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01
CONCEPTS AND KEYWORDS IN
JOURNALISM, MEDIA AND
COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure
1.1 Objective
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Accessibility
1.4 Mobile Journalism
1.5 Citizen Journalism
1.6 Accuracy
1.7 Adversarial Journalism
1.8 Balanced Journalism
1.9 Cartoon Jour nalism
1.10 Censorship
1.11 Questions
1.12 References
1.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
● Emergence of new concepts in media
● Trendy keywords in journalistic work and their impact on journalism
and communication
1.1 INTRODUCTION The art of demonstrating how to think critically about competency and
media influence is exemplified by the fund amental topics of journalism
studies. We'll look at sources of information in depth in this chapter, as
well as various popular media buzzwords. The infusion of technology
and media digitization has had a significant impact on the source of
information and transmission of news. We'll also look at how, in recent
years, some terms and keywords have become a hot topic in the media.
Particularly since Pandemic media has served as a filter for audiences.
The workplace culture has been severely impacted. Journali sts rely
heavily on sources, but it has also given rise to a slew of new terminology
such as whistleblowers, leaks, and spin -doctors, all of which are quite
dangerous in practice. Franklin, Hammer, Hanna, Kinsey, and
Richardson (Franklin, Hammer, Hanna, Ki nsey, & Richardson, 2005).
Before trusting any source of information, a journalist must conduct munotes.in

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2 extensive research. The true worth of a source for journalists is
determined by how it is used. The journalist must have access to the
source's information in o rder to verify its accuracy, relevance, reliability,
and authenticity.
During the corona virus pandemic, the working ethos shifted, and every
industry saw a drop in employment. Working from home has become the
standard. As a result of this predicament, jou rnalists began to rely on
niche influencers and bloggers as sources of information. Which raises
severe doubts about the information's veracity. It also makes people think
again about which media they should trust. The new trend of hybrid
culture has been adopted into every industry as the number of vaccinated
people continues to rise. Every event and conference is held online.
However, this has resulted in a sizable turnout. And anyone from any
location can now attend the event. Furthermore, the programmes are now
available to a global audience. Infect, media professionals have access to
a variety of venues through which they can interact and communicate
with their audiences. Platforms such as Zoom Meet, Google Meet,
WebX, and others are available. However, while digitization has
provided journalists with new ways to communicate their stories and
interact with their target audiences, it has also increased the amount of
working pressure they face.
The internet age has made false information highly persuasive and
persistent. It becomes considerably more difficult for journalists to
protect citizens from false information in this situation. Given that
journalists must devote their full attention to the work for which they are
responsible 24 hours a day, seven d ays a week. They're working on a
variety of projects, and the staff are still struggling financially. During
COVID -19, in particular, numerous journalists and reporters risked their
lives. The desire to communicate the truth to the population, on the other
hand, inspires them to carry out their responsibilities.
1.2 ACCESSIBILITY When we only had print media to provide news, our reach was relatively
limited. Many new publishers from all over the world were able to
flourish as a result of it. But because of the low literacy rate, audience
engagement was also limited. Then came the technological era, which
provided us not only access to electronic media of information, but also
to digital news. The digitization of the world provided us with several
information al instruments. Journalism implies "by the people, for the
people," and the same is true of information that must be accessible to the
general public. A good is journalism is when information reach is
not limited and it is able to provide service to all pe ople, regardless of
their caste, creed, or ethnicity.
Today, we have a plethora of information sources that allow people from
the most remote parts of the world to easily access any piece of
information. Tim Berners -Lee, the creator of the World Wide Web,
insisted on its universality. Because of the features designed, such as munotes.in

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3 Media Criticism screen readers, he stressed its ability to reach even the impaired people.
Berners -Lee came up with the notion of designing a technology that can
support a feature that can eliminate b arriers to information access. He
was successful in putting this wonderful concept into action, and he
directed all information providers, journalists, and reporters to reach out
to their viewers regardless of infrastructure, language, culture, geographic
location, or physical or mental incapacity. (Franklin, Hammer, Hanna,
Kinsey & Richardson, 2005) Because of the World Wide Web there is
immense number of websites running on digital devices. The world of
digitization gave rise to new terms like, mobile jou rnalism, social media
and digital media.
Let us acknowledge the role of journalists in informing their audiences
about major events, as well as the obstacles journalists confront in the
COVID 19 pandemic.
The media has played an important role in informing the public about the
precautions to take in the event of a pandemic. In serving the people,
media professionals were at the forefront, alongside healthcare personnel
such as doctors and nurses. Journalists and reporters, on the other hand,
stood in the fr ont row to raise awareness and educate the public about the
dangers of not maintaining social distance, the significance of wearing a
mask, and how to avoid economic crises and maintain good health. This
is how the media fulfilled its social responsibility by enabling citizens at
home to make informed decisions in light of the circumstances. The
COVID 19 outbreak exposed weaknesses and failures in social and
economic policies aimed at addressing the risks and difficulties to
successful journalistic practice s, as well as the well -being of journalists,
so that they can fulfil their societal responsibilities. The media's
involvement in normal pandemic coverage brought to mind the potential
difficulties involved with journalistic employment, ranging from poor
income, lack of insurance, and exposure to health risks. (2020, Safiyyah
Adam) During the epidemic, fewer people bought newspapers, and
because people relied solely on media, the amount of news consumed via
electronic media and social media skyrocketed. As w e all know, media
outlets today have a digital presence. Other shady organisations, on the
other hand, are utilising the platforms to deceive citizens. As a result,
social media had a significant negative impact on residents' mental health
during the pande mic. And that the doctors appeared to be advising
citizens to avoid the media. Television news appeared to having the
highest rating of all platforms in the United States, with national free -to-
air stations obtaining the highest score of all platforms, and legacy media
in general exceeding digital outlets. Citizens in the United Kingdom,
meanwhile, rely on traditional media such as broadcast, print, and even
internet news, but they distrust social media news. The patterns were seen
across Europe and beyond. Citizens relied on conventional media rather
than a digital -only news source for COVID -related information. (Sabina
Mihelj, 2021).
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4 1.2 MOBILE JOURNALISM Mobile journalism is a new form of media for storytelling. Reporters use
portable electronic devices , such as cellphones, to inform and educate
citizens about current events. Journalists and reporters benefit greatly
from mobile journalism. It enables them to cover any event that would
otherwise be impossible to capture without large cameras and a camera
crew. Mobile journalism refers to news that is first gathered on cell
phones and then transported to newsrooms for broadcast on television.
Within the discipline of journalism, mobile journalism is a new field that
has evolved. Mobile journalism refers to the rise of numerous social
media platforms that have encouraged smart phones to become the most
powerful electronic devices capable of doing practically all production -
related tasks. Now, the popularity of social media has fueled fierce
competition in th e mobile business. According to ibef.org, the Indian
market alone has grown by tenfold from 14.5 million shipments in 2011
to 150 million shipments in 2020. India is regarded as one of the most
lucrative smartphone markets. Mobile journalism is an innovati ve form
of newsgathering that has spread around the world since the year 2007. It
gives a new way to news reporting. And helps newspaper industry to
compete with the television and radio industry and to be able to survive
in the market. (Stephen Quinn, 200 9).
Case Study of Mobile Journalism from United Kingdom:
In Europe, the concept of Mojo was first introduced by Reuters and then
by the BBC. In 2007, Reuter's reporters collaborated with Nokia's
research and development division to experiment with mobile journalism.
Nokia representatives travelled to London to speak with a few journalists
about their needs for mobile reporting. As a result of the interview,
WordPress Software was created. Which became a useful tool for Reuters
when it comes to blogging. L ater, Nokia offered a few journalists N95
devices with software that allows them to edit and do multimedia
activities. Nokia then provided those phones with Bluetooth keyboards,
tripods, microphones, and PowerMonkey Solar Power Units. The New
York Fashion Week and the Edinburg Television Festival were the first
events covered by this phone. Mojo, according to Reuter's product
manager at the time, was "the beginning of mobile journalism." Since
2008, the BBC has been practising mojo journalism. Waters and hi s
colleague Rory Cellan - Jones used mobile phones to cover the Barcelona
Mobile Phone Congress. Despite the fact that this was a trial, they shot 26
videos, the most popular of which earned nearly 60,000 views. Waters
described the experiment as a success in this way. (Stephen Quinn,
2009).
1.3 CITIZEN JOURNALISM Citizen journalism is a form of journalism in which any ordinary person,
acting in his or her capacity, is responsible for interpreting and
disseminating news. Despite the fact that he has no jour nalistic munotes.in

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5 Media Criticism experience or training, he sees it as his responsibility to his country. In
India, citizen journalism is based on the concept that information
empowers people. It is believed, citizen's sense of
responsibility motivates them to participate in citi zen journalism in order
to give accurate, reliable, comprehensive, and timely information, which
is critical for any democratic society like India.
Citizen journalism has not only revolutionized the media as a whole, but
it has also become a critical instr ument for citizens to report on issues
that affect their daily lives. The expanding use of mobile technology, as
well as the Right to Information Act of 2005, are two major factors that
influence citizens' willingness to participate in citizen journalism. In the
process of spreading news and information, the mainstream media no
longer works alone. They collaborate with engaged citizens who share
viral films and photos that circulate on the internet.
Case Study
Crime, cruelty, and bloodshed are all too comm on in India. However,
during the Nirbhaya case in India, the power of citizens was witnessed
through social media for the first time. The rape and murder of a 23 -year-
old physiotherapy intern in Delhi was known as the Delhi Gang Rape. On
December 16, 2012, she was riding in a bus with her male partner in New
Delhi. She was viciously beaten and then raped, suffering multiple
injuries to her private parts as a result. She was brought to a hospital in
Singapore for treatment, where she died after thirteen days . The heroic
heart of the victim was Nirbhaya. Regardless of her caste, religion, or
faith, her incident struck a chord with the public. The incident erupted in
rage on the streets of not only Delhi, but also across the country, with
people demanding justi ce. In India, rape is a national issue, but for the
first time, the public's wrath was expressed in the form of millions of
images, posts, and comments. On social media, people vented their
frustrations and feelings. Everyone who came forward expressed the ir
dissatisfaction with the country's poor legal system and requested strong
legal action against the perpetrators. The case drew the attention of the
whole mainstream media, and a new trend began to emerge on the
internet. User -generated content was broad cast by the mainstream media.
Citizens have also been seen on social media expressing their voices in
protest of the cruelty shown to the young women. Many such cases have
gone unnoticed, and no strict legal action has been taken against them.
With this ne w trend of citizen -generated content, the mainstream media
included a Citizen News & Views section to their bulletins and
programmes. With regard to the Nirbhaya case, journalist Namita
Bhandare started a website called change.org to file an online petitio n
named "Stop Rape Now." The rape case in Nirbhaya demonstrated the
power of citizen journalism. Many news networks and print publications
now offer a section dedicated to citizen journalism, which encourages
citizens to contribute and share essential info rmation with respect to
mainstream mesia. (Mishra & Krishnaswami, 2014).
1.4 ACCURACY munotes.in

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6 Accuracy is a criterion for judging the quality of a report. It's also linked
to other important notions in journalism, such as trustworthiness and
truthfulness. Becaus e it raises the question of whether journalistic activity
is capable of portraying the news with accuracy and truth. Working on
the basis of fact -checked reporting is critical in the media. Also, to
double -check the news that has already been delivered to the audience.
Accuracy is vital not just for the viewers, but also for the reputation of
any media outlet. In the realm of digitalization, internet news media
sources work quickly and believe in first broadcasting the news and then
verifying the facts.This media trend has piqued the interest of
philosophers and media regulators, forcing them to investigate the
accuracy of journalistic work. (Colin Porlezza, 2019).
At its most basic level, accuracy means that each news item mentioning a
well-known person or business must be spelled accurately. The quote
must be precise and clear. The term "accuracy" refers to the ethical
standard that every journalist should follow. Take all required steps to
verify any occurrence covered by the journalist that has the poten tial to
become a source of contention. It doesn't matter if the news is important
to the public, but the journalist must leave no room for doubt when it
comes to validating his work. (Franklin, Hammer, Hanna, Kinsey &
Richardson, 2005).
Case study on Bria n Williams:
Brian Williams was a well -known news anchor and reporter on NBC
news channel. In 2013, he reported a story on Iraq war that took place in
the year 2003. He claimed that he was covering the event in helicopter
and that the one in front of him wa s hit by an RPG. He infect gave a clear
depiction on the story that he claimed. He said that not only the
helicopter in front of him was hit with an RPG but also the one he was in
was targeted. In 2015, the New York Rangers were doing the story on the
same incidence that happened 12 years ago. And the announcer
emphasized the incident about Williams being hit by an RPG. When the
soldiers learned of the news, they went out claiming the statement is
false. There was no hostile fire on any of the helicopters, according to
one of the pilots of the helicopter in which Williams was flying. Instead,
they received a radio message that one of the helicopters had been shot
down. That is to say, Williams attempted to manufacture a section of the
news that was otherwise entirely true except for a little portion. Williams
apologized to the audience for the erroneous information. When a
journalist reports fake or erroneous news to the public, it raises ethical
concerns. It raises concerns about the journalistic work's reli ability.
Whether or not to believe what the media says. Williams, on the other
hand, was fortunate to have a slew of prominent personalities on his side.
Piers Morgan and Steve Burke, the CEO of NBC, were among those who
defended him. They beg the audience to give him another opportunity in
life. It is unavoidable for any human being to make mistakes. Brian was
suspended for six months without pay, despite the fact that it was a major munotes.in

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7 Media Criticism error that needed to be learned from. However, he was brought back six
months later.
1.5 ADVERSARIAL JOURNALISM Adversarial journalism is a type of journalism in which the journalist
employs a combative or opposing manner of reporting. Reporters who are
extremely antagonistic to a person, a political party, or any institution
reflect this in their reporting, isolating listeners from their news. This has
the potential to destroy public trust. No journalist, it has been noticed,
accepts their hostile worldview. According to a survey done in the 1990s,
British journalists are more likely than American journalists to deny
having an adversarial attitude toward politicians and public
institutions. (Franklin, Hammer, Hanna, Kinsey, & Richardson, 2005).
However, it goes without saying that practically every country follows
the same jour nalistic practices.
One such instance occurred during Nixon's administration in the United
States. Two journalists, Woodward and Bernstein, disclosed the
Watergate scandal in 1982 -1983, and became immensely renowned
during that time, especially after a fil m about the affair, 'All the
President's Men,' was published. The scandal's reportage helped bring
down Nixon's presidency, and the two journalists acquired a great deal of
fame and respect for their reporting.
The Iranian hostage crisis, which lasted from 1979 to 1981, demonstrated
the impact of satellite -based global communication technology on
politics and diplomacy. And the journalists were seen to be unwittingly
acting as terrorists' tools. At the time, Time accurately represented the
evolving journali stic stance. The populace viewed the journalists as rude,
cynical, and almost anti -patriotic.. (Weaver & Wilhoit, 2020).
1.6 BALANCED JOURNALISM Being objective in the presentation of news is what balanced journalism
entails. It necessitates a fair repres entation of current events. However, in
journalistic practice, the focus is on a single aspect of news
representation in order to manipulate the audience. Balance and bias are
two distinct terms with distinct meanings, but they coexist in news
presentation discourse. A journalistic approach must be unbiased and
objective in order to be ethical, and accuracy can only be claimed if the
data is balanced. The reporter may not want to be impartial in certain
situations. Racism, for example, is not considered mor ally ethical in the
western world's enlighten democracies. 'Incitement to racial hatred' is a
legal term used in some countries to describe morally unethical anti -racist
behavior. A legal action is taken against such inappropriate deeds. (Guy
Starkey, 2017 ).
According to the Guardian news portal the foundation of good journalism
is objectivity, and reputable news organisations take pride in their ability
to avoid bias. This is admirable, as robust discussion is required for a munotes.in

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8 healthy media and, as a result , an informed society. When the weight of
scientific evidence clearly points in one direction, however, covering
both "sides" equally may result in misleading coverage. The BBC was
admonished in 2011 for paying "undue attention to marginal viewpoints"
on m atters like man -made climate change, among other things, and was a
high-profile example of this. Despite mounting evidence that human
activity is affecting climate change, the study found that certain BBC
programmes were subjected to a "overly rigid applic ation of editorial
guidelines on climate neutrality."
1.7 CARTOONS IN JOURNALISM Cartoons in Print media became popular in the nineteenth century via the
magazine ‗Punch‘ that provided the setting for satirical cartoons.
However, it is noteworthy that the culture of cartoon in newspaper was
introduced in 18th century in the editorial form. Just like the editorials are
in written form the same page was seen with cartoon illustrates on daily
basis. Cartoons gave more elaborated version of the news story
supp orting the written form of news. The comical aspect of the humorous
cartoons comes from the unique perspective they provide on the daily
lives of the newspaper's readers.
The satirical cartoons especially began explicitly on politicians in
broadsheets. Be fore this, the culture of cartoon was followed by the
tabloids and they were not political in nature. The broadsheets circulation
was seen increased with this new culture alongside serious news in the
19th century. The presence of cartoons in print media i s however
contradictory in three ways; they are exaggerated, they are essentially
graphic in verbal medium and also they play on reader‘s emotions. The
editorials on the other side work on the grounds of accuracy and fact
based. One such example could be o f a popular cartoonist in the
guardian, Steve Bell caricatured the politician John Major. It was the
topic in buzz especially when he illustrated him on the whole two side
pages as soon as he declared to be the Prime Minister of United
Kingdom. He drew Joh n‘s cartoon wearing his pants outside of his
trousers, and proceeded to flaunt his motif to its full potential. Such
imagery could prove as retentive in public‘s mind. (Franklin, Hammer,
Hanna, Kinsey & Richardson, 2005).
1.8 CENSORSHIP Censorship is a me thod of formally controlling or suppressing any form
of media expression that can undermine the state's order. Censorship was
first instituted in Rome in 443 BC, and later in China in 300 AD.
Traditionally, the government checks newspapers, magazines, tele vision
broadcasts, and, more recently, the internet and cinema to redact the
content that is dubious. In the interest of law and order, the government
regulates media expression. This government instability not only restricts
journalists' freedom of speech and expression, but it also distorts viewers'
right to knowledge. (Irum Abbasi, 2015). Censorship stems from a munotes.in

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9 Media Criticism variety of religious, political, and military motivations. Censorship is
seen as a potent tool for suppressing the transmission of information a nd
restricting the personal rights of journalists and reporters. For example, in
1798, the United States allowed a decent guy to be imprisoned for
writing, printing, or distributing anti -federal news. The US government
granted this authority under the Alie n and Sedition Act.Journalists'
freedom of speech and expression appears to be maintained today.
However, in today's era of digitization, it has become easier for the
government to regulate and control the flow of information. Furthermore,
self-censorship, official withholding, government and corporate coercion,
and linguistic choice have made censorship even easy than before.
(Zelizer &Allan, 2010).
1.9 QUESTIONS 1. Does the Indian media regulate the flow of information? Elaborate.
2. How censorship c urtails freedom of speech and expression?
3. Explain the trend of cartoon and caricature in media?
4. DO you think media disseminate balanced news information?
5. Media uses combative style of reporting distorting the balanced
representation of news . Explain.
6. Explain Accuracy in media with respect to case study on Brian
Williams.
7. Mobile journalism emerged out of the field of journalism is a boon
for citizen journalism. Explain with a case study.
REFERENCES: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/11/wolf -in-watchdogs -clothing -
indias -new-digital -media -laws-spark -censorship -fears
http://www.encoreleaders.org/wp -content/uploads/2013/06/WSJ -
terminology.pdf
https:// www.natlawreview.com/article/communicating -distress -digital -era-
podcast?amp
https://www.forbes.com/sites/f orbesbusinesscouncil/2022/03/15/the -painful -
lesson -of-mixed -messages -communicating -in-the-pandemic/amp/
https://blog.businesswire.com/media -and-media -relations -in-2022 -predictions -
and-trends?hs_amp=true
https://books.google.co.in/books?id=kl6iw6HiDIkC&printsec=frontcover#v=on
epage&q&f=f alse
https://books.google.co.in/books?id=01VmsLerG1QC&printsec=frontcover#v=
onepage&q&f=false munotes.in

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10 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0002764221992813
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357328966_Journalists_and_the_chall
enges_of_covering_COVID -
19_Pandemic_An_appraisal_of_Prestige_FM_Radio_Minna
https://www.tandfon line.com/doi/full/10.1080/1461670X.2021.1931410
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2056305117701163
http://keralamediaacademy.org/wp -content/uploads/2015/02/The -mobile -
journalist.pdf
http://jespnet.com/journals/Vol_1_No_1_June_2014/10.pdf
https://books.google.co.in/books?id=0JnzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT159&lpg=PT15
9&dq=adversarial+mindset+of+journalists&source=bl&ots=FYuXWGrMjD&si
g=ACfU3U1yyF_kU195VR -
3VFZ0s5Jo9q5FCw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiEiMLEk_P2AhV07HMB
Hf9G D7sQ6AF6BAhCEAM#v=onepage&q=adversarial%20mindset%20of%2
0journalists&f=false
https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2016/ nov/08/impartial -journalism -
is-laudable -but-false -balance -is-dangerous
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281785140_Media_censorship_Fre ed
om_versus_responsibility

*****
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11 Media Criticism 2
WHAT IS CRITICISM, THE ESSENCE OF
CRITICISM AND WHY CRITIQUE THE
MASS MEDIA
Unit Structure
2.0 Objective
2.1 Introduction
2.2 What is Criticism?
2.3 Media Criticism: The Essence of Criticism.
2.4 Media Cr iticism: Why Critique the Mass Media.
2.5 Let‘s Sum Up
2.6 Questions
2.7 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to understand
 Definition of Criticism
 The Essence of Criticism
 The importance of an unbiased and subjective appr oach to criticism
 Framework for Critiques
 Reasons for critiquing Mass Media
1.1 INTRODUCTION A media environment extraordinarily surrounds our worlds. We use
smartphones, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, emails,
messaging, and video content on a d aily basis to sustain our lives and
their activities. As consumers, the world is constantly surrounded by
choices of digital and conventional media channels to provide its
audience content, twenty -four hours a day. While some might argue the
consumption, w e often club our consumption with television, reading a
newspaper, or book while watching television, or watching a show on our
phones as we text our peers. The volume of information surrounding us is
indeed an overwhelming reality of our lives.

Human Bei ngs are known to sustain art and performances all through
their lives. Our life is incomplete without the consumption of these munotes.in

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12 forms. We have been doing this through various media channels like
video and audio channels, print and digital publications and s ocial media
to name a few. Like every profession assesses its contribution, the
responsibility to understand, comprehend and learn through various
mediums is essential. The industry is bound by the responsibility to
derive methods for assessing the perform ance of its members. As
professionals, it is the duty of the ones leading the group to understand
and apply the methods put forth and apply and assess their work and that
of their colleagues, competitors and others alike. In Media, however, this
is no diff erent. These assessments and acts of examining the quality are
what constitute the common practice of criticism. Oftentimes, the
connotations of the word ‗Criticism‘ are misunderstood in common
language.
In layman conversation, as one mentions the word cri ticism, it is adhered
to as being criticized, embarking on an unpleasant and negative series of
occurrences for an event, platform or person. It is considered a practice
that solely focuses on the extermination of the mentioned subject or
practice. Rather criticism is a constructive tool that better allows the
consumer to look at and only acquire information or consume media
content that is required of them. In the present age, Media Criticism
offers a varied, critical approach to discourses in fields throu gh sources
such as the radio, television and the Internet.
This unit will help you understand the theoretical concepts of Media
Criticism. It will help you describe and introduce you to the nature and
scope of the field. It will help you differentiate be tween various Mass
Media channels. It will introduce you to the concept of criticism, its
origin and media criticism along with its importance. It will also give you
an insight into the essence of criticism and the ways it can be utilized to
enhance the qu ality of the said media content. The unit sheds light on
how a critic can utilize their skills and add value to the existing media
content. The unit also explains five things a critic should keep in mind
while demonstrating their opinion to their audiences . Apart from that,
you will conclude the reasons and importance of critiquing Mass Media,
allowing you to build a holistic perspective that contributes to modelling
the values, behaviours and cultural significance of our society.
1.2 WHAT IS CRITICISM? The ideal reflection of a society can be derived from the consumption of
art and culture. Jerome Stolnitz states that we analyze art to understand
the compositions better and along with that to pass judgment on the value
they hold. The word Criticism finds i ts origins in the Greek word,
krinein , meaning to comprehend or to judge. This, in turn, attests that
both comprehension and judgment are essential tasks in the critical
process. These processes allow the person to comprehend defects and
look for spaces cr eated in the artistic spaces. However, a critic recognizes
what is termed defective elements and then constructively suggests ways munotes.in

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13 Media Criticism the flaws can be rectified, ultimately enhancing the value of the art being
consumed by people.
Jerry McNeeley states, "Crit icism is a carefully considered judgment of
the merits and faults of a work of art with the purpose of improving and
stimulating interest." Criticism can therefore be termed as a thorough
comprehension of art, aiming to include the responsibility by formul ating
positive and negative comments on the specific content being consumed
or being interacted with to ultimately increase its value. A professional
critic makes it a point to assure that the ‗judgment‘ for the work
ultimately enhances and becomes the hal lmark of valid and constructed
comments adding value. Genuine criticism is known to further expand
and upgrade the audience‘s attentiveness, enhancing the market for the
product.
Media criticism, on the other hand, can be described as a set of methods
providing an insight into uses, effects, and practices associated with
media, into the meanings, perceptions, biases, with the messages created,
into cultures that produce and consume the messages, follow the
ideologies and establish themselves as products an d producers of the
content.
1.3 MEDIA CRITICISM: THE ESSENCE OF CRITICISM Keeping in mind what we discussed criticism to be, constructive
assessments and constant appraisals form the baseline for a critic to look
at the piece of information being delivered to them. The term, however,
has been used with a negative connotation in the past and the tasks and
responsibilities of the involved individual are often misunderstood. The
essence of criticism can be mapped with Caren Deming‘s statement. He
said, "critic s must demonstrate the willingness to meet works and their
audiences on their own terms: the willingness to understand the forces
compelling creators and the gatekeepers making decisions."
Using media to produce and consume various messages on television,
radio, smartphones, the Internet, books, and one -on-one interactions, we
create and cultivate Media Literacy in our environments. Often, we come
across thoughts that help us understand that when we truly understand
ways how media can shape messages and id entities, we learn better about
the decisions we take to frame and write messages. Once we acquire the
ability to see how content can harm and shape ideas, and emotions and
present it to the rest, we truly become aware and careful of how and what
we consum e through media.
With every professional‘s fundamental responsibility and ability to derive
tools to assess the performance of those around them, as critics, it is
essential that they understand and constantly apply similar rules and
methods to their crea tions along with those members they assess. This
holds true for stalwarts and young members of the industry. It is,
however, necessary that the critic or the professional believes in the munotes.in

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14 worth of the said medium or product. A piece of art cannot be put to its
audience if the creator does not believe in its value. Similarly, only
bringing out the negative aspects cannot be termed a criticism. A
professional will always provide a more comprehensive understanding by
acknowledging the good and the mendable part s of the media they
consume with the sole motivation to add value to the product.
Even though it isn‘t necessarily required for a critic to have extensively
worked in the industry for long years, their assessments and exposure to
the art definitely allow them to build a more comprehensive, unbiased
and subjective view no matter the medium. This careful consideration of
subjective rectification, a suggestion with a singular focus to bring out
the best in the art being consumed forms the essence of criticism . It is
essential for the professional to understand the scope and the longevity of
the product.
To explain this concept, this example sets out best. The best way to
validate an edifice to meet the current expectation is to remodel them. In
this process, the current establishment undergoes scrutiny and an in -depth
analysis of what needs to be removed and what can be kept. With a
central focus to bring out the best from the space and the edifice, the
quality of the remodelling cannot be compromised. This te aring down
and building up process thus is done for the sake of the structure‘s
rectification. Hence, it is essential the critic understands and believes in
the capability of the media product as they term ways it could be rectified
for a better reach and growth for its audience.
Check your progress
1. Define Media Criticism and write about its importance for enhancing
the value of the media product.
2. Write about the importance of cultivating a comprehensive, unbiased
and subjective eye for a media critic with examples.
3. Using examples, explain in brief the essence of criticism.
1.4 MEDIA CRITICISM: WHY CRITIC THE MASS MEDIA? So far we have understood what criticism is, the essence of criticism and
the importance of cultivating an unbiased and subjective eye for
critiquing media content. This section will elaborate upon the importance
and reason for critiquing the mass media. Let‘s take a more detailed look.
Richard Blackmur labels the difficulty and responsibility as ―the critic's
burden.‖ In Blackmur‘s words, th e responsibility encompasses ―making
bridges between the society and the arts‖.

Before we get to that, it is essential to define what comprises Mass
Media. Conventionally, the electronic media (radio, television, film, and munotes.in

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15 Media Criticism recorded music), print media (n ewspapers, magazines) and popular
artefacts, experiences, practices, and processes can be termed Mass
Media. Economically and politically driven to cause science and
technological development, these, like several other domains of human
life, are bound to t he use of language. For a mass media critic, it is
essential they approach these from several angles keeping in mind
institutions, workplaces, communicative practices, cultural products,
social activities, aesthetic forms, and historical developments. It i s also
essential they remember that these are correctly used to represent and
shape the prevalent socio -cultural values. (Spitulnik, D. (1993))
As essential as it is for the professional to map out the mediums they
would interact and review, it is fundamen tal that we understand that they
form the bridge for carrying criticism from an author to media decision -
makers and to the media audiences. In order to focus on this properly a
critic In order to focus on this properly, a critic undergoes ―a structured
method or principled procedure to test the proposed interpretations as
attested by Monroe Beardsley.
Stephenson Smith categorizes these into five steps. He states through
observation of the working methods of the great critics, the complete
process of critici sm, for any work of art should encompass each of the
five basic steps as follows:
 Impressions
 Analysis
 Interpretation
 Orientation
 Valuation
Even though there is no such order that an individual critic should follow,
it is essential they comprise two or mo re of these to derive a more logical
comprehension of the said media content. It is left upon the critic to
intermingle, omit or utilize the steps to the best of their capabilities in
order to come to form an opinion. This allows the audience to view the
critical process categorized into a working method rather than blindly
following a set of rules. Smith states, ―But we should not estimate one
work in terms of another. This yields a false analogy between critical
methods and the older scientific practice of classification.‖
By saying that he so notifies that working critiquing within a framework
allows the critic to better argue and put their case forward. An individual
requires a baseline or a common ground to work from and the framework
offers that. On t he other hand, he also believes that one work cannot be
compared to another without transposing expectations, hence it is
essential for critics to know the origins and sources of the content they
might be critiquing. It is essential to carefully critique s o as to enhance munotes.in

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16 the value and bridge gaps between the audience and the content being
consumed by them.
Check your progress
4. Define ―the critic‘s burden‖ and write about its importance.
5. What comprises Mass Media according to you and why?
6. Using examples, reas ons for critiquing Mass Media.
1.5 LET’S SUM UP Human life is incomplete without the consumption of content through
various sources of Mass Media. The assessments and acts of examining
the quality are known as the criticism. Media Criticism offers a varied ,
critical approach to discourses in fields through sources such as the radio,
television, literature and the Internet. The word Criticism originated
from the Greek word, krinein , meaning to comprehend or to judge. With
careful comprehension and judgment as essential tasks in the critical
process, it is a platform for a person to see defects and voids in the art
spaces and recognize their prevalent potential. These spaces and voids are
recognized by critics. They recognize missing elements and then sugges t
ways they can be rectified, enhancing the value of the content for its
audience.
Mass Media comprises electronic media (radio, television, film, and
recorded music), print media (newspapers, magazines), the Internet,
practices and processes in a society an individual resides in. This, in turn,
using language, gives the economically and politically driven society to
cause science and technological development in several other domains of
human life. Media criticism has gained popularity through forums, blo gs,
groups, and messages on social media networks. The spaces allow
professional critics to coexist with the amateur critics giving them an
opportunity to express their opinions and criticism of the quality of an
article or a film to name a few. It is, how ever, difficult to point out if their
voices are being heard, it is essential that we notice that with the
advancement of social media spaces, the emergence of people who
possess the means and ability to critique has found like -minded spaces to
let out the ir opinions to a much senior group of folks. (Bakanov R.P)
As a critic, it is essential to understand and delve deeper into the essence
of criticism. With a central focus on bringing out the unseen, a critic
functions on the willingness to understand creat ors and gatekeepers,
ultimately for their audience. Even though a critic is not required to
possess an extensive degree in criticism, their work and contribution to
the industry allow audiences to build on their assessments and exposure
to obtain a subject ive view of the content being discussed. It is essential
for the professional to understand the scope and the longevity of the
product. This careful consideration of subjective rectification brings out
the best forming the essence of criticism. munotes.in

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17 Media Criticism Keeping in mind the importance of a comprehensive, unbiased and
subjective eye for critiquing media content, a critique should follow a
framework or baseline to acquaint themselves with the context. Taking
inspiration from Stephenson Smith, a critic follows a proces s to
encompass five basic steps to place forth their critique to its audience,
stakeholders and creators alike. These include:
 Apprehension of the work through impressions .
 Analysis to bring in perspective and correct unbridled
impressionism.
 Interpretat ion of the work for the reader of the criticism.
 Orientation to its place in the history of similar works.
 Valuation or determining the peculiar and general essence of the
work.
The framework allows the critic to form a context and a base for their
argument in front of the audience and stakeholders. To conclude, there
are several reasons behind the importance of critiquing Mass Media.
These spaces allow you to build a holistic perspective, present you with
an opportunity to delve deeper into the subject and allow you to argue
and research your opinions through a linear common ground. It is an
essential task of a critic to present a view that enhances and brings forth
the spaces between the content of consumption. It is essential to note that,
only negativ e commentary will never form a critique for any forms of art
or content being presented to the audience. Criticism is a constructive
tool with the sole purpose to enhance, see and bring value to an object,
practice or various forms of art.
The role of crit ics has been prevalent in streams of management,
economics, sociology and information sciences, apart from media.
(Debenedetti, S. (2006)) Media criticism and its relationship to the
cultural industries are not alien. The process to tackle critical discour se
by evaluating cultural products, the professional evaluation and multiple
roles played by critics have indeed contributed to the advancements in the
society. These contributions have played an essential role in modelling
the values, behaviours and cultu ral significance of the society we inhabit.
1.6 QUESTIONS 1. What is Criticism? Talk about its origin and importance.
2. Discuss in detail the essence of criticism?
3. Why is it essential for critics to understand their responsibility
while critiquing media content?
4. Elaborate on Caren Deming‘s statement "Critics must demonstrate
the willingness to meet works and their audiences on their own
terms‖. munotes.in

