable Buddhaghosa, the patron of Buddhadatta
was the Kalabhra Accyutavikkhanta (Acyuta Narayana) of the Cola nadu.
Buddhadatta had written most of his works in Kaveripattinam at the
instance of important books, by the supporting of Chola king. He was the
most important adviser with regard to Buddhism for king. What he had munotes.in

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23 done to introduce about Buddhism with his firm confidences is seen as
follow:
1. Abhidhamma -avatăra,
2. Vinaya -Vinicchaya,
3. Uttara -vinicchaya
4. Rûparûpavibh ảga and other books
Ahiddhammavatara , is the introduction to abhiddhamma’ which is
mostly in verses, is introduction to study of abhidhamma and comparable
to Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa . But some scholar translates
abhiddhammavatara as ‘the coming of abhidhamma’. He had composed it
by using verses to be easily memorized by those who want to study
abhidhamma because around the last century B.C, only a number of
atthakathas which is very l arge to be studied was found on particular texts
for Buddha’s abhidhamma. Although abhidhammavatara is easy to
memorize, it is too hard to understand abhidhamma by this book in deeper.
He continuously wrote another book named Ruparupavibhagha. it has
three parts of meaning, Rupa+Arupa+Vibhagha. It says “explaining about
nama -rupa in detail or widely”.
Rûparûpavibh ảga, which is a supplement of abhidhammavatara is a large
writing about Abhidhamma in detail.
Both Vinaya -Vinicchaya and Uttara -vinicchaya are ju dgments or
condemnations for faults of Buddhist monks. It is also called vinaya.
Uttara -vinicchaya is as a supplement to his own Vinaya -vinicchaya. I
would like to mention the meaning of these books.
Vinaya -Vinicchaya : Because of being requested by his pu pil, Buddhasiha
from Sri Lanka both Uttara -vinicchaya and Rûparûpavibh ảga were written
by him for those who want to deeply and widely learn about the Vinaya
and Abhiddhamma. All of them are written in Pāli.
Thera Dhammapala: an inhabitant of south India th era Dhammapala
dwelt at Padaratittha in the realms of Damilas. He was also the celebrity of
the Mahavihara. He seems to have based his commentaries on the
Sinhalese atthakathas which were not preserved in the main land. The
Gandhavamsa enumerates the follo wing works to thera Dhammapala
 Netti -pakarana -atthakatha
 Itivuttaka -atthakatha
 Udana -atthakatha
 Cariyapitaka -atthakatha
 Theragatha and Therigatha -atthakatha
 Vimalavilasini or the Vimanavathu -atthakatha
 Vimalavilasini or the Petavathu -atthakatha
 Paramathama njusa
 Linathapakasini on the four nikayas
 Linathapakasini on the Jataka atthakatha
 Nettittha - kathayatika munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
24
 Paramathadipani and
 Linatthavannana.
From his works it appears that thera Dhammapala was well read and well
informed. His explanation of terms is ver y clear. His commentaries throw
considerable light on the social, religious, moral and philosophical ideas of
the time like the commentaries of the thera Buddhaghosa. In his
commentaries thera Dhammapala follows a regular scheme. First comes
an introductio n to the whole collection of the poems, giving the traditional
account of how it came to be put together. Then each poem is taken
separately. After explaining how, when and by whom it was composed
each clause in the poem is quoted and explained philologica lly and
exegetically.
Visuddhimagga: The Visuddhimagga was written by Buddhaghosa at the
request of the Thera Sanghapala, it is generally believed, in Ceylon in the
beginning of the 5th century A.D., when King Mahanama was on the
throne at Anuradhapura. Thera Buddhaghosa, on reaching the Mahavihara
(Anuradhapura) entered the Mahapadhana Hall, according to the account
of the Mahavamsa, the great Ceylonese Chronicle, and listened to the
Sinhalese Atthakatha and the Theravada, from the beginning to the end,
and became thoroughly convinced that they conveyed the true meaning of
the doctrines of the Lord of Dhamma. Thereupon paying reverential
respect to the priesthood, he thus petitioned: “I am desirous of translating
the Atthakatha; give me access to all you r books’’ The Ceylonese
priesthood for the purpose of testing his qualification, gave only two
gathas saying,” Hence prove thy qualification; having satisfied ourselves
on this point, we will then let thee have all our books”. From these (taking
these gath as for his text), and consulting the Pitakattaya, together with the
Atthakatha and condensing them into an abridged form he composed the
commentary called the “Visuddhimaggam.”
The Mahavamsa account of the circumstances that led to the composition
of the “ Visuddhimagga” agrees substantially with what thera
Buddhaghosa has written about himself in the Nidanakatha or story of the
origin of the work at their respective beginnings. Thus in the Nidanakatha
to his Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa at the very beginning quotes the
following gatha of Buddha’s own saying: -
“Sile patitthaya narosapanno, cittampannam ca bhavayam,
Atapi nipako bhikkhu, so imam vijataye jatanti”
(After having been established in precepts, a wise person should think of
Samadhi and panna, an active and wise bhikkhu disentangles this lock.)
Next, he proceeds to record
the circumstances under
which he wrote his
compendium of Buddhism
(i.e. the Visuddhimagga).
“The real meaning of sila, etc.
is described by means of this munotes.in

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25 stanza uttered by the gr eat sage. Having acquired ordination in the Order
of the Jina the benefit of the Sila, etc., which is tranquil and which is the
straight path to purity, the practitioner of vipassana who are desirous of
obtaining purity, not knowing purity as it is, do no t get purity though they
exert. I shall speak of the Visuddhimagga according to the instruction of
the dwellers of the Mahavihara, which is pleasing to them, and which is
the correct interpretation: Let all the holy men who are desirous of
obtaining purit y listen to what I say, attentively” (Visuddhimagga, P.T.S.
Vol.Ip.2)
At the end of the work again, thera Buddhaghosa returns to that very gatha
which he has adopted as his text for writing the Visuddhimagga, and after
referring to his promise quoted above , thus delivers him: “The
interpretation of the meanings of the Sila, etc, has been told in the
atthakathas on the five Nikaya. All of them being taken into
consideration, the interpretation gradually becomes manifest, being free
from all faults due to co nfusion; and it is for this reason that the
Visuddhimagga should be liked by the vipassana practitionerss who are
desirous of obtaining purity and who have pure wisdom.”
Thus, according to thera Buddhaghosa, the whole of his Visuddhimagga
was written as a commentary on that one gatha uttered by the Master
Evidently it was this gatha which the writer of the Mahavamsa account
had in his mind when he wrote that the Visuddhimaga was written as a
comment on and expansion of the two gathas which were set by the
Sinhalese Sangha residing at the Mahavihara to test Buddhaghosa’s
learning and efficiency.
The Visuddhimagga is in fact an abridged edition of the three pitakas, the
Vinaya, the Sutta, and the Abhidhamma, whose main arguments and
conclusions are here conde nsed into a single treatise. In the gatha itself, of
which the Visuddhimagga is a commentary, there is however no mention
either of the word “Visuddhi” or “Magga”; but there is mention of Sila,
Samadhi, and Panna. Strict observance of the silas leads to t he purification
or visuddhi of the kaya or body, while the practice of Samadhi leads to the
purity of soul and the thinking of Panna to perfect wisdom. A wise man
alone is capable of disentangling the net of cravings and desires and is fit
to attain Nirva na. The disentangling of the lock, as it is called, is the final
goal, it is called “visuddhi and sila, Samadhi, and panna are the wa ys or
“magga” to attain to it. As the ways or “magga” to attain to purity or
“visuddhi” having been explained in the book, it is called
“Visuddhimagga” or “Path of Purity”
MilindaPanha: The MilindaPanha or the questions of Milinda had
originally been written in Northern India in Sanskrit or in some North
Indian Prakrit by an author whose name has not, unfortunately enough,
come down to us. But the original text is now lost in the land of its origin
as elsewhere; what now remains is the Pāli translation of the original
which was made at a very early date in Ceylon. From Ceylon, it travelled
to other countries, namely Burma and Siam, which have derived their
Buddhism from Ceylon, and where at a later date it was translated into munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
26 respective local dialects. In China too, there have been found two separate
works entitled “The Book of the Bhikkhu Nagasena Sutra”, but whether
they are translations of t he older recessions of the work than the one
preserved in Pāli or the Pāli recensions is difficult to ascertain. However,
in the home of Southern Buddhism, the book is accepted as a standard
authority, second only to the Pāli Pitakas.
The Milindapañha, st ates that it contains 262 questions, though in the
editions available today only 236 can be found. Although not included as a
canonical text in the traditions of all the Theravadin countries, this work is
much revered throughout and is one of the most popu lar and authoritative
works of Pāli Buddhism.Composed around the beginning of the Common
Era, and of unknown authorship, the Milindapañha is set up as a
compilation of questions posed by King Milinda to a revered senior monk
named Nagasena. This Milinda has been identified with considerable
confidence by scholars as the Greek king Menander of Bactria, in the
dominion founded by Alexander the Great, which corresponds with much
of present -day Afghanistan. Menander's realm thus would have included
Gandhara, whe re Buddhism was flourishing at that time.
What is most interesting about the Milindapañha is that it is the product of
the encounter of two great civilizations — Hellenistic Greece and
Buddhist India — and is thus of continuing relevance as the wisdom of t he
East meets the modern Western world. King Milinda poses questions
about dilemmas raised by Buddhist philosophy that we might ask today.
And Nagasena's responses are full of wisdom, wit, and helpful analogies.
The contents of the Milindapañh āare: Backgro und History
1. Questions on Distinguishing Characteristics: (Characteristics of
Attention and Wisdom, Characteristic of Wisdom, Characteristic of
Contact, Characteristic of Feeling, Characteristic of Perception,
Characteristic of Volition, Characteristic of C onsciousness,
Characteristic of Applied Thought, Characteristic of Sustained
Thought, etc.)
2. Questions for the Cutting Off of Perplexity: (Transmigration and
Rebirth, The Soul, Non -Release from Evil Deeds, Simultaneous
Arising in Different Places, Doing Evi l Knowingly and Unknowingly,
etc.)
3. Questions on Dilemmas: Speaks of several puzzles and these puzzles
were distributed in eighty -two dilemmas.
4. A Question Solved by Inference
5. Discusses the Special Qualities of Asceticism
6. Questions on Talk of Similes
Dipavam sa: The Dipavamsa, the earliest extant chronicle of Sri Lanka, of
unknown authorship, deals with the history of the island from earliest
times up to the reign of Mahasena (325 -352). Erudite opinion holds that it munotes.in

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27 is not the work of a single author but of se veral authors. Considering the
nature of ancient chronicle of the island, we can believe that there is a
certain element of truth in it, particularly calculated to be the vehicle of
history in early times, when literary facilities were scanty. There is als o
the opinion that Dipavamsa was the work of two nuns Sivala and
Maharuha from India.
As the title indicates, the Dipavamsa contains the history of the island. The
preamble to the chronicle, (as translated into English by B. C. Law) reads:
"Listen to me! I shall relate the chronicle of the Buddha's visits to the
island, the arrival of the Tooth Relic and the Bodhi tree, the advent of the
Buddha's doctrine, the rise of the teachers, the spread of Buddhism in the
island and the coming of (Vijaya) the Chief o f Men".
According to B. C. Law, "Dipavamsa contains many stages of
development concluding at different important historical events. There is
an apparent lack of uniformity, an unevenness of style, incorrectness of
language and metre and numerous repetitio ns, apart from many other
imperfections which indicate it to be the outcome of a series of traditions
collected together as a first attempt to record a connected history of the
island".
The chronicle embodies the oral tradition of the country handed down
from the time of the advent of Buddhism to the island. With all its
drawbacks, both literary and grammatical, it is a very useful source of
information dealing with the ancient times, and written in Pāli.
Mahavamsa: The Mahavamsa, similar to the Dipavamsa, is written in
Pāli. It deals with the history of the island, from legendary beginnings,
also up to the reign of Mahasena. This great chronicle is said to have been
written by Ven. Mahanama Maha Thera, an uncle of king Dhatusena (460 -
478), who lived in the DighasandaSenapathiPirivena, which belonged to
the Maha -vihara Fraternity in Anuradhapura. His work ends with Ch.
37:50. The rest of the Mahavamsa is known as Culavamsa, especially after
Prof. Wilhelm Geiger, who is said to have made the division.
The pre amble to the Mahavamsa reads: "Having made obeisance to the
Sam-buddha the Pure, sprung from a Pure Race, I will recite the
Mahavamsa, of varied content and lacking nothing". (Rendered into
English by Prof. Geiger). When Maha -vamsa appeared after the
Dipav amsa, it assumed such popularity and importance that it not only
superseded the earlier work, but also prompted authors to gradually
produce supplementary work based on it.
The later chronicles of the island, written from time to time, are the
Attanangala viharavamsa, the Dhatuvamsa, the Elu -Attanagaluvamsa, the
Bodhivamsa, the MahaBodhivamsa, the Thupavamsa, the Daladavamsa,
the Viharavamsa, etc.
In the Culavamsa, it is stated that king Dhatusena, ordered the Dipavamsa
to be publicly recited at the annual Mihindu festival held in Anuradhapura
(Ch. 38:58). This indicates that at time it was available in some coherent munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
28 form. The authors of Culavamsa, who made additions to it from time to
time.
1.5 BUDDHIST SANSKRIT LITERATURE
Development of Buddhist sectarian ism among the Sagha influenced origin
of Buddhist Sanskrit literature. Several sects have developed their own
literary productions, the language of which is partly Sanskrit and partly a
dialect which we may call the mid -Indian and which is given the
design ation of mixed Sanskrit by Senart. Of this Sanskrit literature there
have remained to us many voluminous books and fragments of several
others while many are known to us only through Tibetan and Chinese
translations. The major portion of this literature, i n pure and mixed
Sanskrit, which we for brevity's sake call Buddhist Sanskrit literature,
belongs either to the school known as that of the Mahāyāna or has been
more or less influenced by the latter.
“The Sanskrit Literature in Buddhism, however, is by no means
exclusively M ahāyānist. Before all the widely spread sect of the
Sarvāstivādins, which belonged to the Hīnayāna and which is indicated by
its designation of positivists, possessed a cannon of its own and a rich
literature in Sanskrit”
Winternitz also has mentioned abov e matter as, “Buddhist Sanskrit
literature by no means exclusively Mahāyānic. There are also a number of
important Hīnayāna texts, which are exclusively written in pure and mixed
Sanskrit.”
Therefore, under this title further we have to discuss in two ways
 How Buddhist Sanskrit literature developed with influence of
Srāvakayāna and
 How Buddhist Sanskrit literature developed with influence of
Mahāyāna.
DEVELOPMENT OF BUDDHIST SANSKRIT LITERATURE
WITH INFLUENCE OF SRĀVAKAYĀNA
During King Aśoka's reign, Bu ddhism had spread through India and it
continued to develop. Some Buddhist school became stronger than other
schools. Therefore, some schools gradually disappeared and some school
developed and became more powerful with patronage of king. In general,
howev er, the Mahāsaghika tradition was weaker than the
Sthaviratradition.The names of many schools belonging to the Sthavira
tradition, such as the Sarvāstivādin, Theravāda, and Sammatīya, are well
known.
THE SARVĀSTIVĀDA SCHOOL
“In the history of the secessi on of school, it has been shown that the
Sarvāstivādins belonged to the orthodox group, which is why there are munotes.in

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29 many points of agreement between the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda
doctrines.
During the reign of Asoka, the Sarvāstivādins had two centers; one at
Mathurā and the other at Kāśmīr. With the patronage of king Kani ka (1st
century A.D.) the Sarvāstivāda School developed in India remained as the
most powerful and influential school in North -Western India from around
the beginning of the Christian era to about the 7th century A.D., initially
established in Mathura and expanding in the north where Kāśmīra became
their center of orthodoxy.
FOURTH BUDDHIST COUNCIL
The Kusāna emperor Kani ka I (78 -102 A.D.) became a patron of
Buddhism and of the Sarvāstivāda School in particular and the fourth
Buddhist council held at Kāśmīr under patronage of this emperor.
Vasumitra, the great Buddhist philosopher, was the president of the
council. Aśvaghosha, another great Buddhist philosopher acted as the
Vice -president of the council and at this council, Buddhist texts of Sūtra,
Vinaya and Abhidharma were ordered to be engraved on sheet of copper
and deposited inside stupa which let to emergent of later Tantrayāna.
Sarvāstivādins took active parts in this council and did a splendid job for
the reconciliation of the conflicting opinions of the different sects and for
the settlement of the texts of the canonical literature.
THE LANGUAGE OF SARVĀSTIVĀDINS: According to scholars the
language of Sarvāstivādins is grammatical San skrit, not mixed Sanskrit. N
Dutt says “The Tibetan traditions corroborated by the recent finds of
manuscripts in Eastern Turkestan and Gilgit leave no room for doubt
about the fact that the Sarvāstivādins adopted grammatical Sanskrit (and
not mixed Sanskr it) as the medium of their literature and that they
possessed a complete canon of their own in three divisions Sūtra , Vinaya
and Abhidharma .” According to Dutt, Sarvāstivādins used grammatical
Sanskrit as their literary language and they established Tripia ka in this
language.
DEVELOPMENT OF BUDDHIST SANSKRIT LITERATURE
WITHIN SARVĀSTIVĀDINS
Buddhist Sanskrit literature developed with Sarvāstivādins. According to
Winternitz Sarvāstivādin take first place among the Buddhist sects of
Srāvakayāna with regard to the development of Buddhist Sanskrit
literature. Sarvāstivādins especially in Kāśmīr and Gandhāra spread thence
to Central Asia, Tibet and China, had a Sanskrit Cannon of its own.
“Though no complete copy of this canon has come down to us, we know it
firstly, from many fragments, large and small, which have been discovered
among the manuscripts and block -prints brought from Eastern Turkestan
by M.A. (Sir Aurel) Stein, A. Grunwedel, A. von. Le Coq, P. Pelliot, and
other; further from quotations in other B uddhist Sanskrit texts (like
Mahāvastu , Divyāvadāna and Lalitavistara ) and finally from Chinese and
Tibetan Translations.” The Sarvāstivādins had own completed Tripi aka
(Sūtra , Vinaya , Abhidharma ) which written in Sanskrit Language, and munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
30 same to Sthaviravāda Tripi aka. The Sūtra -piakaof the Sarvāstivāda was
divided into Āgamas corresponding to Nikāyas of the Pāli school. There
were four Āgamas called Dīrgha , Madhyama , Samyukta and Ekottara . In
the Kośa there is reference to the Ksudraka , which implies by the existence
of a Ksudrakāgama too. B ut in the Divyāvadāna (pp. 17, 331, 333) and
elsewhere the Āgamas are referred to as Āgamacatustayam . In the
Nāgarjunakonda inscription also, four Āgamas are mentioned and not five.
In the Vinaya Pi akaof Sarvāstivādins the principal text was the
Daśādhyāya -vinaya . The other texts in Vinaya Pi akaof Sarvāstivādins
can be found in the catalogues of Chinese canonical literature. Dutt48
quotes following titles of Vinaya texts from Nanjio s Catalogue,
(i) Sarvāstivāda -vinaya -mātka, (ii) Sarvāstivāda -vinaya -vibhā ā, (iii) Sarvāstivāda -vinaya -sangraha, (iv) Daśādyāya -vinaya -nidāna,
(v) Daśādyāya -vinaya -bhiku -prātimoka, (vi) Daśādyāya -vinaya -bhikunī -
prātimoka, (vii) Daśādyāya -vinaya or Sarvāstivāda -vinaya.
Sarvāstivādins are also c alled Vaibhā ikas. In their Abhidharma there are
seven texts. For each text the author has been given, they are ascribed to
the disciples of the Buddha. Although the number is similar to Theravada
Abhidhamma , the contents of those seven texts differ from th at of
Theravāda teachings. The 7 texts are:
(i) Jñāna-prasthāna -śāstra of ĀryaKātyāyanī -putra , (ii) Prakaranapāda -
śāstra of SthaviraVasumitra, (iii) Vijñānakāya of SthaviraDevaśarma,
(iv) Dharmaskandha -śāstra of ĀryaSāriputra, (v) Prajñapti -śāstraof
ĀryaMaudgalyāyana, (vi) Dhātukāya of Pūra , and (vii) Sangīti -paryāya of
Mahākausthila.
All literature of the Sarvāstivādins is fairly comprehensive. At the fourth
Buddhist council Sarvāstivādins wrote Vibhāā as commentaries for their
primary books. “During the session of the council, they composed
1,00,000 stanzas of Upadeśa -śāstra explanatory of the canonical sūtras ,
1,00,000 stanzas of Vinaya -vibhā ā-śāstras explanatory of the Vinaya and
1,00,000 stanzas of Abhidharma -vibhā ā-śāstras explanat ory of the
Abhidharma .
As a one Buddhist School, the Sarvāstivādins has done vast role for
development of Buddhist Sanskrit literature and their role pertain in the
major ground of particular literature which developed under Srāvakayāna.
Not only Sarvāstiv āda but also number of another Buddhist Schools which
pertain to Srāvakayāna branch and further development of Nikāya
Buddhism also caused to development of Buddhist Sanskrit literature.
Mahīśāsakas, Kāśyapīyās, Mūlasarvāstivādins, and Sautrāntikās are can be
categorized in particular matter. Among those Buddhist sects
Mūlasarvāstivādins which later separated from Sarvāstivādins and who
later caused to appear Tantrayāna, are very prominent.

munotes.in

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31
AŚVAGHOA AND HIS WORKS
Aśvagho a is regarded as one of the mos t
prominent poets in Sanskrit literature. Modern
scholars have acquainted that Aśvaghoa was the
most prominent predecessor of Kālidāsa, and he
was the creator of epic, dramatic and lyrical
compositions. The traditions embodied in the
Chinese and Tibetan so urces agree in asserting
that Aśvaghoa was a contemporary of king
Kanika (2nd century A.D.) Aśvagho a was one
of Brāhmin family, and had enjoyed a thorough
Brāhmanical education before he went over to
Buddhism. As a Buddhist he probably associated
himself first with the Sarvāstivāda School, but
laid great stress on the Buddha -Bhakti and thus
prepared Mahāyāna.
Aśvagho as works, which have been found in the Buddhist Sanskrit
literature, his best-known work is his epic poem Buddhacarita (“Life of
the Buddha ”). This is the first known complete biography of the Buddha,
from his birth to the parinirvā a. His other works are
Saundarānanda describes how the extremely worldly Nanda was induced
to become a monk by the Buddha, and Sūtrālankāra which was translated
into Chinese by Kumārajīva in about 405 A.D., was ascribed by Chinese
authors to Aśvagho a. Śāriputra -prakara a– This drama treats the
conversion of Śāriputra and his friend Maudgalyāyana. Gandistotra -
gāthā – This poem is well known for its beauty of style and contents. The
Rāstrapāla -nāaka, the Gurusevādharmapa ñcāśadgāthā or the
Gurupañc āśikā , the Vajrayānamūlāpattisamgraha , the Vajrasūci , the
Stūlāpatti , the Daśakuśalakarmapatha , the Sadgatikārikā , the Nairātmya -
pariprcchā , the Tridandamālā , were also, maybe spuriously, ascribed to
Aśvagho a.
DEVELOPMENT OF BUDDHIST SANSKRIT LITERATURE
WITH INFLUENCE OF MAHĀYĀNA
First time major community divided into two groups as a result of schism
and step by step they developed as many groups finally all these groups
divided into two major groups as Srāvakayāna and Mahāyāna. After
schism first time appeared Mahāsa ghikas and regularly they sub divided
to seven groups finally Lokottaravādinsthe sub -group of Mahāsa ghikas
returned to Mahāyāna. Same way Sthaviravādins also s ub-divided to
eleven groups among those eleven groups Sarvāstivādins later turned to
Mahāyāna. This point is further discussed by Akira Hirakava in his book
of A History of Indian Buddhism as following, “Many modern scholars
have maintained the view that M ahāyāna Buddhism developed out of the
Mahāsa ghika School. But since the Mahāsa ghika School continued to
exist long after Mahāyāna Buddhism arose, the rise of Mahāyāna cannot
be explained simply as the transformation of the Mahāsa ghikas into
Mahāyānists. While it is true that the many similarities between munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
32 Mahāsa ghika and Mahāyāna doctrines prove that the Mahāsa ghika
School did influence Mahāyāna Buddhism, teachings from the
Sarvāstivādin, Mahīśāsaka, Dharmaguptaka, and Theravāda schools were
also incorp orated into Mahāyāna Buddhism. The doctrines of the
Sarvāstivāda School in particular were often mentioned in Mahāyāna
texts, and Sammatīya teachings also were influential. The relation between
Nikāya Buddhism and Mahāyāna Buddhism clearly is not a simple one”.
INFLUENCE OF SRĀVAKAYĀNA TO DEVELOPMENT OF
MAHĀYĀNA LITERATURE
When we attempt to find literary development of Mahāyāna Buddhism in
Sanskrit, we can see how influence of Srāvakayāna works in Sanskrit
regarding their literature, with regard to parti cular object. Earlier is
discussed the Mahāvastu which pertains to Srāvakayāna and the Vinaya
text of Lokottaravādins, who sub -group of Mahāsa ghikas, Winternitz
further discusses with regard to particular matter as, “And although the
Mahāvastu belongs to th e Srāvakayāna and contains much that could
likewise occur – or even actually occurs - in the Pāli texts of the
Theravādins, still it also contains something that makes it come closer to
the Mahāyāna. The reason for many such traits is probably that the
conc eption of Buddha prevalent among the Mahāsa ghikas and the
Lokottaravādins does actually represent a transition to the Mahāyāna.”
Otherwise Sarvāstivādins and their literature also influenced to developed
Buddhist Sanskrit literature of Mahāyāna. “The Mah āsaghikas may have
been the forerunners of Mahāyāna but it is clear that the Sarvāstivādins
contributed much to the growth of Mahāyāna in one way or the other."
According to scholars the Sarvāstivādins texts can be found in not only
India but also Tibet a nd China. The main texts of the Mūlasarvāstivādins,
who later translated to Mahāyāna, were translated from Sanskrit into
Chinese by the Chinese pilgrim I -tsing in the years 700 - 712 A.D. In this
way Buddhist Sanskrit canon which belong to Srāvakayāna later belong to
Mahāyāna. Some Mahāyāna ideas which included in Srāvakayāna texts
later developed and this development caused to particular matter.
THE LALITAVISTARA
According to details which discussed above while the Mahāvastu
belonging to Srāvakayāna altho ugh it has assimilated some of the
Mahāyāna features, the Lalitavistara is considered as one of the holiest
texts of the Mahāyāna. Although the work originally contained the
description of Buddha s life for the Sarvāstivādin s belonging to the
Srāvakayāna. But the Lalitavistara describes itself as a Vaipulyasūtra
(“elaborate teaching text”) - a common term for Mahāyāna Sūtras - and
exhibition all features of a Mahāyāna Sūtra . According to scholars the
Lalitavistara is a redaction of an older Srāvakayāna text ex panded and
embellished in the sense of the Mahāyāna. The Lalitavistara according to
nature of the text, it is not a single work of one author but is an
anonymous compilation in which very old and very young fragment stand
in juxtaposition. The book moreove r consists, according to its form, of munotes.in

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33 unequal sections, a continuous narrative in Sanskrit prose and numerous,
often extensive, metrical pieces in “Mixed Sanskrit”.
THE AVADĀNA LITERATURE
With regard to development of Sanskrit Buddhist literature the Avad āna
literature takes very important place. According to scholars the
Avadāna texts like both books of Buddhist story literature which
Avadāna and Jātaka , the Avadāna texts also stand, so to say, with one foot
in the Srāvakayāna and the other in the Mahāyāna l iterature. The earlier
works belong entirely to the Srāvakayāna literature, and the others in the
Mahāyāna are completely Mahāyānistic, although they expound Buddha
worship. This point has discussed by J.K. Nariman,
“The Jātakamālā is also called Bodhisat tva-avadānamālā , for Bodhisattva
Avadāna is synonymous with Jātaka . The Jātakās are consequently
nothing but Avadānas having the Bodhisattva for their hero.
Consequently, works like the Sūtrālankāra and the Jātakamāla have much
in common with the texts of t he Avadāna literature. On the other hand,
numerous Jātakas are to be found in the collection of Avadānas .”
In the Avadāna literature of Mahāyāna there are can be found many text.
The Avadāna -śaakais a work of the first variety which is most probably
the m ost ancient of its kind. It is a collection of a hundred
avadāna legends.
The Divyāvadāna is a later collection than the Avadāna -Śaaka, but it also
includes some very old texts.
The Kalpad umāvadānamālā , the Rattnāvadānamālā and the
Aśokāvadānamālā are po etical versions of Avadānas , partly selected
systematically from the Avadāna -Śataka , partly taken from other sources.
The Dvāvi śatyavadāna , the Bhadrakalpāvadāna , the Vratāvadānamālā
and the Vicitrakarnikāvadāna , all these works belonged to Avadāna
literature and so far accessible only in a few manuscript. Others are known
only through the Tibetan and Chinese translation.
THE MAHĀYĀNA SŪTRAS
In the Mahāyāna literature the Mahāyāna sūtras are in vast range and has
been developed within long period of time. The basic material for the
critical studies of the sūtras of Mahāyāna Buddhism is their Sanskrit
originals. Up to the present a fairly large number of these have been
discovered. According to scholars many of these can be compared with
Chinese translation s. Among Chinese translation, Kumārajīva, Paramārtha
and Hsuan -tsang were probably most important.
In the beginning, various Buddhist sūtras appeared in Prākrit or in the
language of Central Asia. Modern scholars have been discussed the
background of tran slation of Mahāyānasūtras from Prākrit to Sanskrit. munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
34 According to scholars with regarding this matter the Nālanda University is
very important.
“About the time when Buddhism was studied at Nālanda University, in the
sixth century, they had been rewritten i n Sanskrit, though there remain in
these Sanskrit versions traces of Prākrit colloquialism.” According to
Hajime Nakamura, this change to Sanskrit from Prākritwas caused before
or during the Gupta Dynasty in 320 A.D., which adopted Sanskrit as the
official language.
MAIN MAHĀYĀNA SŪTRAS
The Buddhist Sanskrit literature which mentioned so far belongs to the
borderland which forms the transition between Srāvakayāna and
Mahāyāna Buddhism. According to scholars the Mahāyāna Sūtras which
going to mention here can be categorize as the works which belong
entirely to the Mahāyāna. In the Mahāyāna Sūtra literature the basic,
oldest, most famous and most representative text is the Prajñ āpāramitā
Sūtra , of which there are several versions, large (the biggest is said to be
in one hundred thousand ślokas ), medium and small (the smallest being of
one śloka only). In the Mahāyāna Sūtra literature there can be seen the
main nine texts have been categorized under title of Nava -Darmas . The
titles of these nine books are:
(i) Atasāhasrikā Prajñ ā-Pāramita, (ii) Saddharma -Pudarika, (iii)
Lalita -Vistara, (iv) Lankāvatāra or Saddharma -Lankāvatāra, (v) Suvarna -
Prabhāsa, (vi) Gaavyūha, (vii) Tathāgataguhyaka or Tathāgataguna -
jñāna, (viii) Samādhirāja and (ix) Daśabhūmiśvara.
At the present day also all these books are held in great honor in Nepal,
and all these works are also called “ Vaipulya -Sūtras .” There is evidence of
that fact that the Prajñ ā-Pāramitās belong to the earliest Mahāyāna -Sūtras .
In the Prajñ ā-Pāramitā literature the following have come down to us in
Sanskrit:
 Śatasāhasrikā -Prajñ ā-Pāramitā (100,000 Ślokas ),
 Pañcavim śati-sāhasrikā -Prajñ ā-Pāramitā (25,000 Ślokas ),
 Atasāhasrikā -Prajñ ā-Pāramitā (8000 Ślokas ),
 Sārdhadvai -sāhasrikā -Prajñ ā-Pāramitā (2,500 Ślokas ),
 Saptaśatikā -Prajñ ā-Pāramitā (700 Ślokas ),
 the Vajracchedikā -Prajñ ā-Pāramitā,
 Alpāk arā-Prajñ ā-Pāramitā and
 Prajñ ā-Pāramitā -Hdaya -Sūtra. munotes.in

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35 The Prajñ ā-Pāramitā was already translated into Chinese as early as 179
A.D. The Prajñ ā-Pāramitās appear to have origina ted in the South, and
afterwards spread to the East and the North.
OTHER MAHĀYĀNA SŪTRAS Mahāyāna sūtras began their steady
growth in the first century B.C. and they reached their fullest splendor by
the seventh or eighth century A.D. By influence of the Phi losophical
traditions of the Mahāyāna later developed the Mahāyāna sūtras in vast
range. The main Mahāyānasūtras have been categorize under the title of
Nava -Dharmas , which mentioned above, and other Mahāyānasūtras have
been categorized under few titles acco rding to teachings which included in
the sūtras of Mahāyāna.
(i) The Sūtras which introduce meditation -
Especially in the Yogācāra School has been discussed meditation, the
Meditation sūtras of Mahāyāna seen to have originated from among them.
Following sūtrascan categorize under particular matter.
The Yogācārabhūmi -sūtra , the Dharmatara -dhyāna -sūtra , the
Pratyutpanna -buddha -sammukhāvasthitasamādhi -sūtra, the Pratyutpanna -
samādhi -sūtra , the Samādhirāja or, the Samādhirāja -candrapradīpa -sūtra ,
the Śūrangama -samādhi -sūtra , the Atyāya -jñāna-sūtra , the Vajrasamādhi -
sūtra ,
(ii) The Sūtrās which introduce transmigration -
In the Mahāyāna there are some sūtras describing the process of
transmigration of living beings. Following sūtras can categorize under
above mat ter.
The Kudraka -sūtra , the Saddharma -smrty -upasthāna -sūtra , the
Dharma -śarīra -sūtra , the Śālistamba -sūtra , the Pratītyasamut
pādādivibhanga nirdeśanāma -sūtra ,
(iii) The Sūtras which introduce Buddhas and Bodhisattvas –
In Mahāyāna, Buddhas came to be regarded as more superhuman and
more divine than in Conservative Buddhism, although physical and
spiritual features of Buddhas were retained. Following sūtras are
introduced particular matter. the Kusuma -sañcaya -sūtra , the Ratnajāti -
parip cchā -sūtra, the Ratnacandra -parip cchā -sūtra, the Badrakalpa -
samādhi -sūtra, the Akobhya -vyuha -sūtra, the Karunā -pundarika -sūtra,
the Sukhāvatīvyūha -sūtra, the Amitāyurdhyāna -sūtra, the
Tathāgatagarbha -sūtra, the Aparimitāyurj ñāna-sūtra , the
Mahāparinirvā a-sūtra the Buddhā vatamsaka -sūtra , the Daśabhūmika -
sūtra , the Ratnakūta -sūtra , the Mahāsannipātasūtra.
(iv) The Sūtras which introduce discipline.
In some Mahāyāna sūtras Buddhist ethical practices to be observed by
monks and nuns, laymen and lay women were described. Follo wing
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36
The Dharmavinayasamādhi -sūtra, the Kuśala -mūlasangraha -sūtra, the
Tathāgata -guhyakośa -sūtra, the Bodhisattvaprātimokśa -sūtra, the
Śrimālādevi -sūtra , the Brahmajāla -sūtra .
THE OTHER TEXTS WHICH HAVE WRITTEN BY GR EAT
PHILOSOPHERS OF MAHĀYĀNA
Another way the Mahāyāna works that immediately follow are those of
Nāgarjuna, Āryadeva, Asa ga, Vasubandhu, etc. The Nāgarjuna, Asa ga
and Vasubandhu wrote bulky commentaries on the Prajñ ā-Pāramitās,
which have, however, only come down to us in the Chinese Tripi aka and
in the Tibetan Tanjur.
Nāgarjuna (c.150 -250 A.D) is the elaborator of one of the most important
schools of the Mahāyāna, namely the
Mādhyamika School and he is the author
of the Mādyamika -Kārikās which presen t
in a systematic manner the Sūnyatāvāda
which is taught in the Mahāyāna Sūtras .
The other works probably his are: the
Yuktiśataka , the Śūnyatā -Saptati, the
Pratītya -Samutpādahrdaya, the
Mahāyāna Vimśaka , the Vigraha -
vyāvartanī , the Dharma -Sangraha , the
Ratnāvalī and the Suhrllekha. Among
these the Ratnāvalī and the Suhrllekha,
Letter to a Friend, are and epistle to the
Sātavāhana emperor, expounding
traditional Buddhist morality in no way
different from that we have found in the Tripi aka.
Āryadeva (170-270 A.D.) who was the most famous disciple of
Nāgarjuna and his works are as follows; the Śata-śāstra , the Catuhśataka ,
the Akara-śataka, the Mahāpuru a-śataka , the Cittaviśuddhiprakarana ,
and the following four books, existing in Tibetan alone, are tradi tionally
ascribed to Āryadeva, are the Jñānāsārasamuccaya, the
Skalitapramathanayuktihetusiddhi , the Madhyamakabhramaghāta, the
Āryapraj ñāpāramitāmahāparip ccha.
Maitreya or Maitreyanātha (c.270 -350 A.D.) who was the elaborator of
Yogācāra School and he a lso later identified with Maitreya -Bodhisattva,
the future Buddha. Asa ga heartily venerated his teacher Maitreya who
was respectfully called Maitreya -Bodhisattva. As for Maitreya s works,
the Chinese tradition enumerates the Yogācārabhūmi , the Yogavibhāga ,
the Mahāyāna -sūtrālankāra , the Madhyāntavibhāga , and the
Vajracchedikāvyākhyā , while the Tibetan tradition has the Mahāyāna -
sūtrālankāra , the Madhyāntavibhāga , the Abhisamayālankāra , the
Dharmadharmatāvibhāga and the Uttaratantra .
These five are well know n among the Tibetan scholars. Asa ga or
Āryasa ga expounded the Vijñānavāda systematically, and he was born
about or after the year 290 A.D. in Puru sapura and died about 360 A.D. munotes.in

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37
The following books are ascribed to him. The Mahāyāna -sagraha , the
Vajracched ikāvyākhyā (a commentary on the Vajracchedikāsūtra ), the
Abhidharmasamuccaya .
Vasubandhu (320-400 A.D.) who was the younger brother of Asa ga
and he was one of the most prominent
philosophers in the history of Buddhist
literature. His chief work, the
Abhidharmakośa has not come down in the
Sanskrit and its auto commentary is available
in Sanskrit now. The Abhidharmakośa -
kārika , the Gāthā -Samgraha , the
Paramārtha -Saptati , the Pañcaskandha -
Prakarana , the Vyākyāyukti , the Karma -
Siddhi -Prakarana , and the Pratītya-
Samutpāda -Sūtra these are the other works of
Vasubandhu.
Furthermore, in the Buddhist Sanskrit
literature it can see many authors belong to philosophical school such as
Mādyamika and Yogācāra have been written many books to explain their
views. Buddha pālita and Bhāvaviveka (Bhavya) who belong to
Mādyamika School and wrote commentaries on their works lived and
worked at the beginning of the 5th century A.D.
In the 5th century A.D. there lived Sthiramatī was a disciple of Dignāga
(Dināga) who belongs t o Yogācāra School. Sthiramatī wrote a
commentary on the Kāśyapa -Parivarta , and on Vasubandhu s
Trimśikā these are available in Sanskrit. Also he wrote a commentary on
Abhidharmako a of Vasubandhu available only Tibetan translation.
Another author Dharmapāl a wrote a commentary on the Vijñaptim ātratā -
Siddhi . The greatest and most independent thinker among the successors
of Vasubandhu is Dignāga, the founder of Buddhist logic, only a single
one of Dignāga works, the Nyāyapraveśa has come down in Sanskrit. The
principal works of his successor Dharmakīrti, the Nyāyabi du, has come
down to us in Sanskrit. Dharmakīrti wrote seven books on Buddhist logic
including Nyāyabi du. The other books are the Pramā avartikā , the
Pramā asamuccaya , the Hetubi du, the Vādanyāya , the
Sambandhāparik ā, the Santāntarasiddhi . Among these books the
Vādanyāya and Santāntarasiddhi are available in Tibetan translation.
Candragomi who as a grammarian, philosopher and poet and belongs to
Yogācāra School enjoyed high renown in the Buddhist Li terary. Of his
poetical works we have only a religious poem in the form of a letter to his
pupil, the Siśyalekhā -Dharma -Kāvya . The most prominent among the later
teachers of Mahāyāna Buddhism, who also distinguished himself as a
poet, is Śāntideva, who pro bably lived in the 7th century A.D. Tāranātha
ascribes to him the works Śikā-Samuccaya, Sūtra -Samuccaya and
Bodhicaryāvatāra. munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
38 Śāntarak sita was one of the most important and pivotal thinkers in the
history of Indian and Tibetan Buddhist philosophy and the Professor of
Nālandā University. He was born during the reign of Gopāla (660 -705
A.D) the founder of the famous Pāla dynasty of Bengal and died at the
time of Dharmapāla who ascended the throne in 765 A.D. Śāntarak ita
was the author of several philosophic al and logical works.
In the Tibetan Tanjur a number of works are attributed to him among
which the Vādanyāyav ttivipa citārtha and Tattvasa graha deserve
special mention. The first work is a commentary on the Vādanyāna of
Dharmakīrti the Sanskrit origina l of this work is lost Tibetan translation
still exist. The most famous book of Śāntarak ita’sis
Tattvasa graha compendium Indian philosophy systems, non -Buddhists
and 30 Buddhists. His disciple Kamalasīla (740 -795 A.D) wrote
commentaries on both books are available in Sanskrit, and Tibetan
translation. Both went to Tibet, Kamalasīla wrote two books at Tibet,
Bhāvanākrama and Madhyamāloka , all these are available in Sanskrit and
Tibetan translation.
Check Your Progress:
1. Fourth Buddhist Council was held at which place ?
2. Who was the author of 'a history of Indian Buddhism'?
1.6 SUMMARY
The Buddhist Literature specially the early Pali literature has a very long
oral tradition and it was preserved very meticulously by the teacher -
disciple tradition and was written down in Sri Lanka in the 1st BCE. Today
the Buddhist Literature is studied through the four languages - Pali,
Buddhist Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan. Here we have taken only the brief
survey of the Buddhist literature of the Pali - canonical and non -canonical
literature and the Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. The Pali literature specially
the Tipitaka is considered to be authentic source of the Life and teachings
of the Buddha and is said to be the buddhavacana - the words of the
Buddha. It corresponds t o the archaeological sources and many Buddhist
sites and places have been excavated with the help of the Pali literature.
Mixed or hybrid Sanskrit initially and then Buddhist Sanskrit is used by
the Buddhist monks and scholars for writing the expositions o n the
teachings of the Buddha. These works were mainly translated into Chinese
and Tibetan languages and is preserved in that languages, but
unfortunately lost in the originals.
1.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS
 Write in brief about Pali Canonical Literature or the Tipitaka
 What are the atthakatha or the Pali commentarial literature -Discuss
 Discuss the development of the Hybrid -Sanskrit or Buddhist Sanskrit
Literature munotes.in

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39
 Write the names of some Mahayana scholars with their literary
works.
1.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS
 B C La w: History of Pali Literature
 Bharatsingh Upadhya ya- Pali Sahitya ka Itihas (Hindi)
 Bhikkhu Sujato - The Authenticity of Early Buddhist Texts.
 G. P Malalasekhara -Pali Literature - a 3 in -1 Publication
 Gombrich Richard - Buddhism and Pali
 J K Nariman -Litearar y history of Sanskrit Buddhism
 Jain Bhagchandra - Baudha Sanskrut Sahitya ka Itihas (Hindi)
 Norman K R -History of Indian Literature - Pali
 Ranjan Rajesh -Exegetical Literature in Pali
 Sayagji U Ko Lay - Guide to Tipitaka
 Shukla Karunesh -History of Buddhist Sa nskrit Literature.

