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18 5. Write short notes on:
a. Stephenson Smith‘s five steps for critics to keep in mind.
b. Explain the import ance of cultivating a structure in critique.
c. Explain the reasons for critiquing Mass Media.
d. Explain ―the critic‘s burden‖.
1.6 REFERENCES Orlik, P.B. (2015). Media Criticism in a Digital Age: Professional And
Consumer Considerations (1st ed.). Routledge.
Spitulnik, D. (1993). Anthropology and mass media. Annual Review of
Anthropology, 22(1), 293 -315.
Smith, Stephenson. ―The Craft of the Critic‖ Page 15. Thomas Y.
Cromwell Company. 1931.
Bakanov R.P. Essence and prospects of media criticism research in
contemporary Russia. Uchenye Zapiski Kazanskogo Universiteta. Seriya
Gumanitarnye Nauki, 2017, vol. 159, no. 3, pp. 589 –603.
Debenedetti, S. (2006). The Role of Media Critics in the Cultural
Industries. International Journal of Arts Management, 8(3), 30 –42.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41064885
*****
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19 Media Criticism 3
CRITICAL FUNCTIONS, AESTHETICS
AND ETHICS OF MASS MEDIA
Unit Structure
3.0 Objective
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Questions
3.4 Referance
3.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES At the end of this module, you will learn:
The basic functions of mass media
The capacity of mass media to perform the role of a criti c
Ethical codes to which mass media are typically required to adhere
The intersection of aesthetics with functions and ethics of mass media
The importance of role of mass media functions and ethics in the process
of critiquing
3.1 INTRODUCTION Mass medi a, by definition, have the potential to reach large audiences.
Since they are pivoted on technological apparatus which make it possible
to communicate with, and consequently, impact, the lives of many people
at once, mass media‘s capacities are vast and fo rmidable. Thus, it is
essential to establish mechanisms by which it becomes possible to
understand how its potential can be harnessed. If we are to appropriately
channel the prowess of mass media, we must examine some of the basic
functions that it can pe rform, and outline a code of ethics to which it is
required to adhere. Since the term ―mass media‖ implies a wide array of
channels, including broadcast (films, radio, television, for example), print
(books, comics, magazines, and so on) and internet techn ologies, to name
a few, it is obvious that its purposes are multifaceted, and that it is tasked
with fulfilling a range of social, cultural, political and economic
functions. However, some of its basic functions remain common across
its many incarnations. In this module, we will examine these functions
and responsibilities, so as to equip ourselves with a gross yardstick which
we might use to gauge the proficiency and reliability with which mass
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20 3.2 FUNCTIONS OF MASS ME DIA In the contemporary world, mass media function as a bridge with which
the individual relates to society. Mass communication technologies are
mediators not only in the sense that they are ―media‖ as we
conventionally understand the term, but also in th e sense that they double
up as nodal locations or important intersections in the connections
between people, places, and times.
Several theorists and practitioners have attempted to arrive at a
classification of the functions that mass media perform. Broa dly,
however, mass media can been seen to perform four major functions:
surveillance, interpretation -co-relation, social transmission and
entertainment. The first three of these functions were first enumerated in
1948 by American social scientist and commu nication theorist Harold
Lasswell.
(Making Connections with Other Material: Harold Laswell also famously
put forth a model of communication which continues to shape how we
think about the mechanism of mass media. He postulated, that in order to
study comm unication, we must answer the questions: "Who (says) What
(to) Whom (in) What Channel (with) What Effect". This is a model
which has significant ep istemic value as we begin the task of media
criticism: it is useful to ask, when analysing any communication
situation, who the players are and to whom they are addressing
themselves. In the context of this module, if we know the functions and
ethics of media, and how they influence the aesthetic of the message, we
are better equipped to answer the questions ―wh at?‖ and ―with what
effect?‖ Lasswell himself used this framework to mount a credible and
influential critique of propaganda in America and Europe during World
War I.)
Important Note: There is a qualitative difference between the terms
―function‖ and ―dut y‖: the latter is necessarily a value judgement on what
a particular thing ought to do, while the former is a term used to outline
what a particular thing does or has the capacity to do.
3.2.1 Surveillance:
Mass media, most commonly, enable audiences to monitor their
environment. It performs this function by providing data, of varying
depth and complexity, about the social, political, physical, and cultural
climate. Not only does mass media provide the information by which
people can survey the world, bu t also functions as a tool that can enable
authorities to keep a watch on the people, and prescribe norms for
behaviour, especially during crises.
For instance, when extreme weather events such as hurricanes or
cyclones are expected, mass media are used no t only to warn citizens
about impending danger, but are also used by local authorities to
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21 Media Criticism performed this function during the COVID -19 pandemic: it outlined the
risks associated with contracting the disease and also became a channel
through which central and state authorities communicated the restrictions
on public movement that were being placed to combat the spread of the
virus.
3.2.2 Information/Co -relation:
Mass media, through it s various arms, teaches audiences how to organise
information into a coherent mental picture. It has the capacity to instruct
audiences on how to make connections between disparate events, and
provide them with a framework by which they may interpret the
significance of these events (This function is closely tied with mass
media‘s agenda setting effect: by choosing to focus on certain events, it
tells audiences what to think about, and with what to link these events.)
For example, mass media frequently cor relate extreme weather events
with climate change, and lack of global political will to act on the
warning signals. While it is clear that news media most commonly acts as
agents of surveillance and information, it is important to acknowledge
that these fu nctions are also performed by various other media, including
fiction and documentary cinema, (consider, for instance, a film such as
Bimal Roy‘s Do Bigha Zamin (1953) which informed audiences about
the plight of farmers during the 1950s, represented the ur ban-rural divide
in India, and connected these with problems of inequitable distribution of
resources) and fiction and non -fiction books (consider Giriraj Kishore‘s
Girmitiya Saga , a fictionalised account of Gandhi‘s time in South
Africa), among other form s of media.
Social and Cultural Transmission:
The verb transmit refers to the act of passing something on from one
person to another. Mass media has the capacity to transmit social and
cultural values, and enable them to spread from one person to another .
Relatedly, it also has the capacity to make a person feel connected to
others, and enhance social bonding.
Mass media messages can influence societal rules, and modulate what is
considered ―acceptable‖ in society. Consider, for instance, a film such as
Acchut Kanya, which attempted to shed light on the inhumanity of the
practise of caste discrimination and untouchability, and exhorted Indians
to change their attitudes.
Media can also bring people together. This is especially evident in the
wake of digit al technology, particularly social media and mobile phones.
Entertainment :
Mass media also provide audiences with amusement and enjoyment.
Since entertainment is subjective, and its definitions are constantly
evolving, mass media have proliferated to prov ide various kinds of
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22 available for audiences who enjoy keeping a tab on current affairs:
newspapers and online magazines which range from apps such as In
Shorts, which release a constant stre am of short, quick snippets of
information to platforms such as fifty two, which feature in -depth, long -
form pieces.
Closely tied to its capacity to entertain is also the mass media‘s
propensity to enable audiences to escape their everyday realities
moment arily, or to view their everyday lives in a new light, through the
lens of the media that they consume. Some of the most effective and
powerful poetry coerces readers to see objects, creatures, people or social
phenomena in a new light. Consider the influe ntial poems which you
might have studied growing up, including poems such as William Blake‘s
―The Tyger‖ which uses evocative and unusual metaphors to describe the
titular animal‘s glory, or Rabindranath Tagore‘s ―Let My Country
Awake‖ which redefines the idea of ―freedom‖.
Not only is this made possible by films, web -series, television shows and
comics, but also through immersive video games which encourage
players to adopt and develop online versions of themselves.
Pause To Ask:
Do, and should, all med ia perform all of these functions with equal
rigour? Which functions become foregrounded in the context of novels,
for instance? Which functions are performed by outdoor media such as
billboards?
It is the critic‘s job to outline which functions are being performed by the
media message they are analysing, and to gauge whether the message is
able to foreground the right function. The primary function of news
media, for instance, is it to enable surveillance and inform audiences,
albeit in an engaging manner . However, if it begins to compromise on its
basic functions in the quest to entertain, the critic must be able to outline
the disparity at play.
Learning Interlude 1 Part I:
Consider the last film that you saw, or the last news article that you read:
What are the various functions that it performs as a media message, and
how effectively does it do so?
Mass Media as a Critic
Implicit in each of the functions outlined above, is the role of mass media
as a critic. It has the capacity to provide judgment on the merits and
demerits, the pros and cons, or positive and negative ramifications of a
situation, event or phenomenon.
3.3 MASS MEDIA AS A CRITIC OF SOCIETY munotes.in

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23 Media Criticism As it enables audiences to perform the task of surveillance, it also has the
capacity to keep an eye on social, political and cultural authorities and
hold them accountable for their decisions and actions. It can provide
audiences with a thorough accounting of the benefits and demerits of
policy so that they may be able to negotiate their everyday lives with
greater ease.
As it teaches audiences to make connections between multiple
occurrences, mass media has the capacity to provide us with cogent and
well-formed analyses that not only critique policy, but also social rules.
To pick up the thread o f the example with which we began, reportage
around extreme weather events can, and often does, offer a critique of
policy measures implemented to mitigate the impact of these events.
Similarly, mass media messages have the potential to probe
contemporar y society for attitudes and behaviors which need to shift, and
for pointing out fault lines which cause communities to rupture. For
instance, government -sponsored media messaging has attempted to
counter the prevalent neglect associated with menstrual hyg iene and
maternal care.
Mass media, in their ability to signal what audiences perceive as
entertainment, indicate to us the future pathway that a society is likely to
take. Notable film theorist Siegfried Kracauer, for instance, argued that
Germany‘s traj ectory during World War II could have been predicted, or
seen as imminent, by a thorough analysis of cinema produced by the
Weimar Republic.
As they deliver our everyday lives to us in new and potentially amusing
ways, they can enlighten audiences about the many things that they may
have taken for granted, or things which they might not have noticed
before. In doing so, they offer a critique of our established ways of
seeing. For instance, a film such as Sai Paranjpye‘s Sparsh gestures
towards the ways in which society tends to see blind people, and teaches
audiences to reexamine their attitudes towards physical disability.
Learning Interlude 1 - Part II
Reexamine the film or news article that you previously reflected upon: as
it performs certain function s, does it also, in parallel, offer a critique of
society? How does it do so?
3.4 MASS MEDIA AS A CRITIC OF ITSELF Mass media also displays an ability to critique itself. This most
frequently manifests as one kind of media critiquing another. For
instanc e, newspapers and magazine carry film reviews. Several voluntary
organizations, such as The Hoot, regularly publish criticism and analysis
of news media. Academic publications often take up the task of
unpacking the significance of media‘s entrenched syste ms of
representation. Consider, for instance, books such as Kalpana Sharma
and Ammu Joseph‘s edited collection Whose News?, which analyses munotes.in

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24 media's perception and presentation of women's issues by focusing on
five issues related to Indian women between 1979 and 1988.
Sometimes, media also demonstrate a capacity for self -reflexivity, in
which they reflect on their role in society. This is evident in films which
detail the world of cinema, such as Kaagaz Ke Phool, Guddi, Luck By
Chance, or Om Shanti Om. Books such as Louisa May Alcott‘s Little
Women also reflect on the impact of reading, and the need to read.
As mass media begin to critically reflect on their role in society, they
attempt to arrive at a code of ethics to which they must adhere as they go
abou t crafting messages.
Pause To Ask:
A. When media publicly reflect on their capacity to shape and change
society, and the proficiency and ethicality with which they perform these
tasks, how does it impact their credibility in the eyes of audiences? Do
media strategically perform this act in the public domain so as to build
their image?
B. How much does an individual perspective, or their way of looking at
mass media, determine what they will see as the most important functions
of mass media?
4. Mass Medi a Ethics :
Considering the potential of mass media, it becomes essential to arrive at
a framework of guiding principles that will enable practitioners to
determine if they are harnessing the capacities of media. Depending on
what theorists see as most rele vant to the idea of rightness or correctness,
they arrive at principles of good practice of mass media. These principles
of practice are frequently referred to as media ethics. Ethics can be
loosely defined as moral principles that govern a person's behavi our or
the conducting of an activity. Ethics is a branch of philosophy which
―involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior ‖. Media ethics is a
form of applied ethics: questions of goodness and rightness with whi ch
ethics has grappled with for centuries are transposed to mass media to
arrive at a set of good practices, or most optimum ways in which to
channel the capacities of mass media.
Mass media are expected to remain cognizant of the impact they can
have, an d thus adhere to a code of ethics which enable them to perform
their functions. Questions of ethics are important in the context of media
criticism: they provide critics with a yardstick by which they may
measure a media message‘s attention to and awarenes s of the impact it
can have on audiences, and on the social and political landscape at large.
3.3.1 Ethical Codes : munotes.in

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25 Media Criticism In the context of mass media, ethics are not only derived from
individuals‘ capacity to honestly and truthfully discern right from wrong,
but are also institutionalised. Various organisations prescribe a basic code
of ethics which media must follow as they disseminate messages among
the public.
Several attempts have been made to arrive at a universal code of ethics
for mass media, but theori sts, practitioners and social scientists have,
time and again, acknowledged the difficulty of arriving at a single
framework. They argue that ethical considerations, or ideas of good and
correct, would vary depending on political, social and cultural dynam ics.
However, report of the MacBride Commission, famously titled Many
Voices One World, attempted to outline the objectives that should guide
the preparation of any code of ethics of mass media.
(a) to protect the consumer - readers, listeners, viewers, or the public in
general;
(b) to protect and inspire the working journalist, broadcaster or others
directly concerned with the gathering, writing, processing, and
presenting news and opinions;
(c) to guide editors and others who take full legal respons ibility for what
is published and broadcast;
(d) to define the responsibilities of proprietors, shareholders and
governments who are in a position of absolute control over any
particular form of mass media communications activity;
(e) to deal with issue s of advertisers and others who buy into the
services of the media.
The report, which was written in 1980 by the United Nations Educational
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) under the aegis of
the International Commission for the Study of Commu nication Problems,
also outlined the main problems associated with mass media:
concentration of the media, commercialization of the media, and unequal
access to information and communication. It maintained that practices
and policies which allow these phen omena to go unchecked are by
themselves unethical.
Ethical codes have also been laid out by organisations such as Press
Council of India and Society for Professional Journalists (SPJ).
3. 4.2 Media Ethics and Media Criticism :
It is the role of the medi a critic to determine if media are performing their
tasks ethically. In addition, an important aspect of media criticism is an
understanding of the various standards that can be applied as we arrive at
a model for the most ethical way of representation: fo r instance, should
any oppressed community be depicted as they are being treated in
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26 oppression? (Relatedly: How different would the representations that
answer each of these quest ions be?)
Meanwhile, it is important that media critics themselves internalise a
code of ethics as they perform their act of criticism and analysis. It is
essential that any critique of media messages also adheres to basic
ethicality, and that it truthful ly and accurately points out the
characteristics of a message.
Learning Interlude 2
Based on the five objectives outlined by the MacBride Commission
Report, derive a basic of code of ethics that you will attempt to follow as
you work on your Media Critici sm assignments.
3.5 MEDIA AESTHETICS The process of using mass media technologies with an attention to the
specific functions that a medium is capable of performing and the
guidance of a code of ethics, leads to the media message acquiring a
certain shape and form. Consider, for instance, the reportage of serious
sex crimes in print or broadcast media: as they attempt to fulfil their
primary function, which is to inform audiences and critique society, and
navigate with a code of ethics (as well as legal ob ligations) which state
that they must minimise harm to the victim, media outlets report the
crimes, but conceal the identity of the victim. Thus, the form and shape
that reportage takes is influenced by the functions that media hope to
carry out, and by a code of ethics. In other words, working through the
questions of function and ethics enable us to arrive at a basic idea of
―good taste‖ which shapes media messages.
Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy which deals with questions of taste
and beauty. It also attempts to reflect critically on the nature and
provenance of art. The term ―aesthetic‖ is also used to refer to a set of
principles underlying the work of a particular artist, artistic movement or
technology. For instance, when theorists invoke a ― modernist aesthetic‖
they refer to a set of principles that guided and shaped art and ideas of
beauty in the wake of modernity, or theorists such as Lev Manovich, who
explicate the characteristics and nature of digital media, allude to a
―cinematic aesthet ic‖ which they believe has influenced the aesthetics of
emerging media, such as video games and music videos. Ethics and
aesthetics are closely tied to each other: while the former attempts to
arrive at a judgement of goodness in the context of behaviours or
activities, the latter aims to understand goodness and beauty in the
context of art and taste.
A part of the task of media criticism is to explicate the aesthetic of media
messages, and to attempt to examine the guiding principles which it
makers might have followed in the process of shaping the message. A
media critic must ideally attempt to trace and locate the aesthetic of the
message they are analysing, and critically evaluate the aesthetic. For munotes.in

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27 Media Criticism instance, several Indian film theorists have traced ba ck the aesthetic of
popular Indian cinema in the 1940s -50s to the aesthetic of the paintings
of Raja Ravi Verma and traditional folk art such as Pattachitra, the
narrative aesthetic of Hindu mythology, and the storytelling aesthetic of
Dastangoi. In doing so, they arrive at a deeper understanding of the
aesthetic of Indian cinema, and are able to critically evaluate its impact.
Pause to ask:
As remarked upon above, aesthetics is also closely tied to the idea of
―good taste‖. However, it is important to as k, who gets to differentiate
―good‖ taste from ―bad‖? Who are the arbiters of ―taste‖ in any society?
Learning Interlude 3
Turn to a print advertisement which captures your interest: what are the
guiding principles that you think have shaped the message of the
advertisement? Are these guiding principles derived from an idea of the
functions it must serve and ethics to which it must adhere? Is the
advertisement ―beautiful‖? What makes it/ doesn‘t make it so?
3.6. CONCLUSION In order for any task of media criticism to be logically consistent and
coherent, it is essential that the critic has a yardstick, or a basic
framework which they apply to media messages in order to evaluate
them. An awareness of the functions of mass media and its own capacity
to crit ique, enables media critics to gauge the effectiveness of a media
message. A knowledge of ethical frameworks enables media critics to
determine if the media message holds itself accountable and adheres to
basic standards of good practices. An awareness of aesthetics enables
media critics to understand how the media message has been shaped, and
how questions of functional and ethical value have translated into a
certain form and shape.
3.7. SUMMARY AND KEY POINTS Since mass media‘s capacities are large, we establish mechanisms by
which it becomes possible to understand how its potential can be
harnessed. It is possible to create these mechanisms by examining
functions and responsibilities of mass media.
Mass media can been seen to perform four major functi ons: surveillance,
interpretation -co-relation, social transmission and entertainment.
Implicit in each of these functions is mass media‘s role as a critic of
society, and of itself.
Mass media are expected to remain cognizant of impact they can have,
and thus adhere to a code of ethics which enable them to perform their
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28 It is the role of the media critic to determine if media are performing their
tasks ethically.
It is also important that media critics follow a code of ethics as they
perform th eir act of criticism and analysis.
The process of using mass media technologies with an attention to the
specific functions that a medium is capable of performing and the
guidance of a code of ethics, leads to the media message acquiring a
certain shape an d form.
Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy which deals with questions of taste
and beauty. It also attempts to reflect critically on the nature and
provenance of art. The term ―aesthetic‖ is also used to refer to a set of
principles underlying the work of a particular artist, artistic movement or
technology.
A part of the task of media criticism is to explicate the aesthetic of media
messages, and to attempt to examine the guiding principles which it
makers might have followed in the process of shaping the message.
3.8 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS: What are the basic functions of mass media? How does mass media
perform the role of a critic as it discharges these functions?
Is mass media capable of critiquing itself? How does it do so? Explain
with examples.
What is the purpose of ethical codes? How are they relevant to the task of
media criticism?
What are the objectives that any ethical code of mass media must attempt
to fulfil?
What is the role of aesthetics in the task of the media critic?
3.9 REFERENCES: Joseph, A. & Sharma, K. (2006). Whose news? : the media and women's
issues . New Delhi ; Thousand Oaks, Calif : Sage Publications
Kracauer, S., & Quaresima, L. (2004). From Caligari to Hitler: A
psychological history of the German film . Princeton, N.J : Princeton
University Press.
Lasswell, H. D. (1948). The structure and function of communication in
society. In L. Bryson (Ed.), The communication of ideas (pp. 37 -51).
New York: Harper and Row.
Manovich, L. (2012). What is Digital Cinema?‖ 1995. Reprinte d in
Critical Visions in Film Theory: Classic and Contemporary Readings,
edited by Timothy Corrigan, Patricia White with Meta Mazaj , 1060 -
1070.
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29 Media Criticism 4
CRITICISM AND THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Unit Structure
4.0 Objective
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1. Constructive C riticism
4.1.2. The Communication Process
4.2 Criticism: The Communication Process
4.2.1 Process Perspective
4.2.2 Originator Criticism
4.2.3 Message Criticism
4.2.4. Medium Criticism
4.2.5 Receiver Criticism
4.3 Let‘s Sum Up
4.4 Questions
4.5 Referenc es
1.0 OBJECTIVE


1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.1.1. Constructive Criticism :
The word criticism is derived from a Greek word, krinein , which means
to comprehend or to judge. It is important to note that comprehension and
judgment are essential tasks for critical an alysis. Using communication
and a structured approach, however, a critic uses clear, direct, honest, and
sustainable solutions to implement fewer changes to the content and
enhance its value. The critic‘s feedback highlights and allows
stakeholders, owners , creators and the audience to make positive
improvements, providing a vision to look at the art being delivered to
them.
1.1.2. The Communication Process :
As part of society, human beings transfer their messages (both verbally
and non -verbally) through th e process of communication. This munotes.in

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30 communication is an end -to-end process that involves signs and symbols
across gender, cultures, biases and connotations through various
mediums to reach their audiences on the other end. Before we get into
understanding dis courses and the importance of constructive criticism, it
is essential we shed light on the process of communication involved. The
communication process is as follows:
Sender - (Encoding) - Message - (Medium) - Receiver - (Decoding) -
Feedback
Sender :
The ` sender‘ is the initiator of the process. Using several signs and
symbols, they are responsible for sending a message. They are also
known as the ‗encoder.‘
Encoding :
The process of encoding allows the sender to organize messages using
words, gestures, and tone of the voice keeping in mind the audience or
the receiver.
Message :
The message is essentially the information being transferred. This
message is constructed using style, language, length and tone, keeping in
mind the target audience.
Medium:
The me dium is the channel used by the sender to transfer the message.
They can be verbal or non -verbal in nature. Several other channels could
be phone calls, fax, emails, memos, etc. The medium is carefully chosen
to keep in mind the nature of the message, the location of the audience,
the urgency of the message and the situation inhabited by the person for
whom the message has been constructed.
Receiver :
The person at the receiving end for whom the message has been
composed is termed the receiver. They use thei r intellect to decipher
signs and symbols sent to them to interpret the message.
Decoding :
The process that allows the receiver to interpret the message transferred
to the receiver by the sender is termed decoding. If decoded correctly, as
intended by th e sender, shows the message has been conveyed and
interpreted correctly.
Feedback :
The last step in the recurring communication chain is the receiver‘s
response to the message sent to them. This is termed feedback and its munotes.in

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31 Media Criticism nature can be both verbal and non -verbal. The verbal feedback allows
more room to obtain further information whereas the non -verbal feedback
can be received in the form of a head nod or facial expressions.
This unit will introduce you to the criticism and discourses in the
communication pr ocess. It will give you an insight, allowing you to delve
deeper into the barriers faced by the audience and the critic. Towards the
end, you would have a clearer perspective and a fresh vision to look at art
and other prevalent content in the media.
1.2 CRITICISM: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS So far we have understood the criticism, constructive criticism, the critic
and their importance in the process to deliver an unbiased opinion and the
communication. We understand the importance of the sender, message,
receiver and feedback and the importance of bringing out a clearer
perspective. We shall now delve into the more details and orientations for
mass media criticism through this process and its barriers.
1.2.1 Process Perspective :
Time and again we have di scussed the communication process consists of
a chain involving a sender, a message, the medium and the receiver. The
process is fundamentally responsible for human communication. The
approach was first recognized by Aristotle when he pointed out that the
motive of the speaker and the psychology of the audience is as important
as the message. He mentioned how the message is shaped by its
intention, rhetorical structure, and the verbal medium. Lasswell's
Communication Model, given by Harold Lasswell in 1948 simplifies the
communication model into ―who, said what, in what channel, to whom,
and with what effect.‖ Not too late, the communicators of the electronic
media have utilized electromagnetic tools to widen the verbal and visual
medium's reach and quality over the years. It is important to keep in mind
that the meaningfulness of an individual‘s critical contribution should not
be judged on their occupation, but rather on the implications of the
event.
A person‘s environment (in this case a critic‘s backgro und) plays a
remarkable role in the process and elements they use to communicate
their ideas and concepts. The advent of electronic media has given the
creators a space to concentrate on the message and the medium. Hence, a
presenter is always too careful and accurate with their scripts, ideas and
messages to be delivered correctly to the audience. However, the media
buyer focuses, researches and chooses the networks and channels to run
their campaigns during the commercial breaks with a calculated
consider ation. It is essential for the person concerned to be well -aware of
what, how, why and when can be conveyed to their respective audiences.
It is for the originator or the client to keep in mind the interest of the
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32 the search of superficial words and cunning time placements to bring out
their products and services to their end consumer.
1.2.2 Originator Criticism :
Once we have understood the communication process, it is important to
understand the originator and the criticism surrounding them. These
originators can further be divided into two broad groups: the ones
commissioning the work (clients, directors and programmers) and those
creating projects with respect to the orders given by the former. In
electronic media, the two groups combine the attributes of initiation and
design of the media content.
To give you an example, several cable networks appoint originators that
produce their own programs and others use the medium to only tra nsmit
the content created by others. In multiple instances, it becomes difficult
to separate the two but this difficulty gives rise to gaining critical
attention. Questions like ―the program didn‘t do well because the story
did not live up to the expectati on of the audience or because the network
kept interfering with crucial decisions of casting, delivery and direction‖
become prevalent topics of discussion for critical discourse. To explain
the scenario, the latter becomes the fault of the network as an o riginator
and the former shows troubles with the network‘s role as a medium.
Jeremy Tunstall, the British Sociologist uses the term communicators in
place of originators and non -clerical workers. He states they are people
who select, shape and package sto ries to transmit them to the end
audience. He puts a special emphasis on communicators being
responsible for preparing content for transmission and not carrying out
the transfer of the content themselves. Their tasks involve obtaining,
describing and trans cribing information for the medium. This decision -
making allows their performance to be monitored through the originator's
criticism. This approach of ―originator as a group‖ is recognized in auteur
criticism too. It began in the 1950s when several French film critics
argued that despite the constraints of the studios they worked for, several
Hollywood film directors forged unique styles in their films. However,
originator criticism has an overriding purpose. Eliseo Vivas said the
criticism should enlighten the true nature of the artist‘s creation. This
allows the artist to do better, worse or different than has been intended.
Naturally, the discourse between the intent and the end result is said to be
larger in groups than in an individual effort. It is imp ortant for a critic to
possess a perception that detects the focus of the concept, content or idea
has either been retained or lost in the group effort.
As critics and media professionals, it is both important for folks to be
more in line with the peculiar ities of the process and their failures and the
critique should be discussed before taking it to the public eye, catching
the audience‘s attention. This function is important to consumer
understanding of the media content and also to sensitizing creators t o new
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33 Media Criticism Check your progress
1. Define Constructive Criticism and its importance.
2. Explain in brief the Lasswell's Communication Model.
___________________________________________________________
_____________
3. Explain Origina tor‘s Criticism with examples.
1.2.3 Message Criticism :
With originator criticism, a critic deciphers and presents an idea of the
content based on their background and exposure. However, the subject of
criticism is closely always linked with the evaluation of the message
being delivered to the audience. It is crucial to examine beyond what has
been put into the message by the originator. Theodore Meyer Greene
explains this through the concept of a ‗re -creative criticism‘ to examine
these messages. This inv olves careful articulation of recreating the said
work through correct interpretation for communication. In simpler words,
the critique of a show, an idea or a concept being delivered to the end
audience either colleagues or large audiences should reflect the central
theme of the content as presented or intended by the producers,
originators or clients of the show.
Several communication theorists argue the ―author expression‖ is only a
part of the message analysis. What needs to be understood is the
audienc e‘s investment in those messages being delivered. Hence, media
messages are also considered polysemic in nature. They are capable of
producing multiple meanings, sometimes even contradictory. It means
the decoding power for the messages relies on the hands of the receiver.
John Fiske, a media scholar and cultural theorist states, ―the success of a
program also depends on the polysemic nature of its content put forth by
their creators.‖ He states this to attest that polysemy gives different
subcultures a pla tform to form their opinions and meanings based on their
social relationships and cultural environment."
For a critic to indulge, it is essential they remember audiences are capable
of deriving their own messages from content. With thoughtful criticism,
the stakeholders are reminded of the fragility of their control over
message and meaning. It is important for them to attempt to restrict
content to elements and structures that bring about meanings exclusively
as intended. It is on them to narrow meaning o ptions, what can and often
needs to be left out, and ways to arrange elements to include in their
respective program. Then through a selection of a medium, they can
target the audiences to acquire a response to the content. It is, however,
crucial that the y remember that message criticism emphasizes receivers
will not react to the content as wanted, expected, or even as feared!
1.2.4. Medium Criticism :
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34 As the stories go, the messengers bearing bad news who had to face death
in the royal clan have been pre valent in our worlds too. The place of the
messengers has been taken by the media channels in today‘s times.
Several acts of destroying television sets, bombarding the internet with
opposed opinions, and in several cases, court hearings about stories in th e
media have given us a glimpse of medium criticism. For decades,
television sets (and now smartphones) have been blamed for problems,
disruptions and struggles caused in the society we inhabit. This single -
sided, negative commentary puts the medium in a l ight that completely
ignores other aspects of the communication process.
The medium criticism ignores essential components of the
communication process and is often perceived to be incredibly negative.
This has led to a fear and media scholars Paul Lazars feld and Robert
Merton pointed out three key reasons for them in 1948.
 The pervasiveness and manipulation of power have led people to
believe that they possess no control or restraint over the media.
 Influential economic interest groups utilizing the med ia channels
have to ensure the continuance of economic and social growth,
resulting in minimizing social criticism and deterioration of critical
thinking skills in the audience.
 While aiming to target larger audiences, the media has potentially
caused a d eterioration of artistic tastes and cultural standards.
Their emphasis on widespread attitudes toward the media channels
carrying these messages gave us an insight into what causes medium
criticism. Hence, medium criticism provides and sustains one of fou r
critical standpoints providing an understanding of the communication
process.
1.2.5 Receiver Criticism :
The receiver's criticism has often been mapped as the effect caused due to
the message conveyed by the originator. But as we found out, media
content is largely polysemic in nature, part of receiver criticism involves
the polysemic reinterpretations of the message by various compositions
of the audience. As individuals and critics in the world of information, it
is essential we understand people are ac tive consumers of content. As
Elayne Rapping states, we are active and diverse consumers of a show,
with our own experiences, understanding and response to the content,
with varied attention levels and moods.
Hence, receiver criticism hints at the uses an d gratifications of
consumers. Often it attempts to assess whether the gratifications were
achieved and points towards the originator -assisting function to
determine their audiences. To give you an example, a producer begins by
assessing and determining th eir target audience. Then they move forward
to put forth a snippet of their idea to its audience to acquire their
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35 Media Criticism interests from a stipulated audience in mind to gauge their reactions.
Professor James Andrews provides three key receiver variables to
segment the audiences.
 Knowledge: This involves an assessment of the target audience‘s
familiarity with the intended message and people.
 Group identification: These are variables such as age, s ex, lifestyle,
location, literacy and demographic structures to determine the
audience.
 Receptivity: The third variable is a reflection and an amalgamation
of the first two. The knowledge that a consumer brings to the
message and the values they use to ne gotiate determine their
appropriateness and relevance to the topic at hand.
The critic possesses every right to accept the audience when critiquing.
They still are bound to face several discourses between the public and the
elite. It is only natural that professionals, stakeholders and critics are
probable of making a mistake by making assumptions of the public
expectation, taste and vision are less than it actually is. It is however
essential to remember the quality of the professional output will improve
swiftly with the increased perceptiveness of the receivers. But as
professional critics it is also a reminder to respect does not mean
surrendering the chance of awareness.
Ralph Smith‘s statements correctly sum up our discussion. He attests that
a reputa ble critic's final aim is not to arouse violent responses from the
industry professionals and strong support from their handful of readers; it
is but to involve the originator and receiver in a cooperative critical
endeavour."
Check your progress
1. ―The suc cess of a program also depends on the polysemic nature of
its content put forth by their creators.‖ Explain.
2. Mention three key reasons put forward by Paul Lazarsfeld and
Robert Merton to understand medium criticism.
3. Elaborate on three key receiver variable s stated by Professor James
Andrews to segment the audiences.
3.3 LET’S SUM UP Communication forms an essential part of human life. With careful
consideration, we spend our lives communicating using verbal and non -
verbal cues. Our communication runs betwee n the sender, message,
receiver, and feedback to be deciphered and transferred constantly. This
communication allows the critic to invent clear and honest solutions to
implement changes to the content, enhancing the value. This feedback
allows the creators to make improvements and provides a clearer vision
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36 Lasswell's Communication Model simplifies the process into ―who, said
what, in what channel, to whom, and with what effect.‖ It is essential to
be reminded that a person‘s background larg ely influences their
perceptions, ideas and contexts. The originator is responsible for keeping
in mind the essentials of a thought, idea or concept that do not get lost in
the pursuit of words and phrases. Therefore a critic should remember and
be able to distinguish between discrepancies caused by the network or
that of the originator group.
Media messages are polysemic in nature and it is of utmost importance
that the audience‘s investment in the messages is mapped by the critic.
This polysemy gives peo ple from varied cultures and backgrounds a
space to interpret the media messages based on their exposure to the
world of relationships, customs and the traditional environment they
inhabit. As stated, consumers are active and never passive in nature. The
diverse approach of the program is usually a reflection of experiences,
responses and extended attention levels and moods. It tackled the idea of
uses and gratifications of consumers and goes a step to analyze the
former is achieved by the audience. As a cr itic, it is essential to remember
discourses in communication and how various channels are and can be
perceived to add value to the existing content for its stakeholders and the
audience.
1.4 QUESTIONS 1. What is constructive criticism and its importance?
2. Explain the communication process in detail with examples.
3. Explain Lasswell's Communication Model given by Harold Lasswell.
4. Elaborate on Theodore Meyer Greene‘s concept of a ‗re -creative
criticism‘.
5. Write short notes on:
a. Polysemic nature of me dia messages.
b. Three key reasons by Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton in medium
criticism.
c. Three receiver variables to segment the audiences
d. Elaborate on originator criticism with examples.
1.5 REFERENCES UKEssays. (November 2018). Both Criticize and justif y the
Communication Process. Retrieved from
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/business/both -criticize -and-justify -the-
communication -process -business -essay.php?vref=1
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37 Media Criticism 5
KNOWLEDGE PROCESSING FUNCTION
OF MASS MEDIA
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1. Knоwledge Рrосessing
5.1.2 The Empiricism View
5.1.3 The Normative View
5.2 The Four Ways of Knowing
5.2.1 The Scientist‘s Аррroасh
5.2.2 The Mystic Approach
5.2.3 The Rhetorician Approach
5.2.4 The Perceptual Triad
5.3 The Planes Combined
5.4 Summary
5.5 Questions
5.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 How Knowledge processing take place in the target audience?
 What are the four ways of knowing?
5.1 KNОWLEDGE РRОСESSING Sо fаr, we've lооked аt the bаsiс сhаrасteristiсs аnd funсtiоns оf
mediа сritiсism, as well as how it's аррlied tо different аsрeсts оf
the соmmuniсаtiоn рrосess. We'll nоw lооk аt knowledge
асquisitiоn аs а wаy tо lооk аt eleсtrоniс mediа сritiсism.In this
unit we will be taking intо consideration the fоllоwing questiоn:
Hоw dо individuаls аnd аudienсes leаrn аnd соmрrehend
infоrmаtiоn?
How wоuld уоu сlаssify their understаnding рrосesses? munotes.in

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38 When evaluating the potential оf а rаdiо/televisiоn рrоduсt, hоw
саn mediа сritiсism tаke these inequalities in knоwledge intо
ассоunt?
5.1.1 Emрiriсаl And Normative Оutlооks
In order to соmрrehend and judge рhenоmenа, inсluding eleсtrоniс
mediа mаteriаl, we must endeavor tо reсоnсile twо орроsing
viewроints i.e.
A. emрiriсаl аnd B. nоrmаtive.
Emрiriсism саn stаnd оn its оwn аs а method of соmрrehending
something objectively.
Hоwever, in сritique, nоrmаtivism builds оn this initiаl
understаnding tо determine whether the рrоgrаmmаtiс something in
question is "gооd" оr "рооr" оn а quаlitаtive level.
5.1.2 The Empiricism View
Emрiriсаl teсhnique is essentiаlly а twо-stаge desсriрtive рrосess.
The emрiriсist gаthers аs muсh relevаnt detаil аs роssible thrоugh
оbservаtiоn, then exрlаins it by evаluаting hоw the detаils аre in
аgreement.
Let's tаke аn exаmрle tо understаnd the соnсeрt. The rаdiо
stаtiоn Big FM соnstаntly brоаdсаsts fifty-fоur minutes of music
eасh hоur. Its neаrest соmрetitiоn, whiсh fоllоws а similаr соnсeрt,
lаsts оnly 41 minutes. Further investigation оf the twо stаtiоns
reveals thаt neither broadcasts news exсeрt in the morning
drivetime and neither emрlоys fоregrоund (tаlky) disс jосkeys.
Finаlly, we рinроint whаt аррeаrs tо be the рrimаry саuse оf their
numeriсаl musiс disраrity: Big FM broadcasts only four minutes of
advertisements eасh hоur, whereаs the соmрetitiоn brоаdсаsts
fifteen!
Following the соlleсtiоn оf fасts, emрiriсists must аttemрt tо
exрlаin the reаsоn(s) fоr them. "We prefer tо treаt уоu better,"
Big FM аssures its listeners. "We play more music because we
like tо treаt yоu better." Tо the generаl рubliс, this mаy аррeаr tо
be а reаsоnаble аnd аgreeаble exрlаnаtiоn. Hоwever, seriоus
emрiriсists/сritiсs (esрeсiаlly thоse аt соmрeting fасilities) dо nоt
take it at face vаlue; they соnduсt аdditiоnаl surveys tо see
whether оther elements аre рresent.
Big FM is able to attract less thаn one-fourth оf the target
listeners thаt its mаin соmрetitоr is аble tо reасh, ассоrding tо
rаtings bооks. Аs а result, while сhаrging substаntiаlly less fоr
аirtime, Big FM hаs а hаrd time selling even fоur minutes рer
hоur. In соntrаst, the rivаl hаs nо trоuble оbtаining sроnsоrs fоr
the full fifteen minu tes оf its "аvаilаbility." In оther wоrds, Big munotes.in

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39 Media Criticism FM рlаys mоre musiс not because it саres аbоut its listeners, but
beсаuse the tunes are filling time thаt the stаtiоn саn't sell tо
аdvertisers.
In this саse the emрiriсists didn‘t tаke Big FM's рubliс сlаim thаt
"we рrefer tо treаt yоu better" аt fасe vаlue. Insteаd, we exаmined
the situаtiоn mоre сlоsely tо gаin а better understаnding оf the
рrоblem. The emрiriсists асquired аll оf the infоrmаtiоn (the first
stаge оf emрiriсism) аnd then рrосeeded tо desсribe their
relаtiоnshiр tо оne аnоther (the seсоnd stаge оf emрiriсism).
Аny аttentive mediа рrасtitiоner begins аs аn emрiriсist, рrоbing
under the surfасe in оrder tо reасh the "саrefully weighed
judgment" thаt exсellent сritique neсessitаtes.
Оne аsрeсt оf getting suсh а соnсlusiоn is the desсriрtiоn оf
оbservаble events. Hоwever, desсriрtiоn withоut the eventuаl
revelаtiоn оf the determining соnditiоns thаt hаve led the desсribed
entity tо be whаt it is serves little рurроse.
Ассeрting Big FM's аssertiоn thаt its "mоre musiс" is а listener -
serving gift wоuld nоt reveаl the truth аbоut the stаtiоn's рersistent
unрорulаrity оr аllоw us tо figure оut whаt's саusing it. Is the
lаyоut slоррy, with аbruрt trаnsitiоns between elements? Is the
stаtiоn's reсeрtiоn рооr? Аny рrоfessiоnаl whо wishes tо соmрete
in the mаrket under sсrutiny shоuld аsk these аnd оther questiоns.
Рeорle соnsidering а саreer in rаdiо/televisiоn must be diligent
emрiriсists/сritiсs, if оnly tо рreserve their оwn interests.
In the wоrds оf Rоbert Lewis Shаyоn , suсh а сritiс will "Self -
deрreсаtiоn, needle, сhаllenge, desрise, аnd рrоvоke аre аll things
thаt he dоes tо himself. He must соnstаntly аsk оneself, "Sо
whаt?" He must stimulаte, deny, questiоn, refuse, аnd орроse."
Mоst оf the сritiсs whо hаve асhieved distinсtiоn аnd whоse
nаmes hаve endured hаve been thоse whо sоught tо delve beneаth
the рleаsing "аesthetiс surfасe" оf аrt, rаther thаn bаsk in the
рleаsing "аesthetiс surfасe" оf humа n life аnd оbjeсtive reаlity,
frоm Greek аnd Rоmаn times tо the Middle Аges аnd
Renаissаnсe, аnd dоwn tо the mоdern рeriоd.
Tо аррly this tо оur сirсumstаnсe, the "аesthetiс surfасe" оf Big
FM's mоre -musiс fоrmаt mаy оr mаy nоt be аttrасtive in аnd оf
itself; nоnetheless, we must emрiriсаlly gо deeрer in either
instаnсe. Why dо sо few listeners сhооse the stаtiоn if the sоund
is рleаsаnt tо аn exрert рrоgrаmmer? Whаt needs tо be аltered if
it isn't enjоyаble? Аnd why hаsn't this аdjustment аlreаdy been
imрlemented?
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40 If the сritiс/рrоfessiоnаl is tо suссeed in the knоwledge -рrосessing
rоle, sustаined emрiriсаl оbservаtiоn аnd its seсоnd -stаge quest fоr
аnswers must gо hаnd in hаnd. This wоrk is just аs imроrtаnt fоr
vаlid externаl сritiсism аs it is fоr inside industry сritique.
Fоr а moment, imаgine the disserviсe thаt the ill-соnсeived in this
review wоuld dо tо listeners аnd оther stаtiоns in the BIG FM
mаrket.
The сritiс сleаrly ends аt the limits оf whаtever first imрressiоn he
соlleсts. He hаs tаken the stаtiоn's exрlаnаtiоn fоr its biggest сlаim
tо fаme аt its vаlue аnd relаys it withоut questiоn —withоut
lооking fоr оther fасts оr exрlаnаtiоns. He unwittingly enсоurаges
his аudienсe tо suрроrt а stаtiоn bаsed оn а соnditiоn thаt stems
frоm its fаilure rаther thаn its suссess, аnd then аttemрt s tо
imроse the sаme business -defeсtive teсhnique оn оther оutlets in
the mаrket. Аlsо nоte thаt this сritiс hаs mentiоned nоthing аbоut
the trасks рerfоrmed оn Big FM in terms оf seleсtiоn,
аrrаngement, оr flоw. In а quаntitаtive sense, the reаder оnly
leаrns thаt there is "mоre" musiс.
The сritiс here believes thаt fewer аdvertising equаls better
рrоgrаmming. (His underlying nоrmаtive belief is this.) But he
hаsn't dоne enоugh reseаrсh intо the Big FM sсenаriо tо knоw
whether its оn-аir оutрut suрроrts this сlаim. Оn the оther hаnd,
the сritiс hаs fаiled tо trаnsmit the nаture оf his findings tо his
аudienсe аssuming he did undertаke suсh а study.
Аssume Whаt influenсe the соlumn hаs in this mаrket? Whаt
might his рieсe's соnsequenсes be?
Fоr stаrters, mоre рeорle wоuld 'lооk intо' Big FM. These рeорle
will tune in mоre frequently if the stаtiоn is well-рrоgrаmmed аnd
they enjоy whаt they heаr. This will bооst the stаtiоn's rаtings аnd
fоrсe it tо tаke оne оf twо асtiоns: either inсreаse the аmоunt оf
аdvertisements eасh hоur оr signifiсаntly rаise the rаtes fоr the
fоur minutes it рresently sells. The first methоd wоuld fоrсe Big
FM tо аbаndоn the feаture thаt drew these new listeners in the
first рlасe. They mаy, in turn, leаve the stаtiоn.
Rаising its rаte саrd tо the роint where fоur minutes оf аdvertising
generаtes the sаme revenue аs twelve оr fоurteen minutes оn rivаl
stаtiоns, оn the оther hаnd, will рut Big FM‘s рriсing оut оf reасh
fоr mаny роtentiаl аdvertisers. It will be mоre diffiсult tо sell time
tоdаy thаn it wаs рreviоusly! This strаtegy mаy рut рressure оn
оther stаtiоns tо rаise their fees tо reestаblish their relаtive vаlue
tо аdvertisers, роtentiаlly driving sоme lосаl sроnsоrs аwаy frоm
rаdiо аnd intо оther mediа.
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41 Media Criticism But whаt if Big FM isn't рrоgrаmmed соrreсtly? Whаt if the
musiс is hарhаzаrdly сhоsen, with аbruрt аnd jаrring trаnsitiоns
between fоrmаt elements?
The Сritiс hаs led his аudienсe tо а lоwer -vаlue event fоr nо
оther reаsоn thаn thаt they will be аble tо enjоy the bаd quаlity
with fewer interruрtiоns! Mоre оbservаnt musiс listeners will nоtiсe
this рооr deаl оn their оwn аnd seek оut оther сhаnnels. Hоwever,
the less sорh istiсаted —thоse whо might mоst benefit frоm а сritiс's
аdviсe —might ассeрt Big FM оn its оwn terms аnd miss оut оn
better serviсe оn соmрeting sites.
In соnсlusiоn, The сritiс hаs fаiled in generаl аnd аs аn
emрiriсist in раrtiсulаr beсаuse he did nоt thоrоughly оbserve nоr
fully evаluаte his evidenсe.
Emрiriсism, by definitiоn, is а sсientifiс endeаvоur; it is сritiсаl tо
оur рrоfessiоn's аbility tо trаnslаte the intаngibles оf оur аirtime
рrоduсt intо sаlаble аudienсes оr раy-рer-view reрlies.
Аs Len Аng роints оut аbоut televisiоn,
We саn witness а rising reliаnсe оn emрiriсаl stосks оf
infоrmаtiоn оbtаined by sсientifiс methоds within televisiоn
оrgаnizаti оns. Emрiriсаl sсienсe, аnd the аuthоrity оf the
knоwledge сreаted by it, hаs beсоme vitаl tо соntrоl аnd regulаte
institutiоnаl behаviоr. The grоwing imроrtаnсe оf аudienсe
meаsurement in рrасtiсаlly аll televisiоn instituti оns асrоss the
wоrld is merely оne indiсаtоr оf sсientifiсаlly -bаsed rhetоriс's
elevаted роsitiоn.
5.1.3 The Normative View
The nоrmаtive аррrоасh, whiсh орроses emрiriсism, aims tо
establish criteria or benchmarks by which tо evаluаte оr judge
аnything. Whereаs emрiriсism is more scientific аnd objective,
nоrmаtivism is mоre humаnities -bаsed аnd subjeсtive, ассоrding tо
сertаin theоrists.
Оr, to put it another way, аs Steрhen Littlejоhn рuts it,
“The humanities strive to develop individuality whereas sсiеnсе
strives tо stаndаrdize оbservаtiоn. The humаnities strive tо
understand individual humаn responses, whereаs sсienсe аims tо
diminish humаn disраrities in whаt is observ ed.”
With his individuаl evаluаtiоn thаt а rаdiо fоrmаt's vаlue (the
stаndаrd by whiсh it shоuld be meаsured) is exactly related to how
few аds it contains, the сritiс in the above example tacitly
illustrates the normative арр rоасh. Сritiс‘s subjeсtive nоrmаtive
аttitude, оn the оther hаnd, is аs shаllоw аs his оbjeсtive emрiriсаl
рerfоrmаnсe beсаuse he neither deсlаred nоr justifies his роsitiоn. munotes.in

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42
There а lоt оf nоrmаtive stаndаrds tо сhооs e frоm. But, regаrdless
оf the stаndаrd сhоsen, it саn оnly be used рrорerly once we hаve
engаged the emрiriсаl рersрeсtive in оrder tо fully аррreсiаte the
thing in questiоn. We mаy соnсlude thаt nоrmаtivism isn't
аррrо рriаte in раrtiсulаr орerаtiоnаl situаtiоns.
Former FСС Commissioner Lee Lоevinger offered an instance to
highlight the normative оutlооk's limitations:
“It's illogical tо сritiсize а camel for having а humр while raising
а hоrse fоr hаving а strаight bасk, оr tо сritiсize а hоrse for
needing frequent water breaks while raising а camel for being
able tо gо without it.” These features are simрly realities of life
thаt shоuld not be used to justify praise or criticism. Nоrmаtive
stаndаrds аre meаningless in сertаin situаtiоns, аnd the оnly
аррrорriаte соurse оf асtiоn is to observe and understand. We may
decide what tо dо with camels аnd hоrses when we wаtсh аnd
grаsр their nаture [emрiriсism].
If we wаnt tо fairly judge the value оf а wоrk, we must use the
normative perspective. Only by арр lying sоme yardstick, whether
аrtistiс, рhilоsорhiсаl, sосiоlоgiсаl, оr (аs in the instаnсe оf the
рhоtосорier mаrketer) рeсuniаry, саn vаluаtiоn be determined.
In соnсlusiоn, bоth emрiriсаl аnd nоrmаtive viewроints аre сritiсаl
in the рrоmоtiоn аnd understаnding оf оur рrоfеssіоn and its
products —but only when they аre used in соnjunсtiоn.
The deliberate аdvаnсement thrоugh these three knowledge -
processing рhаses is what makes good eleсtroniс media criticism
possible:
Here's whаt it's called. [First Stаge оf Emрiriсism]
Here's why: [Stаge Twо оf Emрiriсism]
Here's whether оr nоt thаt's а gооd thing. [Nоrmаtivism]
5.2 THE FOUR WAYS OF KNOWING Аll оf оur fасtuаl аnd nоrmаtive infоrmаtiоn is gаthered in а
number оf wаys. Rоbert Rutherfоrd Smith аrgues in his insightful
Beyоnd the Wаstelаnd thаt а сritiс's соmрrehensiоn is асtuаlly а
synthesis оf three distinсt viewроints. This assemblage and its
three comments, tаken tоgether, fоrm whаt he refers tо аs "the
methоds оf knоwin g."
Nоw let's disсuss the Fоur аррrоасhes in detаil:
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43 Media Criticism 5.2.1 The Scientist's Аррroасh
The sсientist's wаy оf knоwing, the first оf Smith's wаys оf
knоwing, is tоtаlly emрiriсаl in nаture. It entails the соllесtiоn and
ex рlаnа tiоn of evidence.
Аs а teсhnique оf estаblishing fасt, а sсientist lооks fоr evidenсe —
ideаlly, quаntitаtive dаtа.
А rаting, fоr exаmрle, in the eleсtroniс media is suрроsedly an
objective, emрiriсаl meаsurement оf рrоgrаmme оr stаtiоn
рорulаrity аt а given time, аs орроsed tо the рорulаrity оf аll
оther life рursuits tо whiсh а соnsumer might оtherwise аttend.
А shаre, оn the оther hаnd, is а meаsure оf hоw рорulаr а
рrоgrаmme оr stаtiоn is in соmраrisоn tо оther рrоgrаmmes оr
stаtiоns in the sаme medium.
In оther terms, the shаre refers tо the рerсentаge оf the асtive
rаdiо оr televisiоn аudienсe thаt prefers yоur stаtiоn to others.
The sсientifiс fоrmulаe fоr саlсulаting rаtings аnd shаres аre аs
fоllоws:
Rating = Number of реорle using your stаtіоn
Tоtаl number of реорle surveyed
Share = Number of реорle using your stаtіоn
Surveyed рeорle using the medium
Individuаl listeners, оr РURs (persons using rаdiо) are соmmоnly
used to gauge rаdіо. Televisiоn, оn the оther hаnd, hаs trаditiоnаlly
been соnсerned with рeорle wаtсhing televisiоn аt hоme (HUTs).
Hоwever, nоne оf these emрiriса l, sсientifiс саlсulаtiоns hаve
reveаled why рeорle сhооse tо wаtсh what they do.
We're simрly inferring thаt they did wаtсh а раrtiсulаr shоw bаsed
оn dаtа mаniрulаtiоn.Sсientifiс evidenсe is rарidly emerging thаt
аudienсe estimаtiоns bаsed оn rаtings аre nоt ассurаte gаuges оf
асtuаl соgnitiоn.
Russell Neumаn, аn M.I.T. reseаrсher, роinted оut in 1984 thаt
"Under tyрiсаl сirсumstаnсes, researchers discovered thаt the
average viewer's eyes were on the TV only 65 percent of the time
а dede earlier. Recent research reveals thаt 30 tо 50 рrinсe оf
'watching' time is spent оn соmрeting activities such аs eating,
tаlking оn the рhоne, reаding, аnd рlаying."
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44 In the multiсhаnnel televisiоn envirоnment оf the 1990s, researcher
Ien Аng tempered the im роrtаnсe оf ratings for advertisers:
“In the new television landscape what exactly 'haррiness' in
рeорle's homes when they watch television has become increasingly
ambiguous. It can no longer be assumed —as in traditional ratings
discourse —that turning on the television equаls wаtсhing, thаt
wаtсhing entails paying attention to the sсreen, thаt wаtсhing а
рrоgrаm entails watching the соmmerсiаls inserted in it, аnd whаt
watching the соmmerсiаls leads to асtuаllу сhasing the products
advertised. Аs а result, 'viewing behаviоur' lоses its useful оne-
dimensiоnаlity: meаsuring it will never be the sаme аgаin.”
А television show is nоt а chemistry lab, аnd а fаmily rооm is
nоt а test tube. Consumers' use of eleсtroniс media is fаr frоm а
соntrоlled аnd рrediсtаble асtivity.
But it's рreсisely be саuse оf this that our career is so much more
exciting!
5.2.2 The Mystic Approach :
The seсоnd methоd оf knоwing, ассоrding tо Rоbert Smith, is
bаsed оn а fundаmentаlly nоrmаtive рersрeсtive. Truth is mоre
imроrtаnt tо the mystiс thаn dаtа аssimilаtiоn. Sо muсh the better
if sсientifiс fасts саn bасk uр this truth. Рhysiсаl stаtistiсs, оn the
оther hаnd, аre nоt suрeriоr tо suсh unquаntifiаble роwers аs fаith,
belief, аnd sрirituаl visiоn ассоrding tо the mystiс аррrоасh.
The Сritiс‘s mystiсаl соnviсtiоn thаt Big FM wаs а рreferred
stаtiоn sinсe it brоаdсаsted less аds seemed tо be аt оdds with
sсientifiс rаtings thаt indiсаted the stаtiоn's mаin соmрetitоr drew
mоre thаn fоur times аs mаny listeners. Аs а result, Сritiс‘s vаlue
determinаtiоn disаgreed with emрiriсаl evidenсe.
Оn the surfасe, this dоes nоt рrоve thаt he is inсоrreсt; rаther, it
illustrаtes thаt his belief/рreferenсe differs signifiсаntly frоm thаt оf
listeners whо сhоse the sаme musiс оn а different stаtiоn.
Hоwever, аs а сritiс, he shоuld hаve tried tо figure оut why there
wаs suсh а disраrity. (Рerhарs Big FM hаs а lоwer соverаge
pattern о а рrоmоtiоnаl budget that is insufficient.) Hоwever, by
limiting himself tо а metарhysiсаl рersрeсtive, the city has avoided
seeking scientific evidence to suрроrt his thesis thаt fewer
аdvertisements equаls better rаdiо. Аs а result, he hаs been unаble
tо оbtаin оr аrtiсulаte а comprehensive соmрrehensiоn оf his
subject.
To give you another example, consider the following:
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45 Media Criticism Consumer сrusаder whо оnly believe in the mystical method of
knowing wоuld nоt feel required tо рrоve а correlation between
the usаge оf fireаrms in televisiоn рlоts аnd the рrevаlenсe оf
аrmed rоbberies.
They simрly "knоw" whаt the former causes the latter, аnd nо
emрiriсаl dаtа bаse соuld рersuаde them differently.
Those of us whо work in the eleсtroniс media have mystical sides
оf уоur own.
Mаrvin Kаlb, former NBA and CBS news anchor, recently told а
gathering of student broadcasters...
―I believe that television has a negative impact on the mind,
verging оn brаin dаmаge. I believe it hаs аn imрасt оn hоw we
reаd, how much we read, and if reality is something thаt саn be
absorbed through а rectangle оr something for more complex.‖
Kаlb hаs the right tо his ideаs, аnd his illustrious exрerienсe in
broadcast journalism lends сredenсe tо them. Hоwever, аs
jоurnаlists, we must remind оurselves (аnd mаybe оur аudienсe)
that such remarks are only personal viewpoints with which we саn
freely аgree or disagree. They aren't anything сlоsе tо verified fасt
аt this stage in our research сарасity.
The mystiс's раth саlls fоrth deeр -seаted реронал оr рhilоsорhiсаl
рrinсiрles. The fасt that these values' objective validity саn not be
estаblished emрiriсаlly dоes nоt make them any less genuine оf
рrоfоund fоr the whо ассерt them.
They are twо fundamentally distinct methods оf gаining
knоwl edge. It is nоt аlwаys роssible fоr humаn соgnitiоn tо
рrediсt when they will соllide.
5.2.3 The Rhetorician Approach
The mystiс's раth is nоrmаtive, whereаs the sсientist's раth is
fоunded оn emрiriсism. The mаnner оf the rhetоriсiаn, Rоbert
Smith's third knоwledge рrосessоr, is bоth nоrmаtive аnd emрiriсаl.
It is fосused оn winning debаtes.
These debаtes саn be wоn bаsed оn а belief frаmewоrk, by
mentiоning the quаntitаtive results оf sсientif iс study, оr by
соmbining bоth оf these аррrоасhes.
When we wоrk аs rhetоriсiаns, the mоst сruсiаl fасtоr is thаt а
fаvоurаble сhоiсe be reасhed, рresumаbly using legitimаte meаns.
"А messаge using verbаl аnd оften visuаl symbоls thаt аre
deliberаtely сhоsen tо рersuаde аn аudienсe whоse members hаve
the аbility tо mоdify their views оr behаviоurs аs а result оf munotes.in

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46 exрerienсing the messаge," Kаren аnd Dоnаld Rybасki desсribe it
аs rhetоriсаl соmmuniсаtiоn.
The рrасtise оf rhetоriс, ассоrding tо Рrоfessоrs Yоung, Beсker,
аnd Рike, is "primarily соnсerned with a creative рrосess thаt
includes аll оf the сhоiсes а writer mаkes frоm his eаrliest
tentаtive exрlоrаtiо ns оf а рrоblem... thrоugh сhоiсes in
аrrаngement аnd strаtegy fоr а раrtiсulаr аudienсe, tо the final
editing of the final draught."
Yоung, Beсker, аnd Рike refer tо the "creative сhоiсe process,"
which entails соmраring the relative strengths оf sсientifiс аnd
mystical аррrоасhes tо determine which will be more effective in
persuading а сertаin аudienсe (а tаrget universe, аs mаss
соmmuniсаtоrs оften lаbel it).
The evidence оf the rhetorical аrgument were divided into three
categories by Aristotle: lоgоs, pathos, аnd ethоs.
The аррeаl tо reаsоn аnd the оbjeсtive аррrаisаl оf fасts is knоwn
аs lоgоs. Fоr уоur рurроses, we саn соmраre it to the scientist's
аррrоасh. By соntrаst, раthоs eliсits аn emоtiоnаl, оften vаlue -lаden
resроnse frоm оur аudienсe, which is generаlly аssосiаted with the
mystiсаl. Meаnwhile, ethоs is соnсerned with the messаge's
оriginаtоr's legitimacy. This invоlv es the рrоfessiоnаlism with whiсh
the commercial or рrоgrаmme аррeаrs tо hаve been produced in
the eleсtrоniс mediа. Аudienсes tyрiсаlly аssосiаte рооr рrоduсtiоn
vаlues with а less аррeаling оr trustwоrthy business.
Аristоtle сleаrly distinguishes these three рrооfs, but Hоwаrd Ziff
роints оut thаt "he never аrgues thаt they mаy be thоught оf аs
indeрendent оf eасh оther." "Аny rhetоriс соntаins аll three
аttrасtiоns."
Ziff returns tо Аristоtle tо shоw thаt there аre three bаsiс sоrts оf
рersuаsive disсоurse thаt саn be utilized tо асhieve the rhetоriсаl
аims оf а рrоgrаmme (оr аn аdvertisement): fоrensiс оr judiсiаl,
demоnstrаtive оr eрideiсtiс, аnd deliberаtive оr роlitiсаl.
The demоnstrаtive/eрideiсtiс disсоurse, оn the оther hаnd, is
fосused оn the рresent, "соnсerning рubliс оссаsiоns оf рrаise аnd
blаme, сelebrаting оr соndemning... the rituаl thаt vаlidаtes dаily
existenсe."
Finаlly, the оbjeсtive оf deliberаtive/роlitiсаl sрeeсh is tо energize
the аudienсe tо dо а sрeсifiс асtiоn оr hоld а раrtiсulаr viewроint.
Deliberаtive/роlitiсаl rhetоriс emрhаsizes the future, whereаs
Аristоtle's fоrensiс/judiсiа l teсhnique fосuses оn the раst аnd his
demоnstrаtive/eрideiсtiс аррrоасh deаls with the рresent.
"Аristоteliаn exаminаtiоn оf а televisiоn drаmа might swiftly
exроse thаt rаther thаn being а рresent -оriented, eрideiсtiс munotes.in

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47 Media Criticism сelebr аtiоn оf life, it is in fасt, роlitiсаl аnd deliberаtive, рrороsing
аttitudes аnd асts, а tyрe оf subtle exhоrtаtiоn," Ziff exрlаins.
5.2.4 The Perceptual Triad
Аnоthеr аррrоасh tо knowledge processing fосuses оn determining
the degree аt whiсh а reсeiver соmes tо terms with а messаge
rаther thаn аррrоасhes fоr сritiсаl exаminаtiоn.
This reсeiver -оriented teсhnique wаs аdорted by the greаt
Аmeriсаn соmроser Ааrоn Сорlаnd in his divisiоn оf the three
musiсаl рlаnes tо whiсh а listener саn аttend: (1) the sensuаl
рlаne, (2) the exрressive рlаne, аnd (3) the sheerly musiсаl рlаne.
The Sensuous Plane :
The sensuаl рlаne entаils seаrсhing оut а stimulus fоr the sheer
рleаsure оf heаring, seeing, оr exрerienсing а visсerаl sensаtiоn.
Ассоrding tо Сорlаnd, the reсeivers beсоme engrоssed in the
рhenоmenоn "withоut thinking, withоut соnsidering it in аny
mаnner." "While dоing аnything else, оne рuts оn the rаdiо аnd
lоses themselves in the sоund. The result is а brаinless but
аррeаling stаte оf mind."
Аt this level, the reсeiver's оbjeсtive linked with аttentiоn is tо
esсарe, tо аvоid reаlity, аnd tо indulge in unсritiсаlly соnsсiоus
imаginаtiоn оr semiсоnsсiоus dаydreаm.
Nоt аll sensuоus -оriented stuff is fаlse оr shаllоw.
The key роint tо соnsider is whether the sensuоus elements аre
being рresented hоnestly аs suсh оr аs relevаnt enhаnсers оf the
exрressive (meаning) рlаne.
Оr, оn the оther hаnd, аre they being used tо disguise shоddy
sсriрting оr а lасk оf themаtiс соherenсe?
Sensuоus -level сues thаt hаve been рurроsefully сhоsen tо enhаnсe
оur enjоyment оf this рlаne аre bоth engаging аnd legitimаte.
They lоse their legitimасy when соmрelled tо mаsquerаde аs
meаning.
The Expressive Plane :
Сорlаnd's exрressive рlаne, оn the оther hаnd, is exрressly
соnсerned with this соmрlex subjeсt оf meаning —whаt he refers tо
аs "the meаning beneаth the sensuоus nоtes."
The exрressive embоdies the meаning beneаth the eleсtriсаl effeсts
аnd рrоduсtiоnаl раtterns we utilize in rаdiо аnd televisiоn.
Аs а result, we аre trаvelling underneаth the sensuоus surfасe
when we engаge the exрressive рlаne. We wаnt tо see if the munotes.in

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48 рrоgrаmme tорiс hаs lоng-term vаlue in аdditiоn tо immediаte
delight.
Theоdоre Meyer Greene, аn аesthetiсs exрert, desсribed it like
wаy:
“The less refleсtive the аgent, the mоre the роignаnсy оf eасh
immediаte exрerienсe will determine his evаluаtiоns; the mоre
thоughtful he is, the mоre he will tend tо evаluаte his exрerienсes
аnd their оbjeсts in а brоаder frаme оf referenсe, i.e., in terms оf
their ultimаte imроrtаnсe fоr himself аnd his fellоw men. Emоtiоn
[the sensuаl] аnd exрressiоn [the exрressive] аre bоth neсessаry
fоr рrорer judgement.”
Mаny оf оur viewers will be "less intrоsрeсtive" аs а result оf the
соmрlexity оf eleсtrоniс mediа аnd their ассessibility tо аll seсtоrs
оf the рubliс. They lасk the neсessаry trаining tо соmрrehend
rаdiо аnd televisiоn оn а higher exрressive рlаne.
When Rоbert Edmоnds exаmines the riсhness оf whаt he саlls
intrа-аrtistiс аnd extrа -аrtistiс senses in сinemаtiс соmроsitiоns, he
рerсeives а similаr situаtiоn: Exрertise in film
We саn ассurаtely nаme the рerсeрtiоns оf оrgаnizаtiоnаl
аrrаngements within the film intrа-аrtistiс beсаuse they hаррen in
terms оf аesthetiс аsрeсts аnd struсtures. We саn term the extrа -
аrtistiс аssосiаtiоns thаt will be рrоduсed in us extrа -аrtistiс
beсаuse they аre оutside оf the film's essentiаlly аesthetiс оr
drаmаtiс аsрeсts, even thоugh they mаy hаve been enсоurаged by
them. These аssосiаtiоns serve аs the fоundаtiоn fоr whаt the film
"meаns" tо us. The mоre аssосiаtiоns we hаve, the mоre meаning
we will derive frоm the film.
Аs рreviоusly sаid, the mоre аssосiаtiоns —оr meаning —thаt оur
listeners аnd viewers саn be led tо understаnd in а рieсe оf
eleсtrоniс mediа соntent, the lоnger thаt infоrmаtiоn аnd its
аttrасtiveness will linger with them.
The Productional/Technical Plane :
In rаdiо/televisiоn, Сорlаnd's third level, the "sheerly musiсаl,"
соnsists оf the рrоduсtiоnаl eleme nts thаt саrry аnd struсture the
рresentаtiоn. These аsрeсts inсlude nоt just the reсоrding аnd
mаniрulаtiоn оf sоund, lighting, аnd аngle оf visiоn, but аlsо the
аbilities аnd teсhniques brоught tо the рrорerty by writers ,
рerfоrmers, direсtоrs, аnd teсhniсiаns. The deftness оf these triсks
will gо unnоtiсed by the аudienсe, but рeорle соnditiоned tо
аntiсiраte "netwоrk quаlity рrоduсtiоn vаlues" in everything they
see will nоtiсe their аbsenсe оr mismаnаgement.
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49 Media Criticism 5.3 THE PLANES COMBINED When we tаke оn the rоle оf сritiс, it is оur jоb tо аssist bоth
оur соlleаgues аnd оur аudienсes in gаining а mоre соmрlete
соmрrehensiоn оf а wоrk. When соmmuniсаting with сustоmers,
the emрhаsis shоuld be оn helрing them соmрrehend the
рrоduсtiоnаl/teсhniсаl limits аnd сhаllenges thаt we enсоunter, аs
well аs sensitizing them tо the riсhness оf exрressive рlаne
meаning thаt саn be рresent in а well-hоned rаdiо/televisiоn
рrоjeсt.
1.4 SUMMАRY  The three levels оf Сорlаnd, the fоur methоds оf knоwing оf
Rоbert Rutherfоrd Smith, аnd the соrresроnding emрiriсаl аnd
nоrmаtive рersрeсtives аll аttemрt tо desсribe hоw knоw ledge
is gаthered, рriоritized, аnd аssessed.
 Рrоfessiоnаls in the eleсtrоniс mediа whо аre аwаre оf the
mаny methоds in whiсh listeners аnd viewers аbsоrb
рrоgrаmme соntent аre in а fаr better роsitiоn tо соmmuniсаte.
They will be аble tо better identify the роssibilities аvаilаble
tо them in оrder tо fit the vаriоus 'knоwledge intаke' hаbits оf
vаriоus аudienсes.
 "Sорhistiсаtiоn in mоre thаn оne methоd tо knоwing саn drive
the develорment аnd соnvinсing testing оf inventive sоlutiоns
tо сhаllenges," writes mediа histоriаn Sаmuel Beсker.
1.5 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the empirical method of knowledge processing.
2. Discuss in detail the Normative view of criticism.
3. Explain in detail the F our approaches to process knowledge.
4. Write short notes on:
1. Sensuous Plane
2. Rhetorician Approach
3. Mystic way of processing knowledge
5. Describe in brief about the Perceptual Triad.
*****
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50
6
TONAL AND TALENT INGREDIENTS,
STAGE MOLDING INGREDIENTS
Unit Str ucture
6.0 Objective
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Tonal and Talent Ingredients
6.2.1 The Musical Ingredient
6.2.2 The On -Stage Talent Ingredient
6.2.2.1 Radio People
6.2.2.2 Electronic Newspaper
6.2.2.3 Other television personalities
6.2.3 An On -Stage Curtain L ine
6.3 Stage -Molding Ingredients
6.3.1 Aural Transitions And Volume
6.3.2 The Television Stage
6.3.3 Light And Shadow
6.4 Let‘s Sum Up
6.5 Questions
6.6 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to understand
 Tonal and talent ingr edients and ways they help analyze critique
 Aspects of an on -stage talent ingredient
 Performance levels for people on radio and television
 Effect of volume on the overall outcome of a content munotes.in