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40
2
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
Unit Struct ure:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Buddhist Art - Sculptures and Paintings as Sources
2.3 Archaeological Sites a s Sources
2.4 Important Buddhist Places in Northern India
2.5 Important Buddhist Places in Western India
2.6 Important Buddhist Places in Southern India
2.7 Summary
2.8 Unit End Questions
2.9 Additional Reading
2.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To understand sources other than Literature for the study of Buddhism,
their utilization, their role and contribution in constructing and
reconstructing ancient history of India and of Buddhism.
 To know how to explore different excavated material for getting the
correct and reliable information.
 To re -write the history of Buddhism with the help of new fi ndings .
 To develop analytical skill and experiential knowledge for the
understanding of history of Buddhism through archaeology, art and
architecture.
2.1 INRODUCTION:
Archaeology is the scientific study of the remains
of the past. They include buildings monuments
and other material relics that the inhabitants of
that period were associated with. Excavations at
Taxila give an idea about the Kushanas. The rock
cut temples of Ajanta and E llora with its
sculptures and paintings express the artistic
finery of that period. Besides all these pots,
pottery, seals, skeletal remains all are inseparable
parts of the reconstructing history. munotes.in

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41

The study of Buddhism in India would have received a gr eat setback had it
not been for Sir Alexander Cunningham’s archaeological expeditions
which re -introduced the places of Buddhist interest like Vaishali, Sravasti
and so on to the Indians. For gaining information about archaeological
aspect of Ancient Indi a with reference to history of Buddhism study
should be carried out on various architectural forms which existed in the
Buddhist India like the ‘stupa’ ‘vihara’ ‘chaityagruha’ and of the Buddhist
art from the ‘sculptures’ and ‘paintings of the excavated st upas and caves
(leni).
STUPA: As per the wishes expressed by the Buddha in Mahaparinibbana
sutta, stupas are to be built on the relics (dhatus -remains of the body after
cremation) of the Buddha, Pacceka Buddhas, ( one enlightened by himself
for himself) Arahatta (fully liberated ones) and cakkavatins (soverign
kings). As per Pali literary sources originally there were eight stupas in
Rajagraha, Vaisali, Kapilvastu, Allakappa, Ramgram , Vethadipa, Pava
and Kusinagar (erected on relics) besides those erected by Brahmina
Drona and Mauriyas of Pippalivana on the pot and the embers
respectively.
Thus, Stupas are monument erected on the relics of the Buddha , Pacceka
Buddha, a Buddhist sain t, (Arahatta) and cakkavatin King. Such stupas
erected on the relics are called the Saririka stupas. Stupa at Kapilvattu is a
Saririka stupa. Sometimes Stupas are erected for marking a sacred spot, or
for commemorating an event connected with the life of t he Buddha. Such
stupas are called the Uddesika stupas. Dhamek stupa is a Uddesika stupa
commemorating the dhammacakkapavatana at Sarnath. Stupas constructed
over or on the objects used
by the Buddha like bowls,
garments, sticks etc are
called the Paribhogi ka
stupas. The stupa at Sopara
near Mumbai is the
Paribhogika stupa built on
the piece of the Patta
[begging bowl] of the
Buddha.
Architecturally the origin of the stupa is from the earthen mound
developed to form the huge stupa. Stupa consists of the circ ular base
called Medhi, supporting the massive solid dome called Anda, crowned by
the Harmika and the Umbrella or chattra symbolizing the Universal
monarchy of the Buddha - the one who conquered the SELF. Though in its
development the stupa often became ela borate and complex, in its purest
form the plan consisted of a circle. Worship consists of walking clockwise
around a stupa, therefore the structure is surrounded by a processional
path, or the padakkhinapatha. This basic design is the inspiration for othe r
types of Buddhist monuments, including pagoda s, seen throughout Asia.
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42
The emperor Asoka was the first to encourage the building of stupas. He is
said to have constructed 84,000 stupas all over his kingdom.
Archaeological excavation s have proved the existence of Asokan stupa
under most of the stupas excavated in India.
The Chinese traveller Fa -hien speaks of the alms bowl of the Buddha
which he saw at Peshawar. Huen Tsang speaks of head -dresses of prince
Siddhartha associating them w ith the vihara at Konkanpura in South India.
There are places where it is believed that Buddha has left his foot prints
for faithful to worship. Sanctuaries of different kinds have arisen in all
such places. For getting information about history of early B uddhism these
stupas prove to be a very valuable source. As they are built on either relics
or the objects used by the Buddha or to mark an important event
connected with his life or sacred spot their location can throw new light on
the history of early Bu ddhism. Apart from this it can throw light on history
of origin and development of Art and Architecture of ancient India. The
stupa architecture also reflects the technological development and the
material of construction of the period.
With time the stup a not only became the symbolic form of the
mahaparinibbana of the Buddha but also the symbolic form of the Buddha
himself, his Dhamma [teachings] and his Abhidhamma [higher teachings].
Thus, the study of the evolution of the stupa reveals the changing pha ses
of Buddhism through time.
VIHARA: The vihāra is the residential place of the monks and the nuns.
This unit of the architecture is also influenced by the philosophy, by
disciplinary rules and regulations of the monks [Vinaya] and the changing
pattern of the Buddhism. The evolution and the d evelopment of the vihāra
clearly shows the origin of the vihāra in the natural grottoes of the
mountains in case of the rock -cut architecture and in the temporary huts of
grass, self erected by the monks, in case of structural architecture. From
there they developed with the need of the Sangha, with the changed
philosophy, with the time and technology into the grand rock -cut
architecture of the Sahyādri and to the lofty well-developed monasteries of
the Nalanda and Taxila in later date .
Vihara or Buddhist monastery is an important form of institution
associated with
Buddhism and
can also be
defined as a
residence for
monks, a centre
for religious
work and
meditation and
a centre of
Buddhist learning. Reference to five kinds of dwellings (Panca -lenani)
namel y, Vihara, Addayoga, Pasada, Hammiya and Guha is found in the munotes.in

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43
Buddhist canonical texts as fit for monks. Of these only the Vihara
(monastery) and Guha (Cave) have survived.
The monastic establishment excavated in the Nagarjunakonda valley
shows the typical layout. It consists of residential quarters of the monks, a
stupa and a chaityagruha. The living quarters of the monks called the cells
were small rooms around the central open courtyard. The similar plan is
seen for the vihara in the rock -cut architectur e of Maharashtra, with the
only difference that the central courtyard is not open to sky and the cells
were fitted with rock -cut platforms for beds and pillows. The largest rock -
cut vihara is seen at Junnar and has 20 cells around the courtyard.
From the first century CE onwards viharas also
developed into educational institutions, due to
the increasing demands for teaching. In the
later period the image of the Buddha is seen in
the central shrine of the vihara. Some Viharas
became extremely important inst itutions, some
of them evolving into major Buddhist
Universities with thousands of students, such
as Nalanda .
Epigraph ic, literary and archaeological
evidence testify to the existence of many
Buddhist Viharas in Bengal ( West Bengal and
Bangladesh ) and Bihar from the 5th century AD to the end of the 12th
century. These monasteries were generally designed in the old traditional
Kushana pattern, a square block formed by fou r rows of cells along the
four sides of an inner courtyard. They were usually built of stone or brick.
As the monastic organization developed, they became elaborate brick
structures with many adjuncts. Often, they consisted of several stories and
along the inner courtyard there usually ran a veranda supported on pillars.
In some of them a stupa or shrine with a dais appeared. Within the shrine
stood the icon of Buddha, Bodhisattva or Buddhist female deities. More or
less the same plan was followed in building monastic establ ishments in
Bengal and Bihar during the Gupta and Pala period. In course of time
monasteries became important centres of lea rning.
An idea of the plan and structure of some of the flourishing monasteries
may be found from the account of Hsuan -Tsang , who referred to the grand
monastery of po -si-po, situated about 6.5 km west of the capital city of
Pundravardhana (Mahasthan ). The monastery was famous for i ts spacious
halls and tall chambers. General Cunningham identified this vihara with
bhasu vihara. Huen -tsang also noticed the famous Lo -to-mo-chi vihara
(Raktamrittika Mahavihara) near Karnasuvarna (Rangamati, Murshidabad,
West Bengal). The site of the mon astery has been identified at Rangamati
(modern Chiruti, Murshidabad, West Bengal). A number of smaller
monastic blocks arranged on a regular plan, with other adjuncts, like
shrines, stupas, pavilions etc have been excavated from the site. munotes.in

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44
CHAITYAGRUHA / CHETIYAGHARA : There is no mention of
‘chetiyagharas ’ in the Pāli literature as such but the inscriptions and the
sculptures mention the word in the later date. Today the word stūpa and
chetiya is taken synonymously, but it was not so in the period of the
Buddha. “a glance through the pages of the Mahāprinibbāna sutta will also
bring out the difference between the stūpa and the chetiya. As a matter of
fact, the former type is used there to signify funerary monuments whereas
chetiya or chaitya conveys a sense very much akin to that of a shrine. No
less than seven chetiyas, are specifically mentioned in the
Mahāparinibbāna sutta and all these chaityas were visited by the Buddha”.
Chetiyaghara is a home of a chaitya or stūpa as the name itself suggest and
probab ly developed in later days when the need was felt for enclosed place
to sit in front of the stūpa and meditate.
Chetiyaghara plays a very important part in the Buddhist architecture, as it
a unique structure found in Buddhism which not only has different plan,
elevation, section, but is the prefect reflection of the philosophical
teachings and the changes happening through the years. It is also the best -
executed structure that fulfils the requisites of vipassana meditation in a
structural form; especially the apsidal planned vaulted roofed
chetiyaghara.
The development of chetiyagharas can be traced from the archaeological
evidences found in the structural as well as in the rock -cut ones. Structural
evidences are very inadequate due to the material of cons truction not
strong enough to sustain the time period of thousands of years. But the
rock-cut chetiyagharas are adequate in number and are in good condition
to develop the chronology as well as the origin. The Chetiyagharas of
Karle, Bhaje, Bedse, Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora etc are few of the
examples.
The most important part of the evolution of the chaityagruha is the shape
of the chetiyaghara. The apsidal plan marks the beginning and end of the
structures and that too only in Buddhist architecture. No arc hitectural
evidences are found in India of apsidal plans prior to the Buddhist period.
The study of the development of the plans of the chetiyagharas are
adequate to reveal the changing phases of Buddhism in India with
reference to the different school or sects of Buddhism. munotes.in

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2.2 BUDDHIST ART -SCULPTURES AND PAINTINGS
AS SOURCES

SCULPTURES: Both types of sculptures, the
sculptures in relief and the freestanding sculptures
forms the authentic source of Buddhist history. The
earliest sculptures belong t o the Mauryan period
and are the capitals and the crowning animal
figures on the Asokan pillars. The Lion capital of
Sarnath, the Sankasya Elephant capital, the
Rampurva bull capital are some of the examples of
the Maurayan sculptures which has reached its
zenith of perfection. Beside the animal figures the
sculptures of this era is also marked by the figures
of Yaksha and Yakshinis. The Didarganj a yakshini
with the bright mauryan polish is said to be one of the most beautiful
freestanding sculptures of the period.
The sculpture of the Sunga period shows the
evolution from the archaic phase to one of
maturity and is marked with the sculptures on
the stone vedikas and toranas of Bharhut, Sanchi
and Bodhgaya. Jataka stories are very cleverly
represented in a single carving but with the
method of continuous narration at the Bharhut
stupa. This shows the epitome of efficiency
reached by the artist in that period.
It is a well -known fact that in the earlier phase
of Buddhism, Buddha was not represented in the h uman form and was
worshipped in the symbolic forms. The important events in the life of the
Buddha are represented in the relief sculptures where the Bodhi tree, the
footprints, the stupa are the symbols of the Buddha himself, which is very
well depicted i n the Sanchi stupa.
The Satavahana sculpture is seen in the
Naneghat rock -cut excavation and its
evolution can be traced through the different
rock-cut excavations like the Bhaje, Karle,
Pitalkhore, Bedse and so on. The figures on
the capitals or the dono r couples at the
chaityagruhas show the development of the
Buddhist sculptures reached at that period.
Kushana period is marked by the ‘Gandhara
art’ phase and its most important contribution
to the Buddhist art was the creation of the
Buddha image. With t he transition from
Theravada to Mahayana the image of Buddha
appeared in the Gandhara and the Mathura munotes.in

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46
school simultaneously. Buddha is represented in the human form for the
first time in the history of Buddhism. The Buddha images with the
different mudras came along with the bodhisattvas.
The Amaravati school of art flourished in the south India at Amaravati
stupa and Nagarjunakonda valley. In subject matter, composition and
arrangement of figures, the Nagarjunakonda sculptures show slight
differences from those of the Amaravati, but both had great influence on
the later Indian sculptures flourished in the south India.
The Gupta period marks the height of glory of the Indian art. The
representation of the human body in fully Indian and the mastery over the
refinement and technique is seen in the sculptures. Though the Gupta
period is the revival of the
Hindu period, the Buddhist and
the Jaina art flourished
nevertheless. The Vakatakas,
the allies of the Gupta, in their
reign is the art of the later
Ajanta at tributed.
After the Gupta dynasty the
Buddhism art flourished under
the Pala dynasty. The art of this
period marks the final phase of
the classical Indian tradition.
Stone sculptures were replaced
by the metal ones.
REMARKS: the changing phases
of the Bud dhism are reflected
through the study of the
sculptures through the ages.
The earliest is marked with the
symbolic art and the image of
the Buddha is never shown.
Though the bodhisattvas were
shown they were depicted
through the inspiring Jataka
tales fulf illing the paramitas or
perfections.
The Mahayana phase of Buddhism is marked with the introduction of
image of the Buddha in the sculptural art. This was supported by the
innumerable bodhisattva figures featuring on both sides of the Buddha
image.
Thus, i n short, the study of sculptures is the source of the study of
Buddhist history directly as well as indirectly. munotes.in

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PAINTINGS: There are innumerable references to painted decorations in
the Jatakas and other Buddhist literature. The earliest surviving example s
of Buddhist paintings, dating from 2nd cent B.C. are found in some of the
rock-cut chetiyagharas and viharas at Ajanta in Maharashtra. A principal
wall painting of the period is in chetiyaghara -10 which is devoted to the
illustration of Chaddanta Jataka. However, Buddhist painting seems to
have attained its maturity only during Gupta period (5th-6thcen A.D.) The
finest specimens of this period are to be found in the caves at Bagh
(central India) and Ajanta. The mural
paintings in Ajanta contain
representa tions of scenes from Buddha’s
lives, from Jataka tales etc. These stories
are represented in continuous narrative.
The mediaeval period in Eastern and
Western India was a period of intense
activity in manuscript writing. As the
authors of manuscript wante d to
embellish their books with illustrations
the use of miniature paintings came into
vogue. The miniature paintings of Pala
period prove to be consisting of
Buddhist form of art.
These paintings throw a flood of light on the history of Ancient India.
They provide information about the people, their way of living, costumes,
jewellery, architecture and many other aspects. They give information of
social, political, cultural, and religious conditions existing during those
times.
2.3 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AS S OURCES
Places mentioned in the Pali literature: Gautama -the Buddha has left his
footprint on the soil of India and his mark on the soul of mankind. This
human teacher eclipsed even the heavenly gods and the places consecrated
by his presence were held in g reat veneration. Before his mahaparinirvana,
the Buddha spoke of the four places which a pious believer should visit
with faith and reverence. They are the Lumbini -vana where the Tathagata
was born; Gaya (Bodh Gaya) where he attained bodhi (enlightenment); the
Deer Park at Isipatana (Sarnath) where he proclaimed the Law for the first
time; and Kusinagara where he reached the unconditioned state of nirvana.
In the Buddhist sacred lore there are four other places which with the
above four make up the atthamah athanani (astamahasthanani) or eight
sanctified spots. They were the scenes of four of the principal miracles
that the Blessed One was said to have performed. At Sravasti, the capital
of Kosala, the Buddha gave a display of his miraculous powers to
confoun d the leader of the Tirthika sect. Next, in accordance with the
practice of the previous Buddhas, he ascended the heaven of the thirty -
three gods, preached the Abhidhamma to his deceased mother and
descended to earth at Sankasya. Rajagrha, the capital of M agadha, was the munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
48 scene of another miracle in which he tamed the mad elephant, Nalagiri,
that had been let loose by his jealous cousin, Devadatta. In a mango grove
at Vaisali, a number of monkeys offered him a bowl of honey. The famous
cities in India at tha t time were thus hallowed by their association with the
Buddha's religion.
These holy places became centres of great attraction for the pious
believers and pilgrimages were religiously undertaken to these places.
Asoka calls such pilgrimages dhammayata (dh armayatra), or tours of
piety. Many other places, too, rose into prominence as the influence of
Buddhism spread. The places of Buddhist significance are many in the
land of Buddha and in their flourishing days their sanctity, no less than
their splendour a nd magnificence, attracted visitors from far and wide.
Finding and identification of the places: though the places were
mentioned in the Literature the actual sites were not identified or found,
due to the decline and loss of Buddhism in India and the inte rim ignorance
of almost 1000 years. Sir Alexander Cunningham in the early 19th CE with
the help of the diary of Huein Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim scholar, actually
walked on the footsteps and identified the places associated with the
Buddha, with the help o f the remains of the Asokan Stupas and monolithic
pillars and the seals and coins found at the excavations on the sites. Most
of the sites associated with the Buddha were searched for and excavated
by the western scholars and identified thus like the Lumbi ni- the birth
place of the Siddharth Gautama with the help of Asokan pillar with the
inscription, the capital of Kosala and the famous capital Sravasti and the
Jetavana with the village of Saheth -Maheth and the capital city of
Kosambi on the bank of Yamuna with the help of story of Bakulathera
from the Pali literature and so on.
Thus, it is to be understood that though these places are well -known places
of pilgrimages today, they were under the ground for nearly 800 years and
gone into oblivion till the w estern scholars excavated and identified them
making them the archaeological sources of the study of the ancient
Buddhist India and history of Buddhism.
2.4 IMPORTANT BUDDHIST PLACES IN NORTHERN
INDIA:
Lumbini: Among the sacred places of Buddhism, Lumbini where the
Blessed One was born must inevitably come first. It has been identified
with the site of Rummindei, in the Nepalese Terai. As the birth -place of
the Buddha, the site grew in sanctity and importance. Many are the
establishments that rose on the si te. Very few, however, are now in
existence. Of course, there still stands at the site a pillar engraved with an
inscription commemorating the great Asoka's pilgrimage to this place in
the twentieth year after his consecration. "Here the Buddha was born",
says the emperor, and this statement proves the identity of the sanctified
spot beyond any doubt. Apart from the pillar, there is an ancient shrine
with an image representing the nativity of the Lord as described in the
sacred texts. munotes.in

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The authenticity of t he
archaeological remains within the
boundaries has been confirmed
through a series of excavations
since the discovery of the Asoka
pillar in 1896. The remains of
viharas, stupas and numerous
layers of brick structures from the
3rd century BC to the presen t
century at the site of the Maya
Devi Temple are proof of Lumbini
having been a centre of pilgrimage
from early times. The
archaeological remains require
active conservation and
monitoring to ensure that the
impact of natural degradation,
influence of hum idity and the
impact of the visitors are kept
under control.
Bodh Gaya: Bodh Gaya where the Buddha attained supreme wisdom
(bodhi) lies six miles to the south of Gaya, a place of Hindu pilgrimage.
To the devout Buddhist there is no place of greater intere st or sanctity than
the holy spot ofthe Buddha's enlightenment. Sacred shrines and stately
Several interesting inscriptions have been discovered at this site, according
to which Ceylonese, Burmese and Chinese people visited this place of
pilgrimage. Two Ce ylonese inscriptions in Sanskrit tell us about one
monuments were raised all around and the account of the Chinese pilgrim,
Huein Tsang, gives us a glimpse of the past splendour of this sanctified
site.
Huein Tsang ascribes the erection of the original Bodhi shrine to Emperor
Asoka. According to one of his rock edicts, Asoka visited this place,
which is called Sambodhi in the inscription,
when he had been consecrated ten years, and it
is more than probable t hat the great emperor
constructed a shrine on this holy spot. No
vestiges of such a shrine can, however, be
found at present. Scholars are of the opinion
that the Bodhi shrine carved in a Bharhut relief
(circa 2nd century B.C.) might represent the
one erec ted by Asoka. It seems to have
consisted of a balustraded gallery enclosing
the Bodhi tree, preceded by a column of the
type on which Asoka's edicts are carved. The
original balustrades seem to have been of
wooden construction, which was later translated i nto stone. The stately
structure, which we see nowadays, is a later erection. This temple has been
restored and renovated many times. From the description of Huein Tsang munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
50 it appears that the temple, essentially in its present shape and appearance,
existed a lready in the seventh century A.D.
As it now stands, the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya is approximately
160 feet high and consists of a straight pyramidal tower surmounted by a
stupa, complete with the harmika and the top with a fluted amalaka -like
lower m ember. The tower has angle amalakas at the corners, demarcating
its different stages. The entrance porch, evidently later than the original
temple, is on the east. Each of the four sides of the tower presents several
tiers of niches, while the front face h as a tall lancet opening for the
admission of light into the sanctum. At the base of the tower there rises a
turret at each of the four corners, a miniature replica of the main spire.
The temple enshrines a great gilded figure of the Blessed One touching t he
earth which symbolizes the supreme event of enlightenment. Along the
northern side of the temple, there is a narrow masonry platform raised
about four feet above the ground. This is known as the "jewel shrine of the
walk" or the Buddha's Promenade (cank ama), where after attaining
enlightenment, the Great Teacher is said to have spent a week walking to
and fro in deep meditation. At the points where he set his feet, there are
sculptured ornaments representing the miraculous blossoms which are said
to have sprung up in his footsteps. Passing along this promenade and to
the west of the temple stands the Bodhi tree and the holy spot of
enlightenment, now marked by a red sandstone slab, representing the
Vajrasana on which the Master is said to have reached Per fect Wisdom.
The original Mahabodhi shrine, as represented in the early reliefs, is
portrayed as enclosing this holy spot including the Bodhi tree. The idea of
erecting a temple with a lofty conical tower necessitated its erection a little
to the east of t his holy spot so that the holy spot and the Bodhi tree now
stand at the back of the temple.
Around the temple lie innumerable remains of which the most important
are portions of the stone railing which represent two different periods of
construction, the earlier going back to about the 2nd century B.C. and the
latter to the early Gupta period. Interesting carvings are still to be seen on
these rail posts, and of these the figure of Indra as Santi, and that of Surya,
the Sun god, drawn by a four -horsed char iot, are noteworthy. Beautiful
sculptures and richly decorated votive stupas, scattered all round, still
continue to attract the admiring gaze of pilgrims and visitors. The
residence of the Mahanta, who was for a long time in charge of the temple
precincts , is close to the great temple and, like the sculpture shed nearby,
is a store -house of fine sculptures and other relics which once embellished
this holy spot. In the immediate vicinity are situated seven sacred sites,
which, according to tradition, were i dentical with those where the Lord is
said to have passed seven tranquil weeks in the enjoyment of his
Buddhahood. munotes.in

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Sarnath: Sarnath marks the birth of the religion of Buddha. Hence it
became a great centre of Buddhist activities and remained so for more t han
a millennium and a half. The
inscriptions refer to the site as the
"Monastery of the Turning of the
Wheel of Righteousness"
(Saddharma -cakra -pravartana vihara)
by which name this sacred place was
known to ancient Buddhist writers.
Though very little is known of the
history of the Deer Park during the
early centuries of Buddhism, the
place acquired celebrity, like the
other holy places of Buddhism, from
the time of Asoka. This saintly
monarch erected a series of
monuments, including a pillar
inscribed wi th an edict warning the
resident monks and nuns against
creating schisms in the church. The
Chinese pilgrims, Fa -hien and Yuan
Chwang, visited the place in the 5th
and 7th centuries A.D. respectively,
and left us valuable information regarding this importa nt site. In later
periods also, the site grew in size and prosperity and inscriptions and other
evidence relate to the building of new shrines and edifices, as well as to
the renovation of old ones, one of the latest being the Temple of the Wheel
of the La w founded by Kumaradevi, one of the queens of King Govinda -
candra of Kanauj, in the first half of the 12th century A.D.
Soon after, the place was destroyed, presumably by the armies of
Muhammad Ghori., There is evidence of earlier vandalism, once probably
by the Hunas and later during the sacking of Banaras by Sultan Mahmud
of Ghazni. Such damage, however, was immediately repaired by pious
devotees, but this final catastrophe brought waste and desolation to the
prosperous establishments.
The ruins of Sarnat h cover an extensive area. The Archaeological
Department has done a good deal of excavation at the site and a number of
interesting monuments and sculptures of exquisite beauty and
workmanship have come to light. As one approaches the site from
Banaras, th e first landmark that attracts the eye is a lofty mound of brick -
work, locally known as the Chaukhandi, surmounted by an octagonal
tower at the top. The mound represents the ruins of a stupa on a terraced
basement erected to mark the spot where the Buddha, on his way from
Gaya to Isipatana, first met his five former comrades who were soon to
become converts to his Faith.
Half a mile to the north is the site of the Deer Park, which must have had
imposing buildings in the days of its pristine greatness. All i s now in ruins,
save a battered structure, the Dhamekh stupa, which rears its head to a munotes.in

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52
height of nearly 150 feet above the surrounding country. The ruins have
been laid bare by the spade of the archaeologists and the site, as exposed,
shows that temples a nd stupas occupied the central position with
monasteries in the area around them. They belong to different periods of
construction, the earliest going back to the days of Asoka. Traces of
successive restorations and renovations are also evident in some of the
important buildings.
The Asoka stupa,
seen by Yuan
Chwang, has been
identified with the
ruins of a large brick
stupa, commonly
known as Jagat
Singh's stupa after
Jagat Singh, the
Diwan of Raja Chait
Singh of Banaras. He
dismantled it in 1794
for bri cks for the
construction of a market in Banaras. The site of this stupa probably marks
the spot where the Buddha delivered his first discourse and thus literally
turned the Wheel of the Law. A little farther to the north stands the broken
stump of the Asok a pillar, the magnificent Lion Capital of which may now
be seen in the Archaeological Museum nearby. On the east may be seen
the ruins of a temple, designated the main shrine, which must date from
the Gupta period, if not earlier.
Around the main shrine th ere is a paved court with a similar approach
from the east. In this court are found innumerable remains of stupas of
various shapes and sometimes also of shrines, the remnants of pious
benefactions of votaries and pilgrims who flocked to this holy spot. On the
north and south were ranged monastic establishments.
Among the ruins at Sarnath, the most imposing is no doubt the Dhamekh
stupa situated at the south -east corner of the site. Battered though it is, it
still stands 143 ft. high from its original foun dations. Indeed, it is a solid
structure, built of massive blocks of stone at the lower stage and of brick,
probably faced with stone, at the upper. It is of cylindrical shape and is
relieved in the lower section by eight projecting bays, each with a large
niche originally containing an image. This lower section has a broad belt
of carved ornamentation of intricate geometric pattern with floral
arabesques above and below it. The modern name, Dhamekh, is probably
derived from the Sanskrit dharmeksa, meaning "the pondering of the
Law", and since it is in a line with the Dharmarajika stupa of Asoka which
stands due west of it, it must have been an important, monument. The
original structure on this spot also possibly dated from the days of Asoka. munotes.in

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Apart from th e ruins and relics of the past, a place of modern interest is
furnished by the Mulagandhakuti Vihara, erected by the Mahabodhi
Society where are enshrined certain Buddhist relics discovered at
Taksasila (Taxila), Nagarjunakonda and Mirpur -khas in Sindh.
The antiquities so far discovered in
the ruins are numerous and consist of
sculptures, bas -reliefs, rail fragments,
terra cotta figurines, seals and
sealings, inscriptions, pottery vessels,
and various other objects. With very
few exceptions, they pertain t o the
Buddhist religion and cover a period
of approximately 1.500 years, from
the 3rd century B.C. to the 12th
century A.D. They have been housed
in a neat little Museum and a
sculpture shed, situated near the
ruins, which well repays a visit. The
Lion Cap ital, originally surmounting
the Asoka pillar, now occupies a
place of honour in the Museum. It
consists of four addorsed lions,
supported on an abacus over a bell -
shaped lower member. The capital was originally crowned by a wheel, the
fragments of which h ave been recovered from the ruins. Symbolical of
India's message of peace and goodwill to the world, the capital now forms
the crest of resurgent India.
One of the foremost of the sculptures in the Museum is the famous
sandstone image of the Master in the act of setting the wheel of the Law in
motion (dharmacakra -pravartana -mudra), which is a masterpiece of Indian
plastic art.
Kusinagara: Kusinagara or Kusinara is sacred to Buddhists as it was the
place where under a grove of sal trees the Lord passed in to nirvana in his
eightieth year. The
site has been
identified with
Kasia in the
Gorakhpur district
of Uttar Pradesh.
Like the other
sacred places
connected with the
eventful life of the
Master, Kusinara rose to be an important place of pilgrimage and in the
course of time was covered with sacred shrines and monasteries. For
reasons unknown, however, the place was deserted early in its history, and
both Fa -hien and Yuan Chwang note the utter ruin and desolation of this munotes.in

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54
once important site. The remains that have been partially laid bare by
excavations are extremely fragmentary, but the identity of the place with
the site of the mahaparinirvana is settled beyond doubt by the discovery of
inscriptions referring to the Parinirvana Caitya. The stupa of parinirva na
which Asoka is said to have built has not yet been brought to light. The
Parinirvana Caitya to which the inscriptions refer dates from the Gupta
period and it is possible that the Asoka stupa lies buried under the later
construction. Among the other sac red edifices that still remain may be
mentioned the Matha Kunwar ka Kot which enshrines a large recumbent
figure of the Buddha in the state of nirvana. The image was found in
fragments and has been skilfully restored by Mr. Carlleyle. The great
stupa whic h stood on the spot where the body of the Lord was cremated
and where the relics of the Master were divided into eight equal portions is
probably represented by a large mound locally known as Ramabhar. This
mound has only been partially examined and a more systematic
exploration is expected to bring to light important material relating to the
history of this venerable spot.
Sravasti: Sravasti (modern Saheth -Maheth in U.P.), the capital of the
ancient kingdom of Kosala, was sacred to the Buddhists, because it was
here that the Master, in accordance with the practice of the previous
Buddhas, performed the greatest of his miracles. It was here that the
Buddha had to take part in a contest of
miraculous feats with the Tirthikas before
King Prasenajit of Kosala and the
assembled audience. The Buddha took his
seat on a thousand petalled lotus and
created multiple representations of
himself which went up to the highest
heaven. The heretical teachers
discomfited at this miraculous event dared
not show their own feat s and were finally
confounded by a violent thunderstorm and
obliged to run away. The supreme
position of the Master was thus vindicated
and he preached the Law before a huge assemblage of people that had
come to witness the miracle. The Sravasti episode ha s been a favourite
theme in Buddhist art from very early times. munotes.in

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Even from the days of the Buddha, Sravasti was an active centre of
Buddhism and it was here that
the merchant Anathapindika
built, in the garden of Prince
Jeta purchased at a fabulous
price in gold, a large monastery
for the reception of the Master.
The story of its purchase and its
eventual presentation to the
Lord was a favourite theme in
early Buddhist art. In later times
also shrines and monasteries
arose on this sacred spot which
continu ed to be a flourishing
centre of the Buddhist faith for a
long time.
Saheth -Maheth consists of two
distinct sites. The larger one,
Maheth, spreads over about 400
acres and has been identified
with the remains of the city proper. Saheth, covering about 32 acres and
lying about a quarter of a mile to the south -west, is the site of the Jetavana
monastery. The excavations on the former site have laid bare the remains
of the massive gates of the city and the ruins of other structures, indicating
the prosperous state of the city in days gone by. The latter, sanctified by
the Master's association, rose to be an important place of pilgrimage and
numerous shrines, stupas and monasteries were built in it. The remains so
far brought to light date approximately from t he Mauryan epoch down to
the decadent days of Buddhism in
the 12th century A.D. One of the
earliest stupas, the original
foundation of which may go back
to the 3rd century B.C., if not
earlier, contained some bone
relics, probably those of the
Master himse lf. A colossal statue
of the Master was found at the
site. One of the latest patrons of
the establishment was
Kumaradevi, the queen of
Govindacandra, the Gadhavala
king of Kanauj, who donated
some land for the maintenance of
the Jetavana monastery in the y ear
1128 -29 A.D.
Sankasya: Another holy spot
connected with the life of the
Master was Sankasya (Sankisa -
Basantapur, Etah district, Uttar munotes.in

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56
Pradesh) where the Buddha is said to have descended to earth from the
Trayastrimsa heaven (Heaven of the Thirty -three Gods) where he went to
preach the Abhidharma to his mother and other gods. This event is said to
have occurred after the Great Miracle was performed at Sravasti, as it was
an immutable law that all Buddhas should resort to the Heaven of the
Thirty -three G ods after they had performed their greatest miracles.
According to Buddhist legend, the Lord came down by a triple ladder,
accompanied by the gods, Brahma and Sakra, and the incident forms a
favourite motif in Buddhist art. Owing to this sacred association , Sankasya
came to be an important place of pilgrimage, and important shrines, stupas
and monasteries were raised on the site in the heyday of Buddhism. Both
Fa-hien and Yuan Chwang visited the place and left interesting accounts
of the important monuments . Through long neglect, however, all is now in
crumbling ruins. The accounts of the Chinese pilgrims also are too meagre
to admit of any proper identification of the remains extant. The present
village is perched on a mound, locally known as the fort, 41 f eet high and
with an area, 1,500 feet by 1,000. A quarter of a mile to the south is
another mound, composed of solid brickwork and surmounted by a temple
dedicated to Bisari Devi.
Other mounds containing masses of brickwork may be seen scattered
around an d there are also the remains of an earthen rampart over 3 miles in
circumference. The trial diggings, undertaken long ago by Cunningham,
indicate the extremely fragmentary nature of the remains and of the urgent
necessity of more systematic explorations. T he Elephant Capital that once
surmounted a column is an important relic of the days of Asoka and
further explorations are expected to lay bare important material which has
relevance to the history of this site.
Rajagrha: Rajagrha, (modern
Rajgir in the Pa tna district of
Bihar), the capital of the
powerful state of Magadha,
was sacred to the Buddhists
for more than one reason. Not
only did the Master go into a
retreat several times in this
famous city, but it was also the
place where Devadatta, his
wicked c ousin, made several
attempts on his life. Moreover,
in this city, in the Sattapanni
(Saptaparni) cave of the
Vaibhara hill, was held the
first Buddhist Council (Sangiti) just after the parinirvana.
The remains of the ancient city are few and far between. T he site appears
to have suffered much at the hands of time. The ruins indicate that the
followers of different religious denominations live here. The Buddhist
remains, except for stray and isolated images, are scanty, and it is not
impossible that the visi ble monuments were denuded partly through munotes.in

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religious animosities. Even the identification of the Sattapanni cave, the
site of the first Council, is not beyond doubt. According to the canonical
texts, the cave was situated on the northern fringe of the Vaibh ara hill and
Stein may be right when he identifies the site with the large terrace with a
group of cells at the back in a semi -circular bend of the rock on the
northern scarp. A remarkable structure, known as Jarasandha ki Baithak,
on the eastern slope of the Vaibhara hill, with irregular cells at the sides
has been identified by some with the residence of Pippala. Some of the
Pali texts describes the Pippala cave as the residence of Mahakasyapa, the
organizer of the First Council. From the cyclopaean mason ry, analogous to
that of the city walls and its bastioned gateways, this erection appears,
however, to be more military than secular or religious in character. A
mound to the west of the citadel is usually connected with a stupa, which,
according to Fa -hien, was built by Ajatasatru, and by Asoka according to
Yuan Chwang. Trial diggings on this mound have exposed several strata,
none of which, however, can be traced back to the pre -Christian epoch.
The cave, called the Sonbhandar, on the southern scrap of th e Vaibhara
hill might have been a Buddhist excavation, though the possibility of its
having been a Jaina establishment cannot altogether be ruled out. The
Grdhrakuta mountain which was a favourite resort of the Buddha, is not
far from the city.
Vaisali: The city of Vaisali (Basarh in the Muzaffarpur district of Bihar),
the capital of the powerful Licchavi clan, was a stronghold of Buddhism in
the early days. Gautama Buddha is
said to have visited it three times
during his lifetime. In one of these
visits several monkeys are said to
have offered the Lord a bowl of
honey, an incident mentioned
among the eight great events in the
life of the Master. It was here again
that the Buddha announced his
approaching nirvana, and after the
nirvana the Licchavis are sa id to
have erected a stupa over their
share of the remains of the Master.
A little over a hundred years after
the nirvana, the Second Buddhist Council was held here. The most
interesting finds consist of a large number of clay seals, official and
private, the latter bearing the names of individuals or guilds of merchants,
bankers and traders. The official seals indicate that Vaisali was an
important administrative headquarters in the Gupta period, and an
interesting seal, engraved in characters of the Maury a period, refers to the
patrol outpost at Vaisali.
The Chinese pilgrims, Fa -hien and Yuan Chwang, visited Vaisali in the
course of their travels. The latter described the city as covering an area of
10 to 12 square miles. He wrote that, within and without and all around the
town of Vaisali, the sacred monuments were so numerous that it was munotes.in

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58
difficult to mention them all. Unfortunately, the area is now practically
denuded of any visible remains of religious edifices.
At Kolhua, two miles to the north -west of Raja Bisal ka Gadh, there stands
a monolithic pillar (locally known as Bhimsen's Lath) of highly polished
sandstone surmounted by a bell -shaped capital that supports the sedent
figure of a lion on a square abacus. It is about 22 feet above the present
ground level, a considerable portion having sunk underground in the
course of time. In style it resembles the edict pillars of Asoka, but
diggings round the shaft have failed to reveal any Asokan inscription.
Nevertheless, it can be identified with one of the Asoka pillars mentioned
by Yuan Chwang at the site of ancient Vaisali. The line of pillars in the
Champaran and Muzaffarpur districts —at Ramapurva, LauriyaAraraj,
LauriyaNandangadh, and Kolhua —is believed to have marked the stages
of a royal journey from P ataliputra to Lumbini which Asoka undertook in
the 20th year of his consecration. Nearby to the south, there is a small tank,
called Rama -kunda, identified by Cunningham with the ancient Markata -
hrada (monkey's tank), believed to have been dug by a colony of monkeys
for the use of the Buddha. To the north -west there is a ruined mound, at
present only 15 feet high and with a diameter of about 65 feet at the base,
which has been identified with the remains of the Asoka stupa mentioned
by Yuan Chwang. On the s ummit of this mound stands a modern brick
temple enshrining a medieval image of the Buddha.
It will not be out of place to recount also a few other memorable sites of
Buddhism, the sites of sacred shrines, stupas and monasteries. In the
course of the sprea d of Buddhism in India, such sites, though not
particularly associated with the life and legend of the Buddha, rose into
prominence on account of the imposing monuments that were raised in
and around them.
Of these, Sanchi in the former
Bhopal State is i mportant as the
site of one of the earliest of the
stupas, which later grew into an
important centre of Buddhist
monuments. Taksasila, (modern
Taxila), now in West Pakistan, also
rose to be a very prominent site in
the early days. Kausambi, the
capital cit y of the Vatsa kingdom,
was an early centre of Buddhism,
and it was here that the famous
Ghositarama Vihara stood. The
remains of this monastery have
been laid bare in the recent
excavation of Kosaba, the site of
ancient Kausambi, while in the
medieval per iod the Nalanda
monasteries in Bihar were famous
throughout the Buddhist world of munotes.in

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59
that time. In the days when Buddhism flourished, many other sites, too,
became important sites of the good faith (Saddharma).
Sanchi: Sanchi (549 miles from Mumbai in MP) is the site of the most
extensive Buddhist remains now known in India. The site had no apparent
connection with the traditional history of Gautama Buddha; the place is
scarcely mentioned in Buddhist literature. Even the itineraries of the
Chinese pilgrims, w hich are a mine of information about the other ancient
centres of Buddhism, do not refer to this site at all. It is surprising
therefore that the monuments at Sanchi should now form the most
magnificent and perfect examples of early Buddhist art in India. There
seems to be considerable force in the view that Sanchi is the modern
representative of Cetiyagiri of the Ceylonese Chronicles, which was
situated in the neighbourhood of Vidisa. It is connected with the story of
Asoka's marriage with a merchant's dau ghter and the erection of a
monastery on the hill where Mahendra, Asoka's son by that marriage, is
said to have halted on the
way to his proselytizing
mission in Ceylon.
Whether the story is true
or not, the fact remains
that the earliest
monuments at Sanc hi date
from the time of Asoka
and it is not impossible
that it was the patronage of
this Constantine of
Buddhism which made the
place an active centre of the religion of Gautama Buddha and was
responsible for the splendour of the site in days gone by.
Most of the monuments are situated on a plateau on the hill top which was
enclosed by a wall of solid stone about 1100 A.D. Of the stupas, there are
many dating from the 3rd century B.C. They vary in size ranging from the
Great Stupa that measures 100 feet in diameter at the base and has a vast,
imposing dome nearly 50 feet high to miniature ones no more than a foot
high. Originally built of brick in the time of Asoka, the Great Stupa was
enlarged to nearly twice its previous size, and faced with stone, perh aps a
century later, when the massive balustrade and the four imposing
gateways were added. These gateways (toranas) on the four cardinal faces
constitute, with their richly
carved decorations, a most
striking contrast with the
simplicity of the structure
behind. All the four
gateways are of similar
design, and the technique
employed in their
construction shows that
they were more the work
of carpenters than of munotes.in

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60
stonemasons. The gateways, with columns and superstructures, are richly
carved with bas -reliefs i llustrating the Jataka tales, scenes in the life of the
Master, and important events in the subsequent history of the Faith.
Reference may be made to one singular relief panel in an architrave of one
of the gateways which represents the visit of Asoka to t he Bodhi tree at
Bodh Gaya. The greatest patron of Buddhism has not been portrayed in
any other monument in India. This portrait of the Emperor may not be
authentic, but this unique representation of one of the greatest figures of
Indian history must be ch erished by all his countrymen.
Of the many other stupas on this site, three are especially noteworthy. One
of these, stupa No. 3, is to the north -east of the Great Stupa and although
smaller is of almost identical design. In the relic chamber of this stup a.
General Cunningham discovered the relics of Sariputta and
Mahamoggallana, two of the famous disciples of the Lord, which were
recently brought back from London for consecration in a new shrine at
Sanchi. Another small stupa, near the foot of the hill on the western side,
enshrined the relics of Kashyapa and Moggaliputta, well -known Buddhist
apostles of the 3rd century B.C. In the surrounding region, groups of
stupas lie scattered and of these a few have proved to be of particular
sanctity on account of t he relics enshrined in them. Of more historical
value are the battered remains of the Asoka pillar, with its capital of four
lions back to back. It is situated
close to the south gate of the Great
Stupa at Sanchi. On its broken
stump one can still see the edict in
which the Emperor forbids in
strong terms any schism in the
Church. Its lustrous polish, its
design and style place it with
similar edict pillars of Asoka. The
chief fascination of Sanchi no
doubt rests on these grand old
stupas, not only on accou nt of
their sanctity but also because of
their rich and elaborate carvings.
This fascination is further
enhanced by the shrines and
monasteries that cluster around
them and give a vivid picture of
monastic life on this peaceful hill
top. Among these, the m ost
noteworthy is the Caitya Hall
(Temple No. 18), situated directly
opposite the south gateway of the
Great Stupa. And is especially
interesting as one of the few
examples of this kind of structural edifice.
Another structure recalling the classic temple s of Greece may be seen in a
tiny and unpretentious shrine (Temple No. 17), consisting of nothing more munotes.in

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61
than a simple flat -roofed square chamber with a pillared portico in front.
Though modest in dimensions, its structural propriety, symmetry and
proportion s, appreciation for plane surfaces and restraint in ornament may
very well compare with the best architectural creations of classical Greece.
Of the monasteries at Sanchi, there are five examples and they date from
the 4th to the 12th century A.D. The earl ier ones, once occupying the site,
were built of wood and have perished or been buried under the
foundations of later structures. Those that have survived, or are now
exposed to view, are built more or less on the usual plan of an open
quadrangular court s urrounded by ranges of two -storeyed apartments.
The incomparable monuments of Sanchi were rescued from centuries of
oblivion as early as 1818 and a host of scholars and archaeologists have
tried to resuscitate this memorable site of the past. The major par t of the
exploration and restoration work goes to the credit of Sir John Marshall, a
former Director General of Archaeology in India, who has not only
excavated the numerous remains, but also recreated the structures.
Nalanda: The far -famed monastic estab lishments at Nalanda (Bargaon
near Rajgir) were of supreme importance in
the history of latter -day Buddhism.
According to tradition, the place was visited
several times by the Buddha and the history
of the monastic establishments can be traced
back to the days of Asoka. But excavations
have not yet revealed any proof that it was
occupied prior to the time of the Guptas; and
inscriptions, seals and other remains,
coupled with references in literature provide
a glimpse of the flourishing state of this
famous monastic site from the 5th to the end
of the 12th century A.D. It was at this monastery that the celebrated
Chinese pilgrim, Yuan Chwang, stayed for some time. He gives a detailed
and graphic account of the different establishments with as many as
10,000 i nmates, their rules and practices. He also mentions Harsa and
several of his predecessors as beneficent patrons of this institution. I -tsing,
another Chinese traveller, has also left us a picture of the life led by the
Nalanda monks, who were maintained by 200 villages donated by
different kings. Nalanda was known throughout the Buddhist world of that
time for its learned and versatile teachers, and the names of
AcaryaSilabhadra, Santaraksita, and Atisa or Dipankara, shining
luminaries among a galaxy of man y others, conjure up a vision of the
supreme eminence of the Nalanda Mahavihara throughout its prosperous
history.
The ruins of Nalanda extend over a large area. The structures exposed to
view represent only a part of the extensive establishment and consi st of
monastic sites, stupa sites and temple sites. Lengthwise they extend from
south to north, the monasteries on the eastern flank and the stupas and the
temples on the west. The monasteries were all built on more or less the munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
62
same plan in each case, with rows of cells preceded by a corridor round a
central courtyard and a shrine against the back wall, opposite the entrance.
Different strata, accumulated one above the other, are clearly seen and
indicate successive repairs and renovations. There is also ev idence that
these monasteries were storeyed structures; and they convey, even in their
ruins, a memory of their imposing and glorious past.
Stupa site No. 3 represents a huge structure standing in the middle of a
court on the south -western flank, surrounde d by a number of votive
stupas.
To the north of this stupa and in the same alignment, there have been
exposed structures each of which consists of a temple erected directly over
the remains of an earlier one.
In the Museum nearby are deposited numerous scu lptures and other
antiquities recovered during the excavations, and these, by their great
variety and fine workmanship, are most impressive.
The wealth of epigraphic material is no less telling. It includes copper -
plate and stone inscriptions and inscript ions on bricks and terra -cotta seals.
Among the
latter, we have
the official
seal belonging
to the
community of
venerable
monks of the
great
monastery.
The Buddhism
that was
practised at
Nalanda and
other
contemporary
institutions in Bengal and Bihar was n o longer the simple Hinayana; nor
was it the Mahayana of the early days. It was strongly imbued with ideas
of Tantrism not far removed from Tantric Brahmanism. The Muslim
invasion dealt a death blow to these cloistered strongholds and the
flickering remain s of the religion of Gautama Buddha, which had been so
transformed as to have been absorbed, almost unawares, into modern
Hinduism.
2.5 IMPORTANT BUDDHIST PLACES IN WESTERN
INDIA:
It cannot be said with certainty when Buddhism spread to Saurashtra.
However , there seems to be no reason to suppose that any form of munotes.in

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63
Buddhism existed in the province before Asoka sent his missionaries to
propagate it. He had one of his edicts incised on a rock at the foot of
Mount Girnar near Junagadh in the heart of the province . Buddhism soon
spread in the province as a result of his activities and several Buddhist
caves have been excavated in the southern and south -eastern parts of
Saurashtra. From their extremely simple architecture and from the general
absence of sculpture, i t would seem that they belonged to a very early
period, probably the second century B.C., if not earlier.
Junagadh: Junagadh, the capital of the province, which owing to the
presence of the Asoka edict had already become famous among Buddhists,
became a c entre of attraction for them. In the vicinity of Girnar Hills, we
find now
on a huge
rock the
full text of
what are
known as
the
Fourteen
Rock
Edicts. The
text
inscribed in Brahmi characters on this rock is remarkably well preserved.
Naturally, the most im portant of the caves excavated in Saurashtra are in
and around Junagadh. They must have been very numerous and continued
to be important at least up to the middle of the seventh century, for while
visiting Junagadh, Yuan Chwang had noticed at least fifty c onvents with at
least three thousand monks of the Sthavira sect.
These caves fall into three groups, namely, those in Junagadh proper,
those in Uparkot and those called Khapra -khodia, close to the town. The
caves at Junagadh have two to three storeys and have been excavated in
three stages. Two of them measure e28'xl6' and 26'x20'. Among the caves
in Uparkot, which was the citadel of the old city, the caitya windows, the
deep tanks, measuring seventeen feet square, and the two wells, popularly
called Adcdi vav and Navaghan -vav, are the most interesting. One of the
three Khaprakhodia caves, locally known as Khanjar -mahal, measures
250' x 80'. The other is 38' square, and the third measures 61' x 60'. The
second and the third caves have four and sixteen heavy pillars
respectively. No inscription has been found in any of the caves.
One can imagine from the evidence on the spot that in early times large
monasteries must have existed at Junagadh and mount Girnar. The
remains of two brick -built stupas have recently been exposed at Intwa on a
hill about three miles away from Asoka's edict. The only inscribed object
found there is a baked clay seal belonging to a bhiksusangha which
resided in the vihara of Maharaja Rudrasena. This king was most probably
Rudrasena I of the Ksatrapa family who ruled from 199 to 222 A.D. munotes.in

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64
Besides Junagadh, many places have become important in Saurashtra
owing to the Buddhist caves found there.
Talaja: Besides Junagadh, Talaja, thirty^ miles south of Bhavanagar near
the mouth of the Satru njaya river, also seems to have been a great
Buddhist centre. There are 36 caves and a tank measuring 15' x 20' One of
the largest of
the caves is
locally
known as the
Ebhal -
mandap and
is 75' x 67 ½'
and 17 ½’
high. It had
four
octagonal pillars but no ce lls. One of the caves had a dagoba. The
simplicity of the arrangement and the complete absence of sculptures in
the caves show that they belonged to an early date, probably only a little
later than the reign of Asoka.
Sana: The caves at Sanah, which is to the south -west of Tajaja and sixteen
miles north of Una, are important. Both sides of the hill are honeycombed
with more than 62 caves. They are of a plain type and well supplied with
tanks for water. The largest of them is locally known as Ebhal -mandap
and measures 68 ½' x 61' x 16 ½’. It has six pillars in front but none
inside. Although the caves in Saurashtra are among the most ancient, they
do not possess the interest that attaches to many of the same period found
elsewhere. Among the numerous caves t here is not a single caitya cave
which can be compared with the caves of this class in other parts of the
country. The viharas, too, are very simple and do not show any important
architectural features.
Devnimori , or Dev-ni-Mori , is a Buddhist archaeologi cal site in
northern Gujarat , about 2 kms (1.2 mi) from the city of Shamlaji , in
the Aravalli District of
northern Gujarat , India . The site is
variously dated to the 3 rd or 4th
century CE, or circa 400 CE. Its
location was associated with trade
routes and caravans in the area of
Gujarat. Site excavations have
yielded Buddhist artifacts dated prior
to 8th -century in the lowest layer,
three relics caskets were retrieved
from the stupa. One of these caskets
bears an inscription which mentions
a date: the 127th year in the reign
of Western Satrap ruler Rudrasena : munotes.in

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65
"In the year 127 of the Kathika kings, when king Rudrasena was ruling,
the erection of this stupa, which wa s banner of this earth, was done. It was
the 5th day of Bhadrapada ."
Curiously enough, we do not come across any place of Buddhist interest in
Gujarat proper. Only a solitary place name d Kampilya, near Navasarl,
seems to have been of some importance. A copper -plate inscription of the
Rastra -kuta king, Dantivarman of Gujarat, dated S. 789 (867 A.D.),
records that, after bathing in the river Puravi (modern Purna in the Surat
district), the king donated lands at the request of the monk, Sthiramati, in
favour of the Kampilya vihara, where there lived five hundred monks of
the Sangha of Sindhu Desa. Another inscription of the Rastrakuta king,
Dharavarsa, records a similar grant to the same mon astery in S. 806 (884
A.D.). It seems that the Buddhist community migrated from Sindh,
presumably for fear of the Muslims and founded a vihara at Kampilya
which was lready known as a sacred place.
Rock -cut archaeological sites of Maharashtra: Buddhism was most
popular in Maharashtra from the time of Asoka who sent Buddhist
missionaries to preach there and had one
of his edicts engraved on a rock at Sopara
on the West Coast. From this time, right
up to the decline and disappearance of
Buddhism, Maharashtr a continued to be
favourably inclined towards Buddhism.
Consequently, a number of Buddhist
places of interest are to be found in the
province. It is well known that, just as
Buddhist structural monasteries were built above ground in flat regions,
Buddhist rock-cut sanctuaries were always excavated underground in hilly
tracts. The latter could not therefore be at places sanctified by the
association of the Buddha or of Buddhist saints. The Sahyadri mountain in
western Maharashtra with its hard trap was best suited for rock -cut
architecture. It was accordingly honeycombed with cells at every possible
spot, so that the majority of the Buddhist caves in India are found in
western Maharashtra. It was also customary in ancient times to adorn these
caves with mural paintings. The skill
involved in rock -cut architecture and its
decoration was held in such esteem that
the masons who excavated the caves and
the artists who decorated them were
rewarded with gifts of land as is evident
from some of the inscriptions.
The places in Maharashtra which
assumed great importance in Buddhist
times owing to their rock -cut
architecture are Bhaje, Kondane,
Pitalkhore, Ajanta, Bedse, Nasik, Karle,
Kanheri and Ellora (Verul). munotes.in

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66
Bhaje: The earliest caitya hall, dating from the second c entury B.C., is
found at Bhaje. The inward slope of the pillars, the wooden roof girders
and the free use of timber show that this hall was an imitation of a wooden
prototype. The actual use of wood in rock -cut architecture is a special
feature of the earl ier period. The octagonal pillars near the walls are plain.
Traces of paintings on the pillars and figures of the Buddha attended by
chauri -bearers are still discernible. Sculptures of Surya and royal
personages riding on elephants can also be found.
Kond ane: The Buddhist
caves at Kondane, which is
seven miles from Karjat,
are of slightly later date
than those at Bhaje. The
facade pillars are in stone
instead of wood. The caitya
hall is one of the earliest
and is an important
landmark in the
development of rock-cut
architecture. The vihara is unique with decorated cell doors and the
sculptor of yaksha is identified as Balaka -the student of kanha, who was
the sculptor at Pitalkhore.
Kanheri: There are more than one hundred caves at Kanheri which was
also a large monastic establishment. From a number of inscriptions found
here, dating from the second century A.D. to modern times, a more or less
connected history of the place can be reconstructed. The beginning of the
caves can be attributed to the reign of G autamiputraSatakarni about 180
A.D. Many excavations and sculptures were added from time to time. The
introduction of the Buddha image in the establishment is shown by a
fourth century inscription recording the dedication of a Buddha image by a
certain Bud dhaghosa. The
Shilahar rulers of Puri, who
were feudatories of the
Rastrakuta sovereigns, took
a special interest in the
Buddhist establishment at
Kanheri and made liberal
donations to it as recorded
in their copper -plate grants
dated S. 765, 775 and 799.
Inscriptions of S. 913, 921
and 931 further show that the Buddhist monks still continued to occupy
the caves. Amodern Japanese inscription of a Buddhist pilgrim of the
Nichirensect engraved on the walls of Cave No. 66 testifies to the
continued importance of the caves even in modern times.Some
inscriptions found in Kanheri incidentally tell us of the Buddhist viharas
situated at Kalyan and near Paithan, of which we know nothing from other
sources. munotes.in

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67
Ellora (Verul) At Ellora can be found the most wonderful c aves in the
world, mountains cut into colossal sanctuaries. Of the thirty -four caves,
the twelve to the south are
Buddhist while the
remaining are Brahmanical
or Jaina. The Buddhist
caves are the earliest,
dating from 450 to 650
A.D. The entrance to the
hall lies through a large
open court. The caitya
hall, which is called the
Visvakarma Cave,
measures forty -eight square feet. A huge image of the Buddha flanked by
attendants and flying figures is seated on a lion throne in a projecting arch
of the stupa. T here are a number of Buddha and Bodhisattva images. Two
of the monasteries with wide courtyards in front are three -storeyed and
rise to a height of 50'. These impressive structures and their execution
show remarkable ingenuity.
Pitalkhore: The Pitalkhor e Caves, in the Satmala range of the Western
Ghats of
Maharashtra , are an
ancient Buddhist site
consisting of
14 rock-cut cave
monuments which
date back to the 3rd
century BCE, making
them one of the
earliest examples of
rock-cut architecture
in India. Located
about 40 kms from
Ellora, the site is reached by a steep climb down a flight of concrete stairs
today. Known for its paintings and sculptures, also houses a rock -cut stupa
gallery. S even painted inscriptions are found which record the names of
Buddhist monks who bore the cost of the frescoes. The site shows statues
of elephants, two soldiers of which one is intact, a damaged Gaja
Lakshmi icon, and an ancient rainwater harvesting system. munotes.in

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68
Ajanta: There are no fewer than twenty -nine caves of various sizes at
Ajanta. They are cut in the hard volcanic rock, some of them going as far
as 100' into the rock, which is naturally considered a remarkable
architectural achievement. Cave No. 1 is the finest vihara in India. The
caitya hall in Cave No. 10 measures 100'
x 40' x 33 and its stupa h as a double tier
at the base and a slightly elongated
dome. Cave No. 26 contains a gigantic
sculpture of the Buddha, considered to
be one of the finest in the whole of
India. However, Ajanta is more famous
for its beautiful paintings than for its
architect ure or for the carved sculptures
in the caves. The walls, the ceilings, and
the pillars of nearly all the caves were
once decorated with paintings, remains
of which are found only in thirteen
caves. They depict chiefly scenes from
the life of the Buddha an d the Jatakas,
but there are many paintings of a secular nature too. The Court life of the
period and scenes of everyday life are graphically depicted in the frescoes.
Indian painting reached its finest development in the 5th and 6th centuries
A.D. and the best can be seen at Ajanta. Everything is drawn with grace
and mastery and delicately modelled. As an artist has said, the more one
contemplates the Ajanta frescoes the more
one appreciates the subtle relationship that
exists between the groups of figures .
Bedse: The caitya hall at Bedsa, which is
four miles south -east of the railway station
of Kamshet, measures 45 ½' x 21'. The base
of the column is vase shaped and its capital
is surmounted by pairs of men and animals
seated on kneeling horses and elepha nts.
Traces of paintings can also be seen on the
pillars in the stupa.It has the only apsidal
vaulted roof vihara of the rock -cut
architecture.
Nasik: There is a group of twenty -three
cayes, dating from the first century B.C. to the second century A.D. at munotes.in

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69
Nasik. Some of these were altered and adapted by the Mahayana
Buddhists between the sixth and
seventh centuries A.D Cave No. 3,
called Gautamiputra Vihara, is
large, having six pillars with
carvings of elephants, bulls and
horses on the capital. Cave No. 10
is called the Nahapana vihara. The
caitya halls at Nasik and Junnar are
more or less of the same type. The Nasik caves are especially important
for the interesting and beautiful inscriptions of Nahapana, Gautamiputra
and Srivijaya Satakarni.
Junnar: Junnar Caves illustrate yet another rock cut cave temple complex
devoted to Buddhism in the state of Maharashtra. Spread over four hills,
this cave district hosts the largest number of 220 excavations dedicated to
Theravada phase of Buddhism. Carved during mid-3rd century BCE to
late 3rd century CE, the caves form the perfect base for observing rock cut
architecture.
There are 4 rock cut cave groups on four hillocks encircling the town of
Junnar. They are Ganeshlena (Lenyadri), Tuljalena and Manmodi and
Shivneri cave groups. The best -known facet of Junnar belongs to Lenyadri
Caves, comprising 30 caves in its group belonging to 1st -3rd century
period. Facing southwards, these caves are numbered serially from east to
west. Two of the caves, namely, 6 and 14 are chaityas (prayer halls);
whereas rest of them feature vihara cells (monasteries), includingthe
largest vihara in the rock -cut architecture. Tuljalena in Junnar has the
earliest circular chaityagruha and is dated the earliest of all groups.
Karle: The c aitya hall at
Karle is of the same
general pattern as that at
Bhaje. In size and
splendour, however, it is
one of the most
magnificent monuments in
India. In fact, it is
described, in one of the
ancient inscriptions found
at the place, as the most munotes.in

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70
excellen t rock mansion in Jambudvipa. It was excavated by Bhutapala. a
merchant of Vaijayanti. Fortunately, it is also among the best preserved. It
measures 124' x 46 ½’ and the vaulted roof rises to a height of 45'. It has a
row of fifteen monolithic pillars on each side with kalasa bases and bell -
shaped capitals surmounted by kneeling elephants, and horses with men
and women riders. Its two -storeyed façade has an enormous sun -window.
The caitya hall dates from the close of the first century B.CE.
Other important sites: One of the sites of these caves is Kuda on the
shore of the Rajapuri creek, forty -five miles south of Bombay. Another is
Mahad on the Savitri River , 28 miles south -east of Kuda. At Karhad in the
Satara district, there is an extensive series of sixt y caves on the spur of the
Agasiva hill. The cells here are small, the large halls are devoid of pillars,
and there is complete absence of sculpture. There is another series at
Shelarwadi. Two women disciples of Thera BhadantaSlha are said to have
had the caitya hall at this place excavated and one of the caves was
donated by the wife of a ploughman. At Kondivte, three miles from
Jogeshwari, there is a group of nineteen caves. In the Sholapur district at
Ter (ancient Tagara) there is a structural caitya hal l which was built in the
eighth century A.D. and later transformed into a Brahmanical temple. In
1188 A.D. the Silahar king, Gandaraditya, built a Buddha temple at
Kolhapur on the bank of a tank called Gangasagara.
Goa: That Buddhism flourished in and arou nd Goa, farther south, in the
sixth century A.D. is proved by the discovery of the Hire -Gutti (north
Kanara district) plates which record an endowment to a Buddhist vihara
by the Bhoja king, Asankita of Goa. Similarly, the discovery of Buddhist
statues of a later date in the village of Mushir in the Goa district shows
that Buddhism continued to flourish for a considerable period. Buddhist
monks in Goa at the time of the Kadamba king, Jayakesin, are referred to
in the Dvyasraya -kavya of the twelfth century.
Karnataka: Buddhism began to exercise its influence in Karnataka from
the time of Asoka, whose edicts at Siddhapur
and in the neighbourhood are found in the
province. His missionaries carried the
message all over the land, as a result of
which many Buddhi st monasteries were built
at Vanavasi at the time of the
Satavahanas. Kanganahalli stupa , situated
about 3 km from Sannati , is an
important Buddhist site where an ancient
Mahastupa was built dating from 1st BCE to
3rd CE. It is on the left bank of the Bhima
river in Chitapur taluk, Kalaburagi
district in Karnataka . It is the veritable
gallery of eminent rulers like
King Ashoka and the Shatavahana rulers
(Simuka, Pulumavi) are immortalized by depicting their portraits at
Kanaganahalli. munotes.in

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2.6 IMPORTANT BUDDHIST PLACES IN SOUTHERN
INDIA:
If a number of places in Maharashtra attained great importance in
Buddhist times on account of their wonderful rock -cut architecture, there
were certain places in Andhra which were famous for their equally
magnificent Buddhist stupas. Buddhism was well established in Andhra in
the time of Asoka. if not earlier, owing to its situation midway between
Magadha. the home of Buddhism, and Ceylon which had already become
a stronghold of Buddhism and with which Andhra had seaborne trade
through its big river po rts. As the Buddhists were largely recruited from
the commercial classes, their wealth was utilized to raise magnificent
stupas.
Such stupas were built at several -places in the region between the lower
valleys of the Krishna, and the Godavari. A number of Buddhist sites from
Shalihundun in the northto Chinganjam in the south have been discovered,
of whichthe following are the most important since they possess
magnificent stupas.
The stupas at Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in the Guntur district and at
Bhatt iprolu. Jagayyapeta, Gudiwada and Ghantsala in the Krishna district
were built between the 2nd century B.C. and the 3rd century A.D. These
consisted of brick -built hemispherical domes and were characterized by
rectangular projections from the base of the d ome at the four cardinal
points. They were finished with plastic grace, painted white, and
embellished at the base with sculptured white marble panels richly carved
in low relief. The technical skill and artistic excellence of the Andhra
craftsmen are best seen in the construction of the stupas and especially in
the manufacture of small caskets of crystal and other jewellery.
Bhattiprolu stupa : The earliest Buddhist monument in the region is the
Bhattiprolu stupa built
in the second century
B.C., probably by a
Buddhist missionary
during the time of a
local king named
Kubiraka. The claim
that it was a
mahastupa enshrining
the mortal remains of
the Buddha is justified by the discovery of a bone relic inside a crystal
casket together with flowers made of gol d and pearls. One of the earliest
evidence of Brahmi script in South India comes from Bhattiprolu.
Amaravati: Amaravati, which is 16 miles west of Gu ntur, is the most
important Buddhist site in Andhra. The stupa at this place is the largest
and most famous. It was first begun as early as the second century B.C.
and was enlarged between 150 and 200 A.D. by the efforts of Nagarjuna.
Its dome measures 162 ' and has a height of 95'. The width of the munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
72
pradaksinapatha is 15', and the railing surrounding it 14' high. This stupa
is larger than the
Sanchi stupa which is
120' wide and 54'
high. The beautiful
railings depict scenes
from the Buddha's
life. The relie f
medallions,
beautifully balanced
in composition, are
among the greatest
works of art in India. The Amaravati stupa could well vie in artistic beauty
and grandeur with the Sanchi and Bharhut stupas in the North. Like the
Mathura and Gandhara schools of sc ulpture, the Amaravati school enjoyed
great influence. Its products were carried to Ceylon and South -East Asia
and had a marked effect on the local styles.
Nagarjunakonda: Nothing was known of this great stupa at Nagarjuna -
konda or the Hill of
Nagarjuna before it was
discovered in 1930’s. It is
situated on the south bank
of the river Krishna in the
Guntur district. It was also
a mahastupa, enshrining
the mortal remains of the
Buddha, and was probably
built in the time of Asoka.
It was renovated with
addit ions by Santisiri and other ladies of the local lkshvaku royal family,
to whom goes the credit of making Buddhism popular in Andhra in the
third century CE. Now it is in ruins which are greater than those at
Amaravati. Hundreds of remarkable sculptures exe cuted in the Amaravati
style have been found. From the inscriptions on the Ayaka pillars, it is
evident that Nagarjunakonda, the ancient city of Vijayapuri, was of great
importance as a centre of Buddhism and enjoyed international fame.
Several monasteries were built at this place for the residence of Buddhist
monks of different schools coming from different countries like Ceylon,
Kashmir, Gandhara, and China.
The people of Andhra traded in and outside the country and had close
contacts with the Roman worl d of the time. This is proved by the
discovery of inscriptions, of sculptures depicting a bearded soldier
wearing a tunic, and trousers, and of various other objects of Roman
origin. munotes.in

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73
In Andhra, Guntapalli, 28 miles north of Ellore railway station, and
Sankaran, a mile
east of
Anakapalle, are
important for
their rock -cut
architecture.
Other places in
the
neighbourhood
appear to have
assumed
significance in
Buddhist times,
as the presence of
stupas and other antiquities testifies. The most notable among the se are
Goli, Chezarla, Gummadiduru, Bezwada, Garikapadu, Bavikonda,
Totlakonda, Shalihundam.
Nagapattam: Nagapattam, near Madras on the East Coast, had a Buddhist
settlement in the time of the Colas. An important copper -plate inscription
of the 11th cent ury A.D. states that the Cola King,
Rajaraja, gave the village of Anaimangalaip for
the maintenance of a shrine of the Buddha in the
Culamanivarma Vihara which the Shailendra king,
Mara - vijayottung Varman of Sri -vijaya and
Kataha of Indonesia, had erected at Nagapattam.
In the epilogue of his commentary on the Netti -
pakarana, Dhammapala mentions this place and
the Dharmasoka Vihara in it, where he composed
this commentary. Nagapattinam Buddha and
Bodhisattva images in bronzes of 11th 12th CE are
very well known.
Kanchi: Kanchi, with its Rajavihara and its hundred monasteries, was a
famous stronghold of Buddhism in the South. Five Buddha images have
been discovered near this town. The famous Pali commentator,
Buddhaghosa, has mentioned in his commentary (th e Manorathapurani)
that he wrote it at the request of the Venerable Jotipala who was staying
with him at Kancipura. Yuan Chwang also mentions a certain Dharmapala
from Kanci as being a great master at Nalanda. In Korea, an inscription in
verse has been dis covered. In a preface to it, written by Li Se in 1378
A.D., there is an account of the life and travels of an Indian monk called
Dhyanabhadra. This account tells us that this monk was the son of a king
of Magadha and a princess from Kanchi and that when he visited Kanchi
he heard a sermon given by a Buddhist preacher on the Karanda -vyoha -
sutra. Clearly, this place was a recognized centre of Buddhism as late as
the 14th century CE.
munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
74 Check your Progress:
1. What is the importance of Bodhgaya?
2. Which is one of the important Buddhist sites in Southern India?

2.7 SUMMARY
Sources other than literary should be explored for gaining information
about history and culture of ancient India with special reference to the
Buddhism. the chief sources mentioned are study architecture, art and
archaeological study with reference to stupa, vihara, chetiyaghara,
sculptures and paintings. Apart from defining the terms like archaeology,
stupa, vihara chetiyaghara, sculptures and paintings it also describes in
which manner it contributes the information which can construct the
history of Ancient India and history of Buddhism itself.
2.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
 Which are the different archaeological sources used to write the history
of Buddhism - Discuss.
 Write a note on – ‘art and architecture -a source of Buddhist history’.
 Describe how the archaeological excavations in north India corresponds
to the Pali literature. Write about Sarnath and Bodhgaya
 Take a survey of the Buddhist archaeological sites in Sou th India.
 Write in short about the rock -cut architecture seen in Buddhism.