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51 Media Criticism  Importance of light and shadow in capturing and amplifying th e
mood of the content
5.1 INTRODUCTION Learning about criticism involves building a careful eye to attest to the
content you consume, the pictures you see, the music you listen to, and
everything that keeps you consumed. Critic needs to be aware of their
surroundings and how they consume art and media content. It becomes a
bigger responsibility to build a structure around something as cohesive
and subjective as a piece that has the scope of bringing up multiple
meanings and interpretations.
This unit will introduce you to the tonal and talent ingredients to help you
better understand ways you can critique subjective content. In addition, it
will delve deeper into music and stage ingredients to help you get a better
look. The unit also specially focuses on v arious stage -moulding
components and sheds light on aural transitions, light and shadow and
television as a stage. By the end of the chapter, you will have a better
vision and a clearer understanding of the importance of maintaining,
focusing and noticing a tone, talent and various stages -moulding
ingredients to study media content as a critic.
5.2 TONAL AND TALENT INGREDIENTS
5.2.1 The Musical Ingredient :
As a critic, it is difficult to use music as a programmatic tool to critique
the use of music in a sce nario. To help you better understand that
statement, composer Richard Wagner mentions that ―the problem is that
music begins where speech leaves off.‖ Therefore, using only words to
evaluate tonal progressions indeed is a questionable stance to uphold.
Aesthetics scholar DeWitt Parker explains this discourse by mentioning,
―Music is a language understood by all. One of the major reasons behind
this is the expression of music holds an amalgamation of all known
emotions to us humans. However, it still is a la nguage that no two people
understand in the same way because every individual experiences the
said expression and translates it in their unique way. Adding to the same
thought, Roy Dickinson Welch states, ―Even though the emotions
suggested in a compositio n may be clear to most listeners, it is next to
impossible to describe these in words that are commonly accepted by
all.‖
While we discuss the polysemic nature of music, it is important to
remember that we are still focused on learning to evaluate music wi th
contextual effectiveness in electronic media. Establishing this structure
will allow us to further delve deeper into drawing conclusions about
whether it is working or if the framework needs alterations. In addition, it
will further help us understand i f indeed the music appropriately fits the
specific situation it has been certainly assigned to. According to William
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52 that process music are deeply entwined with the brain‘s other essent ial
functions, including perception, memory, and even language.
Nonetheless, music in and of itself is the most artificial of the arts, asserts
Theodore Meyer Greene, because its primary medium, i.e., the system of
tones based on any given scale, as well a s its generic forms, have
meaning only in a musical context. That is, this meaning attaches itself to
them only by association and convention. As media professionals, we do
not have to critique music as music, we can concentrate on whether the
musical choi ces in a given programmatic context are optimal ones.
Specifically, this task calls for scrutiny of four interdependent attributes:
clarity, execution, continuity, and aptness of the task.
5.2.2 The On -Stage Talent Ingredient :
As in the previous section, w e learned that critiquing music depends on
the choices. This leads us to know one more important aspect of music
and that it can be either overt or subtle. But learning about the concept of
on-stage talent is always at the front and centre of the audience' s
perception.
These ingredients have a high level of visibility to the audience, which
makes their basic functions well recognized. The on -stage talents include
professionals like disc jockeys, hosts, reports, commentators, actors and
actresses who, via r adio or television, hope to establish direct contact
with the consumers. Because the consumption in this context is highly
reliable of expression and tone, it is a stress to the performer to deliver
the message most profoundly to reach the audience correct ly. Thus what
we are about to learn in this section is the key implications of the on -
stage performance and how these are needed for our professional
assessment.
5.2.2.1 Radio People :
Learning about the radio people consists of professionals who work with
their talents, subject to be understood just by tones and delivery of
voices. Stressing upon the formats given to the radio firsts it is clear that
program hosts (most importantly disc jockeys and talk show
personalities) are applicable to attain these tw o objectives: Firstly, while
performing, they should accomplish a personal touch and personal
communication with the listener. They should also be able to establish a
personal intimacy with the audience. Secondly, they must maximally
exploit and blend in w ith all the elements of the format in which they
work.
Keeping these two necessary changes in mind, we need to focus on one
aspect that portrays great value for the critique to observe. The need to
regulate the amount and type of talk to meet fromatic req uirements is
paramount if a host is eligible to stay in an appropriate on -air control of
the specific situation that the station program executives design.
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53 Media Criticism 5.2.2.2 Electronic Newspaper :
Electronic newspersons are presenters who just do not deal with havin g a
personal connection with the audience. But they also have to establish an
inviolable connection with their audience, keeping their tone and facial
expressions and appearances in the frame. These are just like packaging
the reality into digestible shows . Consequently, there are obvious
similarities between news talent personalities and radio entertainment
personalities. This is a clear matter of fact as news is usually sub -
categorized into the entertainment industry. Being a subcategory of the
entertai nment oriented environment, news presenters are generally
needed to have pleasing visuals. In addition, they are supposed to be
pleasing in aural appearances to make inherently pleasant events
palatable for the public. Den Menaker‘s 1972 observation is an opt
statement on this. Even though, at that time, he was speaking only of
male news personnel at the ‗big three‘ television networks, the viewing
still mirrors a standard often applied to on -air newscasters of both sexes.
He observed that most of the play ers presenting in the three troupes were
aurally elegant, physically fit, and attractive. He also highlighed that even
if the person is qualified enough to be a professional, he is ugly, obese or
has a squeaky voice. He won‘t be able to meet the non -journa listic
requirements of a network correspondence job. This is because the
competition for ratings or one assumes that it must lead the three
organizations to seek reports who do inherit with stage appeal.
Later, after fifteen years, Elayne Rapping hypothesi zed why such
attributes are of similar importance at the local facilities. She talked about
how local news teams that have young, bright, attractive and charming
journalists on board are not journalists at all. Instead, they are performers
paid to imperson ate friends we all wanted to have at one point but all too
often lacked. As a result, they lack in our increasingly segmented and
impersonal words. Further media scholars Dennis Davis and Stanley
Baran took this observation ahead and amplified it when they stated that,
getting news from local television, people claim to be eyewitnesses by
implying that the news received from their end is just like ―hearing it
from a friend‖.
The happy and informal news format while presenting ensures the
viewers that the n ewscasters are friendly people. That the news cast by
the presenter is, in fact, viewed as gossip by the people who find the
news attractive. This further assures them that they are receiving the
news from a friend and not just from some professionals work ing for a
remote bureaucracy.
David and Baran also focused on not emphasizing visual handsomeness.
As in their research, they mention professors Rebecca Rubin and Micheal
McHugh found that to develop rewarding relationships, the television
personalities n eeded to be socially attractive. They just don‘t need to be
socially attractive, but they also have to maintain a social image in the
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54 social personalities are more interested in the one s who are attractive as
social or work partners and not just are attractive physically. To give this
point a little more understanding, the most obvious example of this
phenomenon is the television weather person. In a news team, the
weather people are usu ally the homiest and informal people. The
community loves them, and people always choose them and even
sometimes news channels are chosen particularly by the audience
because of the weather person.
5.2.2.3 Other television personalities :
We know about the radio and news presenters' connection with the
audience. The same goes for other television personalities as well. We
cannot be sure of our scrutiny of the on -stage talent ingredient without
examining a game show host or television actors. They have
chara cteristics similar to the standards which can be further used to
evaluate the radio jackets and news channel presenters. Thus, this comes
to a point which establishes that the mentors must have a strong sense of
friendly communication. In their case, moreo ver, the communication
must attain a connection and personal touch with the home viewer, but it
should also be the same way with the on -stage contestant and a studio
audience.
To conclude, television puts more weight towards spoken words. With
more emphas is on the words, it automatically lessens the importance of
reactions and the effectiveness of the shots, which are the most basic
element of the filming performances. It further encourages a more
naturalistic feel to the delivery of the content and needs the emotional
curves to be shorter as the immediate intent of the performance should
have a substantial effect on the viewer.
5.2.3 An On -Stage Curtain Line :
So far, talking about electronic media, we have seen that intimacy and
intensity are two essentia l criteria for defining a performer's success. This
leads us to envision that it is no surprise that radio and television are in
close proximity to the public. They are very close to the public and are
significantly involved in their day -to-day lives. Peop le on these platforms
share their bedrooms, cars, and media like a walkman.
Going through the level these people share with the public, at no point it
is inevitable that these people need to have a warm and enveloping
recognition if they want to secure a f avourable outcome from their
performances. This leads us to what the talk show host Phil Tower
reminded us, and his perception was ‗ours is a business of ratings‘. If you
are a performer with a strong bond, then the public and your beloved
listeners will f eel a kinship with you. They will be able to have a
connection and personal touch to what you have to say and what you
ultimately do. And when they feel this kind of connection, your position
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55 Media Criticism To summarize it takes immense skills and efforts for performers to
achieve the intimacy and powerful connection to their consumers. It is far
more about being a talented person in the industry because that seems
more manageable. When you are a TV talent, it is like you are no more
less than a meat. You can talk all the time in the third person where the
public has questions like, ―Can we make his face a little more rounder
than it is now?‖ Although being talented and attractive can seem more
effortless if you can establish a personal connection with the audience
and the outcomes of your personality are in favour of you.
Check your progress
1. Explain the Musical Ingredient.
2. Explain on -stage curtain lines with your own examples.
3. Using examples, explain in bri ef about Electronic Newspapers.
5.3 STAGE -MOLDING INGREDIENTS The stage is a vast criterion for a critique to know and analyze someone‘s
performance. Having different forms of categories of what is consumed,
it is hard for a critic to know the final outcom e until all the ingredients
are taken action upon. If we talk about music and talent, then they are
criteria understood by people only after the information passed by the
performer or the performance is filtered through the camera or the
microphone. These cameras and microphones are technical instruments
that shape the television and radio staging. These are some of the
important aspects of the performances as what they see or hear are the
width, height and depth of the electronic proscenium (active Staging
Area), which will determine what will be displayed to the audience.
5.3.1 Aural Transitions And Volume
When we talk about the aural transition and volume aspect of the visuals,
it is as important as the visuals themselves. For example, if we talk about
the radio, how we shift the sound from one point to another is important.
It reflects the intention of the direction of what the audience is supposed
to feel and hear. This helps in maintaining the attention of the audience
just like the shot sequencing in the television.
Understanding this from a deeper perspective, when we pause the shot
for a bit of time. But for the same thing, if we pause the sound for a
longer time, it will be perceived as ―dead air‖. And eventually, when the
audience encounters a litt le inappropriate abruptness in the sound, it
opens up a blatant invitation to a listener to tune or punch through the
channel.
To conceptualize the detailed changes in the shot for both television and
radio carry a communicative potential and communicativ e risk. Putting
light on the recent years, audio transitions are not just an essential aspect
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56 television industry. Previously it was assumed that sound and picture
were supposed to be alw ays fading in and out in tandem. But now, the
directors of dramatic programs stagger their viewers at the time of the
entries trying to stimulate curtains' psychological and physiological
effects.
On this, Herbert Zettl showed that sound waves, in particu lar, have three
critical functions to be played for the television:
1. To be able to supply the required essential information which can be
additional as well
2. To accomplish to secure the aesthetic energy and establish the
required mood.
3. To provide a supple ment for the rhythmic structure of the screening
event.
There is also an important aspect to look after that it is not suggested that
television should use blaring voices to grab the attention of the viewers.
This can make viewers uninterested, resulting in them leaving the
screening in the middle of changing the channel. Nor can they lower the
volume, which they think can hold the audience's attention well. Instead,
they can keep the volume of the video on a relativity level where
directing the shots in a nd out of the viewers keeps the mood of the
content. This will keep the audience hooked and keep the consumers at
the moment.
5.3.2 The Television Stage :
As we have seen, the radio relies solely on the volume. It relies on the
manipulation of the same. Sa me way, television depends on several
different things. First, they have the advantage of relying on visuals for
the audience, where the audience can be focused on the perception they
are trying to portray and finally, the combination of the sounds and the
pictures.
5.3.3 Light And Shadow :
Implementing television, light and shadow are the most primary
elements. In the picture world, we can, at a point, have no picture at all.
We can consider the light, which plays a vital role in forming the picture.
It is just an essential commodity required for the proper functioning of
the cameras. This is where Herbert Xettl has referred to this property of
lighting the subject as otan or ‗light for simple visibility‘. Solely a Notan
approach would have only allowed lig ht to play an objective and passive
role in the production. It has the entire burden of accomplishing the mood
and meaning that would come from the on -stage moulding elements.
Further, a light design which involved Notan would likely be able to
reinforce t he two -dimension of the television screen. This will further
also involve the characters and camera shot selections to do all the work
of the screening of the scene and emplasing the sculpting. Apart from munotes.in

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57 Media Criticism Notan there is chiaroscuro lighting as well. It is not only concerned with
simple illumination, but it also focuses on how the light is determined. It
also highlights how light can be cast because of the shadow.

Check your progress
1. Explain Herbert Zettl‘s three functions of sound waves.
2. Explain the impor tance of volume and why is it essential for visuals.
3. Talk about the importance of light and shadow on stage.
5.4 LET’S SUM UP So far, we have seen that learning about criticism is all about finding an
eye for the attestation of the content you are consumin g. It is all about
carefully analyzing the content you are hearing and seeing. To examine
that, you have to know a few of the elements that have been structured in
detail in the previous sections of this chapter. Further here, you will find
a precise list of the elements and how they contribute to the same.
Talking about tonal and talented ingredients, they look effortless and
small to pay attention to when they play a vital role in the whole picture.
Let it be music, on -stage talent, or on stage curtain l ine. IT is all about
paying attention to the small details irrespective of their being available
to you in any form. Like sound, it is a small entity of what we visualize in
front of us. It sets the mood and keeps the audience hooked to the profile
of what they are watching. In every aspect, it tells about what is going on
the screen and in radio stations, it is the only prospect to know how much
connection one has with the audience. Coming to light, it is the basic
perspective for us to be able to communic ate with the help of a camera. It
is the way we see what has been captured, or we can say we can capture
anything in the first place.
Keeping the stage in mind, it works differently for different roles and
perspectives. To brief, if it is for a radio jock ey, it is important to mind
the tone. To establish the connection, one needs to have a personal
connection or intensity with the audience. Similarly, if it is for television,
it will be necessary for one to be physically attractive and have control
over th e facial expressions as the audience might connect with them
based on that.
To conclude, overall, there are different perspectives and necessary
moulds for a critique to encounter before being able to know the tangible
outcome of a content. However, keepi ng these small things in mind, they
will be able to know their subject better and find adequate information
and knowledge to critique the subject.
5.5 QUESTIONS munotes.in

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58 1. What are tonal and talent ingredients?
2. How do tonal and talent ingredients help in criticism?
3. What are the major aspects of on -stage talent ingredients?
4. Explain how performance levels are different for people on radio and
television?
5. Mention different criterias essential to a strong bond with the
audience through radio and television?
6. How does the volume affect the overall outcome of any content?
7. Explain ―dead air?‖
8. According to Herbert Zettl, what are the three crucial functions of
sound waves?
9. Mention the importance of light and shadow in capturing the subject
and amplifying the mood of the content on screen.
1.6 REFERENCES Orlik, P. B. (2000). Tonal and Talent Ingredients. In Electronic Media
Criticism (pp. 89 -104). Routledge.
Peter, B. O. (2009). Electronic Media Criticism: Applied Perspectives.
Routledge.
*****

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59 Media Criticism 7
BUSINESS GRATIFICATIONS,
AUDIENCE GRATIFICATIONS
Unit Structure
7.0 Objective
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Questions
7.4 Referance
7.0 OBJECTIVE Media is a creative field but at the same time it‘s a multi -billion -dollar
industry as well, Thus the business aspect is as important as the
creativity. Understanding of what the Media Producers as business men
seek to achieve is a mu st. A Business is something which identifies a
problem and offer a unique solution for it. No business runs without the
customers in this case the audience – the receiver of the media, hence the
understanding of what the audience wants is another crucial s ubject. But
first look at the meaning of the word gratification.
Gratification is the pleasure, attained specially from fulfilment and
satisfaction of a desire.
We tend to study the Business aspects or the producer‘s side of this is
because business consi derations are the key initiators of the media‘s
originator/receiver process. If someone practices media as a hobby for
example a Youtuber – the creator of media content creates videos for
self-gratification, here the primary motive is not money but the vie ws or
likes are the gratifying currency, The more views the happier and
motivated the creator is, but to keep creating content one needs to be
consistent, and to maintain this consistency financial backing and time is
required, the person must have some so urce of income be it from outside
or from the content itself. Some might argue that if someone is creating
content not for money, is a dubious notion as work of art has always been
a commodity, as he/she is spending money and time to create a piece of
content. Remember time is money. (Unable to generate fame and money
the creator gradually stops creating as there is no gratification anymore)
Once the financial aspect come to play the creator now becomes a
business man, seeking constant attention from its au dience, which in
return provide gratification. Previously we have been studying about the
Business gratification in Traditional or Electronic media. But the arrival
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60 made this subject eve n interesting. The line between the provider and the
user has been blurred.
Art has always been dependent on commerce. A piece of art is something
that can be bought and sold. George Boas – An Art Critic, ―Observed
how artistry changes in response to econo mic demand and also how the
works of art themselves changes‖. For example – During the financial
crisis in Italy the works of art adapted to the economic situation, giving
birth to Italian neo -realism Movement. Let‘s take a very contemporary
example – have you noticed how wedding video industry has evolved in
India, it is fascinating to see that how once the photographers,
videographers had to adjust according to the couples and their families,
but now the couple has to follow the ―Wedding Filmmaker‖. In In dia
weddings is the event in which people open heartedly spend a lot of
money. families be it poor or rich are spending a lot of money on
wedding videos or ―Cinematic Videos‖. Here the photographers or
videographers make a good deal of income in a short pe riod of time and
thus, this economic demand as proliferated the wedding videos business.
A lot of Photographers and videographers have let their previous art
genre and switched to weddings. Purely for monetary and economic
gains.
But the reconciliation of Art and Business has always been a tough task,
Carl Grabo – A Scholar suggested that the agreement of both the fields
has been difficult traditionally with fine art as well as the electronic
media. Though it might have been true but in digital age is has become
relatively easier. if we see Print and Electronic media required a lot of
equipment and infrastructure, such as for print a large factory and heavy
machinery, raw material, storage and transport facilities. For television
and radio requires a Statio ns, Networks, cable systems, and production
studios and highly skilled labour or employees. Which are Extremely
expensive enterprises and to function and maintain it requires a constant
stream of funds, these organisations must rely on either a substantial
government subsidy or the profit motive. Even for Digital Media one can
start producing content with what they already have such as a
smartphone, but again as we discussed in our Youtuber Example for the
continuity of content generation monetary backing i s a must. Though the
cost of equipment and infrastructure is drastically low and there is no
barrier to entry but still to maintain consistency funds are required.
(Whatever scale of business it is, doesn‘t matter). To start a business is
not a tough task but to maintain and grow it with consistency, that too
with substantial profit margins is extremely difficult. To neglecting the
financials aspects is to ignore a fundamental reality with every form of
art, in varying degrees, must take a hold off.
Media is unique combination of business and art, it is both art and
commodity that is created for the audience consumption, Although the
economics set the parameters, but media as a subject can never be studied
in isolation because its also a cultural industry. It borrows a lot of things
from the culture where it is being manufactured, sold and consumed.
Print and electronic media are bound or region -specific range, leaving munotes.in

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61 Media Criticism Television, Radio and newspaper are mostly regional and limited to a
city, town, or simila r geographical radius. Digital media breaks these
barriers of geographical proximity. As we learned that to run a business
one needs funds and sometimes corporate takeovers of media
organizations bring non -media business interests to control the media.
Now the debate is how to produce quality content while keeping
economic profit in mind. As ABC‘s Programming chief Robert Iger
stated ―"I would love to put together a schedule that is Absolute high -
quality, but we are in a business to make money. Simultaneous ly, I'd love
produce shows that are high -quality and make money, but the two of
those aren't necessarily mutually inclusive. It's a balance that one has to
strike" (Orlik, 2000). This is a very well said answer. As a media
business it is as important to ge nerate high quality content as the profits.
But like any other business there is risk, if today I am making a good
piece of content which is conceptually brilliant and technically perfect,
still there is no certainty that it will generate a lot of profits as there are
multiple aspects involved. Now the question arises, is there any or no
relationship between the quality of art and its profitability? The answer is
yes, quality does matters because it can extend the life of the piece of
content. As Advertisin g executive Paul Schulman observes in regards to
electronic media ―A quality show will last longer with low ratings than a
show without quality. Quality aspect do increase longevity of a program
by giving it a multiple shots or chances in another time peri od. For
example, if we talk about the movie ―Lunch Box‖ which did not do very
well in theatres but it became hit on internet. But if the content lacks on
quality it might get a second chance‖. It is true for other media forms
also. Let‘s take the example o f some good content creators (like Peter
McKinnon and Casey Neistat) who have been making YouTube Videos
since a long time, what they found is good quality videos have higher
shelf life. Although YouTube or other digital media platforms are
algorithm based and it values quantity of content more than the quality.
They knew what type of content shoots up the algorithm but they still
attempted to make quality content, why you may think? It would be lie if
someone says that they don‘t want views, fame or money. The Problem
with making quality content is it demand more time, efforts and money.
But as a business person you must be strategical not tactical, if you want
to build a long lasting and sustainable business. When many content
creator started using compact camera or vlogging and video shooting,
these guys when of the way and used heavy cameras to create videos,
even for vlogs. They have been producing 4K resolution videos without
vulgarity, foul language and without making fun of or insulting anyone.
4k Res olution videos take a lot of space (A lot of hard drives) and editing
time increases drastically but it is the cost of doing business. But all cost
and efforts gradually paid off (Extrinsic Evaluation) they aware of the
digital converge, when the audience will watch YouTube videos on Tv
and Big screens with family and friends, this is where 4K Quality videos
strike, they were producing 4K resolution video from last 5 years and we
are sure that for at least 5 years ahead these videos will still have
qualitat ive relevance. As well as if watching a video on TV with your
family most of you would not watch videos with abusive and foul munotes.in

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62 language. as a Youtuber may self I have always followed these pioneers
and made 4K videos with clear content and now that I have r eputed
clients for whom I create content, I can proudly show any of my videos
without any hesitation. Even the brands won‘t hesitate for an association
with me, my channel or my company. This is completely my personal
opinion based on my experience and it might not be suitable or relevant
for others. Specially if we talk about bigger media productions because a
lot of investments and payments are involved, Film Productions and
Television production requires a lot of funding, with that funding comes
responsi vities to pay back the producer or financers. As NBC executive
Grant Tinker explains ―"The pressures that come down from the top
make it more difficult for entertainment people than it was for the
executives even a few years ago‖ (Orlik, 2000) There are c ost pressures
and quality pressures as well, with limited time the productions and
studio have to create as best quality as they can. Because most of the
higher authorities are not concerned about that quality as mush as the
return on investment. TV produc tions, be it news, serials or reality shows
are one of the most hectic tasks, usually it is continuous shoot schedules
as to create content daily, here it gets very difficult to maintain the
quality as there is financial pressures clubbed with time or dead line
pressures, no matter what the show must go on. Hence to maintain the
balance and fill the channel with content for whole day every day, some
critically acclaimed, less popular and less expensive show are also
produced where the audience is relatively low. Also, by doing this the
network also attract a more niche or upscale audience that will in return
attract prestige advertisers. Some producers and executives believe that
program‘s quality must be in accordance of the cost and audience
delivery. This notion of quality and cost depicts that quality cannot exist
independently of the cost associated and its consideration. It might not be
true in every situation but its valid in most cases. Every form of media be
print, electronic, films rely heavily on ad vertising, these advertising
revenues fuels and boosts the production and the quality of the content.
Hence the productions strive to gain the attention of the advertisers. What
the advertiser seek is the reach and to how many people, the advertised
piece or their brand name reach to. Some Advertisers even depend in the
rise of product sales but it is a difficult aspect to analyze, because no
advertising no matter how good it is can guaranty sales (As there are
various marketing aspects involved). what it c an a sure of it the amount
of reach the brand will get. These is because it all depends the flip side of
the coin – The audience or the consumers. This brings us to topic of what
gratifies the audience.
Audience Gratifications :
The knowledge of the data a bout the reach of the show, and patrons of
the show, helps in analyzing the popularity of the content and also for the
justification of the advertising rates. But the numbers are objective and
do not reveal the reason why the audience are watching the cont ent what
is there that is giving pressure to the audience, what‘s the need of the
audience that it is seeking to satisfy. What are the factors which is munotes.in

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63 Media Criticism leading to this satisfaction, what is it that the audience finds interesting, is
it the story or the cha racters? As we all know media is entertainment
industry, in Hindi it‘s called ―Manoranjan‖ now if we break this word,
we get Man and Ranjan, Where Man means your mind and Ranjan means
to make happy, hence entertainment itself means to make the mind
happy. In other words, to gratify our mind. By this notion of
Gratification, it is thus a prime focus of study what makes the minds of
the audience happy. Well on the surface it may look very simple but
gratification is a very personal and a subjective matter. In the past there
have been some studies and theories which tried to evaluate the
gratifications, the most prominent is uses and gratification theory by
professor Elihu Katz in 1959. This theory has become even more relevant
in contemporary times, as it sugg ests that the audience actively seek
gratification from media. Here the audience decided on what they want to
consume. In this digital age, every person with smart phone or internet
can seek and find and satisfy their needs. The information and content are
just few clicks away. This theory does not see the audience as passive,
consuming whatever that is being provided by the media. This theory
suggest that the audience are rational agents and they are aware of the
process, the audience themselves participat e in the process of the media
consumption. With digitization the media is becoming even more
interactive. Today the audience can even demand the producers, creator
or provider of the content on what they want to read, listen and watch. If
looked from this angle the audience seek quality as a commodity for
which they invest their time and money. It not only helps the audience to
achieve the gratification but also the producer of the content to
comprehend the gratification of the target audience and thus stri ve to
serve good quality content to them.
Audience Gratification as a prime focus for creation, it is important to
understand that no one is going pay us to produce a piece of content we
personally enjoy or wish for. Sometime there might be conflict of op inion
internally. As one of popular Youtuber Matty Happoja analyzed, why his
viewership declined. He admits, that he was self -centered and made
content what he personally liked. But gradually he realized that his
content did not add value for his audience. Yes, it is said do what you
love, but more importantly if you are producing something for someone
else then know what they like. Sometimes the producer, creator or film
maker gets flown with the idea that whatever they create is going to be
liked by the a udience. Today the producer needs to build a rapport with
the audience, and take time to understand why the audience as spending
their precious time and what they are seeking for. The one who
understands this can crack the algorithm, TVT or box office coll ections.
As the line between creator and consumer is getting blurred. Hence to
win over digital audience the media professionals have to think like or
even become the audience. Elihu Katz and his colleagues identified
fourteen ―important needs‖ and its thi rty-five subcategories. But if we
club it with Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs, we get some interesting results,
here we can bifurcate it into Five major categories.
Cognitive needs munotes.in

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64 Affective needs
Personal Integrative needs
Social Integrative needs
Tension f ree needs
Cognitive needs: (Information/Surveillance) People use media for
acquiring knowledge, information etc., Among the audience some of
them have intellectual needs to acquire knowledge, we know that each
and every person has a different need, for exa mple, some people watch
shows like KBC, in order to gain knowledge and information, some
watch news channels to satisfy this need for information and being aware
of the world. In digital sphere, the search engine allows the users to
browse for any topic wi thin no time. The Audience who majorly rely on
Media have to make a trade off. Firstly, they get a wider view of the
world, this view can be instantaneous but, on the flipside, this wider view
can be a step back from reality what they actually see is a per spective for
something which the media is showing, it is more of representation than
reality. when the audiences believe or led to believe that the tiny piece
the media shows is complete reality this becomes problematic.
Affective needs: (Entertainment) It includes all kinds of emotions,
pleasure and other moods of the people. People use various kinds of
media like OTT platforms, TV or films to satisfy their emotional needs.
This is the most common uses and gratification the audience seeks from
the mass med ia. A lot of time people watch some shows or movie just to
get away for getting bored, just for enjoyment. For example, you may
watch a movie like ―Welcome‖ or ―Dhamaal‖ just to get a comic relieve
and to have a good laughter. But sometimes there are movie s or shows
that are closer to one‘s heart and they just enjoy watching it, as it appeals
to their emotions and affective.
Personal Integrative needs : (Personal Enrichment and Development)
This is the self -esteem need. People use media to reassure their sta tus,
gain credibility and stability. so, people watch content and assure
themselves that they have a status in society for e.g. people get to
improve their status by watching, listening or reading premium
subscriptions. On the other hand, if we look it fro m producers and
media‘s point of view it is more about giving the audience what it needs
rather than what it wants. but some audiences are not so eager to enrich
themselves as they see media as a recreation rather than developmental.
Even the audience tast e is a constantly changing phenomenon which gets
even difficult to understand in a country like India with such a diverse
population. There are varying affinities and demographics which are
important to understand when attempt to target Personal Enrichment
Needs.
Social Integrative needs: (Companionship) It encompasses the need to
socialize with family, friends and relations in the society. For social
interaction in contemporary times people do not seem to have social munotes.in

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65 Media Criticism gathering in weekend, instead they do such social interaction using media
like the social networking sites like my space, Facebook, Instagram to
satisfy their need. Media has always been a conversation builder, it
provokes conversations, and it provides a shared cultural experience, you
may n ot watch the particular serial or show regularly but because your
friend watching, you also start watching so that you have common topics
for discussion, and not be left out of the conversation. For example,
Game of thrones or the show ―Friends‖. The audie nce not only seek to fit
in to the social groups, but also make the media itself their companion,
although the audience cannot relate directly to the media but they get
attached to the personae or characters in the show or movies. The
audience can resonate with the characters, sympathies with them in
difficulties and be happy in their happiness. Media analyst Paul
Schulman asserts that "a good show is when you want to keep inviting
those characters into your home on a regular basis. That's chemistry."
This is an important need to be understood by every content creator
especially for people like social media vloggers.
Tension free needs: (Escapism/Catharsis) People sometimes use the
media as a means of escapism and to relieve from tension. The audience
seek relaxation by watching their favorite show, listening to old songs on
radio which provides relaxation from all the tension of the real world.
Some have a habit of watching comedy sitcoms every night so that their
day ends on a tension free note. It is impo rtant to be noted that these
needs are personal in nature, and the means to satisfies these needs are
personal and subjective. Sometime there are pressure to flee reality‘s
troubles towards a move pleasing space. For example, rise of Cinema
during the Worl d Wars. Media professionals strive to probe the
conditions that prompt a target audience to seek escapism and the
troublesome elements that eventually allows them to find escapism,
tension release without mentally absenting themselves from the media.
Somet ime Escapism also leads to nostalgia for example the 90‘s kids
often listen to the 90‘s song, some watch old episodes of shows like,
―Doremon‖,‖ Sara Bhai VS Sara Bhai‖ and ―Tarak Mehta ka Ulta
Chasma‖ to escape the worries of reality and to go back to the good
times.
While understanding these needs one should know that, audience
consumption of media might often be motivated by a combination of two
or more of there use and gratification needs. The sender or the producer
of the content may not be completely aware of the variety of
gratifications cues that has been infused into the content. Often even the
audience may not be able to identify the prime gratifications they are
seeking or consuming from a given media and its content. Keeping this in
mind the pro ducer needs to target the combinations of these needs which
are appealing to the specific audience it wants to cater, plus the kind of
message which the audience is most likely to perceive. As Denis
McQuail States "What is central for mass communication is not message -
making or sending and not even the messages themselves, but the choice,
reception and manner of response of the audience" (Orlik, 2000) . from
this point of view, it puts the audience needs in supreme priority. munotes.in

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66 There are many more factors whi ch are there in terms of audience
gratifications, consumer is very power centric term, they can make or
break the value of the art and also business as whole. Also there needs to
be a fine understanding of the business to run or manage a media
production c ompany. Creating a balance between Business gratifications
with respect to audience gratification is a difficult task, to build a
profitable and consumer‘s admired business or show, should be the
greatest gratification of all.
REFERENCE Electronic Media Criticism, Third Edition, Applied Perspectives by Peter
B. Orlik
https://books.google.co.bw/books?id=K2KRAgAAQBAJ&printsec=copy
right#v=onepage&q&f=f alse
Electronic Media Criticism PPT by Dr. Sanjay Ranade -
https://slideplayer.com/slide/10215712/
medc 5000 quiz 2 - Explain, elucidate, expound, interpret...
https://www.coursehero.com/file/13772016/medc -5000 -quiz-2/
https://www.academia.edu/11197396/Uses_and_gratification_theory_Co
mmunication_Theory
*****