2.9 ADDITIONAL READING
Cunningham Alexander - Archaeological Survey of India -Four Reports
made during the years 1862 -63-64-65.
Cunningham Alexander - The Bhilsa Topes
Samuel Beal - Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World.
Thomas Watters - On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629 -645 A.D.
Brown Percy -Indian Architecture Buddhist and Hindu
James Fergusson, James Burgess -The Cave Temples of India , 1886
George Michell - Buddhist Rock -Cut Monasteries of the Western Ghats
Dhavalikar M K- Late Hinayana caves of western India
Akira Shimada (Editor) - Amaravati: The Art of an Early Buddhist
Monument in Context
Elizabeth Rosen Stone -The Buddhist Art of Nagarjunakonda.
Walter Spink - Ajanta: History and Development
https://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021 -
10/Buddhist%20Tourism%20Circuit%20in%20India_ani_English_Low%
20res.pdf
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/travel_records.pdf

 munotes.in

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75 3
LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA
Unit Struct ure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Life of Gautam Buddha
3.3 The Middle Path
3.4 Dawn of Truth
3.5 The Dhamma as the Teacher
3.6 The Invitation to Expound the Dhamma
3.7 Summary
3.8 Unit End Questions
3.9 Additional Reading
3.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To study the life of the historical Buddha and how it is the source of
Buddhism.
 To know who is the Buddha and what is His teachings?
 To understand the relevance of the teachings of the Buddha and its
impact on the society
 To acknowledge the importance of the Teachings of the Buddha in the
spread of Buddhism
 To learn the practical aspect of the teachings so as to apply in the daily
life.
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
The Buddha ­Dhamma is a moral an d philosophical system which
expounds a unique path of Enlightenment, and is not a subject to be
studied from a mere academic standpoint. The Doctrine is certainly to be
studied, more to be practiced and above all to be realized by oneself.
Mere learning i s of no avail without actual practice. The learned man who
does not practise the Dhamma, the Buddha says, is like a colourful flower
without scent. He who does not study the Dhamma is like a blind man. But
he who does not practise the Dhamma is comparable to a library. munotes.in

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76
There are some hasty critics who denounce Buddhism as a passive and
inactive religion. This unwarranted criticism is far from the truth. The
Buddha was the first most active missionary in the world. He wandered
from place to place for forty ­five years preaching His doctrine to the
masses and the intelligentsia. Till His last moment, He served humanity
both by example and by precept. His distinguished disciples followed suit,
penniless, they eventravelled to distant lands to propagate the Dhamm a,
expectingnothing in return.
“Strive on with diligence” were the last words of the Buddha.
No emancipation or purification can be gained without personal striving.
As such petitional or intercessory prayers are denouncedin Buddhism and
in their stead is meditation which leads to self ­control, purification, and
enlightenment. Both meditation and service form salient characteristics of
Buddhism. Infact, all Buddhist nations grew up in the cradle of Buddhism.
“Do no evil” , that is, be not a curse to oneself and others, was the
Buddha’s first advice. This was followed by His second admonition – Do
good” , that is, be a blessing to oneself and others.
His final exhortation was – Purify one’s mind” – which was the most
important and the most essential.
Can such a r eligion be termed inactive and passive?
It may be mentioned that, amongst the thirty ­seven factors that lead to
enlightenment ( Bodhipakkhiya -Dhamma ), viriya or energy occurs nine
times. Clarifying His relationship with His followers, the Buddha states:
“You yourselves should make the exertion. The Tathāgata -s are mere
teachers .”
“A unique Being, an extraordinary Man arises in this world for the benefit
of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the
world, for the good, benefit, and happiness of gods and men. Who is this
Unique Being? It is the Tathāgata, the Exalted, Fully Enlightened One.”
3.2 LIFE OF GAUTAM BUDDHA:
Birth: On the full moon day of May, in the year 623 B.C. there was born
in the Lumbini Park at
Kapilavatthu, on the
Indian borders of
present Nepal, a noble
prince who was
destined to be the
greatest religious
teacher of the world.
His father was King
Suddhodana of the
aristocratic Sākyaclan
and his mother was Queen Mahāmāyā. As the beloved mother died seven munotes.in

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Life and Teachings of the
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77 days after his birth, Mahāpajāpati Gotami, her young er sister, who was
also married to the King, adopted the child, entrusting her own son,
Nanda, to the care of the nurses. Great were the rejoicings of the people
over the birth of this illustrious prince. An ascetic of high spiritual
attainments, named As ita, also known as Kāladevala, was particularly
pleased to hear this happy news, and being a tutor of the King, visited the
palace to see the Royal babe. The King, who felt honoured by his
unexpected visit, carried the child up to him in order to make the child pay
him due reverence, but, to the surprise of all, the child’s legs turned and
rested on the matted locks of the ascetic. Instantly, the ascetic rose from
his seat and, foreseeing with his supernormal vision the child’s future
greatness, saluted him with clasped hands. The Royal father did likewise.
The great ascetic smiled at first and then was sad. Questioned regarding
his mingled feelings, he answered that he smiled because the prince would
eventually become a Buddha, an Enlightened One , and he wa s sad because
he would not be able to benefit by the superior wisdom of the Enlightened
One owing to his prior death and rebirth in a Formless Plane (Arupaloka).
Naming Ceremony: On the fifth day after he prince’s birth he was named
Siddhattha which means “wish fulfilled”. His family name was Gotama.In
accordance with the ancient Indian custom many learned brahmins were
invited to the palace for the naming ceremony. Amongst them there were
eight distinguished men. Examining the characteristic marks of the c hild,
seven of them raised two fingers each, indicative of two alternative
possibilities, and said that he would either become a Universal Monarch or
a Buddha. But the youngest, Kondañña, who excelled others in wisdom,
noticing the hair on the forehead tur ned to the right, raised only one finger
and convincingly declared that the prince would definitely retire from the
world and become a Buddha.
Ploughing Festival: A very remarkable incident took place in his
childhood. It was an unprecedented spiritual exp erience which, later,
during his search after truth, served as a key to his Enlightenment. To
promote agriculture, the King arranged for a ploughing festival. It was
indeed a festive occasion for all, as both nobles and commoners decked in
their best attir e, participated in the ceremony. On the appointed day, the
King, accompanied by his courtiers, went to the field, taking with him the
young prince together with the nurses. Placing the child on a screened and
canopied couch under the cool shade of a solita ry rose ­apple tree to be
watched by the nurses, the King participated in the ploughing festival.
When the festival was at its height of gaiety the nurses too stole away
from the prince’s presence to catch a glimpse of the wonderful spectacle.
In striking contrast to the mirth and merriment of the festival it was all
calm and quiet under the rose ­apple tree. All the conditions conducive to
quiet meditation being there, the pensive child, young in years but old in
wisdom, sat cross ­legged and seized the oppo rtunity to commence that all ­
important practice of intent concentration on the breath – on exhalations
and inhalations – which gained for him then and there that one pointedness
of mind known as Samadhi and he thus developed the First Jhāna
(Ecstasy). The child’s nurses, who had abandoned their precious charge to munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
78 enjoy themselves at the festival, suddenly realizing their duty, hastened to
the child and were amazed to see him sitting cross ­legged plunged in deep
meditation. The King hearing of it, hurried t o the spot and, seeing the
child in meditative posture, saluted him, saying – “This, dear child, is my
second obeisance”.
Education: As a Royal child, Prince Siddhattha must have received an
education that became a prince although no details are given abou t it. As a
scion of the warrior race, he received special training in the art of warfare.
Married Life: At the early age of sixteen, he married his beautiful cousin
Princess Yasodharā who was of equal age. For nearly thirteen years, after
his happy marriag e, he led a luxurious life, blissfully ignorant of the
vicissitudes of life outside the palace gates. Of his luxurious life as prince,
he states:
“I was delicate, excessively delicate. In my father’s dwelling three
lotus­ponds were made purposely for me. B lue lotuses bloomed in one,
red in another, and white in another. I used no sandal­wood that was not o f
Kāsi. My turban, tunic, dress and cloak, were all from Kāsi.
“Night and day a white parasol was held over me so that I might not be
touched by heat or cold, dust, leaves or dew. “There were three palaces
built for me – one for the cold season, one for th e hot season, and one for
the rainy season. During the four rainy months, I lived in the palace for the
rainy season without ever coming down from it, entertained all the while
by female musicians. Just as, in the houses of others, food from the husks
of rice together with sour gruel is given to the slaves and workmen, even
so, in my father’s dwelling, food with rice and meat was given to the
slaves and workmen.”
With the march of time, truth gradually dawned upon him. His
contemplative nature and boundless compassion did not permit him to
spend his time in the mere enjoyment of the fleeting pleasures of the
Royal palace. He knew no personal grief but he felt a deep pity for
suffering humanity. Amidst comfort and prosperity, he realized the
universality of s orrow.
Renunciation: Prince Siddhattha reflected thus: “Why do I, being subject
to birth, decay, disease, death, sorrow and impurities, thus search after
things of like nature. How, if I, who am subject to things of such nature,
realize their disadvantages and seek after the unattained, unsurpassed,
perfect security which is Nibbāna!”
“Cramped and confined is household life, a den of dust, but the life of the
homeless one is as the open air of heaven! Hard is it for him who bides at
home to live out as it s hould be lived the Holy Life in all its perfection, in
all its purity.” munotes.in

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79
One glorious day as he went out of the palace to the pleasure park to see
the world outside, he came in direct contact with the stark realities of
life. Within the narrow confines of the palace he saw only the rosy side of
life, but the dark side, the common lot of mankind, was purposely veiled
from him. What
was mentally
conceived, he,
for the first time,
vividly saw in
reality. On his
way to the park
his observant
eyes met the
strange sights of
a decrepit old
man, a diseased
person, a corpse
and a dignified
hermit. The first
three sights convincingly proved to him, the inexorable nature of life, and
the universal ailment of humanity. The fourth signified the means to
overcome the ills of life and to attain calm and peace. These four
unexpected sights served to increase the urge in him to loathe and
renounce the world.
Realizing the worthlessness of sensual pleasures, so highly prized by the
worldling, and appreciating the value o f renunciation in which the wise
seek delight, he decided to leave the world in search of Truth and Eternal
Peace.When this final decision was taken after much deliberation, the
news of the birth of a son was conveyed to him while he was about to
leave the park. Contrary to expectations, he was not overjoyed, but
regarded his first and only offspring asan impediment. An ordinary father
would have welcomed the joyful tidings, but Prince Siddhattha, the
extraordinary father as he was, exclaimed – “An impedime nt (rāhu) has
been born; a fetter has arisen”. The infant son was accordingly named
Rāhula by his grandfather.
The palace was no longer a congenial place
to the contemplative Prince Siddhattha.
Neither his charming young wife nor his
lovable infant son co uld deter him from
altering the decision he had taken to
renounce the world. He was destined to
play an infinitely more important and
beneficial role than a dutiful husband and
father or even as a king of kings. The
allurements of the palace were no more
cherished objects of delight to him. Time
was ripe to depart.
He ordered his favourite charioteer Channa munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
80 to saddle the horse Kanthaka, and went to the suite of apartments occupied
by the princess. Opening the door of the chamber, he stood on the
threshold and cast his dispassionate glance on the wife and child who were
fast asleep.Great was his compassion for the two dear ones at this
parting moment. Greater was his compassion for suffering humanity. He
was not worried about the future worldly happiness and comfort of the
mother and child as they had every ­thing in abundance and were well
protected. It was not that he loved them the less, but he loved humanity
more.
Leaving all behind, he stole away with a light heart from the palace at
midnight , and rode into the dark, attended only by his loyal charioteer.
Alone and penniless he set out in search of Truth and Peace. Thus did he
renounce the world. It was not the renunciation of an old man who has had
his fill of worldly life. It was not the ren unciation of a poor man who had
nothingto leave behind. It was the renunciation of a prince in the full
bloom of youth and in the plenitude of wealth and prosperity – a
renunciation unparalleled in history. It was in his twenty ­ninth year that
Prince Siddh attha made this historic journey.
He journeyed far and, crossing the river Anomā, rested on its banks. Here
he shaved his hair and beard and handing over his garments and
ornaments to Channa with instructions to return to the palace, assumed the
simple yellow garb of an ascetic and led a life of voluntary poverty.The
ascetic Siddhattha, who once lived in the lap of luxury, now became a
penniless wanderer, living on what little the charitably ­minded gave of
their own accord.
He had no perma nent abode. A shady tree or a lonely cave sheltered him
by day or night. Bare ­footed and bare ­headed, he walked in the scorching
sun and in the piercing cold. With no possessions to call his own, but a
bowl to collect his food and robes just sufficient to cover the body, he
concentrated all his energies on the quest of Truth.
Search: Thus as a wanderer, a seeker after what is good, searching for the
unsurpassed Peace, he approached ĀlāraKālāma, a distinguished ascetic,
and said: “I desire, friend Kālāma to lead the Holy Life in this
Dispensation of yours.”Thereupon ĀlāraKālāma told him: “You may stay
with me, O Venerable One. Of such sort is this teaching that an intelligent
man before long may realize by his own intuitive wisdom his master’s
doctrine, and a bide in the attainment thereof.”
Before long, he learnt his doctrine, but it brought him no realization of the
highest Truth. Then there came to him the thought: When ĀlāraKalāma
declared: “Having myself realized by intuitive knowledge the doctrine, I –
‘abide in the attainment thereof’ – it could not have been a mere
profession of faith; surely ĀlāraKālāma lives having understood and
perceived this doctrine.”
So he went to him and said “How far, friend Kālāma, does this doctrine
extend which you yourself h ave with intuitive wisdom realized and
attained?” munotes.in

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81 Upon this ĀlāraKālāma made known to him the Realm of Nothingness
(Ākiñcaññ āyatana), an advanced stage of Concentration.
Then it occurred to him: “Not only in ĀlāraKālāma are to be found faith,
energy , mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. I too possess these
virtues. How now if I strive to realize that doctrine whereof ĀlāraKālāma
says that he himself has realized and abides in the attainment thereof!”So,
before long, he realized by his own intuitiv e wisdom that doctrine and
attained to that state, but it brought him no realization of the highest Truth.
Then he approached ĀlāraKālāma and said: “Is this the full extent, friend
Kālāma, of this doctrine of which you say that you yourself have realized
by your wisdom and abide in the attainment thereof? “But I also, friend,
have realized thus far in this doctrine, and abide in the attainment
thereof.”The unenvious teacher was delighted to hear of the success of his
distinguished pupil. He honour ed him by placing him on a perfect level
with himself and admiringly said:
“Happy, friend, are we, extremely happy; in that we lookupon such a
venerable fellow ­ascetic like you! That same doctrine which I myself have
realized by my wisdom and proclaim, hav ing attained thereunto, have you
yourself realized by your wisdom and abide in the attainment thereof; and
that doctrine you yourself have realized by your wisdom and abide in the
attainment thereof, that have I myself realized by my wisdom and
proclaim, h aving attained thereunto. Thus, the doctrine which I know, and
also do you know; and, the doctrine which you know, that I know also. As
I am, so are you; as you are, so am I. Come, friend, let both of us lead the
company of ascetics.”
The ascetic Gotama was not satisfied with a discipline and a doctrine
which only led to a high degree of mental concentration, but did not lead
to “disgust, detachment, cessation (of suffering), tranquillity; intuition,
enlightenment, and Nibbāna.” Nor was he anxious to lea d a company of
ascetics even with the co ­operation of another generous teacher of equal
spiritual attainment, without first perfecting himself. It was, he felt, a case
of the blind leading the blind. Dissatisfied with his teaching, he politely
took his lea ve from him.
In those happy days when there were no political disturbances the
intellectuals of India were preoccupied with the study and exposition of
some religious system or other. All facilities were provided for those more
spiritually inclined to lead holy lives in solitude in accordance with their
temperaments and most of these teachers had large followings of disciples.
So it was not difficult for the ascetic Gotama to find another religious
teacher who was more competent than the former.
On this occ asion he approached one UddakaRāmaputta and expressed his
desire to lead the Holy Life in his Dispensation. He was readily admitted
as a pupil. Before long the intelligent ascetic Gotama mastered his
doctrine and attained the final stage of mental concentr ation, the Realm of
Neither Perception nor Non ­Perception (“N’evasaññ ā N’asaññ āyatana),
revealed by his teacher. This was the highest stage in worldly munotes.in

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82 concentration when consciousness becomes so subtle and refined that it
cannot be said that a consciousnes s either exists or not. Ancient Indian
sages could not proceed further in spiritual development. The noble
teacher was delighted to hear of the success of his illustrious royal pupil.
Unlike his former teacher the present one honoured him by inviting him t o
take full charge of all the disciples as their teacher. He said: “Happy
friend, are we; yea, extremely happy, in that we see such a venerable
fellow ­ascetic as you! The doctrine wh ich Rāma knew, you know; the
doctrine which you know, Rāma knew. As was Rāma so are you; as you
are, so was Rāma. Come, friend, henceforth you shall lead this company
of ascetics.”
Still, he felt that his quest of the highest Truth was not achieved. He ha d
gained complete mastery of his mind, but his ultimate goal was far ahead.
He was seeking for the Highest, the Nibbāna, the complete cessation of
suffering, the total eradication of all forms of craving. “Dissatisfied with
this doctrine too, he departed t hence, content therewith no longer.”
He realized that his spiritual aspirations were far higher than those under
whom he chose to learn. He realized that there was none capable enough
to teach him what he yearned for – the highest Truth. He also realized t hat
the highest Truth is to be found within oneself and ceased to seek external
aid.
Struggle: Meeting with disappointment, but not discouraged, the ascetic
Gotama seeking for the incomparable Peace, the highest Truth, wandered
through the district of Mag adha, and arrived in due course at Uruvelā, the
market town of Senāni. There he spied a lovely spot of ground, a charming
forest grove, a flowing river with pleasant sandy fords, and hard by was a
village where he could obtain his food. Then he thought thu s:
“Lovely, indeed, O Venerable One, is this spot of ground, charming is the
forest grove, pleasant is the flowing river with sandy fords, and hard by is
the village where I could obtain food. Suitable indeed is this place for
spiritual exertion for those noble scions who desire to strive.”
The place was congenial for his meditation. The atmosphere was peaceful.
The surroundings were pleasant. The scenery was charming. Alone, he
resolved to settle down there to achieve his desired object.
Hearing of his renunciation, Kondañña, the youngest brahmin who
predicted his future, and four sons of the other sages – Bhaddiya, Vappa,
Mahānāma, and Assaji – also renounced the world and joined his
company.
In the ancient days in India, great importance was attached to rites,
ceremonies, penances and sacrifices. It was then a popular belief that no
Deliverance could be gained unless one leads a life of strict asceticism.
Accordingly, for six long years the ascetic Gotama made a superhuman
struggle practising all forms of severest austerity. His delicate body was
reduced to almost a skeleton. The more he tormented his body the farther
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83 How strenuously he struggled, the various methods he employed, and how
he eventually succeeded are graphicall y described in his own words in
various Suttas. MahāSaccaka Sutta describes his preliminary efforts thus:
“Then the following thought occurred to me: “How if I were to clench my
teeth, press my tongue against the palate, and with (moral) thoughts hold
down , subdue and destroy my (immoral) thoughts!
“So I clenched my teeth, pressed my tongue against the palate and strove
to hold down, subdue, destroy my (immoral) thoughts with (moral)
thoughts. As I struggled thus, perspiration streamed forth from my
armpits .
“Like unto a strong man who might seize a weaker man by head or
shoulders and hold him down, force him down, and bring into subjection,
even so did I struggle.
“Strenuous and indomitable was my energy. My mindfulness was
established and unperturbed. My body was, however, fatigued and was
not calmed as a result of that painful endeavour – being overpowered by
exertion. Even though such painful sensations arose in me, they did not at
all affect my mind.
“Then I thought thus: How if I were to cultivate the non­breathing
ecstasy! “Accordingly, I checked inhalation and exhalation from my
mouth and nostrils. As I checked inhalation and exhalation from mouth
and nostrils, the air issuing from my earscreated an exceedingly great
noise. Just as a blacks mith’s bellows being blown make an exceedingly
great noise, even so was the noise created by the air issuing from my ears
when I stopped breathing.
“Nevertheless, my energy was strenuous and indomitable. Established and
unperturbed was my mindfulness. Yet my body was fatigued and was not
calmed as a result of that painful endeavour – being over ­powered by
exertion. Even though such painful sensations arose in me, they did not at
all affect my mind.
“Then I thought to myself: ‘How if I were to cultivate that non­breathing
exercise!
“Accordingly, I checked inhalation and exhalation from mouth, nostrils,
and ears. And as I stopped breathing from mouth, nostrils and ears, the
(imprisoned) airs beat upon my skull with great violence. Just as if a
strong man were to bore one’s skull with a sharp drill, even so did the airs
beat my skull with great violence as I stopped breathing. Even though
such painful sensations arose in me, they did not at all affect my mind.
“Then I thought to myself: How if I were to cultiva te that non ­breathing
ecstasy again!
“Accordingly, I checked inhalation and exhalation from mouth, nostrils,
and ears. And as I stopped breathing thus, terrible pains arose in my
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84 tightly with a hard leathern thong, even so were the terrible pains that
arose in my head. “Nevertheless, my energy was strenuous. Such painful
sensations did not affect my mind.
“Then I thought to myself: How if I were to cultivate tha t non ­breathing
ecstasy again! “Accordingly, I stopped breathing from mouth, nostrils,
and ears. As I checked breathing thus, plentiful airs pierced my belly. Just
as if a skilful butcher or a butcher’s apprentice were to rip up the belly
with a shar p butcher’s knife, even so plentiful airs pierced my belly.
“Nevertheless, my energy was strenuous. Such painful sensations did not
affect my mind. “Again I thought to myself: How if I were to cultivate that
non­breathing ecstasy again!“Accordingly, I ch ecked inhalation and
exhalation from mouth, nostrils, and ears. As I suppressed my breathing
thus, a tremendous burning pervaded my body. Just as if two strong men
were each to seize a weaker man by his arms and scorch and thoroughly
burn him in a pit of glowing charcoal, even so did a severe burning
pervade my body.
“Nevertheless, my energy was strenuous. Such painful sensations did not
affect my mind.
“Thereupon the deities who saw me thus said: ‘The ascetic Gotama is
dead.’ Some remarked: ‘The asceti c Gotama is not dead yet, but is dying’.
While some others said: ‘The ascetic Gotama is neither dead nor is dying
but an Arahant is the ascetic Gotama. Such is the way in which an Arahant
abides.”
Change of Method: Abstinence from Food: “Then I thought to myself:
How if I were to practise complete abstinence from food! “Then deities
approached me and said: ‘Do not, good sir, practise total abstinence
from food. If you do practise it, we will pour celestial essence through
your body’s pores; w ith that you will be sustained.”
“And I thought: ‘If I claim to be practising starvation, and if these deities
pour celestial essence through my body’s pores and I am sustained
thereby, it would be a fraud on my part.’ So I refused them, saying ‘There
is no need’.
“Then the following thought occurred to me: How if I take food little by
little, a small quantity of the juice of green gram, or vetch, or lentils, or
peas!
“As I took such small quantity of solid and liquid food, my body became
extremely emaciate d. Just as are the joints of knot ­grasses or bulrushes,
even so were the major and minor parts of my body owing to lack of food.
Just as is the camel’s hoof, even so were my hips for want of food. Just as
is a string of beads, even so did my backbone stan d out and bend in, for
lack of food. Just as the rafters of a dilapidated hall fall this way and that,
even so appeared my ribs through lack of sustenance. Just as in a deep
well may be seen stars sunk deep in the water, even so did my eye ­balls
appear d eep sunk in their sockets, being devoid of food. Just as a bitter munotes.in

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85
pumpkin, when cut while raw, will by wind and sun get shrivelled and
withered, even so did the skin of my head get shrivelled and withered, due
to lack of sustenance.
“And I, intending to t ouch my belly’s
skin, would instead seize my
backbone. When I intended to touch
my backbone, I would seize my
belly’s skin. So was I that, owing to
lack of sufficient food, my belly’s skin
clung to the backbone, and I, on going
to pass excreta or urine, wo uld in that
very spot stumble and fall down, for
want of food. And I stroked my limbs
in order to revive my body. Lo, as I
did so, the rotten roots of my body’s
hairs fell from my body owing to lack
of sustenance. The people who saw
me said: ‘The ascetic G otama is
black.’ Some said, ‘The ascetic
Gotama is not black but blue.’
Some others said: ‘The ascetic
Gotama is neither black nor blue but tawny.’ To such an extent was the
pure colour of my skin impaired owing to lack of food.
“Then the following tho ught occurred to me: Whatsoever ascetics or
brahmins of the past have experienced acute, painful, sharp and piercing
sensations, they must have experienced them to such a high degree as this
and not beyond. Whatsoever ascetics and brahmins of the future wi ll
experience acute, painful, sharp and piercing sensations they too will
experience them to such a high degree and not beyond. Yet by all these
bitter and difficult austerities I shall not attain to excellence, worthy of
supreme knowledge and insight, tr anscending those of human states.
Might there be another path for Enlightenment!”
Temptation of Māra the Evil One: His prolonged painful austerities
proved utterly futile. They only resulted in the exhaustion of his valuable
energy. Though physically a su perman his delicately nurtured body could
not possibly stand the great strain. His graceful form completely faded
almost beyond recognition. His golden coloured skin turned pale, his
blood dried up, his sinews and muscles shrivelled up, his eyes were sunk
and blurred. To all appearance he was a living skeleton. He was almost on
the verge of death.
At this critical stage, while he was still intent on the Highest (Padhāna),
abiding on the banks of the Nerañjar ā River, striving and contemplating in
order to attain to that state of Perfect Security, came Namuci, uttering kind
words thus:
“‘You are lean and deformed. Near to you is death. munotes.in

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86
“ A thousand parts (of yo u belong) to death; to life (there remains)
but one. Live, O good sir! Life is better. Living, you could perform merit.
“By leading a life of celibacy and making fire sacrifices, much merit
could be acquired. What will you do with this strivi ng? Hard is the path of
striving, difficult and not easily accomplished.”
Māra reciting these words stood in the presence of the Exalted One.
To Māra who spoke thus, the Exalted One replied: “O Evil One, kinsman
of the heedless! You have come here for your own sake. “Even an iota of
merit is of no avail. To them who are in nee d of merit it behoves you,
Māra, to speak thus. “Confidence (Saddhā), self ­control (Tapo),
perseverance (Viriya), and wisdom (Paññ ā) are mine. Me who am thus
intent, why do you question about life? “Even the streams of rivers will
this wind dry up. Why s hould not the blood of me who am thus striving
dry up? “When blood dries up, the bile and phlegm also dry up.
When my flesh wastes away, more and more does my mind get clarified?
Still more do my mindfulness, wisdom, and concentration become firm ?
“While I live thus, experiencing the utmost pain, my mind does not long
for lust! Behold the purity of a being! “Sense ­desires (Kāmā), are your
first army. The
second is called
Aversion for the
Holy Life (Arati).
The third is
Hunger and Thirst
(Khuppīpāsā). The
fourth is called
Craving (Tanhā).
The fifth is Sloth
and Torpor
(Thina­Middha).
The sixth is
calledFear (B hiru).
The seventh is
Doubt (Vicikicchā), and the eighth is Detraction and Obstinacy
(Makkha­Thambha). The ninth is Gain (Lobha), Praise (Siloka) and
Honour (Sakkāra), and that ill ­gotten Fame (Yasa). The tenth is the
extolling of oneself and contempt for others
(Attukkamsanaparavambhana).
“This, Namuci, is your army, the opposing host of the Evil One. That
army the coward does not overcome, but he who overcomes obtains
happiness. “This Muja do I display! What boots life in this world! Better
for me is d eath in the battle than that one should live on, vanquished!
“Some asceticsand brahmins are not seen plunged in this battle. They
know not nor do they tread the path of the virtuous.
“Seeing the army on all sides with Māra arrayed on elephant, I go forward
to battle. Māra shall not drive me from my position. That army of yours, munotes.in

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87
which the world together with gods conquers not, by my wisdom I go to
destroy as I would an unbaked bowl with a stone.
“Controlling my thoughts, and with mindfulness well ­established, I shall
wander from country to country, training many a disciple. “Diligent,
intent, and practising my teaching, they, disregarding you, will go
where having gone they grieve not.”
3.3 THE MIDDLE PATH :
The asc etic Gotama was now fully convinced from personal experience of
the utter futility of self ­mortification which, though considered
indispensable for Deliverance by the ascetic philosophers of the day,
actually weakened one’s intellect, and resulted in lassi tude of spirit. He
abandoned for ever this painful extreme as did he the other extreme of
self­indulgence which tends to retard moral progress. He conceived the
idea of adopting the Golden Mean which later became one of the salient
features of his teaching .
He recalled how when his father was engaged in ploughing, he sat in the
cool shade of the rose ­apple tree,
absorbed in the contemplation of his
own breath, which resulted in the
attainment of the First Jhāna (Ecstasy).
Thereupon he thought: “Well, this is the
path to Enlightenment.”He realized that
Enlightenment could not be gained with
such an utterly exhausted body: Phy sical
fitness was essential for spiritual
progress. So he decided to nourish the
body sparingly and took some coarse
food both hard and soft.The five
favourite disciples who were
attending on him with great hopes
thinking that whatever truth the
ascetic Gotama would comprehend, that
would he impart to them, felt
disappointed at this unexpected change
of method and leaving him and the place
too, went to Isipatana, saying that “the
ascetic Gotama had become luxurious,
had ceased from striving, and had returned to a life of comfort.”
At a crucial time when help was most welcome his companions
deserted him leaving him alone. He was not discouraged, but their
voluntary separation was advantageous to him though their presence
during his gr eat struggle was helpful to him. Alone, in sylvan solitudes,
great men often realize deep truths and solve intricate problems.
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88 3.4 DAWN OF TRUTH:
Regaining his lost strength with some coarse food, he easily dev eloped the
First Jhāna which he gained in his youth. By degrees he developed the
second, third and fourth Jhānas as well.By developing the Jhānas he
gained perfect one ­pointedness of the mind. His mind was now like a
polished mirror where everyth ing is reflected in its true perspective. Thus
with thoughts tranquillized, purified, cleansed, free from lust and impurity,
pliable, alert, steady, and unshakable, he directed his mind to the
knowledge as regards “The Reminiscence of Past Births”
(Pubbe­n ivāsānussatimāna).
He recalled his varied lots in former existences as follows: first one life,
then two lives, then three, four, five, ten, twenty, up to fifty lives; then a
hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand; then the dissolution of many
world cycles , then the evolution of many world cycles, then both the
dissolution and evolution of many world cycles. In that place he was of
such a name, such a family, such a caste, such a dietary, such the
pleasure and pain he experienced, such his life’ s end. Departing from
there, he came into existence elsewhere. Then such was his name, such his
family, such his caste, such his dietary, such the pleasure and pain he did
experience, such life’s end. Thence departing, he came into existence here.
Thus he recalled the mode and details of his varied lots in his former
births. This, indeed, as the First Knowledge that he realized in the first
watch of the night.
Dispelling thus the ignorance with regard to the past, he directed his
purified mind to “The Perce ption of the Disappearing and Reappearing of
Beings” (Cutūpapātanāna). With clairvoyant vision, purified and
supernormal, he perceived beings disappearing from one state of existence
and reappearing in another; he beheld the base and the noble, the
beautiful and the ugly, the happy and the mis erable, all passing according
to their deeds. He knew that these good individuals, by evil deeds,
words, and thoughts, by reviling the Noble Ones, by being misbelievers,
and by conforming themselves to the actions of the misbelievers, after the
dissolu tion of their bodies and after death, had been born in sorrowful
states. He knew that these good individuals, by good deeds, words, and
thoughts, by not reviling the Noble Ones, by being right believers,
and by conforming themselves to the actions of the right believers,
after the dissolution of their bodies and after death, had been born in
happy celestial worlds.
Thus with clairvoyant supernormal vision he beheld the disappearing and
the reappearing of beings.This, indeed, was the Secon d Knowledge that he
realized in the middle watch of the night.Dispelling thus the ignorance
with regard to the future, he directed his purified mind to “The
Comprehension of the Cessation of Corruptions” (Āsavakkhayanāna).
He realized in accordance with fa ct: “This is Sorrow”, “This, the Arising
of Sorrow”, “This, the Cessation of Sorrow”, “This, the Path leading to the
Cessation of Sorrow”. Likewise in accordance with fact he realized: munotes.in

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89 “These are the Corruptions”, “This, the Arising of Corrupti ons”, “This,
the Cessationof Corruptions”, “This, the Path leading to the Cessation
of Corruptions”. Thus cognizing, thus perceiving, his mind was delivered
from the Corruption of Sensual Craving; from the Corruption of
Craving for Existen ce; from the Corruption of Ignorance.
Being delivered, He knew, “Delivered am” and He realized, “Rebirth is
ended; fulfilled the Holy Life; done what was to be done; there is no more
of this state again.” This was the Third Knowledge that He Realized in
the last watch of the night.Ignorance was dispelled, and wisdom arose;
darkness vanished, and light arose.
3.5 THE DHAMMA AS THE TEACHER:
On one occasion soon after the Enlightenment, the Buddha was
dwelling at the foot of the Ajapāla banyan tree by the bank of the
Nerañjar ā river. As he was engaged in solitary meditation the following
thought arose in His mind:“Painful indeed is i t to live without someone to
pay reverence and show deference. How if I should live near an ascetic or
brahmin respecting and reverencing him?” Then it occurred to Him:
“Should I live near another ascetic or brahmin, respecting and reverencing
him, in orde r to bring morality (Sīlakkhandha) to perfection? But I do not
see in this world including gods, Māras, and Brahmas, and amongst
beings including ascetics, brahmins, gods and men, another ascetic or
brahmin who is superior to me in morality and with wh om I could
associate,
respecting and reverencing him.“Should I live near another ascetic or
brahmin, respecting and reverencing him, in order to bring concentration
(samādhikkhandha) to perfection? But I do not see in this world any
ascetic or brahm in who is superior to me in concentration and with whom
I should associate, respecting and reverencing him.
“Should I live near another ascetic or brahmin, respecting and reverencing
him, in order to bring wisdom (paññ ākkhandha) to perfection? But I do
not see in this world any ascetic or brahmin who is superior to me in
wisdom and with whom I should associate, respecting and reverencing
him.“Should I live near another ascetic or brahmin, respecting and
reverencing him, in order to bring eman cipation (vimuttikkhandha) to
perfection? But I do not see in this world any ascetic or brahmin
who is superior to me in emancipation and with whom I should
associate, respecting and reverencing him.”
Then it occurred to Him: “H ow if I should live respecting and reverencing
this very Dhamma which I myself have realized?”Thereupon
BrahmāSahampati, understanding with his own mind the Buddha’s
thought, just as a strong man would stretch his bent arm or bend his
stretched arm e ven so did he vanish from the Brahma realm and
appeared before the Buddha. And, covering one shoulder with his upper
robe and placing his right knee on the ground, he saluted the Buddha with
clasped hands and said thus:“It is so, O Exalted One! It is so, O munotes.in

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90 Accomplished One! O Lord, the worthy, supremely Enlightened Ones,
who were in the past, did live respecting and reverencing this very
Dhamma.
“The worthy, supremely Enlightened Ones, who will be in the future, will
also live respec ting and reverencing this very Dhamma.
“O Lord, may the Exalted One, the worthy, supremely Enlightened One of
the present age also live respecting and reverencing this very Dhamma!”
This the Brahmā Sahampati said, and uttering which, furthermore he
spoke as follows:
“Those Enlightened Ones of the past, those of the future, and those of the
present age, who dispel the grief of many – all of them lived, will live, and
are living respecting the noble Dhamma. This is the characteristic of the
Buddhas. “Therefo re he who desires his welfare and expects his greatness
should certainly respect the noble Dhamma, remembering the message of
the Buddhas.”
This the Brahmā Sahampati said, and after which, he respectfully
saluted the Buddha and passing round Him to the right, disappeared
immediately. As the Sangha is also endowed with greatness there is also
His reverence towards the Sangha.
3.6 THE INV ITATION TO EXPOUND THE DHAMMA:
From the foot of the Rājāyatana tree the Buddha proceeded to the Ajapāla
banyan tree and as He was absorbed in solitary meditation the
following thought occurred to Him.
“This Dhamma which I have realized is indeed p rofound, difficult to
perceive, difficult to comprehend, tranquil, exalted, not within the sphere
of logic, subtle, and is to be understood by the wise. These beings are
attached to material pleasures. This causally connected ‘Dependent
Arising’ is a subje ct which is difficult to comprehend.And this Nibbāna –
the cessation of the conditioned, the abandoning of all passions, the
destruction of craving, the non ­attachment, and the cessation – is also a
matter not easily comprehensible. If I too were to te ach this Dhamma, the
others would not understand me. That will be wearisome to me that will be
tiresome to me.”
Then these wonderful verses unheard of before occurred to the Buddha:
“With difficulty have I comprehended the Dhamma. There is no need to
procl aim it now. This Dhamma is not easily understood by those
who are dominated by lust and hatred. The lust ­ridden, shrouded in
darkness, do not see this Dhamma, which goes against the stream,
which is abstruse, profound, difficult to perceive and subtle.”As the
Buddha reflected thus, he was not disposed to expound the Dhamma. munotes.in

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91
Thereupon Brahma Sahampati read the thoughts of the Buddha, and,
fearing that the world might perish through not hearing the Dhamma,
approached Him and invited Him to teach the Dhamma thus:
“O Lord, may the Exalted One expound the Dhamma! May the
Accomplished One expound the Dhamma! There are beings with little
dust in their eyes, who, not hearing the Dhamma, will fall away. There
will be those who un derstand the Dhamma.”
Furthermore he remarked:“In ancient times there arose in Magadha a
Dhamma, impure, thought out by the corrupted. Open this door to the
Deathless State. May they hear the Dhamma understood by the Stainless
One! Just as one standi ng on the summit of a rocky mountain would
behold the people around, even so may the All ­Seeing, Wise One ascend
this palace of Dhamma! May the Sorrowless One look upon the people
who are plunged in grief and are overcome by birth and decay!
“Rise, O Hero, victor in battle, caravan leader, debt ­free One, and
wander in the World! May the Exalted One teach the Dhamma! There
will be those who will understand the Dhamma.”
When he said so the Exalted One spoke to him thus:“The following
thoug ht, O Brahma, occurred to me – ‘This Dhamma which I have
comprehended is not easily understood by those who are dominated
by lust and hatred. The lust ­ridden, shrouded in darkness, do not see
this Dhamma, which goes against the stream, which is abstruse,
profound, difficult to perceive, and subtle’. As I reflected thus, my mind
turned into inaction and not to the teaching of the
Dbamma.”BrahmāSahampati appealed to the Buddha for the second time
and He made the same reply.Wh en he appealed to the Buddha for the
third time, the Exalted One, out of pity for beings, surveyed the world
with His Buddha ­Vision.
As He surveyed thus He saw beings with little and much dust in their eyes,
with keen and dull intellect, with goo d and bad characteristics, beings who
are easy and beings who are difficult to be taught, and few others who,
with fear, view evil and a life beyond.
“As in the case of
a blue, red or white
lotus pond, some
lotuses are born in
the water, grow in
the water, remain
immersed in the
water, and thrive
plunged in the water;
some are born in the
water, grow in the
water and remain
on the surface of the
water; some others munotes.in

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92
are born in the water, grow in the water and remain emerg ing out of the
water, unstained by the water. Even so, as the Exalted One surveyed the
world with His Buddha ­Vision, He saw beings with little and much dustin
their eyes, with keen and dull intellect, with good and bad characteristics,
beings who are easy and difficult to be taught, and few others who, with
fear, view evil and a life beyond. And He addressed the Brahmā
Sahampati in a verse thus:
“Opened to them are the Doors to the Deathless State. Let those who have
ears repose confidence. Being aware of the weariness, O Brahma, I did not
teach amongst men this glorious and excellent Dhamma.”
The delighted Brahma, thinking that he made himself the occasion
for the Exalted One to expound the Dhamma respectfully saluted Him
and, pas sing round Him to the right, disappeared immediately.
The First Two Converts: After His memorable fast for forty ­nine days,
as the Buddha sat under theRājāyatana tree, two merchants, Tapassu
and Bhallika, from Ukkala (Orissa) happened to pass that way. Then
a certain deity,6 who was a blood relative of theirs in a past birth,
spoke to them as follows:
“The Exalted One, good sirs, is dwelling at the foot of the Rājāyatana tree,
soon after His Enlightenment. Go and serve the Exalted One with flour
and honey ­comb. It will conduce to your well ­being and happines s for a
long time.”Availing themselves of this golden opportunity, the
twodelighted merchants went to the Exalted One, and, respectfully
saluting Him, implored Him to accept their humble alms so that it may
resound to their happiness and well ­being.Then it occurred to the Exalted
One: “The Tathāgata do not accept food with their hands. How shall I
accept this flour and honeycomb?”
Forthwith the four
Great Kings
understood the
thoughts of the
Exalted One with their
minds and from the
four directions offere d
Him four granite
bowls, saying – “O
Lord, may the Exalted
One accept herewith
this flour and honey ­comb!”The Buddha graciously accepted the timely
gift with which He received the humble offering of the merchants, and ate
His food after His long fast.Afte r the meal was over the merchants
prostrated themselves before the feet of the Buddha and said: “We, O
Lord, seek refuge in the Exalted One and the Dhamma. May the Exalted
One treat us as lay disciples who have sought refuge from today till
death?” munotes.in

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93 These were the first lay disciples of the Buddha who embraced Buddhism
by seeking refuge in the Buddha andthe Dhamma, reciting the twofold
formula.
On the Way to Benares to Teach the Dhamma: On accepting the
invitation to teach the Dhamma, the first tho ught that occurred to the
Buddha before He embarked on His great mission was – “To whom shall I
teach the Dhamma first? Who will understand the Dhamma quickly? Well,
there is AlāraKālāma who is learned, clever, wise and has for long
been with little dust in his eyes. How if I were to teach the Dhamma to
him first? He will understand the Dhamma quickly.”
Then a deity appeared before the Buddha and said: “ Lord! ĀlāraKālāma
died a week ago.”With His supernormal vision He perceived that it was
so.Then He thought of UddakaRāmaputta. Instantly a deity informed Him
that he died the evening before.With His supernormal vision He perceived
this to be so.Ultimately the Buddha thought of the five energetic ascetics
who attended on Him during His struggle for Enlightenment. With His
supernormal vision He perceived that they were residing in the Deer Park
at Isipatana near Benares. So the Buddha stayed at Uruvela till s uch time
as He was pleased to set out for Benares.
The Buddha was travelling on the highway, when between Gayā and the
Bodhi tree, beneath whose shade He attained Enlightenment, a wandering
ascetic named Upaka saw Him and addressed Him thus: “Extremely clear
are your senses, friend!Pure and clean is your c omplexion. On account of
whom has your renunciation been made, friend? Who is your teacher?
Whose doctrine do you profess?”The Buddha replied:
“All have I overcome, all do I know.
From all am I detached, all have I renounced.
Wholly absorbed am I in the d estruction of craving (Arahantship).Having
comprehended all by myself whom shall I call my teacher?
No teacher have I. An equal to me there is not.
In the world including gods there is no rival to me.
Indeed an Arahant am I in this world.
An unsurpassed te acher am I;
Alone am I the All­Enlightened.
Cool and appeased am I.
To establish the wheel of Dhamma to the city of Kāsi I go.
In this blind world I shall beat the drum of Deathlessness.
“Then, friend, do you admit that you are an Arahant, a limitless
Conq ueror?” queried Upaka. “Like me are conquerors who have attained munotes.in

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94 to the destruction of defilements. All the evil conditions have I conquered.
Hence, Upaka, I am called a conqueror,” replied the Buddha. “It may be
so, friend!” Upaka curtly remarked, and, n odding his head, turned into a
by­road and departed. Unperturbed by the first rebuff, the Buddha
journeyed from place to place, and arrived in due course at the Deer Park
in Benares
Meeting the Five Monks: The five ascetics who saw Him coming from
afar dec ided not to pay Him due respect as they misconstrued His
discontinuance of rigid ascetic practices which proved absolutely futile
during His struggle for Enlightenment.
They remarked:“Friends, this ascetic Gotama is coming. He is luxurious.
He has given up striving and has turned into a life of abundance.
He should not be greeted and waited upon. His bowl and robe should not
be taken. Nevertheless, a seat should be prepared. If he wishes, let him sit
down.”
However, as the Buddha continued to dr aw near, His august personality
was such that they were compelled to receive Him with due honour. One
came forward and took His bowl and robe, another prepared a seat, and
yet another kept water for His feet. Nevertheless, they addressed Him by
name and ca lled Him friend (āvuso), a form of address applied generally
to juniors and equals.
At this the Buddha addressed them thus: “Do not, O Bhikkhus, address
the Tathāgata by name or by the title ‘āvuso’. An Exalted One, O
Bhikkhus, is the Tathāgata. A Fully Enlig htened One is He. Give ear, O
Bhikkhus! Deathlessness (Amata) has been attained. I shall instruct and
teach the Dhamma. If you act according to my instructions, you will
before long realize, by your own intuitive wisdom, and live, attaining in
this life it self, that supreme consummation of the Holy Life, for the sake
of which sons of noble families rightly leave the household for
homelessness.”
Thereupon the five ascetics replied: “By that demeanour of yours,
āvusoGotama, by that discipline, by those painful austerities, you did not
attain to anysuperhuman specific knowledge and insight worthy of an
Ariya. How will you, when you have become luxurious, have given up
striving, and have turned into a life of abundance, gain any such
superhuman specific knowledge and insight worthy of an Ariya?”
In explanation the Buddha said: “The Tathāgata, O Bhikkhus, is not
luxurious, has not given up striving, and has not turned int o a life of
abundance. An Exalted One is the Tathāgata. A Fully Enlightened One is
He. Give ear, O Bhikkhus! Deathlessness has been attained. I shall instruct
and teach the Dhamma. If you act according to my instructions, you will
before long realize, by y our own intuitive wisdom, and live, attaining in
this life itself, that supreme consummation of the Holy Life, for the sake
of which sons of noble families rightly leave the household for
homelessness.” munotes.in

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95
For the second time the prejudiced ascetics expresse d their disappointment
in the same manner.
For the second time the Buddha reassured them of His attainment to
Enlightenment.
When the adamant ascetics refusing to believe Him, expressed their view
for the third time, the Buddha questioned them thus: “Do yo u know, O
Bhikkhus, of an occasion when I ever spoke to you thus before?”
“Nay, indeed, Lord!”
The Buddha repeated for the third time that He had gained Enlightenment
and that they also could realize the Truth if they would act according to
His instruction s. It was indeed a frank utterance, issuing from the sacred
lips of the Buddha. The cultured ascetics, though adamant in their views,
were then fully convinced of the great achievement of the Buddha and of
His competence to act as their moral guide and tea cher. They believed His
word and sat in silence to listen to His Noble Teaching. Two of the
ascetics the Buddha instructed, while three went out for alms. With what
the three ascetics brought from their alms ­round the six maintained
themselves. Three of th e ascetics He instructed, while two ascetics went
out for alms. With what the two brought six sustained themselves. And
those five ascetics thus admonished and instructed by the Buddha, being
themselves subject to birth, decay, death, sorrow, and passions, realized
the real nature of life and, seeking out the birthless, decayless, diseaseless,
deathless, sorrowless, passionless, incomparable Supreme Peace,
Nibbāna, attained the incomparable Security, Nibbāna, which is free from
birth, decay, disease, death, sorrow, and passions, The knowledge arose
in them that their Deliverance was unshakable, that it was their last
birth and that there would be no more of this state again.
Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which deals, with the four Noble Truths,
was the first discourse delivered by the Buddha to them. Hearing it,
Kondañña, the eldest, attained the first stage of Sainthood. After receiving
further instructions, the other four attained Sotapatti later. On hearing the
Anattalakkhana Sutta, which dea ls with soullessness, all the five attained
Arahantship, the final stage of Sainthood.
The First Five Disciples The five learned monks who thus attained
Arahantship and became the Buddha’s first disciples were Kondañña,
Bhaddiya, Vappa,
Mahānāma, and
Assa ji of the
brahmin clan.
Kondañña was
the youngest and
the cleverest of
the eight
brahmins who
were summoned
by King munotes.in

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96 Suddhodana to name the infant prince. The other four were the sons of
those older brahmins. All these five retired to the forest as ascetics in
anticipation of the Bodhisattawhile he was endeavouring to attain
Buddhahood. When he gave up his useless penances and severe austerities
and began to nourish the body sparingly to regain his lost strength, these
favourite followers, disappointed at hi s change of method, deserted him
and went to Isipatana. Soon after their departure the Bodhisatta attained
Buddhahood.
The venerable Kondañña became the first Arahant and the most senior
member of the Sangha. It was Assaji, one of the five, who converted t he
great Sāriputta, the chief disciple of the Buddha.
3.7 SUMMARY
The life of the Buddha from birth to enlightenment is given for better
understanding of the life led by the Siddhatta prior to enlightenment. 45
years after enlightenment Buddha kept on teachi ngs the dhamma for the
betterment of all the mankind, till he attained parinibbana at the age of 80
years.
The important events in the life of the Bodhisatta ­ (Buddha before
enlightenment) is the four signs or nimitta ­s seen by the Bodhisatta, which
made him leave the household life in search of the truth ­ the great
renunciation. The austerities practiced by the Bodhisatta gives us the
religious traditions prevalent at the time ­ for the seekers of truth in India.
The two teachers of the Bodhisatta and his struggle for enlightenment is
relevant to know the importance of the teachings of the Buddha – the
middle path ­ where Buddha specifically asks to avoid both the extremities ­
the pleasure and the pain to the body. The Dhammacakkapavattana sutta is
thus the most important teaching given to the mankind ­ the dhamma.
3.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
 Write in short ­the Life of Bodhisatta Siddhatta before enlightenment.
 Describe in brief – the enlightenment of the Buddha under the Bodhi
tree.
 Discuss the Dhammacakkapav attana or the turning of the wheel of
dhamma in motion.
 Write in short ­ the learnings from the Life of the Buddha.

3.9 ADDITIONAL READINGS:
Ven. Narada Mahathera ­ Buddha and his Teachings
Ven. Walapola Rahula ­ What the Buddha Taught.
Ven. Thera Piyadassi ­ The Buddha, His life and Teachings
Ven. Nanamoli ­Life of the Buddha According to the Pali Canon


 munotes.in

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97 4
TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA
Unit Struct ure:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path
4.3 Eight Fold Path
4.4 Law o f Dependent Origination
4.5 Summary
4.6 Unit End Questions
4.7 Additional Readin g
4.0 OBJECTIVES:
After going through this unit the students will be a ble :
 To understand the teaching of Buddha.
 To know the actual meaning of Four Noble Truth and Eight -Fold Path
 To understand the Paticca Samuppāda theory
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
The teaching of Gautam Buddha was accepted universally and he became
a great guru in the whole universe. Gautam Buddha left home at the age of
29 in search of Truth. After seven years wandering and meeting with
several gurus of him but he could not get enlightenment. Finally, he
change his path and sat under the (Pimpal) Bodhi tree at Gaya where he
got enlightenment at the age of 35. Since then he became the Buddha or
'the Enlightened One'. After enlightenment or to achi eve 'Keval Dnyan' he
delivered his first sermon at Sarnath. Hence, till his Mahaparinirvana he
spread his teaching and message for how overcome from the suffering to
the common masses. Therefore, we need to understand his actual teaching
to overcome from t he suffering.

4.2 THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS AND THE
EIGHTFOLD PATH
“Light arose in me in things not heard before.” – Dhammacakkasutta
The four truths are best known from their presentation in
the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta text, ("Setting the Wheel of Dhamma
in Motion) which contains the first teachings that the Buddha gave a fter
attaining full awakening , and liberation from rebirth. Within this munotes.in

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98 discourse, the four noble truths are given as follows (" bhikkus " is
normally translated as "Buddhist monks"):
Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of suffering : birth is suffering,
aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with what
is displeas ing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering;
not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject
to clinging are suffering.
Now this, bhikkhus, i s the noble truth of the origin of suffering : it is this
craving [ tahā, "thirst"] which leads to re -becoming , accompanied by
delight and lust, seeking delight her e and there; that is, craving for sensual
pleasures, craving for becoming, craving for dis -becoming.
Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering : it is
the remainder less fading away and cessation of that same craving, the
giving u p and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, non -reliance on it.
Now this, bhikkhus, is the noble truth of the way leading to the
cessation of suffering : it is this noble eightfold path; that is, right view,
right intention, right speech, right action, righ t livelihood, right effort,
right mindfulness, right concentration.
According to this sutta, with the complete comprehension of these four
truths release from samsara , the cycle of rebirth, was attained:Knowledge
and vision arose in me: 'Unprovoked is my release. This is the last birth.
There is now no further becoming. The comprehension of these four truths
by his audience leads to the opening of the Dhamma Eye , that is, the
attainment of right vision:
Whatever is subject to origination is subject to cess ation .
The Pali terms ariyasacca (Sanskrit: aryasatya ) are commonly translated
as "noble truths". Truth (Sacca) is that which is. Its Sanskrit equivalent is
Satya which means an incontrovertible fact. According to Buddhism there
are four such Truths pertai ning to this so -called being. In the Rohitassa
Sutta the Buddha states:
“In this very one -fathom long body along with its perceptions and
thoughts, do I proclaim
the world,
the origin of the world,
the cessation of the world, and
the path leading to t he cessation of the world. ”
In this particular context the term “world” (loka) implies suffering. This
interesting passage refers to the Four Noble Truths which the Buddha
Himself discovered by His own intuitive knowledge. Whether the
Buddhas arise or not these Truths exist, and it is a Buddha that reveals
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99 because they are eternal Truths. The Buddha was not indebted to anyone
for His realization of them. He Himself said: “They were unheard b efore.”
These Truths are in Pāli termed ariyasaccāni. They are so called because
they were discovered by the Greatest Ariya, the Buddha, who was far
removed from passion. The first Truth deals with dukkha , which for need
of a better English equivalent, is rendered by suffering or sorrow. As a
feeling dukkha means that which is difficult to be endured (du – difficult,
kha – to endure). As an abstract truth dukkha is used in the sense of
“contemptible” ( du) and “emptiness” (kha). The world rests on suffering
hence it is contemptible. The world is devoid of any reality – hence it is
empty or void.
Dukkha, therefore, means contemptible void. Average men are only
surface -seers. An Ariya sees things as they truly are. To an Ariya all life is
suffering and he find s no real happiness in this world which deceives
mankind with illusory pleasures. Material happiness is merely the
gratification of some desire. “No sooner is the desired thing gained than it
begins to be scorned.” Insatiate are all desires. All are subjec t to birth
(jāti), and consequently to decay (jarā), disease (vyādhi), and finally to
death (marana). No one is exempt from these four inevitable causes of
suffering. Impeded wish is also suffering. We do not wish to be associated
with things or persons we detest, no r do we wish to be separated from
things or persons we love. Our cherished desires are not, however, always
gratified. What we least expect or what we least desire is often thrust on
us. At times such unexpected unpleasant circumstances become so
intolerab le and painful that weak ignorant folk are compelled to commit
suicide as if such an act would solve the problem. Real happiness is found
within, and is not to be defined in terms of wealth, power, honours or
conquests. If such worldly possessions are forc ibly or unjustly obtained, or
are misdirected, or even viewed with attachment, they will be a source of
pain and sorrow for the possessors. Ordinarily the enjoyment of sensual
pleasures is the highest and only happiness to an average person. There is
no d oubt a momentary happiness in the anticipation, gratification, and
recollection of such fleeting material pleasures, but they are illusory and
temporary. According to the Buddha non -attachment (virāgatā) or the
transcending of material pleasures is a greater bliss.
In brief, this composite body itself is a cause of suffering.
This First Truth of suffering which depends on this so called being and
various aspects of life, is to be carefully analy sed and examined. This
examination leads to a proper understanding of oneself as one really is.
The cause of this suffering is craving or attachment (tanhā) which is the
Second Noble Truth.
The Dhammapada states:
“From craving springs grief, from craving s prings fear,
For him who is wholly free from craving, there is no grief,much less fear.”
(V. 216) munotes.in

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100 This craving is a powerful mental force latent in all, and is the chief cause
of most of the ills of life. It is this craving, grossor subtle, that leads to
repeated births in Samsāra and makes one cling to all forms of life. The
grossest forms of craving are attenuated on attaining Sakadāgāmi, the
second stage of Sainthood, and are eradicated on attaining Anāgāmi, the
third stage of Sainthood. The subtle forms of craving are eradicated on
attaining Arahantship. Both suffering and craving can only be eradicated
by following the Middle Way, enunciated by the Buddha Himself, and
attaining the supreme Bliss of Nibbāna.
The Third Noble Truth is the complete cessation of suffering which is
Nibbāna , the ultimate Goal of Buddhists. It is achieved by the total
eradication of all forms of craving. This Nibbāna is to be comprehended
by the mental eye by renouncing all internal attachment to the external
world. This Truth h as to be realized by developing the Noble Eightfold
Path which is the Fourth Noble Truth. This unique path is the only straight
route that leads to Nibbāna. It avoids the extreme of self -mortification that
weakens one’s intellect and the extreme of self -indulgence that retards
one’s moral progress.
4.3 EIGHTFOLD PATH:
It consists of the following eight factors.:
1) Right Understanding (SammāDitthi),
2) Right Thoughts (SammāSamkappa),
3) Right Speech (SammāVācā),
4) Right Action (SammāKammanta),
5) Right Li velihood (SammāĀjīva),
6) Right Effort (SammāVāyāma),
7) Right Mindfulness (Sammā Sati), and
8) Right Concentration (SammāSamādhi),
1. Right Understanding Sammā Ditthi is explained as the knowledge of the
four Noble Truths. In other words, it is the underst anding of oneself as one
really is, because, as the Rohitassa Sutta states, these truths are concerned
with the “one -fathom long body of man.”The key -note of Buddhism is this
right understanding. Clear vision or right understanding leads to clear
thinking.
2. The second factor of the noble Eightfold Path is, therefore,
SammāSamkappa . The English renderings – “Right Resolutions”, “Right
Aspirations” – do not convey the actual meaning of the Pāli term. Right
Ideas or Right Mindfulness comes closer to the meaning. “Right
Thoughts” may be suggested as the nearest English equ ivalent. By
Samkappa is meant the “Vitakka” mental state, which, for want of a better munotes.in

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101 rendering, may be called “initial application.” This important mental state
eliminates wrong ideas or notions and helps the other moral adjuncts to be
diverted to Nibbāna. It is one’s thoughts that either defile or purify a
person. One’s thoughts mould one’s nature and controls one’s destiny.
Evil thoughts tend to debase one just as good thoughts tend to elevate one.
Sometimes a single thought can either destroy or save a w orld.
SammāSamkappa serves the double purpose of eliminating evil thoughts
and developing pure thoughts.
Right Thoughts, in this particular connection, are threefold. They consist
of:
i. Nekkhamma – Renunciation of worldly pleasures or selflessness which
is oppos ed to attachment, selfishness, and self -possessiveness.
ii. Avyāpāda – Loving -kindness, goodwill, or benevolence, which is
opposed to hatred, ill -will, or aversion, and
iii. Avihimsā – Harmlessness or compassion, which is opposed to cruelty
and callousness.
These evil and good forces are latent in all. As long as we are worldlings
these evil forces rise to the surface at unexpected moments in
disconcerting strength. When once they are totally eradicated on attaining
Arahantship, one’s stream of consciousness gets perfectly purified.
Attachment and hatred, coupled with ignorance, are the chief causes of all
evil prevalent in this deluded world. “The enemy of the whole world is
lust, through which all evils cometo living beings. This lust when
obstructed by som e cause is transformed into wrath.”
One is either attached to desirable external objects or is repulsed with
aversion in the case of undesirable objects.
Through attachment one clings to material pleasures and tries to gratify
one’s desire by some means or other. Through aversion one recoils from
undesirable objects and even goes to theextent of destroying them as their
very presence is a source of irritation. With the giving up of egoism by
one’s own intuitive insight, both attachment and hatred automatica lly
disappear.
The Dhammapada states:
“There is no fire like lust, no grip like hate,
There is no net like delusion, no river like craving.” (v. 251)
i. As one ascends the spiritual ladder one renounces by degrees both gross
and subtle attachment to materi al pleasures like grown -up children giving
up their petty toys. Being children, they cannot be expected to possess an
adult’s understanding, and they cannot be convinced of the worthlessness
of their temporary pleasures. With maturity they begin to underst and
things as they truly are and they voluntarily give up their toys. As the
spiritual pilgrim proceeds on the upward path by his constant meditation munotes.in

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102 and reflection, he perceivesthe futility of pursuing base material pleasures
and the resultant happiness i n forsaking them. He cultivates non -
attachment to the fullest degree. “Happy is non -attachment in this world,
so is the transcending of all sensual pleasures,” is one of the early
utterances of the Buddha.
ii. The other most rebellious passion is anger, av ersion, illwill, or hatred,
all of which are implied by the Pāli term vyāpāda. It consumes the person
in whom it springs and consumes others as well. The Pāli term avyāpāda,
literally, non -enmity, corresponds to that most beautiful virtue Mettā
(Samskrit Maitri) which means loving -kindness or goodwill towards all
without any distinction. He whose mind is full of loving -kindness can
harbour no hatred towards any. Like a mother who makes no difference
between herself and her only child and protects it even at the risk of her
own life, even so does the spiritual pilgrim who follows this middle path
radiate his thoughts of loving -kindness identifying himself with all.
Buddhist Mettā embraces all living beings, animals not excluded.
iii. Avihimsā or Karunā – Harmle ssness or compassion is the third and the
last member of samkappa. Karunā is that sweet virtue which makes the
tender hearts of the noble quiver at the sufferings of others. Like Buddhist
Mettā, Buddhist Karunā too is limitless. It is not restricted only to co-
religionists or co -nationals or to human beings alone. Limited compassion
is not true karunā. A compassionate one is as soft as a flower. He cannot
bear the sufferings of others. He might at times even go to the extent of
sacrificing his own life to al leviate the sufferings of others. In every Jātaka
story it is evident that the Bodhisatta endeavoured his best to help the
distressed and the forlorn and to promote their happiness in every possible
way. Karunā has the characteristics of a loving mother who se thoughts,
words, and deeds always tend to relieve the distress of her sick child. It
has the property of not being able to tolerate the sufferings of others. Its
manifestation is perfect non violence and harmlessness – that is, a
compassionate person ap pears to be absolutely non -violent and harmless.
The sight of the helpless states of the distressed is the proximate cause for
the practice of Karunā. The consummation of karuna is the eradication of
all forms of cruelty. The direct enemy of karunais cruelty and the indirect
enemy is homely grief. Buddhist mettā appeals to both the rich and the
poor, for Buddhism teaches its followers to elevate the lowly, help the
poor, the needy, and the forlorn, tend the sick, comfort the bereaved, pity
the wicked, and enlighten the ignorant.Compassion forms a fundamental
principle of both Buddhist laymen and Bhikkhus.
Speaking of Buddhist harmlessness, Aldous Huxley writes: “Indian
pacifism finds its complete expression in the teaching of the Buddha.
Buddhism teaches ahimsā or harmlessness towards all beings. It forbids
even laymen to have anything to do with the manufacture and sale of
arms, with the making of poison and int oxicants, with soldiering or the
slaughtering of animals.” The Buddha advises His disciples thus:
“Wherefore, O Bhikkhus, however men may speak concerning you,
whether in season or out of season, whether appropriately or
inappropriately, whether courteously or rudely, whether wisely or munotes.in

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103 foolishly, whether kindly or maliciously, thus, O Bhikkhus, must you train
yourselves –Unsullied shall our minds remain, neither shall evil words
escape our lips. Kind and compassionate ever shall we abide with hearts
harbouri ng no ill -will. And we shall enfold those very persons with
streams of loving thoughts unfailing, and forth from them proceeding we
shall radiate the whole wide world with constant thoughts of loving
kindness, ample, expanding, measureless, free from enmit y, free from ill -
will. Thus must you train yourselves.”
He whose mind is free from selfish desires, hatred and cruelty, and is
saturated with the spirit of selflessness, loving -kindness and harmlessness,
lives in perfect peace. He is indeed ablessing to hi mself and others.
3. Right Thoughts lead to Right Speech (SammāVācā) , the third factor. It
deals with refraining from falsehood, slandering, harsh words, and
frivolous talk. He who tries to eradicate selfish desires cannot indulge in
uttering falsehood or in slandering for any selfish end or purpose. He is
truthful and trustworthy and ever seeks the good and beautiful in others
instead of deceiving, defaming, denouncing or disuniting his own fellow
beings. A harmless mind that generates loving -kindness can not give vent
to harsh speech which first debases the speaker and then hurts another.
What he utters is not only true, sweet and pleasant but also useful, fruitful
and beneficial.
4. Right Speech follows Right Action (SammāKammanta ), which deals
with abstinence from killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. These three
evil deeds are caused by craving and anger, coupled with ignorance. With
the gradual elimination of these causes from the mind of the spiritual
pilgrim, blameworthy tendencies arising therefrom will find no
expression. Under no pretence would he kill or steal.
5. Being pure in mind, he would lead a pure life. Purifying thoughts,
words and deeds at the outset, the spiritual pilgrim tries to purify his
livelihood Right Livelihood (SammāĀjīva), by refraining from the five
kinds of trade which are for bidden to a lay -disciple. They are trading in
arms (satthavanijjā), human beings (sattavanijjā), flesh (mamsavanijjā),
i.e. breeding animals for slaughter, intoxicating drinks (majjavan ijjā), and
poison (visavanijjā) Hypocritical conduct is cited as wrong livelihood for
monks. Strictly speaking, from an Abhidhamma standpoint, by right
speech, right action and right livelihood are meant three abstinences
(virati) but not the three opposit e virtues.
6. Right Effort (Sammā Vāyāma), is fourfold -namely:
i. The endeavour to discard evil that has already arisen,
ii. The endeavour to prevent the arising of unarisen evil,
iii. The endeavour to develop unarisen good, and
iv. The endeavour to promot e the good which has already arisen. munotes.in

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104 Right Effort plays a very important part in the Noble Eightfold Path. It is
by one’s own effort that one’s deliverance is obtained and not by merely
seeking refuge in others or by offering prayers. In man are found a
rubbish -heap of evil and a store -house of virtue. By effort one removes
this rubbish -heap and cultivates these latent virtues.
7. Right Effort is closely associated with Right Mindfulness (Sammā
Sati) . It is the constant mindfulness with regard to body (kāyānupassanā),
feelings (vedanānupassanā), thoughts (cittānupassanā), and mind objects
(dhammānupassanā). Mindfulness on these four objects tend to eradicate
the misconceptions with regard to desirability (subha), so-called happiness
(sukha), permanence (nicca), and an immortal soul (attā) respectively.
8. Right Effort and Right Mindfulness lead to Right Concentration
(Sammā Samādhi) . It is the one -pointedness of the mind. A concentrated
mind acts as a powerful aid to see things as they truly are by means of
penetrative insight. Of these eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path the
first two are grouped in wisdom (paññ ā), the second three in morality
(sīla) and the last three in concentrati on (samādhi).
Sīla
Right Speech
Right Action
Right Livelihood
Samādhi
Right Effort
Right Mindfulness
Right Concentration
Paññ ā
Right Understanding
Right Thoughts
According to the order of development sīla, samādhi, and paññ āare the
three stages of the Path . Strictly speaking, from an ultimate standpoint,
these factors that comprise the Noble Eightfold Path signify eight mental
properties (cetasika) collectively found in the four classes of
supramundane consciousness (lokutttaracitta) whose object is Nibbāna .
They are : paññindriya (faculty of wisdom), vitakka (initial application),
virati (three abstinences,) viriya (energy), sati (mindfulness) and ekaggata
(one-pointedness) respectively.
All these factors denote the mental attitude of the aspirant who is st riving
to gain his Deliverance. munotes.in

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105
4.4 LAW OF DEPENDENT ORIGINATION:
“The Dependent Arising” (PaticcaSamuppāda) in direct order thus:
“When this (cause) exists, this (effect) is; with the arising of this (cause),
this effectarises.”
Dependent on Ignorance (avijjā) arise moral and immoralConditioning
Activities (samkhārā).
Dependent on Conditioning Activities arises (Relinking)Consciousness
(viññ āna).
Dependent on (Relinking) Consciousness arise Mind andMatter (nāma -
rūpa).
Dependent on Mind and Matter arise the Six Spheres ofSense
(salāyatana).
Dependent on the Six Spheres of Sense arises Contact(pha ssa).
Dependent on Contact arises Feeling (vedanā).
Dependent on Feeling arises Craving (tanhā).
Dependent on Craving arises Grasping (upādāna).
Dependent on Grasping arises Becoming (bhava).
Dependent on Becoming arises Birth (jāti).
Dependent on Birth ar ise Decay (jarā), Death (marana), Sorrow (soka),
Lamentation (parideva), Pain (dukkha), Grief (domanassa), and Despair
(upāyāsa).
Thus does this whole mass of suffering originate.
“The Dependent
Arising” in reverse
orderthus: “When this
cause does not exist ,
this effect is not;
withthe cessation of
this cause, this effect
ceases.
With the cessation of
Ignorance,
Conditioning
Activities cease.
With the cessation of
Conditioning
Activities (Relinking) munotes.in

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106 Consciousness ceases.
With the cessation of (Relinking) Con sciousness, Mind andMatter cease.
With the cessation of Mind and Matter, the six Spheres ofSense cease.
With the cessation of the Six Spheres of Sense, Contact ceases.
With the cessation of Contact, Feeling ceases.
With the cessation of Feeling, Craving ce ases.
With the cessation of Craving, Grasping ceases.
With the cessation of Grasping, Becoming ceases.
With the cessation of Becoming, Birth ceases.
With the cessation of Birth, Decay, Death, Sorrow, Lamentation,
Pain, Grief, and Despair cease.
Thus does t his whole mass of suffering cease.
Thereupon the Exalted One, knowing the meaning of this, uttered,at that
time, this paean of joy:“When, indeed, the Truths become manifest unto
the strenuousand meditative Brahmana, then all his doubts vanishaway
since he has understood the destruction of the causes.” “When this cause
exists, this effect is; with the arising of thiscause, this effect arises. When
this cause does not exist, this effectis not; with the cessation of this cause,
this effect ceases.”
The phenome na are happening and passingaway and the main point of
interest with the Buddha was to find out "What being what else is,"
"Whathappening what else happens" and "What not being what else is
not." The phenomena are happening in aseries and we see that there being
certain phenomena there become some others; by the happening of
someevents others also are produced. This is called (paticca -samuppâda)
dependent origination.
But it isdifficult to understand what is the exact nature of this dependence.
The questio n has it with which the Buddha started before attaining
Buddhahood was this:
in what miserable condition are the people! they are born, they decay,
they die, pass away and are born again; and they do not know the path of
escape from this decay, death and misery.How to know the Way to escape
from this misery of decay and death. munotes.in

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107
Then it occurred to him what beingthere, are decay and death , depending
on what do they
come? As he
thought deeply
into the root of
the matter,it
occurred to him
that
decay and dea th
can only occur
when there is
birth (jâti), so
they depend on
birth. What
being there, is
there birth, on
what does birth depend?
Then it occurred to him that birth could only be if there were previous
existence (bhava). But on what does this existence depend, or what being
there is there bhava.
Then it occurred to him that there could not be existence unless there were
clinging holding fast (upâdâna). But on what did upâdâna depend?
It occurred to him that it was desire (tanhâ) on which upâdâna depende d.
There can be upâdâna if there is desire (tanhâ).
But what being there, can there be desire? To this question it occurred to
him that there must be feeling (vedanâ) in order that there may be desire.
But on what does vedanâ depend, or rather what must b e there, that there
may be feeling (vedanâ)?
To this it occurred to him that there must be a sense -contact (phassa) in
order that there may be feeling. If there should be no sense -contact there
would be no feeling. But on what does sense -contact depend? I t occurred
to him that as there are six sense -contacts, there are the six fields of
contact (âyatana).
But on what do the six âyatanas depend? It occurred to him that there must
be the mind and body (nâmarûpa) in order that there may be the six fields
of contact; but on what does nâmarûpa depend?
It occurred to him that without consciousness (viññâna) there could be no
nâmarûpa. But what being there would there be viññâna.
Here it occurred to him that in order that there might be viññâna there
must be th e conformations (sankhâra). But what being there are there the
sankhâras?
Here it occurred to him that the sankhâras can only be if there is
ignorance (avijjâ). If avijjâ could be stopped then the sankhâras will be munotes.in

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108 stopped, and if the sankhâras could be s topped viññâna could be stopped
and so on.
It is indeed difficult to be definite as to what the Buddha actually wished
to mean by this cycle of dependence of existence sometimes called
Bhavacakra (wheel of existence).
Decay and death (jarâmarana ) could no t have happened if there was no
birth. This seems to be clear. But at this point the difficulty begins.
Desire (tanhâ) is then said to depend on feeling or sense -contact. Sense -
contact presupposes the six senses as fields of operation. These six senses
or operating fields would again presuppose the whole psychosis of the
man (the body and the mind together) called nâmarûpa . all the elements
of being both those with form and those without, come into existence after
having previously been non -existent and ha ving come into existence pass
away. "Nâmarûpa taken in this sense will not mean the whole of mind and
body, but only the sense functionsand the body which are found to operate
in the six doors of sense (salâyatana). If we take nâmarûpa inthis sense,
we can see that it may be said to depend upon the viññâna
(consciousness).
Consciousness has beencompared in the MilindaPañha with a watchman at
the middle of the cross -roads beholding all that come from any direction.
Buddhaghosa in the Atthasâlinî also says t hat consciousness means that
which thinks its object. If we are to define its characteristics, we must say
that it knows (vijânana), goes in advance (pubbangama), connects
(sandhâna), and stands on nâmarûpa (nâmarûpapadatthânam). When the
consciousness get s a door, at a place the objects of sense are discerned
(ârammana -vibhâvanatthâne) and it goes first as the precursor. When a
visual object is seen by the eye it is known only by the consciousness, and
when the dhammas are made the objects of (mind) mano, it is known only
by the consciousness. Buddhaghosa also refers here to the passage in the
MilindaPañha we have just referred to. He further goes on to say that
when states of consciousness rise one after another, they leave no gap
between the previous stat e and the later and consciousness therefore
appears as connected. When there are the aggregates of the five khandhas
it is lost; but there are the four aggregates as nâmarûpa, it stands on nâma
and therefore it is said that it stands on nâmarûpa. So the ci tta or
consciousness takes the phenomena of contact, etc., and cognizes them. So
though it is the same as they are yet in a sense it is different from them.
To go back to the chain of twelve causes, we find that jâti(birth) is the
cause of decay and death , jarâmarana, etc. Jâti is the appearance of the
body or the totality of the five skandhas. Coming to bhava which
determines jâti, I cannot think of any better rational explanation of bhava,
than that I have already suggested, namely, the works (karma) whi ch
produce the birth. Upâdâna is an advanced trsnâ leading to positive
clinging. It is produced by trsnâ (desire) which again is the result of
vedanâ (pleasure and pain). But this vedanâ is of course vedanâ with
ignorance (avidyâ), for an Arhat may have al so vedanâ but as he has no munotes.in

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109 avidyâ, the vedanâ cannot produce trsnâ in turn. On its development it
immediately passes into upâdâna. Vedanâ means pleasurable, painful or
indifferent feeling. On the one side it leads to trsnâ (desire) and on the
other it is p roduced by sense -contact (spars'a).
Vijñâna in this connection probably means the principle or germ of
consciousness in the womb of the mother upholding the five elements of
the new body there. It is the product of the past karmas (sankhâra) of the
dying m an and of his past consciousness too.
We sometimes find that the Buddhists believed that the last thoughts of the
dying man determined the nature of his next birth. At the death of the man
the vijñâna resulting from his previous karmas and vijñânas enters into the
womb of that mother (animal, man or the gods) in which the next
skandhas are to be matured. This vijñâna thus forms the principle of the
new life.
It is in this vijñâna that name (nâma) and form (rûpa) become associated.
The vijñâna is indeed a direct product of the samskâras and the sort of
birth in which vijñâna should bring down (nâmayati) the new existence
(upapatti) is determined by the samskâras, If the vijñâna had not entered
the womb then no nâmarûpa could have appeared. This chain of twe lve
causes extends over three lives.
Thusavidyâ and samskâra of the past life produce the vijñâna,
nâmarupasadâyatana, spars'a, vedanâ, trsnâ, upâdâna and the bhava
(leading to another life) of the present actual life. This bhava produces the
jâti and jar âmarana of the next life. It is interesting to note that these
twelve links in the chain extending in three sections over three lives are all
but the manifestations of sorrow to the bringing in of which they naturally
determine one another.
ThusAbhidhammat thasangaha says "each of these twelve terms is a factor.
For the composite term 'sorrow,' etc. is only meant to show incidental
consequences of birth. Again when 'ignorance' and 'the actions of the
mind' have been taken into account, craving (trsnâ), grasp ing (upâdâna)
and (karma) becoming (bhava) are implicitly accounted for also. In the
same manner when craving, grasping and (karma) becoming have been
taken into account, ignorance and the actions of the mind are (implicitly)
accounted for, also; and when birth, decay, and death are taken into
account, even the fivefold fruit, to wit (rebirth), consciousness, and the
rest are accounted for.
And thus: Five causes in the Past and Now a fivefold 'fruit.' Five causes
Now and yet to come a fivefold 'fruit' make up the Twenty Modes, the
Three Connections (1. sankhâra and viññâna, 2. vedanâ and tanhâ, 3.
bhava and jâti) and the four groups (one causal group in the Past, one
resultant group in the Present, one causal group in the Present and one
resultant group in the Future, each group consisting of five modes).
These twelve interdependent links (dvâdas'ânga) represent the
paticcasamuppâda (pratâtyasamutpâda) doctrines (dependent origination) munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
110 which are themselves but sorrow and lead to cycles of sorrow. The term
paticcasamuppâda or pratîtyasamutpâda has been differently interpreted in
later Buddhist literature.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write the Four Noble Truth in the Teaching of Buddha?
2. State the importance of eight -fold path to overcome from the suffering
in life?