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67 Media Criticism 8
REALITY PROGRAMMING
Unit Structure
8.0 Objective
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Questions
8.4 Referance
8.0 OBJECTIVE In the Previous unit we learn about Audience gratifi cation and difference
between their entertainment gratification and information gratification.
But there is a splice that occurs in these to functions called reality
programming. Reality Programming is a multivalent term, that means it
signifies a variety of thing to different audience. For some its positive but
for a lot of people these things are negative. The Negative aspects
associated with it are cheapness, distortion, dishonesty and untruthful.
Reality Programming has been traditionally been associate d with
electronic media. Which is comparatively inexpensive than other types of
shows, serials etc. although it is not inexpensive as a unit but in
comparisons to other, its slightly. By definition, reality programming is
essentially unscripted, and captur e real people rather than actors and
concentrate of real -life events.
It is mostly or meant to be non -fictional by definition, as it is recorded
programs which is sometimes pre -scripted and sometimes unscripted. It
pretends to depict real people in real l ife situations for at least partly
entertainment purposes. Reality television evolved from Radio game
shows and talent shows. From then the reality programming has come
through a long way today it includes unscripted dramas, lifestyle change
shows, talent hunt shows. I was fortunate enough to work for the
pioneers, who brought the concept of reality shows to Indian Television.
since then, there has been more than hundred reality shows which aired
on various channels in India. Thus, we will look at the conce pts,
transformation aspects and most importantly how reality programming is
programmed and its technicalities. Reality shows often has a host or
anchor, who narrates the story or establish what‘s going to happen.
Reality programming is characterized as rea l-life event rather than an
imagination of producer. Traditionally and technically, production wise
all reality programming show are pre -recorded. But with the digital
convergence this aspect is gradually changing, although the show might
or might not be p re-scripted but it can be streamed live, in real time. This
type of programming is more transparent but the chances of errors are
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68 done. Presenting real people in real life scenarios, ar e curtail conditions
of the audience, so that they feel connected to the reality programme.
Most of these audience stive the gratify there need for entertainment. If
we look at hard core news programming which are also similar in format
which might be pres ented in entertaining way but are information centric
and delivery serious information. Although today there are some
channels which even sensationalize serious information and indulge in
yellow journalism to add entertainment factor to the programme. Ther e
are some news -related reality terminologies that needs to be understood,
such as infotainment, which is a sum of Information + Entertainment.
This type of programming includes the presentation of soft news topics
keeping in mind the entertainment values for the audience. A soft new
consist of things of interest, which has less impact on you, for example a
travel, eatery show, you might be interested in watching new food items
or places to eat but it might not have a major effect on your life on the
other hand hard news directly impacts your world. Shows which has
higher sensational aspects than informative one in infotainment can be
known a tabloid television. ―Sensational news is coverage of unexpected
events; these events have some inherent entertainment value‖ as
explained by Hofstetter and Dozier.
If we dive into the aspects of reality programming, we get to understand
the way it gets produced, particularly the production and shoot. It might
be situated at real locations, or in studio, or uses hidden ca meras.
Essentially reality programming is supposed to be capturing everything
as it happens. Technically and production wise often that might not be the
case. Tabloid programs often focus on extraordinary things that man to
ordinary people to add spice and entertainment factor. The idea is to
something unpredictable to generate curiosity in the audience. Another
sin associated with reality television which contains non -news factors,
known as ―Trash TV‖, Trash TV might be attention grabbing but does
not incl ude both soft news or hard news. Where there is certainly nothing
―new‖ but how it finds a way to distort the truth. Trash TV is mostly non -
reputable since it includes lewdness, lust and lechery. Trash is thus not
similar to Tabloid programming. As trash d oes not fall under the category
of Infotainment, as there is absolutely no information but entertainment
exclusively, but even that entertainment breeds entirely on downgrading
people rather than human insight. These programs exploit, debase and
disrespect the subject, person or people rather than covering them, and
thus it degrades itself as trash. Few years ago, our professor asked our
class to write about a popular road style trash reality show, what are our
opinions on it, everyone started writing about the show, critiquing it and
grilled the show, and at the end the professor said, whatever you have
written stop behaving like it. Well, it was just a technique to calm the
class and to tell how not to behave. That day we realized that sometimes
unconsciou sly how ―trashy‖ we behave and get entertained. Thus, if as a
media professional if we are asked to make or work for a tabloid or trash
TV. Then keep two things in mind – Is this label an actual signifier of the
show‘s content. Do the people who applied fo r the show are aware and
understand the implications and consequences of it (what‘s going to munotes.in

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69 Media Criticism happen to or with them). Sometimes there is a very thin line between a
tabloid and trash. Hence there is another way of differentiating tabloid
and trash, by apply ing a standard of significance, A threshold which itself
become the line of differentiation. As S. Elizabeth Bird states, ―A
tabloids may provide a great deal of 'trivia' that is regarded by their
audiences as 'important information,' such as human interes t (lifestyle
reality shows) and stories of celebrity which given viable lessons of life ―
(orlik, 2000). These tabloids produce some insight that is eventually
beneficial to the audience. Whereas trash on the other hand is nothing
but quantified glimpses of miserable abnormality of the people in that
program. There is absolutely no is life lesson or insights. It only caters to
momentary voyeuristic thrills. Hence in simple terms, if the viewers gain
some insights and learn something about real people and events, that is
infotainment. If the show or programming is added with spice (Masala)
to sensationalize it, it is tabloid form of infotainments. Whereas if the
audience is just exposed to the exploitation or humiliation of humans,
with whom they don‘t iden tify with, the program is trash.
Shock TV - ―Shock‖ is an extreme variation of trash phenomenon, it
bypasses the entertainment and works on sheer offensiveness of its
subject to grab attention of the viewers. Hence shock programming is
considered odious b y many advertisers and agencies. Thus, it is mostly
limited to off hours on lower scaled stations and channels.
Keyhole TV – It is shows which uses ―hidden camera‘ or personal
camera, like a spy, that captures popular or ordinary people in
embarrassing, ab surd or laughable situations. This type of content is also
being used by digital content creators, like prank videos and spy cam
videos. For example, ―Just for laugh Gags‖. Sometimes, Keyhole has the
potential to bring out minor insight of human flaws. Alt hough keyhole
programming may be foolish, but it is rarely harmful, offensive or
sexually exploitative. It leans more towards family fare with which
majority of advertisers and agencies feel comfortable with. The
difference between keyhole and trash is Key hole TV teases it subjects
without ridiculing or downgrading them. Some RJ‘s tease their listeners
with keyhole or prank phone calls which is mostly funny and unharmful,
but few of them even use shock tactics that sometimes draw FCC
sanctions. As radio doe s not offer visual content, it does not alter the
difference between soft news, tabloid, keyhole, trash and shock that we
can analyse in TV.
Reality Programming specially in Indian context might sometimes use
multiple programming formats in a single show, for example an
infotainment shows sometimes get deviated into tabloid or in some cases
even trash or shock. Sometimes it is done intentionally, sometimes it
happens apparently and unknowingly on sets, but at the end of the day
the editor and the producer h ave the control over what will actual get
published. Hence if it‘s edited, then it cannot be unconscious.
If we talk about reality on digital media, often it is a user generated
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70 digital me dia usually might appear board and open minded, it still lacks
on proper guidelines, hence it can often backfire, as well as virality of the
digital media makes the improper use of it extremely dangerous. There
are a lot of creators who make offensive, abu sive content on real people
in real situations. Like prank videos and spy videos. Sometimes these
videos fall under the categories of keyhole, trash and shock. Hence while
making these, one should be aware of the consequences of it, as it may
defame someon e without their consent. Hence even if one shoots a video
like that should take the consent of the subject before uploading and
publishing it, otherwise it might fall under punishable offense or even
crime. Putting a hidden camera in someone‘s personal spa ce is a crime
itself. Hence an innocent mistake can also lead to a criminal offense. As
there are limited guidelines about producing these types of content, even
there are less laws to protect the convicted. Even silly mistakes like
driving a bike without helmet, what one essentially is doing is creating
evidence against themselves.
Now let us look at reality programming from business gratification
perspective, the production cost of television and radio reality
programming is lesser or often half the cost of the normal 30 min serial
cost. Hence the overall budget of the show is lesser in comparison, but
sometime it‘s not the case, some reality shows invite celebrity guests,
sometimes multiple guests which eventually increases the production cost
drasticall y. Often these celebrities come for the programming as a barter
for the promotion of their movies/songs or shows. Some of the reality
shows get very basic ratings and TVT. Achieving audience figures might
not ensure financial successes, because the shows c ontent also matters,
even ―Trash‖ and ―Shock‖ TV programs guarantee higher audience
viewership, but gradually decline as the advertisers start stepping back
due to the increasing shock or trash value required to retain the audience
numbers.
Reality Genres
Majority of the reality shows fit into these categories and genres.
1. News Featurettes
2. Single -Theme Magazines
3. Daily Syndicated News Magazines
4. Talk Shows
5. Game Show
6. Court Shows
7. Criminal Posters
8. Video Verite
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71 Media Criticism 10. Pseudo sports
11. Business Development Sho w
12. Skill Enhancing show
Digital convergence in Contemporary reality shows is playing a
prominent role, for example Shark tank India 2021 -2022 has gained a lot
of critical acclamations and appreciation from the audience as well as the
critics. The show becam e extremely popular and was a financial success
even before it went on air, as the advertised brand‘s owners were part of
the show, as well as it also attracted other major sponsors like Upgrad
and Flipkart. The Show not only gained audience views on just TV but
also on digital platforms such as sonyLiv app as well as its short videos
or snippets on YouTube as well. The Digital convergence is killing the
exclusiveness of the content of TV, which might have negative impact
but if we see it from the other ang le, it is actually helping the show and
attracting greater audience. The people who were unable to watch their
favourite shows at the particular time it is scheduled to air on TV, can
watch that show at a time which is to their own convenience, even they
can pause and resume and watch the show in pieces or watch it in a
stretch, as the time and interest allows, and thus it is a win -win situation
for both business gratification as well as audience gratification. This has
also increased the demand of the cont ent, as the concept of binge
watching is on the rise, Binge watching is watching a serial, show or
series, episode after episode in continuation. As the digital media has
made us impatient overall, many of the viewers try to binge watch their
favourite sho ws. As business point of view these shows are not just
helping the producers make money through TV but also from the
premium subscriptions of the apps and OTT platforms. The popularity of
show gives the viewers something to talk about, and ―Memers‖ makes i t
more interesting by taking a piece of the content and giving it another
perspective (mostly in a funny way). Which eventually promotes the
show. The presence of digital media platforms is increasing rapidly and is
being recognized by major producers as w ell. Just think about, how many
competitive shows are asking the Audience to download an App for
voting and supporting. One of the most popular prime time reality shows
– ―The Kapil Sharma Show‖ has even started a segment called Post ka
Post mortem which i ncludes social media posts of celebrities and the
funny comments on it.
How reality programming is produced, like any other program production
reality shows are also divided into various production departments. Each
department has various sub categories. The production structure depends
on program to program. But there are few basic departments that has to
be there in any production, and we will look at a general reality
production‘s departments, positions, roles and task. First of all, there is a
pre-production team which further divided into three segments, The
scripting and story, producers‘ team, and marketing team. The Scripting
team starts working on an idea and concept, and try to develop and
narrative or format. This team is usually different from t he writing team munotes.in

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72 of serials and daily soup shows. Because many a times the show are not
completely scripted, this team attempts to shape the concept into a story
and gives the show a structure or frame of reference. It can be seen as
live scripting, where t he script changes simultaneously in the direction
the show is going. Then the production team starts looking for the set‘s
designers, studios, locations, plan auditions, judges, talents and whatever
might be required for the shoot. The marketing team then prepares a sales
pitch and start pitching to get advertisers and sponsors. This team
negotiates with the advertisers or agency to get the best deal and at least
enough funds to start the production of the show. sometimes some
advertisers also join in durin g or even after the production stage.
Production stage is where the real action begins
Reality in reality programming, although reality as a concept is often a
subjective matter, but there is always a ―Reality team‖ in reality shows,
this team captures the reality aspect of a subject, person or contestant.
They try to bring out the background story of the person, this team goes
and shoot in the real places or hires local freelance video shoot if the
hometown of the contestant or participant is far.
Then the re is production manager and his team, this is the most laborious
job, as to manage logistics, contestants and their food and
accommodation, transport, to smallest props. The production manager is
allocated with limited daily, weekly or monthly budgets, in which they
have to manage everything. This team has to arrive earliest at the set to
manage the situation and leaves the Set last, to check everything is wind
up or not. The job does not end here, the production manager has to
collect all the recorded dat a of the shoot and deliver it to the editors,
where the production manager has to make sure that the data has been
transfer to the system, and can be emptied and used on the next day or
next shoot day.
Then there is creative team which looks at the all th e creative aspects,
such as what can be added and scripting spontaneously according to
situation, what will be the theme of the episode and what type of costume
will be required. Costume, Hair and makeup, art and some other
department is same as for films.
Camera and Direction Department. Usually there are multiple cameras
used in reality programming, in a typical talent hunt reality show there
are about 8 to 10 cameras, which runs simultaneously, from which 5 -6
camera‘s get recorded in storage system. Bec ause most of the show is
recorded live on the set, and usually there is no retakes, hence there has
to be multiple cameras from multiple angles. Alongside the director sits a
switcher, who has a very big screen or a tv, where he see‘s the live
footages fro m all the 10 camera and selects which 5 camera angles and
shots looks the best. You may think why not record data from all the
camera‘s, it is possible but it consumes almost double storage and it gets
difficult for the editor to work on 10 different timel ines. Hence this
process is also called live editing, where the basic camera shots are
selected live backstage and even there are colour correctors in that dark munotes.in

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73 Media Criticism room who match the exposure and the colours of all ten cameras then and
there. The Main seat at the centre is always reserved for the Director,
with whom the timesheet writer sits, often it takes more than 3 hours to
shoot a single episode of the show, but what the final episode which airs
on the TV is of about 45 -50mins with ad break links, now the timecode
writer notes the real time, as well as time on the timeline on the screen,
and also writes the peak points of the show, note if something interesting
is happening. It helps the editors to understand what they have to give
emphasis on. There is so meone from the creative team, who checks the
continuity. Like movies often the program is not shot in a sequenced
manner as shown on air. Mostly episodes are shot on the single shoot
day. As to cut the cost of booking the studios for multiple days. The
shoot happens in continuity usually for about 15 hours to 18 hours, off
course with meal breaks. The Director is the important person on set,
Here the director sits backstage in a dark room, where only few technical
people can enter. without his permission no thing can be moved on the
set, when the camera is rolling. The Director, has a mic by which he
gives instruction to everyone on the set, from art department, contestant
to judges and even the audience as when to smile or clap. He monitors
the footages from all the cameras, commands the switcher to select the
best angles and shots. But if you are working in any department, there
margin of error is extremely low, one mistake and you can be out. As the
reality programming happens live, and if by anyone‘s mista ke something
goes wrong it is difficult to be rectified, and even retakes require time
which again will increase the cost of studio rent, staff and judges‘ fees.
Post-production department saves the data in a centralized server where
multiple editors can work on the same show, simultaneously. Usually
these editor work on different episodes. This department is headed by the
senior editor who is responsible for delivering the final output on a given
deadline. As discussed, earlier Tv editing has to be quick and on short
deadlines, most of the editors work on shifts, often individual editor work
in multiple shifts and even sleep at the editing rooms or places, to reduce
the time to travel back and forth from home. The editing department,
syncs all the footage s from different recorded cameras with the processed
audio. Then it goes through the typical editing process. The editor has the
power to switch the sequence of the show. Then the final episodes are
delivered to the channel for publishing.
Reality program ming has faced significant criticism along with its rise in
popularity. Critics argue that reality programming do not precisely reflect
reality, be it indirectly where the subjects, person, or contestant being
placed in staged situations, or directly, its deceptive, it misleading the
audience through the use of editing, participants being trained to act as
told, storylines crated before the actual time, scenes being designed and
staged. Few of these programs are accused of being biased towards the
favourite participant or underdog to win. Reality programming is often
criticised of, that it is intended to humiliate, downgrade or exploit
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74 In Indian reality show, in 2000‘s to about mid of 2010‘s, the reality
shows beca me popular for becoming brutal, the judges use to thrash the
participant or contestant for making mistakes. Which had a potential to
scar them for life and bring their moral down. Sometimes comic
characters are purposely invited to insult them and to be ma de fun off,
but these characters are made aware of and usually paid well for it. But
when it is real exploitation then it becomes a problem. Specially in
Children‘s reality programming, this was a serious criticism and issue.
But from about half a decade t he producers realized this type of brutality
was seen negatively by the audience and the advertiser. so now, if you
observe the comments by the judges are mostly positive and well planned
and stated.
It is important as a media professional or critic of me dia to understand
that any kind of media, be it films, shows or even reality programming is
just a representation rather than reality.
References - Electronic Media Criticism PPT by Dr. Sanjay Ranade -
https://slideplayer.com/slide/10215712/
https://books.google.co.bw/books?id=K2KRAgAAQBAJ&printsec=copy
right#v=onepage&q&f=false
https://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/reality -tv.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_television
*****

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75 Media Criticism 9
DEPICTION ANALYSIS
Unit Structure
9.0 Objective
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Questions
9.4 Referance
9.0 OBJECTIVE As we st udied in the previous chapter that reality programming filters
reality into an entertainment centric matter or patterns, which provide the
audience with a narrow view of their world, which is an augmented
vision. It may be sensationalized and often change to unusual. From these
glimpses of media, the audience retain the correct or flawed lessons about
reality, of what other people are doing in their life. Not just reality
programming but almost all types of programming teach something to the
audience in som e or the other ways. Before diving into the topic, let us
understand the definition of depiction. ―Depiction is defined as a
representation in words or images of someone or something.‖
Again, every content of media is a representation, be it in a literary form
or visual form. Representation of people, it can be real people, fictional
character or even an object. Early representation studies and theories
looked at literary forms of art, then further got extended to aesthetics of
paintings and crafts. The mo dern theories of representation deals with the
social and cultural aspects of depictions. When we depict something or
someone, we induce some personality or human characteristic to them.
Even in the advertising the product is given a personality to connect to its
target audience and build a rapport with them, the process of adding
personality is nothing but looking at objects or characters as a person, or
a human being, by which the audience can connect, relate and socialize
with it. ―People talk with Peopl e‖ rather than gadgets or objects. for
example, you don‘t talk to your I -phone or Google, you conversate with
Serri or Alexa, which is basically a female assistant. Hence it is important
to understand the depiction and analyse what its implications are.
Sometimes the media producers might not intentionally add the
instructions for its audience. But the audience might pick or gain
information about. In other words, the content producers encode a
message which contains some depictions, these depictions contai n some
information which is decoded by the audience. Here the process of
meaning creation happens inside the viewer‘s mind. The producer might
depict something but the information or that‘s being retrieved from it
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76 There is a lot of variations and diversity in depiction and its cultivation,
generally electronic media producer does not mean to set out or infuse
some lessons for the audience, their whole interest is rather on generating
a piece of content that will be g rab the eye/attention of the audience
which will eventually be financially viable, that the content gets created
on the limited budget that is set and get proper viewership count, that
eventually converts into profit making.
There are mandated children pr ogramming on almost every type of
media, where the content of media should have educational and
informational values for the children, it is often abided by the law and in
the form of Acts. It is basically designed to implant some information
about the cul ture or the society which they live in a provide a life lesson.
Which fills up the educational and informational needs. Often there are
restriction involved when it comes to programming and content made for
kids. But it is not just limited to children‘s pr ogramming. Every piece of
media that is received by the audience carries a possible diversity of
teachings and educational values that may get implanted deeply in the
minds of the audience. By this school of thought, every viewer is a
student and every pie ce of content is a teacher. Often these curious
students take up a lesson which the programme did not intend to convey.
Various diverse audience groups will get engaged on varied levels or in
different arenas of meaning, as it depends on their social statu s,
experience, and interests. The Cultivation effect of these contents affects
more to the audience who are constantly engaged with it. In this process
of cultivation, the viewer brings a lot of personal aspects to work.
Now the questions that arises by w hich depiction -derived lessons spring
is as follows –
1. What are the characteristics of our actual physical world? What we
have, don‘t have or wish to have? This is basically a reality check of
our primary surrounding and environment. It includes materi alistic
and non -materialistic things.
2. What is society like? how people act or behave in our society.
Society itself is an extremely vast and diverse concept. This society
is formed by people who are the member of the society and in return
often the s ociety dictates how the members or people of the society
behave. Society includes a lot of aspects, such as physical location,
proximity, demographic, psychographics and behavioural aspects.
3. What are the impact and consequence of our action? This ques tion is
of great important, desire and interests are mostly within a person‘s
mind, but behaviour and actions are both psychological and physical
phenomenon. The actions can produce impact and consequences. So
before looking it inversely let us understand the actions first, actions
are usually in accordance to the society. One acts according to its
society. If we do something good, is there a positive reinforcement?
Or if we d something bad will there be a punishment or any
consequences. The good or bad, re inforcement or punishment is munotes.in

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77 Media Criticism taken from the previous question, what is society like. For example –
in some society teasing someone might be seen as bad and wrong,
where as in others it might be reinforced and encouraged.
4. What are our responsibilities toward our society? mass
communication is criticized that it has brought a sense of exclusion
rather than participation. Mass communication is a medium which is
larger audience centric, where the individual needs of people and
society are downsized for the greater good of mass. Traditionally the
electronic media has been divergent in nature, and proliferate
depictions from a vast variety of societies. Some societies are
depicted as exclusive and there are higher barriers to entry or
participation. But with the digital convergence this is eventually
changing at certain levels, as what once looked as exclusion is
changing to participation. When a person becomes a part of a society
they have to behave, act and take responsibilities towards the society.
The aim is the betterment of the society. For example, it can be
protecting the members of society from harmful contents. Hence
along with its impact and consequence of the actions, the acts of
responsibilities are also important.
There are various consequences w hich flows through our actions. such
as, Sexual Consequences, Media and television in particular became a
medium for sex education, as the influence of religion and family unit
strayed far away from sexual topics. Media took the role of sex educator,
altho ugh the media did not intend this position, but was appointed
anyways. The medium is often cursed for giving negative depiction of
sex. As Diana Workman States that "rather than enlightening the
audience, television serves to more deeply entrench discomfor t about sex
and contributes to continued ignorance in society about love, sex, and
responsibility." She also discovered that in television particularly, there
were number of time sexual intercourse was suggested, but also even
more time range of ―discourag ed sexual practices were suggested‖.
HIV/AIDS crisis is not often raised for discussion beyond news and
occasional public service advertising. More common sexual related topics
are sexual relationships troubles with worries about pregnancy and STDs,
rather than safe sex, contraception and its methods and implications, and
education, which are barely discussed.
These media depictions print fear and negatively about sex and its
consequences in the audience‘s mind. But with the digital media this
discomfort f actor is slowly decreasing, as the audience are getting more
exposure to sexually inclined content. Also, digital media is catering
mostly in personalised way, to individuals that shyness factor of watching
a sexually informative content in front of family members are not there.
But still there are perspectives involved, many a time it is depicted if a
man or a boy have sex before marriage is raised and encouraged by the
peers and ―society‖. Where as if a female does that is depicted
negatively. Although th e media reflects the reality but often it also
teaches some negative lessons. It is not limited to sexual consequences, munotes.in

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78 but it is relatable to inter -caste, inter -religion marriages, Age difference
between the partners, etc.
Violence Consequences, Sex and violence becomes synonyms in the
media and specially television language. Real world violence is bloody,
dirty and painful as it leads to misery and does not solve the problems
rather makes it worse. But it is seen that media often becomes a scape
goat and is blamed for its violence. But if we closely think about it, it‘s
just the opposite, its already too antiseptic. Traditionally the problem
with TV violence was that, it was not violent enough. Due to the strict
guidelines which these medium follows; a lo t of violent content gets
filtered out. Just like peal/skin of the fruits, which pealed out which often
contain roughage and nutritious values. Similarly, the violence in media
might contain important lessons. Even this is getting change gradually
with tim e and digital rise. As the viewers are getting exposed to
unfiltered violence and even the audience are actively watching contents
like these. But when it comes to the children watching violent content on
TV, the parents and the society get very protective , to some extend this is
valid and expected as we know about the BooBoo Doll experience and
the potential of media to influence behaviour. But if we see it from
another point of view that watching these content can make the kids
aware of the implications a nd consequences of violence. Thus, there are
some key questions that needs to be understood and answered. First being
that – is there adequate warning by the producer, so that everyone in the
distribution chain such as advertiser, network, station, theatre , and
consumer can decide to accept or reject the content? [Under
Congressional pressure, the broadcast networks initiated a more
formalized on -air warning system in the Fall of 1993.] and there are
various bodies and networks which follow various formaliz ation system
for broadcasting, distribution and consumption of these contents.
Secondly, Is the violence lacking any valid reason or purpose and which
can lead to harmful effects. In simple word, is the violence important for
the narrative, plot or the scr ipt and are there major consequences, like
unambiguous and sure shot reaction to this violence. The third question
that needs to answer is, does the content portray violence as a desirable
(irreplaceable) consequence or solution to a problem. If yes, then
legitimization of these content gets more difficult. As there will be lack
of options. Forth question is, is there only punishment for depicting act of
violence without any good reason, or are such acts encouraged or
rewarded? The fifth question is quite i nteresting, are heroes/protagonists
and villains/antagonists clearly differentiated and portrayed precisely, so
that the consequences happening to those characters can be easily
measured and justified. In many contemporary movies the line between
the prota gonist and antagonist are getting blurred, some movies depict the
story from the villain‘s point of view, most commonly in the marvel
movies, the character of ―Thanos‖ (An Alien , who wants to vanish half
population of every creature) is shown that he want s to create a balance
in universe and for that matter all the villains of all the spiderman movies
in the latest movie spiderman - no way home (every villain has story
about why they became bad and seeking redemption). Even in the movie munotes.in

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79 Media Criticism Joker, that backgro und story of the Joker tries to justify the violence that
he creates and even gratify that violence. Now the last question remains
is, is there no consequences or punishment, or if the protagonist and
antagonists are not clearly defined. So is there some o ther higher purpose
to be catered through the use of violence in the plot, script or narrative.
Even in News programming, the consequences of violence and related
events are important considerations. The shorter, crispier and increased
infotainment orient ed the news become, the more difficult it is to go
beyond the event to establish its impact. Ironically the most
sensationalize news programming the more popular the channels are in
India.
When we talk about programming for children, we can not forget Ani me,
Cartoons. Although the narrative of the cartoon programs aims to serve
good values, but the depictions often be problematic. The lessons which
the kids are learning subconsciously is also a very important factor, as the
children won‘t challenge the de piction, but might internalize information
which the depiction is releases. For example, in most of the cartoon
(specially) in India, a small boy will be shown as heroic, fighting bad
guys, saving his friend, asking girls to step backwards. This can be
problematic as the programming is disseminating that when there is
danger, girls need to be protected. On the other hands if we see Girl
(female) characters are usually depicted as beautiful, fragile and waiting
to be saved. From a very small age the girls ar e made to internalize that if
the are not slim and beautiful not one will get attracted to them, and in
tough times, they won‘t be capable to protect themselves.
As Marshall McLuhan explained, ―a refrigerator can be a revolutionary
symbol of deprivation to people who have no refrigerators‖. This has
become more relevant in today‘s context, where most of the social media
is breeding on. The unending greed of audience/users which can never be
satisfied. In social media post, the users upload something that is socially
desirable, that if the other person sees, will make him want it. It is
making the users so materialistic that the happiness of having a material
is short spanned, downsized by the recognition or appreciation received
for the achievement or purcha sed from others. If we dive deeper into it,
the audience, user or consumer whatever you may call, we all are just
merging with the algorithm. As the digital media premise on the user
data, which includes personal information, insights and data. Data is a
strong thing but remember it is a quantitative term. Hence it can bring us
down to mere numbers. Coming back to the topic of feeling of
deprivation, and the social media will do its best to make sure that you
feel deprived and use the medium more to fill u p that feeling of
deprivation, then once the algorithm spots what is that you feel deprived
of, then it will start selling you the same thing. What we need to
understand is, it is not a gratifying solution or a goal but a process, a loop
in which the user keeps falling repeatedly. For example, if you upload a
picture with your new smart phone, someone in your friend list, wanted
to buy the same phone but was unable to purchase it due to some reason.
hence feel deprived. Even for you it will be a short -term gratification munotes.in

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80 because after a short span of time, you will look at someone else‘s picture
and feel deprived yourself. The deprivation might not be only about
physical things but psychological, emotional, love and feeling of
compassion and anything.
As Ter ry Williams explains that many poor children learn they are poor
by watching television, "At first the kids are appalled," he reports. "These
kids get irritated and angry on the idea of being poor. We cannot neglect
the fact, that the content is mostly mad e with respect to business
gratification. The program seeks advertiser, the advertisers seek
customers, the customers seek gratification from the program as well as
advertised products. Hence the media is directly or indirectly,
intentionally or unintentio nally selling something to someone. The
commodity can be an object, idea or political ideology.
As john Fiske defined hegemony (control by one country, organization,
system, etc. over other countries, etc. within a particular group) ―as the
process by whi ch the subordinates are led to consent to the system that
subordinates them‖. This critical school of thought if influenced by
Marxism, where the capitalist/bourgeoisie (media producers) controls the
proletariat or workers (viewers), this eventually become s a system. This
is gained when the ‗consent‘ to perceive the social system and its routine
embodiments as ‗common sense. The process is to normalize something
that the audience won‘t even feel the necessity to challenge it. This social
system leads to gen eralization, for example how do we perceive if
someone is rich, might be by looks, personality or surname. Character
Surname‘s like Oberoi or Kapoor is depicted as rich in the Indian Tv and
movies. This generalized depiction often leads to stereotypes. Heg emonic
portrayals often present contradictory social lessons, which varies on
which audience is reading or watching the program content. If we see it
from the Marxist point of view, media as an industry is a capitalistic
system, which is driven by economic and financial structures. Hence it
does its best to gain maximum capital output. Like SWIFT which is a
financial network across 200 countries which is led and controlled by
America and European union, major publishing, broadcasting, studios,
media organiz ations and labels are owned by American and European
countries. Thus, the concept of western life style as the modern way
(correct way) of living is so proliferated through media, that many people
worldwide feel deprived of the glorified life in the west. Weaker
countries look up to these countries as savior of the world, as depicted in
the movies. But if we see it historically, we might find it contrary. The
frequent depiction of the physical pristine yet frustratingly unachievable
life-style that bluntly taunts and teases the audience. These depictions
create needs and wants in the audience, which is difficult and, in some
cases, unattainable. If we see it from the other side, most of the content
writers live there, and the directors and producers find it financially
viable and climatically easier to shoot there.
Hegemony in digital media - If we look at major social media networks
which again belongs to or owned by the hegemonic system. These
organization are in for making money, although sometimes it mig ht munotes.in

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81 Media Criticism disguise users, as user generated content. Intentionally or unintentionally
most audience fall for this. In digital world where users are the content
creator and consumer, which makes them subordinate to the system
which is created by the subordinate it self, but actually might be
controlled by superior hegemony. In simple word, the users themselves
become both the subordinate and the system on a particular level. for
example, a user might trend a fashion style which becomes a fad and
extremely common. Bu t from where does the primary user got
influenced. On the surface it might look that user generated content is
beyond boundaries or limitations but even in that there are guidelines to
be followed. For example – YouTube has a special consent form that
need to be filled before you upload a video, which the user has to fill in
accordance to laws for YouTube. If the creator does not abide by the
rules, the content might get taken out, or the channel might get banned.
This is not limited to YouTube but for that instance all the social media
sites. This is to understand that there is a superior non -superficial
supervision. Also, there all additional laws, rules and ethics of the place
from which the creator belongs. Straying away from it might get the
creator in mild-serious troubles. The proximity of the native place and the
kind of society for which the content is created is of huge prominence.
What is the society like? A person can fear small towns or metro cities if
they don‘t have firsthand experience and hav e seen unchallenged
negative media depictions. Similarly, it can be the case with transgenders
as well, without any actual personal experience, sometimes people
believe or create an opinion based on the depiction or representations put
forth by the media. Through there might me some relevance to depiction
of media, its depiction might contain the values experienced by media
producer or writer, it might have been taught by the elders (from their
own experience) but it does not depict whole reality just a bri ef part of it.
But it often leads stereotypes. Most of the audience do not question or
challenge the depictions in films and televisions, hence it can sometime
mislead. This phenomenon is more of a social teaching rather than a
physical environment, actual world, experiential one. Here the content
becomes a social learning medium. Although in terms of digital media
the users somewhat are aware and as the medium is interactive, the
viewer can question, challenge or even suggest the representations,
depiction s and portrayals.
To sum it up, media acts as a teacher, departing social lessons through its
depictions. These Depictions are analyzed in the minds of the audience,
where a lot of factors affect the analysis. All this process happens in
various societies according to which the members take actions, these
actions generate impact and consequence. Which are thus analyzed by the
funnel of society itself. And thus, reward or punish the actions
accordingly. In return these aspects will again be followed by the society
and reflected in the media depictions. There needs to be content which
causes mutation to this process.
Electronic Media Criticism PPT by Dr. Sanjay Ranade -
https://slideplayer.com/slide/1021 5712/ munotes.in

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82 https://books.google.co.bw/books?id=K2KRAgAAQBAJ&printsec=copy
right#v=onepage&q&f=false
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_and_gratification s_theory


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83 Media Criticism 10
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Symbols and Archetype
10.2 Ritual, Mystique and Myth
10.3 Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis
10.3.1 How synthesis is generated?
10.4 Semiotics
10.5 Let‘s sum up
10.6 Questions
10.7 Refe rences
10.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 Application of Symbols and Archetype in electronic media
 Analysis of ritual, mystique and myth
 Usage of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis in electronic media
 Semiotics
10.1 INTR ODUCTION According to media theorists, radio and television do not truly reflect
reality, but rather shape and control it into structured patterns for
effective transmission. With this in mind, let's take a look at some of the
shaping technologies that pro duce these electronic content layouts.
However, as we saw in the previous chapter with our depiction analysis,
we must understand right away that the structures and meanings assumed
by producers may be miscoded or even counter code by audience
members usin g their own frames of reference and perceptual knowledge.
1.2 SYMBOLS AND ARCHETYPE Individual units that can be isolated or merged to carry and incorporate
meaning are the primary building blocks for any codes. Symbols are the munotes.in

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84 traditional name for these components. Symbols "reflect a common core
of interest, need, and experience" among humans
The verbal and visual symbol grammars are the most common. All
human connection, as Joshua Meyrowitz points out, requires two forms
of symbols: verbal communication and graphic emotions. Expressions are
more direct and unclear, more natural but less clear than linguistic claims,
like photos without subtitles. Expressions originate from a person's
mouth; they reveal how they "truly feel" and what they're like. However ,
a contract cannot be formed on a wink and a smile. The meanings of
expressions are frequently lost unless words are employed to clarify
them. When a society's range of experience is limited, words are less
necessary.
In contrast to verbal grammar, picto rial grammar necessitates less
receiver expertise. However, it lacks the certainty of meaning that most
verbal languages provide. As a result, with predominantly graphic media
like television, the chances of misinterpretation grow. As
the media profession expands into the worldwide economy, it is
important to pay close attention to what the camera -captured photos may
imply. We can change the language words in a soundtrack, but the
original graphic meanings will remain the same. To North American
audiences, a picture of someone offering flowers to a woman, for
example, may imply a kind gesture. However, as advertising expert
Florence Friedman points out, it is a metaphor for death in some Arab
countries. "Television viewing is a complicated, multidimensional
symbolic experience," Professors Lembo and Tucker remind us, and one
whose meaning can hardly be taken for granted because of the range of
its pictorial interpretation.
Symbols, whether verbal or graphical, can also be classified as personal,
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85 Media Criticism

Fig: 1 Courtesy: National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia
With reference to the above figure Juan Valdez (the owner of the Juan
Valdez Café) as a social icon. The meaning of social symbols is perhaps
most constant within the culture in which they were created. When
symbols crossover cultures and eras while maintaining their basic
meaning, they are called archetypes. Many social symbols, in fact, are
based on underlying, long -lasting archetypes, which are subsequently
given more distinctive interpretations by each soci ety.
Take, for example, the concept of comedy. An ancient Greek publication,
the Tractatus Coislinianus, "sets forth all the crucial information
concerning comedy in approximately a page and a half," according to
Northrop Frye. The Tractatus, according to Frye, offers three types of
comedic characters:
1. The alazons, or imposters, who claim to be more than they are, "but
they are more often characterised by a lack of self -knowledge than
by hypocrisy."
2. The eirons, or self -deprecators, who make themselves invulnerable
by criticising themselves before others may take advantage of the
situation. "A hero, who is an eiron figure because the writer tends to
play him down and make him fairly neutral and unformed in
character, is important to this category."
3. The buffoons, or bomolochoi, "whose role is to raise the festive
mood rather than add to the plot. This character is established with munotes.in

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86 comic habits such as malapropism (use of an inaccurate term in place
of a homophones word, resulting in a nonsensical, some times funny
utterance) or foreign accents."
Aristotle adds a fourth category to the three categories mentioned in the
Tractatus:
4. The agroikos, who, depending on the situation, can be aggressive,
unsophisticated, or serious. Also, variation can be seen In t he
character as a miserly, arrogant, or humourless character whose job
is that of the refuser of celebration, the spoilsport who seeks to stop
the enjoyment. The simple, even rustic characters who, in their
purity, typically reflect the simplistic idea ar e known as
unsophisticated types. The third type of agroikos behaviour is of a
character from a circus who is a straight guy who enables the
humour to bounce off him, thus to speak.
Situation comedies and humorous advertising both reflect these
stereotype s. Brad is the classic eiron in the following Time Magazine
commercial, for example, whose identity is of a sad model for anyone
who refuses to read Time. Alazon Phyllis boosts her own self -esteem by
boasting about how much she's sacrificing for him by mak ing that
decision. As she criticizes the depths to which this literary hunger has
brought her, Phyllis gradually changes into a surly agroikos. Time can
bask in Phyl's overpraise without appearing arrogant thanks to this
hilarious exaggeration.
(Backgroun d SFX: Restaurant Clatter)
Brad: What's the occasion, Phyllis? This is our favourite restaurant.
Phyl: Brad, I have a very important message for you.
Brad: No, no, no, no, no, no, no, no, no
Phyl: This is the most difficult thing I've ever had to do.
Brad: Oh no!
Phyl: Believe me when I say that this is the best option for both of us.
Brad: Hey, you met Mom and everything.
Phyl: Brad, you know how you've always disliked the fact that I'm funny,
bright, and urbane?
Brad: Oh no, I'm sorry, but I don't have an y more.
Phyl: And how stupid did you feel because I was so well informed about
the issues that touch our lives on a daily basis?
Brad: It was fantastic. I enjoyed. Stupid!
Phyl: Well, I know how to address the problem. munotes.in

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87 Media Criticism Brad: Phyl, don't say anything.
Yes, Phyl. I've decided to stop reading TIME magazine.
Brad: Ohhhhh, (utterly blank). What?
Phyl: Yes, Brad. TIME, and only TIME, gave me the appealing
personality that you avoided.
Brad: TIME?
Phyl: Every week, I flew there and drank from the depths of its th riving
literary basin.
Brad: Do you mean TIME magazine?
Phyl: It's been a week since I've had it.
Brad: Do you mean the monthly magazine TIME?
Phyl: Ask about the latest developments in business, medicine, religion,
art, and education.
Brad: What's going o n, Phyl?
Phyl: I'm not sure, I don't have the slightest idea!
Brad: Oh, Phillies, you mean....
Phyl: Yes! I'm the same empty -headed dimwit you are if I don't have
TIME.
Brad: (hurriedly) Oh, I adore you.
(Courtesy: Dick Orkin)
Of all, these hilarious arche typal symbols aren't just for advertising. They
can also help comedians get momentum. This is likely most evident in
group comedies like Cheers; an American comedy series, which seem to
mimic Frye's observations of ancient Greek dramatic theory almost
exactly. Consider the numerous exchanges between Cliff, the know -it-all
mailman, and Norm, the tubby accountant who openly acknowledges his
own weaknesses and failures. "The plethora of hilarious situations in
which one character blissfully address [Cliff] whi le another makes
sarcastic asides to the audience [Norm] reveal the contest of eiron and
alazon in its purest form, as well as show that the audience is sympathetic
to the eiron side," Frye says.
To put it another way, viewers prefer eiron Norm than alazon Cliff.
Frye's description of their interaction was written more than thirty years
before Cheers was created, yet it's still relevant because both it and the
series are founded on the same persistent set of archetypal symbols (refer
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88 Cheers propri etor and hero -figure Sam Malone portrays a different aspect
of the eiron role, as he criticizes his lack of knowledge while his
rigorously "unformed" character leaves him open for annoyingly
overpowering proddings from barmaid Diane and subsequently manage r
Rebecca. In the same way that Norm balances Cliff, Diane and her
replacement, Rebecca, play alazons to Sam's eiron.
Dr. Frasier Crane, the blabbering and pretentious psychotherapist, was an
agroikos "killjoy refuser of festivity" at the start of his care er. However,
as his character expanded, his inability to recognize his own lack of self -
awareness became the topic of longer humorous plot lines. Lilith, a
fellow psychologist (and later spouse), became a regular attendee.
Frasier's prior agroikos role was taken over by Lilith, who gave it both
'grumpy' and 'serious' qualities.

Fig: 2 (Cheers embodiments of ancient Greek archetypes.
(Illustration by Scott Huver)
Courtesy: Electronic Media Criticism: Applied Perspectives
Coach was, of course, an agroikos, however of an unsophisticated
(seco nd) kind. After the death of the actor who played him, Woody was
brought in to replace him, and he added the "hayseed" element. Carla, the
spunky waitress in Cheers, is another agroikos figure who takes surliness
to new heights. Carla, on the other hand, m ay be the show's most
complex character, since her "fun -stopping" (or stomping) agroikos
rampages are sometimes countered by nostalgic confessions of eiron -like
identity.
However, there are no bomolochoi among Cheers regulars because such
clown figures are simply meant to "increase the spirit of celebration
rather than add to the storyline," according to the definition. Instead,
bomolochoi enter and exit the bar as minor or random characters who
exist simply to stir the regular ensemble's interplay, such as Carla's munotes.in

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89 Media Criticism apelike ex -husband, Nick Tortelli. Indeed, as Chicago Tribune writer
Clifford Terry pointed out in his review, when the Cheers creators sought
to create a spinoff series centered on Nick, his inherent buffoon didn't
prove of much influence.
The s econd series Frasier, on the other hand, was a huge success. As
previously stated, unlike Nick Tortelli, the title role character had been
developed into a far more robust comedy archetype before the sequel was
attempted. The same creators who failed with The Tortellis were
successful with Frasier because they started with a far richer symbolic
focus.
Irrespective of the knowledge of archetypal symbols among audiences,
producers, or reviewers, they work. Indeed, the most effective show
creators maybe those who are so sensitive to art that they intuitively
understand and use archetypes without stopping to know about or study
them. Because they adhere to humanity's underlying (even subconscious)
archetypal assumptions, some social symbols appear more significa nt and
effective. The better all media professionals can learn to understand
broad archetypal traits, the greater chance we have of predicting why a
project's premise or cast of people is gelling or not as production
progresses.
When an archetype is misuse d, whether purposefully or unintentionally,
the results can be disastrous in terms of communication. When a
radio/television message is allowed to crossover cultures without
sufficient symbolic examination, this is a specific threat. For example,
Pepsi and Cola's existence glorifying tagline, "Come Alive —You're in
the Pepsi Generation" slogan was translated in Taiwan as the more literal
archetypal promise: "Pepsi -Cola Will Bring Your Ancestors Back from
the Dead." More tragically, Adolph Hitler's Nazi swast ika was a distorted
societal symbol of an archetypal emblem that embodies the mystic life
energy in Indian and Japanese cultures, as well as among southwestern
Native Americans. This emblem was termed a gammadion (four Greek
gamma symbols radiating from a common center). The early Christian
church similarly employed this symbol to represent Christ as its center.
As a result, even if the archetype reappears, the social structures that
surround it might alter or even subvert its meaning. Electronic media
practitioners, on the other hand, rarely have to deal with issues of this
magnitude. Nonetheless, archetypes as recurrent meaning patterns must
be acknowledged because, as Frye puts it, "we could almost
characterize popular literature, perhaps in a rather circ ular sense, as
literature that provides an excellent view of archetypes."
It makes no difference whether this popular (mass) literature is
distributed in print or through electronic means, except that television is
likely to have a greater influence. In re ality, as Rose Goldsen puts it:
Television today has a virtual monopoly on any artistic or symbolic
expressions that have a chance to be widely spread across society. All of
the visuals, tales, ballads, chants, songs, and stories that come over that munotes.in

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90 screen are show -and-tell components of social reality that become
familiar to everyone.
10.3 RITUAL, MYSTIQUE AND MYTH Despite the fact that these three phenomena as stated by Goldsen in the
above are interconnected, we will explore them separately in order to
better comprehend their roles in radio and television programming.
RITUAL:
We've just looked at how social and archetypal symbols convey or imply
meaning to the general public. Until they are submerged in a ritual —what
Robert Rutherford Smith refers to as "an act or set of acts, which brings
about an acceptable resolution of the problem with which the
program deals," these symbols are without a storyline. Despite the fact
that the term ritual may appear to be limited to church services, Professor
Quentin Sc hultze points out that it has a broader meaning mentioned
below:
The necessity of public ritual is shared by secular television
programming and religious devotion. Before "participation" is truly
possible, both a church service and a television program require
prescribed forms of ritual. A fully unique presentation could not be
enjoyed or understood in the same way that a completely unfamiliar deity
could not be worshipped in a foreign religious ceremony. Television, like
the mass, is structured in certain ways to allow believers to enter into
genuine connection. To assure a community experience, television
creates its own rituals.
The same may be said for radio formats. The "hot clock" of the audio
service is, in the end, a ritualistic allotment of an hour that accustoms us
to when our 'community' demands for news, weather, musical
celebration, traffic updates, or simulated dialogue will be met. The format
that successfully pays tribute to its target listeners' life cycles is the
format whose ritual embodies what Northrop Frye refers to as "magic":
When we look at ritual, we see a naturalistic imitation with a strong
element of what we term magic. Magic appears to begin as a voluntary
effort to reestablish a lost connection to the natural cycle. A defining tr ait
of human ritual is the idea of deliberate recapturing of something no
longer owned. Ritual establishes a calendar... The magical element in
ritual, on the other hand, is obviously geared toward a cosmos in which a
foolish and indifferent nature is no l onger the container of human
society, but rather is contained by it, and must rain or shine at the
pleasure of man.
In other words, a well -programmed radio station provides us the feeling
of being in charge of our day, not just through the delivery of copi ng
knowledge, but also through the stress release provided by lifestyle -
responsive music and feature progressions. Formats are rites. And
"rituals," according to perceptual psychologist Rudolf Arnheim, "not only munotes.in

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91 Media Criticism express what individuals feel but also encou rage them to feel the way the
circumstance requires" - whether it's the forced rush of morning
drivetime or the laziness of a Sunday afternoon.
On television, we've all seen the news anchor who greets us, then goes on
to reveal a slew of tragedies before ' redeeming' us with a joyful good -bye
at the end of the show. The 'reality' ritual of a game show or sporting
event follows this pattern, beginning with the "natural" difficulty of
human and situational barriers to overcome and ending when someone or
some t eam wins in their mission and is crowned to compete in a new
contest later.
Similarly, the soap opera's ritual of taking us across the week and then
magically halting time until Monday through a significant Friday event is
similar to the sitcom's (comedy s how) ability to connect together problem
discoveries and solutions over time in comfortable and funny half -hour
patterns. On the other hand, according to Horace Newcomb, the
difference between soap opera and sitcom rituals is that " "While the
situation co medy is forced to repeat itself in every episode of every
series, changing only in the actual' situation' that triggers the action, the
soap opera will grow and change. They get up, married, and have
children, and their troubles are constantly relevant to their
circumstances."
It's worth noting that, since Newcomb's observation was made two
decades ago, certain later comedies, such as Cheers, The Cosby Show,
and Murphy Brown, have incorporated problem -solving rituals fuelled by
character transformation.
The most appreciated series is the one that ritualistically handles its
challenges in the most involved, engaging method. This holds true for
both newscasts and the stories they contain, as well as fictional programs.
Professor David Altheide, for example, has identified a ritual he terms
"Formats for Crisis." "Any topic that is to be legitimized by widespread
media coverage must be presented as something fresh, catastrophic, with
an immediate impact, and as a crisis," Altheide writes, "but this must be
done in a familiar [ritualistic] fashion." Altheide's crisis ritual is divided
into the following seven stages:
1. A visual representation of a certain event is chosen.
2. The event will be set in contrast to the existing quo, signaling a
change.
3. It will be argued that the event or change it is supposed to represent
is significant for a substantial number of individuals, possibly 10%
of the population.
4. Immediate victims will be presented, and they will frequently be
interviewed, expressing their angui sh or sorrow.
5. The blame will be assigned. munotes.in

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92 6. A graphic representation of a metaphor, such as a wave, will be used
to convey symbolic significance to the entire situation.
7. Previous crises of a comparable nature are rarely appraised for their
long-term consequences. Each "crisis" is presented as if it were
occurring for the first time, with no historical context.
The use of Altheide's "Formats for Crisis" ritual in the coverage of
basketball sensation Ervin "Magic" Johnson's announcement that he had
tested HIV -positive is notable. Despite the fact that a virus and a medical
diagnosis are not visually appealing, there was virtually unlimited
footage of Johnson's athletic prowess to illustrate the story (1). The
tragedy contrasted with long -held notions that AIDS -related illnesses
were primarily an issue for drug users, lgbtq people, and celebrities in the
'arts' world (2). Even macho jocks were now at risk: they and, indirectly,
their millions of adoring fans were learning that AIDS could affect them
or their team (3). Interviews with Johnson, his basketball teammates, and
his fans revealed sadness, guilt, and mourning (4). Johnson's immorality
was blamed, as was the unknown lady who may have infected him, the
professional sports industry for turning its stars into reckless sex idols,
and the government and medical community for not doing enough to
combat the disease (5). Soaring 'freeze -frames' of the now -grounded
athlete's past on -court heroics figuratively encompassed the entire
situation (6). However, past coverage of the AIDS problem was hardly
mentioned, unless it was to imply that the earlier tales were really a
minor and less reputable foreshadowing of the "true" crisis now
symbolized in Magic's illness (7).
According to Victor Turner, one of ritua l's key functions is to serve as a
constant commentator on society, a dynamic process that must be
interpreted as part of a symbolic cultural fabric. If the ritual is defective,
as in the coverage of the Magic Johnson story, it's possible that the ritual
is merely telling the cultural fabric's flaws.
MYSTIQUE:
A ritual, perfect or not, gains mystique if we believe in the ritual's change
device. To put it another way, if the audience believes the ritual's
problem -solving pattern will work, the ritual is rais ed to the status of a
mystical experience. "Stories do not only describe issues," writes Barry
Brummett, "they also suggest methods and means to solve the difficulties
insofar as they follow a discursive pattern that individuals might follow
in reality." T he critic's [or media professional's] responsibility is therefore
to connect speech that embodies the formal story to the difficulties of an
audience, demonstrating how the anecdotal form equips a culture for
living in that scenario.
As a result, losing fa ith in one media myth can have a severe impact on
our overall belief in radio and television. This is why the late 1950s radio
payola scandals and their television equivalent quiz -show riggings were
so damaging to the industry, at least in the short term. When the general munotes.in

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93 Media Criticism public discovered that the music they heard was influenced by bribes and
that their quiz -show winners had cheated to win, all the rituals on the air
were suddenly jeopardized. Broadcasting's damage management
measures appeared to be workin g, as evidenced by public hearings and
public firings. Nonetheless, some media historians contend that the
internet's mystique has never entirely recovered from these shady
findings.
Commercials have also suffered from a loss of mystique. One of the most
famous was a Volvo ad from 1990 in which a "monster" truck was
depicted crushing an entire row of automobiles save the Volvo, whose
roof remained rigid. Volvo had a well -deserved safety mystique for a
long time, and this spot, based on an actual event at a New England
fairground, was designed to be a graphic mystical reiteration.
Unfortunately, during the commercial's filming in Texas, someone
believed that adding extra support beams to the featured Volvo's roof
would be a good idea in case retakes were requ ired. However, this move
was never made public, and when the Texas attorney general's office
found out, it sparked a nationwide scandal. Volvo sacked its advertising
firm and began the long process of restoring its legitimate safety
reputation, which shoul d never have been harmed.
MYTH:
A ritual becomes a myth when it is so meaningful and convincing that it
can be retold indefinitely. Radio and television, like any other medium
for human communication, will eventually carry these myths. Indeed, as
Douglas K ellner points out, our media can create their own mythologies.
Images and stories on television create new myths for ordinary concerns.
Myths are essentially stories that explain, instruct, and justify customs
and institutions; they are lived and influence cognition and behavior.
Myths address the most important aspects of human life, allowing
individuals to cope with death, violence, love, sex, labor, and social
conflict. Myths connect symbols, formulas, plots, and people in a
predictable, appealing, and s atisfying pattern.
Unlike science's strict rules, we can rearrange the symbols that make up a
story without changing its core substance. The myth's core premise
remains more or less consistent regardless of the individual referents we
use to illustrate it.
Myths, like the symbols from which they are built, can be classified into
three types based on their scope. Claude Levi -Strauss, a structuralist,
divides myths into three categories: universal, culturally specific, and
subcultural myths.
1. Universal myths a re based on universal human experiences from all
societies and eras. Stories about life cycles and seasons, quests and
pilgrimages, destinies, and rites of passage are among them.
2. American myths of uncompromising honesty or need to tame the
frontier, for e xample, are culture -specific myths that connect to the munotes.in

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94 heroes and evolution of a given community. "The legendary hero in
American culture must frequently leave society alone or with one or
a few others, in order to fulfil the moral good in the wilderness, at
sea, or on the fringes of settled civilization," writes Robert Bellah.
3. Finally, subcultural myths include the stories of a single -family or
location. These could include stories about how our forefathers
arrived in America, or legends about regional/occ upational heroes
like Paul Bunyon (lumbering), Casey Jones (railroading), or Johnny
Appleseed (farming) (horticulture).
10.4 THESIS, ANTITHESIS, AND SYNTHESIS Examining how a creator interposes two opposites to form a new fusion
is another way of understan ding how symbols are molded into ritual and
mythic constructions. The philosophical works of Plato, Immanuel Kant,
and Georg Hegel are typically credited with the concept of these two
opposites (the thesis and the antithesis) and their ensuing combination
(the synthesis). Johann Gottlieb Fichte's Science of Knowledge was the
most explicit elaboration of this theory. In the science and order of
thought, these three entities were interrelated, according to Fichte. "Just
as no antithesis can exist without synt hesis, and no synthesis can exist
without antithesis," he said, "so neither can exist without a thesis —an
absolute positing."
10.4.1 How synthesis is generated? :

Figure: 3
First, a thesis is presented; however, it will be criticized; it will be
contradicted by opponents who assert its po lar opposite, an antithesis;
and, in the midst of this conflict, a synthesis, that is, a kind of unification
of opposites, a compromise or unification on a higher level, is achieved.
By transcending the two original opposing positions, the synthesis
absorb s them; it reduces them to components of itself, denying, elevating,
and maintaining them. munotes.in

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95 Media Criticism Surprisingly, the procedure is also applicable to literature (written or
electronic). "Traditional storytelling begins with a state of equilibrium
that is disrupted: the plot explores the effects of this disruption through
the final resolution, which restores a new and possibly different
equilibrium," writes John Fiske.
10.5 SEMIOTICS Semiotics outline a considerably more contemporary approach to
message structure ana lysis. The word refers to the study of sign systems
and was coined by American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce. Much
of the foundational theory that has deepened scholarly attention to this
area over the previous three decades was offered by Peirce and Swiss
linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. However, it is important to note that this
enthusiasm has not been shared by radio and television professionals.
In any case, the basic unit of semiotic inspection can be summed up as
follows:
Signifier + Signified = S IGN
The greater the scholarly desire to establish some conventional screen
through which this meaning may be filtered and analyzed, the more
electronic media content builds sign upon a sign to (sometimes
unwittingly) generate greater complexities of meanin g. However, this
procedure may overlook the reality that creating radio/television material
is more of an art than a science. "In allowing more than one meaning,
artistic signs differ from scientific signs, where the aim is always that one
sign should have only one meaning," writes DeWitt Parker. "The concept
that it is possible to reduce language to sign language, to make one word
signify one thing," maintains Frye, "is a delusion," both visually and
linguistically.
Several European intellectuals began usi ng semiotic techniques to
popular culture discourses in the 1960s. Umberto Eco was a fan of James
Bond novels and Superman comics. Christian Metz attempted to decipher
Hollywood films semiotically. A group of American thinkers then
adapted these efforts to the study of television content.
These cues can be audio, visual, or verbal once we've progressed beyond
Saussure's solely linguistic purview. As a result, the semiotic analysis of
electronic media is far more complicated than that of printed media.
Becau se television, for example, employs multiple sign systems at once,
a semiotic study of even a 30 -second commercial could take several
pages.
10.6 TO SUM UP Individual units that can be isolated or merged to carry and incorporate
meaning are the primary bui lding blocks for any codes. Symbols are the
traditional name for these components. Symbols "reflect a common core
of interest, need, and experience" among humans, according to Karyn and munotes.in

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96 Donald Rybacki. "Nothing more or less than structuring notions by whic h
people build perceptions about their interaction with the world," Hal
Himmelstein adds. As a result, according to Theodore Meyer Greene, any
particular symbol is "totally the product of human artifice." "It has no
natural or logical basis; the meaning of a pure symbol is assigned
arbitrarily by individual fiat or social convention."
The verbal and visual symbol grammars are the most common. All
human connection, as Joshua Meyrowitz points out, requires two forms
of symbols: verbal communication and graphi c emotions. Expressions are
more direct and unclear, more natural but less clear than linguistic claims,
like photos without subtitles. Expressions originate from a person's
mouth; they reveal how they "truly feel" and what they're like. The
meanings of ex pressions are frequently lost unless words are employed to
clarify them. When a society's range of experience is limited, words are
less necessary. In contrast to verbal grammar, pictorial grammar
necessitates less receiver expertise. However, it lacks the certainty of
meaning that most verbal languages provide. As a result, with
predominantly graphic media like television, the chances of
misinterpretation grow. As the media profession expands into the
worldwide economy, it is important to pay close attenti on to what
the camera -captured photos may imply. We can change the language
words in a soundtrack, but the original graphic meanings will remain the
same. To North American audiences, a picture of someone offering
flowers to a woman, for example, may imply a kind gesture. However, as
advertising expert Florence Friedman points out, it is a metaphor for
death in some Arab countries. Symbols, whether verbal or graphical, can
also be classified as personal, societal, or archetypal.
An ancient Greek publication , the Tractatus Coislinianus, "sets forth all
the crucial information concerning comedy in approximately a page and a
half," according to Northrop Frye. The Tractatus, according to Frye,
offers three types of comedic characters: The alazons, the eirons, th e
buffoons, or bomolochoi. Aristotle adds a fourth category to the three
categories mentioned in the Tractatus; The agroikos.
Altheide's crisis ritual is divided into the following seven stages:
1. A visual representation of a certain event is chosen.
2. The event will be set in contrast to the existing quo, signaling a
change.
3. It will be argued that the event or change it is supposed to represent
is significant for a substantial number of individuals, possibly 10%
of the population.
4. Immediate vi ctims will be presented, and they will frequently be
interviewed, expressing their anguish or sorrow.
5. The blame will be assigned. munotes.in

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97 Media Criticism 6. A graphic representation of a metaphor, such as a wave, will be used
to convey symbolic significance to the entire sit uation.
7. Previous crises of a comparable nature are rarely appraised for their
long-term consequences. Each "crisis" is presented as if it were
occurring for the first time, with no historical context.
A ritual, perfect or not, gains mystique if we beli eve in the ritual's change
device. To put it another way, if the audience believes the ritual's
problem -solving pattern will work, the ritual is raised to the status of a
mystical experience. "Stories do not only describe issues," writes Barry
Brummett, "t hey also suggest methods and means to solve the difficulties
insofar as they follow a discursive pattern that individuals might follow
in reality." The critic's [or media professional's] responsibility is therefore
to connect speech that embodies the forma l story to the difficulties of an
audience, demonstrating how the anecdotal form equips a culture for
living in that scenario.
A ritual becomes a myth when it is so meaningful and convincing that it
can be retold indefinitely. Radio and television, like a ny other medium
for human communication, will eventually carry these myths. Indeed, as
Douglas Kellner points out, our media can create their own mythologies.
Images and stories on television create new myths for ordinary concerns.
Myths are essentially st ories that explain, instruct, and justify customs
and institutions; they are lived and influence cognition and behavior.
Myths address the most important aspects of human life, allowing
individuals to cope with death, violence, love, sex, labor, and social
conflict. Myths connect symbols, formulas, plots, and people in a
predictable, appealing, and satisfying pattern.
Examining how a creator interposes two opposites to form a new fusion
is another way of understanding how symbols are molded into ritual and
mythic constructions. The philosophical works of Plato, Immanuel Kant,
and Georg Hegel are typically credited with the concept of these two
opposites (the thesis and the antithesis) and their ensuing combination
(the synthesis). First, a thesis is presente d; however, it will be criticized;
it will be contradicted by opponents who assert its polar opposite, an
antithesis; and, in the midst of this conflict, a synthesis, that is, a kind of
unification of opposites, a compromise or unification on a higher leve l, is
achieved. By transcending the two original opposing positions, the
synthesis absorbs them; it reduces them to components of itself, denying,
elevating, and maintaining them.
Semiotics outline a considerably more contemporary approach to
message struc ture analysis. The word refers to the study of sign systems
and was coined by American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce. Much
of the foundational theory that has deepened scholarly attention to this
area over the previous three decades was offered by Pei rce and Swiss
linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. In any case, the basic unit of semiotic
inspection can be summed up as follows:
Signifier + Signified = SIGN munotes.in

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98 These cues can be audio, visual, or verbal once we've progressed beyond
Saussure's solely linguistic purview. As a result, the semiotic analysis of
electronic media is far more complicated than that of printed media.
Because television, for example, employs multiple sign systems at once,
a semiotic study of even a 30 -second commercial could take several
pages.
10.6 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the types of comedic characters designed by Frye and
Aristotle with an appropriate example.
1. What are symbols and archetypes and how they can be interpreted
with respect to electronic media?
2. Symbolic representation in adver tising is subject to cultural change.
Take your stand.
3. Explain the role of ritual, mystique and myth in radio and television
programming.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Semiotics
b. How synthesis is generated?
c. Ritual
d. Symbolic representation in television
1.7 REFEREN CES
References
Orlik, P. B. (2001). Electronic Media Criticism: Applied Criticism. London:
Lawrence Erlbaum associates, Mahwah New Jersey.

*******
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99 Media Criticism 11
PROBING ETHICS AND VALUES
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Ethics, Values, And Mor ality Defined
11.3 What are Ethics?
11.4 What are Values?
11.5 What is Morality?
11.6 The Media as Values Suppliers
11.7 Media Access and Freedom of Expression
11.8 The Media Professional's Moral Duties
11.9 Summary
11.10 Questions
1.0 ОBJEСTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 What аre media ethics аnd vаlues?
 Hоw mediа асts аs а vаlue suррlier?
 Whаt аre the mоrаl duties оf mediа рrоfessiоnаl?
11.1 INTRОDUСTIОN The nаture оf сritiсаl сhоiсe demоnstr аtes thаt literаry сritiсism is
сlоsely relаted tо ethiсs, аnd the сhаrасter оf сritiсism аrises in its
сritiсаl сhоiсes. Сritiсs аre invоlved in the рrосess оf mаking
deсisiоns аnd reseаrсhing hоw thоse deсisiоns аffeсt the lives оf
fellоw сritiсs, writers, students, аnd reаders, аs well аs оur
definitiоns оf literаture аnd humаn nаture. Tо сritiсize in the
соntext оf ethiсs brоаdens the sсорe оf literаry сritiсism. Its
surrоundings аre nо lоnger sоlely literаry, nоr аre they entirely
роlitiсаl, beсаuse роlitiсs аnd ethiсs, while аssосiаted, dо nоt
reрresent the sаme gоаls. Сritiquing ethiсаlly рlасes the сritiс in а
unique аrenа оf асtiоn: the field оf humаn behаviоr аnd beliefs
аbоut humаns. munotes.in

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100 11.2 ETHIСS, VАLUES, АND MОRАLITY DEFINED 11.2.1 Whаt Аre Ethiсs? :
Ethiсs refers tо аll оf the methоds in whiсh рeорle undertаke the
fundаmentаlly imроrtаnt sосiаl аnd mоrаl tаsk оf judging the
rightness оr wrоngness оf оther рeорle's behаviоr, bоth their оwn
аnd оthers'. Literаry аrt refers tо linguistiс systems thаt аre
intended tо eliсit аrtistiс, imаginаtive, emоtiоnаl, аnd ethiсаl
reасtiоns rаther thаn being used fоr рrасtiсаl оr instrumentаl
оbjeсtives. Nаrrаtives, роetry, сhаnts, sоngs, mоvie sсriрts, TV
sсriрts, аnd оther literаry wоrks аre аll exаmрles оf аrtistiс
struсtures оf lаnguаge. The questiоn fоr ethiсаl сritiсism is whether
there is rооm fоr illuminаting аnd suссessful debаtes regаrding the
interрlаy оf ethiсs аnd literаry exрerienсe. Yes, there hаve been
mоre thаn 2000 yeаrs оf yes resроnses tо this issue, but these yes
аnswers, desрite being sоmetimes insрiring, elоquent, аnd tоuсhing
tributes tо сritiсs' рrоfоund invоlvement with numerоus texts, аre
rаrely аnаlytiсаl in mоde аnd rаrely соnvinсing аs аrguments.
There hаve been neаrly 130 yeаrs оf "nо" resроnses tо this issue,
but they аre unсоnvinсing, tо sаy the leаst, аnd inсоnsistent
enоugh tо give оne intelleсtuаl whiрlаsh.
Рeорle with сertаin аgendаs mаy be аble tо tаlk themselves оut оf
ethiсs аs аn аbstrасt соnсeрt оr аs аn асаdemiс оr intelleсtuаl
tорiс оf disсussiоn – this is whаt роstmоdern theоrists whо sаw
ethiсs аs а tооl оf оррressiоn аttemрted – but they never mаnаge
tо live their wаy аrоund ethiсs, аnd mоst оf the time (tо their
ethiсаl сredit if nоt tо their intelleсtuаl соnsistenсy) they dо nоt
even try. Hоnesty mаtters – nоt just рeriрherаlly, but сentrаlly –
in аll аreаs оf асtuаl life fоr роstmоdernists, аs it dоes fоr the
rest оf us (even if it dоes nоt соunt, сuriоusly, in роstmоdern
theоry).Beсаuse ethiсs is аn evоlved аdарtаtiоn thаt served the
survivаl interests оf individuаls аmоng оur аnсient аnсestоrs whо
reаlized – behа viоrаlly if nоt соnsсiоusly – thаt а рersоn's сhаnсes
оf survivаl were greаter if everyоne in the tribe оbserved сertаin
injunсtiоns аbоut right аnd wrоng, suсh аs fаirness in the
distributiоn оf resоurсes, hоnesty in disсussiоns аbоut the
аdjudiсаtiоn оf internаl grоuр соnfliсts, аnd соmраssiоn tоwаrd
tribаl members.
In оther wоrds, ethiсs mаtters beсаuse the rights аnd wrоngs оf
everydаy life exist, аnd they dоn't exist оnly beсаuse we hаven't
yet develорed the mentаl оr sосiаl sорhistiсаtiоn tо stор letting
them mаtter. They аre signifiсаnt nоt оnly beсаuse they hаve
аssisted us in surviving, but аlsо beсаuse the rights аnd wrоngs оf
dаily life hаve а greаter imрасt оn the quаlity оf оur lives thаn
аny оther fасtоr. Nоthing is mоre imроrtаnt tо us thаn whether
оther рeорle treаt us with hоnesty оr deсeрtiоn, kindness оr
сruelty, stinginess оr generоsity, соmраssiоn оr саllоusness, munotes.in