4.5 SUMMARY
The teachings of the Buddha can be summarised as - “avoid all bad deeds,
increase your good deeds, and purify your mind.” Thus, Mind is given
lots of importance and is considered as the sixth sense alongwith the
eyes=to see, nose=to smell, ears=tohear, tongue=to taste and skin= to
taste, with Mind=to think.
It is within the Mind we have good or bad thoughts which manifest on the
speech as words good or bad, or body as actions good or bad. Thus,
purification of mind is necessary. The four Nob le truths show us the
reality of this existence which is anicca - impermanence, dukkha -suffering
and anatta - no permanent self within.
With this understanding one can come out of the dukkha by eradicating
the cause of dukkha - which is the desire -tanha, with the help of the
eightfold path and reach nibbana.
The other aspect of the teachings of the Buddha is the negation of the
creator or God. Buddha said - we are creator of our own self and thus are
responsible for our own actions and their results. Because no thing happens
without a cause. This cause -and-effect teaching is called the Law of
dependent origination or the Paticcasamuppada.
Buddhas’ teachings is not just for the study but to be experienced in the
daily life - thus is called the dhamma - the law of na ture.
4.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS:
 Write a short note on -Four Noble Truths.
 Explain the Eightfold Path in detail. Comment on Right Efforts or
Samma Vayama
 What is sila , samadhi and panna? Explain with the help of eightfold
path
 Discuss the Law of Dependent or igination and its importance to come
out of the dukkha.



munotes.in

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111 4.7 ADDITIONAL READING
Ven. Narada Mahat hera- Buddha and his Teachings
Ven. Walapola Rahula - What the Buddha Taught.
Ven. Thera Piyadassi - The Buddha, His life and Teachings
Ven. S. Dhammika -The Buddha and His Disciples

Ven. Nanamoli -Life of the Buddha According to the Pali Canon

Richard F. Gombrich -How Buddhism Began

https://www.buddhanet.net/e -learning/8foldpath.htm

Dependent Origination and the Four Noble Truths: the Core Teaching of
the Buddha1
20180810103107_0E6D4D08 -2523 -42B0 -95E5 -DCBF0D9B83DC.pdf





munotes.in

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112 5
ASOKAN INSCRIPTIONS
Unit Struct ure:
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Description and Classification of t he Inscriptions
5.3 Contents of t he Inscriptions
5.4 The Propagation o f Dhamma
5.5 The Nature o f Ashoka’s Dhamma
5.6 Summary
5.7 Unit End Questions
5.8 Additional Reading
5.0 OBJECTIVES:
The study is carried out with the following objectives
 To understand the most important sou rce of writing history of ancient
Indian
 To study the Asokan inscriptions in original for understanding the
personality of Asoka himself.
 To know the dhamma and history reflected through the inscriptions
 To understand the role of western scholars in under standing the
Asokan inscriptions.
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
Inscriptions of Ashoka : The inscriptions of Ashoka (reigned
c. 268-232 BCE), the third king of the Maurya dynasty (c. 324-187 BCE),
form the earliest large corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian
subcontinent. Ashoka inherited a large empire from his predecessors,
Chandragupta and Bindusara, with its political centre located at Pataliputra
(modern Patna) in eastern India. Ashoka’s inscriptions mark an important
innovation in political practice. They ar e an important and unique
contemporary source of information on Ashoka and the Maurya empire.
The inscriptions of Ashoka were noticed during the early 1830s, but their
scripts – early Brahmi and Kharoshthi - could not be read. While several
scholars contri buted to the decipherment of Ashokan Brahmi, the crucial
breakthrough was made by James Prinsep in 1837. Prinsep, along with
others such as Christian Lassen, played an important role in the munotes.in

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Asokan Inscriptions

113 decipherment of Kharoshthi as well, but the first reliable reading of a
Kharoshthi inscription was published by Edwin Norris in 1846. The
decipherment of Ashokan Brahmi did not immediately lead to an
understanding of the historical significance of the inscriptions. The king is
usually referred to in his inscriptions by t wo epithets - devananpiya , which
means “dear to the gods” and piyadasi , which can be translated as “he who
looks upon at that which is beloved/dear/auspicious”, “he who looks
affectionately or amiably”, or “one who is dear or auspicious to look at.”
On the basis of references in the Sri Lankan chronicle, the Dipavamsa ,
George Turnour connected the epithet piyadasi with the Maurya emperor
Ashoka. This correlation opened an invaluable source of information on
what is considered ancient India’s first virtually subcontinental empire.
Subsequently, the king’s name “Asoka” (of which “Ashoka” is the better -
known Sanskritized form) was found in Minor Rock Edict 1 at Maski,
Udegolam, Nittur and Gujjara. Over the years, several readings and
translations of the inscrip tions have been published.
5.2 DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE
INSCRIPTIONS :
The inscriptions of Ashoka were inscribed on natural rock faces and
pillars, and in caves. The conventional scholarly classification of the
inscriptions, divides the inscriptions into Minor Rock Edicts, Major Rock
Edicts (also known as Rock Edicts), Separate Rock Edicts, Major Pillar
Edicts (also known as Pillar Edicts), Minor Pillar Edicts, and cave
inscriptions. One of the unusual aspects of Ashoka’s inscriptions is that
certain individual inscriptions and sets of inscriptions were inscribed, with
some variations, in several places. The Major Rock Edicts usually occur in
broadly sim ilar sets of fourteen, except at Dhauli and Jaugada, where
Rock Edicts 11, 12 and 13 are replaced by Separate Rock Edicts 1 and 2.
The Separate Rock Edicts are also found at Sannati, where they replace
Rock Edict 13. The Major Pillar Edicts usually occur i n sets of six, except
for the Delhi -Topra pillar, which has seven edicts.
Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions are in dialects of Prakrit/Pali (the various
local languages spoken in North India, distinct from, but related to literary
Sanskrit), which was the lang uage of political power in the subcontinent
for several centuries, and are written in an early form of the Brahmi script.
Mansehra and Shahbazgarhi in Pakistan have sets of Major Rock Edicts in
the Prakrit language and Kharoshthi script. The north -western part of the
Empire (which included areas of modern -day Pa kistan and Afghanistan)
yielded one Greek, four Aramaic, one Greek -Aramaic, and one Aramaic -
Prakrit inscription. The Prakrit of the Ashokan inscriptions can be divided
into the eastern (this is the most predominant), western and north -western
dialects. There are some variations in the form of Ashokan Brahmi
characters, but these variations are not regional in nature. The orthography
of the characters too displays some variations.
The inscriptions of Ashoka do not contain any genealogical information.
The chronological markers mentioned in some of the inscriptions refer to
the number of years that since his formal consecration ( abhisheka ) (this munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
114 seems to have taken place four years after he assumed pow er), and range
from the eighth to the twenty -seventh year. References to certain Greek
kings (see below) provide useful chronological correlates. Internal
chronological references indicate that the Minor Rock Edicts were the
earliest, followed by the Major Rock Edicts, and then the Major Pillar
Edicts. The Minor Pillar Edicts and cave inscriptions were inscribed at
various points in time.
Ashoka’s inscriptions have a very wide distribution, stretching from
Afghanistan in the north to the Indian states of Andhra and Karnataka in
the south, Orissa in the east, and Gujarat in the west. The Major Rock
Edicts are mostly distributed near the margins of the empire. The
Major Pillar Edicts are concentrated in north India. They were often
located near urban cente rs and along trade routes, and some of them seem
to have been close to Buddhist monasteries. The Minor Rock Edicts have
the widest distribution. They are generally found in more remote hilly
areas, with a notable clustering in the Andhra -Karnataka area in South
India, at sites that seem to have had an older cultic significance. The three
cave inscriptions are found in the Barabar hills in eastern India. The
location of the inscriptions is often considered to mark Ashoka’s empire.
However, while the places w here the inscriptions have been found
definitely indicate Maurya contact, intervention and influence, this does
not necessarily indicate direct political control.
The pillar inscriptions are inscribed on imposing monolithic sandstone
pillars with a highly polished surface. The stone seems to have been
quarried at Chunar (Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh). It has been
suggested that the pillars may have symbolized the centre of the universe.
The text of the inscriptions needs to be considered along with the
symbolism of the artistic motifs, especially the animals represented on
certain pillar capitals - the lion (single or four seated back to back), bull
and elephant (also carved and/or mentioned on the Kalsi and Girnar
rocks), which were chosen to proclaim t he king’s power and his dhamma .
Other motifs associated with the Ashokan pillars are the lotus, wheel,
horse and geese. All these symbols had a deep resonance in Indian
religious and cultural traditions over the centuries.
References in the accounts of the Chinese monks Faxian and Xuanzang to
Ashokan pillars and stupas where none exist today suggest that the
Ashokan inscriptions known to us are a fraction of their original number.
New inscriptions continue to be discovered. For instance, a version of
Minor Rock Edict 1 was recently found at Ratanpurwa in Bihar in eastern
India.
Understanding the inscriptions of Ashoka requires interpreting their words
and associated artisitic motifs, as well as situating them within their larger
archaeological and historical contexts. Scholars have made inferences
about the epigraphic process, the audience, reception and transmission of
Ashoka’s ideas. They have discussed the impact of Ashokan policies on
the history of the Maurya empire and the impact of Ashokan ideas and
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5.3 CONTENTS OF THE INSCRIPTIONS :
The frequent use of the first
person and the strong personal
tone in Ashoka’s
Prakrit inscriptions indicate that
they represent the emperor’s
ideas and commands. The
inscriptions give us a unique
insight into the emperor’s mind,
especially his thoughts on issues
related to kingship and morality
over his long, 36 years reign.
The audience of the inscriptions
consiste d of the direct audience
(high -ranking administrative
officials); the indirect audience
(the emperor’s subjects), who
were expected to receive their
king’s message through various
intermediaries, largely in oral
form; and posterity. The
reception of the me ssage, which
would have varied according to
the location of the inscriptions, the mode and agents of transmission, and
the recipients, can only be speculated on.
Apart from the recurring epithets devanampiya and piyadasi , Ashoka
describes himself as laja-magadhe (king of Magadha) (in the
Calcutta -Bairat Minor Rock Edict 3, also known as the Bhabru edict), and
mentions his capital city, Pataliputra (Rock Edict 5). The inscriptions
reflect certain practical aspects of governing a vast and variegated empire.
They occasionally touch on issues related to administration and taxation.
They suggest the existence of provincial administrations, name certain
cadres of officials, and express Ashoka’s desire for administrative
efficiency. They contain exhortations to of ficials to perform their job
conscientiously and efficiently, and announce the backing of the
exhortations by surveillance measures. They also allude to the problem of
incomplete political consolidation and the problems posed to the empire
by forest tribes .
Certain inscriptions refer to the king’s concern for justice. For instance,
Separate Rock Edict 1, addressed to officers known as the nagala
viyohalakas , raises the problem of people suffering as a result of unfair
imprisonment and harsh treatment, and e xhorts officials to deal with all
such cases with fairness and impartiality. Justice is discussed in greater
detail in Pillar Edict 4, which instructs officers known as the rajuka s to
mete rewards and punishment fairly and fearlessly, and asserts that ther e
should be impartiality ( samata ) in judicial proceedings and punishment. munotes.in

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Pillar Edict 4 also announces a three -day respite to prisoners condemned
to death, in order to give their relatives time to appeal the sentence; and, if
this failed, to give the pris oners time to distribute gifts or undertake fasts
to attain happiness in the next world. This indicates that although Ashoka
sought to temper the
violence inherent in
capital punishment, he
did not abolish the death
penalty, in spite of his
strong commitm ent to
nonviolence.
Some of Ashoka’s
inscriptions reflect his
deep faith in Buddhism
and his close
relationship with the
Buddhist monastic Order, known as the sangha . In Minor Rock Edict 1,
the king states that he had been a lay follower of the Buddha’s te aching for
over two and a half years, but confesses that he had initially not made
much progress. He goes on to state that since a little over the past year, he
had drawn closer to the Order and those gods and men had come to mingle
due to his zealous effo rts. In the Calcutta -Bairat Minor Rock Edict 3
(Bhabru edict), Ashoka addresses the Buddhist Order and announces his
deep faith in the Buddha, the dhamma and the sangha . This edict goes on
to state that what was said by the Buddha was well -said, and descri bes the
Buddha's teachings as the true dhamma. It lists six Buddhist sermons
on dhamma that Ashoka recommends that the laity and monks and nuns
should listen to and reflect on. The king announces in Rock Edict 8 that
his dhamma tours began after his pilgri mage to Bodh Gaya, the place of
the Buddha’s enlightenment. Ashoka's allegiance to Buddhism is also
displayed by a pillar inscription at Lumbini, where he records his visit to
this place 20 years after his consecration; he announces the erection of a
pillar and a wall, and certain tax concessions to the village, as the Buddha
was born here. His Buddhist faith is also evident from the NigaliSagar
pillar inscription, which announces his enlargement of a stupa dedicated to
Buddha Kanakamuni 14 years after his consecration; it also states that this
stone pillar was erected after he visited and worshipped at this place,
20 years after his consecration. The imperious tone of the
Minor Pillar Edict 1 (also known as the “Schism edict” ), warns monks and
nuns against creating dissension in the sangha , and suggests that Ashoka
exercised considerable authority over the Buddhist monastic Order.
However, the single most important theme in the inscriptions of Ashoka
is dhamma (the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit dharma ), which can be
understood as morality, virtue or goodness. The Aramaic inscriptions use
the words dāta and qš in place of dhamma; the Greek inscriptions
use eusebeia.
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5.4 THE PROPAGATION OF DHAMMA :
Inscriptions were an important part of Ashoka’s agenda for the
propagation of dhamma . But literacy levels must have been low at the
time, and the fact that the inscriptions were often inscribed high up on
rocks and pillars, far b eyond eye
level, meant that they would often
have been difficult to read, even for
a literate person. The references in
the inscriptions to speaking and
hearing the dhamma message
indicate oral dissemination.
Officials were instructed to spread
the king’s dhamma among the
people and a special cadre of
officers known as the dhamma -
mahamata s was established
thirteen years after Ashoka’s
consecration, for this precise
purpose. The king himself moved
around the countryside, instructing
his subjects
in dhamma . Minor Rock Edict 1
tells us that he had spent 256 nights
(and days) on tour, no doubt busy
spreading dhamma. This indicates Ashoka’s obsessive engagement with
the propagation of dhamma , an obsession that seems to have continued
throughout his long reign.
Ashoka had the idea of a political empire and moral empire, the latter
encompassing the former. His understanding of his constituency extended
beyond his political subjects to include all living beings, humans and
animals, living within and beyond his po litical domain. His inscriptions
express his paternalistic idea of kingship and describe his welfare
measures, which included the provision of medical treatment, the planting
of herbs, trees and roots for men and animals, and the digging of wells
along roa ds (Major Rock Edict 2). The king’s dhamma propagation
activities were not restricted to his own political domain, but extended into
the kingdoms of other rulers.
Ashoka recognized the close connections between the individual, society,
king and state. His dhamma can be understood as morality, goodness or
virtue, and the imperative to pursue it gave it the sense of duty. The
inscriptions explain that dhamma included self -control, purity of thought,
liberality, gratitude, firm devotion, truthfulness, guarding one’s speech,
and moderation in expenditure and possessions. Dhamma also had a social
aspect - it included obedience to parents; respect for elders; courtesy and
liberality toward Brahmanas and renunciants; courtesy to slaves and
servants; and liberality toward friends, acquaintances and relatives. munotes.in

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Nonviolence, involving an abstention from injuring or killing any living
being, was an important aspect of Ashoka’s dhamma . The non -killing of
living beings is described as part of the good (Rock Edict 11), alo ng with
gentleness towards them (Rock Edict 9). Rock Edict 4 refers to the
increase in various vices in the past, including in the injury and killing of
living beings; it asserts that the promotion of dhamma by the king had led
to an unprecedented promotio n of the non -injury and non -killing of living
beings and other virtues. The emphasis on nonviolence was accompanied
by the advocacy of a positive attitude of caring, gentleness and
compassion.
According to the concept
of karma , all actions have
consequenc es across several lives.
This concept is not mentioned
explicitly in Ashoka’s
inscriptions, but it is implied. The
ideas of merit and demerit are
mentioned frequently. It is
presumed that all individuals
desire to achieve happiness in this
life and the nex t. Ashoka’s argument is that following dhamma leads to
the accumulation of merit, and this yields beneficial results in this life and
the next, as well as the attainment of heaven. Not following dhamma leads
to grave danger, sin, and demerit. In Ashoka’s v iew, he as king had an
obligation to ensure the happiness and welfare of all beings, in this life and
the next. This is why making people good was central to his political
agenda.
Ashoka’s Attitude Towards Animals : As mentioned above, Ashoka
included all living beings in his moral constituency and, therefore, when
he talks of nonviolence, he means nonviolence towards all living beings,
including humans as well as wild an d domesticated animals. His
inscriptions mention a series of prohibitions against injuring or killing
animals.Rock Edict 1 refers to the king’s attempts to curb the killing of
animals in sacrifices; in certain popular festive gatherings known
as samaja s; and in the royal kitchen. It reveals that although the
consumption of meat in the palace was reduced, it was not completely
eliminated. In Rock Edict 8, Ashoka announces that he had replaced the
royal pleasure tours, which must have involved hunting, by dhamma tours.
Ashoka was opposed not only to the royal hunt, but also to hunting as a
subsistence activity. This is implied in his general exhortations not to kill
any living beings, and in the claims made in one of the Laghman Aramaic
inscriptions and the Sh ar-i-Kuna Greek -Aramaic edict, that due to the
king's propagation of dhamma , hunters had stopped hunting and fishermen
had stopped fishing .
Ashoka’s exhortations against injuring animals and humans are
accompanied by announcements of positive welfare measu res undertaken
for both. As mentioned above, Rock Edict 2 announces that the king had
provided medical treatment for men and for animals; the planting of munotes.in

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119
medicinal herbs, roots and fruits; the digging of wells on roads; and the
planting of trees. He states that he had done all this for the benefit of
humans and animals, and not only in his own kingdom, but also in
bordering principalities, such as those of the Cholas, Pandyas,
Satiyaputras, Keralaputras, Tamraparni, the Yavana king Antiochus, and
the latter ’s neighbours.
The most detailed statement about animal protection occurs in
Pillar Edict 5, which lists a series of prohibitions that were issued 26 years
after the king’s consecration, in the later part of his reign. This includes a
list of various type s of birds, fish, insects and mammals (the identification
of some of the terms is problematic) that were not to be killed. These were
all wild, and Ashoka states that the ban on killing also applied to all four -
footed animals that were
useless from the poi nt of
view of human use and
were not eaten. Pregnant or
lactating she -goats, ewes
and sows were not to be
killed, nor were their young
ones younger than
six months. The killing of
animals hunted in the
elephant -forests ( naga -
vana s) was banned, and so was t he killing and selling of fish in the
fishermen’s preserves. Husk containing living animals was not be burnt.
Forests were not to be burnt needlessly or in order to kill living beings.
Living beings were not be fed with other living beings. Cocks were not to
be castrated. Bulls, goats, rams and boar were not to be castrated on
certain specific days. Horses and bulls were not to be branded on certain
days. The inscription suggests the regulation, mitigation and ritualization
of nonviolence towards animals to coincide with certain auspicious days in
the lunar calendar. It has been suggested that these injunctions aimed at
preventing excessive forest clearance and curbing shifting cultivation; or
that they were a reaction against forest people who were impeding the
state’s appropriation of forest wealth. Whatever the practical motives may
have been, these injunctions were rooted in Ashoka’s strong moral
commitment to nonviolence towards all forms of life. They would, no
doubt, have been extremely difficult to ef fectively implement.
The Arguments Against War : The politically most significant aspect of
Ashoka’s commitment to nonviolence was his renunciation of war. In the
ancien t world, a king’s martial achievements were considered extremely
important. But in Rock Edict 4, Ashoka states that due to his practice
of dhamma , the call of dhamma had replaced the sound of the war
drum . In Rock Edict 10, he states that he only valued fa me that arose from
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The most detailed critique of war is found in Rock Edict 13. This mentions
a war fought by Ashoka against the kingdom of Kalinga in eastern India,
after eight years had elapsed since the king’s consecration. The war was
won by the Maurya army, but the event apparently led the emperor to
reflect on the terrible and widespread consequence of warfare. The
inscription describes the massiveness of the death, capture and deportation
that were pa rt of the Kalinga war, giving rhetorical figures; it also talks of
the king’s remorse in the aftermath of the victory. This is followed by
certain general reflections on war.
Ashoka observes that in war, people
experience injury, capture and death.
What he considered even more painful is
the fact that Brahmanas and renunciants,
members of various sects, and
householders, who practice obedience to
superiors, obedience to mother and
father, obedience to elders, proper
courtesy and firm devotion to friends,
acquaintances, companion and kin, as
also to slaves and servants, suffered
indirectly through the injury, killing or
deportation of their loved ones. The
suffering caused by war extended far
beyond those who suffered directly and
included the emotional pain suffered by
those who held them dear. In Ashoka’s
opinion, it was especially regrettable when such suffering was experienced
by good people.
Rock Edict 13 also announces the replacement of military victory by a
new kind of victory called dhamma -vijaya (“victory through dhamma ”),
which consisted of propagating dhamma . Ashoka asserts that he had won
this victory in his own domain, among the Yavanas, Kambojas, Nabhakas,
Nabhapanktis, Bhojas, Pitinikas, Andhras and Pulindas. He also claims to
have won this vic tory in the dominion of the Yavana (Greek) king
Antiyoka; beyond that, in the kingdoms of Turamaya, Antikini, Maka and
Alikasudara; and towards the south, in the domain of the Cholas and
Pandyas, stretching as far south as Tamraparni. The identification of some
of these terms is problematic. However, the Yavanas, Kambojas and
Gandharas can be placed in the northwest; the Bhojas, Rishtikas, Andhras
and Pulindas can be located in trans -Vindhyan India; Tamaraparni is Sri
Lanka. Antiyoka can be identified with Antiochus II Theos of Syria;
Turamaya with Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt; Antikini with Antigonus
Gonatas of Macedonia; Maka with Magas of Cyrene in north Africa; and
Alikasudara with Alexander of Epirus or Alexander of Corinth.
Although Rock Edict 13 a nnounces the abjuring of fresh military
campaigns, it does not abjure the use of force to suppress recalcitrant
forest people and forest chieftains ( aavi ). The inscription closes with a
statement that this inscription on dhamma had been inscribed so that the
king’s sons and grandsons should not think of a fresh military campaign; munotes.in

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121 but that if they did, they should be merciful and inflict little force or
punishment. They should consider victory through dhamma as the only
victory, because this was of value in this world and the next.
5.5 THE NATURE OF ASHOKA’S DHAMMA :
While the specific elements of the dhamma of Ashoka's inscriptions are
clear enough, its general nature is the subject of scholarly debate. It has
been variously understood as a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico -moral
ideas that are found in various Bra hmanical and Buddhist texts, a sort of
universal religion, or an Ashokan innovation. The dhamma policy has also
been seen as an ideology that sought to legitimize Ashoka’s rule and
consolidate the empire.
As mentioned above, Ashoka’s faith in the Buddha’s teaching and his
position of authority vis -à-vis the Buddhist Order are clear from certain
inscriptions. There is also a close resemblance between the code of
conduct prescribed in Ashoka’s inscriptions and that prescribed for the
laity in Buddhist texts s uch as the Sigalovada Sutta. But although
the dhamma Ashoka talks incessantly about in his inscriptions was no
doubt rooted in his personal religious beliefs, it was not identical to
Buddhism. The doctrinal vocabulary of Buddhism, including the supreme
goal of nibbana (deliverance from the cycle of birth and death), is absent.
In fact, the key metaphysical ideas underlying Ashoka’s politico -moral
discourse (rebirth, karma, merit, heaven) cut across and went beyond
religious and sectarian divisions. The idea of nonviolence was an
important part of the ethics of Buddhism, Jainism and the Ajivikas. The
fact that the dhamma of the inscriptions was not exclusively connected
with a particular sect is clear from the statement in Rock Edict 7 that all
sects have in common an emphasis on self -control and purity of mind. At
the same time, there is a recognition of the existence of sectarian conflict.
In Rock Edict 12, Ashoka expresses his desire for a growth of the
essentials of all sects and for courteous, open -minded dialogue and
concord ( samavaya ) among them.
While Buddhist legends across Asia herald Ashoka as a paradigmatic
Buddhist king, his inscriptions tell a more complex story. They indicate
that he did not seek to create a Buddhist state, but a moral one.
The dhamma of Ashoka’s inscriptions was a new idiosyncratic synthesis,
rooted in his deep personal faith in Buddhism, but broadened to include
his own reflections on individual, social and political ideals and goals.
Metaphysics, ethics and politics were combin ed in a unique way, and the
king propagated this synthesis - which he called dhamma - through an
elaborately organized propaganda campaign.
Although virtues such as self -control and nonviolence are emphasized in
several early Indian traditions, what is uniq ue is that Ashoka made
morality the cornerstone of his political philosophy and policy. The
inscriptions suggest that his ambitious aim was the moral transformation
of all humankind. At the same time, he recognized that ethical principles
could not be impl emented in an absolute form and had to be tempered by munotes.in

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122
pragmatism. In spite of his commitment to nonviolence, he did not abolish
the death penalty; and although he renounced war, he warned the forest
people and those living on his borders that if required, he would not
hesitate to use force against them.
Ashoka’s Legacy : Ashoka’s inscriptions are a valuable contemporary
source of information on the political ideas and pra ctice of this king, as
well as for the history of the Maurya dynasty and empire. The contents of
these inscriptions have formed the basis of several historical debates. For
instance, Ashoka’s emphasis on nonviolence, especially his pacifistic
anti-war stan ce, has been cited by some scholars as a reason for the
weakening of the military backbone of the Maurya empire.
Ashoka’s dhamma has been seen as an ideology that sought to weld
together the vast and variegated Maurya empire, and which ultimately
failed in doing so.
Ashoka seems to have considered his dhamma policy a great success. In
Pillar Edicts 1 and 7, he announces that due to his exertions, adherence to
the tenets of dhamma had increased dramatically. Although this suggests
his own exaggerated assessm ent of his impact, Ashoka does seem to have
had another sort of important impact. He may have played an important
role in plucking the concept of dhamma /dharma out of religious discourse,
redefining it by inserting social and ethical content, thereby makin g
morality a central political, social and cultural issue in Indian thought.
The rocks and pillars
on which Ashoka had
his inscriptions
inscribed had an
interesting after -life.
For instance, the
Girnar rock, which
bears the king’s set of
14 Rock Edicts, a lso
has a 2nd century
inscription of the
Shaka Kshatrapa king
Rudradaman and a
5th century inscription of the Gupta king Skandagupta. The Delhi -Topra
and Delhi -Meerut pillars (which also bear medieval inscriptions) were
relocated from Topra and Meerut to D elhi by the Sultan
Firuz Shah Tughluq in the 14th century. The new locations they were
assigned in Delhi - in the royal citadel, opposite the congregational
mosque, and near the royal hunting lodge respectively - indicate that the
pillars had special symbo lic significance for the medieval Sultan, even
though the writing of the old inscriptions could no longer be read. There
are reports of Ashoka’s pillars being associated in local traditions with the
heroes of the Mahabharata epic, as well as of fragments o f Ashokan
pillars being worshipped as emblems of the god Shiva known as linga s. munotes.in

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123 The ideas and emblems associated with Ashoka have had, and continue to
have, a great importance in independent India. This is most evident in the
fact that the capital of Ashok a’s Sarnath pillar, crowned by four lions
sitting back -to-back, is the national emblem of India. Ashoka’s ideas,
expressed in his inscriptions, especially those related to morality,
nonviolence and pacifism, continue to have relevance in the modern
world.
AUTHOR :Upinder Singh , University of Delhi, India
**Photos of Asokan Inscriptions and sites - Dr. Yojana Bhagat
5.6 SUMMARY:
The inscriptions of emperor Ashoka (reigned c. 268-232 BCE) are an
important source for the history of his reign and the Maurya empire
(c. 324-187 BCE). The oldest large corpus of royal inscriptions in the
Indian subcontinent, they are unique in their style and content, and form a
rich source of in formation on Ashoka’s political ideas and practice. They
throw light on some aspects of Ashoka’s administration and on his
relationship with Buddhism, but are most eloquent in discussing dhamma ,
which can be understood as morality, virtue or goodness.
This dhamma was rooted in Ashoka’s faith in Buddhism, but was not
identical to it. While the attempt to harness politics to ethics is not unique
in the ancient world, what are unique are the primacy that Ashoka attached
to the propagation of morality within an d beyond his empire, and the
importance of nonviolence in his political thought and practice, especially
his measures for the protection of animals and his renunciation of war .
Check your progress:
1. Who deciphered the Brahmi script?
2. What is the import ance Lumbini Pillar inscription of Asoka ?

5.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS :
 Write a note on - importance of Asokan inscriptions in writing of
history of Buddhism.
 Explain the geographical locations of the Major, Minor rock
inscriptions and Pillar inscriptions of Aso ka.
 Write in short, the content of the 14 major rock inscriptions of Asoka
and discuss Kalinga inscriptions.
 Discuss - role of Asoka in propagation of Buddhism as seen through
inscriptions .



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124 5.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS:
 Alexander Cunningham - Inscriptions of Asoka

 Radhakumud Mukherji - Asoka

 D C Sirkar -Inscriptions of Asoka

 Upinder Singh - Buddhism in Asia: Revival and Reinvention,

 Romila Thapar - Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas

 Ven. S Dhammika -The Edicts of King Asoka - Access to Insight
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/dhammika/wheel386.html




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125 6
SIX BUDDHIST COUNCILS
Unit Struct ure:
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Importance of Six Buddhist Councils
6.3 Summary
6.4 Unit End Questions
6.5 Additional Reading
6.0 OBJECTIVES
 To study the authenticity of the buddhavacana and th e tradition which
preserved it.
 To understand the development of the Pali literature from the oral
tradition to the most modern form of digital pali sources.
 To know how the teachings of buddha reached the different parts of
the world and how it is preserv ed by the traditional sangha till date.
 To note the historical evidence of the teachings of the Buddha from the
Literary tradition.
6.1 INTRODUCTION:
Since the passing away ( Parinibbana ) of Gautama Buddha, several
Buddhist councils ( dhamma sangayana ) have been held in countries such
as India, Myanmar (Burma) and Sri Lanka. In Buddhist literature, at least
six such Buddhist councils have been recorded within the Theravada
tradition of Buddhism practised mainly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand,
Cambodia and La os. The purpose of these Buddhist councils, usually
attended by an assembly of hundreds of learned and elderly Buddhist
monks, has been to recite and discuss the Theravada Buddhist Pali Canon
in order to clarify and maintain the purity of the Buddha’s teac hing and /or
to address issues pertaining to monastic discipline and differing doctrinal
approaches.
The six Buddhist councils that have been held and recorded within the
Theravada Buddhist tradition are:
1. First Buddhist council held in India circa 483 BC
2. Second Buddhist council held in India circa 383 BC
3. Third Buddhist council held in India circa 250 BC munotes.in

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4. Fourth Buddhist council held in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the 1st century
BC
5. Fifth Buddhist council held in Burma (Myanmar) in 1871 AD
6. Sixth Buddhist council he ld in Burma (Myanmar) from 1954 to 1956
AD
6.2 IMPORTANCE OF SIX BUDDHIST COUNCILS:
The six Buddhist Councils according to the Theravada tradition are as
follows -
6.2.1 The First Council: King Ajātasattu sponsored the First Council. It
was convened in 544 B.C. in the Sattaparānī Cave situated outside
Rājagaha three months after the Buddha had passed away. A detailed
account of this historic meeting can be found in the Cūllavagga of the
Vina ya Pi aka. According to this record the incident which prompted the
Elder Mahākassapa to call this meeting was his hearing a disparaging
remark about the strict rule of life for monks. This is what happened. The
monk Subhadda, a former barber, who had orda ined late in life, upon
hearing that the Buddha had expired, voiced his resentment at having to
abide by all the rules for monks laid down by the Buddha. Many monks
lamented the passing of the Buddha and were deeply grieved. However,
the Elder Mahākassapa heard Subhadda say: ``Enough your Reverences,
do not grieve, do not lament. We are well rid of this great recluse (the
Buddha). We were tormented when he said, `this is allowable to you, this
is not allowable to you' but now we will be able to do as we lik e and we
will not have to do what we do not like''. Mahākassapa was alarmed by his
remark and feared that the Dhamma and the Vinaya might be corrupted
and not survive intact if other monks were to behave like Subhadda and
interpret the Dhamma and the Vinay a rules as they pleased. To avoid this
he decided that the Dhamma must be preserved and protected. T o this end
after gaining the Sa gha's approval he called to council five hundred
Arahants. Ānanda was to be included in this provided he attained
Arahanthood by the time the council convened. With the Elder
Mahākassapa presiding, the five -hundred Arahant monks met in council
during the rainy season. The first thing Mahākassapa did was to question
the foremost expert on
the Vinaya of the day,
Venerable Upāli on
particulars of the
monastic rule. This
monk was well
qualified for the task as
the Buddha had taught
him the whole of the
Vinaya himself. First of
all the Elder
Mahākassapa asked him specifically about the ruling on the first offense
[pārājika], with rega rd to the subject, the occasion, the individual munotes.in

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127 introduced, the proclamation, the repetition of the proclamation, the
offense and the case of non -offense. Upāli gave knowledgeable and
adequate answers and his remarks met with the unanimous approval of the
presiding Sa gha. Thus the Vinaya was formally approved.
First Buddhist Council (around the 5th century BC) at Rajagaha , the
current Rajgir , Nava Jetavana Park , Shravasti , Uttar Pradesh . Photograph
of murals in the Nava Jetavana temple.
The Elder Mahākassapa then turned his attention to Ānanda in virtue of
his reputable expertise in all matters connected with the Dhamma.
Happily, the night before the Council was to meet, Ānanda had attained
Arahantship and joined the Council. The Elder Ma hākassapa, therefore,
was able to question him at length with complete confidence about the
Dhamma with specific reference to the Buddha's sermons. This
interrogation on the Dhamma sought to verify the place where all the
discourses were first preached and the person to whom they had been
addressed. Ānanda, aided by his word -perfect memory was able to answer
accurately and so the Discourses met with the unanimous approval of the
Sagha. The First Council also gave its official seal of approval for the
closu re of the chapter on the minor and lesser rules, and approval for their
observance. It took the monks seven months to recite the whole of the
Vinaya and the Dhamma and those monks sufficiently endowed with good
memories retained all that had been recited. This historic first council
came to be known as the Panc ācasatika because five -hundred fully
enlightened Arahants had taken part in it.
6.2.2 The Second Council: The Second Council was called one hundred
years after the Buddha's Parinibbā a in order to settle a serious dispute
over the `ten points . This is a re ference to some monks breaking of ten
minor rules. they were given to:
1. Storing salt in a horn.
2. Eating after midday.
3. Eating once and then going again to a village for alms.
4. Holding the Uposatha Ceremony with monks dwelling in the same
localit y.
5. Carrying out official acts when the assembly was incomplete.
6. Following a certain practice because it was done by one's tutor or
teacher.
7. Eating sour milk after one had his midday meal.
8. Consuming strong drink before it had been fermented.
9. Using a rug which was not the proper size.
10. Using gold and silver. munotes.in

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History of Budd hism
128 Their misdeeds became an issue and caused a major controversy as
breaking these rules was thought to contradict the Buddha's original
teachings. King Kā āsoka was the Second Council's patron and the
meeting took place at Vesāli due to the following circumstances. One day,
whilst visiting the Mahāvana Grove at Veāsli, the Elder Yasa came to
know that a large group of monks known as the Vajjians were infringing
the rule which prohibited monk's accepting gold and silver by openly
asking for it from their lay devotees. He immediately criticized their
behavior and their response was to offer him a share of their illegal gains
in the hope that he would be won over. The Elder Yasa, however dec lined
and scorned their behavior. The monks immediately sued him with a
formal action of reconciliation, accusing him of having blamed their lay
devotees. The Elder Yasa accordingly reconciled himself with the lay
devotees, but at the same time, convinced them that the Vijjian monks had
done wrong by quoting the Buddha's pronouncement on the prohibition
against accepting or soliciting for gold and silver. The laymen
immediately expressed their support for the Elder Yasa and declared the
Vajjian monks to the wrong -doers and heretics, saying ``the Elder Yasa
alone is the real monk and Sākyan son. All the others are not monks, not
Sākyan sons''.
The Stubborn and unrepentant Vajjian monks then moved to suspend the
Venerable Yasa Thera without the approval of the rest of the Sa gha
when they came to know of the outcome of his meeting with their lay
devotees. The Elder Yasa, however escaped their censure and went in
search of support from monks elsewhere, who upheld his orthodox views
on the Vinaya. Sixty forest dwelling monks from Pāvā and eighty monks
from the southern regions of Avan ti who were of the same view, offered to
help him to check the corruption of the Vinaya. Together they decided to
go to Soreyya to consult the Venerable Revata as he was a highly revered
monk and an expert in the Dhamma and the Vinaya. As soon as the
Vajji an monks came to know this they also sought the Venerable Revata's
support by offering him the four requisites which he promptly refused.
These monks then sought to use the same means to win over the
Venerable Revata's attendant, the Venerable Uttara. At f irst he too, rightly
declined their offer but they craftily persuaded him to accept their offer,
saying that when the requisites meant for the Buddha were not accepted by
him, Ānanda would be asked to accept them and would often agree to do
so. Uttara chan ged his mind and accepted the requisites. Urged on by them
he then agreed to go and persuade the Venerable Revata to declare that the
Vajjian monks were indeed speakers of the Truth and upholders of the
Dhamma. The Venerable Revata saw through their ruse a nd refused to
support them. He then dismissed Uttara. In order to settle the matter once
and for all, the Venerable Revata advised that a council should be called at
Vāikārāma with himself asking questions on the ten offenses of the most
senior of the Eld ers of the day, the Thera Sabbjakāmi. Once his opinion
was given it was to be heard by a committee of eight monks, and its
validity decided by their vote. The eight monks called to judge the matter
were the Venerables Sabbakāmi, sa ha, Khujjasobhita and Vās abhagāmika,
from the East and four monks from the West, the Venerables Revata, munotes.in

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129 Sambhuta -Sāavāsī, Yasa and Sumana. They thoroughly debated the matter
with Revata as the questioner and sabbakāmī answering his questions.
After the debate was heard the eight m onks decided against the Vajjian
monks and their verdict was announced to the assembly. Afterwards
seven -hundred monks recited the Dhamma and Vinaya and this recital
came to be known as the Sattasatī because seven -hundred monks had
taken part in it. This h istoric council is also called, the Yasatthera Sangīti
because of the major role the Elder Yasa played in it and his zeal for
safeguarding the Vinaya. The Vajjian monks categorically refused to
accept the Council's decision and in defiance called a council of there own
which was called the Mahāsa giti.
6.2.3 The Third Council: The Third Council was held primarily to rid the
Sagha of corruption and bogus monks who held heretical views. The
Council was convened in 326 B.C. At Asokārāma in Pa aliputta under
the patronage of Emperor Asoka. It was presided over by the Elder
Moggaliputta Tissa and one thousand monks participated in this Council.
Tradition has it that Asoka had won his throne through shedding the blood
of all his father's son's save his own brothe r, Tissa Kumāra who eventually
got ordained and achieved Arahantship.
Asoka was crowned in the two hundred and eighteenth year after the
Buddha's Mahaparinibbāna. At first he paid only token homage to the
Dhamma and the Sa gha and also supported members of other religious
sects as his father had done before him. However, all this changed when
he met the pious novice -monk Nigrodha who preached him the
Appamāda -vagga. Thereafter he ceased supporting other religious groups
and his interest in and devotion to th e Dhamma deepened. He used his
enormous wealth to build, it is said, eighty -four thousand pagodas and
vihāras and to lavishly support the Bhikkhus with the four requisites. His
son Mahinda and his daughter Sa ghamitt ā were ordained and admitted to
the Sa gha. Eventually, his generosity was to cause serious problems
within the Sa gha. In time the order was infiltrated by many unworthy
men, holding heretical views and who were attracted to the order because
of the Emperor's generous support and costly offerin gs of food, clothing,
shelter and medicine. Large numbers of faithless, greedy men espousing
wrong views tried to join the order but were deemed unfit for ordination.
Despite this they seized the chance to exploit the Emperor's generosity for
their own end s and donned robes and joined the order without having been
ordained properly. Consequently, respect for the Sa gha diminished.
When this came to light some of the genuine monks refused to hold the
prescribed purification or Uposatha ceremony in the compan y of the
corrupt, heretical monks.
When the Emperor heard about this he sought to rectify the situation and
dispatched one of his ministers to the monks with the command that they
perform the ceremony. However, the Emperor had given the minister no
specifi c orders as to what means were to be used to carry out his
command. The monks refused to obey and hold the ceremony in the
company of their false and `thieving' companions [theyyasinivāsaka]. In
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130
and drawing his sword, beheaded all of them one after the other until he
came to the King's brother, Tissa who had been ordained. The horrified
minister stopped the slaughter and fled the hall and reported back to the
Emperor Asoka was deeply grie ved and upset by what had happened and
blamed himself for the killings. He sought Thera Moggaliputta Tissa's
counsel. He proposed that the heretical monks be expelled from the order
and a third Council be convened immediately. So it was that in the
sevente enth year of the Emperor's reign the Third Council was called.
Thera Moggaliputta Tissa headed the proceedings and chose one thousand
monks from the sixty thousand participants for the traditional recitation of
the Dhamma and the Vinaya, which went on for nine months. The
Emperor, himself questioned monks from a number of monasteries about
the teachings of the Buddha. Those who held wrong views were exposed
and expelled from the Sa gha immediately. In this way the Bhikkhu
Sagha was purged of heretics and b ogus bhikkhus.
This council achieved a number of other important things as well. The
Elder Moggaliputta Tissa, in order to refute a number of heresies and
ensure the Dhamma was kept pure, complied a book during the council
called the Kathāvatthu. This bo ok consists of twenty -three chapters, and is
a collection of discussion (kathā) and refutations of the heretical views
held by various sects on matters philosophical. It is the fifth of the seven
books of the Abhidhamma Pi aka. The members of the Council a lso gave
a royal seal of approval to the doctrine of the Buddha, naming it the
Vibhajjavāda, the Doctrine of Analysis. It is identical with the approved
Theravāda doctrine. One of the most significant achievements of this
Dhamma assembly and one which was to bear fruit for centuries to come,
was the Emperor's sending forth of monks, well versed in the Buddha's
Dhamma and Vinaya who could recite all of it by heart, to teach it in nine
different countries. These Dhammadūta monks included the Venerable
Majjhan tika Thera who went to Kashmir and Gandhāra. He was asked to
preach the Dhamma and establish an order of monks there. The Venerable
Mahādeva was sent to Mahinsakama aa (modern Mysore) and the
Venerable Rakkhita Thera was dispatched to Vanavāsī (northern Kanara
in the south of India.) The Venerable Yonaka Dhammarakkhita Thera was
sent to Upper Aparantaka (northern Gujarat, Kathiawar, Kutch and Sindh).
The Venerable Mahārakkhita Thera went to Yonaka -loka (the land of the
lonians, Bactrians and
the Greeks.) The
Venerable Majjhima
Thera went to
Himavanta (the place
adjoining the
Himalayas.) The
Venerable So a and the
Venerable Uttara were
sent to Suva abh ūmi
[now Myanmar]. The
Venerable Mahinda
Thera, The Venerable Ittiya Thera, the Venerable Uttiya Thera, t he munotes.in

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131
Venerable Sambala Thera and the Venerable Bhaddasāla Thera were sent
to Tambapa i (now Sri Lanka). The Dhamma missions of these monks
succeeded and bore great fruits in the course of time and went a long way
in ennobling the peoples of these lands with the gift of the Dhamma and
influencing their civilizations and cultures.With the spread of Dhamma
through the words of the Buddha, in due course India came to be known as
Visvaguru, the teacher of the world.
6.2.4 The Fourth Council: The Fourth Council w as held in Tambapa i
[Sri Lanka] in 29 B.C. under the patronage of King Va ag āmai. The
main reason for its convening was the realization that is was now not
possible for the majority of monks to retain the entire Tipi aka in their
memories as had been t he case formerly for the Venerable Mahinda and
those who followed him soon after. Therefore, as the art of writing had, by
this time developed substantially, it was thought expedient and necessary
to have the entire body of the Buddha's teaching written do wn. King
Vaag āmai supported the monk's idea and a council was held
specifically to reduce the Tipi aka in its entirety to writing. Therefore, so
that the genuine Dhamma might be lastingly preserved, the Venerable
Mahārakhita and five hundred monks recit ed the words of the Buddha and
then wrote them down on palm leaves.
This remarkable project
took place in a cave called,
the Āloka lena, situated in
the cleft of an ancient
landslip near what is now
Matale. Thus the aim of the
Council was achieved and
the preservation in writing
of the authentic Dhamma
was ensured. Later, in the
Eighteenth Century, King Vijayarājasīha had images of the Buddha
created in this cave.
6.2.5 The Fifth Council: The Fifth Council took place in Māndalay,
Burma now known as Myanmar in 1871 A.D. in the reign of King
Mindon. The chief objective of this meeting was to recite all the teachings
of the Buddha and examine them in minute detail to see if any of them had
been altered, distorted or dropped. It was presided over by three Elder s,
the Venerable Mahāthera Jāgarābhiva sa, the Venerable Narind ābhidhaja,
and the Venerable Mahāthera Suma galas āmi in the company of some
two thousand four hundred monks (2,400). Their joint Dhamma recitation
lasted for five months. It was also the work o f this council to cause the
entire Tipi aka to be inscribed for posterity on seven hundred and twenty -
nine marble slabs in the Myanmar script after its recitation had been
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History of Budd hism
132
This monumental
task was done by
some two thou sand
four hundred erudite
monks and many
skilled craftsmen
who upon
completion of each
slab had them
housed in beautiful
miniature `pi aka'
pagodas on a special
site in the grounds of
King Mindon's
Kuthodaw Pagoda at
the foot of Māndalay
Hill where this so
called `largest book
in the world', stands
to this day.
6.2.6 The Sixth Council: The Sixth Council was called at Kaba Aye in
Yangon, formerly Rangoon in 1954, eighty -three years after the fifth one
was held in Mandalay. It was sponsored by the Burmese Go vernment led
by the Prime Minister, the Honorable U Nu. He authorized the
construction of the Mahā Pāsāna Gūhā, the great cave that was built from
the ground up, to serve as the gathering place much like India's Sattapānni
Cave --the site of the first Dhamm a Council. Upon its completion, the
Council met on the 17th of May, 1954. As in the case of the preceding
councils, its first objective was to affirm and preserve the genuine
Dhamma and Vinaya. However it was unique in so far as the monks who
took part in it came from eight countries. These two thousand five hundred
learned Theravāda monks came from Myanmar, Cambodia, India, Laos,
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. The late Venerable Mahāsi
Sayadaw was appointed the noble task of asking the required qu estions
about the Dhamma of the Venerable Bhadanta Vicittasārābhiva sa
Tipiakadhara Dhammabha āgārika who answered all of them
learnedly and satisfactorily. By the time this council met, all the
participating countries had the Pāli Tipi aka rendered into their native
scripts, with the exception of India.The traditional recitation of the
Dhamma Scriptures took two years during which the Tipi aka and its
allied literature in all the scripts were painstakingly examined. Any
differences found were noted down, the necessary corrections were made
and all the versions were then collated. Happily, it was found that there
was not much difference in the content of any of the texts. Finally, after
the Council had officially approved them, all the volumes of the Tipi aka
and their Commentaries were prepared for printing on modern presses and
published in the Myanmar (Burmese) script. This notable achievement
was made possible through the dedicated efforts of the two thousand five
hundred monks and numerous lay people. Their work came to an end in munotes.in

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Six Buddhist Councils

133 May, 1956, two and a half millennia after the Lord attained Parinibbāna.
This council's work was the unique achievement of representatives from
the entire Buddhist world. The version of the Tipi aka which it undertook
to produc e has been recognized as being true to the pristine teachings of
Gotama the Buddha and the most authoritative rendering of them to date.
The volumes printed after the Sixth Sa gāyana were printed in Myanmar
script. In order to make the volumes to the peopl e of India, Vipassana
Research Institute starte d the project to print the Tipi aka with its
Ahakath ās and ikas in Devanagari in the year 1990.
This Cha ha Sag āyana CD -ROM which is a reproduction of the text
authenticated in the Sixth Sa gāyana is now being presented to the world
so that the words of the Buddha are easily made available to the devotees
and the scholars. The Cha ha Sag āyana CD -ROM can presently be
viewed in the following scripts Devanagari, Myanmar and Roman., Sri
Lankan, Thai and Mon gol scripts.
Source: Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion www.iiste.org ISSN
2422 -8443 An International Peer -reviewed Journal Vol.39, 2018 41
Buddhist Councils: Means and Ends for Clarity and Revitalization by
Tanka Prasad Pokharel.
Check your progr ess:
1. Where was the first Buddhist Council held?
2. What is the importance of Third Buddhist Council?

6.3 SUMMARY

The six Buddhist councils are studied for the authenticity of the Theravada
Buddhism and its literature the Tipitaka. The Tipitaka is the buddhavacana
and was preserved through the oral tradition in the beginning of the
Buddhist India and then written down in Sri Lanka in the first BCE.

The schism in the Sangha led to different schools of Buddhism and the
change in the language started taki ng place. The Pali was replaced by
Hybrid Sanskrit and eventually to Buddhist Sanskrit literature was studied munotes.in

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History of Budd hism
134 in India. The Pali language was almost lost from India as we know that
thera Buddhaghosa had to go to Sri Lanka to bring back the atthakatha in
the 5th CE.

Thus, Buddhism is seen to be declining in India therefore the need to
preserve the original teachings in Pali was very crucial and all the other
three Buddhist councils were held in countries like Sri Lanka and
Myanmar as the teachings of Buddh a was lost in India.

The six Buddhist councils of the Theravada tradition gives the
authenticity to the teachings of the Buddha and preserved the texts, so that
we received dhamma in the form of Pali literature from the Sri Lanka and
Myanmar.

6.4 UNIT E ND QUESTIONS :

 What is the relevance of the Buddhist councils in the preservation of
the teachings of the Buddha - Explain with the help of the first three
Buddhist councils?
 Write in short -the importance of the third Buddhist council in the
propagation of the dhamma.
 Is the sanghayana necessary for the preservation of the teachings of the
buddha? - Comment
 Who is the Tipitakadhara? What is the role of the chairman of the
Buddhist council? -Discuss.

6.5 ADDITIONAL READING

Wilhe lm Geiger English translatio n Mahavamsa -The great Chronicle of
Srilanka
Ven. Sujato: The Authenticity of the Early Buddhist Texts
Tanka Prasad Pokharel - Buddhist Councils: Means and Ends for Clarity
and Revitalization
Andre Bareau, ‘The Buddhist Sects of the Small Vehicle’
Nalinaksha Dutt, ‘Buddhist Sects in India,
Charles Prebish, A Review of Scholarship on the Buddhist Council
Journal of Asian Studies Vol. XXXIII No.2,
Bibhuti Baruah, ‘Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism’, 2000,




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135
7
BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Unit Struct ure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Buddhist Art
7.3 Buddhist Paintings
7.4 Buddhist Architecture
7.5 Summary
7.6 Unit End Questions
7.7 Additional Reading
7.0 OBJECTIVES:
The Buddhi st art and architecture is studied with the following objectives,
 To understand the relevance of Buddhist art and architecture in the
history of Buddhism.
 To study the role played by the art and architecture in the evolution
and development of Buddhism.
 To recognise the impact of the art and architecture on the Buddhist
history and its study
 To know the importance of the study of Buddhist art and architecture
in the development of Buddhist architecture all over the world.
7.1 INTRODUCTION:
The art is the expression or application of human
creative skill and imagination, typically in a visual
form such as painting or sculpture, producing works
to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or
emotional power. Buddhist art is primarily the
sculptures and paint ings influenced by the life and
teachings of the Buddha.

7.2 BUDDHIST ART:
The art work at the time of the buddha, though mentioned in the Pali
literature has not survived the time due to the perishable material like the
wood, clay in which it was made . Thus, the earliest Buddhist art in the munotes.in

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136
form of sculptures is of the Mauryan
period - the free standing monolithic
polished pillars with animal capitals
dating back to the 3rd BCE. The earliest
surviving paintings are seen at Ajanta
caves of Maharashtra o f the 2nd BCE.
Sculpture: Both types of sculptures, the
sculptures in relief and the freestanding
sculptures forms the authentic source of
Buddhist history. The earliest sculptures belong to the Mauryan period and
are the capitals and the crowning animal figures on the Asokan pillars.
The Lion capital of Sarnath, the Sankasya Elephant capital, the Rampurva
bull capital are some of the examples of the Maurayan sculptures which
has reached its zenith of perfection. Beside
the animal figures the sculptures o f this era
is also marked by the figures of Yaksha and
Yakshinis. The Didarganj yakshini with the
bright mauryan polish is said to be one of
the most beautiful freestanding sculptures of
the period.
It is a well -known fact that in the earlier
phase of Budd hism, Buddha was not
represented in the human form and was
worshipped in the symbolic forms. The
important events in the life of the Buddha are represented in the relief
sculptures where the Bodhi tree, the footprints, the stupa are the symbols
of the Budd ha himself, which is very well depicted in the Sanchi stupa.
The sculpture of
the Sunga period
shows the
evolution from the
archaic phase to
one of maturity
and is marked with
the sculptures on
the stone vedikas
and toranas o f
Bharhut, Sanchi
and Bodhgaya .
Jataka stories are very cleverly represented in a single carving but with the
method of continuous narration at the Bharhut stupa. This shows the
epitome of efficiency reached by the artist in that period.
The Satavahana sculpture is seen in the Nanegha t rock -cut excavation and
its evolution can be traced through the different rock -cut excavations like
the Bhaje, Karle, Pitalkhore, Bedse and so on. The figures on the capitals
or the donor couples at the chaityagruhas show the development of the
Buddhist sculptures reached at that period. munotes.in

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137
Kushana period is marked by the ‘Gandhara art’ phase and its most
important contribution to the Buddhist art was the creation of the Buddha
image. With the transition from Theravada to Mahayana the image of
Buddha appear ed in the Gandhara and the Mathura school simultaneously.
Buddha is represented in the human form for the first time in the history of
Buddhism. The Buddha images with the different mudras came along with
the bodhisattvas.
The Amaravati school of art flou rished in the south India at Amaravati
stupa and Nagarjunakonda valley. In subject matter, composition and
arrangement of figures, the Nagarjunakonda sculptures show slight
differences from those of the Amaravati, but both had great influence on
the later Indian sculptures flourished in the south India.
It is believed that the Gupta period marks the height of glory of the Indian
art. The representation of the human body in fully Indian and the mastery
over the refinement and technique is seen in the sculptu res. Though the
Gupta period is the revival of the Hindu period, the Buddhist and the Jaina
art flourished nevertheless. The Vakatakas, the allies of the Gupta, in their
reign is the art of the later Ajanta attributed.
After the Gupta dynasty the Buddhism art flourished under the Pala
dynasty. The art of this period marks the final phase of the classical Indian
tradition. Stone sculptures were replaced by the metal ones.
Remarks: the changing phases of the Buddhism are reflected through the
study of the sc ulptures through the ages. The earliest is marked with the
symbolic art and the image of the Buddha is never shown. Though the
bodhisattvas were shown they were depicted through the inspiring Jataka
tales fulfilling the paramitas or perfections.
The Mahaya na phase of Buddhism is marked with the introduction of
image of the Buddha in the sculptural art. This was supported by the
innumerable bodhisattva figures featuring on both sides of the Buddha
image.
Thus in short the study of sculptures is the source of the study of Buddhist
history directly as well as indirectly.


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7.3 BUDDHIST PAINTINGS:
There are innumerable references to painted decorations in the Jatakas and
other Buddhist literature. The earliest surviving examples of Buddhist
paintings, dating from 2nd cent B.C. are found in some of the rock -cut
Chetiyagharas and viharas at Ajanta in Maharashtra. A principle wall
painting of the period is in
Chetiyaghara -10 which is devoted to
the illustration of Chaddanta Jataka.
However, Buddhist painting seem s to
have attained its maturity only during
Gupta period (5th-6th cen A.D.) The
finest specimens of this period are to be
found in the caves at Bagh (central
India) and Ajanta. The mural paintings
in Ajanta contain representations of
scenes from Buddha’s l ives, from
Jataka tales etc. These stories are
represented in continuous narrative.
The mediaeval period in Eastern and
Western India was a period of intense
activity in manuscript writing. As the
authors of manuscript wanted to embellish their books with illustrations
the use of miniature paintings came into vogue. The miniature paintings of
Pala period prove to be consisting of Buddhist form of art.
These paintings throw a flood of light on the history of Ancient India.
They provide information about the people, their way of living, costumes,
jewellery, architecture and many other aspects. They give information of
social, political, cultural, and religious conditions existing during those
times.
7.4 BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE:
Definition of architecture: Arch itecture is the combination of art and
technology in designing functional spaces in aesthetic manner.
Qualities of Architecture: Ruskin in the 19th century called architecture
“Mother of all arts” and defined the three qualities of architecture as
UTILITY : STABILITY: BEAUTY. Thus architecture is seen, felt,
perceived, conceived and experienced.
Why the architecture is Buddhist? The architecture which is the
manifestation of the Buddhas’ Teachings in the concrete form is Buddhist
architecture. Many feature s, forms, spaces designed are distinct and
specific in structures developed with philosophy of Buddha making the
architecture Buddhist.

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139 Fundamentals of Buddhist Architecture:
 Buddhist architecture is totally religious : - The great architecture
Buddhism has produced shows that it was never a religion confined to
dogmas or rituals bounded by static forms, but shows growth and
continuous progress, through its different architectural elements.
 Buddhist architecture is symbolical: - Buddhist architecture has to
be understood from the context of the teachings, the philosophy, the
practical application of the philosophical teachings, which manifests
on your ‘own’ experience. The forms and the shapes used in the
architecture are the symbolic representation of the teachings, like a
stūpa in Buddhism is not just a monument but it is Buddha and
enlightenment itself.
 Buddhist architecture is transcendental: it goes beyond the mere
practical purpose and touches the unconsciousness of the mind. The
chetiyaghara is so de signed, so as to be useful for meditation.
 Continuity is seen in the development of Buddhist architecture
throughout the centuries: the spread of Buddhism throughout the
country and the new architecture coming out for the fulfilment, was
carried out for ce nturies together, from generation to generation.
 Buddhist architecture is foremost of the people, by the people and
for the people: -Buddhist architecture clearly gives a message, it
shows how it has sublimated through the bindings of structures and
develo ped into a culture, reaching the lowest strata of the society,
where even the commonest folk, following and experiencing the truth
of the teachings, can understand the significance and influence of the
structure constructed.
Buddhist architecture is thus r eligious in character and Stupa, Vihara and
Chetiyaghara are the main structures which represent it.
According to the geography and the material of construction the Buddhist
architecture of India can be broadly classified into two
1. Structural architect ure and
2. Rock -cut architecture.
STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE is the one which is constructed or
built from the material like mud, stone and bricks. Such architecture is
regularly seen in the north and south India. Mostly the remains of the
stupas, chetiyagh aras and viharas [only the foundations] are found as the
material is easily destructible with time.
ROCK -CUT ARCHITECTURE is the architecture which is cut or
excavated in the rock or mountain. There are about 1500 rock -cut
excavations in India and out of them 1200 are in Maharashtra of which
1000 are Buddhist. These large numbers of Buddhist rock -cut excavations
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south dividing Maharashtra into Konkan and Deccan Pathar. They are
dated from 2nd BCE to about 11th CE scattered in large and small 40
groups1, broadly classified into Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana.
Not ‘Caves’ but ‘Leni’: the rock -cut architecture is called ‘Leni’ or
‘Lenya’ in the local language of Maharashtra - Marathi. ‘Len a’ word is
derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Lavanya’ which means beauty. Thus the
rock-cut architecture in the bosom of the Sahyadri is like ornaments and
garlands that enhance the beauty (lavanya) of it. The names so aptly given
reveals the artistic bend o f the minds of our forefathers.2 On the other hand
Caves are natural grottoes in the
mountain and residences of wild animals.
Calling these architectural beauties as
‘caves’ is like insulting our ancestors, so
they should address properly.
These rock -cut excavations are very
strategically placed on the trade routes
climbing up from the konkan to the
pathar, as the traders and the merchants
were the chief donors and patrons of
these excavations. Care was also taken
that the leni -s are neither too close to n or
too far from the villages, as the monks
staying had to climb down every day for
their alms.
The development of the Buddhist rock -cut architecture can be very easily
traced from the excavations of Barabar hills in the 3rd cent B. C. to the
excavations a t Kanheri that dates to the 11th cent A.D. In the interim
period of 1400 or so years rock -cut architecture has been through different
phases of development, which can be classified into the spheres of art,
architecture, technology and many more.
The rock -cut architecture has evolved from the humble beginning of a
single excavation to the group of monasteries. The art of painting,

1The largest being the group at Junnar with nearly 190 excavations subdivided into four
groups on four hills. The next in size is the group at Kanheri -Mumbai with nearly 120
excavations. Karad with its 64 excavations is the third largest group of ex cavation. The
groups with excavations ranging from 20 to 30 and more are Ajanta, Ellora, Bhaje,
Thanale, Panhalekaji, Mahakali, Kuda, Pandavlena, Gandharpale. The groups with
excavations ranging between 8 to 20 are Karle, Bedse, Aurangabad, Pitalkhora, Kon dane,
Shirwal, Lohare -Wai, Shelarwadi, Jivdhani, Pandavdhara. There are many groups with
one or two excavations. Some are in very ruinous stage; they are Bhandara, Bhorgiri,
Yerphale, Pohale, Vasale, Hal, Kol, Chaul, Lonad, Chiplun, Khed and so on. There a re
rock-cut excavations in other states of India like Khambalida, Sana, Talaja in Gujarat,
Dhamner, Kolvi in Rajasthan, Bagh in Madhya Pradesh, Guntupalle, Sankaram in
Andhrapradesh and so on.

2Dr. (Mrs) Meena Talim -Buddhist Rock -cut Architecture - Its Tec hnique
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141
sculpture has also seen the apex of creativity and declined through the
centuries. All these changes are the part of development, which had taken
place in Buddhism evolving from Theravada - Hinayāna to Mahāyāna to
Vajrayāna, and then completely disappearing from India.
The rock -cut architecture is endowed with sculptures, paintings,
inscriptions in Brahmi script and Pali language and thus are unique in
themselves. The rain water harvesting seen in the rock -cut architecture is
seen as the developed technological feat of the time. The climatological
study was done while designing these rock -cut monuments as can be seen
through the prope r natural lighting through the chaitya arch into the
chaityagruha. The torrential rainfall of the Sahyadri is taken care of with
the help of the large verandahs in front of the excavations.
Excavated with just chisel and hammer these marvels in stone stood three
floor high, with the technology developing through ages. The knowledge
of the selection of the stone fit for chiselling is seen reflected through the
sites like Karle, Bhaje, Bedse, giving the depth of the understanding of
geology of the time.
Small features of the rock -cut architecture like the chaitya arch, evolved
from an opening to a grand arch and after becoming the symbolic feature
of Buddhism disappeared in a circle of a brick decoration. Similarly
evolution of columns, verandah, roof and ever y other feature of
architecture can be traced.
These excavations gives the history of the Buddhism through 2nd BCE to
12th CE and influenced the art and architecture of the south -east Asian
countries, as specially such rock -cut architecture is seen on the silk-route.
With the loss of Buddhism, the rock -cut architecture was almost most.

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142
TECHNIQUE OF ROCK -CUTTING (All drawings - Dr. Yojana Bhagat)

Once the location was decided, the
selection of the specific rock for the
excavation had to be searched for.
Having made it roughly vertical, the
gable end elevation of the structural
Chaitya hall was sketched on the
rock wall.


Parallel tunnels were then run to
the desired depth and timber
wedges driven vertically.





When moistened, these timber
wedges expanded and dislodged
large chunks of stone that were
removed.




With mere 6 mm chisels and
hammer as the only tool the
excavati on was carried on ceiling
downward.
After completing the ceiling the
down portion was excavated, thus
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143








Finished Chetiyaghara ready for meditation.
Stupa is the monumental structure adopted in Buddhist architecture,
which has a pre -historic origin in burial mounds. Stupas were built over
the remains of the dead even in pre -buddhist times, but they were built
outside the villages. When Buddha asked to build stupa on the remains of
the enlightened ones, he was specific about that they should be built at the
crossroads of the village and has to be worshipped with flowers. Thus
stupa no longer remained a structure associated with death outside the
village but became the place of worship and also the symbol of Buddha
and en lightenment.
With the development in material and technology of construction, the
stupa underwent considerable changes. The development in the
philosophy of Buddhism as per the different schools is also reflected the
changed stupa architecture.
Emperor A soka was a great patron of Buddhism and it is said that he built
84000 stupas. Archaeological evidences prove that most of the earlier
stupas have Mauryan origin or are renovated by Emperor Asoka. munotes.in

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144
Parts of Stūpa: Architecturally the basic stūpa consists of the medhi or
the base, the anda or the semicircular dome on the base, the rectangular or
square box on the anda called harmikā, and the chattra or umbrella on top
of the harmikā, placed with the help of the post called the yasti. The
circumambulatory pa th around the base, the vedikā railings around the
path, adorned by the gateways are the additional features seen in the
structural stūpas.
Types of Stūpa : Stūpas are broadly classified into
Sāririka stupa - As reliquary stūpas containing the chief corpor eal relics
of Gotama the Buddha, or in short the stupa built on the relics of the
Buddha. Stupa of Piprahwa -Kapilavattu, Dharmarajika stupa at Sarnath,
Mahastupa at Nagarjunakonda had relics of Buddha inside them.
Uddhesika stupa - As
commemorative stūpas
erected at places associated
with important event in the
life of the Buddha - like the
turning of the Wheel of
Law-
Dammacakkapavattana, or
the passing away -
Mahaparinibbana. Eg.
Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath
or Mukutabandhana stupa at Kusinara.
Paribhogika st upa- Stupa built on the objects used by the Buddha in his
lifetime, like stupa built on the pieces of the begging bowl at Sopara is the
paribhogika stupa.
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145
Vihara – the vihara is a residential place for the monks and nuns. The
origin of vihara can be tra ced back to the temporary structures erected by
the monks themselves for the rain retreat of three months in a particular
boundary and then dismantled by them. These structures are unique to
Buddhist architecture as they show the
discipline, code of conduc t as per the
Vinaya rule of the Buddhism, clearly
reflected in the architecture. The
systematic planning and layout of the
sites, even depicting the development of
Buddhism through the ages, as per the
changes in Buddhist philosophy and
characteristics, al so marks these.
The donations of lay followers of the
aramas or gardens with the structures for residence is the next stage of
development of the viharas. The
residential complexes or Viharas of the
Sangha in later Buddhism became the
universities of Budd hist studies like
Nalanda.The typical plan of the vihara
developed with time is, the rooms around
the central courtyard In case of structural
vihara the central courtyard would be
open to sky while in case of rock -cut vihara it is an enclosed space.
Chetiy aghara: “the house of the chetiya” is chetiyaghara. It is an
enclosed place for meditation and worship of the stupa. To study the
relationship between architecture and vipassana, study of chaityagruha is
very important.
The earlier chetiyagharas were circ ular in shape and the archaeological
finds of rock -cut as well as structural chetiyagharas in circular shapes with
stupa inside proves this. Buddhism adopted circular shape for the
chetiyaghara as it proved to be practically suitable as well as
philosophic ally and psychologically fulfilling the demands. The apsidal
planned vaulted roofed chetiyagharas developed from the circular ones
and can be clearly seen from the different phases it went through years.
The existence of the apsidal planned chetiyaghara p roved the existence of
vipassana meditation in the Sangha and the loss of the vipassana
meditation is seen with the change in the shape of the chetiyaghara which
became rectangular in plan. In the later date the chetiyaghara and vihara
was combined togethe r to develop a new element of chetiyaghara+vihara
which changed again with the introduction of image of the Buddha into
the vihara.
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146
The Development Of Circular Chetiyaghara To Rectangular
Chetiyaghara+Vihara Through Centuries . (Drawings - Dr. Yojana Bhag at)
This is a very basic introduction and information of the Buddhist
architecture.
7.5 SUMMARY:
A brief introduction to the Buddhist art and architecture is given to give
the glimpse of the vast treasure the ancient India has. The scientific study
of Bu ddhist art and architecture began in the late 18th CE with the coming
of the western scholars and is still continuously going on.
The rich Buddhist heritage and culture is reflected through the remains of
the Buddhist art and the advance technological dev elopment is seen in the
construction of the huge structural stupas and the excavation of gigantic
monuments in the rock.
Most of the credit to the construction of the stupa and vihara all over the
country goes to the emperor Asoka, as all the excavations of the stupa
definitely shows the presence of Asokan stupa inside. The Asokan stupa is
identified with the stone as the material of construction used by the
visionary emperor for the first time. The credit of excavating rock for the munotes.in

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147 first time as a place o f dwelling also goes to the emperor who excavated
the Barabar leni in Bihar for the ajivikas in the 3rd BCE and the tradition
continued in Maharashtra for the next 1400 years, developing into the
most developed Buddhist rock -cut architecture ever seen. Aja nta and
Ellora are the world heritage sites famous for its sculptures paintings
architecture and splendour.
7.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS:
 Define the terms - art and architecture and discuss how they are
Buddhist.
 Write in brief -the evolution and development of B uddhist sculptures
and their contribution to the field of art.
 Give the characteristics of Buddhist architecture and write a note on
stupa architecture.
 What is a vihara and chetiyaghara? How they are different in rock -cut
and structural architecture?
 Discuss the technique of rock -cutting and write a note on any rock -cut
site you have visited.
7.7 ADDITIONAL READING
 Brown Percy -Indian Architecture Buddhist and Hindu
 James Fergusson, James Burgess -The Cave Temples of India , 1886
 George Michell - Buddh ist Rock -Cut Monasteries of the Western
Ghats

 Dhavalikar M K- Late Hinayana caves of western India

 Akira Shimada (Editor) - Amaravati: The Art of an Early Buddhist
Monument in Context

 Elizabeth Rosen Stone -The Buddhist Art of Nagarjunakonda.

 Walter Spink - Ajanta: History and Development



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148 8
SECTS OF BUDDHISM
Unit Struct ure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sects o f Buddhism and the Buddhist Councils
8.3 Eighteen Schools of Early Buddhism
8.4 Summary
8.5 Unit End Questions
8.6 Additional Reading
8.0 OBJECTIVES
 To stud y the evolution, development and expansion of Buddhism
from 6th cent. B.C. till 1000 CE
 To understand the schism in the Sangha and evolution of different
schools of Buddhism.
 Analyse and differentiate the different schools of Buddhism on the
basis of the dating and the philosophy they are based on.
 Analyse and bring out the similarities from the schools of Buddhism
on the basis of the dating and the philosophy they are based on.
 Understand what is Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism
8.1 INTRODUCTION :
Evolution of early sects of Buddhism : no exact date could be given when
the differences in the sangha led to the formation of the sects. Differences
of opinions were present among the followers of the Buddha even during
his lifetime is e vident through Pāli literature and the necessity of holding
the First Buddhist Council, immediately after the mahāparinibbāna of the
Buddha is also very well known. Still the sangha was united and one.
The schism in the sangha took place not until after al most 100 years of the
Mahāparinibbanna of Buddha, after the Second Buddhist Council, which
was held at Vaishali. The Mahāsanghikas separated themselves from the
Orthodox school of Theravadas, though no inscriptional evidences are
found.
The Third Buddhist Council was held at the time of Emperor Asoka and
missionaries were sent to all parts of India and abroad for the propagation
of Buddhism. No mention of different sects of Buddhism is seen
anywhere, either on the rock edicts of Asoka or on the architecture , which
he promoted. It is also surprising that no epigraphical evidences of the munotes.in

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149 sects during 2nd century BC are found. Infact the first record of the
existence of the sect in Buddhism is in the Mathura Lion Capital
inscription of the 1st century CE. Many inscriptions of the 1st century AD
and onwards mentions different sects. The places from where these
inscriptions are found also indicate the distribution and the hold of that
particular sect on that area.
Archaeology plays a vital role in the whole opera tion of the study of the
Sects of Buddhism in India.Scholars have different opinions regarding the
distribution and ideologies of different sects. The archaeological evidences
and the inscriptions help to place the proper place and date to the Sect
existen t in Buddhism in India.
Some believe that Mahāsanghikas are the forerunners of Mahāyāna
Buddhism and some believe that Sarvastivadins is the Sect, which is the
root from which the Mahāyāna Buddhism grew. To get the clear picture
one has to study the early period of Buddhist history, mostly after the
mahāparinibbāna of the Buddha.
The history of Buddhism for the first six centuries after the
mahāparinibbāna of the Buddha may be divided into [according to scholar
Bibhuti Barua]
1- Early or pure Theravāda Buddhis m (circa 450 -350 BC) - by early or
pure Theravāda Buddhism we mean only that form of Buddhism
which has been described in a considerable portion of the Vinaya
Pitaka and the four Nikāyas
2- Mixed Theravāda Buddhism (circa 350 -100 BC -this period is
witnessed by the breaking up of the Buddhist sangha into many
sections and the dispersal of these over the various parts of India, each
growing in its own way. Though the dissensions in the sangha may be
undesirable from the orthodox point of view, they were indicativ e of
the deep interest taken by the disciples in ascertaining the real
teachings of Buddha as also of the attempts to interpret the old
teachings in new way and to adapt them to the changed circumstances
brought about by the advancement of knowledge for ov er a century.
3- Appearance of Mahāyāna (circa 100 -300 CE) -This phase is semi -
Mahāyāna phase or Mahāyāna in the making. The first two centuries
of the Christian era witnessed the conflict between the Theravāda and
Mahāyāna as well as the systemization of the Mahāyāna doctrines.The
Mahāyanist found faults with the Therav ādins, not because they failed
to comprehend the real teachings of Buddha but because they looked
upon as truth that which appeared to the Mahāyāna as only partial
truth. (Pg. 466)
Three months after the passing of the Buddha according to the scriptures,
the First Council was held at Rajagaha by some of his disciples who had
attained Arahantship (Enlightenment). At this point, Theravada tradition
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History of Buddhism
150 occurred, and the teachings were divided into various parts and each was
assigned to an elder and his pupils to commit to memory.
The Second Council was strictly about the misbe havior of a group of
monks, who changed their behaviors after the first council. Most scholars
believe that the first split occurred at the time of holding of the second
council. It is believed that the first split resulted into coming into existence
of the Sthaviravada and the Mahasanghika.
By the 3rd century BCE, there were 18 schools of Buddhism as a result of
further split. Theravadin sources state that a Third Council was convened
under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka . It is generally accepted, that
one or several disputes did occur during Asoka's reign, involving both
doctrinal and vinaya matters, The Sthavira School had, by the time of
King Ashoka divided into three sub -schools, doctrinally speaking, but
these did not become separate monastic orders until later.
According to the Theravadin account, this Council was convened
primarily for the purpose of establishing an official orthodoxy. At the
council, small groups raised questions about the specifics of the vinaya
and the interpretation of doctrine. The chairman of the council,
Moggaliputta Tissa, compiled a book called the Kathavatthu , which was
meant to refute these arguments. The council sided with Moggaliputta and
his version of Buddhism as orthodox; it was then adopted by Emperor
Ashoka as his empire's official religion. This school of thought was
termed Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "those who analyse"
The version of the scriptures that had been established at the Third
Council, including the vinaya, sutta and the abhidhamma (collectively
known as Tipitaka), was taken to Sri Lanka by Emperor Ashoka 's son, the
Venerable Mahinda . There it was eventually committed to writing in the
Pali language. The Pali Canon remains the most complete set of Nikaya
scriptures to survive, although the greater part of the Sarvāstivādin canon
survives in Chinese translation, some parts exist in Tibetan translations,
and some fragments exist in Sanskrit manuscripts, while parts of various
canons (sometimes uniden tified), exist in Chinese and fragments in other
Indian dialects.
Schools of Buddhism: even though attempts were made by emperor Asoka
for the unification of the sangha as can be seen from the inscriptional data
(schism edict of Asoka at Sarnath, Sanchi an d Kosambi) and the Pali text
Kathavatthu, the Pali chronicle Mahavamsa records 18 schools of
Buddhism, as well as the inscription records the names of the different
schools, not mentioned in the texts. Therefore it is to be understood that
further division s began to occur within the Buddhist movement and a
number of additional schools emerged, including the Sarvāstivāda and the
Sammitīya . All of these early schools of Nikayan Buddhism eventually
came to be known collectively as the Eighteen Schools in later sources.
Unfortunately, with the exception of the Theravāda, none of early these
schools survived beyond the late medieval period by which time several
were already long extinct, although a considerable amount of the munotes.in

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151 canonical literature of some of these schools has survived, mainly in
Chinese translation. Moreover, the origins of specifically Mahāyāna
doctrines may be discerned in the teachings of some of these early
schools, in particular in the Mahāsānghika and the Sarvāstivāda.
During and after the Third Cou ncil, elements of the Sthavira group called
themselves Vibhajjavadins . The Pudgalavādins were also know n as
Vatsiputrīyas after their putative founder, though this group later became
known as the Sammitīya school, after one of its subdivisions, though it
died out around the 9th or 10th century CE. Nevertheless, during most of
the early medieval period, the Sammitīya school was numerically t he
largest Buddhist group in India, with more followers than all the other
schools combined. The Sarvāstivādin school was most prominent in the
north -west of India and provided some of the doctrines that would later be
adopted by the Mahāyana . Another group linked to Sarvāstivāda was the
Sautrāntika school, which only recognized the authority of the sutras and
reject ed the Abhidharma transmitted and taught by the Vaibhāsika wing of
Sarvāstivāda. Based on textual considerations, it has been suggested that
the Sautrāntikas were actually adherents of M ūla-Sarvāstivāda. The
relation between Sarvāstivāda and Mūla -Sarvāstivāda is unclear. Between
the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE, the terms Mahayana and
Hinayana were first used in writing, in, for example, the Lotus Sutra .
At present three phases of Buddhism are in practice.
(1) Theravada (2) Maha yana (3) Vajrayana
Theravada School: The word Theravada is a compound of two members:
Thera and Vada ; thera means "elder", especially "an elderly Buddhist
monk"; second member vada coming from the root vad, "to speak"
signifies "speech", "talk", "word", "d octrine" The word Theravada is
frequently translated into English "the Doctrine of the Elders"; sporadic
translations are "the Way of the Elders" and "the School of the Elders";
even "old Wisdom School" is met with most probably the word first
appears as the name of a Buddhist school in the Dipavamsa, the earlier
Chronicle of Sri Lanka, dating the 4th century AD. that the name is
defined .







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8.3 EIGHTEEN SCHOOLS OF EARLY BUDDHISM
It can be presented through chart in this manner.