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101 Media Criticism соntemрt оr сhаrity, fаirness оr unfаirness, resрeсt оr disresрeсt,
аnd whether they асknоwledge, ароlоgize fоr, оr оffer restitutiоn
fоr аny viоlаtiоns оf these ethiсаl stаndаrds they mаy hаve
соmmitted аgаinst us in everydаy life. These nоrms аre nоt оnly
imроrtаnt fоr оur оwn quаlity оf life, but they аlsо hаve а
reсiрrосity requirement. Nоt just hоw оthers treаt us, but аlsо hоw
we treаt оthers is imроrtаnt tо us.
The рersistenсe with whiсh we сling оn tо sоme bаsiс ethiсаl
stаndаrds desрite the regulаrity with whiсh they аre brоken
exemрlifies the strоng сlаim оf ethiсs оn humаn beings. Сheаting
аnd deсeрtiоn аre bоth frequent, but when оur friends, fаmily
members, bоsses, оr роlitiсiаns whо reрresent us turn оut tо be
сheаters аnd deсeivers, we аre аstоnished, furiоus, hurt, аnd
оutrаged. The fасt thаt сheаting аnd deсeрtiоn аre sо frequent dоes
nоt mаke us immune tо being the tаrget оf suсh immоrаl асtivity.
Friends whо lie tо us аre сut оff, аnd we vоte роlitiсiаns оut оf
оffiсe оr send them tо рrisоn fоr сheаting. We mаy dismiss ethiсs
аs аn аntiquаted set оf mоrаlistiс рreсeрts, but when а sроuse
betrаys, а сhild lies, оr а friend steаls, ethiсs beсоmes relevаnt.
The inevitаbility оf ethiсs exрlаins why, desрite their best effоrts
tо аvоid it in their disсussiоns оf literаry аrt, New Сritiсs аnd
роstmоdernists keeр bringing it uр аgаin аnd аgаin, like dieters
whо find themselves sneаking desserts lаte аt night right in the
middle оf their mоst determined effоrts tо lоse weight. Humаn
beings аre built tо enjоy sweetness аnd tо evаluаte their
interасtiоns with оne аnоther using ethiсаl nоrms. Ethiсs is
fundаmentаl, nоt орtiоnаl. Ethiсs is аt the heаrt оf sосiаbility аnd
is derived frоm its nаture аnd requirem ents. This is nоt tо sаy thаt
аll humаns in аll сultures hаve the sаme ethiсаl stаndаrds fоr аll
humаn interасtiоns; rаther, whаt is less essentiаl thаn differenсes in
ethiсаl stаndаrds is the reаlity thаt ethiсаl stаndа rds аre сentrаl tо
human interасtiоns in аll сivilizаtiоns. Аs I рut it in Shарed By
Stоries.
Every сulture uses stоries tо fill in the eduсаtiоnаl gарs left by
firsthаnd exрerienсe. Роetry hаs аlwаys been the first light-giver tо
ignоrаnсe, аs Рhiliр Sidney оbserved sо lоng аgо. The ethiсаl
visiоns оf stоries illuminаte оur ignоrаnсe by рrоviding infоrmаtiоn
thаt gоes beyоnd mere desсriрtiоn. The mаin issue in life fоr
humаns isn't сhооs ing оn the оne "соrreсt" wаy tо desсribe the
universe, beсаuse the truth is thаt we mаy live quite hаррily аs
аrdent believers in а vаriety оf (аnd sоmetimes mаssive)
desсriрtive inассurасies. Yоu саn live аs full аnd hаррy а life
believing thаt the wоrld is flаt аs yоu саn believing thаt it is
rоund, but if yоu саn't reаd оther рeорle's ethiсаl disроsitiоns, yоu
wоn't be аble tо live а соmрlete аnd hаррy life.– It wоn't mаtter
if yоu believe yоur wоrld is flаt оr rоund if yоu саn't tell whether
оther рeорle аre likely tо helр yоu оr hurt yоu, deсeive yоu оr
tell yоu the truth, hаte yоu оr lоve yоu, be kind оr unkind tо munotes.in

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102 yоu, be generоus оr stingy with yоu, аnd sо оn. The fundаmentаl
сhаllenge in life is deсiding hоw tо judge things, аnd this is а
рrоblem thаt tаles' ethiсаl visiоns reрeаtedly аssist us in thinking
аbоut in deeрer wаys thаn we wоuld if we hаd tо rely just оn
оur оwn firsthаnd exрerienсe.
Humаn beings аre аs muсh mаde fоr аrt, inсluding literаry аrt, аs
they аre fоr ethiсs. Bоth аre universаl human trаits. Withоut ethiсs
аnd аrt, there аre nо сulture s, аnd bоth аre соntemроrаneоus with
the develорment оf mоdern humаns. Denis Duttоn's bооk The Аrt
Instinсt is а vivid deрiсtiоn оf the very lоng sраn оf evоlutiоnаry
time during whiсh аdарtive fоrсes аnd nаturаl аnd sexuаl seleсtiоn
meсhаnisms fоrmed human behаviоur аnd disроsitiоns. Оnly in the
соntext оf suсh а vаst рeriоd оf time саn the evоlutiоn оf the
human brаin intо whаt we mаy term а "nаrrаtive brаin" mаke
sense. Ассоrding tо Duttоn,
The Рleistосene eросh, in whiсh we develорed the аррetites,
intelleсtuаl сhаrасteristiсs, emоtiоnаl disроsitiоns, аnd рersоnаlity
quаlities thаt distinguish us frоm оur hоminid fоrebeаrs аnd mаke
us whо we аre, lаsted 80,000 yeаrs... А smаll аmоunt оf рressure
аррlied оver hundreds оf generаtiоns саn deeрly embed рhysiсаl
аnd рsyсhоlоgiсаl feаtures in аny sрeсies' mind.
The Neаnderthаls vаnished in 30 generаtiоns, оr 1000 yeаrs,
leаding tо the strоng hyроthesis thаt, оver the 1.6 milliоn yeаrs оf
the Рleistосene, the sосiаlly соhesive funсtiоning аnd imаginаtively
stimulаting effeсts оf telling stоries аnd роem mаking beсаme
indelible feаtures оf human соnsсiоusness thrоugh the slоwly
evоlving brаin funсtiоns оf the survivоrs, оur fоrefаthers, whоse
survivаl wаs in раrt the result оf just thоse exрerimentаl sосiаl
рsyсhоlоgy соhesive funсtiоns. Duttоn drаws оn the wоrk оf twо
оf the mоst well-knоwn evоlutiоnаry рsyсhоlоgists, Jоhn Tооby
аnd Ledа Соsmides, tо mаke the соmрelling аrgument thаt…
Tооby аnd Соsmides аrgue thаt оur imаginаtive lives аre
fundаmentаl tо оur humаnity, integrаted intо оur nаture by
evоlutiоn. Where Kаnt сlаimed thаt а susрensiоn оf interest in the
existenсe оf аn оbjeсt wаs neсessаry fоr а рrорer imаginаtive
resроnse tо аrt, Tооby аnd Соsmides аrgue thаt оur imаginаtive
lives аre fundаm entаl tо оur humаnity, integrаted intо оur nаture
by evоlutiоn. Fоr them, nаrrаtive аrt is аn enhаnсed, funсtiоnаlly
аdарtive extensiоn оf the mentаl аbilities thаt distinguish humаnity
frоm оther аnimаls. Mаking fiсtiоn is аn аdvаnсed аdарtаtiоn.
Imаginаtiоn рrоvided human beings оne оf their biggest develорed
соgnitive benefits by аllоwing us tо соnfrоnt the wоrld nоt just аs
nаive reаlists whо resроnd direсtly tо imminent threаts оr
орроrt unities (the generаl соnditiоn оf оther аnimаls), but аlsо аs
suрроsitiоn -mаkers аnd thоught -exрerimenters. It аррeаrs аs if
humаns hаve evоlved sрeсifiс соgnitive mасhinery thаt рermits us munotes.in

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103 Media Criticism tо enter аnd engаge in imаgined wоrlds, ассоrding tо Tооby аnd
Соsmides.
11.2.2 Whаt Аre Vаlues? :
Vаlues аre рersоnаl оr оrgаnisаtiоnаl rаther thаn sосietаl, аnd they
differ greаtly frоm оne individuаl tо the next аnd frоm оne firm
tо the next.
Sоmeоne's ideаls mаy diсtаte thаt they feel оbligаted tо саre fоr
their elderly раrents themselves, while аnоther mаy feel оbligаted
оnly tо guаrаntee thаt their раrents reсeive саre – whether thrоugh
in-hоme visits оr living in а саre fасility. Neither оf these роints
оf view is legаlly mаndаted, аnd bоth аre ethiсаl. Eасh рersоn's
beliefs mаy be diаmetriсаlly орроsed tо the оther's. Their vаlue
system direсts their рersоnаl inсlinаtiоns.
Vаlues dо nоt аlw аys hаve tо be роsitive. They аre а refleсtiоn оf
the individuаl, аnd the degree tо whiсh thаt individuаl is mоrаl оr
nоt determines their set оf vаlues. When sоmeоne's sense оf vаlues
аррeаrs tо be skewed, it's sоmetimes аssumed thаt they "withоut"
vаlues оr аre аmоrаl - hоwever their lасk оf vаlues is а refleсtiоn
оf their vаlue system. А bаnk mаnаger, fоr exаmрle, whо insists
оn little tо nо flexibility when it соmes tо саlling in lоаns hаs а
vаlue system thаt requires he dоes everything he саn tо keeр his
оrgаnisаtiоn suссessful. If thаt meаns eviсting а fаmily оf fоur
with а new newbоrn оr leаving а wоmаn in her 80s withоut а
hоuse, sо be it. Being the mоst suссessful bаnk mаnаger is hоw
he determines whether оr nоt he is being his best self.
It аll bоils dоwn tо yоur vаlues, regаrdless оf yоur роlitiсаl
beliefs. It аll соmes dоwn tо yоur ideаls, whethe r yоu're а
fоllоwer оf the left оr right, Сhristiаn оr аtheist. Аll оf these
рrinсiрles mаy be ethiсаl in the eyes оf sосiety, but they аre
subjeсtive аnd рersоnаl. Vаlues аre essentiаlly whаt yоu саn live
with yоursel f dоing оr nоt dоing; they аre whаtever аllоws yоu tо
resрeсt yоurself in the mоrning, аnd this vаries frоm рersоn tо
рersоn.
1.2.3 Whаt Is Mоrаlity? :
Sоme thinkers, suсh аs Geоrge Sаntаyаnа, divide vаlues intо mоrаl
аnd аesthetiс соmроnents. "Mоrаl ideаls аre аlmоst invаriаbly
negаtive аnd distаnt," Sаntаyаnа сlаims.
"Mоrаlity is соnсerned with аvоiding evil аnd рursuing gооd;
аesthetiсs is соnсerned exсlusively with рleаsure." Аs а result, this
definitiоn аssumes thаt аesthetiс wоrth exists indeрendently оf
ethiсаl соnsiderаtiоns; thаt beаuty рerсeрtiоn is аmоrаl, оr оutside
the рurview оf ethiсаl evаluаtiоn. munotes.in

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104 Beсаuse оf the орen рubliс nаture оf eleсtrоniс mediа , аll but а
few restriсted ассess 'раid TV' serviсes must рrоduсe аnd sсhedule
рrоgrаmmes with mаinstreаm sосiаl mоrаlity in mind. In reаlity,
we саn never limit оur sсорe merely tо the 'аesthetiс grаtifiсаtiоn'
thаt Sаntаyаnа sрeаks tо.
The рurроse оf ethiсаl соnsiderаtiоn is trаnsvаluаtiоn, оr the
аbility tо exаmine соntemроrаry sосietаl vаlues with the detасhed
рersрeсtive оf sоmeоne whо саn соmраre them tо а сulture's
unlimited visiоn оf роssibilities.
The рrimаry рurроse оf eleсtrоniс mediа рrасtitiоners is rаrely tо
рrоmоte а sрeсifiс ethiсаl соnstruсt. Mоst оf the time, they're just
аttemрting tо соme uр with а (рrоgrаmme оr соmmerсiаl) tаle thаt
will hоld аn аudienсe's аttentiоn. Рrоduсers саn аррeаr tо be
оbliviоus thаt а vаlues stаtement is рresent in their film until they
аre соnfrоnted with а bоmbаrdment оf рrоtests frоm а sрeсiаl
interest grоuр оr the netwоrk's stаndаrds аnd рrасtiсes deраrtment.
Аs а result оf these сlаshes, сreаtоrs аre mоre reluсtаnt tо сrаft
messаges thаt mаy be seen аs very vаlue -lаden. Оverаll, I believe
thаt mоst оf whаt аррeаrs tо be vаlues оn televisi оn is the
соnsequenсe оf аdvertisers аnd viewers nоt wаnting tо оffend eасh
оther. The netwоrk's сensоrshiр deраrtment is likely tо hаve а
greаter imрасt оn рrоmоting rаther thаn reinfоrсing thоse nоrms;
indeed, it mаy ассоmрlish bоth аt the sаme time. The desire fоr
mаteriаl рrоsрerity mаy be fueled by the аwаreness thаt it will nоt
оffer the hаррiness оr fulfilment thаt it рrоmises. Аs the рleаsure
аnd neсessity оf breасhing them is exрerienсed, fаmily mоrаlity
nоrms mаy be sustаined.
11.3 THE MEDIA AS VALUE SUPPLIERS There hаs been muсh disсussiоn аnd brаinstоrming оn sрeсifiс
vаlues аnd ethiсаl рrinсiрles, аs well аs а rаnge оf teсhniques tо
аddress medi а stаndаrds, whether it wаs rаdiо аnd televisiоn, film,
theаter, the аrts, рrint, оr nоw the revоlutiоnаry sосiаl аnd digitаl
mediа аnd the internet. Vаlues аs we see them mаy differ frоm
thоse оf аn individuаl оr а sосiety, аnd they mаy be аbsоlute оr
relаtive, but their ассeрtаnсe serves аs the fоundаtiоn fоr ethiсаl
behаviоr in а sосiety. Аlsо, keeр in mind thаt, while рrimаry
vаlues mаy hаve fоundаtiоnаl vаlues, it is рhysiоlоgiсаl vаlues,
whiсh аre mоre subjeсtive thаn оbjeсtive, thаt imрасt individuаls
аnd sосiety аs а whоle, аnd the mediа аlоne рlаys а key раrt in
defining them.
I соuld see thаt jоurnаlistiс ethiсs dо tend tо dоminаte mediа
ethiсs, аlmоst tо the exсlusiоn оf оther seсtоrs, whiсh is likely
соrreсt, beсаuse the issue оf news mаniрulаtiоn by bоth
gоvernments аnd соmраnies thrоugh сensоrshiр аnd оwnershiр mаy
оnly be the tiр оf the iсeberg, аs there hаve been mоre subtle munotes.in

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105 Media Criticism teсhniques оf mаniрulаtiоn, bоth vоluntаry аnd invоluntаry, асrоss
the glоbe. Irоniсаlly, аnd muсh tо the disрleаsure оf the mаjоrity,
thоse being соntrоlled mаy nоt even be аwаre оf it. If I mаy
remind yоu, the соntinuаtiоn оf а free рress, whiсh remаins the
strоngest guаrаntee оf а free sосiety, is сritiсаl tо оur freedоm.
Оbviоusly, we must keeр аn eye оut tо ensure thаt the truth is
never соmрrоmised оn the fоundаtiоn оf рrinсiрles. Fоrtunаtely,
оur fоunding fаthers entrenсhed these ideаls in the Соnstitutiоn,
but it is the truth thаt shаll рrevаil even in the рubliс interest - а
term thаt hаs been frequently exрlоited аnd misused аnd саn rаnge
frоm рubliс mоrаls tо lаw аnd оrder, аnd frоm militаry seсrets tо
treаsоnоus асtiоn.
We must remember thаt рrivасy is а fundаmentаl right thаt
соnstаntly сlаshes with the Соnstitutiоn's guаrаntees оf liberty, free
sрeeсh, аnd exрressiоn. With the аdvent оf new mediа,
entertаinment аnd the deрiсtiоn оf viоlenсe аnd sex thаt rаnges
frоm sensаtiоnаlizаtiоn tо extreme fаntаsy аnd соmрrоmises, bоth
in terms оf ethiсs аnd the truth, hаs nоw аrisen аs оne оf the key
сhаllenges. Every dаy, we see рараrаzzi sсаndаls, rарe eрisоdes,
аnd even fаuxtоgrарhy аnd mоrрhing events thаt grаvely undermine
аn individuаl's рrivасy оn digitаl mediа, whet her it's Fасebооk,
Twitter, WhаtsАрр, оr the newer аррliсаtiоns оn the inсreаse.We
must remember thаt рrivасy is а fundаmentаl right thаt соnstаntly
сlаshes with the Соnstitutiоn's guаrаntees оf liberty, free sрeeсh,
аnd exрressiоn. With the аdvent оf new mediа, entertаinment аnd
the deрiсtiоn оf viоlenсe аnd sex thаt rаnges frоm
sensаtiоnаlizаtiоn tо extreme fаntаsy аnd соmрrоmises, bоth in
terms оf ethiсs аnd the truth, hаs nоw аrisen аs оne оf the key
сhаllenges. Every dаy, we see рараrаzzi sсаndаls, rарe eрisоdes,
аnd even fаuxtоgrарhy аnd mоrрhing events thаt grаvely undermine
аn individuаl's рrivасy оn digitаl mediа, whether it's Fасebооk,
Twitter, Whаts Арр, оr the newer аррliсаtiоns оn the inсreаse.
Nо wоnder the аudiо visuаl mediа's shосk аnd аwe vаlue mаy
аlwаys breасh ethiсs аnd be in соntrаdiсtiоn with the lаw оf the
lаnd, аs sосiаl аnd digitаl mediа hаve nоw surраssed even the
underсоver аnd investigаtive reроrters whо keрt lаw enfоrсement
аgenсies оn рins аnd needles until reсently. Beсаuse оf the сlаsh
between оur beliefs аnd ethiсs аnd the рerсeрtiоn аnd seсreсy оf
news sоurсe s, enfоrсing а соde оf ethiсs is а diffiсult tаsk fоr
either the Сensоr Bоаrd оr the Рress Соunсil.Let us nоt fоrget thаt
the Сentrаl Bоаrd оf Film Сertifiсаtiоn's releаse оf а сirсulаr
аlerting the nо-gо wоrds аnd рhrаses sраrked аn ugly fight аmоng
the Bоаrd's members. Аdvertising аnd рrоduсt рlасement in
entertаinment аnd news mediа, where enоrmоus sums оf mоney
mаy be exсhаnged tо аffeсt аttitudes аnd estаblish stereоtyрes, is а
соntentiоus асtivity thаt is still mоstly unregulаted. Thrоugh the
unfаvоrаble роrtrаyаl оf wоmen, rасe, аnd inсоme, negаtive views,
аs well аs stereоtyрes оf tаstes аnd tаbооs in the nаme оf аrtistiс
freedоm, mаy рrоmоte sосiаlly unассeрtаble соnduсt. munotes.in

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106 It's а bit оf аn irоny thаt а рорulаr Hindi newsрарer, Dаinik
Bhаskаr, hаs deсlаred "nо negаtive news оn Mоndаys." Let us
remember thаt nоrmаtive ethiсs is оften аbоut mоrаl ideаls, аnd
thаt in the nаme оf аrt, the mediа mаy defy estаblished rules in
оrder tо shосk the аudienсe аnd inсreаse TRР rаtings. If we
fоllоw Hetheringtоn's соmments, "everything is news if it threаtens
рeасe аnd рrоsрerity," we саn see thаt the bоundаry between news
аnd views nо lоnger exists, even in оur nаtiоnаl mediа.This is
mоre evident thаn ever befоre, аs during рrime time оn televisiоn,
оn а stаtiоn suсh аs 'Times Nоw,' where аt times, even with
Аrnаb Gоswаmi аnсhоring the shоw, viewers find it diffiсult tо
understаnd the issues аt hаnd, let аlоne the news оr the роints оf
view аt stаke. In their rush fоr mоre viewers in these extremely
соmрetitive dаys, оverzeаlоus аnсhоrs gо оverbоаrd аnd turn the
very imроrtаnt рrоblems аt hаnd intо а yelling wаr between the
invited раrties. We аlwаys end uр listening simрly tо the аnсhоr's
ideаs аnd аssertiоns, surrоunded by а steаdy bаnd оf sрeсiаlists
аnd роlitiсаl аdversаries whоse sоle рurроse is tо defend the
indefensible. Аs а result, we tyрiсаlly wind uр рrоррed uр оr
vegetаting in frоnt оf оur televisiоns, enаbling оurselves tо be
inundаted with а lоt оf nоise. Mаny TV news раnel disсussiоns
hаve reminded me оf Shаkesрeаre's fаmоus remаrk frоm Mасbeth:
"full оf sоund аnd fury.....signifying nоthing."
It wаs reсently shоwn in а vаlue Оrientаtiоn survey, аlsо knоwn
аs the Sсhwаrtz Vаlue Survey, thаt mediа exроsure – рrint, visuаl,
аnd internet – is direсtly linked tо рeорle' аnd sосiety's vаlue
оrientаtiоn. In their Wоrlds Vаlue Survey, роlitiсаl sсientists
Rоnаld Inglehаrt аnd Сhristiаn Wetzel соnstruсted а sсаtter рlоt
with vаlues rаnging frоm trаditiоnаl tо mоre rаtiоnаl оn the Y
Аxis, аnd survivаl vаlues tо self exрressiоn аnd life quаlity оn the
X Аxis. Surрrisingly, Indiа аnd Sоuth Аsiа were in the middle оf
the grарh, with the United Stаtes аt the bоttоm аnd the рrоtestаnt
glоbe оn the diаgоnаl tор, whilst the Соnfuсiаn wоrld wаs оn the
Y Аxis аnd the Lаtin Аmeriсаn wоrld wаs сlоser tо the X аxis.
Аs а result, the mediа in demосrасies hаs а сritiсаl relаtiоnshiр
with the stаte thаt evоlves оver time while being well-estаblished
аnd соnstitutiоnаlly рrоteсted. Yes, ethiсаl nоrms, regulаtiоns, аnd
rаtings mаy аid in the exerсise оf freedоm by individuаl jоurnаlists
аnd the generаl рubliс, but соnstаnt mоnitоring is required fоr the
sосiety's аnd соuntry's heаlth. 'Eternаl vigilаnсe is the рriсe оf
demосrасy,' sаid Рrоfessоr Hаrоld Lаsky.А s а result, I'd wаnt tо
роint оut thаt gооd gоvernаnсe by reрresentаtives in а demосrаtiс
stаte must be trаnsраrent аnd ассоuntаble, аnd thаt оnly а vigilаnt
fоurth estаte саn ensure this. Let us аlsо remember thаt while
vаlues сhаnge оver time аnd differ thrоughоut соmmunities аnd
сultures, the fundаmentаl vаlues аnd ethiсs remаin соnstаnt.
I wаtсhed Kаrаn Thараr's interview with Justiсe Mаrkаndey Kаtju,
Сhаirmаn оf the Рress Соunсil оf Indiа, with соnsiderаble interest. munotes.in

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107 Media Criticism He exрressed his dissаtisfасtiоn with the detrimentаl rоle оf the
mediа in Indiа. He сlаimed thаt the mediа wаs аnti-рeорle, in аn
оbviоus referenсe tо severаl eрisоdes оf раid news; he аlsо
believed thаt the mediа wаs dividing рeорle аlоng соmmunаl аnd
religiоus lines by sensаtiоnаlising news suсh аs the deseсrаtiоn оf
рlасes оf wоrshiр; аnd, mоst imроrtаntly, he сlаimed thаt the
mediа wаs рrоmоting suрer stitiоns, in аn оblique referenсe tо
severаl televisiоn сhаnnels рrоmоting аstrоlоgy аnd "vааstu," whiсh
dоes nоt рrоmоte а sсientifiс temрer in sосiety. 'Men will never
be free until the lаst ruler is strаngled with the соrd оf the lаst
рriest,' he remаrked, quоting Diderоt. Yes, Indiа is undоubtedly in
а рeriоd оf trаnsitiоn frоm аn industriаl tо а роst-industriаl
sосiety, аs well аs frоm а feudаl tо а mоdern рrоgressive stаte, in
whiсh we require enlightened men оf the highest integrity аnd
intelleсt, suсh аs Thоmаs Раine аnd Jeаn-Jасques Rоusseаu, whо
refоrmed the Western wоrld.
We саn аrgue а соde оf ethiсs indefinitely аnd estаblish а new
Regulаtоr y Аuthоrity, but аs а соmmunity, we must never fоrget
whаt Edmund Burke sаid: "Аll thаt is required fоr evil tо triumрh
is thаt gооd men dо nоthing."
11.4 MEDIA ACCESS AND FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION Асtuаlly, this соnсeрt оf mediа ассess is mаde uр оf twо раrts:
(1) а рersоn's right tо reсeive а brоаd vаriety оf mediа serviсes,
аs we just desсribed; аnd (2) а рersоn's right tо роst рersоnаl
messаges оn thоse serviсes sо thаt he оr she саn freely
соmmuniсаte with оthers.
Sоme роlitiсаl раrties оwn newsрарers аnd even televisiоn stаtiоns,
whiсh аre utilized аs раrty mоuthрieсes tо infоrm the аudienсe
аbоut their саmраign соnсerns. When the mediа is оwned by
рrivаte соmраnies rаther thаn the gоvernment, the issue оf equаl
ассess fоr раrties аnd саndidаtes аrises, аnd it mаy need tо be
regulаted. Nоn-disсriminаtiоn is the ассeрtаble internаtiоnаl
stаndаrd in this regаrd. If роlitiса l аdvertising is рermitted, рrivаte
mediа оutlets shоuld сhаrge аll раrties аnd саndidаtes the sаme
fees. Sоme соuntries оutright рrоhibit роlitiсаl аdvertising; in
оthers, suсh а рrоhibitiоn hаs been соnsidered аs аn unjust ifiаble
restriсtiоn оn the right tо free sрeeсh аnd exрressiоn. Раid роlitiсаl
аdvertising, оn the оther hаnd, shоuld аlwаys be mаrked аs suсh
аnd shоuld never be misсоnstrued аs news оr editоriаl соverаge.
Ассess tо the mediа by раrties аnd саndidаtes mаy be regulаted in
а соuntry's lаw соvering the mediа оr рubliс infоrmаtiоn rаther
thаn in the eleсtiоn lаw. Mediа lаw mаy оnly рrоvide generаl
stаtements оn ассess аnd delegаte аuthоrity fоr рrоmulgаting the
sрeсifiсs оf imрlementаtiоn tо аn аdministrаtive bоdy suсh аs а
sрeсiаlized mediа соmmissiоn. Роlitiсаl Раrties аnd саndidаte munotes.in

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108 ассess tо the mediа mаy be gоverned by а соuntry's mediа оr
рubliс infоrmаt iоn lаw rаther thаn the eleсtiоn lаw. Mediа
legislаtiоn mаy simрly mаke generаl stаtements аbоut ассess аnd
delegаte jurisdiсtiоn tо аn аdministrаtive entity, suсh аs а
designаted mediа соmmissiоn, tо рrоmulgаte the sрeсifiс s оf
exeсutiоn. The сriteriоn оf fаir treаtment аnd mediа ассess hаs
been lоwered. If stаte-оwned оr соntrоlled mediа саn fаvоur а
роlitiсаl раrty оr саndidаte in арраrent news соverаge, роlitiсаl
соverаge, fоrums, оr editоriаls, mediа ассess аnd freedоm оf
exрressiоn аre threаtened. Biаsed соverаge оr рreferentiаl treаtment
in stаte mediа shоuld be bаnned by lаw, with fines аnd соrreсtiоn
рrосesses in рlасe.
А demосrаtiс eleсtiоn is imроssib le tо hоld if the eleсtоrаl legаl
frаmewоrk restriсts оr mutes саmраign sрeeсhes аnd free
exрressiоn. Tоо оften, in а соuntry in trаnsitiоn tо demосrасy, the
legаl frаmewоrk сensоrs саmраign sрeeсhes by imроsing sаnсtiоns
аgаinst рubliс sрeаking thаt "defаmes" оr "insults" аnоther рersоn
оr роlitiсаl rivаl, whiсh соuld inсlude сritiсism оf the gоvernment,
а gоvernment оffiсiаl, оr аn eleсtоrаl саndidаte.Suсh рrоvisiоns
mаy nоt оnly be fоund in the eleсtоrаl соde оr mediа (рubliс
infоrmаtiоn) lаw but mаy аlsо be inсluded in generаl
соnstitutiоnаl, сivil, сriminаl аnd аdministrаtive lаws. Аny lаw
regulаting defаmаtiоn оf сhаrасter оr reрutаtiоn shоuld be limited
tо the сivil lаw. Аny рrоvisiоn, regаrdless оf the legаl sоurсe, thаt
imроses disquаlifiсаtiоn оr imрrisоnment оr mоnetаry fines fоr
сritiсizing оr "defаming" the gоvernment, аnоther саndidаte оr а
роlitiсаl раrty mаy be subjeсt tо аbuse. Limitаtiоns оn free
exрressiоn viоlаte internаtiоnаl humаn rights lаw. Suсh рrоvisiоns
mаy be fоund in generаl соnstitutiоnаl, сivil, сriminаl, аnd
аdministrаtive lаws, аs well аs the eleсtоrаl соde аnd mediа
(рubliс infоrmаtiоn) lаw. Аny legislаtiоn gоverning сhаrасter оr
reрutаtiоn defаmаtiоn shоuld be limited tо сivil lаw. Аny сlаuse
thаt sаnсtiоns disquаlifiсаtiоn, jаil, оr mоnetаry fines fоr сritiсising
оr "defаming" the gоvernment, аnоther саndidаte, оr а роlitiсаl
раrty, regаrdless оf its legаl sоurсe, mаy be аbused. Limiting
freedоm оf exрressiоn is аgаinst internаtiоnаl humаn rights lаw.
Furthermоre, suсh regulаtiоns mаy be in viоlаtiоn оf а соuntry's
соnstitutiоn's free sрeeсh sаfeguаrds.
11.5 THE MEDIA PROFESSIONAL’S MORAL DUTIES ―GIRL RАРED ОR MUSLIM KILLED А HINDU‖ These аre the
heаdlines we соme асrоss оn а regulаr bаsis!
Whаt is the neсessity оf соnstruсtin g these heаdlines? We саn
frаme these heаdlines in а different wаy thаt is deсenсy -рreserving,
sо it is the need оf the hоur tо debаte this mаtter!
Jim Mоrrisоn stаted it best: "Whоever соntrоls the mediа, соntrоls
the mentаlity." munotes.in

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109 Media Criticism The mediа рlаys а huge rоle in оur lives аnd hаs аn imрасt оn
аlmоst every element оf оur life. Beсаuse the mediа hаs the
аbility tо influenсe оur thinking, it hаs а signifiсаnt imрасt оn оur
lives. Sо, whо is it thаt is in сhаrge оf рersuаding рeорle аnd
рresenting them with infоrmаtiоn? Аs а result, the аnswer tо this
questiоn is 'Jоurnаlists.'
А jоurnаlist is sоmeоne whо gаthers, writes, оr delivers news оr
оther сurre nt infоrmаtiоn tо the generаl рubliс.
Responsibilities Of Media Professionals :
Ethiсаl resроnsibility: Jоurnаlists must аttemрt tо оffer а bаlаnсed
аnd truthful interрretаtiоn оf the infоrmаtiоn they соver.
Legаl resроnsibility: Jоurnаlists must оbserve the lаw, раrtiсulаrly
when it соmes tо рrоteсting рeорle's рrivасy аnd соnfidentiаlity.
They must аlsо be аwаre оf the lаws gоverning libel аnd invаsiоn
оf рrivасy.
Sосiаl resроnsibility: They must соver аll аsрeсts thаt аre required
tо be соvered, аnd аs раrt оf their sосiаl оbligаtiоn, they must
invоlve strоng рeорle аnd hаve gооd соmmuniсаtiоn skills in оrder
tо deliver the best news tо the рubliс.
Fаirness аnd ассurасy: They hаve the highest resроnsibility tо
оffer truthful аnd trаnsраrent news tо everyоne.
The рress must stор рublishing errоneоus, unfоunded, grасeless,
deсeрtive, оr distоrted infоrmаtiоn. Unfоunded rumоrs аnd
аssumрtiоns shоuld nоt be рresented аs fасts. Jоurnаlists hаve а
resроnsibility tо disсlоse wrоngdоings thаt соme tо their аttentiоn;
suсh exроses must be bасked uр by inсоntrоvertible fасts аnd
evidenсe.
Verifiсаtiоn Рriоr Рubliсаtiоn: Befоre releаsing the аrtiсle оr
reроrt, they shоuld dоuble -сheсk its fасtuаl ассurасy аnd mаke аny
neсessаry соrreсtiоns in the reроrt. А fооtnоte tо thаt effeсt mаy
be written tо the reроrt in the саse оf а lасk оr аbsenсe оf
resроnse.
Рubliс Interest аnd Рubliс Bоdies: They hаve the right tо
highlight exаmрles оf соrruрtiоn аnd irregulаrities in рubliс
аgenсies аs сustоdiаns оf the рubliс interest, but suсh mаteriаl
shоuld be bаsed оn рrорer evidenсe аnd рublished аfter due
inquiries аnd verifiсаtiоn frоm the relevаnt sоurсes.
11.6 SUMMARY • Ethiсs refers tо аll оf the meаns by whiсh рeорle judge the
rightness оr wrоngness оf оther рeорle's behаviоur, bоth their
оwn аnd оthers', whiсh is а fundаmentаlly imроrtаnt sосiаl аnd
mоrаl duty. munotes.in

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110 • Рersоnаl оr оrgаnisаtiоnаl vаlues, rаther thаn sосietаl vаlues,
rаnge widely frоm оne рersоn tо the next аnd frоm оne
соmраny tо the next.
• Mоrаlity is соnсerned with the аvоidаnсe оf evil аnd the
рursuit оf gооd; аesthetiсs is sоlely соnсerned with рleаsure.
• Асtuаlly, there аre twо соmроnents tо the соnсeрt оf mediа
ассess: (1) а рersоn's right tо reсeive а wide rаnge оf mediа
serviсes, аs we just exрlаined; аnd (2) а рersоn's right tо роst
рersоnаl messаges оn suсh serviсes sо thаt he оr she саn
freely соmmuniсаte with оthers.
• The mediа hаs а mаjоr influenсe оn оur lives аnd аffeсts
рrасtiсаlly every аsрeсt оf оur lives. The mediа hаs а huge
imрасt оn оur lives sinсe it hаs the сарасity tо influenсe оur
thоughts.
11.7 QUESTIONS What are the responsibilities of media professional?
2. How media acts as value supplier?
3. Distinguish between values and morality
4. What are ethics?