The earliest available teachings of the Buddha are to be found in Pali
literature and belongs to the school of the Theravadins, who may be called
the most primitive school of Buddhism. This school admits the human
characteristics of the Buddha, and is charac terized by a psychological
understanding of human nature; and emphasizes a meditative approach to
the transformation of consciousness. The teaching of the Buddha
according to this school is very plain. He asks us to 'abstain from all kinds
of evil, to accu mulate all that is good and to purify our mind'. These can
be accomplished by The Three Trainings: the development of ethical
conduct, concentration and insight -wisdom.
Theravada emphasizes on each individual working for his or her
enlightenment. For the m onks and nuns the ideal is to become an A rahatta
(sometimes arahant ), which means "fully liberated one " For upasakas
(lay-followers) the ideal put forward by the Buddha is to become at least
stream -enterer: the first step on the path of becoming Arahatta. An arhatta
is a person who has realized enlightenment and freed himself from the
cycle of birth and death. Beneath the arahatta ideal is an understanding of
the doctrin e of anatta -- the egolessness -- that differs from that of the
Mahayana. Very basically, Theravada considers anatta to mean that an The Original Sangha Mahasanghikas Vatsiputriya (about 200 years Dharmottariva
Bhadrayaniya
Sammitiya
Sannagarika
Mahisaska
Dharmaguptika Sarvastivadi
Kasy apiya
Sankrantivadi Sautsantika
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153 individual's ego or personality is a fetter a nd delusion. Once freed of this
delusion, the individual may enjoy the bliss of Nirvana.
Above all, Theravada emphasizes on insight gained through meditative
practice. Through meditation each individual should personally experience
three characteristics that of impermenance, (anicca) suffering (dukkha)and
ego-lessness (anatta) pertaining to mind matter phenomenon. This will
enable one to purify the mind from greed, hatred and delusion. Its
doctrines are taken from the Pali Tipitaka , and its basic teachings begin
with the Four Noble Truths . Theravada teaches that enlightenment comes
entirely through one's own efforts, without help from gods or other outside
forces.
Theravada school flourished in India till 1st BCE. Then it got replaced
with Mahayana school. Nowadays Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand are
the three stalwart Theravada states with close re ligious ties. Though Laos
and Cambodia have lost much of their religious lustre both still deserve to
be recognized as Theravada countries. In Vietnam, formerly a land of pure
Mahayana, Theravada is somewhat developing. In the hill tracts of
Bangladesh man y of the Baruas, the Chakmas and the Maghs and their
fellow countrymen in the Chittagong area still prove to be staunch
Theravadins. So do the Shans in the frontier regions of South China.
As for India, the land of the birth of Buddhism as well as of its d eath,
signs of the revival of the Theravada school can be seen recently. With the
revival of Vipassana technique in India in the recent period we can see
revival of Theravada teachings and revival of Pali as well.
Mahayana School: Mahayana, which means " Great Vehicle" in Sanskrit,
is one of the two major schools of Buddhism . It emerged as a separate
school from Theravada , the other major school, during the 1st century
BCE. About the 2nd Century CE Mahayana became clearly defined.
Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata and proved
that everything is Void in a small text called Madhyamika -karika. About
the 4th CE, there were Asanga and Vasubandhu who wrote enormous
amount of works on Mahayana . After the 1st Century CE, the Mahayanists
took a definite stand and only then the terms of Mahayana and Hinayana
were introduced.
We must not confuse Hinayana with Theravada because the terms are not
synonymous. Theravada Buddhism went to Sri Lanka during the 3rd
Century B.C. when there was no Mahayana at all. Hinayana sects
developed in India and had an existence independent from the form of
Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today there is no Hinayana sect in
existence anywhere in the world. Therefore, in 1950 the World Fellowship
of Buddhists inaugurated in Colombo unanimously decided that the term
Hinayana should be dropped when referring to Bu ddhism existing today
in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, etc. This is the brief
history of Theravada, Mahayana and Hinayana.
The major doctrinal point that distinguishes Mahayana from Theravada is
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154 of anatman , or anatta, which is one of the foundational teachings of all
Buddhism. According to this doctrine, there is no "self" in the sense of a
permanent, integral, autonomous being within an individual existence.
Mahayana teaches that beings and phenomena have no intrinsic existence
of their own and take identity only in rel ation to other beings and
phenomena. Shunyata also is an absolute reality that is all things and
beings, unmanifested. The ideal of Mahayana practice is the bodhisattva ,
"enlightenment being," who works for the enlightenment of all beings.
Over the years, Mahayana subdivided into more schools with divergent
practices and doctrines. These spread from India to China and Tibet, then
to Korea and Japan. Today Mahayana is the domin ant form of Buddhism
in those countries. Mahayana is further divided into many sub -schools,
such as Pure Land and Zen.
According to it, the Buddhas are lokottara (supramundane) and are
connected only externally with the worldly life. This conception of the
Buddha contributed much to the growth of the Mahayana philosophy. The
ideal of the Mahayana school is tha t of the Bodhisattva, a person who
delays his or her own enlightenment in order to compassionately assist all
other beings and ultimately attains to the highest Bodhi. The literature of
Mahayana Buddhism is in Sanskrit.
Comparison of Theravada with Mahayan a: Ven. Dr. W. Rahula writes in
"Gems of Buddhist Wisdom’ while comparing’ Theravada with
Mahayana writes
‘’Both accept Sakyamuni Buddha as the Teacher.
 The Four Noble Truths are exactly the same in both schools.
 The Eightfold Path is exactly the same in b oth schools.
 The Paticca -samuppada or the Dependent Origination is the same in
both schools.
 Both rejected the idea of a supreme being who created and governed
this world.
 Both accept Anicca, Dukkha, Anatta and Sila,Samadhi, Panna without
any difference.
These are the most important teachings of the Buddha and they are all
accepted by both schools without question.
There are also some points where they differ. An obvious one is the
Bodhisattva ideal. Many people say that Mahayana is for the
Bodhisattvahood which leads to Buddhahood while Theravada is for
Arahantship. It should be noted that the Buddha was also an Arahant.
Pacceka Buddha is also an Arahant. A disciple can also be an Arahant.
The Mahayana texts never use the term Arahant -yana, Arahant Vehicle.
They used three terms: Bodhisattvayana, Prateka -Buddhayana, and
Sravakayana. In the Theravada tradition these three are called Bodhis. munotes.in

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155 Some people imagine that Theravada is selfish because it teaches that
people should seek their own salvation. But how ca n a selfish person gain
Enlightenment? Both schools accept the three Yanas or Bodhis but
consider the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest. The Mahayana has created
many mystical Bodhisattvas while the Theravada considers a Bodhisattva
as a man amongst us who devotes his entire life for the attainment of
perfection, ultimately becoming a fully Enlightened Buddha for the
welfare of the world, for the happiness of the world.
THERAVADA COMPARED WITH MAHAYANA
Location Southern (Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Burma, Laos, Ca mbodia, parts
of Southeast Asia) Northern (Tibet,
China, Taiwan,
Japan, Korea,
Mongolia, parts of
Southeast Asia )
Schools and
Sects One surviving school (as many
as 18 existed at one time) 8
major schools: four practice -
based (Zen, Pure Land,
Vajrayana, Vinaya); four
philosophy -based (Tendai,
Avamtasaka, Yogacara and
Madhyamika)
Buddhist
Scriptures Pali Canon/Tripitaka only Books of the
Theravada Tripitaka
plus many other
sutras (e.g. Lotus
Sutra)
Buddhas Historical Buddha (Gautama)
and past Budd has only Gautama Buddha
plus Amitabha,
Medicine Buddhas,
and others
Bodhisattvas Maitreya only Maitreya plus
Avalokitesvara,
Mansjuri,
Ksitigarbha and
Samanthabadra
Goal of
Training Arhat Buddhahood via
bodhisattva -path munotes.in

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156

Courtesy ,(http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/fastfac ts/differences_th
eravada_mahayana.htm)

3 Buddha
Bodies
(Trikay a) Very limited emphasis;
mainly on nirmana -kaya
and dharma -kaya Emphasized,
including the
samboga -kaya or
reward/enjoyment
body
Original
Language Pali Sanskrit
Language of
Transmission Tripitaka is only in Pali.
Teaching in Pali
supplemented by l ocal
language. Scriptures translated
into local language.
Buddha's
Disciples Historical disciples
described in Scriptures Many bodhisattvas
that are not historical
figures
Mantras and
Mudras Some equivalent in the use
of Parittas Emphasized in
Vajrayana;
sometimes
incorporated in other
schools
Bardo (Limbo) Rejected Taught by all schools Non-Buddhist
Influences Mainly pre -Buddhist Indian
influences like concepts of
karma, sangha, etc. Heavily influenced
by local religious
ideas as transmitt ed
to new cultures
(China, Japan, Tibet). Buddha Nature Not taught Emphasized,
especially in practice -
based schools
Rituals Very few; not emphasized Many, owing to local
cultural influences munotes.in

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157

# TOPIC THERAVADA
BUDDHISM MAHAYANA BUDDHISM 1 The Buddha Only the historical Gautama (Sakyamuni) Buddha and past buddhas are accepted. Besides Sakyamuni Buddha, other contemporary buddhas like Amitabha and Medicine Buddha are also very popular.
2 Bodhisattvas Only Maitreya bodhisattva is accepted. Avalokitesvara, Mansjuri, Ksitigarbha and Samanthabadra are four very well known bodhisattvas besides Maitreya.
3 Objective of training Arahant or pacceka -
buddha. Buddhahood (via bodhisattva path).
4 Organisation of Buddhist
scriptures
The Pali Canon is divided into 3 baskets (Tipitaka): Vinaya Pitaka of 5 books, Sutta Pitaka of 5 collections (many suttas) and Abhidhamma Pitaka of 7 books.
The Mahayana Buddhist Canon also consists of Tripitaka of disciplines, discourses (sutras) and dharma analysis. It is usually organised in 12 divisions of topics like Cause and Conditions and Verses. It contains virtually all the Theravada Tipikata and many sutras that the latter does not have.
5 Concept of Bodhicitta Main emphasis is self liberation. There is total reliance on one -self to eradicate all defilemen ts. Besides self liberation, it is important for Mahayana followers to help other sentient beings.
6 Trikaya concept Very limited emphasis on the 3 bodies of a buddha. References are mainly on nirmana -kaya and dharma -kaya. Very well mentioned in Mahayana buddhism. Samboga -kaya or reward/enjoyment body completes the Trikaya concept. munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
158 7 Transmission
route Southern transmission: Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Laos and Cambodia and parts of Southeast Asia. Northern transmission: Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Mongolia and parts of Southeast Asia.
8 Language of dharma teaching Tipitaka is strictly in Pali. Dharma teaching in Pali supplemented by local language. Buddhist canon is translated into the local language (except for the 5 untranslatables), e.g. Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese. Original language of transmission is Sanskrit.
9 Nirvana (Nibbana in Pali) No distinction is made between nirvana attained by a buddha and that of an arahat or pacceka buddha. Also known as 'liberation from Samsara,' there are subtle distinctions in the level of attainment for the three situations.
10 Sakyamuni
Buddha's
disciples Basically historical disciples, whether arahats or commoners. A lot of bodhisattvas are introduced by Sakyamuni Buddha. Most of these are not hist orical figures.
11 Rituals and liturgy There are some rituals but not heavily emphasized as in Mahayana schools. Owing to local cultural influences, there is much more emphais on the use of rituals; e.g. Rituals for the deceased, feeding of Petas, tantric formalities (in Vajrayana).
12 Use of Mantras and Mudras Some equivalent in the use of Parittas. Heavily practised in the Vajrayana school of Mahayana Buddhism. Other schools also have included some mantras in their daily lithurgy.
13 Dying and death aspects Very little research and knowledge on the process of dying and death. Usually, the dying persons are advised to meditate on impermanence, suffering and emptiness. The Vajrayana school is particularly meticulous in these areas. There are many inner and external signs manifested by people before they die. There is heavy stress in doing transference of merit practices in the immediate few weeks following death to assist in the deceased's next rebirth. munotes.in

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159 14 Bardo This in -between stage after death and before rebirth is ignored in Theravada school. All Mahayana schools teach this after death aspect.
15 One meal a day practice This the norm among Theravada sanghas. This is a highly respected practice but it is left to the disposition of each individual in the various sanghas.

16 Focus of worship in the temple Simple layout with the image of Sakyamuni Buddha the focus of worship. Can be quite elaborate; with a chamber/hall for Sakyamuni Buddha and two disciples, one hall for the 3 Buddhas (including Amitabha and Medicine Buddha) and one hall for the 3 key bodhisattvas; besides the protectors, etc.
17 Schools/Sects of the tradition One surviving major school following years of attrition reducing the number from as high as 18. 8 major (Chinese) schools based on the partial doctrines (sutras, sastras or vinaya) of the teachings. The four schools inclined towards practices like Pure Land/Amitabha, Ch'an, Vajrayana and Vinaya (not for lay people) are more popular than the philosophy based schools like Tien Tai, Avamtasaka, Yogacara and Madhyamika.
18 Non Buddhist influences Mainly pre -Buddhism Indian/Brahmin influences. Many terms like karma, sangha, etc were prevailing terms during Sakyamuni Buddha's life time. References were made from the Vedas and Upanishads. In the course of integration and adoption by the people in other civilizations, there were heavy mutual influences. In China, both Confucianism and Taoism exerted some influence on Buddhism which in turn had an impact on the indigenous beliefs. This scenario was repeated in Japan and Tibet. munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
160 19 Buddha nature Absent from the teachings of Theravada tradition. Heavily stressed, particularly by schools inclined practices.

[Compiled by Tan Swee Eng]
(http://www.buddhanet.net/e -learning/snapshot02.htm )

Vajrayana School: The term " vajra " denoted the thunderbolt , a legendary
weapon and divine attribute that was made from an adamantine , or
indestructible, substance and which could therefore pierce and penetrate
any obstacle or obfuscation . As a secondary meaning, "vajra" refers to this
indestructible substance, and so is sometimes translated as "adamantine"
or "diamond". So the Vajrayana is sometimes rendered in English as "The
Adamantine Vehicle" or "The Diamond Vehicle".
A vajra is also a scepter -like ritual object, which has a sphere (and
sometimes a gankyil ) at its centre, and a variable number of spokes
(depending on the sadhana ), enfolding either end of the rod. The vajra is
often traditionally employed in tantric rituals in combin ation with the bell
or ghanta ; symbolically, the vajr a may represent method as well as great
bliss and the bell stands for wisdom , specifically the wisdom realizing
emptiness or lack of inherent existence.
Vajrayana claims that its teachings were first expounded by the Buddha 16
years after his enlightenment, but Kitagawa has called this claim 'patently
absurd'. Scholars have said that an early stage of Mantrayana began in the
4th century CE. Only from 7th or the beginning of the 8th century CE,
tantric techniques and approaches increasingly dominated Buddhist
practice in India. The first tantric (Vajrayana Buddh ist) texts appeared in
the 3rd century CE, and continued to appear until the 12th century CE.
8.4 SUMMARY:
the basic information regarding the different sects of Buddhism is
relevant for the better understanding of development of Buddhism through
ages. T he evolution of the teachings of the Buddha into the prevalent
broad classification of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism
seen in the different part of the world, is easy to comprehend if it is known
that all schools believes in the fundamental tea chings of the Buddha and
considers Buddha to be the founder of the path leading to liberation.
The charts helps in understanding the different sects of Buddhism
prevalent at the time, though today we broadly classify all the forms into
main three Therav ada, Mahayana and Vajrayana - where the latter is
practiced in very few places. Revival of Buddhism in India is of the
Theravada tradition borrowed from countries like Sri Lanka, Myanmar
and Thailand. munotes.in

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161 8.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS:
 Write in short -the importance o f Buddhist councils for the
understanding the Sects of Buddhism.
 Comment on -the Theravada Buddhism and the different sects
emerged from it.
 Differentiate between the Theravada and the Mahayana Buddhism.
 What is the Vajrayana Buddhism and how it is differe nt from the
Theravada and Mahayana ?
 Write a short note on - the sources and its relevance to study the
different sects of Buddhism in India.
8. 6 ADDITIONAL READING
Dutt Nalinaksha - Buddhist Sects in India
Ven. Sujato -Sects and Sectarianism: The Origins of Buddhist Schools
H W Schumann - Buddhism: an outline of its teachings and Schools.
Williams, Paul - Buddhism: The early Buddhist schools and doctrinal
history ; Theravāda doctrine, vol. 2




munotes.in

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162 9
SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
Unit Struct ure:
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Spread o f Buddhism
9.3 Buddhism in Asian Countries
9.4 Summary
9.5 Unit End Questions
9.6 Additional Reading

9.0 OBJECTIVES:
The study is done with the followin g objectives
 To understand the appeal of Buddhism to the common people to
follow the dhamma.
 To understand the role of monks and nuns, traders and merchants in
the spread of Buddhism.
 To understand the patronage of kings in the spread of Buddhism.
 To study the art and architecture and its impact on the spread of
Buddhism
 The role of literature and texts specially Tipitaka in the spread of
Buddhism.
9.1 INTRODUCTION:
Caratha bhikkhave carikam bahujanahitaya bahujanasukhaya .. are the
inspiring words of the T athagata that had been the motivating force behind
the spread of the teachings (dhamma) into the far distant lands of the
world. one cannot ignore the missionary passion of the earlier monks who
spread the dhamma to the far - off lands, Infact these are the monks who
with the fire of their zeal had crossed the known unknown dangers and
endured the hardships of the travels to reach the afar lands to propagate
the dhamma, for the betterment of others.
These journeys are one or the other way the reasons for th e pilgrims to
visit the sacred places in India in the later dates. Somebody said these
journeys may be said to be centrifugal, in that it leads away from these
pilgrim centers, by un -traveled paths into the unknown like India to the
south -east Asian count ries. munotes.in

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163
Merchants and rulers: these
developing missionary
movement made Buddha’s
teachings spread afar over
the centuries: first to
Southeast Asia, then through
Central Asia to China and
the rest of East Asia, and
finally to Tibet and the
further reaches of Central
Asia. Often it developed in
these regions organically,
because of local interest in
foreign merchant’s Buddhist
beliefs. Sometimes rulers
adopted Buddhism to help bring ethics to their people, but no one was
forced to convert. By making Buddha’s m essage available to the public,
people were free to choose what was helpful.
The Buddha’s teachings spread peacefully across the Indian subcontinent,
and from there far and wide throughout Asia. Whenever it reached a new
culture, the Buddhist methods and styles were freely modified to fit the
local mentality, without compromising the essential points of wisdom
and compassion. Buddhism never developed an overall hierarchy of
religious authority with a supreme
head. Instead, each country to
which it spread d eveloped its own
forms, its own religious structure,
and its own spiritual head.
There are two major divisions of
Buddhism: Hinayana (the Modest
Vehicle), which emphasizes
personal liberation, and Mahayana (the Vast Vehicle), which stresses
working to bec ome a fully enlightened Buddha to be able to benefit others.
Both the Modest and Vast vehicles have many subdivisions. At present,
only three major forms survive: one Hinayana subdivision in Southeast
Asia, known as Theravada, and two Mahayana divisions, n amely the
Chinese and Tibetan traditions.
 The Theravada tradition spread from India to Sri Lanka and Burma
(Myanmar) in the 3rd century BCE. From there, it reached the rest of
Southeast Asia (Thailand, Cambodia and Laos).
 Other Hinayana schools
spread to modern -day Pakistan,
Afghanistan, eastern and coastal
Iran, and Central Asia. From
Central Asia, they spread into
China in the 2nd century CE.
These forms of Hinayana were munotes.in

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164
later combined with Mahayana aspects that came through this same route
from India, with the Mahayana eventually becoming the dominant form of
Buddhism in China and most of Central Asia. The Chinese form
of Mahayana later spread to Korea, Japan
and Vietnam.
 The Tibetan Mahayana tradition
started in the 7th century CE, inheriting the
full historical development of Indian
Buddhism. From Tibet, it spread
throughout the Himalayan regions and to
Mongolia, Central Asia, and several
regions of Russia (Buryatia, Kalmykia and
Tuva).
In addition, from the 2nd century CE,
Indian forms of Mahayana B uddhism
spread to Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, Sumatra and Java along the sea
trade route from India to South China. None of them are extant today.
9.2 SPREAD OF BUDDHISM
The expansion of Buddhism throughout most of Asia was peaceful, and
occurred in sever al ways. Buddha, as a travelling teacher sharing his
insights with those who were receptive and interested from the nearby
kingdoms, set the precedent. He instructed his monks to go forth in the
world and expound his teachings. He did not ask others to de nounce and
give up their own religion and convert to a new one, for he was not
seeking to establish his own religion. Buddha’s aim was merely to help
others overcome the unhappiness and suffering that they were creating for
themselves, due to their lack of understanding of reality. Later generations
of followers were inspired by his example, and shared with others his
methods that they found useful in their lives. This is how what is now
called “Buddhism” spread far and wide.
Sometimes, the process evolved organically. For example, when Buddhist
merchants visited and settled in different lands, some members of the local
populations naturally developed an interest in these foreigners’ beliefs, as
happened with the introduction of Islam to Indonesia and Malays ia later
on. This process also occurred with Buddhism in the oasis states along the
Silk Route in Central Asia, during the two centuries before and after the
common era. As local rulers and their people learned more about this
Indian religion, they invited monks from the merchants’ native regions as
advisors or teachers, and eventually, many adopted the Buddhist faith.
Another organic method was through the slow cultural assimilation of a
conquering people, such as the Greeks into the Buddhist society of
Gandhara in present -day central Pakistan, during the centuries following
the 2nd century BCE. munotes.in

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165
Often, the dissemination was due primarily to the
influence of a powerful monarch who had
adopted and supported Buddhism himself. In the
mid-3rd century BCE, for e xample, Buddhism
spread throughout northern India as a result of the
personal endorsement of King Ashoka. This great
empire -builder did not force his subjects to adopt
the Buddhist faith, but by posting edicts engraved
on iron pillars throughout his realm exhorting his
people to lead an ethical life, and by following
the principles himself, he inspired others to
adopt Buddha’s teachings.
King Ashoka also actively proselytized outside
his kingdom by sending missions to distant lands,
sometimes acting upon t he invitation of foreign
rulers, such as King Devanampiya Tissa of Sri
Lanka. Other times he would send monks as
envoys at his own initiative. The visiting monks
would not pressure others to convert, but would just simply make
the Buddha’s teachings availa ble, allowing people to choose for
themselves. This is evidenced by the fact that in such places as South India
and southern Burma, Buddhism soon took root, while in places such as the
Greek colonies in Central Asia, there is no record of any immediate
impact.
Other religious kings, such as the 16th century Mongol potentate Altan
Khan, invited Buddhist teachers to their realm and proclaimed Buddhism
the official creed of the land, in order to help unify their people and
consolidate their rule. In the proces s, they may have prohibited certain
practices of non -Buddhist, indigenous religions, and even persecuted those
who follow them, but these rare heavy -handed moves were largely
politically motivated. Such ambitious rulers still never forced subjects to
adopt Buddhist forms of belief or worship. This is absolutely not part of
the religious creed.
9.3 BUDDHISM IN ASIAN COUNTRIES
BUDDHISM IN SRI LANKA : Sri Lanka is
the oldest continually Buddhist country,
Theravada Buddhism being the major
religion in the isla nd since its official
introduction in the 2nd century BC by
Venerable Mahinda, the son of the Emperor
Ashoka of India during the reign of King
Devanampiya - Tissa. Later, the nun
Sanghamitta, the daughter of Asoka, was
said to have brought the southern bran ch of
the original Bodhi tree, where it was planted
at Anuradhapura. From that day up to the
present, the Buddhists in Sri Lanka have paid munotes.in

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166
and are paying the utmost reverence to this branch of the Bodhi Tree
under the shade of which the Master achieved Enl ightenment.
Monks from Sri Lanka have had an important role in spreading both
Theravada and Mahayana throughout South -east Asia. It was in Sri Lanka,
in the 1st century AD during the reign of King Vatta Gamini that the
Buddhist monks assembled in Aloka -Vihara and wrote down the
Tripitaka, the three basket of the Teachings, known as the Pali scriptures
for the first time. It was Sri Lankan nuns who introduced the Sangha of
nuns into China in 433AD. In the 16th century the Portuguese conquered
Sri Lanka and s avagely persecuted Buddhism as did the Dutch who
followed them.
When the British won control at the
beginning of the 19th century Buddhism
was well into decline, a situation that
encouraged the English missionaries that
then began to flood the island. Bu t
against all expectations the monastic and
lay community brought about a major
revival from about 1860 onwards, a
movement that went hand in hand with
growing nationalism.Since then
Buddhism has flourished and Sri Lankan
monks and expatriate lay people ha ve
been prominent in spreading Theravada
Buddhism in Asia, the West and even in
Africa.Some of the most marvellous
monuments in the Buddhist world belong
to Sri Lanka, and her sculpture is closely associated with the early art of
the Krishna valley and the later Pallava and Chola kings, owing to the
close relationship that existed between south India and Sri Lanka. (above:
Seven -metre -tall standing image of the Buddha in a rare cross -armed pose
at Gal Vihara).
BUDDHISM IN BURMA : Buddhism is believed to have been introduced
to Burma by missionaries sent by the Indian emperor Ashoka in the third
century B.C. Tradition, basing itself upon the Sinhalese chronicle, the
Mahavamsa, attributes the origins of Buddhism in Myanmar to the
mission of Sona and Uttara who, in the 3rd century B.C., came to
Suvannabhumi, usually identified with That on, on the Gulf of Mottama.
There are four dominant ethnic groups in the recorded history of
Myanmar: the Mon, the Pyu, the Myanmar, and the Shan.
Buddhism was already flourishin g in Myanmar in the 1st century A.D., as
attested by the archaeological evidence at Peikthanomyo (Vishnu City), 90
miles southeast of Bagan. Buddhism was also an invigorating influence at
Thayekhittaya, near modern Pyaymyo 160 miles south of Bagan, where a
developed civilization flourished from the 5th to the 9th century. munotes.in

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167
From the A.D. 4th century onward, the Pyu built many Buddhist stupas
and other religious buildings. The styles, ground plans, even the brick size
and construction techniques of
these buil dings point to the
Andhra region, particularly
Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda
in present -day southeastern
India. Some evidence of
Ceylonese contact is seen by the
presence of Anuradhapura style
"moonstones" discovered at
Beikthano and Halin. By
perhaps the 7 th century, tall
cylindrical stupas such as the Bawbawgyi, Payagyi and Payama had
emerged at Sri Ksetra.
King Anawrahta and Theravada Buddhism: Arguably King Anawrahta’s
greatest and most lasting achievement was the introduction of Theravada
Buddhism to Upper Burma after Pagan's conquest of the Thaton Kingdom
in 1057. Supported by royal patronage, the Buddhist school gradually
spread to the village level in the next three centuries although Tantric,
Mahayana, Brahmanic, and
animist practices remained
heav ily entrenched at all social
strata.
A war broke out between King
Anawrahta of Pagan and the
Mon King Manuhar, when King
Manuhar refused to hand over
sacred Buddhist texts to Pagan.
After the war, King Manuhar
was captured and was kept under
restrictions for a long time in Pagan until his death. He built Manuhar
Temple while he was there.
According to Pagan myanmar.com: “Anawrahta was a king of strong
religious zeal as well as one of great power. His clay votive tablets, made
to acquire merit, are found wi dely in Myanmar from Katha in the north to
Twante in the south. These votive tablets usually have, on the obverse, a
seated image of the Buddha in the earth -touching attitude, with two lines
underneath which express the essence of the Buddhist creed: ‘The Buddha
hath the causes told/ Of all things springing from causes; And also how
things cease to be, 'Tis this the Mighty Monk proclaims.’ On the reverse
would be the prayer: ‘Desiring that he may be freed from samsarica the
Great Prosperous King Aniruddha h imself made this image of the Lord.’” munotes.in

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“The chronicles relate that a monk from Thaton, Shin Arahan, came to
Anawrahta in Pagan and preached to
him the Law, on which Anawrahta was
seized with an ecstasy of faith and
said, "Master, we have no other refuge
than thee! From this day forth, my
master, we dedicate our body and our
life to thee! And, master, from thee I
take my doctrine!" Shin Arahan
further taught Anawrahta that without
the Scriptures, the Tipitaka, there could
be no study, and that it was only with
the Tipitaka that the Religion would last long. Anawrahta, informed that
there were thirty sets of the Tipitaka at Thaton, sent an envoy with
presents to its king,Manuha, and asked for the Tipitaka. Manuha refused,
on which Anawrahta sent a mighty arm y, conquered Thaton, and brought
back the thirty sets of Tipitaka on Manuha's thirty -two white elephants, as
well as Manuha and his court and all manners of artisans and craftsmen.
BUDDHISM IN THAILAND : Judging from archaeological finds and
other historic al evidence, however, it is safe to say that Buddhism first
reached Thailand when the country was inhabited by a racial stock of
people known as the Mon -Khmer who then had their capital, Dvaravati, at
a city now known as Nakon Pathom (Sanskrit: Nagara Prat hama), about
50 kms to the west of Bangkok. The great pagoda at Nakon Pathom, Phra
Pathom Chedi (Prathama cetiya), and other historical findings in other
parts of the country testify to this fact as well as to the fact that Buddhism,
in its varied forms, r eached Thailand at four different periods, namely:
1. Theravada or Southern Buddhism
2. Mahayana or Northern Buddhism
3. Burma (Pagan) Buddhism
4. Ceylon (Lankavamsa) Buddhism
I. Theravada or Southern Buddhism: the first form of Buddhism
introduced to Thailand was that of Theravada School is proved by various
archaeological remains unearthed in the excavations at Nakon Pathom,
such as the Dharma C hakra (Wheel of Law), the Buddha footprints and
seats, and the inscriptions in the Pali language, all of which are in rocks .
That is the reason why scholars of Thailand express the view that the
capital of Suvarnabhumi was at Nakon Pathom . Moreover, the na me
Pathom Chedi (Pali: Pathama Cetiya) means "First Pagoda" which, in all
probability, signifies that it was the first pagoda built in Suvarnabhumi.
This would easily fit in with the record of the Mahavamsa -that Thera Sona
and Uttara went and established B uddhism in the territory of
Suvarnabhumi at the injunction of Emperor Asoka. munotes.in

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II. Mahayana or Northern Buddhism -Starting from the beginning of
the fifth century A.D. Mahayana Buddhist missionaries from Kashmir in
Northern India began to go to Sumatra in s uccession. From Sumatra the
faith spread to Java and Cambodia. By about 757 A.D. (Buddhist Era:
1300) the Srivijaya king with his capital in Sumatra rose in power and his
empire spread throughout the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. Part of
South Thailand (from Surasthani downwards) came under the rule of the
Srivijaya king. Being Mahayanists, the rulers of Srivijaya gave much
encouragement and support to the propagation of Mahayana Buddhism. In
South Thailand today we have much evidence to substantiate tha t
Mahayana Buddhism was once prevalent there. This evidence is in the
form of stupas or chetiyas and images, including votive tablets of the
Buddhas and Bodhisattas (Phra Phim), which were found in large number,
all of the same type as those discovered in Java and Sumatra. The chetiyas
in Chaiya (Jaya) and Nakon Sri Thammarath (Nagara Sri Dharmaraja),
both in South Thailand, clearly indicate Mahayana influence.
III. Burma (Pagan) Buddhism -In 1057 A.D. King Anuruddha
(Anawratha) became powerful in the whole of Burma, having his capital at
Pagan (Central Burma). Anuruddha extended his kingdom right up to
Thailand, especially the Northern and Central parts, covering areas now
known as Chiengmai, Lopburi, and Nakon Pathom. Being a Theravada
Buddhist, Anuruddha a rdently supported the cause of Theravada which
Burma, like Thailand, at first received directly from India through
missionaries sent by Emperor Asoka. However, at the time under
consideration, Buddhism in India was already in a state of decline, and as
contact between Burma and India was then faint, Theravada Buddhism, as
prevalent in Burma at that time, underwent some changes and assumed a
form somewhat different from the original doctrine. This, at a later stage,
became what is known in Thailand as Burma (Pagan) Buddhism. During
the period of King Anuruddha's suzerainty over Thailand, Burmese
Buddhism exercised great influence over the country, especially in the
North where, owing to proximity, the impact from Burma was more felt.It
is significant that Bud dhist relics found in North Thailand bear a striking
Theravada influence, whereas those found in the South clearly show their
Mahayana connections dating back from Srivijaya days. To a great extent
this is due to the fact that, in their heyday of suzeraint y over Thailand, the
Burmese under Anuruddha were content with Upper Thailand only, while munotes.in

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History of Buddhism
170
leaving the South practically to be ruled by their Khmer (Cambodian)
vassals whose capital was at Lopburi.
IV. Ceylon (Lankavamsa) Buddhism -This is the most importa nt
period in the history of the spread of
Buddhism to Thailand, for it
witnessed the introduction to that
country of that form of Buddhism
which remains dominant there until
today. About 1153 A.D. (B.E. 1696)
Parakramabahu the Great (1153 -
1186 A.D.) became king of Ceylon,
known in ancient days as Lanka. A
powerful monarch and a great
supporter of Theravada Buddhism,
Parakramabahu did much to spread
and consolidate the Dhamma of the
Lord in his island kingdom.
Thailand also sent her Bhikkhus to
Ceylon and th ereby obtained
the upasampada vidhi (ordination
rite) from Ceylon, which later
became known in Thailand as
Lankavamsa. This was about 1257 A.D. (B.E. 1800). Apparently, the early
batches of Bhikkhus, who returned from Ceylon after studies, often
accompanie d by Ceylonese monks, established themselves first in Nakon
Sri Thammarath (South Thailand), for many of the Buddhist relics bearing
definitely Ceylonese influence, such as stupas and Buddha images, were
found there. Some of these relics are still in exist ence today. News of the
meritorious activities of these monks
soon spread to Sukhothai, then the capital
of Thailand, and King Ram Kamhaeng
who was ruling at the time, invited those
monks to his capital and gave them his
royal support in propagating the
Doctrine. This fact is recorded in one of
the King's rock inscriptions, dated about
1277 A.D. Since then Ceylon (Sinhala)
Buddhism became very popular and was
widely practiced in Thailand. Many
monasteries, stupas, Buddha images and
even Buddha footprints, s uch as the well -
known one at Sraburi in central Thailand,
were built in accordance with the usage
popular in Ceylon. The study of Pali, the
language of Theravada or Southern
Buddhism, also made great progress, and
in all matters dealing with the Dhamma
the impact of Ceylon was perceptibly
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Spread of Buddhism

171 9.4 SUMMARY:
Buddha told people not to follow his teachings out of blind faith, but to
only do so after examining them carefully. It then goes without saying that
people should not accept Buddha’s teachings out of c oercion from zealous
missionaries or royal decree. In various ways, Buddhism managed to
peacefully spread throughout much of Asia, carrying its message
of love, compassion and wisdom, while fitting in to the needs and
dispositions of different people. Empe ror Asoka’s zeal of propagation of
dhamma is responsible for the spread of Buddhism in the south -east Asian
countries of Sri Lanka, Thailand and Myanmar. The Buddhism had its up
and downs in all countries but was never completely lost and disappeared
as in India.
9.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS :
 What is the role of Kings and patrons in the spread of Buddhism in
different countries?
 How the teachings of buddha is responsible for the spread of
Buddhism
 Spread of Buddhism is always peaceful - comment
 Write in brief the spread of Buddhism in SriLanka, Myanmar and
Thailand.
9.6 ADDITIONAL READING S
H.R. Perera - Buddhism in Sri Lanka: A Short History
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel100.html

Roger Bischoff - Buddhism in Myanmar : A Short History
https: //www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bischoff/wheel399.html

Karuna Kusalasaya -Buddhism in Thailand : Its Past and Its Present
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/kusalasaya/wheel085.html

Buddhist art and trade routes
https://www.asiasocietymuseu m.org/buddhist_trade/intro.html
Andrea Acri- Maritime Buddhism
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.638

Jason Neelis - Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade networks
https://brill.com/view/title/18172

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172 10
ROLE OF KING ASOKA IN THE SPREAD
OF BUDDHISM
Unit Struct ure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Edicts o f King Asoka
10.3 The Fourteen Rock Edicts
10.4 The Kalinga Rock Edicts
10.5 The Seven Pillar Edicts
10.6 The Minor Pill ar Edicts
10.7 Summary
10.8 Unit End Questions
10.9 Additional Reading
10.0 OBJECTIVES :
The study is carried out with the following objectives -
 To study emperor Asoka through inscriptions and literary sources .
 To understand the relevance of the Pali literary sources for the
authentication of history of Asoka.
 To analyse and see how the literary sources match the archaeological
sources giving us the role of Asoka in the spread of Buddhism.
10.1 INTRODUCTION:
King Aśoka, the third monarch of the Ma uryan dynasty in the third
century B.C., was the first ruler of a unified India and oneof the greatest
political figures of all time. After he embraced the teachings of the
Buddha, he transformed his polity fromone of military conquest to one of
Dharmavija ya— victory byrighteousness and truth. By providing royal
patronage for the propagation of Buddhism both within and beyond his
empire, he helped promote the metamorphosis of Buddhism into a world
religion that spread peacefully across the face of Asia.
Though there is a discrepancy in the literary sources from northern India
and southern India regarding the contribution of Asoka, the authenticity of
the southern literature is accepted by many scholars due to its
corroboration with the inscriptions. Thus, we taking the Sri Lankan munotes.in

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Role of King Asoka in the
Spread of Buddhism

173 sources of Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Samantapasadika as the literary
source and the inscriptions as the archaeological source, discuss the role of
Emperor Asoka in the spread of Buddhism inside and outside his vast
kingdom, through
 Third Buddhist council and purification of the Sangha
 Writing of Kathavatthu by Thera Moggaliputtatissa
 Sending missionaries to all different parts of the country their
authenticity
 Schism edicts at Sarnath, Sanchi and Kosambi
 Mahinda thera, and Sanghamitta theri
 Dhammayatra and erection of pillars and stupas
 Excavations of caves for the ajivikas
 Construction of 84000 stupas and viharas all over his kingdom.
It is important that the Sri Lankan testimony on Aśoka is reviewed with
much greater care. The Sa gha of the island has, right through its
existence to this date, taken a continuing interest in both recording and
studying its ecclesiastic history. In the proce ss they have focused
considerable attention on political, social and economic aspects. In this
respect Sri Lanka’s twenty -five centuries of written history remains a
unique example in the whole of the Indian subcontinent.
The historical sense of the Sa gha has been exceptionally well developed
and the information recorded only by them has dramatically proved to be
invaluable especially for the following .
Purposes :
(1) The identification of “Piyadasi” of the Rock Edicts and Pillar
Inscriptions with Aśoka, wh ose full name was preserved in Sri Lankan
records only. Without this confirmation the historical interpretation of
Aśokan inscriptions would have been long delayed by nearly a century, if
not rendered impossible.
(2) The assessment of the role and achievem ents of MoggaliputtaTissa
who had merited such special veneration in Asokan times as to have had
his relics enshrined with the utmost honour in Stūpa No. 2 of Sānchi in a
relic casket bearing the inscription “Sapurisasa Mogalīputasa.”
(Incidentally, simila r finds havenot yet established the historicity of any
names like Upaguptaor Yasa occurring in the Northern Buddhist records.)
(3) The establishment without doubt of the significance ofthe epithet
“Hemavatācariya” occurring on the relic -caskets of Sānchi a nd Sonari
Stūpas containing some remains of Majjhima, Kassapagotta and
Dundubhissara, who, in a comprehensivelist of missionaries sent out after
the Third Councilaccording to Sri Lankan Pali sources, were assigned the
conversionof the Himalaya region. (Thi s and the above informationnot
only confirm the historicity of the Third Council andthe missions but also
provides the only literary support to themissionary role claimed by Aśoka
in R.E. XIII.) munotes.in