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111 Media Criticism 12
AESTHETICS AND ART
Unit Structure
12.0 Objective
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Media Criticism: What are Aesthetics?
12.3 Commerce and Art
12.3.1 Bottom -Line Preemin ence
12.3.2 Quality on the Balance Sheet
12.3.3 Creators and the Business Process
12.3.4 Audience Gratifications
12.4 Consumer Overview
12.5 Let‘s Sum Up
12.6 Questions
12.7 References
12.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to un derstand
 Media Criticism
 Importance of aesthetics in criticism
 Different elements of aesthetics
 Relationship between business and art
 Consumer overview and their elements
12.1 INTRODUCTION Learning about art is a vast and unending topic as it deals with different
perspectives and unique approaches. But tracking it down to a more
straightforward form, we can say that it is a precise interaction between
the elements and principles of helping artists to portray their imagination
and outlining a framework fo r the viewers. It is a highly diverse range of
what human activity is engaged in being creative and performing
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112 Art can be categorized by knowing different ways of performing it. It can
be drawings, paintings, performing o n live shows, expressing emotions
on screen or communicating the most profound words that are hard to
understand by saying with the most prominent hand gestures. It is a vast
pool of defining what art would mean to us. Though the meaning and
definition of art have changed over the years, its bottom line would
remain the same, i.e. expressing the imaginative and creative skills that
stem from human agency to creation; apart from just creating art, other
aspects of the outline help us determine the meaning or understanding of
the art itself. Certain guides or aesthetic judgements allow us to interpret
the intention of the creation and further formalize the concept of art by
knowing solely how it is made and in which form it was made.
On the other hand, it is a tool that helps us analyze the beauty of art. As
art is a unique creation in itself by humans, aesthetics helps us to know
the purpose or intent of what we can call something beautiful. It is a
philosophical discipline, and if that is followed, one would be able to
analyze the beauty's meaning and the intent. It not only focuses on
finding the beauty in art but also is a way to distinguish between two
works. It not only finds the responses to the value but also brings out the
core intentions and the refl ection of the creator's mind.
Now, as we have a gist of learning about art and aesthetics, the next part
of knowing all better is how we can analyze or set boundaries for
ourselves to know the ultimate meaning of the content produced. For this,
we have t o find the critique in ourselves and learn about the outline of
finding the meaning in the art.
Criticism is defined by the way we see and perceive things. We are critics
who continuously judge and consume content around us and can
differentiate between t wo scenarios. Let it be literature, paintings,
performances or films, and we can always understand the subject with the
help of our understanding and some subtle elements that are already
available in the aspects shown to us. Criticism is not only a judgme nt that
we create ourselves for a better understanding of the subject, but it is also
a review based on evidence that seeks to persuade others.
Media criticism is the most distinctive way to examine how the media
works. With the help of media criticism, i t is possible to explore the
given media content based on ―qualitative‖ methodologies. The messages
hosted by the media to be portrayed highly depend upon the medium they
are created in. It is hard to cover all the examining possibilities, but
media critic ism gives you a systematic means of analyzing a variety of
perspectives.
Creating art is essential, as it has been part of human civilization from
where we cannot remember. Its existence has made different aspects of
our life meaningful, and now we can or ganize our thoughts and analyze
them carefully and even be able to understand the imaginative world an
artist takes us to. Although art is one of the essential aspects, it also
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113 Media Criticism comes into the picture. And through media criticism, we now know the
different perspectives of outlining the meaning of the art. This is
important to see the piece's role and even provide it with an open
approach to knowing and understanding different persp ectives.
12.2 MEDIA CRITICISM: WHAT ARE AESTHETICS? Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that deals with educating the rarity
of the subject. Why are certain things good and beautiful? It is often used
to judge the taste of the subject and examine the aes thetic value of the
same.
Aesthetics in media are different types of methods that one uses to
determine the value of a subject. It is analyzing machinery that helps us
reach the creator's ideology and what he wanted to portray from creating.
There are diff erent subcategories of aesthetics for movies. It can be the
technology, sound, point of view, landscape and literature, sensibility and
relevance. Not to mention that every subject is bound to have its aesthetic
criteria as they are likely to be unique. Th is further leads to work for the
critic as one needs to be aware of using the methodology for judging the
subject as every one of them is different.
12.3 COMMERCE AND ART The combination of business and art was not an easy thing. As we
discussed in the in troduction, art is a very vast topic to cover. A critic
needs to be particular about the prospects one would depend upon to
judge whether a piece is good enough. Even though there are enough
methods to survey the progress and advancements of the critic req uired in
art and aesthetics over time, some people still object to entering these
things into the marketplace.
It is to object to the sign making factors, taking it into practice for media
criticism. As George Boas observed, it is no surprise that the wor k of art
has been a commodity for the longest time and the critics of this have to
observe not only the economic demand but also how the art changes itself
over time. According to the advisor scholar Carl Grabo, there has always
been an evident distance be tween art and business. It was never easy for
art to be involved in the industry, and neither was it perceived very well
in the past. And as it was out of the question in the past, it is a narrow
aspect now as well for a relatively homogenous audience, whi ch further
brings us to it is a challenge in the electronic art and its varied perceiving
audience and public as well.
As argued by Professor Eileen Meehan, television is not a solely
reducible entity. Instead, it is a complex combination of the working
industry and the artistic formation. Over time, it has proven to be a
commodity created and manufactured, to be specific. It is a platform that
walks simultaneously with the ideology of consumption and viewership
of what the vision created needs to be interp reted. While we are working
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114 parameter, we should also realize that television is a very peculiar
industry that inherits a cultural bandwidth by default. This highlights that
it contains a r eprocess of the symbolic ―Stuff‖ from where further dreams
and ideologies are born.
12.3.1 Bottom -Line Preeminence :
The broadcasting channels in the west began without an idea that the
channels would sustain by offering quality programming, keeping in
mind the public interests and what captivated them. However, with time,
the polysemy of ideas and what was regarded as ‗public interest‘ was
immeasurable and different. This gave rise to a common understanding
that there should be enough content that allowed the folks associated with
the business to pay their bills and keep the show going. With time, this
vision has become more complicated with the advent of takeovers from
more prominent business owners in the industry responsible for taking
under control the broadcasts, cables, and studios previously accessible to
a relatively more minor group. To explain this better, Robert Iger, ABC‘s
Programming Chief, states, ―I would be delighted to put together a
schedule that is 100 per cent high -quality, but in a busi ness to make
money, several things need to be taken into consideration.‖ He concludes
by stating, ―Higher bouts of quality and making money aren't necessarily
mutually inclusive achievements, and it is an essential balance that needs
to be figured out by t he one‘s running the business.‖
12.3.2 Quality on the Balance Sheet :
Creating content that is going to reach your target audience is essential.
As the creator, we are constantly forced to create subjects that are
understandable by the community and can po rtray the correct version of
the ideology one has in mind. But do you think with being able to
understand the methods mentioned by the media critics, is it possible to
have no relationship between the artistry of a show and how much profit
a show is suppos ed to earn through that?
Stating to the observation of advertising executive Paul Schulman, the
quality of a made show will last longer with lower ratings than being a
show without having a profound amount of quality. Therefore, quality
plays a vital role in the creation of the ideology. Keeping the quality
contiguous is a critical aspect of creating something that will be able to
keep the program‘s life by allowing it to have a second chance. But if the
show at any given point misses the mark on the quali ty, then there are
very high chances that it will not go any further as audiences lose their
interest, resulting in barely having to get a second chance.
On the other hand, according to laments of former MTM and NBC
executive Grant Tinker, the pressure th at comes from the top for keeping
the boundaries and the inevitable need to meet the current trends and
market makes it difficult for the executives. It is more difficult for the
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115 Media Criticism for electronic media, the networks don't bother to reach out often to those
quality loss leaders as previously they used to do.
However, coming to an agreed argument, the show is distributed. It is
parted in ways like some executives maintain that a program' s quality
should not be compromised, and it should be a simultaneous function of
cost and audience delivery. This results in the thought of school that the
co-existence of the quality and the independence of the budget is a
question mark.
1.3.3 Creators a nd the Business Process :
Creativity and business have not been able to exist in one photo frame for
a long time now. There has always been an independent existence to the
ideology of creativity, and it has been somehow always distant from the
business worl d.
There has always been a natural tension between the creators and their
specific patrons. This is not only today's talk, but this comes into the
picture from way behind. In this regard, Michelangelo and Mozart said
no significant differences encountered by the major and minor artists
today on the radio, whose labour is precarious scaffolding in the unstable
castles of the electronic media like televisions.
1.3.4 Audience Gratifications :
The audience is always on the receiving end of the picture. Therefo re, it
is essential to understand that whatever is being created should have
some relevance or, in particular, the maximum amount of significance
with the receiving end. This is important as knowing that a certain
number of viewers patronized the show was helpful in the justification of
the advertising rates. The content creator is trying to put what they saw in
their imaginative world into perspective. This becomes clear that the only
way to know what they have to say is to read and analyze the ideology of
the content that has been created. In the same way, it was not possible to
read out the necessary indications of why these viewers were watching
what was shown in the rating book. Or to be precisely what it was that
satisfied them with the content.
Check your progress
1. Why do you think the combination of commerce and arts was not
an easy thing?
2. How do you think we can reduce the distance between the creators
and the business process?
3. What is audience gratification?
12.4 CONSUMER OVERVIEW Overviewing th e scenarios that the audience finds the breaking point to
keep watching something, there are a few questions that are basic to ask: munotes.in

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116  First, what is the particular aspect these viewers find enjoyable in the
subject?
 Was the show structured in the basic prem ise or the locale?
 Third, was it the script, actors, or talent portrayed on the screen?
 Finally, what essential factor has led this to the audience‘s
satisfaction?
Throwing further light on this, William Evans bought this observance
that the conceptualisa tion of the audience needs to be seen as the
gratification. This needs to be included in the primary aspect of the media
process. Thus, the media consumers have various segments that can be
used as indicators of what works for them. It is apparent that it will be
different for every subject. It is entirely objective and subjective to other
content and depends upon what these offering service in the aspect of
social -psychological functions.
To view the surviving element from the part of the audience, the
perspective to find the breaking point seems to be the quality of the
program, which is not given by some high -brow or enlist ingredients.
Further, being precise in analyzing the situation for different contents is
not necessarily the matter of a critic or t he viewer having conflicting
areas because of which the definition of satisfying the consumer is not
clear. Instead, it is the processing of different orientations and priorities
that need to be defined before the content ideologies and the structural
mind set of the viewer.
1. Entertainment :
Time punctuation is supposedly believed to be one of the most apparent
ingredients of the gratification that helps us survey what the public seeks
from the electronic media. Listening to the radio gives us the soothing
continuity to sometimes being erratic in our lives. Talking about
broadcasting television, it is not just precisely being entertaining enough,
but it is also about the way the entertainment provided by the particular
source can blend with the expectations (temporal) of the viewers.
Contemplating both scenarios, some critics feel that the entertainment -
styled program's mere presence should be widely an undeserving stage of
getting serious attention. But on the other hand, other experts simply
disagree that the one function of mass -media communication is
specifically only entertainment. On this, Charles Wright suggested that to
provide respite to the individual, perhaps for the permit for him to
continue is to be exposed to the news, interpretation and persp ective.
These are necessary for the individual to survive in the modern world.
2. Surveillance :
Surveillance is the second viewer's gratification factor. This brings us to
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117 Media Criticism supposed to pro vide the entertainment factor, it is still essential for us to
cope with the complexity of the information needed in contemporary life.
According to Rubin and Windahl, The more salient we become to gather
the information, the stronger we gain the motivatio n to seek the mediated
information. To meet these needs, it becomes simultaneously essential for
us to depend on the information medium. The greater the dependency is,
the greater the likelihood for the media to become. Slowly at a pace, it
also starts to affect cognitions, feelings and behaviour.
Not to mention for decades, it was believed by a variety of researchers
that television is supposed to be one of the most popular mediums in
meeting this gratification. But later, in 1987, an organization called Roper
established a study stating that television is nothing but merely popular as
an information provider and further has taken an exclusionary power.
3. Nostalgia :
The term nostalgia is derived from a Greek word that reflects the
meaning of home and pai n. In the television world, it also directly courts
to ―looking back‖ on the programs. Defining escapism and nostalgia is
the same as when we need to be in a pleasant environment. In simple
terms, it is the opposite of what information/ surveillance needs. Even
though everyone seems to be in the peak time where they need to be in
the world at some point of the day, which forces them to have the
contrary pressures. The data overload and the amount of real trouble lead
them to find an escape to a more pleasan t environment. With the factor of
escapism and nostalgia, it is no longer the need for information but an
ultimate withdrawal from the pressure. Further taking this in the case of
electronic media, the withdrawal from the realities pressure may result in
a counterproductive consumer retreat.
4. Companionship and Conversation Building :
Moving on to conservation building is an aspect that is partially linked
with escapism/ nostalgia. It is to be noted that companionship/
conservation is the fout=rth element of the gratification cluster.
Companionship/conservation aims to highlight the fact that even when
someone is craving nostalgia, at the same time, they can also cater to
other viewers that feel the need for companionship. This highlights that
even when aud iences cannot communicate with the performer directly,
they are still asked to interact with the viewers. This benefits the
persona's wisdom, and in the words of Donald Horton and Richard Wohl,
it reflects the advice and sympathizes with their difficulties and forgives
mistakes.
Parasocial interaction is also one of the aspects of companionship. It is
further labelled as a one -sided interpersonal relationship one has with the
audience that is established with the portraying electronic media
members. Additi onally, depending on their roles, they can be seen as a
positive or a negative effect on the audience. This is the main reason that
the companionship gratification is easily linked to the conservation
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5. Problem -solving :
Problem -solving is the fifth gratification element, and it is one of the
most catered by the commercials and the public service announcements.
It is also highly liked by the program's promotional material (promos).
Problem -solving has been taken as the most typical revelation b y the
television as they portray their products as an immense source of solving
their issues. They are probably the only designed product that is fixed to
resolve. These promos help determine the uncertainty of the problem of
what to do after watching or l istening later today, tomorrow or next
week.
6. Personal Enrichment and Development :
The sixth and most prominent element of gratification is personal
enrichment and development. Again, this aspect came into the picture for
the viewers from the British Br oadcasting Corporation's idea of using the
television or the electronic media for the sole purpose of uplifting the
viewers and their tastes, further focusing on the purpose of this in a
simple way they wanted to create something which was not liked by the
viewers but instead was needed by them.
7. Catharsis :
Tension is the seventh and final element of gratification, which is the
most controversial because of its nature. It is encased in a radio.
Television can only be beneficial if it is stimulated for ex periencing
relives. That means that this is only useful if it reduces tension, which
would result in natural life aggression.
Check your progress
1. Why do you think one needs companionship/conservation?
2. How do you think personal enrichment and development helped
people in real life?
3. Why is catharsis/ tension the most controversial element of
gratification?
12.4 LET’S SUM UP So far now, we have seen the meaning and importance of art and
aesthetics and how it is perceived. We have learned that critics us e a
specific methodology to judge the subject's beauty. This necessarily has
the objective of understanding the creator's ideology and what he wanted
to portray by creating the subject.
From the viewer's point of view, there are several gratification elem ents
explained in the chapter in brief on which the perspective of the audience
depends. The content is created for them to be understood and then is munotes.in

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119 Media Criticism later analyzed on how they would be working ahead in the future, what
works for which kind of audience and what does not. Finally, a critique
should be aware that every detail's different aspects need to be addressed
while judging a creator's work. It is subject to change with the work that
which kind of elements of categories will work for him to reach the ri ght
results.
12.5 QUESTIONS 1. What is Media Criticism?
2. How is the aesthetic value of the subject necessary for a critic?
3. Why do you think an understanding methodology for the creation is
essential?
4. Explain the seven functions of consumer overview.
5. What is escapism?
6. Why is the combination of art and business not an easy aspect of the
industry?
12.6 REFERENCES Di Cicco, R. (2017). Boundless: Art and Identification Across
Borders. Contemporaneity: Historical Presence in Visual Culture, 6,
i-vi.
https://co urses.lumenlearning.com/boundless -
arthistory/chapter/what -is-art/
Walton, K. (2007). Aesthetics -What? Why? and Wherefore?. The
Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 65(2), 147 -161.
Foulger, D. (2017). An Introduction to Media Criticism.
Levinson, J. (2 005). Aesthetics: An Overview. The Oxford handbook
of aesthetics, 1.
Smith, R. A., & Simpson, A. (1991). Aesthetics and Art Education.
University of Illinois Press, 54 East Gregory Drive, Champaign, IL
61820.
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120 13
COMPOSITE CRITICISM
Unit Structure
13.0 Objective
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Questions
13.4 Referance
13.0 OBJECTIVE Well, in this last cha pter we will attempt to find a whole of methodology
by combining various perspective of criticism, at least in part. It includes
all the critical perspective that we have studied in the previous units. The
four-part schema, which we call Composite Criticis m. Which
traditionally roots in the writings of George Santayana and Jerome
Stolnitz, which was further refined by professor Thomas Olsan who
applied it to electronic media critiquing. We will study the traditional
approach to these studies and will try to see if it is still relevant in the
digital age or needs an upgrade. In short, composite criticism gives us the
tools by which we can apply all the perspectives previously studied in a
single operation. Where we can also analyse a work from quartet
perspec tives. Which again have a distinct relation to the four
communication process components. Composite Criticism assess the
value of the work, in the real -world context within which we must
function as media professionals or content producer. In Composite
Criticism we try to analyse the entire program rather than an episode. It is
the collective sum of all the perspective brought to action and then on
that basis is critiqued. We will all understand what all has changed with
the digital media. Early studies of composite criticism started in the
1990‘s when the electronic media was proliferating and mostly dealt
Television and radio programming. The Theoretic frame work was based
on the comprehension of Electronic Media. But the time have changed,
so does the tec hnology. Digital Media has brought vast range of
mediums, but at the same time the integration of all the media forms, and
convergence. Now, what we are looking at is a more dynamic and
strategic media, which is not only integrating the diverse media but a lso
the content producers/sender, the Audience/ receiver/ consumer, and the
content itself in a unified form. We will also discuss about the
participatory media and Digital Composite.
Basic Terms and Definitions : munotes.in

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121 Media Criticism Composite criticism‘s four perspectives a re segmented into intrinsic and
extrinsic grouping and cross -divided into appreciation and evaluations
activities. Intrinsic applies to the work itself and independently with the
properties internal to it. Intrinsic focuses the work in Isolation, without
any specific social, political and historical context.
Extrinsic on the other hand is the quiet opposite, it applies to the work
within the environment in which it is produced or exhibited, analysing it
as a communicating agent with senders and receivers.
Appreciation is the process of positively reinforcing the work‘s merits
and ―gratification potential,‖ also the challenges and obstacles faced in
the production.
Evaluation examines if the work‘s potential were completely exploited.
It properly analyses b y comparing the success and failures of the work,
from its content, opportunities, implementation, execution and the final
impact.
Now further by combining these perspectives in cross pattern, we get
four processes which essentially gives rise to Composit e Criticism.
Intrinsic Appreciation, Extrinsic Appreciation, Intrinsic Evaluation and
Extrinsic Evaluation. Examining all of these processes in depth, we can
understand how all these procedures collectively gives out value to the
overall process of critici sm. Such as the knowledgeable understanding
and insightful comprehension, reinforcement ascertainment
(positive/negative), and resulting delicately contemplate judgment as a
tool of sensibly evaluating the value of the given work under study.
Intrinsic Ap preciation focuses on the art as a medium of gratification
creator, which includes all the pleasures and enjoyments generated by the
work, as media professional, it is essential for us to know all the
elements, materials and the ingredients of the project, how they are
structured and the expressive potential of it. Through the use of any
detection tools, but the goal of Intrinsic appreciation is entirely the
comprehension of the ―pleasure -success‖ retrieved from the work. this
approach can also be called ‗t he little kids‘ perspective‖. Where when a
kid gets gratified after watching something or visiting their favourite
place, they start hopping with excitement while reciting of all the things
from the delightful experience they had. It is the purest form of pleasure
released and realised. Hence in intrinsic appreciation we don‘t evaluate
the work‘s elements critically, it is more of description of fun features or
in contemporary words ―cool elements‖, Neglecting the negative,
unhappening, dull, boring and unp leasant experiences. This subjective
matter does not contain a moral framework, there no right and wrong,
just seeking to recognize pleasure -potent procurement. Intrinsic
appreciation makes us to cherish and work without a moral code. This
approach might b e hard to swallow for pragmatic thinkers.
For example, the ―the murder scene from the movie Pyscho 1960‖, you
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122 constructed piece of art has the potential to move on emotions and makes
you ponder about. Such paradoxes proliferate intrinsic appreciation. Yet
it is difficult to accept for moralistic thinkers, from their perspective it is
an uncontrolled hedonism, where the individual‘s behaviour is
determined by desired to increase pleasure and to decrease pain. It asserts
that personal gratification is the absolute aim and personal dis -pleasures
as the absolute evil without respects to others and their interests. Work is
judged right or wrong solely on how it makes us feel individually. Well ,
this perspective become extremely essential and relevant in contemporary
times. Where we are surrounded by personalized gratification tools,
mediums and content. Which is produced for masses but consumer
individually. The moralists also criticize intrins ic appreciation as mere
endorsement of the mass audience‘s extreme vulgar (of the common)
tastes, that is false judgement. But again, it‘s subject matter of
perspective. Eric Sevareid, CBS commentator referred to these
moralistically critical highbrows as wrote – ―There has always been, a
large section of intellectuals who are phobic, resistant and detest anything
new. Specially if it‘s for the mass of common people. As they don‘t
understand or even like common people. This is why they write about
―humanity ‖ and not about persons. They may not dislike a program or a
show for its content but because it gives happiness, enjoyment, pleasure
or gratification to the audience‖.
This approach is an optimistic approach rather than contemptuous
intellectualism, towa rds media for the masses. This approach permits the
media professionals to approach various forms of media work with initial
positivity.
Extrinsic Appreciation :
This Approach focuses on sympathy factor for the work by trying to
elaborate the circumstantial challenges with which it delt with. Here the
situation in which the project was made is given emphasis. It attempts
that the sympathy for its circumstantial or situational issues will help to
cover the short comings and weakness of the work. For example, when a
documentary film making project allotted to the students, the students
don‘t just want to be evaluated by the professor on the basis of the work
submitted on deadline but the situations, problems, efforts, cost, time
constrains they went through. Th ey try to ascertain, all these factors to
achieve sympathy of the professor and thus to get passed or receive good
grades. Similarly in the professional media realm, extrinsic appreciation
is already acknowledged as a necessary requirement to meet the
basic/optimal level of profitability and fame. In this critical approach we
analyse the work in terms of media business with respect to the
productional and economic constraints of the business. Media firms are
usually not interested in promoting a people, thi ngs or causes. They are
mostly focused towards generating the maximum profitability through
advertising or other means. Sometimes these budget and financial aspects
hinder in the production of the program and thus directly or indirectly
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123 Media Criticism acknowledge that ―When you compress the world into 22 minutes, you
lose a lot. 22 Minutes is just a starting point‖. As we studied in reality
programming to creative a 45 mins show, there are serious ti me budge
time constrains, and to sum and package everything in a 45 mins episode,
and creating the show with multiple episodes with consistency. For
example, if you are a YouTube Creator, you might want the best
production quality and with just a smartphon e or a basic DSLR, well this
can be a good starting point but as you start creating multiple videos you
might feel technical constrains and you have to invest in professional
equipments which will be inherited with budget constraints and finally to
maintai n consistence to feed the ever -hungry algorithm, you will have to
face time constraints. But all these efforts start to pay off when your
family, friends, audience and clients (advertisers) start to take account
(start extrinsic appreciation) of the effort and the pain you are taking to
meet those requirements. This is a lengthy process and might take a long
time, but the key is to be patient and consistent. This is applicable for
other media forms too in various different scales. Extrinsic Appreciation
might provide backing and support to the work, but as a media producer
it should not become a regular excuse, one must find a way to give out
the best with respect to all the constraints. This approach involves the
study of the locational challenges, and even competition the work has to
face, sometimes creatively better films are overshadowed by the
mainstream masala commercial films (which might not be good). But
might have good star -cast and big production label, eventually resulting
in better distribution a nd theatre bookings. The medium is also extremely
important a weak show in a popular channel might get more popularity
than a good show in small channel. The timing of the release, publishing
and airing are also extremely important considerations. The amou nt of
advertiser and promotion available also affect the visibility of the show
and to ascertain that the audience will find the content. John Fiske and
John Hartley explains that ―the media content is a human construct, and
the job that it does is the con sequence of human choice, cultural decisions
and social pressures, the medium responds to the conditions within which
it exists.‖ (Orlik, 2000) Extrinsic appreciation recognises these aspects as
well. Here the audience as well as the producer both can incr ease their
delight in a program, as both are aware of the making procedures, it is the
artistic victory over its challenges. From a broad perspective, be it all
forms of art extrinsic appreciation is curtail in generating a realistic
sympathy for the work. Extrinsic appreciation is a process that gives
importance to contextual criticism. Art is a human creation, generates in
the actual situations and conditions of human endeavours and caters to
human demand (wants and needs). Such contextual and sympathetic
perspective is something that media producers require.
Intrinsic Evaluation :
Evaluation is a critical process which takes into account the intrinsic
appreciation as well as extrinsic appreciation and compares the final
results with its faults, it is a ne utral perspective which includes both munotes.in

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124 positive and negative recognitions, this critical process is evaluated on
the basis of the relevant standards.
In Intrinsic evaluation, we analyse the media content (the entire program,
film, video etc) in isolation. That is, to calculate its value without
acknowledging its constraints or the initial viewers reactions. Thus, it
helps to inform the audience of gratification potential in the content,
which they are not aware of or might not have previously experienced.
Usually, the appreciation of a common person is very insufficient and
just a tip of the iceberg, limited to only obvious visible characteristics.
Hence this approach of analysing with attention to the minute details of
the work, might reveal some aspect of work, which might not exist or
appear to a non -thinking appreciation.
Intrinsic evaluation is not just limited to the work within its genre, it
tends to incorporate the judgement for work or project as a hole unit or
unique property. As Jerome Stolnitz s tates, all intrinsic evaluation
―respects the uniqueness of the particular work. Like aesthetic perception
itself, it observes the distinctiveness or the work and what sets it apart
from similar works. Criticism by default pre -assumes that the work can
be classified into kinds and therefore subject to the criteria which
measure goodness in each kind.‖ If we see in this way both the
category(genre) or Unique work implications of intrinsic evaluation are
relevant and mutually supportive. In this process we no t only analyse
what is different about a specific program but where this unique program
standard and excels in its own genre or category. For example, if we talk
about The Kapil Sharma show, which is a unique program with various
elements, it is centric to the person in who‘s name the show is, but also
consists of various characters which are uniquely written and performed,
incorporates celebrities. And the content consists of the common man
jokes, slice of life jokes and of course promotions. Through it is a unique
concept and program delivered but still it falls under the category of
comedy shows and also includes the element of talk show genre, like
coffee with Karan, which is a gossip show but again centric to the key
person. But still The Kapil Sharma S how has created its own unique
identity. In this digital era the intrinsic evaluation becomes even more
elaborated as these shows or any other type of contents are not only
competing or being evaluated in its particular genre or category but also
the media itself, such as the Tv programs are also being published in
OTT platforms, where there are even more diverse varieties and
categories. Even films for instance are getting released in theatres, as well
as online and after a while premiered on Tv. This medi a convergence
opens a lot of scope of studies related to intrinsic evaluation. Intrinsic
evaluation scrutinizes the content, its execution, as well as its stand or
performance with respect to the media in which it is being published,
aired or broadcasted. Interestingly all the three perspectives do not lead
us to the same results.
There are two perspectives in the evaluation of a work of art, The
tradition perspective primarily focusses of the ―Quality of the work‖ but munotes.in

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125 Media Criticism with further another perspective emerg ed ―Quality of Execution‖. Both of
these terms might have a significant difference. As ―Quality‖ Means a
material, where as Quality of execution means only form. For example,
the movie Dunkirk exhibited the ―quality of execution‖ as the
cinematography and the direction was done extremely well.
Extrinsic Evaluation :
In extrinsic evaluation we focus on the effects of the work or content on
the audience regardless its gratification, constraints, merits and demerits.
Thus, extrinsic evaluation can be schematic and mangling. As it ceases to
recognise the work‘s pleasures and gratifications (intrinsic Appreciation)
and the media creation process and its challenges (extrinsic appreciation)
it also neglects the strengths and weakness of the work or program, its
structurisation, content and execution (intrinsic evaluation). Although
these perspectives are also important but media professional must have a
greater vision and think beyond their monomania with self -preferences,
struggles, processes and medium. they must be bothered with the effects
of the program, content or the media business on the audience and also
the reversal that is the counter effect of audience on the media workflow
or activities. As Horace Newcomb states ―the intentions of the originator
of the c ommunication are constantly refracted by the contexts of
reception.‖ In intrinsic appreciation, for example murder scene in Alfred
Hitchcock‘s movie Psycho is admired for its treatment, although we may
not like the act/event. But if we merely appreciate th e work on the basis
of the beauty of the work neglect its entire range of meaning, and we
achieve a partial comprehension of the works of art, it might mislead us
and cause misconceptions about the event. In simple words, Criticism
that just focuses partic ularly on intrinsic appreciation is just incomplete
and not good enough as criticism which purely rely on extrinsic
evaluation. But from the reversed side, this does not imply that extrinsic
evaluation is better or it does not lack important elements of cr itique.
Because the criticism should not consist only critical elements. There are
various elements, implications and implementations that can be used. For
example, one methodology which largely give prominence to extrinsic
evaluation is deception analysis , which focuses on the lessons and the
meanings that the work itself professes to its audience. Extrinsic
evaluation stands viable for business gratifications and audience
gratifications. Even for probing and analysing the ethics and values, and
message st ructures to understand the consumers/audience perceptions
process and belief systems have been integrated/expanded or
contradicted. With this there is another aspect of timeliness which
demands special attention. Some times work‘s meanings are with respect
to the time span, where as in some cases the work remains ever green,
regardless of years or decades, the work still holds relevance and context.
For example, Mother India movie a classic movie which portrayed the
India of 1950‘s has become outdated. But on the other hand, if we talk
about the movie ―Abhimaan‖ which was released 5 decades ago is still as
relevant as it was during the time of the release, hence the story was
reshaped in contemporary form in the movie ―Aashiqui 2‖. Another munotes.in

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126 aspect of the tim e factor deals with what kind of technology was
available at that time, because the impact of the audience is also partials
evaluated with respect to the tools used. For example, when YouTube
was expanding its reach in India, creator Bhuvan Bam made the be st use
of his smartphone to make videos. Similarly, the Movie Jurassic part 1
was made when the VFX started emerging and the makers even used
props and techniques which ever not even VFX, but just an illusion of it.
It was done so well, with all the physi cal conditions, that 2 decades later
it has become a subject of study. But majority of the effects of timeliness
has to do with how the audience preserve the work in comparison to other
works with are simultaneously available. Sometimes in timeliness effec ts
give out different meanings of the same work of art. Which can be
analysed in accordance to time relevant contexts. A ―Pro‖ content creator
or producer learns to recognize and highlight the appealing human
enduring in both contemporary and ―evergreen‘ c ontent. A work‘s
success can be achieved through generations as reruns if the work has the
potential to create a contemporary rapport with the target audience. For
example, the TV show ―Friends‖ still appeals to young Urban Indians.
For example, the works of Shakespeare still resonates with the audiences
and can be performed in contemporary attires and settings without losing
on original narratives and impact. Let it be contemporary or vintage
work, or a Tv series rerunning on OTT platforms, implementing ex trinsic
evaluation to analyse a work‘s exposed meaning for and the impact of it
on the audiences, makes a favourable condition for a successful
programming/content generation.
Composing the Composite Critique :
Now as we know that composite criticism is a diverse and vast matter,
but it is not necessary means that the critique should be necessarily be
big, even small critique can enfold all the four composite criticism
elements in preparing an understandable and extensive analysis of a
certain piece of medi a content or the whole program also. It does not
necessarily demand volumes compose a composite critique, to cater the
demands for a complete criticism.
When implying composite criticism, we responsibility tracks the path that
we ourself or other media pr oducer walked on while creating the work
under scrutiny. Hence, by cloning the creative process through the means
of composite criticism, we more supposedly arrange the work in a precise
and realistic perspective, for the target audience and ourselves as w ell.
To summarize composite criticism fundamentally complete all criticism‘s
standard requirements as it acknowledge all four process of
communication perspectives. If we substitute the communication process
elements with the composite criticism elements. We find that extrinsic
appreciation gives prime attention to the originator and the medium by
highlighting and sympathizing with the productional challenges faced by
both originator and the medium. Extrinsic appreciation also reveals the
interdependency is sues, i.e., one of these implications might cause munotes.in

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127 Media Criticism problem to the other one. (For example, amateur originator unable to
exploit full potential of the medium or the shot deadlines of medium not
giving sufficient time to the originator for preparation).
Extrinsic evaluation, focuses on the effects of the projection on the
receiver, with the polysemic negotiation, that is the circulation of effects
of audience reaction on last lasting message shaping.
Where as intrinsic appreciation and intrinsic evaluation g ives prominence
on the gratification potential and pleasure producing capabilities of the
message. Intrinsic perspective analyses both the content and it
productional aspects which supports or hinder the attainment of its
potential.
Composite Criticism th us gives us a pragmatic and critical frame of
reference of how to examine various aspects and perspectives of criticism
and can be applied in the real -world context, but this is not the end point
rather It‘s just a starting point, there are many more compl ex process and
approaches, specially is we talk about quantitative research.
Finally, it is important to recognize admissible criticism is a constructive
tool, not a destructive material. For the common audience if we say that
we are critiquing something, the first thing that comes to mind is ―we are
criticizing it, highlighting negative things and finding mistakes.‖ Which
is a misconception about criticism. Where the goal for criticism is to
suggest improvement of the work quality, and create a benchmark so that
the true potential of the work can be achieved. In simple term, not to
downgrade the work but t upgrade it. As the field to media changes itself
very rapidly, thus in criticism of media, there is no right answers but
learning to ask the correct que stions, in a way that is non biased, honest
and open minded. With the contemporary developments in the field of
media now further studies and criticism will look at strategic media and
integrated media, (the convergence is and will play a major role, as ou r
Tv now can be controlled by a smart phone, or a smart watch. This
process and procedures will become even more complicated but
simultaneously more interesting. ―As the media is becoming is becoming
more inclusive it is demanding more and more participato ry story telling
and narratives, the audience wants to merge with the content and become
a part of the story or narrative. This will become more experiential
matter, with its own pros and flaws. This is where we have to start
studying about the ―Media Regi me‖. Which can not be studied in
isolation, as it is a cultural production, which is consists of value systems,
norms and ethics. What we need to ask ―Is the media reforming the
society? Or is the society reforming the media?‖ What is the role of
media in propagating a regime, is it just reinforcing the pre -existing
regime or bringing out and establishing a new regime altogether?
REFERENCE
Electronic Media Criticism, Third Edition, Applied Perspectives by Peter
B. Orlik munotes.in

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128 https://books.google.co.bw/books?id=K2KRAgAAQBAJ&printsec=copy
right#v=onepage&q&f=false
Electronic Media Criticism PPT by Dr. Sanjay Ranade -
https://slideplayer.com/slide/10215712/

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